THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY . +75 / A LATIN GRAMMAR FOB SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. ALBERT IIAEKNESS, Pir. D., PROFESSOR IN BROWN UNITERSITY. REVISED EDITION, EMBRACING IMPORTANT RESULTS OP RECENT PHILOLOGICAL RESEARCH. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 549 AND 551 BPwOADWAY. LONDON: 16 LITTLE BRITAIN. 1879. ox h PREFACE. The work now offered to tlie public bad its origin in a desire to promote the cause of Classical study. It has long been the opinion of the author, in common with numerous classical teachers, \ . that the subject of Latin Grammar, often regarded as dry and dif- ficult, may be presented to the learner in a form at once simple, attractive, and philosophical. It is the aim of this manual to aid the instructor in the attainment of this most desirable end. That the present is a favorable time for the production of a Latin Grammar scarcely admits of a doubt. Never before were there such facilities for the work. The last quarter of a century has formed an epoch in the study of language and in the methods of instruction. During this period some of the most gifted minds of Germany have been gathering the choicest treasures in the field of philology, while others have been equally successful in devising improved methods of instruction. In our own country too, the mure encerprising teachers have caught the spirit of improvement, and are calling loudly for a better method than has hitherto pre- vailed in classical study. The present work has been prepared in view of these facts. To explain its general plan, the author begs leave to specify the following points. 1. This volume is designed to present a systematic arrangement of the great facts and laws of the Latin language ; to exhibit not only grammatical forms and constructions, but also those mtal principles which underlie, control, and explain them. 2, Designed at once as a text-book for the class-room, and a book of reference in study, it aims to introduce the beginner easi- ly and pleasantly to the first principles of the language, and yet to make adequate provision for the wants of the more advanced student. Accordingly it presents in large type a general survey of the whole subject in a brief and concise statement of facts and IV PKEFACEa laws, while parallel with this, in smaller type, it furnishes a fuller discussion of irregularities and exceptions for later study and for reference. 8. By brevity and conciseness in the choice of phraseology and compactness in the arrangement of forms and topics, the author has endeavored to compress within the limits of a convenient manual an amount of carefully selected grammatical facts, which would otherwise fill a much larger volume. 4. He has, moreover, endeavored to present the whole subject in the light of modern scholarship. "Without encumbering his pages with any unnecessary discussions, he has aimed to enrich them with the practical remits of the recent labors in the field of philology. 5. In the regular paradigms, both of declension and of conjuga- tion, the stems and endings have been distinguished by a difference of type, thus keeping constantly before the pupil the significance of the two essential elements which enter into the composition of inflected forms. 6. Syntax has received in every part special attention. An at- tempt has been made to exhibit, as clearly as possible, that beauti- ful system of laws which the genius of the language — that highest of all grammatical authority — has created for itself. Tlie leading principles of construction have been put in the form of definite rules, and illustrated by carefully selected examples. To secure convenience of reference and to give completeness and vividness to the general outline, these iTiles, after being separately discussed, are presented in a body at the close of the Syntax. 7. The subdivisions in each discussion are developed, as far as practicable, from the leading idea which underlies the whole sub- ject. Thus in the treatment of cases, moods, and tenses, various uses, comparatively distinct in themselves, are found to centre around some leading idea or thought, thus imparting to the sub- ject both unity and simplicity. 8. Topics which require extended illustration are first present- ed in their completeness in general outline, before the separate [loints are discussed in detail. Thus a single page often foreshad- ows all the leading features of an extended discussion, imparting a completeness and vividness to the impression of the learner, im- possible under any other treatment. 9. Special care has been taken to explain and illustrate with PREFACE. V the requisite fulness all difficult and intricate subjects. The Sub- junctive Mood — that severest trial of the teacher’s patience — has been presented, it is hoped, in a form at once simple and compre- hensive. The different uses have not only been carefully classified, but also distinguished by characteristic and appropriate terms, convenient for the class-room. For the benefit of those who prefer to begin with a more ele- mentary manual in the study of Latin, it is in contemplation to publish a smaller Grammar on precisely the same plan as the pres- ent work, and with the same mode of treatment. This will be especially adapted to the wants of those who do not contemplate a collegiate course of study, A Latin Leader, prepared with special reference to this work and intended as a companion to it, will be published at an early day. In conclusion the author cheerfully acknowledges his indebted- ness to other scholars, who have Irffiored in the same field. The classification of verbs is founded inlpart on that, of Grotefend and Kruger, a mode of treatment generally adopted in the recent Ger- man works on the subject, and well exhibited by Allen in his Analysis of Latin Verbs. In Prosody much aid has been derived from the excellent works of Kamsay and Ilabenicht. On the general subjects of Etymology and Syntax, his indebted- ness is less direct, though perhaps no less real. Ilis views of phi- lology have been formed in a great measure under the moulding influence of the great German masters; and perhaps few Latin Grammars of any repute have appeared within the last half cen- tury, either in this country, England, or Germany, from which he has not received valuable suggestions. In the actual work of preparation, however, he has carried out his own plan, and pre- sented his own modes of treatment, but he has aimed to avoid all untried novelties and to admit only that wTiich is sustained by the highest authority, and confirmed by the actual experience of the class-room. The author is happy to express his grateful acknowledgmenis to the numerous Instructors who have favored him with valuable suggestions ; especially to his esteemed friend and colleague, Pro- fessor J. L. Lincoln, of this University. Providence, R. I., May lOtli, 18C^ ^r' PEEF ACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. Parts First and Second in this edition have been en- tirely rewritten. The recent researches in Comparative Philology have thrown new light upon Latin forms and inflections, and have revealed many important facts in the development and growth of the language. Accordingly, in the present revision, it has been the constant aim of the author to secure for the learner the full benefit of all the practical results which these labors in the field of philology have brought within the proper sphere of the school. The general plan and scope of the work, however, remain the same as in former editions. Only such changes and addi- tions have been made as seemed to promise desirable aid to the learner. Care has been taken to exclude from the work every thing which might divert his attention from the one object before him — the attainment of a full and accurate knowledge of the language. In this connection, the author desires to express anew his grateful acknowledgments to the teachers and educa- tors whose verdict of approval has contributed so largely to the success of his works. To their hands this new edi- tion is now respectfully committed. A. HARKNESS. Drown University, July ^ 1874. COI^TEITTS PART FIRST- ORTHOGEAPHY. Page. Alphabet, . . . 1 English Method of Pronunciation, 2 Roman Method, 5 Continental Method, 7 Quantity, Accentuation, 7 Euphonic Laws, 8 1. Changes in Vowels, 8 IL Changes in Consonants, 9 PART SECOND- ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER I. NOUNS. Gender, 11 Person, Number, and Case, 12 Declension, 12 First Declension, 13 Greek Nouns, 14 Second Declension, 15 Greek Nouns, . ....... 17 Third Declension, 18 Class I. — Consonant Stems, 18 Stems in a Labial, ....... 18 Stems in a Dental, 19 Stems in a Guttural, 20 Stems in a Liquid, 20 Stems in /S', 22 Class II. — I-Stems, 22 Special Paradigms, 26 Greek Nouns, 27 Synopsis of the Third Declension, 28 Gender, * . 34 Fourth Declension, 36 Fifth Declension, 38 Comparative View of Declensions, 39 General Table of Gender, 40 X CONTENTS. Page. Declension of Compound Nouns, ...... 41 Irregular Nouns, 41 I. Indeclinable, 42 II. Defective, 42 III. Heteroclites, 44 IV. Heterogeneous, 44 CHAPTER II. ADJECTIVES. First and Second Declensions, 46 Third Declension, 48 Irregular Adjectives, 51 Comparison, 52 I. Terminational Comparison, 52 II. Adverbial Comparison, ....... 54 Numerals, 55 CHAPTER III. PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns, 60 Possessive, 61 Demonstrative, 62 Relative, 64 Interrogative, 65 Indefinite, 66 CHAPTER IV. VERBS. Voices, Moods, 67 Tenses, 68 Numbers, Persons, 69 Conjugation, 69 Paradigms of Verbs, 70 Verbal Inflections, 88 Synopsis of Conjugation, 90 Verbs in io: Conjugation III., 93 Deponent Verbs, 96 Periphrastic Conjugation, 99 Contractions and Peculiarities of Conjugation, . . . .100 Comparative View of Conjugations, 101 Analysis of Verbal Endings, 103 I. Tense-Signs, 103 II. Mood-Signs, 103 III. Personal Endings, 104 Formation of Stems, 106 I. Present Stem, 106 II. Perfect Stem, 107 III. Supine Stem, 108 Euphonic Changes, 109 CONTENTS. XI Pago. Classification of Verbs, . . , . , , , . 110 First Conjugation, . . , . , , . .110 Second Conjugation, . . , , , , . 112 Third Conjugation, . , 115 Fourth Conjugation, 125 Irregular Verbs, . . . . 127 Defective ......... 133 Impersonal . . . . I35 CHAPTER V. PARTICLES. Adverbs, , 137 Prepositions, .138 Conjunctions, I39 Interjections, , , , .140 CHAPTER VI. FORMATION OF WORDS. Derivation of Words, 141 Derivative Nouns, 141 Derivative Adjectives, 145 Derivative Verbs, 147 Derivative Adverbs, 149 Composition of Words, 151 Compound Nouns, 152 Compound Adjectives, 153 Compound Verbs, 153 Compound Adverbs, .163 PART THIRD SYNTAX. CHAPTER I SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. Section. I. Classification of Sentences, 164 II. Simple Sentences, 166 III. Complex Sentences, 168 IV. Compound Sentences, 169 CHAPTER II. SYNTAX OF NOUNS. I. Agreement of Nouns, , , 160 Predicate Nouns, . , , . , * , * . * . 160 Appositives, *,*.*.161 II. Nominative, * . * * 162 CONTENTS. xii Section. Page, III. Yocative, 163 IV, Accusative, 163 I. Direct Object, 164 Two Accusatives, . . . , . . 165 II. Subject of Infinitive, 167 III. Agreement of Accusative, 167 IV. Accusative in an Adverbial sense, . , . . 168 With or without Prepositions, , . . . .168 Accusative of Time and Space, . . . . 168 Accusative of Limit, 168 Accusative of Specification, . . . , . 169 V. Accusative in Exclamations, . . . . .169 Y. Dative, 170 I. Dative with Yerbs — Indirect Object, . . . .170 Dative of Advantage, . . . . . . 171 Dative with Compounds, 172 Dative of Possessor, 173 Dative of Agent, 173 Ethical Dative, 174 Two Datives, . . . . . . . ,174 II. Dative with Adjectives, . . . . . . 175 III. Dative with Nouns and Adverbs, 176 VI. Genitive, 176 I. Genitive with Nouns, 177 II. Genitive with Adjectives, 180 III. Genitive with Yerbs, 182 Predicate Genitive, 182 Genitive of Place, 183 Genitive in Special Constructions, . . . . 183 Genitive and Accusative, . . . . . ,186 lY. Genitive with Adveifes, . . . . . . 187 YII. Ablative, 187 I. Ablative of Cause, Manner, Means, . . . . 188 Ablative of Price, 190 Ablative with Comparatives, 190 Ablative of Difference, . . . . . ,191 Ablative in Special Constructions, . . . . 192 II. Ablative of Place, 193 Ablative of Source and Separation, . . . 195 III. Ablative of Time, 196 lY. Ablative of Characteristic, 197 Y. Ablative of Specification, 198 YI. Ablative Absolute, 198 YII. Ablative with Prepositions, 199 YIII. Cases with Prepositions, 199 CHAPTER III. SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. Agreement of Adjectives, 201 Use of Adjectives, 202 Comparison, . 203 CONTENTS, xiii CHAPTER IV. SYNTAX OF PKONOUNS. Agreement of Pronouns; .... Personal and Possessive Pronouns, Reflexive Use, .... Demonstrative Pronouns, Relative Pronouns, ..... Interrogative Pronouns, Indefinite Pronouns, CHAPTER Y. SYNTAX OF YEEBS. Section. I. Agreement of Verbs, II. Use of Voices, III. Tenses of the Indicative, IV. Use of the Indicative, V. Tenses of the Subjunctive, Sequence of Tenses, VI. Use of the Subjunctive, I. Potential Subjunctive, .... II. Subjunctive of Desire, .• . III. Subjunctive of Purpose or Result, . IV. Subjunctive of Condition, .... V. Subjunctive of Concession, VI. Subjunctive of Cause and Time, VII. Subjunctive in Indirect Questions, . VIII. Subjunctive by Attraction, IX. Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, . ^ . Moods and Tenses in the Oratio Obliqua, Pronouns, Adverbs, etc., in Oratio Oblique VII. Imperative, I. Tenses of the Imperative, ... * II. Use of the Imperative, VIII. Infinitive, I. Tenses of the Infinitive, .... II. Subject of the Infinitive, ..... III. Predicate after the Infinitive, IV. Construction of the Infinitive, . IX. Subject and Object Clauses, X. Gerund, . Gerundive, ....... XI. Supine, XII. Participles, CHAPTER VI. SYNTAX OF PAETICLES. Adverbs, Prepositions, ..... ... Conjunctions, ........ Interjections, Page. 204 206 206 208 209 210 211 212 214 215 219 219 220 223 223 225 226 232 236 238 242 244 245 246 248 248 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 258 262 263 266 267 270 271 271 274 xiv CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. Rules of Syntax, CHAPTER VIII. AERANGEMENT OF WORDS AND CLAUSES. Section. I. Arrangement of Words, II. Arrangement of Clauses, PART FOURTH. PROSODY. CHAPTER I. QUANTITY. I. General Rules of Quantity, II. Special Rules of Quantity, . I. Quantity of Final Syllables, . II. Quantity in Increments, . HI. Quantity of Derivative Endings, . lY. Quantity of Stem Syllables, CHAPTER II. VERSIFICATION. I. General View of the Subject, . I. Metrical Feet, 11. Verses, III. Figures of Prosody, • II. Varieties of Verse, I. Dactylic Verse, II. Anapaestic V erse, III. Trochaic Verse, IV. lambic Verse, . V. Ionic Verse, . VI. Choriambic Verse, VII. Logaeodic Verse, . VIII. Miscellaneous Verses, III. Versification of Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and APPENDIX Juvenal, Figures of Speech, Latin Authors, Roman Calendar, Roman Money, Weights, and Measures, Abbreviations, Index of Verbs, Index of Subjects, Table of corresponding articles in the two editions, Page. 274 . 281 285 287 289 289 292 295 297 300 300 302 304 305 305 308 308 309 312 312 313 815 316 320 322 323 326 327 328 386 366 LATIN GRAMMAE. 1. Latin Grammar treats of the principles of the Latin language. It comprises four parts : I. Orthography, which treats of the letters and sounds of the language. II. Etymology, which treats of the classification, inflec- tion, and derivation of words. III. Syntax, which treats of the construction of sen- tences. IV. Prosody, which treats of quantity and versification. - If ART FIRST. ORTHOGRAPHY. ALPHABET. 2. The Latin alphabet is the same as the English with the omission of w, 1. U supplies the place of w. 2. H is only a breathing, and not strictly entitled to the rank of a letter. 3. Originally i and u were used both as vowels and as consonants, and accordingly supplied the place ofy and v. 4. K is seldom used, and y and z occur only in words of Greek origin. \ 2 ENGLISH METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION. \ 3. Classes of Letters. — ^Letters are divided into two classes : I. Vowels, a, e, i, o, ii, y, II. Consonants : 1. Liquids^ . . . . . . . 1, m, n, r. 2. Spirants^ h, f, v, j, s. 3. Mutes .*1) Labials — lip-letters, . . . b, p, f, v. d, t. c, g, k, q, h. 2) Dentals — teetli-letters, 3) Gutturals — throat-letters, 4. Double Consonants, . . . . . x, z. 4. Combinations of Letters. — We notice here, - 1. Diphthongs — combinations of two vowels in one syP''''^'' The most [ common are — ae, oe, au. , / 2. Double Consonants — x == cs or gs ; z ~ ds or^. ' 1 3. Ch, ph, th are best treated, not as combinations of letters^ but only [ as aspirated forms of c, p, and t, as h is only a breathing. \ 6. Pronunciation. — Scholars in different countries generally pronounce Latin substantially as they do their own languages. In this country, however, three distinct Methods are recognized, generally known as the English^ the Roman^ and the Continental} For the convenience of the instructor, we add a brief outline of each. ENGLISH METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION. 1. Sounds of the Vowels. 6. Vowels generally have their long or short English sounds. But 1. These sounds in Latin, as in English, are somewhat modified by the consonants which accompany them. 2. Before r, final, or followed by another consonant, e, i, and u are scarcely distinguishable from each other, as in the English her, fir, f ur, while a and o are pronounced as in fiar, for. 3. Between qu and dr, or rt, a approaches the sound of o : quar'-tus, as in quarter. 7. Long Sounds. — Vowels have their long English 1 strictly speaking-, there is no Continental Method, as every nation on the Conti- nent of Europe has its own method. ENGLISH METHOD OP PRONUNCIATION. 3 sounds— a as in fate, e in mete, i in pine, o in iiote, u in tube, y in typ>e — in the following situations : 1. In final syllables ending in a vowel : se, si, ser'-vi, ser'-vo, cor'-nu, mi!-sy, 2. In all syllables, before a vowel or diphthong : de!nis, de-o'-ritin, dd-ae, di-e'd, ni'-hi-lumd 3. In penultimate “ syllables before a single consonant or a mute with I or r : pa' -ter, pa-tresy A!-thos, 0 -thrys, 4. In unaccented syllables, not final, before a single consonant, or a mute with I or do-lo'-ris, a-grid - o-Ul 1) A unaccented has the sound of a final in America: men'-sa. 2) I and y unaccented in any syllable except the first and last gener- ally have the short sound : noh'-i-lis (nob'-e-lis), Arn'-y-cus (Am'-e-cus). 8) U, etc. — U has the short sound before hi ; and the other vowels before gl and tl : Piih-lic -o-la, Ag-la -o-plion, At' -las. 4) I. — Between an accented «, e, o, or y, and another vowel, i some- times stands iovj. It is then pronounced like y in yet : A-cha-ia (A-ka'-ya), Pom-pe'-ius (Pom-pe'-yus), La-to’-ia (La-to'-ya), Har-py'-ia (Har-py'-ya). 5) U. — After q and generally after /7, has the sound of w: qui (kwi), qua ; lin’-gua (lin'-gwa), lin-guis. Sometimes also after s ; sua'-de-o A (swa'-de-o). G) Compound Words. — When the first part of a compound is entire and ends in a consonant, any vowel before such consonant has generally "^the short sound : a in ab'-es, e in red' -it, i in m'-it, 0 in oh' -it, prod' -est. But those final syllables which, as exceptions, have the long sound before a consonant (8, 1), retain that sound in compounds : post' -quam, hos'-ce. ^ E'-ti-am and quo' -ni-am are generally pronounced as simple words. 8. Short Sounds. — ^Vowels have their short Englisli sounds — a as in fat, e in met, i in pin, o in not, u in tuh, y in myth — in the following situations : 1. In final syllables ending in a consonant : a! -mat, s^cd-met, rex' -it, sol, C07i'-sul, Td-thys : except 2 '>ost, es final, / ■ and os final in plural cases : res, di'-es, hos, a'-gros, ^ 2. In all syllables before cc, or any two consonants ex- 1 In these rules no account is taken of A that is only a breathing: hence the first i in nihilum is treated as a vowel before another vowel . for the same reason, ch, pli, and th are treated as single mutes ; thus th in Athos and Othrys . , 2 Penultimate, the last syllable but one. 4 ENGLISH METHOD OF PKONUNCIATION. cept a mute with I ox r (7, 3 and 4) : reod-it^ beV-lum^ rex-d- run% heUo^-Tum, 3. In all accented syllables, not penultimate, before one or more consonants : doin' -i-nus^ pat'-ri-bus, 1) Aj e, or o, before a single consonant (or a mute with I or r) fol- lowed by 2 , or before another vowel, has the long sound : a'-ci-es^ a'-cri-a^ me-re-o^ do'-ce-o. 2) U, in any syllable not final, before a single consonant or a mute with I or r, except bl^ has the long sound : Pu’-ni-cus^ sa-lu' -hri-tas. 3) Compounds. See Y, 6.) f: 3. Sounds of the Diphthongs. 9. Ae like e : Cae'-sar^ Daed'-d4icsd Oe like e : Oe'da^ Oed'-i-piisd Au, as in author : au' -rum, Eu, . . . neuter : neu'-ter. 1. Ei and oi are seldom diphthongs, but when so used they are pro- nounced as in height, coin : Jiei, proin. See Synaeresis, 669, II. 2. Ui, as a diphthong with the long sound of ^, occurs in cw^, hui^ huic. 3. Sounds of the Consonants. 10. The consonants are pronounced in g’eneral as in English, but a few directions may aid the learner. 11. C, G-, S, Tj and X are generally pronounced with their ordinary English sounds. Thus 1. O and g are soft (like s and j) before c, ^, y, ac, and oe^ and hard in other situations : ce -do (se'-do), ci'-vis^ Cy’-rus^ cad -do cod -pi.^ a' -ge (a'-je), a'-gi ; ca'do (ka'-do), cd-go^ cmn^ Ga'-des. But 1) 67A is hard like ^ Oho' -r us (kd-rus), (Ki'-os). 2) G has the soft sound before g soft : af-ger. 2. S generally has its English sound, as in son, this : sa'-cer., si'-dus. 1) S final., after e, ae., au., 5, m., tz, is pronounced like z : spes., praes, laus, urbs, M'-ems, mons, pars. 2) In a few words s has the sound of z, because so pronounced in English words derived from them : Cad-sar, Caesar ; cau'-sa, cause ; mu'-sa, muse ; mi'-ser, miser, etc. ^ The diphthong has the long sound in Cae'-sar and Oe'-ta according to 7, 3, but the short sound in Daed'-d-lus (Ded'-a-lus) and Oed'-i-pus (Ed'-i-pus) according to 8, 3, as e would be thus pronounced in the same situations. ROMAN METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION. 5 3. T has its regular English sound, as in time : t't-mor^ io’-tus. 4. X has generally its regular English sound like Ics : rex' -i (rek^-si). But at the beginning of a word it has the sound of z : Xan' -thus, 12. C, S, T, X — Aspirated , — Before i preceded by an accented syllable and followed by a vowel, c, 5, and X are aspirated — c, 5, and t taking the sound of sh^ x that of Jcsh: so'-ci-us (so'-she-us), AX-si-um (Ar-she-um), ar' di- um (ar'-she-um), anx'-i-us (ank'-she-us). C has also the sound of sh before eu and yo preceded by an accented syllable : ca-diX-ce-us (ca-du'-she-us), Sic’-y-on (Sish'-e-on). 1. T loses the aspirate — (1) after 5, or x; Os'-ti-a^At'-ti-us^mix'- ti-o: — (2) in old infinitives in ier ; jlec'-ti-er: — (3) generally in proper names in tion (tyon) ; Phi-Us' -ti-on^ Am-phic' -ty-on. / 4. Syllables. 1 3. In Latin, every word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs : per-suo! -de,, men’-sae. 14. In the division of words into syllables : 1. After a vowel (or diphthong), with the Long Sound (7), consonants are joined to the following vowel : pa' -ter,, pa' -ires ^ a-gro'-rum^ au-di'-vi. 2. After a vowel with the Short Sound (8), 1) ^ single or double consonant is joined to such vowel, except after i unaccented : gen'-e-riy rex'-iy dom' -i-nus. 2) Two consonants are separated : hel'-luniy men' -say pat'-ri-hus. But X following a consonant is joined to the preceding syllable: Xerx'-es. 3) Of three or more consonantSy the last, or, if a mute with I or r, the last two are joined to the following vowel: emp'-tuSy tew! -plumy claus'-tra, 3. But compound words are separated into their component parts, if the first of those parts is entire, and ends in a consonant : hos'-cey post'- quam. ROMAIC METHOD OF PROKUHCIATIOK 1. Sounds of the Vowels. 15. The vowel sounds are the following : LONG. a like a in father : al-ris, e a made : e-dl. SHORT. a like a in fast : 8 e net : a! -met, re'-get. 6 ROMAN METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION. LONG. i like e in me : o o rode : n o do ; ^ -ri, o'-ras, v!-7id. SHORT. i like ^ in divert : vV-dU, 6 o romance: 7116 ’ -iiU. ii u full : s'tc'-77iils. 1. When a short vowel is lengthened by position (21, 2), it retains its short sound : sic7it^ u as in su’-mus. 2. Y, found only in Greek words, is in sound intermediate between the Latin u and i : Ny-sa. 3. 1. — Between an aceented e, 0 , or ?/, and another vowel, i gener* allyv^^ids for j. It is then pronounced like y in yet {11) : A-cha-ia (A-ka'->a). 4. U.^After q, and generally after y, u has the sound of w: qul (kwe), Un’-gw (lin'-gwa). So also in cul^ liu\ liulc^ and sometimes after s ; sud'-de-o (swa'-de-o). 2. Sounds of the Diphthongs. 1 6. In diphthongs each vowel retains its own sound : a© (for at) like the English ccT/e (yes) : 7ne7i'-saed au like ow in how : cau'-sd, oe (for oi) like oi in coin : fod-di^s, ^ 1. Ei, as in veil^ and eu, with the sounds of e and it combined, occur^ j in a few words : dein^ neu' -ter. 3. Sounds of the Consonants. 17. Most of the consonants are pronounced nearly as in English, but the following require special notice : , C like h in king g j s t V d y s t 10 get : yet : son : time we : eddes (kalas), cV-vt (kewe). ge~7iijts, 7'd-gis, jd’-cU (yaket), jud-smn. sd!-ch\ so-7'67\ ii-7nd7% todds. vdJ-diiiv^ vl'-ct. 4. Syllables. 18. In dividing words into syllables 1. Make as many syllables as there are vowels and diphthongs : mo' -re, q)cr-md' -de.^ men'-sae. 1 Combining tbo sound?? of a and 1. CONTINENTAL METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION. 7 2. Join to each vowel as many of the consonants which precede it— ^ one or more — as can be conveniently pronounced at the beginning of a word or syllable pa -ter, pa’-tres, ge'-ne-rx, do-mi-nus, nd-scit, si'-stis, elau'-strd, men'-sd, hel'-lum, jus -sum, tern' -plum, cmp'-ius. But 3. Compound words must be separated into their component parts, if the first of these parts is entire and ends in a consonant ; dh'-es, dh-l’-re. OONTHsTEKTAL METHOD OF PROMUMCI AXIOM. 19. The Continental Method, as adopted in this coun- try, is almost identical with the Roman, except m the pro- nunciation of the consonants, in which it more nearly / coincides with the English. See 15, 16, 10, 11, 12, and 18. QUAMTITY. are in quantity or length either long, 21. Long. — A syllable is long in quantity 1. If it contains a dipththong : haec, 2. If its vowel is followed by J, or any tv/o conso- nants, except a mute with ^ or r ; rex^ mans, 22. Short. — A syllable is short, if its vowel is followed by another vowel or a diphthong : vi'-ciey 23. Common. — A syllable is common, if its vowel, natu- rally short, is fpjlo^d by a mute with ^ or r.* a'-gri. 1. The signs ", ", " are used to mark quantity, the first denoting that the syllable over which it is placed is long, the second that it is short, and- the third that it is commoh: d-gro-rum. ACCEMTUATIOM. ^ 24. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first : me7i'’Sg. 1 By some grammarians a mute and a liquid are always joined to tlie following vowel, as also any combination of consonants which can begin a Greek word: i'-gnU, o’-mnls, i’-pse, but there is little evidence that the ancient Romans divided words in this way. 2 Common, i. e., sometimes long and sometimes short. For rulqs of quantity see Prosody. Two or three leading facts are here given for the convenience of the learner. 3 No account is taken of the breathing h (2, 2), 8 EUPHONIC LAWS. 25. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult ^ if that is long in quantity, otherwise on the Antepenult ho-no'-rls^ con!-su-lis, 1. Genitives in i for ii and vocatives in i for ie retain the accent of the full form : in-ge'-ni for in-ge'-ni-i ; Mer-cu'-ri for Mer-cu'-ri-e. 2. Penults common in quantity take the accent when used as long. 3. Compounds are accented like simple words ; but 1) The enclitics, que^ ve^ ne^ throw back their accents upon the last «syllable of the word to which they are appended : horn! -i-ne’ -que^ mcn- m’-qu^. 2) Facio^ compounded with other words than prepositions, retains its own accent : cal-e-fd' -cit. 4. A second accent is placed on the second or third syllable before the primary accent, — on the second, if that is the first syllable of the word, or is long in quantity, otherwise on the third : mon' -iL-e' -runt ; mon'- u-e-rd' -7nus ; in-stau' -rd-ve' -runt. 5. In the same way, a third accent is placed on the second or third syllable before the second accent : hon' -o-rif -%-cen-tis' -si-inus. EUPHOOTO LAWS. \ 26. Latin words have undergone important changes in accord- ance with certain euphonic laws. 1. Changes in Vowels. 27. Vowels are often lengthened, especially in compensation for the dropping of consonants: sevDoms^ servos; regems., reges, 28. Vowels are sometimes changed through the influence of the consonants which follow thein. Thus e is the favorite vowel before r, i before 5, u before Z, especially before I followed by another consonant: cinis.,^^^ris for cinisis (35), ashes; vult for volt., he wishes. 1. E final is a favorite vowel: serve iov servo, 0 slave: mmwre, for moneri, for moraris, you are advised. See 34. ' 2. B is also a favorite vowel for i, 1) Before x or two or more consonants, especially in final syllables ; judex iov judix, judge ; rriHles for milets for milits, soldier. 1 In the subsequent pages the pupil will be expected to accent words in pronun- ciation according to these rules. The quantity of the penult in words of more than two syllables will therefore be marked (unless determined by 21 and 22), to enable him to ascertain the place of the accent. 2 Penult, the last syllable but one; antepenult, the last but two. EUPHONIC LAWS. 9 2) In accented syllables before i, o, or u: ea for ia, this ; cl for n, these ; eo for io, I go ; cunt for iunt, they go. 29. Vowels are sometimes shortened, regularly so in final syllables before m and t; emm for erdm^ I was; %rdt for erdt, he was. 30. Vowels are often weakened, i. e., changed to weaker vowels, in consequence of the lengthening of the word by inflec- *tion, composition, etc. The order of the vowels from the strongest to the weakest is ^ as follows: ^ a, o, u, e, i: conficio for confaeio, I accomplisli ; serms for servos, slave; fruc- tibus tor fructubus, with fruits; carminis for carminis, of song. 1. Diphthongs are also sometimes weakened : ae (for ai) to i or e : incldit for incaedit^ he cuts into, oe (for oi) tou or i: 'punlre for poenlre, to punish, au to u or 5 : excludo for exclaudo^ to shut out. 31. Vowels are often dropped in the middle or at the end of words,' sometimes even at the beginning: tempulum, tempUm, temple ; pateris, patris, of a father ; animale, anim&l, an animal ; esum^ sum^ I am. 32. Two successive vowels are sometimes contracted I. Into a DIPHTHONG : mensd-\ mensae^ tables. II. More frequently into a long vowel. In this case the second vowel generally disappears. Thus e and^i often disappear after and o ; dmdmrdt^ ama-e-rat^ dmdrat^ he had loved; dmdmsse^ ama-isse^ dmdsse^ to have loved. But 1. The first vowel disappears in the following endings : 1 ) In a-is, in Declension I. : mensa-is^ menslSy with tables. 2) In o-is, and o-i, in Declension II. : servo-is,, servls,, for slaves, servo-i, servl, slaves.. But in the Dative Singular, o-i becomes 05 scrvo-i, servo, for the slave. 3) In a-o in Conjugation I. : dmd-o, amo, I love. 2. A-i becomes e in the Subjunctive of Conjugation I. : dma-is, dmes, you may love. 3. O-a becomes a in neuters of Declension II. : templo-d, tcmplu, temples. ^ II. Changes in Conson'ants. 33. S uniting with a preceding c ov g forms x : dux for dues, leader ; rex for regs, king. ETYMOLOGY. ff Jl are advised. See 28, 1. '• >-<■ rt — .. ^ f -pQ^ D and t are generally dropped before s ; Upts for lapids, \^j std'ie ; aetds for aetats, age ; milh for milets^ milits, soldier. •<'“"^6., D and t are generally dropped before s ; Upts for lapids, PART SECOND. • ^ ETYMOLOGY. r t ETYMOLOGY. I 37; Etymology treats of the classification, inflection, and derivation of words. 38. The Parts of Speech are — JVbuns, Adjectives, Pro- CHAPTER I. NOUNS. 39. A Noun or Substantive is a name, as of a person, -J place, or thing : Cicero, Cicero ; Romd, Rome ; d^imids, ' house. ° 1. A Proper Noun is a proper name, as of a person or place : Cicero ; Jloma. 2. A Common Noun is a name common to all the members of a class of objects : vir^ a man ; eqiius^ horse. Common nouns include 1) Collective Nouns — designating a collection of objects: populus, people; exercitus, army. 2) Abstract Nouns — designating properties or qualities : virtus, virtue ; justitia, justice. 3) Material Nouns — designating materials as such: aurum, gold; licjnum, wood ; aqvia, water. 40. Nouns have Gender^ Number^ Person^ and Case, GENDEK. 11 I. Gender. 41. There are three genders^ — 3fasculine^ Feminine^ and Neuter. 1. In some nouns, gender is determined by signification ; in others, by endings. 42. Generax Rules for Gender. 1. Masculines. ^1. Names of 3Iales : Cicero; vlr^ man ; rex^ king. 2. Names of Fivers^ Yfinds^ and Months: Fheniis^ Rhine ; Notics, south wind y'JIartiUs, March. II. Feminines. 1. Names of Females : miXlier^ woman ; leaena^ lioness. 2. Names of Countries.^ Tovms^ Islands^ and Trees: AegyptUs^ Egypt ; iZdmd, Rome ; Felos^ Delos ; pArtis^ pear-tree. III. Neuters. 1. Indeclinable Nouns : fds^ right ; niliil^ nothing. 2. Words and Clauses used as indeclinable nouns: trisVe vdle^ a sad farewell. 43. Kemarks on Gender. 1. Exceptions. — The endings ^ of nouns sometimes give them a gen- der at variance with these rules. Thus 1) The names of rivers — Alhula^ Allia^ LetJie^ Styx^ and sometimes others, are feminine by ending. 2) Some names of countries^ toions, islands^ trees ^ and animals^ take the gender of their endings. See 53, 1. 2. Masculine or Feminine. — A few personal appellatives applicable to both sexes and a few names of animals arc sometimes masculine and some- times feminine^ but when used without distinct reference to sex they are generally masculine : clv^, citizen (man or woman) ; 5os, ox, cow. 3. Epicene Nouns have but one gender, but are used for both sexes. They apply only to the inferior animals, and usually take the gender of their endings : anser, goose, masculine ; aquild, eagle, feminine. 1 In English, Gender denotes sex. Accordingly, masculine nouns denote males ; feminine nouns, ; and neuter nouns, objects which are neither male nor fe- male. In Latin, however, this natural distinction of gender is applied- only to the names of males and females ; while, in all other nouns, gender depends upon an artificial distinction according to grammatical rules. 2 Gender as determined by the endings of nouns will 1)0 ncliced in connection with the several declensions. 2 12 PERSON AND NUMBER. CASES, DECLENSION II. Person and Number. 44. The Latin j like the English, has three persons and = two numbers. The. first person denotes the speaker ; the second, the person spoken to ; the third, the person spoken of. The singular number denotes one, the plural more ^ than one. III. Cases.^ 45. The Latin has six cases : Names, Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, Ablative, Englisli EqLuivalcnts. Nominative. Possessive, or Objective with of. Objective with to ot for. Objective. Nominative Independent. Objective with from^ hy^ in^ with. 1. Oblique Cases. — The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative, are called the Oblique Cases. 2. Locative. — Tlie Latin has also a few remnants of another case, called the Locative, denoting the place in which. DECLENSION. 46. Stem and Endings. — ^The process by which the several cases of a word are formed is called Declension. It consists in the addition of certain endings to one com- mon base called the stem. 1. Meaning. — Accordingly, each case-form contains two distinct ele- ments — the stem^ which gives the general meaning of the word, and the case- ending.^ which shows the relation of that meaning to some other word. Thus in reg-is^ of a king, the general idea, Tcing^ is denoted by the stem rcg^ the relation o/, by the ending is. 2. Cases alike. — But certain cases are not distinguished in form. 1) The Nominative^ Accusative^ and Vocative in neuters are alike, and in tlie plural end in g. 1 The case of a noun shows the relation which that noun sustains to other words ; as, JoUrCs 'book. Here the possessive' case {John's^ shows that John sustains to the book the relation of possessor. FIRST DECLENSIOI^. 13 2) The NominatiDe and Vocative are alike, except in the singular of nouns in us of the second declension (51).^ 3) The Dative and Ablative Plural are alike. 47. Five Declensions. — In Latin there are five declen- sions, distinguished from each other by the endings of the Stem, or of the Genitivi^ Singular, as follows: Dec. I. II. III. IV. V. 1. The five iXil-EXDIXGS. GENITIVE ENDINGS. a ae 0 i 1 o/* consonant. is u us e ei declensions are only five varieties of one general system of inflection, as the case-endings are nearly identical in all nouns. 2. But these case-endings appear distinct and unchanged only in nouns of the Third Declension, while in all others they are seen only in combi- nation with the final vowel of the stem. FIKST DECLENSIOFT: A NOUNS. 48.' Nouns of the first declension end in a and e— feminine y as and es, — masculine.'^ Nouns in a are declined as follows: SINGULAR. Nom. J^xample. rnens^. Meaning. a iahle^ Case-Endings. a Gen. mensae. of a tahlc^ ae Dat. mensae. iOj for a table ^ ae Acc. mensem. a table^ am Voc. mensa. 0 table^ a Ahl mensU/, wiih^ from^ by a tahle^ a Nom. mensae. PLURAL. tables^ ae Gen. mensariiia. of tables^ arum Dat. mensis. to^ for tables^ Is Acc. mensas. tables^ as Voc. mensae. 0 tables^ ae Ahl. mensis. voitli^ from^ by tables. Is. 1 And in some nouns of Greek origin. 2 That is, nouns of this declension in a 'and e are feminine, and those in as and es are masctlline. • 14 FIRST DECLENSION. 1. Stem. — In nouns of the First Declension, the stem ends in a. 2. In the Paradigm, observe 1) That the stem is mensa^ and that the Nominative Singular is the same. 2) That the several cases are distinguished from each other by their case-endings. 3) That these case-endings contain the stem-ending a (47, 2), which disappears in the ending Is, contracted from a-Is, in the Dative and Abla- tive Plural. See 32,1,1). 3. Examples for Practice. — Like mensa decline : Ala^ wing ; aqua^ water ; causa^ cause ; fortuna^ fortune. 4. Locative. — Names of towns and a very few other words have a Locative Singular in ae : Romae^ at Rome ; militiae^ in war. 5. Exceptions in Gender, — Hadria^ Adriatic Sea, is masculine ; some- times also dama^ deer, and talpa ^ mole. See also 43, 1. 6. Article. — The Latin has no article. A noun may therefore, ac- cording to the connection in which it is used, be translated either with- out any article, with a or an^ or with the : corona^ crown, a crown, the crown. 49. Irregular Case-Endings. — The following occur : 1. As, an old form for «e, in the Genitive of fdmilia^ in composition with pater ^ mater ^ flliuSy and /Ilia : paterfamilias^ father of a family. 2. Ai for the genitive ending ae, in the poets : aulai for aulae^ of a hall. 3. Um for arum in the Gen. Plur, : Dardanidum for Dardanidarum^ of the descendants of Dardanus. 4. Abiis, the original form for Is, in the Dat. and Abl. Plur., espe- cially in dea^ goddess, and filia^ daughter, to distinguish them from the same cases of deus^ god, and filius^ son : deahus for deis^ to goddesses. 50. Greek Nouns. — Nouns of this declension in e, as, and es are of Greek origin, and are declined as follows : Epitome, epitome, Aeneas, Aeneas, VjiltQsf pyrites. N. epitome G. epitomes D. epitomae A. epitomen V. epitome A. epitome SINGULAR. Aeneas Aeneae Aeneae pyrites pyritae pyritae pyrlt^n pyrite, a pyrltC, a Aeneam, an Aenea Aenea. 15 JV. epitomae G. epitomaram. D. epitomis A. epitomas V. epitomae A. epitomis. PLURAL. * V pyritae pyritariim pyritis pyritas pyritae pyrItIs. 1. Paradigms. — Observe 1) That in the Plural and in the Dative Singular, Greek nouns ar« declined like mensa. 2) That the stem-ending a is changed into e in certain cases of nouns in e and es. 2. Many Greek nouns assume the Latin ending a, and are declined like mensa. Many in e have also a form in a ; epitome.^ epitoma.^ epitome. SECOiTD DECLEITSIOM’: O ITOUl^S. 5 1 . Nouns of the second declension end in er, ir, us, and os — masculine; um, and on — neuter. Nouns in 6r, and um^ are declined as follows : Servus, slave. Puer, 6oy. field. SINGULAR. Templum, templi iV! servKLS puer ager templikm G. servi pueri agri templi D. servo puero agro templo A. serviim pueriim agriiiia templiim V. serve puer ager templiim A. servo puero agro PLURAL. templo JV. servi pueri agri tempi sl G. servortim puerorikm agrortam templorum D. servis pueris agris templis A. servos pueros agros templa V. servl pueri agri temp Ili A. servis. pueris. agris. templis. 1. Stem. — In nouns of the Second Declension, the stem ends in o. 2. In the Paradigms, observe 1) That the stems are servo, puero agro^ and templo. 2) That the stem-ending o becomes u in the endings us and wm, and e in served that it disappears by contraction in the endings o, and is (for o-a, o-i and o-is),^ and is dropped in the forms puer and ager. See 30, and 23, 1. 2 See 32, II. 1 and 3. 16 SECOND DECLENSION. 3) That the case-endings, including the stem-ending o (47, 2), are as follows : NeuL um I o iim urn o a orum Is a a is. j 4) That puer and ager differ in declension from servus in dropping the endings us and e in the Nom. and Voc. j Nom. jower puerus^ \oc. puer J for puere. 5) That ager inserts e before r in the Nom. and Voc. Sing.^ y 6) That templum.^ as a neuter noun, has the Nom., Accus., and Voc. alike, ending in the plural in a. See 46, 2, 1). 3. Examples for Practice. — Like servus: dominus, master. — Like puer; gener, son-in-law. — Like ager: magister, Ycm^iQY . — Like templum: helium, war. 4. Nouns in er and ir.— Most nouns in er are declined like ager, but ' the following in er and ir are declined like puer. 1) Nouns in ir : vir, viri, man. 2) Compounds in fer and ger : arrmger, armigh'i, armor-bearer ; sig- nifer, signiferi, standard-bearer. 3) A-dulter, adulterer; Celtiber, Celtiberian ; ^ gener, son-in-law; Iber, Spaniard; 3 Liber, Bacchus; llberi, children; Mulciber, Vulcan; 3 pres- bgter, elder ; socer, father-in-law ; vesper, evening. 7 5. Deus. — Declined thus ; Sing, deus, del, deo, deum, deus, ded : Plur. N. and V . del, dii, dl ; G. deorum, deum ; D. and A. dels, dlls, dls, Acc. deos. Masc. Nom. Gen. Bat. Acc. V oc. Abl. Nom. Gen. Bat. Acc. Voc. Abl. 1 The endings of the Nom. and Voc. Sing, are wanting in nouns in er. 2 In puer, e belongs to the stem, and is accordingly retained in all the cases; but in ager it is inserted in the Nom. and Voc. Sing., as agr would bo difficult to pro- nounce. 3 Celtiber and Iber have e long in the Gen., and Mulciber sometimes drops iis. io, for leaders. ibils A. principes. leaders, es V, principes. 0 leaders. Cs A. principlI^MS, with, from, hy leaders. ibiis. 1. Stem and Case-Endings. — In this Paradigm observe 1) That the stem is princep., modified before an additional syllable to princip. See 30 and 57, 2. 2) That the case-endings are appended to the stem without change. See 47, 2. 2. Variable Radical Vowel. — In the final syllable of dissyllabic con- sonant stems, short e or i generally takes the form of e in the Nom. and Voc. Sing, and that of i in all the other cases. princeps., prinnpis^ and judex, judicis (59), both alike have e in the Nom. and Voc. Sing, and i in all the other cases, though in princeps, the original form of the radi- cal vowel is e and m judex, i. For a similar change in the radical \ owel, sec miles, militis (58) and carmen, carminis (60). Sec also opus, operis (61). 1 For Gcniler see 09-115. 2 See foot-note p. 17. THIRD DECLENSIO^f. 19 . In monosyllables in hs the stem ends in i. . Synopsis of Declension. See 86, 88. See ^^r5s, 64. 58. Stems ending in a Dental : r> OR T. Lapis, M,, stone. Aetas, E., age, singular. Miles, M., soldier. N. lapis aetas miles G. lapidis aetatis militis D. lapidi aetati militi A. lapidem. aetatem militem V. lapis aetas miles A. lapide aetati \PLURAL. milite N. lapides aetates milites G. lapidtaasi. aetatikm militiam D. lapidil>ii.s aetatiiaia s militil>iis A. lapides aetates milites V. lapides aetates milites A. lapidilaiis. aetatifews. militil>iis. pos, M., grandson. Virtus, E., virtue. Caput, n., hea SINGULAR. N. nepos virtus caput G. nepotis virtutis capitis B. nepoti virtuti capiti A. nepotem virtutem caput V. nepos virtus cap iit A. nepote virtutaS PLURAL. capite N. nepotes virtutes capitii G. nepotiim virtutiim capitiam B. nepotii>iuLS virtuti'biis capitilaiis A. nepotes virtutes capiti V. nepotes virtutes capiti A. nepotii>ias. virtutilbiis. capitil^ias, 1. Stems and Case-Endings. — In these Paradigms observe 1) That the stems are lapid^ aetdt^ miUt^ nepot^ virtut and caput. 2) That miles has the variable vowel, e, ij and caput., u, i. See 6Y, 2. 3) That the dental d or t is dropped before s : lapis for lapids^ aetas for actatSj miles for mileis, virtus for virtuts. See 36’. 20 TIIIKD DECLENSION. 4^) That the case-endings, except in the neuter caput (46, 2), are the same as those given^above. See 5Y. 5) That the neuter^ capMt^ has no case-ending in the Nom,, Acc., and Yoc. Sing., a in the Nom., Acc., and Yoc. Plur., and the case-endings of masculine and feminine nouns in the other cases. 2. Neuter stems in at drop t in the Nom. Sing, and end in a: Nom., poema^ Gen., poematis ; pohndt. These nouns sometimes have Is for thus in the Dat. and Abl. Plur. : poematis for poematibus, 3. Synopsis of Declension. See 69, 78-84. 59. Stems ending in a Guttural : c or G. Rex, M., Judex, M. & E., Radix, e.. Dux, M. & E., hmg. judge. root. leader. singular. N. rex judex radix dux G. regis judicis radicis diicis D. rega judici radici duel A. reg«3ii judicem. radicem ducem. V. rex judex radix dux A, rege judice radice • duc^ PLURAL. N, reges judices radices duces G. regMin judiciiiii. radiciiiii duciim D. regi'biks judicilpiis radici'biis ducil>iis A. rcgSs judices radices duces V, reges judices radices duces A. regitoiis, • judici‘l>iis. radicii>iis. ducil>iis. 1. Stems and Case-Endings.- —In the Paradigms observe I) That the stems are reg^judic^ radio and due- —judic with the varia- ble vowel — e. See 57, 2. 2) That the case-endings are those given in 57. 8) That s in the Nom. and Yoc. Sing, unites with c or ^ of the stem and forms x. See 3.3. 2. Synopsis of Declension. - -See Nouns in 2c: 92-98. 60. Ste^s ending in A Liquid : L, M, N, OR R. Sol, M., ^ Consul, M., Passer, m.. Pater, M., sun. consul. sparrow. father. SINGULAR. jsr. sol consul passer pater G. solis consulis passeris patris D. soli consuli passeri patri THIRD DECLEKSIO]^. 21 A. sol^m consulam passerem - patrem K sol consul passer pater A. soW consult passeri plural. patr^ J\i. soles consules passeres patres G. consuliam. passerikm patriim D. Solxl>iB.S consuli l>ik.s passeril>iks patrii>iis A. soles consules passeres patres V. soles consiiles passeres patres A. soliI>iis. consuiii>iis. passeri'bits.. patril>&s. Pastor, M., Leo, M., Virgo, F., Carmen, N., shepherd. lion. maiden. SINGULAR. song. N. pastor leo virgo carmen G. pastoris leonis virginis carminis D. pastori leoni virgini carmini A. pastor^in. leonem. virgin^iiiL ciirmen V. pastor leo virgo carmen A. pastor^ leone virgine PLURAL, carmine iV pastores leones virgines carminia; G. pastoriim. leoniam virginiim carminii-Bii D. pastoril>ats leonil>iis virginil>u..s carminil>us A. pastores leones virgin e. s carminii V. pastores leones virgines carminai A. pa5toill>aj.s. leonil>us. virginil>us« carminil>u.s. 1. Stems and Case-Endings. — In the Paradigms observe 1) That the stems are «d/, consul^ passer^ paler ^ pastor ^ leon^ virgo, and carmen. 2) That virgo (virgbn) has the variable vowel, b, ij and carmen.^ i. 3) That in the Norn, and Voc. Sing, s, the usual case-ending for masc. and fern, nouns, is omitted, and that in those cases the stem pastor shortens o, while leo7i and vh'gon drop n. 2. Hiems, the only stem in m, takes 5 in the Norn, and Voc. Sing. Also sanguis (for sangmns)^ bloody and Salamis (for SalUmins)^ Salumis, which drop n before s. 3. Passer, Pater. — Most nouns in er are declined like passer^ but those in ter, and a few others, are declined like 2 )ater. See 'ZY, TI. ^ 4. Leo and Virgo. — Most nouns in o are declined like Ico, but those itt- do and go, with a few others, are declined like virgo. See. With exceptions. X 22 THIRD DECLElSrSION. 5. Four stems in or change o to u. See 'ZY, IV. 6. Synopsis of Declension. See '72, 75-77. 61. Stems ending in s. Flos, m., Jus, N., Opus, N., Corpus, N., flower. right. wjorlc. SINGULAR. body. N, flos jus opus corpus G. floris juris operis corporis D. flori juri operi corpori A. floram jus opus corpus F. flos jus opiis corpus ^ A. flor^ jure opertS A PLURAL. IJ corpori/ e' . ' ^ corporii iV. flore.s jura opera F' G. flor-iiiia. jurttm ' operiim corporiim J). floril>iis jurii>MS operil>iis corporibus A. flores jur^ oper^ corpori V. flores jurU operli corpori A, flori'5>4is. juril>iis. operil>ia.s. corporibus. 1. Stems and Case-Endings. — In the Paradigms observe 1) That the stems are flos^ jus^ opes^ and corpos. 2) That opus has the variable vowel, O; u, and corpus^ b, u. 3) That s of the stem becomes r between two vowels : flos^ floris (for flosls). See 35. 4) That the Nom. and Yoc. Sing, omit the case-ending. See 60, 1, 3). 2. Synopsis of Declension. See 79, 80, 82-84. CLASS II.— I STEMS. 63. Stems ending in i, — JVbuns in is, — AhL Sing, in 1, or in I or S. Tussis, F., cough, N. tussis G. tussis I), tussi A. tussim f Turris, r., tower. turris turris turri turrim, Ignis, M., fire. SINGULAR. ignis ignis igni ignem Case-Endings. is is i im, om THIKD DECLENSION. 23 V. tussis turris ignis is A, tussi turri, e igni, 6 i, ^ PLURAL. 'iY tusses turres ignes es G. tussiiiMi turri iina. ignitJLiM. iura B. tussil>its turril>ws ignil>iis ibiis A. tusses, is turres, is ignes, is es. Is V. tusses turres ignes es A. tussil>iis. turril?&s. ignil>ia.s. ibiis. I. Paradigms. — Observe 1. That the stems are tussi^ turri^ and ig7ii. 2. That the case-endings here given include the stem-ending i, which disappears in certain cases. 3. That these Paradigms differ in declension only in the Acc. and Abl. Sing. II. Like TUSSIS— Acc. im, Abl. i— are declined 1. Buris ^ plough-tail ; ravis^ hoarseness ; sitis^ thirst. 2. In the Sing. (1) Names of rivers and places in is not increasing in the Gen. : Tihh'is^ Hispalis. See 629. (2) Greek nouns in is, G. is^ and some others. .j^II. Like TURRIS — Acc. im, em ; Abl. i, e — are declined CldviSj key ; febris^ fever ; messis^ harvest ; navis^ ship ; puppis^ s4;ern ; restis j rope ; securis j axe ; sementis^ seed-time ; sirigilisy strigil. 1. FarSy part, sometimes hsiS partim in the Acc. 2. Araris or Arary the Saone, and Ligery the Loire, have Acc. im, em, Abl. i, e. lY. Like ignis — Acc. em, Abl. i, e — are declined AmniSy river ; anguiSy serpent ; avisy bird ; hiliSy bile ; civisy citizen ; classisy fleet ; colliSy hill ; flniSy end ; 07'hiSy circle ; postisy post ; unguisy nail, and a few others. V 1. Adjectives in er and is used substantively have the Abl. generally 'm i: September y Septembriy September;* fdmiliarisy familiarly friend. But adjectives used as proper names, andywvems, youth, have e ; Juvena- lis* Juvenahy Juvenal. 2. Imber y storm ; rw 5 ,^j 5 ettatry ; sorSy lot ; supelleXy furniture ; vesper y evening, and a few others, sometimes have the Abl. in i. nJ 3. Many names of towns have a Locative in i : Carthdginiy at Car- %feige ; Tlburiy at Tibur. See 45, 2 ; 48, 4. 1 Names of montlis are adjectives used substantively, with mmsiSy month, under- stood. yVi'f THIRD DECLENSIO]!^, 24 - 63. Stems ending in !•— Neuters in g, al, and ar. Mare, Animal, Calcar, Case-Endings. sea. animal. spur. SINGULAR. iV. mar^ animal calcar G. maris animalis calcaris is F. marl animali calcari 1 A. mar^ animal calcar e— 2 V. mare animal calcar e— 2 A. marl^ animali calcari 1 PLURAL. F. maria. animalia calcaria ia G. mariijmt animali aiM calcarium ium F. marifeiis animalil>gis calcaril>us ibiis A. mari^ animali^ calcarii ia V. mariii animalia calcaria ia A. maril>iis. animalil^iis. calcaril>us. ibus. 1. Paradigms. — Observe 1) That the stem-ending i is changed to e in the Nom. Acc. and Voc. Sing, of marc, and dropped in the same cases of ammdl (for animale) and calcar (for calcare). See 28, 1 ; 31. 2) That the case-endings include the stem-ending i. 2. The following have e in the Abl. Sing. : — (1) Names of towns in ^ j rraeneste. — (2) Nouns in al and ar with a short in Gen. : sdl^ sdle^ salt ; nectar., nectare., nectar. — (3) Far, farre, corn. — (4) Generally rete, net, and in poetry sometimes mare. 64. Stems ending in I. — Nouns in is, es, ayid s (x) preceded by a Consonant^ — Abl, Sing, in g. Ilostis, M. &F., Nubes, F., Urbs, F., Arx, F., enemy. cloud. city, SINGULAR. citadel. N. hostis nubes urbs arx^ G. hostis nubis urbis arcis 1 Soraetimes marc in poetry. 2 Tlie (lash here implies that the case-ending’ is sometimes wanting. 3 JT in arx=cs , — c belonging to the stem, and s being the Nom. ending. THIRD DECLENSION. 25 D. hosti nubi urbi arci A. hostem nub^iML urb^m arc^m V. hostis nubes urbs arx A. host^ nub^ urb^ arc^S PLURAL. hostes nubes urbes arces ^G. hosti&m nubiiam. urbiiim. arciii-511 D. hostil>ws nubil>iis urbii^tis arcil>its A. hostes. Is nubes, is urbes, is arces, is V. hostes nubes urbes arces A. hostil>&s. nubil>its. urbil>&s- arcifeiis. 1. Stems.— These Paradigms show a combination of i-stems and con- sonant stems : hosti, host ; urhi, urh ; arci, arc. The i-stem appears espe- cially in the endings of the Gen. and Acc. Plur. ium, es, is. The stem of nubes seems to be nubes, nubi, nub. 65. Endings ium, is. — Like the preceding Paradigms, the following classes of words have itim in the Gen. Plur., and Is with es in the Acc. Plur. / 1. Most nouns in ns and rsG cliens, clieyitium, clientes, is, client; ars, irtium, artes, is, art ; cohors, cohortium, cohortes, is, cohort. 2. Monosyllables in s and x preceded by a consonant,^ and a few in s and X preceded by a vowel urbs, urbium, urbes, is, city; ai'x, arcium, arces, is, citadel ; nox, noctium, nodes, is, night. ! 3. Many nouns not increasing in the genitive : 1 1) Most nouns in es and is not increasing : nubcs, nubium, nubes, is, Ic foud avium, aves, is, bird. 2) Caro, flesh ; imber, storm ; linter, boat ; uter, leathern sack ; venter, belly ; and generally Lisuber, Insubrian. 4. Many nouns in as and is (Plur. cites and Ites). Thus 1) Names of nations : Arpinas, Arpinatium, etc. ; Samnis, Sam- nitium, etc. 2) Optimates and Penates, and occasionally other nouns in as. 1 Some of these often have Urn in poetry and sometimes even in prose, as pdrens, parent, generally has. 2 Except ipps) opis and the Greek nouns, gryps, lynx, sphynx. 3 Namely,/( 22 i£C, glls. Its, mas, nix, nox, 6s (ossis), vis, generally fraus and mus. 4 But canis, juvenis, strues, vates, have um; apis, mensis, sedes, volucris, iim or i'&m; compes, ium. 26 THIKD DECLENSION-. 66. Special Paradigms. Sus, M. & F., Bos, m. & F. , Nix, F., Senex, m.. Vis, F., swine. ox^ cow. snow. old man. force. SINGULAR. N sus bos ^ nix Senex vis G. suis bovas nivis senis vis* * D. sul bovi nivi seni vi 2 A. suem bovem niv^m senem vim V. sus bos nix senex vis A. sue bove nive sene vi PLURAL. ' N sues boves nives senes vires G. ( bovitim suikita 1 boiiiia nivlMim seniim viriMm F-1 suilaiis \ bol^iis ^ sul>iis 1 bulaMS ^ nivi1>iis senilaias virillaits A. sues boves nives senes vires V. sues boves nives senes vires suilaiis j bolaiis nivil^^s. siilaiis- ( bul>iiit- , senilaiis, , virilaiis, 1. Stems. — These are sit ; hov ; mg (nix — nigs), mv^ nwi; senec^ sen ; v'iSj vi (sing.), vlri (for visi, plur.). See 35. 2. Scjs, and grus (crane), the only u stems in this declension, are declined alike except in the Dat. and Abl. PL, where grus is regular: gruibus. 3. Jupiter, Jupiter . — Declined thus: Jupiter, Jovis, JovI, Jovem, Jupiter, Jove. Stems Jupiter and Juv. 67 . Case-Endings of the Third Declension. SINGULAR. Consonant stems. Masc. & Fern. Neut. N. S ® 3 G^. is is jD. I i A. em — F. s — A. 0 e I-STEMS. Masc. c£* Fern. Neut. is, cs, s e — 3 is is 1 1 im, cm e — is, es, s e — i, e 1 1 Bd8='boY8, bous; bobus., bubus='boYibus^ boubus. 2 The Gen. and Dat. Sing, — vis, w— are rare. * The dash denotes that the case-ending is wanting. GREEK NOUNS. 27 K C3 G. um D. ibus A. es V. es A. ibus. PLURAL. a um ibus a a ibus. es ium ibus es, Is es ibus. 1. Irregular Case-Endings. — The following occur : 1) E, for iy in the Dat. Sing. : aere for aeri. 2) Eis, for iSy in the Acc. Plur. : cweis for civiSy cives. 3) Greek Endings. See 68. ia ium ibus ia ia ibiis. GKEEK NOUiTS. 68. Most Greek nouns of the third declension are en- tirely regular, but a few retain certain peculiarities of the Greek. The following are examples : Lampas, f., . Phryx, M. & F., Heros, m.. Case-Endings. torch. Phrygian, hero, y SINGULAR. N. lampas Phryx heros / \ s G. lampMis, os Phrygis, os herols \ is, os D. lampadi Phrygi heroi i A. lampadem, ii Phrygem, a heroeiii, a em, a V. lampas Phryx heros s A. lampade Phryge heroe e PLURAL. N. lampades, es Phryges, es heroes, es G. lampadiiiML Phrygikm. lieroiiEKi iim D. lampadi'biis Phrygll>iis herolfeiks ibus A. lampades, ^s Phryges, a-s heroes, sis es, as V. lampades, ^s Phryges, ^s heroes, es es, es A. lampadil>iks. Phrygll>ws. hcroil>Bis. ibiis. Pericles, M., Paris, M., Dido, F., Orpheus, M., Pericles. Paris, Dido. Orpheus. X SINGULAR.^ A^. Pericles^ Paris Dido Orpheus ^ G. Periclis, I Paridis, 6s Didus, onls Orph-eos, ei, i 1 The Plural is of course wanting. - Eu a diphthong in the Nom. and Voc. : ei sometimes a diphthong in the Gen. and Dat. 28 THIKD DECLENSIOIS'. D. Pericli Paridi Dido, oni Orph-ei, i, eo A. Periclem, ea, en | ^ Dido, on^m Orphea, eikin V. Pericles, ^s, e Pari Dido Orpheu A. Pericli* Paride» Dido, on^* Orpheo* 1. Paradigms. — Observe that these paradigms fluctuate in certain cases, — (1) between the Latin and the Greek forms: lanipMis^ os ; lam- pMem^ a ; herdes^ as^ — (2) between different declensions : Pericles, be- tween Dec. I., Fericlerij Pericle^ Dec. II., Pericti (Gen.), and Dec. III., Periclis^ etc. : Orpheus, between Dec. II., Orpliei^ Orpheo^ etc., and Dec. III., Orpheos^ etc. 2. Nouns in ys have Gen. yoS; ys, Acc. ym, yn : Othrys^ Othryos^ Othrym^ Olliryn. 3. The Vocative Sing, drops s, — (1) in nouns in eus, ys and in proper names in as, Gen. ayitis ; Atlas^ Atla^ — (2) generally in nouns in is and sometimes in other words ; Pari. 4. Genitive Plur. — The ending on occurs in a few titles of Books : Metamorphoses (title of a poem), Aletamorphoseon. 5. Dative and Ablative Plur. — The ending si, before vowels sin, occurs in poetry : TroMes^ Troasin. 6. A few neuters used only in the Nom. Acc. and Voc. have 5s in the Sing, and e in the Plur. : melos^ mele^ song. SYNOPSIS OF THE THIED DECLENSION. I. NOXJXS ENDING IN A VoWEL. 69. Nouns in S : * Genitive in atis : Stem in at : poema, poem^ poematis, poemat. 70. Nouns in S : Genitive in is : Stem in i : mare, sea^ maris, marl. 71. Nouns in i : ^ Genitive in is : Stem in i : sinapi, mustard., sinapis, sinapi. Exceptions. — Genitive in 1. itis, — compounds of meli : oxymeli^ oxymelitis^ oxymel. 2. Many nouns in i are indeclinable. 72. Nouns in 5 : Genitive in onis : Stem in on : leo, Uon^ leonis, leon. ^ These are of Greek origin. SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 29 Exceptions. — G enitive in 1. bnis : — most national names : MacMo^ Macedonis^ Macedonian. 2. inisd — Apollo; /io-mo, man ; nemo, nobody; to6o, whirlwind ; and nouns in do and go: grando^ grandinis^ hail; vh'go^ virginis^ maiden ; except — harpago^ onis ; llgo^ onis ; praedo^ onis, also comedo^ cudo^ mango^ spddo^ unMo^ udo. 3. nis: — c«ro, carnis (for carmis^\ flesh. See 65, 3, 2). 4. enis : — Anio^ Anienis., river Anio ; Nerio, Nerienis. 5. ms : — few Greek feminines : Dido, Didus. See 68. 73. Nouns in y " : Gen. in yis (yos, ys) : Stem in y : misy, misyis (yos, ys), misy. II. Nouns ending in a Mute or Liquid. 74. Nouns in c : only dle^^ aUcis, pickle ; Idc^ lactis^ milk. 75. Nouns in 1 : Genitive in lis : Stem in 1 : sol, solis, sol. 1. Fel,fellis, gall; mel, mellis, honey. 2. Neuters in al : Genitive in alls : Stem in all : animal, animal, animalis, animali. 76. Nouns in n : Genitive in nis : Stem in n : paean, ^ paeanis, paean, fitimen, stream, fluminis, flumen, i i. 1. Nouns in en have the variable radical vowel — e, i. Sec 60, 1, 2). 2. There are a few Greek words in on, Gen. in bnis, ontis, St. in bn, ont : aedon, aedonis, nightingale ; Xenophon, Xenophontis, Xenophon. 77. Nouns in r : Genitive in ris : Stem in r : career, prison, carceris, career. I. Nouns in ar : (1) ar, G. aris, St. ad ; calcar, calcaris, spur ; but a few have G. aris, St. ^ ; nectar, nectaris, nectar : (2) ar, G. aris, St. ari : ?aWs, house ; par, paHs, pair : (3) Far, f arris, corn; hepdr, hepjdtis, liver. II. Nouns in er. Some drop e in the Genitive. 1. Those in ter : paifer, pa^ns, father ; except later, lateris, tile;^^cr, itineris, way ; Jupiter, Jovis, and Greek nouns ; crater, crateris, bowl. 2. Irnher and names of months in ber: imher, imbris, shower; 8cp- ' temhh', Septembris, September. 1 Stem in 6n, In. See 60, 1, 2). 2 Nouns in y are of Greek origin, and are often indeclinable. 30 SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. III. Is ouns in (5r : G. 5ris, St. or : pastor^ pastdris^ shepherd ; but a few have G. oris, St. or : arbor ^ arboris^ tree ; ae(puor^ sea ; marmor^ marble. But cor, cordis^ heart. ^ IV. Four in fir: G. oris, St. gr; ebur, ivory; femur, thigh; yW, liver ; robur ^ strength ; but femur has also feminis^ and jecur ^ jednoriSy jedneriSy and^ocmm^. \ 78. Nouns in ut : Genitive in itis : Stem in ut, it : caput, head^ capitis, caput, it. III. Nouns ending in s preceded by a Vowel. 79. Nouns in as : Genitive in atis : Stem in at : aetas, age^ aetatis, aetat. Exceptions. — Genitive in 1. atis : — dndSy andtisy duck, and neuter Greek nouns. 2. adis : vaSy vadiSy surety ; A.rcdSy Arcadian, and fern. Greek nouns ; * lampdSy lampddisy torch. 3. aris : — maSy marisy a male ; — stem, maSy marl See 35. 4. asis ; — vdSy vdsiSy vessel.^ 5. assis : — «s, assisy an as (a coin). 6. antis : — only masc. Greek nouns ; adamdSy aniisy adamant. 80. Nouns in es : Genitive in is : Stem in i : " nubes, cloud, * nubis, nubi. Exceptions. — Genitive in 1. edis : — (1) edis : liereSy lierediSy heir; merceSy reward. — (2) edis: peSy pediSy foot. 2. aedis : — praeSy praedis y surety. 3. oris: — CereSy Cereris^ 4. aeris : — aeSy aeriSy copper.^ 5. etis :-—(!) etis: quieSy rest, with compounds, mquieSy requieSy and a few Greek words : lebeSy tapes. — (2) etis : dbieSy fir-tree ; drieSy ram ; parieSy wall. 6. essis : — heSy bessisy two-thirds. 81. Nouns in Ss : Genitive in itis : Stem in St, it : miles, soldier.^ militis, milet, it. 1 Greek nouns sometimes have ados for ddis. 2 Vds is the only stem in s which does not change s to r between two vowels See 61, 1, 3). 3 But see 64, 1. 4 See 61, 1, 3). SYNOPSIS OF THE THIEH DECLENSION. 31 Exceptions. — Genitive in 1. etis : — interpres, interpreter ; seges, crop ; teges, covering. 2. idis : — ohses, hostage ; praeses, president. See 57, 2. 82. Nouns in is : Genitive in is : St( Stem in i : a\i. Exceptions. — Genitive in 1. eriBi—cmis, cineris,^ ashes; cucumis, cucumber; pulvis, dust vomis, ploughshare. 2 idis-— mnw, cup; cassis, helmet; cuspis, spear; lapis, stone; promulsis, antepast, and a few Greek ^ words : as tyrannis, idis, tyranny. Sometimes ihis, and tigris. 3. inis '.—pollis or pollen, flour ; sanguis, blood. 4. iris : — glis, gllris,^ dormouse. 5 * issis semis, semissis, half an as : stem, semissi, semiss. 6. itis : — lls,"^ strife ; Dis, Quiris, Samnis. 83. Nouns in os : Genitive in oris : Stem in 6s . mos. mo 3 , custom, mons, Exceptions. — Genitive in I otis : — cos, coiis, whetstone ; dos, dowry ; nepos, grandson ; sacer- dos, priest ; and a few Greek words. 2. 6 dis ; — custos, custodis, guardian. See 36. 3 ^ 5 ig ; — a few masc. Greek nouns : heros, hero ; Minos, Tros. 4. bris : — arhos or arhor, tree. 5. ossis : — os, ossis, bone : stem, ossi, oss. 6. bvis : — bos, bovis, ox. See 66. 84. Nouns in us : Genitive in Sris or oris : Stem in gs or os. I. eris : — Idtus, lateris, side : stem, Idtes. So also : dcus, foedus, funus, genus, glomus, munus, olus, onus, ojnis, pondus, rudus, scelus, sidus, ulcus, vellus, Venus, viscus, vulnus. II. oris : — corpus, corporis, body : stem, coipos. So also decus, dedecus, facinus, fenus, frigus, lepus, litus, nhnus, pectus, pecus, penus, pignus, ster cus, tempus, tergus. 1 Stem cinis., clner for clnh with variable vowel See 28, 85, and 57, 2. 2 Greek nouns sometimes have idos or even ios for idis; Sdldmls has Salaminis, Simois, Simoentis. 3 Stem glis, gllri for gllsi, 85. ^ Stem llti, lit. 32 SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. Exceptions. — Genitive in 1. uris: — (1) uris: crws, leg; jiis^ right; jus^ soup; miis^ mouse; pus ; rws, country ; tus (thus), incense ; tellus^ earth. — (2) uris : Ligus^ Liguris^ Ligurian. See 61. 2. utis : — -juve7itus^ youth ; sdlus^ safety ; senectus^ old age ; servitus^ servitude; virtue. See 86. 3. udis: — (1) udis: wicws, anvil ; marsh ; suhscuSj dovetail. — (2) udis : pecds^ pecudis^ a head of cattle. 4. audis :—fraus^ fraudis^ fraud ; laus^ praise. See 65, 2, foot-note. 5. uis : — grus^ griiiSj crane ; sws, swine. 6. untis : — a few Greek names of places : Trapezus^ untls. 7. bdis : — Greek compounds in pus : tripus^ tripodis^ tripod. 8. eos : — Greek nouns in eus^ wLen of this declension. See 68. 85. Nouns in ys : ' Gen. in yiSj yos, ys : Stem in y : Othrjs, Othryos, Othry. IV. Nouns ending in preceded by a Consonant. 83. Nouns in bs : Genitive in bis : urbs, city^ urbis, 87. Nouns in ms : Genitive in mis hiems, winter^ hiemis, 88. Nouns in eps : Genitive in ipis : princeps, prince^ principis. Stem in bi : ^ urbi. Stem in m : hiem. Stem in gp, ip. princep, ip. 1. But auceps^ aucupis^ fowler. 2. Other nouns in ps retain the stem-vowel unchanged : merops^ mero- pis^ bee-eater. 8. Gryps^ grypMs^ griffin. 89. Nouns in Is : Genitive in Itis : Stem Iti : puls, hroth^ pultis, pulti. 90. Nouns in ns : Genitive in ntis : Stem in nti:^ mens, mind^ mentis, menti. Exceptions. — Genitive in dis ; — frous, frondis^ leaf ; glans^ acorn ; juglans^ walnut. See 65, 2. ^ These are of Greek orij^in; a few of them have ydis: chldmys^ chlamydis^ cloak. 3 Dissyllables have the stem in b. s Dissyllables have the stem in i. BYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSIO^^. S3 91. Nouns in ra : Genitive in rtis : Stem in rti ; ars, art. artis, arti. V. Nouns ending in x. 92. Nouns in ax : Genitive in Scis : Stem in ac : pax, ^5eace, pacis, pac. Exceptions. — Genitive in 1. acis \—fax, facts, torch ; and a few Greek nouns. 2. actis : — a few Greek names of men : Astyanax. 93. Nouns in eiL : Genitive in icis : Stem in ic, Sc : judex, Judje, judicis, judic, ec. Exceptions. — Genitive in 1. ecis: — (1) ecis : dlex, pickle; vervex, wether. — (2) eois: ncx, murder ; fentsex, mower. 2. aecis : — faex, faecis, lees. 3. egis : — (1) egis : lex, law ; rex, king, and their compounds. (2) egis : grex, flock ; aquilex, water-inspector. 4. ectilis : — supellex, supellectilis, furniture.' 5. igis : — remex, remigis, rower. See 28, 2, 1). 6. is : — senex, senis, old man. See 66, 1. 94. Nouns in ix : Genitive in icis : stem in ic : radix, root^ radicis, radio. Exceptions. — Genitive in 1. icis : — appendix, appendix ; calix, cup ; fornix, arch ; pix, pitch ; sdlix, willow, and a few others. 2. igis:-s^~, screech-owl; and a few Gallic names: Dumnorix, Orgetorix. 3. ivis : — nix, ravis, snow. See 66. 95. Nouns in OX : only vods., voice ; nox., 7ioctis^ night. . V • There are also a few national names in ox, Gen. in 6cis or 6gis : Cappadox, Cappadocis; Allohrox, Allohrogis. 96. Nouns in ux : Genitive in ucis : Stem in uc : dux, leader.^ ' dhcis, diic. Exceptions. — Genitive in 1. ucis: — lux, lucis, light; Pollux. 1 Stem, sv.pellec, siipellectil. 34 0ENDER IN THIRD DECLENSION. 2. aucis : — -faux (def.) faucis^ tliroat. 3. ugis: — (1) ugis: frux^ frugis^ fruit. — (2) ugis: conjux^ spouse. 97. Nouns in yx : from the Greek, variously declrfc Eryx^ Erycis^ Eryx ; bombyx^ bombycis^ silkworm ; Sb Stygis^ Styx ; coccyx^ coccygis^ cuckoo ; onyx^ ony^ onyx. 98. Nouns in x preceded by a consonant : t ^ Genitive in cis : Stem in cS^: arx, citadel^ arcis, arci. V _ Exceptions. — G enitive in gis : — A few Greek nouns : phalanx^ phalangis^ phalanx. c::5 GENDER IN THIRD DECLENSION. ^ I 99. Nouns of the Third Declension in o, or, os, er, and es increasing in the genitive^ f:: are masculine : sermo, discourse ; dolor, pain ; mbs, cus- ^ tom ; agger, mound ; pes, genitive pedis, foot. ^ 100. Exceptions in O. — Feminine^ viz, : - f 1. Nouns in o, Gen. inis^ excepDcarSo, ordo^ turbo, masc., cupido and ' margo, masc. or fern. Sv 2. Caro, flesh, and the Greek Argo, echo, an echo. V- Most abstract and collective nouns in io : ratio, reason ; condo, an assembly. 101. Exceptions in OR: ^ 1. Feminine: — arbor, tree. 2. Neuter : — ador, spelt ; aequor, sea ; cor, heart ; marmor, marble. 1 02. Exceptions in OS : 1. Feminine: — arbos, tree; cos, whetstone; dos, dowry; eos, dawn. 2. Neuter : — 6s, mouth ; 6s, bone ; and a few Greek words : chaos. 103. Exceptions in ER: 1. Feminine: — linter, boat (sometimes masc.). 2. Neuter : — (1) cadaver, corpse ; iter, way ; tuber, tumor ; uber, udder ; ver, spring ; verber, scourge, — (2) botanical names in er, Gen. eris : acer, maple-tree ; papaver, poppy. 1 That is, having more syllables in the genitive than in the nominative. GENDER IN THIRD DECLENSION. 35 104, Exceptions in ES: 1. Feminine: — compes^ fetter; merces^ reward; merges ^ sheaf; rest (with its compounds) ; seges^ crop ; teges^ mat ; sometimes ales^ bird, and gimdrujpes^ quadruped 2. Neuter: — aes^ copper. n. 105. Nouns of the Third Declension in \) as, is, ys, x, es not increasing in the genitive^ and ^pre^ ceded by a consonant^ are feminine : aetds^ age ; navis ^ ship ; chlamys^ cloak ; pax^ peace ; nuhes^ cloud ; urhs^ city. 106. Exceptions in AS: y : 1. Masculine : — «5, an as (a coin), vds^ surety, and Greek nouns in as, G. antis. 2. Neuter : — vds^ vessel, and Greek nouns in as, G. atis. ^ 107. Exceptions in IS and YS. — Masculine: 1. Nouns in alis, ollis, cis, mis, nis, guis, quis : natalis, birthday ; ignis, fire ; sanguis, blood. But a few of these are occasion- ^ ally feminine : cams, amnis, cmis, finis, anguis, torquis. 2. Axis, axle ; £>uris, plough-tail ; callis (Q, path ; ^ ensis, sword ; lapis, stone ; mensis, month ; orhis, circle ; postis, post ; pulvis, dust ; sentis, brier ; torris, brand ; vectis, lever, ^ and a few others. 3. Names of mountains in ys : Othrgs. V 108. Exceptions in X. — Masculine: 1. Greek masculines : corax, raven ; thorax, cuirass. 2. Nouns in ex and unx ; except the feminines : faex, forfex, lex, nex, [prex,) supellex. 3. Calix, cup ; fornix, arch ; phoenix, phoenix ; tradux, vine-layer, and a ^ew^ouns in yx. ,_4?'^8i^etimes : calx, heel ; calx, lime ; hjnx, a lynx. *^109. Exceptions in ES: /1. Alasculine: — dcinaces, cimeter; sometimes palumbes, dove; and vepres, thorn-bush. , 2. Neuter: — a few Greek nouns: cUcoethes, desire; hipp(^mdnes,h\])- ^ofoane. 10. Exceptions in S preceded by a Consonant. — Masculine: tooth ; fons, fountain ; mons, mountain ; pons, bridge ; gener- * Sometimes feminine. 2 For nouns in is masculine by signification, see 42, 1. 3 FOtTETH DECLFNSION’. 2. Some nouns in ns, originally adjectives or participles vrith a masa noun understood: oriens (sol), east;, confluens (amnis), con- fluence; (raster)^ trident qiuidrans quarter. ^ 3. ChdhjbSy steel; hydrops^ dropsy, and a few other Greek words. 4. Sometimes : forceps^ forceps ; serpens^ serpent ; stirps^ stock. Ar^ p-. , mans, animaL is masc., fern,, or neuter. ^ ' i Nouns of the Third Declension in a, e, i, y, c, 1, n, t, ar, ur, and us, are neuter : poema^ poem ; mare^ sea ; laCy milk ; dmmdly ^ . animal ; carmlriy song ; cdpiXt^ head ^ corpiiSy body. > • ' A 112. Exceptions in I* and AR: — Masculine: Mugil^ mullet ; sal^^ salt ; sol^ sun ; lavy hearth ; sdldr^ trout, 113. Exceptions in N t 1. Alascudine : — pecten^ comb ; rm^ kidney ; spleen ; and Greek \ mascuhnes in an, en, in, on : paean^ paean ; cdnon^ rule. \J 2. Feminine : — aedon^ nightingale ; alcyon (halcyon),, kingfisher ; icon^ image ; sindon^ muslin. 114. Exceptions in XJR. — Mascidine : Furfur^ bran ; turtur^ turtle-dove ; vultur ^ vulture. ^ 115. Exceptions in USi 1. Masculine : — lepus^ hare, mus^ mouse ; and Greek nouns in pus» 2. Feminine : — -tellus^ earth ; fraus, fraud ; laus^^ praise ; and nouns i® "^^us," Gen. utis or u^ : virtue; FOURTH DECLENSION: U NOUNS. 116. Nouns of the fourth declension end in^^ 4/^11 uB^mctsculine ; ti, — muter. They are declined as folio wsj /\ Fructus, fruit. Cornu, , horn. SINGULAR. Case-Endings. N. fructiis cornH. US U Q, fructfis cornia» US ' us J). fruct-Bii cornllL ul u A. fructiiiML corn-M. um u V. fruct&s corntt lis u A. fructw cornw u u / / FOURTH DECLEN^SIOi^’. 37 ',iV. fructfts , G. fructiiiim D. fructil>&s A. fructU-S V. fructiis fructil>&s. PLURAL. cornii.lt corniiiiiii corniliiks cornua cornua corni'toiis. us uiim ibus (ubiis) us us ua uum ibus (ubus) ua ua ibus (ubiis). ibiis (ubiis). ■ ^ 1. Stem. — In nouns of the Fourth Declension the stem ends in u: ^ fructu^ cornu. 2. Case-Endings. — The case-endings here given contain the stem-end- ing u, weakened to % in xhus.^ but retained in uhu8. See 30. 117. Irregular Case-Endings. — The following occur : 1. Ubus for used regularly in the Dat. and Abl. Plur. of Acus^ needle; arcus^ bow; artus, joiiit i lacus, lake; partus, birth; p^cu, cattle; quercus, oak; specus, den; trihus, ivihe \ veru, spit: occa- f sionally in a few other words, as portus, sinus, and tonWus. $ 2. Uis, the uncontracted form for us, in the Gen. : fructuis for fructus. I 3. U for ^i, in the Dat. by contraction : equitatu for equitatui, cavalry. > 118. Exceptions in Gender. . ' ~nilllli 'ill ig -1— iHI*^ Feminine: — (1) acus, needle; colus, distaff; domus, house; manus, ' hand ; porticus, portico ; trihus, tribe, — (2) t^i^ides ; Quin- quatrus, feast of Minerva ; generallyi'jo^^s, st|^, when of this deck ; rarely specus, de9i^(3) se^2, II. \,^ 2. Neuter : — secus (sexus\ sex ; rarely,^^^^*ws, ^n. 119. Second and Fourth DECLENpoi^^Some nouns are partly of the fourth declension and pa^^Vof the' Wond. 1. Domus, F., house, has aJ&^ocm^Qj(bi*m domi, at home, and is other- J\yis e^ declined as follows } -J ■ m ■M SINGULAR. N. domiis G. domus D. domui (domo) A. domum V. domus A. domo (domu) PLURAL. domus domuum, domo rum domibus domos, domus domus domibus. j 2. Certain names of trees in us, as cupressus, ficus, laurus, pinus, though generally of Deck II., sometimes take those cases of the fourth r which end in us and u : N. laurus, G. laurus, D. lauro, A. laurum, V . : laurus., A. lauru., &c. So also colus, distaff. 38 FIFTH DECLENSION. 3. A few nouns, especially senatus and tumultus^ though regularly of Decl. IV., sometimes take the genitive ending i of the second: senati^ iumulti. FIFTH DECLEHSIOH: B HOUHS. c\r\p 120. Nouns of the fifth declension end^in mne^ and are declined as follows : mi- Dies, day. ^ JJ Res, thing, SINGULAR. Case-Endings. AplK dies res es G. diei rel el D. di^i rM ei A. di^Mi r^iM em V. dies res es A. die re PLURAL. e K. dies res es G. dierikiii reriaiM eriim D. diel>iis r^ljils ebils A. dies res es V. dies res es A. diel^iis. rel^iis. ebiis. L. Stem. — The stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in re. ' 2. Case-Endings.-— The case-endings here given contain the stem- ending e, which appears in all the cases. It is shortened (1) in the ending ) cl, when preceded by a consonant, and (2) in the ending em. 3. Irregular Endings: — e or I for ei in the Gen. and Dat. : acie for aciei ; pernicii for perniciei. X 4- Defective.— Nouns of this declension, except dies and res, want the Gen., Dat., and Abl. Plur., and many admit no plural whatever. K 121. Exceptions in Gender.— Masculine : Dies, day, and mid-day, though dies is sometimes feminine in the singular. 1 22. The Five Declensions, which are only varieties of one general system of inflection, have been produced hy the union of i the different final letters of the stem with the following : r..< Mmc. and Fern, Nom. s — Gen. is, Dat. I Acc. m, em^ Voc. s — Ahl. d, ed ^ Nom. es, \Gen. um, rum^ jM. bus, ibus, Is^ Acc. ms, ems^ es, 1 Abl. bus, ibus, Is'^. 123 stems so um, rum bus, ibus. Is a a bus, ibus. Is. The manner in which these ehdings unite with the different as to produce the five declensions may be seen in the following COMfAEATIYE YiEW OF DECLENSIONS. I. 1 II. 1 III. 1 lY. 1 1 Mensa. 1 Servo. 1 Eeg. I SINGULAR. Fructu. 1 Ke. j mensa- servo-s reg-s fructn-s re-s ( mensa servus rex fructus res ( mensa-i servo-i reg-is fructn-is re-i ( mensae servi regis fructus rel ( mensa-i servo-i reg-i fructu-i re-i \ mensae servo regl fructui rel ( mensa-m servo-m reg-em fruciu-m re-m (mensam servum reg-em fructum rem ( mensa- servo- reg-s fructu-s re-s \ mens 3, serve ® rex fructus res ( mensa-d servo-d reg-ed fructu-d re-d 1 mensa servo rege fructu re ^ 1 The endings I and rwn are used with stems in a^ o, and e / is and um with other stems. ; 2 The endings m and ms are used with vowel stems, em and ems (with connecting ‘ vowel e) with consonant stems. The plural endings ms and ems are formed by . adding s to the singular. is then dropped, and the preceding vowel is lengthened in ; compensation; hence as, os, es, etc. See 27. 3 The ending d was originally used with vowel stems, and ed (with connecting vowel e) with consonant stems. D was afterwards dropped, and the preceding vowel, if short, was lengthened, except e in Dec. III., which was only a connecting vowel. ^ The endings I and is are used with stems in a and o ,* es with other stems; bus ■ with stems in u and e; \hus (with connecting vowel i) with consonant stems. ® Nouns in us of Dec. II. change the stem- vowel o into e. 40 GENEEAL TABLE OF GEOTEK, iV. ’■) M '■i G. D. A. V. I mensa-t I mensae mensa-rum mensarum mensa-is mensis mensa-ms mensas mensa-i mensae mensa-is mensis. servo-i reg-es fructu-es re-et servi reges fructus res servo-rum reg-um fructu-um re-rum servorum regum fructuiim rerilm servo-is reg-ibus fructu-bus re-bus servTs regibiis fructibus rebus servo-ms reg-ems fructu-ms re-ms servos reges fructus res servo-i reg-es fructu-es re-es servi reges fructus res servo-is reg-ibus fructu-bus re-bus servis. regibiis. fructibus. rebiis. 124 . Geneeal Table of Gendee. \ I. Gender independent of ending.^ djclensions. Common to all Masculine. Names of Males, of Eivers, Winds, and Months. Feminine. Names of Females, of Countries, Towns, Islands, and Trees. Neuter. Indeclinable Nouns, and Words and Clauses used as In- declinable JSfouns. II. Gender determined by Nominative Ending.’* Masculine. I aSj es. 1 er, ir, uS; os. ! or, os, er, es in- creasing in the geni- tive. Declension I. Feminine. a, e. Declension II. I Neuter. um, on. Declension III. as, is, ys, s, es not increasing in the gen- itive.^ s preceded by a consonant. Declension TV. Declension Y. es. a, e, i, y, c, 1, n, t, ar, ur, us. u. ' For exceptions, see 43. 2 For exceptions, see under the several declensions. COMPOUND NOUNS. COMPOUND NOUNS. 125» Compounds present in general no peculiarities of declen- ^ Sion. But i 1, If two nominatives unite, they are both declined : r£spubtica = : • publica^ republic, the public thing ; jusjurandum = jus jurandum^ oath. ^ 2. If a nominative unites with an oblique case, only the nominative is ? declined : paterfamilias — paler Jamilias (49, 1), or pater familiae^ the father of a family. \ 126. Paradigms. N. respublica G. relpublicae D. relpublicae A, rempublicam V. respublica A, republics SINGULAR. jusjurandum jurisjurandi jurijurando jusjurandum jusjurandum jurejurando paterfamilias patrisfamilias patrlfamilias patremfamilias paterfamilias \ patrefamilias PLURAL, IT. respublicae >G. rerumpublicarum D. rebuspublicis A, respublicas V. respublicae A. rebuspublicis. jurajuranda jurajuranda jurajuranda patresfamilias patrumfamilias patribusfamilias patresfamilias patresfamilias patribusfamilias. ") 1. The parts which compose these and similar words are often and perhaps more correctly written separately : res publica ; pater familias or > familiae. 2. Paterfamilias sometimes has familiarum \v^ the plural: patresfami- ' Uarum. lEREGULAE NOUNS, 127. Irregular nouns may be divided into four classes: I. Indeclinable Nouns have but one form for all cases. IT. Defective Nouns want certain parts. III. Heteeoclites {heteroclita are partly of one declension and partly of another. lY. Heterogeneous Nouns {hUerbgenea'^) are partly of one gender and partly of another. 1 From erepo?, another^ and xAto-t?, infleetion.., i. e., of different declensions, ^ From eVe^o?j another^ and yivos, gender^ i. e., of different gcndera. 42 IKREGl>LAR NOUNS^. I. Indeclinable Kouns. 1 28. The Latin lias but few indeclinable nouns : 1. right; wrong; equality; mane, morning; nilixl^ nothing ; pondo^ pound ; secus^ sex, 2. The letters of the alphabet, a, 6,, e, dpM^ hltd^ etc. S. Foreign words : Jdc6b^ lliharl ; though these are often declined. II. Defective ITounSw 129. ISTouns may be defective in Number^ in Ca^e^ or in both Number and Case, ISO. Pleeae wanting, — Many nouns from the nature of their signification want the plural : Edma^ Rome ; justUia^ justice ; auTum^ gold. 1. The principal nouns of this class are : 1) Most names of persons and places : Cicero^ Boma. 2) Abstract Nouns : fides^ faith ; justiiia^ justice. 3) Names of materials : aurum,, gold ; feiTum,, iron. 4) A few others: meridies,, midday; specimen,, example; supellex, furni- ture ; ver, spring ; vespera, evening, etc. 2. Proper names admit the plural to designate families, classes ; names of materials, to designate pieces of the material or articles made of it ; and abstract nouns, to designate instances, or hinds, of the quality ; Scipiones,^ the Scipios ; aera, vessels of copper ; avaritiae, instances of avarice ; bdia, hatreds. In the poets, the plural of abstracts occurs in the sense of the singular. 131. SiNGTTLAR WANTING. — ^Maiiy nouns want the singular. 1 . The most important of these are : 1) Certain personal appellatives applicable to classes: majores, fore- fathers ; posteri, descendants ; gemini, twins ; liberi, children. 2) Many names of cities: Athenae, Athens; Th'ebae, Thebes; Delphi, Delphi. 3) Many names of festivals : Bacchanalia, Olympia, Saturnalia, 4) Arma, arms ; divitiae, richer ; exsequiae, funeral rites ; exuviae, spoils; Idus, ides; indutiae, truce; insidiae, ambuscade; manes, shades of the dead ; minae, threats ; moenia, walls ; munia, duties ; nuptiae, nuptials ; reliquiae, remains. 2. An individual member of a class designated by these plurals may be denoted by unus ex with the plural : unus ex liberis, one of the children, or a child. 8. The plural in names of cities may have reference to the several parts of the city, especially as ancient cities w'ere often made up of separate DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 43 villages. So in tlie names of festivals, the plural may refer to the various games and exercises which together constituted the festival. 132. Pltjeal with Change of Meaning. — Some nouns have one signification in the singular and another in the plural. Thus : SINGULAR. Aedes, temple ; Auxilium, help / Career, prison^ harrier ; Castrum, castle^ hut / Comitium, name of a part of the Roman forum ; Copia, plenty, force ; Facultas, ability ; Finis, end ; Fortuna, fortune ; Gratia, gratitude^ favor ; Ilortus, garden ; Impedimentum, hindrance ; Littera, letter of alphabet ; Ludus, sport ; Mos, custom ; Natalis (dies), birth-day ; Opera, work, service ; Pars, part ; Eostrum, beak of ship / Sal, salt ; PLURAL. aedes, (1) temples, (2) a house.^ auxilia, auxiliaries, carceres, barriers of a race-course. castra, camp. comitia, the assembly held in the co- mitium. copiae, (1) stores, (2) troops. facultates, wealth, means. fines, borders, territory. fortunae, possessions, wealth. gratiae, thanks. horti, (1) gardens, {f) pleasure-grounds. impedimenta, (1) hindrances, (2) bag- gage. litterae, (1) letters of alphabet, (2) epis- tle, writing, letters, literature. ludi, iX) plays, (f), public spectacle. mores, manners, character. natales, pedigree, parentage. operae, workmen. partes, (l)^ar255, (2) a party. rostra, (1) beaks, (2) the rostra or tribune in Rome (adorned with beaks). sales, witty sayings. 133 . Defective in Case. — Some nouns are defective in case. Thus : 1. In the Norn., Dat., and Yoc. Sing. : (Ops), opis, help ; (vix or vicis), vicis, change. 2. In the Nom. and Yoc. Sing. : (Daps), dapis,/oo(/; (ditio), ditionis, sway ; (frux), frugis, fruit ; (internecio), internecionis, destruction ; (pol- iis), pollinis, flour. 3. In the Gen., Dat. and Abl. Plur. : most nouns of the fifth declen- sion. See 120, 4. So also many neuters : far, fel, mel, pus, rus, tus ; especially Greek neuters in os, which want these cases in the singular also : ^pos, melos. 1 Aedes and some other words in this list, it will be observed, have in the plural two significations, one corresponding to that of the singular, and the other distinct from it. 44 HETEROCLITES. 4. In the Gen. Plur. : many nouns otherwise entire, especially mono- syllables : nex^ pax^ pix ; cor^ cos^ ros ; sdl^ sol^ lux. 134. Number and Case. — Some nouns want one entire num- ber and certain cases of the other : chance, has only fors and forte; lues., pestilence, has lues., luem., lue. Many verbal nouns in u have only the ablative singular : fmu., by order ; man- datu., by command ; rogatu., by request. Ill, Hetesoclites. 135. Of Declensions II. and IV. are a few nouns in us. See 119. 130. Of Declensions II. and III. are 1. Jugerum., an acre ; generally of the second Dccl. in the Sing., and of the third in the Plur. : jugh^um., jugeri ; plural, jugerum., jug erihus. 2. FdSj a vessel; of the third Decl., in the Sing, and of the second in the Plur. : ras, vdsis ; plural, vdsa., vasorum. 3. Plural names of festivals in alia : Bacclidndlia, Sdturndlia ; which are regularly of the third Decl., but sometimes form the Gen. Plur. in drum of the second. Anclle., a shield, and a few other words have the same peculiarity. 137. Of Declensions III. and Y. are 1. Bequies^ rest; v/hich is regularly of the third Decl., but also takes the forms requiem and requie of the fifth. 2. Fdmes^ hunger; regularly of the third Deck, except in the ablative, fame., of the fifth (not famie., of the third). 1 38. Forms in ia and ies. — Many words of four syllables have one form in ia of Decl. I., and one in ies of Decl. Y. : luxuria, luxuries, lux- ury; materia, materies, material. v/ 139. Forms in us and um. — Many nouns derived from verbs have one form in us of Decl. lY., and one in um of Decl. II. : conatus, conatum, an attempt ; eventus, eventum, event. s/ 1 40. Many words which have but one approved form in prose, admit another in poetry : juventus (utis), youth ; poetic, juventa (ae) : senectus (utis), old age; poetic, senecta (ae): paupertas (atis), poverty; poetic, pauperies (ei). lY. Heterogeneous Nouns. 141. Masculine and Neuter. — Some take in the plural an additional form of the neuter gender : e/oc-ws, m., jest; plural m.,/om, n. Locus, m., place ; “ loci, m., topics, loca, n., places. ABJECTITES. 45 142. Feminij^e and ISTeutee. — '^omQ feminines take in tlie plural an additional form of the neuter gender; €arhdsus, t, linen; plural carhasi, f., carbasa, n, Margarita, f., pearl; ‘‘ margaritae, h, margarita, m Ostrea, f., oyster; “ ostreae, f., ostrm, n. 143. ISTeutee and Masculine oe Feminine, — Some neuters take in the plural a different gender. Thus; 1-. Some neuters become masculine in the plural; Oaelam, n., heaven ; plural caeli, m. 2. Some neuters generally become masculine in the plural, but some- times remain neuter ^ Frenum, n., bridle ; plural frenl, m., frena, n, Bastrum, n., rake ; “ rastri, m., rastra, n. 3. Some neuters become feminine in the plural : Ej^ulum, n., feast ; plural ejgulae, f. 144. Forms in us and um. — Some nouns of the second declension have one form in us masculine, and one in um neuter : clipeus, clipeum, shield ; commentarius, commentarium, commentary. J45^ Heterogeneous Heteroclites. — Some heteroclites are also heterogeneous ; conatus (us), conatum (i), effort ; menda (ae), mendum (i)., fault. CHAPTER II. ADJECTIVES. ‘'""I 1 43. The adjective is that part of speech which is used to qualify nouns : bonus, good : magnus, great. \ The form of the adjective in Latin depends in part upon the gender of 1 the noun which it qualifies : bonus puer, a good boy ; bona puella, a good X girl ; bonum tectum, a good bouse. Thus bonus is the form of the adjective when used with masculine nouns, bona with feminine, and bonum with neuter. 147. Some adjectives are partly of the first declension and partly of the second, while all the rest are entirely of the third declension. 46 ADJECTIVES, First and Second Declensions : A and O Stems, 148. Bonus, good. SINGULAR. Masc. Fem. Nuur, iVbm. bontts bonli bonum Gen. boni bonae boni Dat. bono bonae bono Acc. boniim bonaiM. boniim Voc. bon^ bon^ bonitm Ahl. bono bona bono; FLURAL. iVbm. bonS • bonae bonsi Gen. bonoriim bonarum bonoriim Dat. bonis bonis borils Acc. bonos bonas bonli Voc. bonl bonae bona Ahl. bonis bonis bonis. 1. Boots is declined in tlie Masc. like servus of Deck II, (51), in the Bern, like mensa of Deck I. (48), and in the Neut. like templum of Deck IL (51). The stems-are hono in the Masc, and Neut,, and hbna in the Fern, 149. Liber, /*^66, SINGULAR. Masc. Fem. Neut. I^om. Uber liberi Ilberilm *- Gen. liberi liberae liberi Dat. libero liberae libero Acc. liberum liberam liberiim ' 0 Voc. liber libera liberiim Ahl. libero libera libero ; V' PLURAL. I^om. liberi liberae libera Gen. liberorum liberarum liberorttm Dat. liberis liberis liberis Acc. liberos liberas libera Voc. liberi libSrae libera Ahl. liberis liberis liberis. ADJECTIVES. 47 1. Liber is declined in the Masc. like puer (51), and in the Fern, and \ Kent, like lonus. •v 150. Aeger, sick. SINGULAR, Neut. Masc. Fem. aegra aegrae aegrae aegraia aegriim Nom, aeger Gen, aegri Bat, aegro aegri aegro aegraisi aegraiM. aegro ; Acc, aegriim - aegr^ Vbc, aeger y4 n eo-rtfft aeg«ra aegris aegra aegra aegris. Acc, aegros Voc. aegri , Adi. aegris aegrae aegris 1. Aeger is ^declined in the Masc. like ag'cr (51) and in the Fcm. and Kent, like bonus, 2. Most adjectives in er are declined like aeger., but the following in er and ur are declined like liber : ") Asper., rough; lacer., tom; miser., wretched; prosper^ prosperous; r, tender ; but asper sometimes drops the and dexter., right, sometimes ins it : dexter., dextera or dextra. '2) Satur^ sated ; satur, satura., saturum. / 3) Compounds in fer and ger : mortifer., deadly ; dliger., w'inged. 151, Irregdlaeities. — T hese nine adjectives have in the singular lus in the genitive and i in the dative : Alius., a, ud., another ; nullus., «, wm, no one ; solus., alone ; totus ^ whole; ullus., any; unus., one; alter., 4erd, 4erum., the other; uier, 4ra., 4rum., which (of two) ; neuter., 4ra, 4rum., neither.^ 1. The Regular Forms occasionally occur in some of these adjectives. 2. I in ius is sometimes short ; generally so in alterius, 3. Alius contracts the genitive aliius into dllus, 4. Like iiter are declined its compounds : uterque^ uterms^ uterlibet., uter- cunque, In alteruter sometimes both parts are declined, as alterius utrlus ^ and sometimes only the latter, as alterutrius. 1 For the Declension in full see unus, 1T5. 48 Third Deglensiois^ : Consonant and I Stems. 152. Adjectives of the third declension may be divided into three classes : I. Those which have in the nominative singular three different forms — one for each gender. II. Those which have two forms — the masculine and feminine being the same. III. Those which have but one form— the same for all genders. 153. Adjectives oe Three Endings in this declen- sion have the stem in ij and are declined as follows : Acer, sharp, SINGULAR. Masc. Fem. Neut. acer iicris acre G. acris acris acris D. acrl acrl acri A, acr^m acreiBi acr^ V. acer acris acr^ A. acri acrl acri ; PLURAL. N. acres acres acria G. acrliim acriiim acriiim jD. acril^iis acritoiis acribiks A. acres, is acres. Is acria V. acres acres acri^ A. acril>ia.s acri^biis acribiis. 1. Like Acer are declined : 1) Alacer ^ liY Q\y \ campester^ level; celeher^ famous; celer ^ swift; eques- ter^ equestrian ; paluster^ marshy ; pedester^ pedestrian ; puter ^ putrid ; her^ healthful ; silvester^ woody ; terrester^ terrestrial ; roVdcer^ winged. Adjectives in er designating the months 2. The Masculine in is^ like the Fern., also occurs: salubris^ silvestris, for saluber, silvester. 1 This retains e in declension: celer, celeris, celere; and has um m the Gen. Plur. 2 See also 77, II. 2. ADJECTIVES. 49 S These fonns in er are analogous to those in er of Dec. II. in dropping the ending in the Norn, and Voc. Sing, and in inserting € before r .* acer for acris, stem, dcri, ^ 4. Aces is declined like ignis in the Masc. and Fern., and like mare (63) in the Neut., except in the Norn, and Voc. Sing., Masc. where it ends in er, and in the Abl. Sing, where it ends in i. A.154. Adjectiyi^s JiQF 'Two Endings are declined as ; C\ Vv§ 0 ^ ' Tristior, more sad. % 1 Tristis, sad. NEUT. feliN vj U Li Axv* M. aiid F. NEUT. V.Ariltis tristi ' A", tristior tristius G. tri|tis tristiS ^ G. tristioris tristioris \ ^ triJbi tristl JD. tristiori tristiori triste- A, tristiorem tristius , ^ 1^. tristis tristi V . tristior tristius \ A. tristX ^ tristl A. tristiore (I) tristiore (i) ; V plural. N '. tristes tristiii) A^. tristiores tristiori; G. tristiwLHi tristiu-Hi G. tristiorikm tristioram D. tristitoiis tristil>iis D . tristiori'toiis tristiorll>iis tristes. Is (F. tristes tristia A. tristiores tristiora tristi^ V . tristiores tristiora A. tristil>ia.s tristil>8is. A, tristioril>iis tristiorll>ti.s. Z ' 1. Tristis and Triste are declined like dcris and dcre, 2. Tristior is the comparative (160) of tristis. 3. Stems.— The stem of tristis is tristi; that of was originally tristids, but it has been modified toj^istius (61, 1) in the Nom., Acc., and Voc. Sing. Neut., and to tristior in the other cases (35). 4. Like tristior, comparatives, as consonant stems, generally have the Abl. Sing, in e, sometimes in i, the Nom. Plur. Neut. in a, and the Gen. Plur. in um. But 5. Complures, several, has Gen. Plur. complurium ; Nom., Acc., and Voc. Plur. Neut. complura or compluria. See Plus, 165, 1. 6. Ablative in e . — In poetry, adjectives in is, e, sometimes have the Abl. Sing, in 6 .* cognomine from cognominis, of the same name. 155. Adjectives of One Ending generally end ins or sometimes in I or r, and are declined in the main like nouns of the same endings. 60 ADJECTIVES. Y 156. Audax, audacious, Felix, happy. SINGULAR. M. and F. NEUT. M. and F. NEUT. N. audax audax iV. felix felix G. audacis audacis G, felTcis felicis D. audaci audaci D. fellci fellci A. audacem audax A. fellc^na felix V. audax audax V. felix felix A. audaci (^) audaci (^) ; A. fellci (e) fellci {^) ; PLURAL. N. audaces audaciH JSF. fellers felicia G. audaciiAin. audaciiiiii G. feliciiiiia feliciiiin. D. audaci'biis audacil>iks D. felicil>iis felicifetis A. audaces (is) 1 andacia A. felTces (is) felicia V. audaces audacia V. felices felici^ A. audacil>ws audacil>iis. A. felicii>iis felicil>iis. 1. Stems. — Most Adjectives of One Ending are combinations of i-stems and consonant stems — the former appearing in the Abl. Sing, and in the Plural. The stems of audax and felix are audaci^ audac^ and felici^ fellc, 157. loving, prudent SINGULAR. M. and F. NEUT. M. and F. NEUT. iV. amans amans dd. prudens prudens G. amantis amantis G. prudentis prudentis 2). amanti amanti J). prudenti prudenti A. amantem amans A. prudentem prudens V. amans amans V. prudens prudens A. amante (i) amanti (I) ; A. prudenti (^) PLURAL. prudenti (^) ; iV. amantes amanti^ iV. prudentes prudenti^ G. amantiiim amantiiim G. prudentiiim prudentiiim D. amantil>iis amantiljiis JD. prudentil>iis prudentil>iis A. amantes (is) amantia A. prudentes (is) prudentia V. amantes amanti^ V. prudentes prudentia A. amantil>MS amantil>iis. A. prudentil>iis prudentitotis. 1. The stems are amanti^ amant ; prudenti^ prudent. The participle amans differs in declension from the adjective pru- dens only in the Abl. Sing., where the participle usually has the ending and the adjective, i. Participles used adjectively may of course take i. A few adjectives have only e in general use : — {\) pauper^ paup^re^ poor; ADJECTIVES. 51 pUhes^ puUre^ mature (2) those in es, G. itis or idis : ales^ descs, dives, sospes, superstes ; — (3) caelebs, compos, impos, princeps. Memor, mindful. ^ 158. Vetus, old. SINGULAR. M. and F. memor M. and F. NEUT. iV. vetus vetus NEUT. memor memoris G. veteris veteris memoris memori memori memor memor D. veteri veteri A. veter^sn vetus K vetus vetus memorem memor memori memori ; A. veteri (i) veteri (i) ; PLURAL. memores memoriim iV veteres veteri G. veterwm veteriim D. veteril>iis veteritoiis memoril>iis memores memores A. veteres vetera F. veteres vetera memoril>iis. A. veteril>as veteril>iis. ^ 1. Neuter Plural. — Many adjectives like memor, from the nature of their signification, want the Neut. Plur. : uher, fertile, has uhera, like vetus, vetera ; all others have the ending ia, as felicia, prudentia. Genitive Plural. — Most adjectives have ium, but the following have um. ectives of one ending with only e in the ablative singular (157, 2) : pauper, pauperum. 2) Those with the genitive in eris, oris, uris : vUus, veterum, old ; memor, membrum, mindful ; cicur, cicurum, tame. 3) Those in ceps : anceps, ancipitum, doubtful. 4) Those compounded with substantives which have um ; inops (ops, opum), inbpum, helpless. IREEGULAB ADJECTIVES. 159. Irregular adjectives may be I. Indeclinable : frugi, frugal, good ; nequam, worthless ; millb, thousand. See 176. II. Defective : (ceterus) cetera, ceterum, the other, the rest ; (ludicer) ludicra, ludicrum, sportive; (sons) sontis, guilty; (seminex) seminecis, half dead ; pauci, ae, a, used only in the Plur. See also 168, 1. III. Heteroclites. — Many adjectives have two distinct forms, one in us, a, um, of the first and second declensions, and one in is and e of the third: hilbrus and hilaris, joyful; exanimus and exanimis, lifeless. 52 C5i ADJECTIVES. COMPARISOiT OF ADJECTIVES. <^160. Adjectives have three forms, called the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative degree : altus^ altibr^ altissim'bcSj high? higher, highest. These forms denote different degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective. 161. The Latin, like the English, has two modes of comparison : ‘ I. TEEMiNATio^iTAL COMPARISON — by endings. II. Adverbial Comparison — -by adverbs. I. Terminational Comparison. 162. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding to the stem of the positive the endings : Comparative, Superlative. M. r. N. I M. F. N. ior, ior, ins. lissimus, issima, issimump Altus, altior, altisi^imus : high^ higher^ highest. levis, levior, leviss5^mus : lights lighter^ lightest. 1. V owEL Stems lose their final vowel : alto^ altior^ altissimus, 1 63. Irregular Superlatives. — Many adjectives with regular comparatives have irregular superlatives. Thus : 1. Adjectives in er add rimus to the positive : ' acer^ cicrior^ acerrimus.^ sharp. V^tus has veterrimus ; matarus^ both maturrimus and maturissimus / dexter^ dextimus. %. Six in ilis add limus to the stem Facilis, difficilis; easy.^ difficult, similis, dissimilis ; like^ unlike. gracilis, humilis; slender low : f acilis^ facilior., facillimus. Imbecillis has imhecillimus. 1 The superlative ending* ts-simus is probably compounded of ts forios, the original comparative ending (154, 8), and simus for fimus; ios-firnus—ios-slmxis—is-^mus. After I and r, the first element is omitted, and s assimilated: fdeilis, faeU-simus^ faeiUunus; Cicer^ acer-simus^ acer-rwius. kT 53 ECTIVES. 3. Four in rus have two irregular superlatives Exterus, exterior, extremus and extimus, outward, inferus, inferior, infimus and Imus, lower. superus, superior, supremus and summus, upper. posterus, posterior, postremus a/ic? posttous, next. 1 64. Compounds in dicus, ficus, and vblus are compared with the endings entior and entissimus, as if from forms in em : , Maledicus, maledicentior, maledicentissimus, slanderous. munificus, munificentior, munificentissimus, liberal. benevolus, benevolentior, benevolentissimus, benevolent. 1. Egenus 2indLprdmdus (needy and prudent), form the comparative and superlative from egens oxidi providens ! hence egentior.^ eg entissimus^ etc. 2. Mirifkissimus occurs as the superlative of mirificus.^ wonderful. 165. Special Irregularities of Comparison. f 1. Plus IS neuter, and has in the singular only N. and A. plus, and G. pluris. In the plural it has N. and A. plures (m. and f.), plicrd (n.), G. plurium, D. and A. pluribus. Bonus, melior, optimus, good. malus, pejor. pessimus. bad. magnus, major, maximus, great. parvus, minor. minimus. small. multus, plus, plurimus. much. j divitior, divitissimus, ) ( ditior, ditissimus, ) frugalior, frugalissimus, frugal. nequior, nequissimus, worthless. citimus, nearer. deterrimus, xoorse, intimus, inner. bcissimus, swifter. prior, primus, propior, proximus, ulterior, ultimus. former. nearer. farther."^ X ■r 2. Dives, frugi, nequam, 166. Positive wanting. Citerior, deterior, interior, ocior, 167. Comparative wanting. • ■ 1. In a few participles used adjectively: mh'itus, meritissimus, de- serving. 2. In these adjectives : 1 These adjectives are formed from cltrd, de, inird, Greek prae or pro, prope, ultra. 54 ADJECTIVES. noVus, sacer, veljus, novissimus, sacerrimus, veterrimus. new, sacred, old. Diversus, diversissimus, different, falsus, falsissimus. false, inclutus, inclutissimus, renowned, invitus, invitissimus, unwilling. 168. Superlative wanting. 1. In most verbals in ills and bilis : docilis^ docilior^ docile. 2. In many adjectives in ^is and ilis : capitalis, capitalior, capital. 3. Y^dldcer, alacrior, caecws, blind ; diuturnus,\di^iin^', longin- quus, distant ; oplmus, rich ; proclivis, steep ; propinquus, near ; sdlutaris, salutary, and a few others. 4. Three adjectives supply the superlative thus: Adolescens, adolescentior, minimus natu,' young. juvenis, junior, minimus natu, young. senex, senior, maximus natu, old. 169. Without Terminational Comparison. 1. Many adjectives, from the nature of their signification, especially such as denote material, possession, or the relations of place and time : aureus, golden ; paternus, paternal ; Rbmdnus, Eoman ; aestivus, of summer. 2. Most adjectives in us preceded hy a vowel, except those in quus: idoneus, suitable ; noxius, hurtful. 3. Many derivatives in dlis, dris, Ilis, ulus, icus, Inus, orus : mortdlis (mors), mortal. 4. Albus, white ; claudus, lame ; ferus, wild ; lassus, weary ; mlrus, won- derful, and a few others. II. Adverbial Comparison. 170. Adjectives whicli want tlie terminational comparison, form the comparative and superlative, when their signification re- quires it, by prefixing the adverbs mdgis, more, and maxlme, most, to the positive : arduus, magis arduus, maxime arduus, arduous, 1. Other adverbs are sometimes used with the positive to denote differ- ent degrees of the quality : admodum, valde, oppido, very ; imprimis, ap^ prime, in the highest degree ; valde magna, very great. Per and prae in composition with adjectives have the force of very g perdifficilis, very diffi- cult ; praecldrus, very illustrious. 2. Strengthening Particles are also sometimes used, — (1) With the com- parative : etiam, even, multb, longe, much, far : etiam dlligentior, even more diligent ; multo diligentior, much more diligent, — (2) With the superlative : multd, longe, much, by far; qudm, as possible: multo or longe diligentissi^ mus, by far the most diligent ; quam diligentissimus, as diligent as possible. 1 Smallest or youngest in age. Ratu is sometimes omitted. 55 TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. Numerals. 171. Numerals comprise numeral adjectives and nu- meral adverbs. 172. Numeral adjectives comprise three principal clclSSGS I 1. Cardinal Numbers : unus^ one ; two. 2. Ordinal Numbers : primus^ first ; secundus^ second. 3. Distributives : singtd\ one by one ; l}%n\ two by two, two each, two apiece. 1 73. To these may be added : 1. Multiplicatives.— T hese are adjectives in plex, G. pUcis, denoting so many fold : simplex^ single ; duplex^ double ; triplex^ threefold. 2. Proportionals. — These are declined like honus^ and denote so many times as great : duplus^ twice as great ; triplus^ three times as gi eat, 174. Table of Numeral Adjectives. Distributives. singuli, one hy one, bini, two by two, terni (trini), quaterni, quini, seni, septeni, octoni, noveni, deni, undeni, duodeni, terni deni, quaterni dSni. quini deni, seni deni. septeni deni. 1 Sometimes with the parts separated : decern et ires; decern et sex^ etc. 2 PrioT is used instead of primus in speaking of two, and alter is often used foif secundus. ^ Sometimes decimus precedes with or without et .* decimus et tertius or decimus tertius. \^Cardinals. d. unus, una, unum, /2. duo, duae, duo, ' 3. tres, tria, ^ / 4. quattuor, 5. quinque, AV 6. sex, H / 7. septem, ‘ 8. octo, 9. novem, 10. decem, 11. undecim, 12. duodecim, 13. tredecim,^ 14. quattuordecim, 15. quindecim, 16. sedecim or sexde- cim,^ 17. septendecim,' Ordinals. prlmus,2^r5^, secundus,^ second., tertius, third., quartus, fourth^ quintus, fifth, sextus, septimus, octavus, nonus, decimus, undecimus, duodecimus, tertius decimus/ quartus decimus, quintus decimus, sextus decimus, I septimus decimus. l ' ^ 56 TABLE OF NUMEBAL ADJECTIVES. Cardinals. 18. duodeviginti,^ 19. undeviginti,^ V 20 . viginti, (viginti uniis, ‘ (unus et viginti,^ 22 . duo, (duo et viginti, 80. triginta, 40. quadraginta, 60. quinquaginta, 60. sexaginta, 70. septuaginta, 80. octoginta, 90. nonaginta, 100. centum, 101 * (centum et unus,^ 200. ducenti, ae, a, 800. trecenti, 400. quadringenti, 600. quingenti, 600. sexcenti, 700.- septingenti, 800. octingenti, 900. nongenti, 1,000. mille, 2,000. duo millia,'* 10,000. decem millia. Ordinals. duodevicesimus,^ undevicesimus,® vicesimus,® vicesimus primus, unus et vicesimus^, vicesimus secundus, alter et vicesimus, tricesimus,® quadragesimus, quinquagesimus, sexagesimus, septuagesimus, octogesimus, nonagesimus, centesimus, centesimus primus, centesimus et primus ducentesimus, trecentesimus, quadringentesimus, quingentesimus, sexcentesimus, septingentesimus, octingentesimus, nongentesimus, millesimus, bis millesimus, decies millesimus. Distributives. duodeviceni. undeviceni. viceni. viceni singuli. ^ singuli et viceni. viceni bini. ( bini et viceni, triceni, quadrageni, quinquageni, sexageni. ^ septuageni. ^ .i- y J octogeni.' . j nonageni. ^ ^ . centeni, centeni singuli, centeni et sin'giili. duceni. treceni. quSdringeni. quinggni. sexceni. septingeni. octingeni. nongeni. singula millia. bina millia. dena millia. * Literally two from twenty, one from twenty, by subtraction ; but these numbers may be expressed by addition : decern et octo ; decern et novem ; so 28, 29 ; 38, 39, etc., either by subtraction from triginta^ etc., or by addition to viginti; duodetri- ginta or octo et viginti. 2 If the tens precede the units, et is omitted, otherwise it is generally used. So in English cardinals, twenty-one, one and twenty. 3 In compounding numbers above 100, units generally follow tens, tens hundreds, etc., as in English; but the connective et is either omitted, or used only between the two highest denominations: mille centum viginti or mille at centum viginti, 1120. ^ Sometimes hina milUa or bis mille. ® Sometimes expressed by addition, like the corresponding cardinals ; octavus decimus and nonus decimus. « Sometimes written with vigesimus; trigesimus. 51 DECLENSIO^T OF NUMEEAE ADJECTIVES. / Cardinals. 100,000. centum millia, 1,000,000. decies centena miD lia,^ Ordinals. -cei^ties millesimus, dpcies centies mil- lesimus. Distributives. centena millia, decies centena millia. / 1. Ordinals ’ with Fars^ part, expressed or understood, may be used to express fractions: tertia pars y a third part, a third; quarta pars^ a fourth; duae tertiae, two thirds. 2. Distributives are used 1) To show the number of objects taken at a time, often best rendered by adding to the cardinal each or apiece; ternos denarios acceperunt, they received each three denarii, or three apiece. Hence : 2) To express Multiplication : decus centena millia, ten times a hundred thousand, a million. cx 3) Instead of Cardinals, with nouns plural in form, but singular in sense : blna castra, two camps. Here for singuli and temi, uni and trlni are used : unae litterae, one letter ; trl^ae litterae, three letters. 4) Sometimes in reference to objects spoken of in pairs: blni scyphi, a pair of goblets ; and in the poets with the force of cardinals : blna has- tilia, two spears. v 3. Poets use numeral adverbs (181) very freely in compounding num- bers : bis sex, for duodecim ; bis septem, for quattuordecim. 4. Sexcenti and mille are sometimes used indefinitely for any large num- ber, as one thousand is in English. ^iDECLENSioisr OF Ndmeeal Adjectives. 136, The first three cardinals are declined as follows Unus, one. ) 1 ' SINGULAR. plural. M. uniis una uniim uni unae una ) G. unliis unliis unliis unoru^ unariim unOrum J, D. uni uni uni unis unis unis A. uniim unam uniim unos unas una K une una uniim uni unae un3. A. uno una uno ; unis unis unis. Duo, two. Tres, three. JV. duo duae duo tres, m. and f. tria, n. G. duoriim duarum duoriim^ trium triiim 1 Literally ten times a hundred thousand ; the table might be carried up to any desired number by using the proper numeral adverb with centena millia : centies centena millia, 10,000,000 ; sometimes in such combinations centena millia is under- stood and only the adverb is expressed, and sometimes cemtum millia is used. 2 Dudru/m and dudruw^ are sometimes shortened to duum. 58 NUMERALS. B. duobus duabus duobus tribus tribus A. duos, duo duas duo tres, tris tria V. duo. duae duo tres tria A. duobiis duabus duobus. tribiis tribus. The plural of unu8 in the sense of alone may be used with any noun ; uni Uhii^ the Ubii alone ; but in the strict numeral sense of one^ it is used only with such nouns as, though plural in form, are singular in sense : una castra^ one camp ; unae litterae^ one letter. OC ~ 2. Like duo is declined ambo^ both. 3. Multi^ many, and plurimi^ very many, are indefinite numerals, and as such generally want the sing. But in the poets the sing, occurs in the sense of many a : multa hostia^ many a victim. 176. The Cardinals from quattuor to centum are indeclinable. 177. Hundreds, ducenti^ trecenti^ etc., are declined like the plural of 'honuB : ducenti^ ae^ a, 178. Mille as an adjective is indeclinable: as a substantive it is used in the singular only in the nominative and accusative, but in the plural it is declined like the plural of mare (63) ; millia^ millium^ millibus. With the substantive Mille ^ the name of the objects enumerated is gen- erally in the genitive : mille hominum^ a thousand men (of men) ; but it is in the same case as mille^ if a declined numeral intervenes: tria millia trecenti milites^ three thousand three hundred soldiers. 1 79. Ordinals are declined like bonus and distributives like the plural of bonus^ but the latter often have um for brum in the genitive ; blnum for binorum. 180. Numeral Symbols. ARABIC. ROMAX. 1. I. 2. II. 3. III. 4. lY. 6. Y. 6. YI. 1. YII. 8. YIII. ARABIC. ROMAN. 9. IX. 10. X. 11. XI. 12. XII. 13. XIII. 14. XIY. 15. XY. 16. XYI. ARABIC. ROMAN. 17. XYII. 18. XYIII. 19. XIX. 20. XX. 21. XXL 22. XXII. 30. XXX. 40. XL. 1 This according to Corssen is the proper form, though the word is often written with one I : milia. l^UMERALS. 59 ARABIC. ROMAN. ARABIC. ROMAN. ARABIC. ROMAN. 60. L. 200. CO. 900. DCCCC. 60. LX. 300. cco. 1,000. CIO, or M. 10, LXX. 400. ccco. 2,000. CIOCIO, or MM. 80. LXXX. 500. 10, or D. 10,000. CCIOO. 90. xo. 600. DO. 100,000. CCCIOOO, 100. c. VOO. DCC. 1,000,000. CCCCIOOOO. 101. CL 800. DCCO. 1. Latin Numeral Symbols are combinations of:I = l;V=5; X = 10; L = 50; C = 100; lOorJ) = 500; CIO orM= 1,0000 2. In the Combination of these symbols, except 10, observe 1) That the repetition of a symbol doubles the value : II = 2 ; XX = 20 ; CC = 200. 2) That any symboT^tanding before one of greater value, subtracts its own value, but that after one of greater value, it adds its own value : V ■= 5; IV = 4(5 - 1); VI = 6 (5 + 1). 3. In the Combination of 10 observe 1) That each 0 (inverted C) after 10 increases the value tenfold : 10 = 500 ; 100 = 500 x 10 = 5,000 ; 1000 = 5,000 x 10 = 50,000. 2) That these numbers are doubled by placing C the same number of times before I as 0 stands after it : 10 = 600 ; CIO = 500 x 2 = 1,000 ; 100 = 5,000; CCIOO = 5,000 x.2 = 10,000. 3) That smaller symbols standing after these add their value : 10 = 500 ; IOC = 600 ; lOCC ^ 'TOO. Numeeal Adveebs. 181 . To numerals belong also numeral ab verbs. For con venience of reference we add the following table : 1. semel, once 2. bis, twice 3. ter, three times 4. quSter 6. quinquies 6. sexies 7. septies 8. octies 9. novies 10. decies 11. undecies 12. duodecies terdecies tredecies j quaterdecies ‘ ( quattuordecies ( quinquiesdecies ’ ' quindecies sexiesdecies sedecies lY. septiesdScies rduodevicies ’ ( octiesdecies undevicies noviesdecies 20. vicies 21. semel et vicies 22. bis et vicies 30. tricies 40. quadragies 1 Thousands are sometimes denoted by a line over the symbol : II = 2,000 ; V = 5,000. 4 CO PKONOUi^'S. 60. quinquagies ^ 60. sexagies , 'ZO. septuagies 80. octogies ^ 90. nonagiea '^JIOO. centies xOl. centies semel 200. ducenties 300. trecenties 400. quadringenties 500. quingenties 600. sexcenties '700. septingenties 800. octingenties 900. nOningenties^ 1.000. millies* 2.000. bis millies 10,000. decies millies 100,000, centies millies ;, 000, 000. millies millies. 1. In Compounds of units and tens, tbe unit witb et generally precedes, as in the table : Ms et vicies / the tens, hawever, with or without et sometimes precede : vicies et Ms or vieies Msy but not Ms vicies, 2. Another Class of numeral adverbs in um or d is formed from the ordinals : prlmum, primOy for the first time, in the first place ^ tertimn^ tertiOy for the third time. CHAPTER III. PRONOUNS. 182. The Peonoun is the part of speech which sup- plies the place of nouns : I ; tu, thou. 183. Pronouns are divided into six classes : 1. Personal Pronouns ; tu, thou. 2. Possessive Pronouns : mens, my. 3. Demonstrative Pronouns : hic, this. 4. Relative Pronouns : qul, who. 5. Interrogative Pronouns : quis, who ? 6. Indefinite Pronouns : itUquis, some one. I. Peesonal Peonotjns. 184. Personal Pronouns, so called because they desig- nate the person of the noun which they represent, are : 1 Also written nongenties. 2 Millies is often used indefinitely like the English a thousand times. PKONOTJNS. ,1- Tu, thou. SINGULAR. N. ego tu G. mel tul D. mihi tibi A. me te F. tu A. me ; te ; PLURAL. N. nos VOS ^ nostrum ) nostrl ) vestrum vestri jD. nobis vobis A. nos vos F. vos A. nobis. vobis. ( Sui, of himself etc.' tlk, sul sibi se ; qS}^ sul sibi se. r l. Stems. — The stems in the Sing.^ are me^ te^ se ; in the Plur. no^ vo^ se. 2. The Case-Endings of Pronouns differ considerably from those of Nouns. 3. Genitive. — Jlei, tui^ sui^ nostri^ and ^estri^ are in form strictly Pos- sessive Pronouns and are in the Gen. Sing., but by use they have become Personal. Nostri and vestri have also become Plural. Nostrum and vestrum for nostrorum and vestrorum are also Possessives. See meus.^ tuus^ suus^ etc., 185. \ 4. Substantive Pronouns. — Personal Pronouns are also called Substan- ^ tive pronouns, because they are always used as substantives. 5. Keflexive Pronoun. — Sui, from its reflexive signiflcation, of himself., I etc., is often called the Reflexive pronoun. I 6. Emphatic Forms in met occur, except in the Gen. Plur. : egbmet., I I myself ; temet^ etc. But the Nom. tu has tute and tutemet, for tumet. 7. Keduplicated Forms : —Sese., fete., meme., for se, te, me. 8. Ancient and Pare Forms.: — Mis for mei ; tis for tui ; ml for mihi ; med., and mepte for me ; fed for te ; sed for se. 9. Cum, when used with the ablative of a Personal Pronoun, is appended ^^0 it : mecum., tecum. II. Possessive Pronouns. 185, From Personal pronouns are formed the Posses- sives : Of himself., he/rself itself. The Pom. is not used. Except in the Nom. Tu is related to te, hut ego is an entirely independent form. 62 PRONOUNS. meus, a, tim, w/y ; noster, tra, triim, our ; tuus, a, um, thy^ your ; vester, tra, trum, your ; suus, a, um, his^ her^ its y suus, a, um, their, 1. Possessives are declined as adjectives of tlie first and second declen- sions ; but mens has in the Voc. Sing. Masc. generally wi, sometimes mens, 2. Emphatic forms inpte and met occur: suapte^ sudmet. 3. Other possessives are : (1) cujus^ whose, and cujus^ a, whose? declined like honus^ and (2) the Patrials, nostras^ G. dtis^ of our country, vestrds^ G. dtis^ of your country, and cujds^ G. of whose country, declined as adjectives of Peel. III . % III. Demonstrative Pronouns. 186. Demonstrative Pronouns, so called because they specify the objects to which they refer, are Hic^ istl^ ille^ is^ ipse^ Idem, They are declined as follows : 1. Hie, this. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. E. K M. F. K K hie haec hdc hi hae haec G. hujiis hujus hujiis horiim hariim lioriim D. hulc huic huic his his his A. hunc hanc hoc 3 hos has haec A. hoc hac hoc ; his his his. II. Iste, that., that of yours. See 450. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. K N. iste ista istiid isti istae ista G. istius istlus istlus istorum istarum istorum J). isti isti isti istis istis istis A. istiim istam istud 3 istos istas istS A. isto ista isto ; istis istis istis. III. Hie, he or ihat^ is declined like iste. 1 From the relative qu% cujus. See 187. 2 From the interrogative quis^ cujus. See 188. 8 The Vocative is wanting in Demonstrative, Relative, Interrogative, and Indefl' nite Pronouns. PEONOTJNS. 63 lY. Is, Jie^ thiSy that. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. K is ea id ei, ii eae ea G. ejus ejiis ejiis eorum earum eorum D. el ei ei eis, iis eis, iis eis, iis A. eum earn id ^ eos eas ea A. eo ea eo ; eis, iis eis, iis eis, iis. Y. Ipse, self^ he. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. N. ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi ipsae ipsa G. ipslus ipsius ipsiiis ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum D. ipsi ipsi ipsi ipsis ipsis ipsis A. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsos ipsas ipsa “^A.^ipso s ipsa ipso ; ipsis ipsis ipsis. YI. Idem , the same. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. K idem eMem idem ( eidem 2 ( iidem eaedem eadem G. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eorundem earundem eorundem eidem eidem j eisdem eisdem eisdem iisd§m D. eldem i iisdem iisdem A. eundem eandem idem eosdem easdem eadem eadem eodem ; \ eisdem eisdem eisdem^ A. eodem 1 iisdem iisdem iisdem. 1. The STEMS are as follows : 1) Of Hic — ^ 0 , ha.^ : l ' 2) Of ISTE and ille, for istus and Ulus — isto^ ista^ and illo^ ilia. 3) Of IS — % eo^ ea. . 4) Of IPSE, for ipsus — ipso^ ipsa. "'S Idem, compounded of is and dem^ is declined like is, but shortens isdem to idem and iddem to idem^ and changes m to n before the ending dcm. 1 The Yocative is wanting in Demonstrative, Eelative, Interrogative, and Indefi- nite Pronouns. 2 El'dem and eisdem are the approved forms, hut ildem and ilsdem are retained in many editions. lidem and iisdem are in poetry dissyllables, and are often written Idem and isdem. 3 By the addition of i in certain cases, ho and ha become hi and hae^ as in hi-c and hae-c. C4 PRONOUNS. 2. Hic, for M-ce^ is compounded with the demonstrative particle c^, meaning here. The forms in c have dropped e, while the other forms have dropped the particle entirely. But ce is often retained for emphasis; hice^ hujusce^ hosce^ horunce {in changed to n), horunc {e dropped). Ce, changed to ci, is generally retained before the interrogative ne : hicine, hoscme, 3. Illic and Istic. — The particle ce, generally shortened to c, except after s, is sometimes appended to ille and isie : illic for ille^ illaec for illa^ illoc or illuc for illud^ illiusce^ etc. 4. Ancient and Eaee Forms: 1) Of Hic : hisce for hice, hi ; haec for hae. ‘ 2) Of IsTE and ille : forms in I for lus and I in the Gen. and Dat. : ilU for illius, istae for istius or isti ; also forms from oUus for ille : olll,, olla^ ollds,^ etc. 8) Of Is : el^ eae, el^^ Dat. for el ; llus,^ eahus,^ Ihus,^ for els, 4) Of Ipse, compounded of is and ^se (is-pse = ipse) ; the uncontracted forms : Acc. eumpse,, eampse^ Abl. eopse^ eapse / with re : re eapse,, reapse for re ipsa, in reality; also ipsus a, um, etc., for ipse, a, um. 5) Syncopated forms, compounded of ecce or en^ lo, see, and some cases of demonstratives, especially the Acc. of ille and is ; eccum for ecce eum ; eccos for ecce eos ; ellum for en ilium ; ellam for en illam. 5. Demonstrative Adjectives : tdlis,, e, such ; tantus^ a, -wm, so great ; tot, so many ; totus, a, um, so great. Tot is indeclinable ; the rest regular. For tdlis, the Gen. of a demonstrative with modi (Gen. of modus, meas- ure, kind), is often used : hujusmodi, ejusmodi, of this kind, such. IV. Relative Pronouns. 1 87. The Relative qu^ who, so called because it relates to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood, called its antecedent, is declined as follows : SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. N. quI quae quod qui quae quae G. cujus cujus cuj us quorum quarum quorum D. cui cui CUI quibiis quibus quibus A. quern quam quod 2 quos quas quae A. quo * qua quo; quibus quibus quibus. 1. Stems. — The stem is quo, qua.^ 1 Sometimes ei as a diphthong. 2 Tlie Vocative is wanting. See 186, 1. Foot-note. 3 Quo becomes co, cu in cujus and cui. Qui and quae are formed from quo and qua like hi and hae in hi-c and hae-c from ho and ha. PRONOUNS. 65 •2. Ancient and Rare Forms : quojus and quoi for cnjus and eui ; qul for quo, qua ; quls (queis) for quibus. 3. Cum, when used with the ablative of the relative, is generally appended to it : quibuscum. 4. Quicumque and Quisquis, whoever^ are called from their signification ^ general relatives^ Quicumque (quicunque) is declined like qui. Quisquis is rare except in the forms: quisquis^ quidquid (quicquid), quoquo. Tv 5. The parts of Quicumque are sometimes separated by one or more W'ords : qua re cnimque. 6. Relative Adjectives: qudlis^ e, such as; quantus, a, um^ so great; guot, as many as ; quotus, a, urn, of which number ; and the double and compound forms : qualisqualis, qualiscumque, etc. For Qualis the genitive of the relative with modi is often used : cujus- modi, of what kind, such as ; cujuscumquemodi, cuicuimodi (for cujuscujus- modi), of whatever kind jk V, Interrogative Pronouns. > 188. Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking ques- tions. The most important are Quis and qui with their compounds. L Quis, who^ which^ what f SINGULAR, PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. quis quae quid qui quae quae O. cujus cujus cujiis quorum quaruin quorum D. cui cm cui quibus quibus quibus A. quem quam quid quos quas quae A. quo qua quo; quibiis quibus quibus. II. Qui, which, what ? is declined like the relative quL 1. Quis is generally used substantively, and Qui, adjectively. 2. Stem. — From the stem, quo, qua, are formed, — (1) The relative qul, — (2) The interrogative s quis and qui, — (3) The indefinites quis and qul, 3. Quis and Quem are sometimes feminine. Qui, for quo, qua, occurs in the sense of how f The other ancient forms are the same as in the relative. See 187, 2, V 4. Compounds of quis and qui are declined like the simple pronouns : quisnam, quinam, ecquis, etc. But ecquis has sometimes ecqua for ecquale, 5. Interroga^tive Adjectives: qudlis, e, what? quantus, a, um, how great ? qubt, how many ? qubtus, a, um, of what number ? uter, utra, utrum, which (of two) ? See 151. 66 VEEBS. VI. Indefinite Pronouns. 1 89. Indefinite Pronouns do not refer to any definite person or things. The most important are Qui8 and qu\ with their compounds, 190. Quis^ any one, and gui^ any one, any, are the same in form and declension as the interrogatives quis and quL But 1. After 8%^ nis% and num^ the Fern. Sing, and Neut. Plur. have quae or qua : si quae, si qua. 191. From quis and qui are formed I. The Indefinites : ^-aliquis, aliqua, aliquid quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam ' quidam, quaedam, quiddam quisquam, quaequam, quidquam ^ II. The General Indefinites : ^quisque, quaeque, quidque ^ quivis, quaevis, quidvis quilibet quaelibet, quidlibet or aliquod, some^ some one. or quodpiam, some^ some one. or quoddam, certain^ certain one. any one. or quodque, or quodvis, or quodlibet. every ^ every one. any one you please, any one you please. 1. These compounds are generally declined like the simple quis and qui., but have in the Neut. Sing, both quod and quid., the former used adjectively., the latter substantively. 2. Aliquis has aliqua instead of aliquae in the Fern. Sing, and Neut. Plur. Aliqul for aliquis occurs. 3. Quldam may change mto n before d : quendam for quemdam. 4. Quisquam generally wants the Fern, and the Plur. 5. Unus prefixed to quisque does not alfect its declension : unusquisque.^ unaquaeque., etc. CHAPTER IV. VERBS. Verbs in Latin, as in English, express existence, condition, or action : est, he is ; dorinit^ he is sleeping ; legit.^ he reads. 1 Sometimes written respectively, quippiam^ quicquam, quicque. VERBS. 67 Verbs comprise two principal classes : I. Transitive Verbs, — which admit a direct object of their action : serviXm verh^rdt^ he beats the slave.' II. Intransitive Verbs, — which do not admit such an object : puer currit^ the boy runs. r-^194. Verbs have Yoice^ Mood^ Tense^ Number^ and V Person, I. Voices. 195. There are two Voices ; I. The Active Voice,^ — which represents the subject as acting or existing \ pater amat^ the father loves his son ; es% he is. II. The Passive Voice, — which represents the subject as acted upon by some other person or thing ; jilids d pdtre dmdtdr^ the son is loved by his father. 1. Intransitiye Verbs generally have only the active voice, but are sometimes used impersonally in the passive. See 301, 1. 2. Deponent Verbs ^ are Passive in form, but not in sense: loqubr^ to speak. But see 225. II. Moods. (7^ 196. Moods'' are either Definite or Indefinite : I. The Definite or Finite Moods make up the Finite Verb ; they are : 1. The Indicative Mood, — w^hich either asserts some- thing as a fact or inquires after the fact ; he is read- ing ; legitne^ is he reading ? 2. The Subjunctive Mood, — which expresses not an actual fact, but a possibility or conception^ often rendered by may, can^ etc. : legate he may read, let him read. 1 Here servum, the slave, is the direct object of the action denoted by the verb verberat, beats : beats (what?) the slave. 2 Voice shows whether the subject acts (Active Voice), or is acted upon (Passive Voice). 3 So called from depono, to lay aside, as they dispense, in general, with the active form and the passive meaning. 4 Mood, or Mode, means manner, and relates to the manner in which the meaning of the verb is expressed, as will be seen by observing the force of the several Moods. 68 VERBS, But the Subjunctive may be variously translated, as we shall see in the Syntax. 3. The Imperative Mood, — which expresses a com- mand or an entreaty : leg% read thou. II. The Indefinite Moods express the meaning of the verb in the form of nouns or adjectives ; they are : 1. The Infinitive, — which, like the English Infinitive, gives the simple meaning of the verb without any neces- sary reference to person or number : legere^ to read. 2. The Gerund, — which gives the meaning of the verb in the form of a verbal noun of the second declension, used only in the genitive^ dative^ accusative^ and ablative singu- lar, It corresponds to the English participial noun in ing : amand\ of loving ; amandi causd^ for the sake of loving. 3. The Supine, — which gives the meaning of the verb % in the form of a verbal noun of the fourth declension, used only in the accusative and ablative singidar : dmdtiXm^ to love, for loving ; dmdtu^ to be loved, in loving. 4. The Participle, — which, like the .English participle, gives the meaning of the verb in the form of an adjective. A Latin verb may have four participles : two in the Active, the Pres- ent and the Future — amans ^ loving ; amaturus ^ about to love ; — and two in the Passive, the Perfect — amatus ^ loved, and the Gerundive ^ — amandus ^ deserving to be loved. III. Tenses 197. There are six tenses : I. Three Tenses for Incomplete Action : 1. Present : dmo^ I love. 2. Imperfect : dmdbdm^ I was loving. 3. Future : dmdbo^ I shall love. III. Three Tenses for Completed Action : 1. Perfect : dmdv\ I have loved, I loved. 2. Pluperfect : dmdverdm^ I had loved. 3. Future Perfect : dmdvm'd^ I shall have loved. 1 Also called the Future Passive Participle . TEUBS. 09 198. Remarks ok Tekses. 1. Present Perfect and Historical Perfect.— The Latin Perfect sometimes corresponds to our Perfect with have {have loved\ and is called the Present Perfect or Perfect Definite ; and sometimes to our Imperfect or Past {loved), and is called the Historical Perfect or Perfect Indefinite. 2. Principal and Historical.— Tenses are also distinguished as 1) Principal: — Present, Present Perfect, Future, and Future Perfect 2) Historical: — Imperfect, Historical Perfect, and Pluperfect 3. Tenses wanting, — The Subjunctive wants the Future and Future '"-Perfect ; the Imperative has only the Present and Future ; the Infinitive, ’■ jonly the Present, Perfect, and Future. 199. Numbers akd Persons, — There are two num- ^ bers. Singular and Plural^^ and three persons^ First^ - Second, and Third, ^ y OOJTJUGATION. 200. Regular verbs are inflected, ot' conjugated, in ^ fonr ^ifP erent wa^^s, and are accordingly divided into Four Conjugations, distinguished from each other ineinitiye endings. \ Conj. 1. Conj. H. Conj. III. V are, ere, ' ere, ire. 201. Stem and Principal Parts. — The Present In- dicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and Supine \*are called from their importance the Principal Parts of the verb. They are all formed, by means of certain end- 'v^ings, from one common base, called the Stcni,^ 202. The Entire Conjugation of any regular verb may be readily formed from the Principal Parts by means of the proper endings.® 203. Sum, I am, is used as an auxiliary in the passive voice of regular verbs. Accordingly its conjugation, though quite irregular, must be given at the outset. * As in Nouns. See 44. i^For treatment of stems, see 249-257. 3^n tlie Paradigms of regular verbs, the endings, both those which distinguish the Principal Parts and those which distinguish the forms derived from those parts, are separately indicated, and should4be carefully noticed. 7a 204. Siim, I am, — Stems, es^fuJ PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine, sum, esse, fui, — Indicative Mood. Present Tense. lam. SINGULAR. plural. sum,^ I am^ sumiis. we arey os. thou art^ estis. you arCy est. he is ; sunt, they are. Imperfect. I loas. eram, I was j eramus, we were. eras. thou wasty • eratis. you werey erat. he was ; erant. they were. Future. I shall or will be. V V y ero, I shall he. erimus. we shall bCy eris. thou wilt hey eritis. you will bOy erit. he will he ; erunt. they will be. Perfect. I have beeuy was. fuI, I have beeUy fuimus, we have beeUy fuisti, thou hast heeriy fuistis, you have beeUy fait, he has been ; fuerunt ) fuere, ) they have been. Pluperfect. I had been. fueram. I had heeriy fueramus, we had beeUy fueras. thoii hadst heeriy fueratis, you had be^Uy fuerSt, he had been ; fuerant, they had been. Future Perfect. I shall or will have been. fuero, I shall have been^ fuerimus. we shall have been^ - fueris. thou wilt have been^ fueritis. you will have beeUy fuerit. he v)ill have been / fuerint. they will have been. ^ Sum has two V erb-Stems, while regular verbs have only one. ^ ^ Sum is for esum^ eram for esam. Whenever s of the stem & comes betweeniwo vowels, e is dropped, as in sum^ sunt^ or s is changed to r, as in ^ram^ ivo. See 35. ^ Or you are j thou is confined mostly to solemn discourse. 71 VERBS. Subjunctive. Present. [may or can be. SINGULAR. PLURAL. sim, I may be,^ simus. we may be, sis. thou mayst be. sitis. you may be, sit, he may be ; sint. they may be. Imperfect. I might, could, would, or should be. essem, I might be. essemus, we might be. esses. thou mightst be, essetis. you might be. esset. he might be ; essent. they might be. Perfect. fuerim, fueris, fuerit, I may or can have been. I may have heen^ fuerimus, thou mayst have heen^ fueritis, he may have been ; fuerint, we may have been^ you may have been^ they may have been. Pluperfect. fuissem, fuisses, fuisset. I mighty could., would., or should have been. I might have been., thou mightst have been., he might have been ; fuissemiis, we might have been., fuissetis, you might have been., fuissent, they might have been. Imperative. Pres, es, be thou, Put. esto, thou shalt be,"^ esto, he shall be ; ^ Infinitive. I este, be ye. I estote, ye shall be, ' 1 sunto, they shall be. Participle. Pres, esse, to be. Perf. fuisse, to have been. Put. fiiturus esse,^ to be about to be.\ Put. futurus,^ about to be. 1. In the Paradigm all the forms beginning with eoxs are from the stem es ; fill others from the stem/w. 2. ^'ARE Forms '.—forem, fores, foret, forent, fore, for essem, esses, esset, essent, futurus esse y siem..sies, siet, sient, or fuam, fuds, fuat, fuant, for 9 sim, sis, sit, sint. On the translation of the Subjunctive, see 196, 1. 2. 2 The Fut. may also be rendered like the Pres., or vrith let : be thou ; let him be. 3 Futurus is declined like bonus. So in the Infinitive : futurus, a, um esse. 72 FIKST CONJUGATIONS’. FIEST CONJUGATION; A VEKBS. 205 . ACTIVE VOICE. AmS, I love — Stkm, &ma' PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf, Perf. Ind. Supine, amd, amai“< 5 , amavl, 2 matam. Indicative Mood. amo, am as, am^t, ama'a>as, amafelit, amal>^, amal>is, amal>it, amavi, amavisti, amavit. amaveram, amaveras, Smaver^t, amavero, amaveris, amaverit, Present Tense. I love^ am loving^ do love. SINGULAR. I love., thou lovest^ he loves ; amaiUMS, amatis, amaBit, PLURAL. we love., you lovey they love. Imperfect. I loved, loas loving, did love. I was loving, thou wast loving, he was loving ; amafeanaiis, we were loving, amaliatis, you were loving, amal?aiit, they were loving. Future. I shall or will love. I shall love, thou wilt love, he will love ; amal>imiis, we shall love, amaMtis, amaljitiit, Perfect. I loved, have loved. you will love, they vjill love. I have loved, amavimas, we have loved, thou hast loved, amavistis, you have loved, he has loved ; amaverastt, they have loved. Pluperfect. I had loved. I had loved, I amav^ranfiias, we had loved, thou hadst loved, amaveratis, you had loved, he had loved ; j amaveraat , they had loved. Future Perfect. I shall, or will have loved. I shall have loved, thou will have" loved, he will have loved ; amaverimiis, we shall have loved, amaveritis, you will have loved, amaverint, they will have loved. 1 The final a ama-im, ama-is. of the stem disappears in amo for ama-o, amem, ames, etc., ^ etc. Also in the Pass, in amor for ama-or, amer, etc., for ama-ir ACTIVE VOICE, 73 Subjunctive. ames, am^t, amaram, amares, amaret. amaverim, amaveris, amav^rii, • I mighty couldy would^ or should love. I might love^ thou mightst love., he might love ; amaremiis, amaretiSj amarciit, we might love, you might love, they might love. Perfect. I may or can have loved. I may have loved, thou mayst have loved, he may have loved ; amav^rimiis, we may have loved, amaveritis, you may have loved, amaverint, they may have loved. Pluperfect. I might, could, would, or should have loved. amavissem, I might have loved, amavisses, thou mightst have loved, amavisset, he might have loved ; have am aviss emits, we might loved, amavissetis, you might have loved, I amavissent, they might have loved. Imperative. Pres, ama, love thou ; Put. amat^, thou shalt love, amate, he shall love ; Infinitive. Pres, amare, to love. Perf. amavisse, to have loved. Put. amatnriis^ esse, to be about to love. Gerund. amate, love ye. amatote, ye shall love, am^aiate, they shall love. Participle. Pres, amans,^ loving. Put. amatiarii-S,^ about to love. Supine. Gen. Dat. Acc. Ahl. amandi, amande, amandiim, amande. of loving, for loving, loving, by loving. \Acc. amatiim, to love, \Ahl. amatn, to love, be loved. 1 For declension, see 157. 2 Decline like bonus, 148. 74 FIEST conjugation. FIEST CONJUGATION: A VERBS. 206. PASSIVE VOICE. Amor, I am loved. — Stem, Uma. PEINCIPAL PAETS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. amdi*, ama,B-i, amatiis sum. Indicative Mood. SINGULAR. amor amarXs, or r^ Smatur ; Smabar amabaris, or r^ amabatur ; Present Tense. lam loved. PLURAL. Smamur amamiul amautur. Imperfect. I loas loved. amabamur amabamini amabantur. Future, I shall or will be loved. amabbr amabimiir amabaris, or r^ amabimini amabitiir ; amabnntiir. Perfect. I have been or was loved. amatus sum* amati siimiis amatiis ^s amati estis amatiis est ; amati sunt. Pluperfect. 1 had been loved. amatiis or^m* amati Gramiis amatus ^ras amati iratis amatus ^r^t ; amati ^rant. Future Perfect. I shall or will have been loved. amatiis er^ * Smati ^rimiis amatiis ^ris amati tritis amatiis ^rit ; amati ^runt. * J^ui^ fuisti., etc., are sometimes used for sum^ es., etc. : amatus fui for amatus sum. ^0 fueram., fueras., etc., for ^ram^ etc.: also fuiro, etc., for etc. amatiis ess^m' : esses amatiis ess^t ; Impekati VE. y ar he thou loved ; | ainamlBiI, he ye loved. \ Fut. amatoi*, thou shalt he loved, I amator, he shall he loved ; I amaait^^r, they shall he loved. Infinitive. Pres. Smart, to he loved. Perf. amatits esse,^ to have been loved. Fut. amatitiWL iri, to he about to he loved. Ger.^ Sm anvils, to he loved, de- serving to he loved. 1 FuMm, fueris, etc., are sometimes used for sim, sis, etc.— So also fuissem, IS, etc., for essem, esses, etc, : roiely fuisse for esse. 2 GBfi.= Gerundive. See 196, 4. ’ SECOND CONJUGATION. SECOND CONJUGATION; B VERBS. 207 . ACTIVE VOICE. Moneo, I advise , — Stem, mone . PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Int Perf. led. Supine, moned, moneff*e, moniii, monitiim. Indicative Mood. SINGULAR. mone^ mones mon^t ; mone'foaiii monellas monelj^^; ; mone'feO moneMs mone tilt ; Present Tense. I advise. plural. monemas monetis monent. Imperfect. I WGis advising. pivne’bamns r^TTO^batis monefeamt. Future. I shall or will advise. moneMmiis moneWtis monel>iiiat. monui monuisti monuit ; monueram monudras monu^r^t ; monu^r^ monu<6ris monuerit ; Perfect, I advised or have advised. monuiaaiMS monuistis monuSmiat, or ei"6. Pluperfect. I had advised. monueramiis monueratis monuerant. Future Perfect. I shall or will have advised. monuerSmiis monueritis I monuerint. ACTIVE VOICE, V7 Subjunctive. Present. I may or can advise. SINGULAR. moneas moneiit ; Imperfect. I mighty could^ would, or should advise. PLITRAL. moneamiis ^ " moneatis moneant. monerem, moneres monSr^t ; moner^niiis moneretis monerent. monuerim monueris monuerit ; monuissem monuisses monuisset ; Perfect. 1 may have advised. monu^rliaiLiis monueritis monuerint. Pluperfect. I might, could, would, or should have advised. monuissemits monuissetis monuissent. I]SIPERATIVE. Pres, mone, advise thou ; Put. monetd, thou shall advise, monetO, he shall advise ; Infinitive. Pres, monere, to advise. Perf. monuisse, to have advised. Put. monitnriis esse, to he about to advise. Gerund. Gen. monendi, of advising, Dat. monendo, for advising, Acc. monendiim, advising, Ahl monendd, by advising. I monete, advise ye. I mSnetote, ye shall advise, 1 monento, they shall advise. Participle. Pres, monens, advising. Put. monitliriis, about to advise. Supine. Acc. monitam, to advise, Abl. momtH, to advise, be advised. IS SECOND CONJUGATION. SECOND CONJUGATION: E VERBS. 208 . PASSIVE VOICE. Moneor, J am advised, — Stem, mone, PEINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. moneoi*, moneiri, monltiis siim. Indicative Mood. SINGULAR. mone^r moneris, or r^ monetiir ; monel>^r mone'baris, or r^ monel>atmr ; Present Tense. lam advised, PLURAL. monemiir monemial monentiar. Imperfect. I was advised. monefeamilr mone'basiaiiil m6nei>aiitiir. Future. I shall or will he advised. monefeor I monel^iiKiMr monefe^ris, or r*^ I moneMinimi moneMtiir ; | monel>iiiatiir. Perfect. I have been or was advised. monitiis siam^ moniti siimiis momtits ^s moniti estis monitiis e.si ; moniti simt. Pluperfect. Iliad been advised. monitiis er^m ^ moniti Gramiis monitiis eras moniti eratis monitiis ^r^i ; moniti ^rant. Future Perfect. I shall or will have been advised. monitiis ^rO ^ moniti ^rina&s monitiis ^ris moniti tritis monitiis ^rit ; moniti ^riiat. ^ See 206, foot-notes. PASSIVE VOICE. 79 1 See 206, foot-notes. 80 THIRD CONJUGATION, THIED COl^JUGATIOK: COKSONA^TT YEEBS 209. ACTIVE VOICE. Reg5, I rule, — Stem, reg. Pres. Ind. regd, rego rfegis regit ; PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. reg^i-^, rexi,^ Indicative Mood. Present Tense. I rule. SINGULAR. PLUI Supine. regel>&m regefeas regSlj^t ; reg^iuia reges reget ; rexi rexisti rexit ; rexeriim rexeras rexerat ; rexero rexeris rexerit ; regimiis regitis regiiiat. Imperfect. I was ruling. regel^amiis regel>atis regel^amt. . Future. I shall or will rule. regemiis regetis regent. Perfect. I ruled or have ruled. reximiis rexistis rexernnt, or er^. Pluperfect. I had ruled. rex^ramtas rexeratis rexerant. Future Perfect. I shall or will have ruled. rex^rianias rexeritis rexerint. 1 See 213, IIL 1 ; 258, 1. 1 ; 258, ll. 1. ACTIYE YOICE, n SUBJUKCTIYE. regam regas reg^a'^m reg^a-es reg^iJi^'eit ; reseris rex^rit';^ Present. I may or can rvle, SINCrLAR. PLURAL. regamiis regatas regaiat. Imperfect. / mighty could^ woidd^ or should rule. 1 reg^remMS 1 reg^P^tls i reg^reaat. Perfect. I may /i. ve ruled. rcx^rim^s rexeratis rex^riaat. Pluperfect. r I might., could., wmild, or should have ruled. rexissem rexissemiis rexisses rexissetis rexiss-St ; rexisseat. Impeeatiye. Pres. regi5, rule thou ; Put. regito, thou shalt rule, regito, he shall rule ; IlSTFINITIYE. Pres. reg^rO, to rule. Perf. rexiss^, to have ruled. Put. rectHriis essalt4r ; Imperfect. 1 was ruled^ PLURAL. regimar regimiiiii regwmitar. regelJ>amiip regel^aminl regel>aiatiip. regS^r regepis, or regetiip ; rect&s sikisa^ rect&s reetias est ; rectiis rectiis ^ras rectiis ; rectiis erO ^ recttts ^ris rect&s ; Future. I shall or mil he ruled. reg^miir regemini regeaatiir. Perfect. I have been or was ruled. recti stimiis recti estis recti Slant. Pluperfect. 1 had been ruled. recti Gramiis recti Gratis recti ^rant. Future Perfect. I shall or will have been ruled. recti ^rimiis recti iritis recti ^runt. \ ‘A X' > 1 See 209, foot-notes. 2 See 206, foot-notes. ACTIVE VOICE. 85 - 4 - Subjunctive. Present. I may or can hear. SINGULAR. audi^m audias audi&t ; PLURAL. audiamus audiatis audiant. Imperfect. audirem audires audiret ; I mighty could^ would^ or should hear. audiremiis audiretis audirent. audiverim, audiveris audiverit ; Perfect. I may have heard. audlv^rimns audiveritis audiverint. Pluperfect. I might audivissem audivisses audivisset ; , could ^ would., or should have heard. audivissem&s audivissetis audivissent. Imp E Pres, audi, hear thou ; Put. audite, thou shall hear., audite, he shall hear ; Infinitive. Pres, audire, to hear. Perf. audivisse, to have heard. Put. audltltrns esse, to I about to hear. lATIVE. I audite, hear ye. I auditote, ' ye shall hear., I audinnte, they shall hear. Participle. Pres, audiens, hearing. '■ Put. audltHriis, about to hear. Geeund. Supine, Gen. audiendi, of hearing. Dai. audiendo, for hearing. Aec. audiendiim, hearing. Ace. auditiim, to hear. Abl. audiendo, by hearing. Abl. auditn, to hear^ be heard. 86 FOURTH CONJUGATION. FOURTH CONJUGATION: I VERBS. 212 . PASSIVE VOICE. Audior, I am heard, — Stem, audi, PRINCIPAL PARTS. Perf. Ind. audltiis sum. Indicative Mood. Present Tense. lam heard. Pres. Ind. audior. Pres. Inf. audiri, SINGULAR. audior audiris, or r^ auditiir ; audiel>ar audiei>aris, or r^ audiefeatiir ; Imperfect. I was heard. PLURAL. audimiir audimini audinntiir. audiel>amiir audiel>amiiii audiel&antiir. audi^r audieris, or r^ audietur ; Future. I shall or will he heard. audiemiir audiemini audientur. Perfect. I have been heard. auditiis siim^ auditi s&miis audltias ^s auditl estis auditus est ; auditi sunt. Pluperfect. I had been heard. audit&s ^r^m ^ auditi gramiis auditiis ^ras auditi Gratis auditiis ^riit ; auditi ^rant. Future Perfect. I shall or will have been heard. auditiis ^ro ^ auditi ^rimiis auditus iSris auditi iritis auditiis ^rit ; auditi ^runt. 1 See 206. foot-notes. PASSIVE VOICE, 87 Subjunctive. SINGULAR. nudior audiaris, or re audiat&r ; Present. I may or can he heard. PLURAL. audiamar audiamiiil audiaiatiir. Imperfect. / mighty could^ would^ or should he heard. audlr^r audireris, or r^ audiretttr ; audiremiir audiremini audirentur. Perfect. auditiis sim ' auditiis sis audlttts sit ; I may have heen heard. auditi sim^s auditi sitis auditi sint. Pluperfect. I might., could, loould, or shoidd audit&s ess^m' audit-fts essSs auditiis ess^t ; have heen heard. auditi css€mits auditi essetis auditi essent. Imperative. Pres, audiri, he thou heard ; I audimini, he ye heard. Put. auditor, thou shall he heard, \ auditor, he shall he heard; 1 audiuntor, they shall he heard. Infinitive. Participle. Pres, audiri, to he heard. Perf. auditiis ess^,' to have heen heard. Put. auditiim iri, to he about to he heard. Perf. auditiis, heard. Ger. audiencliis, to he heard, deserving to he heard. 1 See 206, foot-notes. 88 VERBAL INFLECTIONS. YEKBAL I^^TLECTIOi^S. 213. Principal Parts. — The Principal Parts are formed in the four conjugations with the following end- ings, including final a, e or of the stem : ^ IL , are, 1. In a few verbs : eo, ere, 2. In most verbs : atum. etum. eo. ere. ui. itum. 1. In consonant stems : III. ^ 0, Sre, si. tum. 2. In vowel stems . . 0, ere. i, tum. lY. io. ire. ivi. itum. Examples. 1. Amo, amare. amavi, amatum, to love. TT ( 1. Bclco, delere. delevi. deletum, to destroy. ( 2. Moneo, monere. monui. monitum, to advise. III. \ I- carpere. carpsi. carptum, to pluck. ( 2. Acuo, acuere. acui. acutum, to sharpen. lY. Audio, audire. audivi. auditum, to hear. 214, Compounds. — Compounds of verbs with dissyl- labic supines generally change the stem-vowel in forming the principal parts : 1. When the Present of the compound has i for e of the simple verb : 1. The Perfect and Supine generally resume the e : ^ Rego, regere, rexi, rectum, to rule. Di-rigo, dirigere, direxi, directura, to direct. 2. But sometimes only the Supine resumes the e : ^ Teneo, De-tineo, tenere, detinere, tenui, detinui. tentura, detentum. to hold, to detain. II. Wh^n the Present of the compound has i for a of the simple verb : 1. The Perfect generally resumes the vowel of the simple perfect and the supine takes e, ^ sometimes a : ^ 1 We class Hi and etum with the regular formations, because they are the full and original forms from which the more common td and Uum are derived : thus the full forms in moneo would be monlvi, monetum. By dropping e in monevi, and by chang- ing the consonant v into its corresponding vowel we have monui. So by weaken- ing e into X in monetum, we have monitum. 2 The favorite vowel before two consonants or a double consonant. See 28, 2. YERBAL INFLECTIONS, 89 Capio, capere, cepi, Ac-cipio, accipere, accepi, captum, to take, acceptum, to accept. 2. But sometimes the Perfect retains i and the Supine takes e ; ^ raptum, to seize. direptum, to tear asunder. Rapio, rapere, rapui, Bi-ripio, diripere, diripui. For Reduplicatiori in compounds see 255, I. 4 ; other peculiarities ot pounds will he noticed under the separate conjugations. 215. Entire Conjugation. — From an inspection of the paradigms, it will be seen, that all the forms of any reg- ular verb, through all the moods and tenses of both voices, arrange themselves in three distinct groups or systems : I. The Present System, with the Present Infinitive as its basis, comprises 1. The Present^ Imperfect, and Future Indicative — Active and Passive, 2. The Present and Imperrfeci Siibjunctive — Active and Passive. 8. The Imperative — Active and Passive. 4. The Present Infinitive — Active and Passive. 5. The Present Active Participle. 6. The Gerund and the Gerundive. These parts are all formed from the Present Stem., fonnd in the Present Infinitive by dropping the ending re of the Active or ri of the Passive in Conj. I. II. and IV. and ere of the Active or i of the Passive in Conj. III. : amdre, present stem ama ; monere, mone; regere, eeg; audire, audi. II. The Perfect System, mth the Perfect Indicative Active as its basis, comprises in the Active voice 1. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative. 2. The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive. 3. The Perfect Infinitive. These parts are all formed from the Perfect Stem, fonnd in the Perfect Indicative Active by dropping i ; amdvi, perfect stem AMAv; monui, monu. III. The Supine System, with the Supine as its basis, comprises 1. The Supines in um and u, the former of which with iri forms the Future Infinitive Passive. 2. The Future Active and Perfect Passive Participles, the for- ^ Tlie favodte vowel l>efore two consonants or a double consonant. See 28, 2. SYNOPSIS ,OF CONJUGATION. mer of whicli with e$se forms the Future Active Infinitive, and the latter of which with the proper parts of the auxiliary mm forms in the Passive those tenses which in the Active belong to Perfect System. These parts are all formed from the Supine Stem, found in the Supine by dropping um: amatum, supine stem amat; monitum, MONIT. 216. These three Systems of Forms are seen in the fol- lowing Synopsis of Conjugation. SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION, y ,\ 217. FIRST CONJUGATION. I. ACTIVE VOICE. 1. Principal Parts. amo, amarcj amavi, amatum. 2. Present System : Stem, dma . INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. : IMPEE. INFINITIVE. ama amare PARTICIPLE. amans. Pres, amo Imp. Smabam Put. amabo amem amarem amato Gerund,, amandi, do, etc. 3. Perfect System : Stem, dmdv . Pcrf. amavT amaverim Plup. amaverSm amavissem FP. amavero amavisse. 4. Supine System : Stem, dmdt . I amaturus esse [amaturus. Fut. Supine, Smatum, amatu. II. PASSIVE VOICE. 1. Principal Parts. amor, amM, amatiis siim, 2. Present System: Stem, dma . Pres, amor amer Imp. SmabSr amarSr Fut. Smabor amare amari amator Gerundive, amandus. SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION. 91 3. Supine System : Stem, dmdt . IKDIOATIVE. Perf, Smatus sum Plup. amatus eram F. P. amatiis Sro Fut. 1 SUBJUNCTIVE. IMPER. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. amatus sim amatus esse amatus. 1 amatus essem 1 amatum Irl 218. SECOND CONJUGATION. I. ACTIVE VOICE. 1. Peincipal Paets. moaeo, monere, monui, monitiim. 2. Peesent System : Stem, m 6 ne . Pm. moneo moneam mone monere Imp. monebam Fut. monebo monerem moneto monens. Gerund^ monendi, do, etc. Perf, Plup. F.P. 3. Peeeect System: Stem, m ^ nu . monui monuerim 1 monuisse monueram monuissem monuero 1 Fut. 4. Supine System : Stem, m 6 nit . I 1 I monituras esse Imonlturus. Supine, monitum, monitu. II. PASSIVE VOICE. 1. Principal Parts. moneor, moneri, monitus sum. 2. Present System : Stem, 7 n 6 ne . Pres. moneor monear monere moneri Imp. monebar monerer Fut. monebor monetor Gerundive., monendus. 3. Supine System : Stem, mdmt . Fut. monitus sum monitus sim monitus esse monitus eram monitus ero monitus essem monitum Iri monitiis. 92 SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION. 219. THIRD COR'JUGATIOi^^'. 1. ACTIVE VOICE. 1. Principal Parts. rego, regere, rexi, recttim. 2. Present System : Stem, reg. INDICATIVE. Pres, rego Imp. regebam Fut. regam SUBJUNCTTVE. rSgam regerem IMPER. rege INFINITIVE. regere regito Gerund^ regendi, do, etc. 3. Perfect System : Stem, rex. Fut. 4. Supine System : Stem, reel, 1 I recturus esse Supine^ rectum, rectu. 11. PASSIVE VOICE. 1. Principal Parts. regor, regi, rectiis siim. 2. Present System : Stem, reg. Pres, regdr Imp. regebar Fut. regar PARDICTPLE. regens. rexi rexerim rexisse rexeram rexissem rexero 1 recturus. regar regere regi regerer regitor Gerundive^ regendus. 3. Supine System : Stem, rect. rectus. Fut. rectus siim rectus sim 1 rectus esse rectus eram rectus ero rectus essem 1 1 rectum iri 220 , FOURTH COOTUGATIOK I. ACTIVE VOICE. 1. Principal Parts. audio, audire, audivi, audittlm. SYN-OPSiS OF CONJUGATION. 93 2. Present System : Stem, aucU , INDICATIVE. Pres, audio Imp. audiebam FuL audiam SUBJUNCTIVE. IMPEE. INFINITIVE. PAKTICIPLE, audiam audi audire audiens. audirem audito Gerund., audiendi, do, etc. 3. Perfect System ; Stem, audiv . Perf. Plup. F. P. audivi audiverim audivisse audiveram audivissem •audivero 4. Supine System : Stem, audit , 1 I auditurus esse j auditurus. Supine, auditum, auditu. 11. PASSIVE VOICE. 1. Principal Parts. audior, audiii, auditus sum. 2. Present System : Stem, audL Pres, audior Imp. audiebar Fut audiar audiar audire audiri audirer auditor Gerundive, audiendus. Perf. Flap. F. P. Fut. 3. Supine System : Stem, audit . auditiis siim audltiis eram auditus ero auditus sim auditus essem 1 auditus esse |auditum iri auditus. THIKD CC-N'JII-G-ATIONr VERBS IN' 10. 221. A few verbs of the Third Conjugation form the Present Indicative in io, io.r, like verbs of the Fourth Conjugation. They are inflected with the endings of the Fourth wherever those endings have two successive vowels. These verbs are 1. The following with their compounds : Ctipio, to take; exipio, to desire; / 237. Eio, due, fac, and fer, for dice, dace, face, and fh'e, are the G ^Imperatives of dico, duco, facio, and /“ero, to say, lead, make, and bear. 1. Dice, duce, andifdce, occur in poetry. 2. Compounds follow the simple verbs, except those of facio which change a into i : confice. 238. tJndus and undi for endus and endi occur as the endings of the Gerundive and Gerund of Gonj. III. and IV. : dicundus, from dlco, to say ; potiundus, from potior, to obtain. 239. Ancient and Rare Forms. — Various other forms, belonging in the main to the earlier Latin, occur in the poets, even of the classical- period, and occasionally also in prose, to impart to the style an air of antiquity or solemnity. Thus forms in 1. ibam for ieham, in the Imp. Ind. of Conj. IV. : sciham for scieham. See Imp. of eo, to go, 295. 2. ibo, ibor, for iam, iar, in the Fut. of Conj. IV. : servibo for ser- viam ; opperlhor for opperiar. See Fut. of eo, 295. 3. im for am or cm, in the Pres. Subj. : edXm, edls, etc., for Mdm, ds, etc. ; duim (from duo, for do), for dem . — In sXm, vHim, nolim, mdlitn (204 and 293), im is the common ending. COMPARATIYE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS, 101 4. asso, esso, and so, in the Fut. Perf., and assim, essim, and sim, in the Perf. Subj. of Conj. I. II. III. : fazo (facso) for fecero ^ (from facio ) ; faxim for fecerim ausim for ausus sim (for auserim^ from audeo). Rare examples are : levasso for levavero ; prohihesso for prohibuero ; capso for cepero ; axo for egero ; jusso for jussero ; occisit for occiderit ; taxis for teiigh'is. 5. to and mino for tor^ the former in both numbers, the latter in the singular, of the Fut. Imp. Pass, and Dep. : arbitrato^ arbitramino for arbi- trator ; utunto for utuntor. 6. ier for i in the Pres. Pass. Infin. : dmarier for amdri ; viderier for videri. 240. COMPAPvATlYE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS. I. Present System. ACTIVE VOICE. Conj. I. Conj. II. Conj. III. Stem, dmct. mbne. Ind. Pees, amo r^amao moneo rego amas^ mones 2 regis Imp. amabam monebam regebam amabas monebas regebas Fut. amabo monebo regam amabis monebis reges Sub. Pres, amem^amaim moneam regam ames moneas regas Imp. amarem monerem regerem amares moneres regeres Imp. Pres, ama ^ mone rege^ Fut. amato moneto regito Inf. Pres, amare monere regere Par. Pres, amans monens regens Gerund, amandl. monendi. regendi. coNj. ly. audi. audio audls audiebam audiebas audiSm audies audiam audias audirem audires audi audito audire audiens 1 audiendi. PASSIVE VOICE. Ind. Pres. amor moneor regor amaris (re) moneris (re) regeris (re) Imp. amabar monebar regebar amabaris (re) monebaris (re) regebaris (re) Fut. amabor monebor regar amaberis (re) moneberis (re) regeris (re) Sub. Pres. amer =:amair monear regar ameris (re) monearis (re) regaris (re) Imp. amarer monerer regerer amareris (re) monereris (re) regereris (re) Imp. Pres. amare monere regere Fut. amator monetor regitor Inf. Pres. amari moneri regi Ger. amandus. monendus. regendus. audior audiris (re) audiebar audiebaris (re) audiar audieris (re) audiar audiaris (re) audirer audireris (re) audire auditor audiri audiendus. 1 Remember that r in ero and erim was originally s. See 35, and foot-note 2, p. 70. 2 In the same manner all the persons of both numbers may bo compared. 102 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CO]S^JUGATIONS. II. Perfect System. CONJ. I. ACTIVE VOICE CONJ. II. CoNJ. III. CoNj. lY. Stem, arndv. mbnu. rex. audlv. Ind. Perf. amavi monul rexi audivi amavisti monuisti rexisti audivisti Plup. amaveram monueram rexeram audiveram amaveras monueras rexeras audiveras F. Perf. amavero monuero rexero audivero amaveris monueris rexeris audiveris Sub. Perf. amaverim monuerim rexerim audiverim amaveris monueris rexeris audiveris Plup. amavissem monuissem rexissem audivissem amavisses monuisses rexisses audivisses Inf. Perf. amavisse. monuisse. rexisse. audivissS. III. Supine System. Stem, &mdt. ACTIVE VOICE mbmt. rect. audit. Inf. Put. amaturus esse moniturus esse recturus esse auditurus essS Par. Fut. amaturiis moniturus recturus auditurus Supine, amatum. monitum. rectum. auditum. PASSIVE VOICE. Ind. Perf. amatus sum monitus sum rectus sum amatus es monitus es rectus es Plup. amatus eram monitus eram rectus eram amatus eras monitus eras rectus eras F. Perf. amatus ero monitus ero rectus ero amatus eris monitiis eris rectus eris Sub. Perf. amatus sim monitus sim rectus sim amatus sis monitus sis rectus sis Plup. amatus essem monitus essem rectus essem amatus esses monitus esses rectus esses Inf. Perf. amatus esse monitus esse rectus esse Fut. amatum iri monitum iri rectum iri Par. Perf. amatus. monitus. rectus. auditus sum auditus es audltiis eram auditus eras auditus ero auditus eris auditus sim auditus sis auditus essem auditus esses auditus esse auditum Iri auditus. 1. From this Synopsis it will be seen : 1) That the Four Conjugations differ from each other only in the for- mation of the Principal Parts and in the endings of the Present System. 2) That even these differences have been produced in the main by the union of different final letters in the various stems with one general sys^ tern of endings. 3) That the Four Conjugations are thus only varieties of one general system of inflection. ANALYSIS OF VEKBAL ENDINGS, 103 ANALYSIS OF VEKBAL ENDINGS. (^w241. The endings which are appended to the stems in the formation of the various parts of the finite verb contain three distinct elements : ^S^E-SiGN : ha in ama-hd-m^ reg-e-ha-s. The Mood-Yowel : a in mone-a-s, reg-a-s. 3. The Personal Ending : s in mdne-a-s, reg-a-s. dma-s. I. Tense-Signs. 242. The Present is without any tense-sign : So also the Future ^ in Conj. III. and IV. 243. The other tenses ^ have the following Tense-Signs. Ind. Imp. ba: ama-ba-s: reg-e-ba-s. Put. hi: ama-bi-s; mone-bi-s. Plup. dra : amav-era-s : rex-era-s. F. Perf. eri : amav-eri-s : audiv-eri-s. ( reg-ere-s, for reg-era-I-s.^ ( ama-re-s, for ama-era-T-s.^ Perf. eri : rex-eri-s : audiv-eri-s. Plup. issa : rex-isse-s, for rex-issa-I-s.* * SuBJ. Imp. era : II. Mood-Signs. 244. The Indicative has no special sign to mark the Mood. 245. The Subjunctive has a long vowel — a, or i — 1 This Future is in form a Present Subjunctive, though it has assumed in full the force of the Future Indicative. See foot-note 5 below. 2 These are all compounded with the tenses of sum : Thus in ama-hdm and amd-bd,, the ending ham = erdm is the Imperfect from the stem hliu^ the old form oi fu in fui,, and bO = erd is the Future from the same stem. In dmdv-erdm and dmdr-ero,^ the endings erdm and erb are the Imperfect and Future of sum from the stem es. In reg-erem the ending Mm is for esem, the ancient form of essem / in rex-erim^ enm is for esim — sim, and in rex' iasem,^ issem is for essem. * See foot-note 5 below. 4 This e comes from a-l^ of which the I alone is the true Mood-Sign. ® The Latin Subjunctive contains the forms of two distinct Moods,— the Subjunctive with the sign a, and the Optative with the sign sometimes 104 PEESONAl ENDINGS. before the Personal Endings : mUne-d-miXs, dm-e-tnUs, s-l-mUs, But 1. This vowel is shortened before final m and t, and sometimes in the Perfect before s, mm and tis : moneam^ amH^ sit^ fuMs^ amaverimus^ amaveritis. 246. The Imperative is disting. Endings. See 247, 3. \ III. Persoi^al Endings. 247. The Personal Endings are formed from ancieiS ronominal stems, and have, accordingly, the force of pro- nouns in English. They are as follows : PERSON. ACT. PASS. MEANING. Sing.'^ First Pers.., m, L /. Second., S, ris, thou, you. Third., tur. he, she, it. Plur.^ Firsts mus, mur. we. Second, tiS, mini, 2 you. Third, nt, ntur. they. contained in e for a-i. Thus : Subjunctive, mone-d-mus., audi-d-tis ; Opta- tive, s-l-mus., rexer-l-tis.^ am-e-mus for ama-l-mus^ rlger-e-s.^ for regera-i-s. The Subjunctive and Optative forms, originally distinct, have in the Latin been blended into one Mood, called the Subjunctive, and are used without any difference of meaning. Thus the Mood in mbue-d-mus^ a Subjunctive form, has precisely the same force as in dm-e-mus., an Optative form. The 1st Pers. Sing, of Futures in dm — regdm^ audidm., etc.— is in form a Subjunctive, while the other Persons, reges., et., etc., audies., et., etc., are in forai Optatives. 1 In the Singular these Personal Endings contain each, (1) in the Active Voice one pronominal stem, m, L; s, thou, you ; if, he ; and (2) in the Pas- sive two such stems — one denoting the Person, and the other the Passive V oice : thus in the ending tur.^ t (tu) denotes the person, and r., the voice. B of the first person stands for m-r. 2 In the Plural the Endings contain each, (1) in the Active two pronomi- nal stems : mu-s = m (mu) and 5, I and you, i. e. we ; tis ~ t (the original form for s, thou, as seen in tu., thoa) and 5, = 5 and 5, thou and thou, i. e. you; nt = n and he and he, i. e. they, and (2) in the Passive three such stems — the third denoting the Passive voice : thus in ntur, nt (ntu) de- notes the person and number, and r, the voice. 3 Mini was not originally a Personal Ending, but the Plural of a Passive Participle, not otherwise used in Latin, but seen in the Greek {{xcvoi). Amdminl., originally dmdmini estis^ means ^ou are loved., as amdtl estis means you have been loved. FEKSONAL ENDINGS. 105 Examples. amaba-m. amaba-r, ; . rSgo, rego-r. amaba-s. amaba-ris ; regi-s, rege-ris. amaba-t. amaba-t ur ; regl-t, regi-tur. amaba-mus, amaba-mur ; regi-rniis. regi-mur. amaba-tis. amaba-mini ; regi-tis, regi-minl. amaba-nt, amaba-nt ur ; regu-nt. regu-ntur. 1. Omitted. — The ending m is omitted in the Pres.,^ Perf., and Put. Perf. Ind. of all the conjugations, and in the Put. Ind. of Conj. I. and II. Accordingly in those forms the Pirst Person ends in the connecting vowel 0 : amby amahh^ amavero ; except in the Perfect, where it ends in i : ^mdvi. 2. The Endings of the Perfect Act. are peculiar. They are the same as in fui : SINGULAR. PLURAL. t^ers.^ fu-I ; ^ fu-i-mus. ^econd^ fu-is-tl ; fu-is-tis. Tldrd^ fu-i-t ; fu-eru-nt, or ere. 3. The'*i irative Mood has tl . allowing Personal Endings: AC PASSIVE. Sing. D’ar. Sin^ Pres. Second Pers.., Put. Second., Thirds 248. Infinitives, Participles, Gerunds, and Supines, are formed with the following endings ; ACTIVE. re (ere), isse, urus esse, Sing. D’ar. Sing. Plur. 3 te ; re, mini. to. tote ; tor. to. nto; tor, ntor. Infimiive Present, Perfect, Future, PASSIVE. n (erl), I, US esse, iim Irl. 1 Except in sum, I am, and inquam, I say. ^ if is omitted in the first person, and tl, an ancient fonn of s, is used in the second. Otherwise the endings themselves are regular, hut in the second person tl and tls are preceded by is, and erunt in fu-erunt, is foi erunt, the full form for sunt. fu-erunt is a compound oifu and e^sunt for surd. Fu-istis, in like manner, may be a compomid of fu and istis for* estls, nudifu-istl, oifu and istl for estl for es. ^ In the Present the ending is dropped in the Sing. Act., and the end- ings te and re are shoidened-from tis and ris of the Indicative by dropping s and changing final i into e. See 28, 1. In the Puture to of the 2d pers. corresponds to tl of the Perfect Ind., to and ntd of the 3d pers. to t and nt. Tor and ntor add r to to and nib. Tote doubles the pronominal stem. 106 FORMATION OF STEMS. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Participle Present, ns. Future, turus. Perfect, tus. Gerundive, ndiis. Gerund, ndl. Supine, um, u. FOKMATIOIT OF STEMS. 249. The three Special Stems are all formed from the Verb Stem. I. Present Stem. 250. The Present Stem is generally the same as the Verb Stem. Thus ama^ m6ne^ reg^ and audi^ are at once Present Stems and Verb Stems. 251. The Present Stem, when not identical with the Verb Stem, is formed from it by one of the following methods : 1. By inserting n — changed to m before b or p : Frango ; stem^ frag ; pres, stem., frang ; to break. Fundo ; fud ; fund ; to pour. Rumpo ; rup ; rump ; to hurst. 2. By adding n, especially to vowel stems : Sino ; stem, si ; pres, stem, sin ; to permit. Sperno ; sper, spre ; spern ; to spurn. Temno ; tern ; temn ; to despise. By adding a, e, or i : Jiivo; stem. jav; pres, stem, juva; to assist. Video ; vid ; vide ; to see. eSpio ; cap ; capi ; to take. Vincio ; vine ; vinci ; to bind. Haurio ; haur/or haus ; hauri ; to draw. 4. By adding sc, — to consonant stems isc: Veterasco ; stem., vetera ; pres, stem., veterasc ; to grow old. Calesco ; cale ; calesc ; to become warm. Cresco ; ere ; cresc ; to increase. Apiscor ; ap ; apisc ; to obtain. Nanciscor ; nac ; nancisc to obtain. 5. By adding t : Plecto ; stem, plec ; pres, stem, plect ; to braid. 1 A is inserted and isc added. See 1 above. FORMATION OF STEMS. 107 6. By doubling the final consonant — 1, r, or t: Pello ; stem^ pel ; pres, stem^ pell ; to drive. Curro ; cur ; curr ; to run. Mitto; mit; mitt; to send, 7. By reduplication: Gigno ; stem,^ gen ; pres, stem., gigcn, gign ; to heget. Sisto ; sta ; sista, sist ; to place. Sero ; sa ; sisa, sis, ser ; to sow. II. Perfect Stems. S52. Vowel Stems form the Perfect Stem by adding v: Amo (a-o), amavi, stem., ama ; perf. stem., amav ; to love. Deleo, delevi, dele ; delev ; to destroy. Audio, audivi, audi ; audiv ; to hear. Most stems in e and a few in a drop the final vowel and change v to u. MvNneo, monui ; stem, mone ; perf. stem, monev, monu ; to advise, Ct^po (a-o), crepui ; crepa ; crepav, crepu ; to creak. 2. In verbs in uo, the Perfect Stem is the same as the V erb Stem : Acuo, acui ; stem, acu ; perf. stem, acu ; to sharpen. 253. Many Liquid Stems, and a few others, form the Perfect Stem by adding u: Alo, alui ; stem, al ; perf. stem, alu ; to nourish. Fremo, fremui ; frem ; fremu ; to rage. Teneo, tenui ; ten ; tenu ; to hold. Doceo, docui ; doc ; docu ; to teach. 254. Most Consonant Stems form the Perfect Stem by adding s: Carpo, carpsi ; stem, carp ; perf. stem, carps ; to pluck. Rego, rexi ; reg ; rex:=regs ; to rule. Scribo, scripsi; scrib ; scrips = scribs ; to write. 255. A few Consonant Stems form the Perfect Stem without any suffix whatever. But of these I. Some reduplicate the stem:^ Cano, cecini ; stem, can ; perf. stem, cecin ; to sing. 1. The Reduplicatioit consists of the initial consonant (or consonants) of the stem with the following vowel, or with e, — generally with the follow- ing vowel, if* that vowel is e, i, o, or u, otherwise with e ; see examples imder 273, 1. 2. The Stem-yowel a is generally weakened to i, sometimes to e : cddo, cecldi (for cecddi), to fall. 6 1 See list, 273, I. 108 FORMATION’ OF STEMS. 3. REDUPLicATio:fi WITH Sp OE St, — In verbs beginning with sp or 5 ^, the reduplication retains both consonants, but the stem drops the s : spondeo^ spopondi (for spo^pondi)^ to promise ; sto^ stUi (for stesti)^ to stand. 4. In Compounds the reduplication is generally dropped, but it is retained in the compounds of do,, to give ; sto,, to stand ; disco,, to learn ; posco,, to demand ; and sometimes in the compounds of curro,, to run : re-spondeo^ respondi (redup. dropped), to answer; circum-do,, eircum-dedi (redup. re- tained) ; circum-sto,, circum-steti,, to encircle. The compounds of do which are of the third conjugation change e of the reduplication into %: ad-do,, ad-didi (for ad-dedi),, to add. IL Some lengthen the Stem- Yowel: * Emo, emi ; sterrhy cm ; perf. stem, em ; to huy. Ago, egi ; Sg ; eg ; drive. Ab-igo, ab-egi ; abig ; abeg ; to drive away. 1. The stem-vowels d and (in compounds) ^generally become e, as in ago and ab-igo. III. Some retain the stem unchanged:* Ico, Ici ; stem, Ic ; perf. stem, Ic ; to strike. Viso, visi; vis; \ to visit. 1. Of the few verbs belonging to this class^ nearly all have the stem- vowel long, either by nature or by position. III. Supine Stem. 256. Vowel Stems and most Consonant Stems form the Supine Stem by adding t : Amo amao. Deleo, Moneo, Audio, Dico, Carpo, amatiim ; stem, araa, svp. deletum ; dele, momtum ; mone,^ auditum ; audi, dictum ; dic, carptum ; carp. st. amat ; to love. delet ; io destroy. monit ; * to advise. audit ; to hear. diet ; to say. carpt ; to pluck. 257. Stems in d and t, most stems in 1 and r, and a few others, add s to the Verb Laedo, laesum ; stem, laed, sup. i Plaudo, plausum; plaud. Video, visum ; vid, Verto, versum; vert, Vello, ^ vulsum; vol, Verro,'* versum ; ver, Stem. t. laes^ {for laeds); to hurt. plaus {for plauds) ; to applaud. vis {for vids) ; to see. vers ^ {for verts) ; to turn. vuls® {for vols) ; to pluck. vers ; to brush. 1 See lists, 273, II. and III. 3 See 36. See 251, 6. 2 See 213, foot-note. 6 See 28, and 293, 1. euphonic changes in stems. 109 258. Euphonic Changes in Stems. I. Befoee S in the Peefect and Supine Stems. , 1. A Guttural — c, g, or h — generally unites with the s and forms X, but is dropped after 1 or r : duco, duxi (ducsi), dux, to lead ; rego, : N rexi (regsi), rex, to rule ; coquo, coxi (coqusi), to cook ; traho, traxi (trahsi), to draw° algeo, alsi (algsi), ais, to be cold ; mergo, mersi (mergsi), to dip ; mulceo, mulsum (mulcsum), muls, to caress ; figo, fixum (figsum), to^ fasten. ( 2. A Dental d or t — is generally dropped, but sometimes assimi- \ lated : claudo, clausi (claudsi), claus, clausum (claudsum), cUus, to close ; mitto,"^ misi (mitsi), missum (mitsum), to send ; cedo, cessi (cedsi), cessum (cedsum), to yield. \ 3. B is changed to p : scribo, scripsi (scribsi), scrips, to write ; 7iuho,^ to marry. / 4. Mis sometimes assimilated, and sometimes strengthened with p premo, pressi (premsi), press, pressum (premsum), to press ; sumo, sumpsi^ (sumsi), to take. 5. S— changed to r in the Present— is sometimes dropped : haere^ (haeseo), haesi (haessi), haes, haesum (haessum), to stick. II. Befoee T in the Supine Stem. 1. A Guttural — g, qu ^ or h — becomes c : rl^go, rectum (regtum), rect, to rule ', coquo, coctum (coqutum), to cook ; traho, tractum (trahtum), to draw. 2. B is changed to p, as in the Perfect : scriho, scriptum (scribtum), to write. 3. M is strengthened with p : sumo, sumpsi (sumsi), sumptum (sum- turn), to take. 4. V is generally changed into its corresponding vowel, u : volvo, volutum (volvtum), to roil. If a vowel precedes, a contraction takes place — a-u becoming an, rarely 5 ; o-u becoming 5, and u-u becoming u : lavo, lavtum, lautum, lotam, to wash ; moveo, movUim, moutum, motum, to move; juvo, juvtum, juutum, jutum, to assist. 1 Sometimes also gu : exstinguo, exstinxi, exstinctum, to extinguisli. Vivo, vixi, nictum, to live ; jluo, jiuxi, fiuxum, to flow ; and stvuo, struxi, structum, to build, form tbe Perfect and Supine from stems in n for gn. 2 Stem mit (251, 6) ; in misi, t is dropped, but in missum assimilated. 110 CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS, CLASSIFICATIOlSr OF VERBS.» FIRST CONJUGATION. | ■■ i Class I. — Stem in a: Perfect in vi or ui. J I. Stem in a: Peefect in vi. i 259. Principal Parts in : o, are, avi, ^tum. These endings belong to most verbs of this conjugation. The follow- ing are examples : Dono, Honoro, Libero, Nomino, Pugno, Spero, Voco, donare, honorare, liberare, nominare, pugnare, sperare, vocare. donavi, honoravi, liberavi, nominavi, pugnavi, speravi, vocavi. donatum, honoratum, liberatum, nominatum, pugnatum, speratum, vocatum, to bestow, to honor, to free, to name, to fight, to hope, to coil. t II. Stem in a: Peefect in ui. 260. Principal Parts in : o, are, ui, itum.’ Crepo, crepare. crepui. crepitum. to creak. Increpo, dre, ui (dvi), \tum (dtum) ; discrepo, dre, ui (dm) . Ciibo, Domo, Eneco, Frico, Mico, cubare, domare, enecare, fricare, micare cubui, domui, enecui, fricui, micui. cubitum, domitum, enectum, ( frictum, \ fricatum. to recline.^ \ to tame, to to rub. to glitter. Dlmico, dre^ d/vi (ui), dtum ; emlco, dre, ui, dtum. 1 The Perfect Formation is selected as the special basis of this classification, because the irregularities of the other principal parts are less important and can be readily as- sociated with this formation. In this classification the regular or usual formation is first given with a few examples, then complete lists (1) of all the simple verbs which deviate from this formation, and (2) of such compounds as deviate in any important particular from their simple verbs. 2 Note deviations in the Supine. The ending ui may have been formed from ari by dropping a and changing to u, and the ending Itmn from atum by weakening f to i. See 213, foot-note. But in some of these verbs the Perfect and Supine may be formed from consonant stems. Thus sdnui, sonitum may be formed from the liquid stem son, in sono, soncvs, like dlui, dlitum from the liquid stem ul in ulo, ulevi, to nourish. See 253. 3 Compounds which insert m, as accumho, etc., are of Conj. III. See 275, 1. 4 The simple n^o is regular, and even in the compound the forms in dvi and dtum occur. Ill CLASSIFICATION OF YEEBS. Pllco, plicare, | pilcavi, | plicatum, DupVtco, multiplico, replico, and supplico, are regular: are, wti, dtum. Scco, secare, secui, sectum, io cut. Participle, secaturus. Sono, sonare, sonui, sonitum, io sound. Participle, sonatur us. Most compounds want Sup. Besbno lias Perf. resonari. Tono tonare, tonui, (tonitum), to thunder. Veto, vetare, vetui, vetitum, io forbid. 1. Poto, dre, dri, dtum, to drink, has also potum in the supine. 2. The Passive Participles cenatus and juratus {ceno, to dine, and /wro, to swear) are active in signification, haring dined, etc. Potus, from poto, is also sometimes active. Class II. — Peefect in i. I. Perfect dt i: with Reduplication. 261. Principal Parts in o, are, i, turn. Do, dare, dedi, datum, to give. Sto, stare, steti, statum, to stand. 1. In do the characteristic a is short by exception: dabam, ddbo, dd/rem, etc. Four compounds oi do— circumdo, pessumdo, satisdo, and renumdo—zxc conjugated like the simple verb; the rest are dissyllabic and of the Third Conj. (273, 1.) The basis of the dissyllabic compounds is do, to place, originally distinct from do, to give. 2 Compounds of sto are conjugated like the simple verb, if the first part is a dis- syllable, otherwise they take stiti for steti : adsto, adstdre, adstiH, adstatum. Disto wants Perf. and Sup. II. Perfect in i: with Lengthened Stem-Yowel. 282. Principal Parts in ; o, are, i, atum, or turn. Juvo, juvare, juvi, jutum, to assist. Participle juvaturus, but in compounds is also used. Lavo, lavare, lavi. ( lavatum, < lautum, io wash. ( lotum. 1. In poetry Idvo is sometimes of Conj. III. : Idro, larere, Idri, etc. 2. Injuro and Idn^o, the stems are and lav, strengthened in the Present io jura and lara. See 251, 3 ; also 258, II. 4. 263. Deponent Yeebs. In this conjugation Conor, conari. Hortor, hortari. Miror, mirari. deponent verbs are conatus sum, hortatus sum, miratus sum. entirely regular. to endeavor, to exhort, to admire. 112 CLASSIFICATION OF VEEBS. SECOND CONJUGATION. Class I. — Stem in e : Pekfect in vi or ui. I. Stem in e : Perfect in vi. 264. Principal Parts in: eo, ere, evi, etum.^ These endings belong to the following verbs : Compleo, complere, complevi, completum, to jilL So other compounds of jgHeo ; as expleo^ impleo. Deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, to destroy. Fleo, flere, flevi, fletum, to weep. . Neo, nere, nevi, netum, io spin. 1. Aboleo, abolere, abolevi, abolitum, to destroy, is compounded of db and oleo (not used). The other compounds of oleo generally end in esco, and are of the third conjugation. See abolesco, 277. 2. Vieo, mere, vietum, to weave, bend, is rare, except in the participle vietus. II. Stem in e: Perfect in ui. 265. Principal Parts in: eo, ere, ui, itum. These endings belong to most verbs of this conjugation. The following are examples : Debeo, debere. debui. debitum. to owe. Habeo, habere. habui, habitum. io have. Moneo, monere. monui. monitum, to advise. Noceo, nocere. nocui. nocitum. to hurt. Pareo, parere, parui, paritum. to obey. Placeo, placere. placui. placitum. to please. Taceo, tacere. tacui. tacitum. to be silent. 286. Supine wanting. — Many verbs with the Perfect in ui, want the Supine. The following are the most important : Candeo, to shine. Egeo, to want. Eraineo, to stand forth. Floreo, to bloom. Frondeo, to bear leaves. Uorreo, to shudder. Lateo, to be hid. Madeo, to be wet. Niteo, to shine. Oleo, to smell. Palleo, to be pale. Pateo, to be open. Eubeo, to be red. Sileo, to be silent. Sorbeo, to swallow. Splendeo, to shine. Studeo, to study. Stupeo, to be amazed. Timeo, to fear. Torpeo, to be torpid. Vireo, to be green. 267. Perfect and Supine wanting. — Some verbs, derived mostly from adjectives, want both Perfect and Supine. The following are the most important : Albeo, to be white. Caneo, to be gray. Hebeo, to be blunt. Calveo, to be bald. Flaveo, to be yellow. Humeo, to be moist. ^ We class evi and Uwm, though belonging to but few verbs, with the regular formations, because they are the full and original forms from which the more common ui and itum are derived. See 213, foot-note. SECOND CONJUGATION, Immineo, to threaten. Maereo, i!o 6« tad. fo bellthy Lacteo, to s« A Folleo, i(o Je Squaleo, Jo Class II.— Stem m c, n, r, oe s : Pereect in ui. Prcs&nt Stem adds e. See 251, 3. 268. Principal Parts in: eo, ere, ui, tum, or cum. T]iese endings belong to tbe following verbs : Censeo, censere, censui, censum, to think. Perf. Part, census and censltus.-Percenseo wants Sup. ; recenseo has recensum and recensitum» Doceo; docere, docui, doctum, to teach. • ' mistum, , • Misceo, miscere, miscui, | mixtum. Teneo, tenere, tenui, tentum, to hold. mvineo, ire, ui, detentum; so oUinso and retineo; other compounds seldom have Sup. Torreo, torrere, torrui, tostum, to roast. Class IIL— Stem in a Consonant: Pekeect in si oe L" 269. Stem in a Consonant: Peefect in si. PfcscTit StcTifi adds ©. See 251) 3. I. Principal Parts in: eo, Algeo, algere, aki. Ardeo, ardere, arsi, i conivi. Coniveo, «onivere, ( conixi. Prigeo, frigere, frixi {rarc\ Fulgeo, fulgere. fulsi, VoeWc fulgo, fulgere, ete. haesi. Haereo,^ haerere. Jubeo, jubere, jussi, Luceo, lucere. luxi. Lugeo, lugere. luxi. M^neo, manere. mansi. Mulceo, mulcere. mulsi. Compounds have mulsusn or mulctum. Mulgeo, mulgere, mulsi. Eldeo, ridere. rlsl. Suadeo, suadere. suasi. Tergeo, tergere, tersi. ere, si, arsum, haesum, jussum, mansum, miilsum, mulsum, nsnm, suasum, tersum. sum. to he cold, to burn. to winJc at. to he cold, to shine. to stieJe. to order, to shine, to mourn, to remain, to caress. to milk, to laugh, to advise, to ivipe. 1 For convenience of reference, a General List of aU verhs involving irregularities will be found on page 328. . t. i. a The stem of haereo is Sues. The Present adds c and chanps « to r between two vowels. In haesi and haesum, s stands for ss— haesi for haes-si— and is therefore no changed. See 258, i. 5. 114 CLASSIFICATION OF VEEBS. Tergo^ of Conj. III., also occurs : tergo^ ere^ si, sum. Turgeo, turgere, tursi {rare)y io swell. Urgeo (urgueo), urgere, ursi, to press. 1. Cieo, ciere, civi, citum, to arouse, has a kindred form, do, clre, clvi, cltum, from which it seems to have obtained its perfect. In compounds the forms of the Fourth Conj. prevail, especially in the sense of to call, call forth. 2. For Euphonic Changes before si and sum, see 258, I. II. Principal Parts in: eOj ere, si, tum. to increase, to indulge, to twist. sum- to bite, to hang, to promise, to shear. Augeo, augere, auxi. auctum, Indulgeo, indulgere. indulsi. indultum, Torqueo, torquere, torsi. tortum, 270» Stem in A Consonant: Peefect ; Fresent Stem adds e. See 251, 3, I. With Eeduplication. Principal Parts in: eo, ere, i, Mordeo, mordere. momordi, morsum, Pendeo, pendere, pependi. pensum, Spondeo, spondere. spopondi, sponsum, Tondeo, tondere. totondi. tonsum, For reduplication in compounds, see 255, 1. 4. II. With Lengthened Stem- Vowel. 1. Principal Parts ; in: eo. ere, i, Caveo, cavere. cavi, cautum, Faveo, favere. favi. fautum, Foveo, fovere. fovi. fotum, Moveo, movere. movi, motum, Paveo, pavere. pavi. — Voveo, vovere. vovi, votum, turn. to beware, to favor, to cherish, to move, to fear, to vow. ere, sessum, 1 . sum. to sit. 2. Principal Parts in: eo. Sedeo, sedere, sedi. So circumsedeo and supersedeo. Other compounds thus: assideo, ere, assedt^ assessum ; but dissideo, praesideo, and reddeo, want Supine. Video, videre, vidi, visum, III. With Unchanged Stem. Principal Parts in: eo, ere, l, Coniveo, conivere, -j | Ferveo, fervere. i conivi, ' conixi, j fervi, { ferbui, to see. sum.* to wink at. to boil. Supine Stem is wanting in most of these verbs. THIRD CONJUGATION. 115 Langueo, languere, langui, ^ Liqueo, liquere, liqui (licui), Prandeo, prandere, prandi, pransum. Participle, pransus^ in an active sense, haloing dined. Strideo, stridere, stridi, • 271. Deponent Verbs. 1. Regular. licitus sum, meritus sum, pollicitus sum, tuitus sum, veritus sum. 2. Irregular. fassus sum. Liceor, Mereor, Polliceor, Tueor, Vereor, Fateor, Medeor, Misereor, Reor, Audeo, Gaudeo, Soleo, liceri, mereri, polliceri, tueri, vereri, fateri, mederi. io he languid, to he liquid, to dine. to creak. to hid. to deserve, to promise, to protect, to fear. to confefi to cure. ( miseritus sum, ] misertus sum, ratus sum. to pity, to think. misereri, reri, Semi-Deponeiit^ — Deponent in the Perfect. audere, ausus sum, to dare. gaudere, gavisus sum, to rejoice. solere. to he accustomed. solitus sum, THIRD CONJUGATION. Class I. — Stem in a Consonant: Perfect in si or i. 272. Stem in a Consonant : Perfect in si. I. Principal Parts in: o, io, ere, si, turn. These are the regular endings in verbs whose stems end in a consonant. Carpo, The following are examples : ^ carpere, carpsi, carptum. to pluck. Cingo, cingere. cinxi {gsi\ cinctum. to gird. Coquo, coquere, coxi. coctum, demptum. to cook. Demo, demere. dempsi. to take away. Dico, dicere. dixi. dictum. to say. Duco, ducere. duxi. ductum, to lead. Exstinguo, exstinguere. exstinxi. exstinctum, 3 to extinguish. Gero, gerere. gessi. gestum. to carry. Nubo, Rego, nubere. nupsi, nuptum. to marry. regere. rexi. rectum. to rule. Sumo, sumere. sumpsi. sumptum. to take. Traho, trahere. traxi. tractum. to draw. ^ Confiteor^ eil confessus : so profiteor. * For Euphonic Changes^ see 258. > So other compounds of stinguo (rare) : distinguo^ etc. CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 116 Uro, Veho, Vivo, tirere, vehore, vivere, ussi, vexi, vixi, ustum, vectum, victum. io hum. to carry, to live. 1. Stem-Vowel in Compounds. See 255, II. 1. Carpo : de-cerpo, decerpere, decerpsi, decerptum, to pluck off. Rego : di-rigo, dirigere, direxi, directum (214, 1.), to direct. Here decerpo., though it has not the same stem-vowel as the simple carpo., forms its principal parts precisely like the simple verb ; but dirigo changes the stem-vowel in forming those parts, having i in the Pres., and e in the Perf. and Sup. 2. Compounds of Obsolete Verbs present the same vowel changes : Ldcio (obs.); al-licio, allicere, allexi, allectum (214, II.), to allure. So illicio., pellicio. For elicio., see 2T5, 1. Specio (obs.) : a-spicio, aspicere, aspexi, aspectum, to look at. II. Principal Parts in: o, io, ere, si, sum.* Cedo, cedere, cessi, cessum, to yield. Claudo, claudere, clausi, clausum, to close. Compounds have u for au: concludo., excludo. Divido, dividere, divisi, divisum, to divide. Evado, evadere, evasi, evasum, io evade. So other compounds of vado. See 281. fixum, to fasten. flexum, to bend. to gnash. ( fressum, ^ laesum, to hurt. lusum, to play. mersum, to dip. missum, io send. nexum, to bind. pexum, to comb. plexum, to plait. plausum, io applaud. Figo, Flecto, figere, flectere. fixi, flexi. Frendo, frendere. — Laedo, laedere. Compounds have i for ae : Ludo, ludere, Mergo, mergere. Mitto, mittere. laesi, illido., etc. lusi, mersi, misi. Necto, Pecto, Plecto, Plaudo, nectere, pectere, plectere, plaudere, 5 nexi, ( nexili,^ pexi, plexi, plausi. So applaudo; other compounds have o for au: explodo., etc. Premo, premere, pressi, Quatio, quatere, quassi, Compounds have cu for qua : concutio., etc. Rado, radere, rasi. Rodo, rodere, rosi. Spargo, spargere, sparsi. Compounds generally have e for a : aspergo., respergo. Tergo, tergere, tersi, tersum. Also tergeo., tergere (Conj. II.) ; compounds take this form. Trudo, trudere, trusi, trusum. pressum (258, T. 4), to press. quassum (258, 1. 2), to shake. rasum, rosum, sparsum. to shave, to gnaw, to scatter. to wipe off. to thrust. 1 For Euphonic Changes., see 258. 2 Compounds take this form in the Perfect. THIRD €ONJUGATIOX, 11^ 273. Stem ix a Consonant: Perfect in i. L With Reduplication. i. Principal Parts in ^ o, io, Sre, turn. Abdo, abdere. abdidi. abditum, io hide. So all compounds of except those of Conj. I. (261) : addo, condo, credo, dedo. Mo, indo, oMo, perdo, prodo, reddo, trado, vendo; but abs-condo generally drops reduplication : abs-condi. Cano, canere, cecini. cantum. to sing. Concino, ere, concinui. ; so ocenno and praecino ; other compounds want Perf. and Sup, Credo, credere, credidi, creditum, ^ to believe. Disco, discere, didici, to learn. Do, (Jonf I. See abdo, above. Pango, pangere, pSpigi, pactum, to bargain. Pango, pangere, ( panxi, 1 pegi, t panctum, l pactum. to fix in. Compingo, ere, compegi, compactum; &o also impingo. Depango wants PerL^ repango, Perf. and Sup. Pario, parere, peperi, partum, to bring forth. pariturus ; compounds are of Conj. IV. Pungo, pungere, pupugi, punctum, to prick. Compounds thus compungo, ere, compunxi, compunctum. Sisto, sistere, stiti, statum, to place. Sisto seemB to have been derived from sto, and forms the Perf. and Sup. after that analogy.— Compounds thus; consisto, ere, constUi, constUum; \)\ii circumsteti also occurs. Tango, tangere, tetigi, tactum, to touch. Compounds thus ; attingo, ere, attigi, attactum. Tendo, tendere, tetendi, | stretch. Compounds drop reduplication and prefer Sup., tentum, but detendo and ostendo have tensicm ; and extendo, protendo, and retendo, have both forms. Tollo, tollSre, | ®'iWatum, lo raise. Attollo and extollo want Perf. and Sup. Vendo, vendere, vendidi, venditum,^ to sell. 2. Principal Parts in : o, Sre, i, sum. Cado, cadere, cecidi, casum, to fall. Incido, ere, incidi, inedsum ; so occido and recldo ; other compounds want supine. Explained as compound of do ; see ahdo. 118 CLASSIFICATION OF VEKBS, Caedo, caedere, cecidi, caesum, to cut Compounds thus: concido^ concidi^ concisum. Curro, currere, cucurri, cursum, to run. Excurro and 'praecurro generally retain the reduplication, exciicurrt praecH- curri ; other compounds generally drop it. Fallo, fallere, fefelli, falsum, to deceive. Refello^ ere,, refelli,, without Supine. Parco, parcere, peperci (parsi), parsum, io spare. Comparco, ere, comparsi, comparsum, also with e for a: comperco, ere, etc. Jmparco and reparco want Perf. and Sup. Pello, pellere, pepiili, Pendo, pendere, pependi, Posco, poscere, poposci, Tendo, tendere, tetendi. pulsum,^ pensum,^ _2 ( tentum, r to drive, to weigh, to demand. to stretch. tensum. Compounds drop reduplication and prefei* Sup., tentum, but detendo and ostendo have tensum; and extendo, protemdo, and retendo, have both forms. Tundo, tundere. tutudi. tusum. Compounds drop reduplication and generally take tusum in Sup. j tunsum, ( tus to heat II. With Lengthened Stem-Vowel. 1. Principal Parts in : o, lo, ere, i, tum^ Ago, agere, egi, actum, to drive. E., eircumdgo and pSrdgo ; sdtdgo wants Perf. and Sup. Other compounds \ar.go . ito iin the Pres.: dbigo, ere, abegi, abactum; but edigo becomes cbgo, ire, coegi, coactum, and deigo, dego, ere, degi, without Sup. Prodigo wants Sup., and ambigo, Pei-f and Sup. Capio, capere, cepi, captum, to take. So anteedpio; other compounds thus: accipio, ire, accepi, acceptum. Emo, emere, emi, emptum, to buy. So coemo ; other compounds thus : ddimo, ire, ademi, ademptum. Facio, facere, feci, factum, to make. Passive irregular: jio, fieri, factus mm. See 294. So satisfacio and compounds of facio with verbs, but compounds with preposi- tions thus : conficio, conficire, confeci, confectum, with regular Pass., conficior, con- fici, confectus sum. — Compounds of facio with nouns and adjectives are of Conj. I. : significo, are, (mi, dtum. Frango, frangere, fregi, fractum, to break. Compounds thus : confringo, ire, confregi, confractum. 1 Compounds drop reduplication, 255, I. 4. 2 Compounds retain reduplication, 255, I, 4, THIRD CONJUGATION. 119 fugitum, to flee. jactum, to throw. ; other compounds thus : at)ficio^ Fugio, fugere, fugi. Jacio, jacere, jeci. Superjacio jactum or jectum in Sup. : ahjeci^ abjectum. Lego, legere, legi, lectum. So compounds, except (1) colligo, ere, colligi, collectum; so deligo, eligo, seligo ! —(2) diligo, ere, dilexi, dilectum; so intelligo, negligo. Linquo, linquere, liqui, Compounds with Sup. : relinquo, ere, reliqui, relictum. Rumpo, rumpere, rupi, ruptum. Scabo, scabere, scabi, — Vinco, vincere, vici, victum. to read. to leave. to hurst, to scratch, to conquer. 2. Principal Parts in : o, io, Sre, i, sum. Edo, edere. edi. esum. to eat. Fbdio, fodere, fodi. fossum. to dig. Fundo, fundere. fudi. fusum. to pour. IIL With Unchanged Stem. Principal Parts in : o, ere, i, sum.' Accendo, accendere. accendi, accensum. to kindle. So other compounds of cando (obsolete): incendo, succendo. Cudo, cudere. cudi, cusum. to forge. Defendo, defendere, defendi. defensum, to defend. So other compounds oifendo (obsolete): offendo, etc. Findo, findere. fidi (findi), fissum. to part. Ico, Icere, ici, ictum. to strike. Mando, mandere. mandi. mansum. to chew. Pando, Pandere, pandi. j passum, / pansum. to open. \ pinsi, \ pinsui. ( pinsitum. Pinso (piso). pinsere, pistum, ( pinsum. to pound. Prehendo, prehendere. prehendi, prehensum. to grasp. Often written prendo, prendere, etc. Scando, scandere. scandi. scansum, to climb. Compounds have e for a : ascendo, descendo. Scindo, scindere, scidi, scissum, solutum,^ vulsum. Solvo, solvere, solvi, Vello, vellere, velli (vulsi). Compounds in good use generally have velli. Aberro, verrere, verri, versum, Verto, vertere, verti, versum, Compounds of de, prae, r^, are generally deponent in the Future. to rend, to loose, io pluck. to brush, to turn. Pres., Imperf., and 1 For euphonic changes before s, see 258, I. 2 Fis here changed to its cori’esponding vowel u : solutum for solvtum. 120 CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS, Viso, visere, visi, Volvo, volvere, volvi, visum, to visit volutum.* to roll. Class II. — Stem in a Consonant : Perfect in uL 274. Stem in a Liquid — 1, m, n, r; Perfect in ui. Principal Parts in: o, ere, ui, tum, or itum. Alo, alere, alui, Cello, obsolete. See excello, below. I alitum, * altum. to nourish. Colo,^ colere, colui, cultum, io cultivate. Consulo, consulere, consului, consultum, to cortsuU. Excello, excellere, excellui {rare\ to excel. Other compounds of cello want Perf. and Sup., except percello^ percellere^ per- cidt perculsum. Fremo, fremere. fremui. fremitum, io rage. Fiiro, furere, furui. — io rage. Gemo, Gigno, gemere, gemui, gemitum, to groan. gignere. genui (/. genoX genitum. to beget. Molo, molere, molui. molitum, to grind. Occulo, occulere, occului. occultum. to hide. Sero, serere. serui. sertum. to connect. Tremo, Vomo, tremere. tremui. — to tremble. vomere, vomui, vomitum, to vomit. 275. , Stems in b, p, c, s, t, s: : Perfect IN ui. 1. Principal Parts in: 0,10, Sre, ui, turn, or itum. Accumbo, accumbere. accubui. accubitum. io recline. So other compounds of cumbo,, cubo. See cubo^ 260. Compesco, compescere. compescui. — io resti'ain. Cumbo for ciibo, in compounds : see accumbo. Depso, depsere. depsui, - 1 depsitum, [ depstum, io Icnead. Elicio, elicere. elicui. elicitum. to elicit. Other compounds of Idcio^ thus : allicio., ere., allexi., allectum. ( pinsui, ^ { pinsi, 1 [ pinsitum, Pinso, pinsere. pistum, ' pinsum. io crush. Pono, ponere. posui, S positum. to place. Rapio, rapere. rapui. raptum. to snatch. Compounds thus : corripio., corripere., corripui., correptum. Sterto, stertere. stertui, to snore. Strepo, strepere, strepui, strepitum. to make a noise. Texo, texere. texui. textum. to weave. See foot-note, p. 119. THIRD CONJUGATION. 121 II, Principal Parts in: o, Sre, sui, sum. MSto, metere, messui, messum, to reap. Necto, nectere, nexi, nexui. nexum. io hind. 1. The Perfect in sui is a double formation, si enlarged to sui. III. Many Inceptives in esco form the Perfect in ui from their pnmi- tives. See 282, 1. 2. Class III— Stem a Vowel : Perfect m vi or i. 276. Stem in a: Perfect in vi. Present stem adds sc or n. See 251, 2 and 4. Inveterasco,^ inveterascere, inveteravi, Pasco,^ pascere, pavi,_ Sterno,^ - sternere, stravi. Veterasco,' veterascere, veteravi. inveteratum, to grow old. pastum, stratum, to feed, to strew, to grow old. 1. Sero^ stem sa (251, 7), thus ; Sero, serere. sevi. satum. to sow. Compounds thus ; consero, eVe, consevi^ consitum. 277. Stem in e : Perfect in vi. Present Stem adds sc or n. See 251. Abolesco,^ abolescere, abolevi, abolitum, to disappear. So inotesco; hnt adolesco has Supine adultum; exolesco^ exotitum ; obsolesco^ dbsoUtum. Cerno,'* Cresco, cernere, crescere. crevi, crevi. Incresco and succresco want Supine. Quiesco,^ Sperno,'* Suesco,^ quiescere, spernere, suescere, quievi, sprevi, suevi, cretum, cretum, quietum, spretum, suetum. io decide, to grow. io rest, to spurn. to become accustomed. 278. Stem in i: Perfect in vi. . Clpio, Lino,^ Sapio, cup ere, linere, sapere. cupivi, livi or levi, sapivi, sapui. cupitum, litum, to desire, to smear, to taste. , 1 / i / Compounds have i for (X, as resipio. Desipio wants Perf. and Sup. 1 Stem invetera^ etc., strengthened by adding sc. See 251, 4. The stem of pasco is pa, pas. 2 Stem stra, by metathesis star, lengthened to starn (251, 2). The vowel a is then lightened to e before the two consonants rn. 3 Stems dhole, quie, etc. 4 Stems ere and spre, by metathesis cer and spzr, lengthened to cern and spern. ^ Present adds n. 122 CLASSIFICATION OF VEEBS. Slno,» sinere. sivi. situm, io permit. Tero,2 terere. trivi. tritum. to ruh. 1. A few Inchoatives in isco form the Perfect in vi from their primi- tives. See 282, 1. 1. 2. The following verbs have i-stas in the Perfect and Supine, but consonant stems in the Present. Arcesso, arcessere. arcessivi, arcessitum. to call for. Capesso, capessere. capessivi. capessitum. to lay hold of. Facesso, facessere. ( facessivi, ( facessi. facessitura. to make. Incesso, incessere. incessivi or- ■cessi, to attack. Lacesso, lacessere. lacessivi. lacessitum. to provoke. Peto, petere. petivi. petitum. to ask. Quaero, quaerere. quaesivi. quaesitum. to seek. Compounds thus : acquiro.^ ire^ acquislvi, acquisitum. Rudo, rudere. rudivi. ruditum. to hray. 3. Nosco and its compounds form the Perfect in vi. Kosco, noscere. novi, notum. to know. So ignosco. — Agnosco and cognosco have Itum in Sup., agnitum / dignosco and internosco want Supine. 279. Stem in u: Perfect in i. Principal Parts in : O, Sre, i, tum. The following are examples : Acuo, acuere, acui, acutum, to sharpen. Arguo, arguere, argui, argutum. to convict. Coarguo and redarguo want the Supine. Tmbuo, imbuere, imbui, imbutum. to imbue. Minuo, minuere. minui. minutum. to dim inish. Ruo, ruere, rui. rutum. to fall. Part, ruiturus. — Corruo and irruo want Sup. Statuo, statuere, statui, statutum. to place. Compounds change a into i : constituo. Tribuo, tribuere, tribui, tributum. to impart. 1. Fluo and struo have the Perfect in si. Fluo, fluere, fluxi, fluxum, to flow. Struo, struere. struxi. structum. to build. 280. Supine wanting. — The following verbs, with the Perfect in si or i, want the Supine : * Present adds n. 2 Stem fri, by metathesis and change of vowel ter. THIKD CONJUGATION. 123 a) Ango, er^e, anxi, to strangle. Annuo, ere, i, to assent. So other compounds of nuo^ but dbniio has Part, abnuiturus. Batuo, ere, i, Bibo, ere, i. Congruo, ere, i. Ingruo, ere, i. Lambo, ere, i, Luo, ere, i. io heat, to drink, to agree, to assail, to lick, to wash. Part, luiturus. Compounds— aU luo.^ etc. — ^have Sup. lutum» MStuo, Sre, i,_ _ to fear. Ningo, ere, ninxi, to snow. Pluo, ere, i or vi, to rain. Psallo, ere, i, to play on a stringed instrument. Sido, ere, i, to sit down. Perf. and Sup. generally supplied from sMeo ; hence sedi, sessum. So in com- pounds. Strldo, ere, i, to creak. Also strideo., Ire (Conj. II.). Sternuo, ere, i, to sneeze. 281 . Perfect and Supine wanting. — Some verbs want both Per- fect and Supine : Stinguo, to quench ; but distinguo, ere, distinxi, distinctum ; so exstinguo. Temno, to despise ; but contemno, ere, con- tempsi, contemptum. Yado, to go. See eva- do, 272, II. Yergo, to incline. Clango, tf) clang. Claudo, to he lame. Fatisco, to gape. Glisco, to grow. Hisco, to gape. 1. Fo^ Inceptiyes, see 282, II. '' 282. Incepxives. Inceptives end in SCO, and denote the beginning of an action. When formed from verbs, they are caUed Verbal Inceptives, aiid^ when formed from nouns or adjectives. Denominative Inceptives, zV I. Verbal Inceptives.— Most verbal Jnceptives wa^'the Supine, but take the Perfect of their primitives : j ^ Acesco (too), Rcescgre, _ a.cai, Aresco (o), Sre, inveteravi, inveteratum, J Put. Perf. tuiero ; ' PLURAL, feremus. . tulimus.- y tuleramus, f^tulerimus. ’UB JtTNGTI VE. V Pres. >J Imp. sA Perf. X Plup. feram ; ferrem ; tulerim ; tulissem ; , feramus. V y ferremus.^ ^ tulerimus. tulissemus. Imperative. . ' Pres. Fut. V f^r;2 fert6, ferto ; ferte. fertote. ^'^"feuntO. Ppjjs. Perf. Fut. Infinitive. ferrS.^ tulisse, laturus esse. Gerund. ferendi, ferendo, ferendum, ferendo. / i PARTI.CIPLE. Pres. fSre^ Fut. laturus. Supine. Acc. latum. AbL latu. PASSIVE VOICE. \j to be borne. fer5r, ferri, latus siim, Indicative. feror, ferris, fertur;® ferimur, fSrimlni, fSruntur. fSrebSr; ferar ; latiis sum ; latus eram ; . Fut. Perf. latus ero ; Pres. ferar; ferebamur, feremur, lati siimus, lati eramiis. lati erimiis. Subjunctive. feramur. I Ferrem, etc., tor^rgrem, etc. ; ferre ior feriri (e droPPfd)- , » I^r tovfri; feHo,feni,ferme,torfmi,mto,feMoie (» dropped). 5 FerHs tor frir^s ,* fertiXr tor fi^tHr. If t; XD 130 IRREGULAR VERBS. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Imp. ferrer ; ^ ferremur. Perp. latiis sim ; lati simus. Plup. latiis essem ; lati essemiis. Imperative. PRES. ferre ; ' ferimini. Fut. fertor. — fertor ; feruntor. Infinitive , Participle. Pres. ferri. ^ Perf. latiis essg. Perf. latiis. Fut. latum Irl. Ger. ferendus. 1. Irregularities.— ■Fero has two principal irregularities : 1) It forms its Perf. and Sup. tuli (rarely tetuli) and latum from obso- lete stems. 2) It drops the connecting vowel e or i before r, s, and t. 2. Compounds of fero are conjugated like the simple verb, but in a few of them the preposition suffers a euphonic change : db^ aufero, auferre. abstuli. ablatum. ad- affero, afferre. attuli, allatum. con- confero, conferre , contuli. collatum. dis— differo. differre. distuli, dilatum. ex- effero, efferre. extuli. elatum. in- infero. inferre. intuli. illatum. oh- offero, offerre. obtuli. oblatum. sub- suffero, sufferre. sustuli. sublatum. Sustuli and sublatum are not often used in the sense of suffero^ to hear, but they s'lpply the Perf. and Sup. of tollo^ to raise. See 273, 1. 1. 293. V61o, Nol5, Malo, Pres. volo, vis, vult ; volumus, vultis, ' -volunt. velle, volui, nolle, nolui, malle, malui. Indicative. nolo, non vis, non vult ; nolumus, non vultis, nolunt. to ha willing, to be nnwilling. to prefer. malo, mavis, mavult; malumus, mavultis, malunt. ^ Ferrer ^ etc., for ferMr^ etc.; ferris ior ; fertbr for /Zntdr ; ferri ior fer^rl^ferl. IKREGTJLAR VERBS. 131 Imp. volebam. Fut. volam. Perf. volui. Plup. volae rSm. Fut. Perf. voluero. Pres. velim.* Imp. vellem.2 Perf. voluerim. Plup, voluissem. nolebSm. nolam. nolui. nolueram. noluero. Subjunctive. nolim. nollem. noluerim, noluissem. malebam. malam. malui. malueram, maluero. malim. mallem, maluerim. maluissem. Imperative. P. noli, nolite. F. nolito, nolitote, nolito ; nolunto. Infinitive. Pres. velle. I nolle. 1 malle. Perf. voluisse. 1 noluisse. 1 maluissS, Participle. Pres. volens. 1 nolens. 1. The stem of volo is vol with variable stem-vowel. b, b, u. 2. Nolo is compounded of ne or non and volo ; malo, of magis and v^lo. 3. Rare Forms.— (1) Of yolo: volt, voltis, for vult, vultis ; sis, sultis, for si vis, si vultis ; virH for visne.—(2) Of Nor.o : nevis, nevult {nevolt), nevelle, for non {««) vis, non (ne) vult, nolle.— (Z) Of malo : mavSlo, mavelim, mavellem, for mdlo, mdlim, mallem. 294. Fi5, fieri, factiis siim, to become, he made.^ Pres. Imp. Fut. SINGULAR. fio, fis, fit ; fiebam ; fiam ; Indicative. PLURAL. fimus, fitis, fiunt. fiebamiis. fiemus. 1 Yelim is inflected like sim, and vellent like essem. 2 Vellem and velle are syncopated forms for veler em, velere; e is dropped andr assimilated ; velerem, velrem, vellem ; velere, velre, velle. So nollem and nolle, for noVerem and nolere ^ mallem and malle, for molerem and molere. 3 Compounds of are conjugated like the simple verb, but confit, defit, and infit are defective. See 297, III. 2. 7 132 lEEEGULAR VERBS. SINGULAR. Perf. factiis sum ; Plup. factus eram ; Put. Perf. factiis ero ; PLURAL* fact! siimus, facti eramus, facti erimiis. Pres. Imp. Perf. Plup, Pres, Subjunctive. flam ; fiamus, fierem ; fieremus, factus sim ; facti simiis, factiis essem ; facti essemus. fi; Imperative. 1 fits. Infinitive. Pres. fieri. Perf. factus esse. P ARTICIPLEc Perf. factus. Put. factum iiT. Ger. faciendus. 295. E5, iie, ivi, itum, to go. Indicative. Pres. eo, is, it ; ibam ; / ibo; imiis, itis, eunt. Imp. ibamus. Put. ibimiis. Perf. ivi; ivimus. Plup. iveram ; iveramus. Put. Perf. ivero ; iverimus. Subjunctive. Pres. eam ; eamiis. Imp. irem ; iremus. Perf. iverim ; iverimus. Plup. ivissem ; ivissgmiis. Imperative. Pres. i; ite. Put. ito, itote, ito; eunto. Infinitive . Participle. Pres. ire. Pres. iens. Gen. euntis. Perf. ivisse. Put. iturus essS. Put. ituriis. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 13 Gerund. Supine Gen. eundl. Bat. eundo. Acc. eundum. Acc. itiim. AM. eundo. AM. Itu. 1. Irregularities.— is a verb of the fourth conjugation, but it forms the Sup. with a short vowel {itum) and is irregular in several parts of the present system. It admits contraction according to 234 : istis for ^v^st^s^ etc. 2. Passive Infinitive.— as an intransitive verb, wants the Passive, except when used impersonally in the third singular, Uur, iUtur, etc. (301, 1), but iri, the Pass. Infin., occurs as an auxiliary in the Fut. Intin. Pass, of the regular conjugations : amatum iri^ etc. 8. Compounds of are generally conjugated like but shorten Im into ii.— Veneo {venum eo) has sometimes 'venieham for 'venlbam. ^ Many compounds want the supine, and a few admit in the Fut. a rare form in eam^ ies^ iet. . Transitive compounds have also the Passive : adeo^ to approach, adeor^ adlris^ adltur^ etc. Ambio is regular, like audio^ though ambibam for ambiebam occurs. 290 . Queo^ quire^ quivi^ quitum^ to be able, and nequeo^ nequire^ nequivi {ii\ nequitum^ to be unable, are conjugated like eo, but they want the Imperative and Gerund, and are rare except in the Present tense.^ DEFECTIVE VERBS. 297. Defective Verbs want certain parts. The fol- lowing are the most important.* I. Present System wanting. Coepi, I have begun, Memini, I remember, Odi, I hate. Indicative. Perf. coepl. m 5 mini. oJl. Plup. coeperSm. memineram. oderam. Fut. Perf. coepero. mSminero. odSro. Subjunctive. Perf. coeperim. 1 meminerim. 1 oderim. Plup. coepissem. 1 meminissem. 1 odissem. 1 A passive form qultur^ nequltur^ etc., sometimes occurs before a Pass. Infin. 2 Many, which want the Perf. or Sup. or both, have been mentioned under the Classification of V erbs. See 259 to 288. \ 134 DEPECTIYE VERBS. Imperative. S. memento. 1 P. mementote. | Infinitive. Perf. coepiss§. 1 meminisse. 1 odissS. Put. coepturus esse. 1 osuriis esse. Participle. Perf. coeptiis. osus.* Put. coepturiis. 1 osurus. 1. Passive Poem. — With passive infinitives coepi generally takes the passive form : coeptus sum, hram, etc. The Part, coeptus is passive in sense. 2. Present in Sense. — Memini and odi are present in sense ; hence in the Pluperf. and Put. Perf. they have the sense of the Imperf. and Put. — EM, I know, Perf. of nosco, to learn, and consueri, I am wont, Perf. of consuesco, to accustom one’s self, are also present in sense. II. Parts of each System waxtixg. 1. Aio, I say, say yes, 2 IXDIC. Pres, aio, ais,® ait ; — — aiunt. Lnp. aiebam, -ebas, -ebat ; -ebamiis. -ebatis, -ebant.^ Perf. ait ; — — — SUBJ. Pres. aias, aiSt ; — — aiant. Imper. Pres, al {rare). Part. Pres, tliens {as adjective). o /V. Inquam, Isay, Indio. Pres, inquam, inquis, inquit ; in quimus, inquitis. inquiunt. Imp. inquiebSt : .5 — — Put. inquies. inquiet ; — — — Perf. inquistl. inquit ; — — — Infer. Pres, inque. Put. inquito. 1 0ms is active in sense, hating, but is rare except in compounds : exosus, perosus. 2 In this verb a and i do not form a diphthong ; before a vowel the i has the sound of y. d-yo, a/ -is. See 7, 4, 4). 3 The interrogative form aisne is often shortened into ain\ 4 Alham, aihas, etc., occur in comedy. ® Also written inquihat. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 135 3. Fari, to speaks Indic. Pres. — fatur ; — Fut. fabor. — fabitur ; — — Perf. fatiis sum. es. est ; fati sumiis. estis. sunt. Plup. fatus eram. eras. erat ; fati eramus. eratis. erant. SuBJ. Perf. fatus sim. sis. sit ; fati simus. sitis. sint. Plup. fatus essem. esses. esset; fati essemus. essetis. essent. Imper. Pres, fare. Infin. Pres. farl. Part. Pres, (fans) fantis ; Perf. fatus ; Ger. fandus. Gerund, Gen. and Abl. fandi, do. Supine, Ahl. fatu. IIL Imperatives and Isolated Forms. 1. Imperatites. — ave, avete; aveto; Inf. avgre, hail. salve, salvete, salveto ; ^ cedo, cette, apage, 2. Isolated Forms. Put. Sub. Pres, Imp. confiat, confieret, defiat, Indic. Pres, confit, defit, defiunt, defiet, infit, infiunt, Sub. Imp. forem, fores, foret, Ind. Pres. ovat. Part, ovans, Ind. Pres. quaeso, quaesumfis,'^ salvere, hail. tell me^ give me. begone. Infin. confieri, io be done, defieri, to be wanting, to begin. forent. Inf. fdre.^ he rejoices, I pray. IMPEESONAL VERBS. 298, Impersonal Verbs never admit a personal subject. They correspond to the English Impersonal with it: licet, it is lawful, 6portet, it behooves." ^ They are conjugated like other verbs, but are used only in the third person sin- gular of the Indicative and Subjunctive, and in the Present and Perfect Infinitive. 299. Strictly Impersonal are only : 1 Fdri is used chiefly in poetry. Compounds have some forms not found m the simple: affamur, affamini, affalar; effaberis. 2 The Fut. saMMs is also used for the Imperat. 3 Forem = essem : fore = futurum esse. See 204, 2. 4 Old forms for quaero and quaerimus. 6 The real subject is generally an infinitive or clause: hoc fieri oportet, that this should be done is necessary. 136 IMPERSONAL VERBS. Decet, decuit, it becomes} it grieves. Liquet, licuit, it is evidenti ( piiduit, . , Pudet, •< . it shames, ( puditum est. Paenitet, paemtuit, it causes re- gret ; paenitet me, I repent. it shames. Miseret, miseritum est, it excites pity ; Taedet, ; pertaedet, per- me miseret, I pity. taesiim est. Oportet, oportuit, it behooves. 1. Participles are generally wanting, but a few occur, though with a somewhat modified sense : (1) from libet : Ubens., willing ; (2) from licet : licens^ free; allowed ; (3) from paenitet: penitent ; paeni- tendus., to be repented of; (4) from pudet; yudens.^ modest; pudendus,^ shameful. 2. Gerunds are generally wanting, but occur in rare instances : paerii- tendum.^ pudendd. 300. Generally Impersonal are several verbs which des- ignate the changes of weather, or the operations of nature ; Pulmmat, it lightens ; grandmSt, it hails; lucescit, it grows light; pluit, it rains ; rorat, dew falls ; tonat, it thunders. 801. Many other verbs are often used impersonally : Accidit, it happens ; apparet, it appears ; constat, it is evident ; con- tingit, it happens ; delectat, it delights ; dolet, it grieves ; interest, it con- cerns ; juvat, it delights ; patet, it is plain ; placet, it pleases ; praestat, it is better ; refert, it concerns. 1. In the Passive Voice intransitive verbs can only be used imper- sonally. The participle is then neuter : Mihi creditur, it is credited to me, I am believed ; tibi creditur, you are believed ; creditum est, it was believed ; certatur, it is contended ; curritur, there is running, people run ; pugnatur, it is fought, they, we, etc., fight ; vivitur, we, you, they live. 2. The Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (232) is often used imper- sonally. The participle is then neuter: Mihi scribendum est, I must write ; tibi scribendum est, you must write ; illi scribendum est, he must write. I These four occur in the third person plural, hut without a personal subject. PAETICLES. 137 CHAPTER V. PARTICLES. 303. The Latin has four parts of speech sometimes called Particles: the Adverb, the Preposition., the Con- junction, and the Interjection. ADVERBS. 303. The Adverb is the part of speech which is used to qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs : cellrmr currere, to run swiftly ; tdm cUer, so swift ; tain celeriter, SO swiftly. 304. Adverbs may be divided, according to their sig- nification, into four principal classes ; I. Adyeebs of Place. Hic, lllic, Istic, ubi, Hodie, ibi, jam, Jamdiu, Adeo, aliter, ita, magis. here ; there ; there ; where? hue, illue, istuc, quo. hither ; thither ; thither ; whither ? to-day. then. now. long since. 11. Adyeebs of Time. Rondum, nunc, nunquam, olim. not yet, now. never, formerly. liinc. hence. illinc. thence. istinc. thence. unde, whence? L saepe, semel. often. once. tum. then. unquam, III. Adyeebs of Manner, Means, Degree. ever. so. otherwise. so. more. paene, palam, prorsus, rite. almost. openly. wholly. rightly. sic, ut, valde. so. as. much. scarcely. IV. Adyeebs of Cause, Inference. Cur, why ? eo, for this reason. quare, wherefore. ideo, on this account. quamobrem, wherefore. idcirco, therefore. quapropter, wherefore. propterea, therefore. 1. For Interrogative Particles, see 346, II. 1 and 2. 2. For Negative Particles, see 684 and 68A 138 ADVEEBS. FKEPOSITIOXS. 305, CoMPAEisoi^-. — Most Adverbs are derived from adjectives, and are dependent upon them for their compari- son. The comparative is the neuter singular of the adjec- tive, and the superlative changes the ending us of the adjective into § : altus, altior, alte, altius, prudens, prudentior, prudenter, prudentius. altissimus, iofty. altissime, loftily, prudentissimus, prudent. prudentissime, prudently. 1. Magis and Maxime. — When the adjective is compared with magis and maxime.^ the adverb is compared in the same way : egregius, magis egregius, maxime egregius, excellent egregie, magis egregie, maxime egregie, excellently. 2. Irregular Comparison. — When the adjective is irregular, the ad- verb has the same irregularity : bonus, meiior, optimus, good. bene, melius, optime, well. male, pejus, pessime, hadly. 3. Defective Comparison. — When the adjective is defective, the ad- verb is generally defective : deterior, deterrimus, worse. deterius, deterrime, worse. novus, novissimus, new. nove, novissime, newly. 4. Compared.— A few not derived from adjectives are compared : diu, diutius, saepe, saepius, satis, satius, nuper, diutissime, saepissime, nuperrime. for a long time, often, sufficiently, recently. 6. Mot compared. — Most adverbs not derived from adjectives, as also those from adjectives incapable of comparison (169), are not compared: here ; nunc.^ now ; vidgariter^ commonly. 6. Superlatives in o or um are used in a few adverbs : primo^ primum^ potissimum. PEEPOSITIOMS. 306. The Preposition is the part of speech which shows the relations of objects to each other : m Italia esse^ to be in Italy ; ante me^ before me. See 433-435. 307. Inseparable Prepositions. — Amhi^ amh^ around, about; dis^ dt asunder ; re, rec?, back ; se, sec?, aside, apart ; and re, not, are called in- separable prepositions, because they are used only in composition. CONJUNCTIONS. 139 CONJUNCTIONS. 308. Conjunctions are mere connectives ; pater -ETfllius, the father and son ; ptiter xvTjilius, the father or son. 309. Conjunctions are divided, according to their use, into two classes : I. Coordinate Conjunctions,— which connect similar constructions: mor voluptasque, labor and pleasure ; Car- , thaginem cepit ae dilruit, he took and destroyed Carthage. II. Subordinate Conjunctions,— which connect subor- dinate with principal constructions : Jiaee dUm coUigwtt, efagit, while they collect these things, he escapes. I, Coordinate Conjunctions. Coordinate Conjunctions comprise five subdivi- y sions : y 1. Copulative Conjunctions, denoting union : Et, quS, atquS, ac, and. Etiam, quoqug, also. Neque, nSc, aiid not. jST.tqug— nSquS, nec— nee, nequS— neo, neither-— nor. .p 2 . Disjunctive Conjunctions, denoting separation . ^ ' Aut, vel, vS, sivS (seu), or. Aut— aut, vSl— vSI, cither— or. Sive— sivo, either — or, 3. Adversative Conjunctions, denoting opposition: Sed, autem, verum, vero, hut. At, but, on the contrary. Atqui, rather. Ceterum, hut still. TSmSn, yet. 4. Illative Conjunctions, denoting inference : Ergo, igitur, inde, proinde, itaque, hence, therefore. See also 587, IV. 2. 5. Causal Conjunctions, denoting cause : Nam, namque, enlm, etenim, for. II. Subordinate Conjunctions. 311. Subordinate Conjunctions comprise eight subdi- visions : 1, Temporal Conjunctions, denoting time : Quando, quum, «>Am. Ut, fib!, as, wAm. Quum primfim, fit primum, fibi prImum, simfil, slmfilac, simfilatquS, as soon as. Dfim, donee, quoad, 140 COXJUXCTIOXS. lOTERJECTIOXS. cjuamdiUj whilc^ until^ as long as. AntGCjUdnij prius(][uanij befove. Postca- quam, after. 2. Comparative Conjuis^ctions, denoting comparison : Ut, uti, sicut, sicutl, 055, SO as. V Glut, just as. Praeiit, proiit, ac- cording as, in comparison with. Quam, «5. Tanquam, quasi, ut si, ac si, VGlut sl, as if. 3. Conditional Conjunctions, denoting condition: Sr, if Si non, nisi, nl, if not. Sin, hut if. Si quidem, if indeed. Si modo, diim, modo, dummodo, if only. 4. Concessive Conjunctions, denoting concession: Quamquam, licet, quiim, although. Etsi, tametsi, etiamsi, even if. Quamvis, quantumvis, quantumlibet, however much, although. Ut, grant that. Ne, grant that not. 5. Final Conjunctions, denoting purpose or end: Ut, iiti, that, in order that. NS, neve (neu), that not. Quo, that. Quominus, that not. 6. Consecutive Conjunctions, denoting consequence or result : Ut, so that. Ut non, quin, so that not. 7. CauSxVl Conjunctions, denoting cause : Quia, quod, because. Quiim, since. Quoniam, quando, quandoqui- dem, siquidem, since indeed. 8. Interrogative Conjunctions, denoting inquiry : Ne, nonne, num, utriim, an, whether. An non, necne, or not. INTERJECTIONS. 312. Interjections are certain particles used as expres- sions of feeling or as mere marks of address. They may express 1. Astonishment : 6, hem., ehem, hui, atdt, pdpae, vdh, en, ecc^. 2. Joy : id, eu, evoe. 3. Sorrow : vae, hei, heu, eheu, ohe, dh, au, pro or proh. 4. Disgust : aha, phul, dpdge. 6. Calling: heus, d, ehd, ehodum. 6. Praise: euge, ejd, heja. PORMATION OF WORDS. 141 CHAPTER VI. FORMATION OF WORDS. 813. WoEDS may be formed in two ways : I. By Derivation ; i. e., by the addition of certain endings to the stems of other words : love, from {Imo, to love. II. By Composition ; i. e., by the union of two or more words or their stems : Mnevolem, well-wishing, from well, and v6lens, wishing. 1. Simple and Compound.— Words formed by composition are called Compounds ; those not thus formed are called Simple Words. 2. Primitive and Derivative.— Simple words formed by derivation are called Derivatives ; those not thus formed are called Primilivcs. DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 314. Nouns are derived from other Nouns, from Ad- jectives, and from Verbs. l! Nouns from Nouns. 315. Diminutives generally end in ulus, ula, ulum, culas, cula, culum. hort-ulus, virg-ula, oppid-ulum, flos-culus, parti-cula, munus-culum, a small garden., a small branchy a small town., a small jlower., a small part., a small present., from hortus, “ virga, oppidum, “ flos, “ pars, “ munus, garden, branch. town. jlower. part. present. 1 Ulus, ula, ulum, originally blus, 61a, 61um, are appended to a and o stem’s, and to Dental and Guttural Stems. When appended to a and o stems, they take the place of the final vowel. 2. The original forms blus, bla, <51um, are used after i or e: flhSlus, little son, from filius : filiola, little daughter, irom filia; airiOlum, small hall, from atrium. 3. El-lus, el-la, el-lum, il-lus, il-la, il-lum, are used when the stem 142 DERIYATIOIS' OF KOtTKS. of the primitive ends in a or o, preceded by 1, n, or r : ocel-lus^ small eye, from oculm ; fdbel-la, short fable, from fdbula ; vil-lum^ a little wine, from vinum. 4. Cillus, cula, culum, are appended to e, i, and o stems, and to liquid and s-stems, but stems in u change u into i, and stems in on change o into u : vey^si-culuSj g, little verse, from versus ; homun-culus^ a small man, from homo. Like nouns in o, a few other words form diminm lives in wiculuSj uncula : dv-unculus^ maternal uncle, from dvus^ grand* father.^ 5. Uleus and cio are rare : equuleus^ a small horse, from equus ; homuncio.^ a small man, from homo. 316, Patkoxyiviics, or names of end in ides, ides, iades, ades, IS, els, ias, as. Tant abides, Thes-Ides, Laert-iades, Thesti-ades, son of Tantalus ; son of Theseus ; son of Laertes ; son of Thestius ; Tantabis, Thes-eis, Laert-ias, Thestbas, descent, generally masculine. feminine. daughter of Tantalus, daughter of Theseus, daughter of Laertes, daughter of Thestius. 1. These endings take the place of the final stem-vowel or diphthong. 2. Ides (i) and is are the common endings. 3. Ides (i) and eis are used especially with primitives in eus. 4. lades, ades, and ias, as, are used principally with primitives in iics^ and in those in as and es of Dec. I . — AenMs has Aeneades., masc., and Aeneis, fern. 5. Ine and one are rare feminine endings : Nept%n-\ne, daughter of Neptune ; /Lcrisi-one, daughter of Acrisius. 317. Desigi^atioi!^s of Place are often formed with ndings ^ium, etum, turn, Ile.3 columb-arium. a dovecot. from columba. querc-etum. a forest of oaks. quercus. salic-tum. a thicket of willows. salix. bv-ile. a sheepfold. “ ovis. 1. Arium designates the place where anything is kept, a receptacle : aerarium, treasury, from aes. 2. Etum, turn, used with names of trees and plants, designate the place where they flourish : olivetum, an olive-grove, from oliva. 1 The syllables el and il do not belong’ to the ending, but are produced by a slight change in the stem : thus, oculus, dcul-ulus=z6cul-lu8—6cel-lus ; vinum, vln-ulum— vin-lum — vil-lum. ^ Nube-cula, plebe-cUla, and vulp^-cula, are formed as if from e-stems. 8 When appended to vowel-stems, these endings take the place of the final vowel, DEKIYATION OF NOtTJSTS. 143 3. He, used with names of animals, designates their stall or fold , hbvile, stall for cattle, from hos. 318, Derivatives are also formed with several other endings, especially with ^ius, io, statu-arius, lud-io, sacerdot-ium, servdtium, vir-tus, consul-atus. ium, itium, a statuary^ a player^ priesthood^ servitude^ virtue^ consulship^ tus, itu3, atus.^ from statua. “ ludus. “ sacerdos. servus. “ vir. “ consul. 1. Arius and io generally designate one’s occupation. 2. Ium and itium denote office, condition, or collection : servitium^ servitude, sometimes a collection of servants. 3. Tus and itus designate some characteristic or condition : virtus^ manliness, virtue, from vir ; juventus, youth, from juvenis. 4. Atus denotes rank, office, collection : consulatus, consulship, from consul; senatus, senate, collection of old men, from shicx. 5. Patrial or Gentile Nouns.— See 326, 2. II. Nouns from Adjectives. 319. From Adjectives are formed various Abstract Nouns with the endings ia. • itia. itas diligent-ia, amic-itia, bon-itas, sol-itudo, acr-imonia. diligence, friendship, goodness, solitude, sharpness. itudo, imonia.^ from diligens. “ Smicus. “ bonus. “ solus. “ acer. 1. Itas, tas, etas. — Itas sometimes drops i: lihertds, liberty, from hher ; Uas is used with primitives in ius : pidtds, piety, from pius. Some- times the stem of the adjective is slightly changed: fdcilis, facultas, faculty; diffMlis, difficultas, difficulty; pdtens, potestas, power; honestus. hdnestas, honesty. 2. Itudo and itas. — A few adjectives form abstracts with both these endings: firmus, firmitas, firmitudo, firmness. Polysyllabic adjectives in tus generally change tus into tudo .* sollicitus, sollicitudo, solicitude. 3. Imonia is rare : Parsimonia— parcimonia, parcus. 1 When appended to vowel-stems, these endings take the place of the final vowel. This is true of all endings beginning with a vowel. T 144 DEKITATION OF NOUNS* III. Nouns from Verbs. 320. From the Verb-stem are formed Verbal Nouns with various endings, especially with 6r ; ium ; men, mentum ; b^um, culum, brum, crum, trum. am- or, gaud-ium, orna-mentum, voca-bulum, simula-crum, love^ joy^ ornament^ appellation^ image^ from amo. “ gaudeo, orno. voco. “ simiilo. 1. Or ^ designates the action or state denoted by the verb. 2. Ium ^ has nearly the same force, but sometimes designates the thing done : aedificium^ edifice, from aedifico. 3. Men and mentum generally designate the means of an action, or its involuntary subject : flumen., a stream, something which flows, from fluo ; agmen, an army in motion, from ^igo. A connecting vowel is sometimes used: ydX-mentum. The stem is sometimes shortened or changed : momentum, moving force, from moveo. 4. B^lum, culum, brum, crum, trum, designate the instrument or the place of the action : vehiculum,^ vehicle, instrument of the action, from veho ; stabulum, stall, place of the action, from sto. The stem-vowel is sometimes changed: sepulcrum, sepulchre, from sepUio. 5. Ulum, ula. — JJlum for culum occurs after c and g : vinc-ulum, a bond, from vincio ; cing-ulum, girdle, from cingo. Ula also occurs : regula, rule, from rego. 6. Us, a, o, sometimes designate the agent of the action : coquus, cook, from cbquo ; scriba, writer, from scribo ; erro, wanderer, from erro. 7. Ela, ido, igo, and a few other endings also occur : querela, com- plaint, from queror ; cupido, desire, from cupio ; brigo, origin, from orior. 321. From the Verb-stem are formed Verbal Nouns with the endings tbr. tio. tus, tura. amS-tor, lover, from amo. audl-tor, hearer. (( audio. mom-tio. advising, (( moneo. audl-tio, hearing. audio. audl-tiis, hearing. (( audio. can-tus. singing. u cSno. pic-tura. painting. u pingo. 1 See foot-note, p. 143. 3 With connecting vowel. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 145 1. T in these endings becomes s when added to stems which form the Supine stem in s: vi-sio^ vi-sus^ sight, vision. See 257. 2. Or denotes the agent or doer. The corresponding feminine ending is trix : victor., conqueror ; victrix, conqueress. 3. Tio, tus, and tura, form abstract nouns, and denote the act itself. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 822. Derivative adjectives are formed from Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, and Adverbs. 1. Adjectives from Nouns. 823. Fulness. — Adjectives denoting fulness, abun- dance, supply, generally end in osus, blentus, •ulentus, atus, itus, utus, tus.^ amm-osus, full of courage. from Smmus. vin-olentus. full of wine. a vinum. 6p-ulentus, opulent. (( opes. al-atus, winged. (( ala. turr-Uus, turreted. u turris. corn-utus. horned. u cornu. jus- tus. just. (( jus. 324. Material. — Adjectives designating vrhich anything is made generally end in the material eiis, inu3. meu3, nus, neu3, aceus. icius.' aur-eus. golden. from aurum. fag-inus. of beech. u fagus. fag-ineus. of beech. a fagus. popul-nus. of poplar. a populus. popul-neus. of poplar. a populus. papy^r-aceils. of papyrus. u papyrus. later-icius. of brick. a ISter. 1. These endings sometimes denote characteristic ov possession: virgin- eus, belonging to a maiden. 325. Characteristic.— Adjectives signifying lelo7\g- ing to^ derived from^ generally end in 1 Wben appended to vowel-stems, tliese endings generally take the place of the final rowel, hut f^-stems retain u before the ending dsus : fructu-dsus, fruitful. 146 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. icus, ills, inus , ius ; alis, anus. , Ms, Mus, ensis. ^ civ-icus, relating to a citizen^ from civis. civ-llis, relating to a citizen,^ a civis. equ-Inus, of pertaining to a horse^ “ equus. reg-ius, royal^ n rex. mort-alis, mortal^ a mors. urb-anus, of pertaining to a city^ “ urbs. salut-aris. salutary^ u salus. auxili-arius. auxiliary^ (( auxilium. for-ensis, forensic^ 4i forum. 1. Ester, itimus, ticus, and a few other endings occur : camp-ester^ level, from campus ; mar-iiimus^ maritime, from mare ; rus-ticus^ rustic, from rus. 826, Adjectives from proper nouns generally end in anus, ianus, inus; iacus, icus, ius, ensis, iensis. as, aeus, eus.* Sull-anus, of Syllay from Sulla. Rom-anus, Poman^ n Roma. Ciceron-ianus, Cicerojiian^ il Cicero. Lat-Inus, Latin^ tl Latium. Corinth-iacus, Corinthian^ 4( Corinthus. Corinth-ius, Corinthian^ H Corinthus. Britann-icus, British^ il Britannus. Cann-ensis, of Cannae^ (( Cannae. Athen-iensis, Athenian^ (4 Athenae. Fiden-as, of Fidenae^ (4 Fidenae. Smyrn-aeus, Bmyrnean^ 44 Smyrna. Pythagor-eus, Pythagorean^ 44 Pythagoras. 1. Anus and ianus are the endings generally used in derivatives from Karnes of Persons ; but others also occur. 2. Patri AL s. — Many of these adjectives from names of places are also used substantively as Patrial or Gentile Nouns to designate the citizens of the place: Corinthii^ the Corinthians; Athenienses^ the Athenians. II. Adjectives from Adjectives. 327. Diminutives from other adjectives generally end like diminutive nouns (315) in iilus, ula, ulum, cuius, cilia, c^lum.^ long-ulus, a, um, rather long^ from longus, pauper-ciilus, a, um, rather poor ^ “ pauper. deriyation oe adjectives. 147 1. Olus, ellus, and illus, also occur as in nouns. 2. Cuius is sometimes added to comparatives: durius-culus^ some- what hard, from durius. III. Adjectives from Verbs. 328. Verbal adjectives generally end in bundus. cundus, idus. ills, bills, ax.^ mira-bundus. wondering. from miror. vere-cundus, diffident. u vereor. cal-idus. warm. a crdeo. pav-idus. fearful, paveo. doc-ilis. docile. a doceo. ama-bilis. worthy of love. amo. pugn-ax. pfugnacious. (( pugno. aud-ax. daring. a audeo. 1 Bundus and cundus have nearly the force of the present parti- ciple; hViihundus is somewhat more expressive than the Part.: laeta- bundus, rejoicing greatly ; and cundus generally denotes some character- istic rather than a single act or feeling : mre-cundus, diffident. 2. Idus retains the simple meaning of the verb. 3. lUs and biUs denote capability, generally in a passive sense: dmahilis, capable or worthy of being loved ; sometimes in an acUve sense : terribilis, terrible, capable of producing terror. Bilis is sometimes added to the Supine stem : jiex-i-bilis, flexible. 4. Ax denotes inclination, generally a faulty one : Ibquax, loquacious. 5. Uus, ulus, ticius, and tivus, also occur :— (1) uus in the sense of ^dus: mc-wws, -vacant. — (2) ulus in the sense of ax : cred-ulus, credulous. (3) ticius and tivus in the sense of the Perf. Part. : Jic-ticius, feigned, from Jingo ; cap-tivus, captive, from cdpio. IV. Adjectives from Adverbs and Prepositions. 329. A few adjectives are formed from adverbs and prepositions : hodiernus, of this day, from hodie, contrarius, contrary, “ contra. DEPwIVATION OF VERBS. 330. Derivative Verbs are formed from N^ouns^ Adjcc- tives^ and Ve7*bs, 1 See 319, foot-note. 148 DEEIYATION OF VERBS, I. Veres from Nouns and Adjectives. 331. Verbs formed from nouns and adjectives are called Denominatives, They end in Conj. I. Conj. II. Conj. IV. o, eo, io. euro. io cure.. from cura. nommo. to name. u nomen. libero, to liberate. iL liber. floreo, to bloom. U flos. luceo. to shine. it lux. albeo, to be white. U albus. finio, to finish, It finis. mollio, to soften. it mollis. 1. Denominatives of the Second Conjugation are intransitive, but most of the others are transitive. 2. Asco and esco occur in Inceptives. See 332, II. 3. Deponent. Derivatives, like other verbs, may of course be depo- nent : dominbr^ to domineer, from dominus, IL Verbs from Verbs. 332. I. Frequentatives denote repeated or continued action. They are of the first conjugation, and end in Ito, or to, sometimes so. clam-ito,* to exclaim. from clamo. vol-ito, to fiit. ti volo. hab-ito, to have often. it habeo. ag-ito. to put in motion often, it ggo. can-to. to sing. it cano. cur-so. to run about. it curro. 1. Primitives of Conj. I. take ito, but contraction someth place : adju-to for adjuv-ito^ to assist often, from adjuvo. 2. So is used with primitives which form the Supine in sum. See 257. 3. Frequentatives may be formed from other frequentatives : cant-ito^ to sing often, from can-to^ from cdno. 4. Esso and isso form derivatives which are generally classed with frequentatives., though they are intensive in force, denoting earnest rather than repeated action, and are of Conj. III. : fdcio, facesso, to do earnestly ; ^ Ito takes the place of the final fitem-TOwel. This is true of all ending’s beginning with a voweL 149 derivation of verbs. incipio, incipisso, to begin eagerly. The regular frequentatives sometimes have the same force : rdpio, rapto, to seize eagerly. II. Inceptives or Inchoatives denote the beginning of the action. They are of the third conjugation, and end in p asco, I esco, isco.^ \^r gel-asco, to begin to freeze, from gelo, are. / ' rub-esco, to grow red, “ riibeo, ere. ^-’trem-isco, to begin to tremble, ‘‘ tremo, ere. ' obdorm-isco, to fall asleep, ‘‘ obdormio, Ire. 1. Asco is used in inceptives from verbs of Conj. L, and in a few from nouns and adjectives : puer, pudrasco, to become a boy. 2. Esco is by far the most common ending, and is used in inceptives from verbs of Conj. II., and in many from nouns and adjectives: durus, duresco, to grow hard. III. Desideratives denote a desire to perform the ac- tion. They are of the fourth conjugation, and are formed from the Supine stem by adding urio : es-urio, to desire to eat, from edo, ?t-urio, to desire to buy, “ emo, IV. Diminutives denote a feeble action.^ the first conjugation, and end in illo : from esum. emptum. They are of cant-illo, conscrib-illo. to sing feebly, to scribble. canto.^ conscribo. DEEIYATIOK OF ADVERBS. 333. Adverbs are formed from N^ouns^ Adjectives^ ^Participles^ Pronouns^ and Prepositions. I. Adverbs from Nouns. 334. Adverbs are formed from Nouns 1. By simply taking a case-ending, as that of the ac- cusative, ablative, or locative : partim, partly ; forte, by chance ; jure, with right, rightly ; tempore, tempori, in time ; Mri, yesterday. 1 See foot-note on pag-e 148, 2 Sometimes treated as Denominatives from supposed Diminutive Nouns. 150 DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 2. By taking special endings: 1) atim, tim, denoting manner: grex, greg^atim, by herds; /wr, fur-tim^ by stealth. 2) itiis, denoting origin, source: caelum, cacl-itus, from heaven; fundus, fund-itus, from the foundation. 11. Adverbs from Adjectives and Participles. 335. Adverbs from adjectives and participles generally end in ter, iter. doctus, doct-e, learnedly ; liher, liher-e, freely ; elegans, elegan-ter, ele- gantly ; dmans, aman-ter, lovingly ; prudens, pruden-ter, prudently ; cUSr, celer-iter, quickly. 1. Stems in o take e or iter; some both e and iter: durus, dur-e, dur-iter, hardly. 2. Stems in nt take ter, but drop the final t of the stem. See ex- amples. 3. Adverbs are also formed with the endings atim, im, and itus: singuli, singul-atim, one by one; passus (part.) pass-im, everywhere; divinus, divin-itus, divinely. 4. Certain cases of adjectives are often used as adverbs : 1) Neuter accusatives in e, um, rarely a: facile, easily; multum, multa, much. 2) Ablatives in a, o, is : dextra, on the right ; consulto, designedly ; paucis, briefly, in few words. 3) Accusatives in am : hifariam, in two parts ; multifariam, in many parts or places {partem, understood). 5. Numeral Adverbs. — See 181. III. Adverbs from Pronouns. 336. Various adverbs are formed from Pronouns ; thus from hiCy ille, and isle, are formed hlc. here ; hue. hither ; bine. hence. illic, there ; iliuc. thither ; illinc. thence. istic, there ; istuc. thither ; istinc. thence. lY. Adverbs from Prepositions. 337. A few adverbs are formed from Prepositions, or are at least related to them: intrd,, inird, within ; idtra, ultro, beyond ; in, intus, within ; suh, subtus. beneath. COMPOSITION OF WOEDS. 151 COMPOSITION OF WOEDS. 338. The elements of a compound may unite in three distinct ways: I. The two elements may unite without change of • form:^ cUcem-viri^ the decemvirs, ten men; ab-eo^ to go away. II. One element, generally the first, may be put in an oblique case, generally the genitive, dependent upon the other; legis-lator^ legislator, from lex,, legis,, and lator, III. The stem of the first element may unite with the second element, or with its stem: helli-gero^ to wage war, from bellum and gero / magn-arnmus,, magnanimous, from magnus and ammus * frug-i~fer , fruit-bearing, from frux and fero, 1. The final vowel of the stem is often dropped, as in magn-ammus, or changed, as in helli-gero. Sometimes a connecting vowel is inserted between the parts of a compound : f^ug-i-fer, fruit-bearing. 2. Prepositions in Composition admit the following euphonic changes. A, ab, abs:— «before m and v ; ahs before c, p, t; ah before the vowels and the other consonants : a-mitto ; abs-condo ; dh-eo, ah-jicio. But ahs before p drops h : as-porto for ahs-porto. Ah becomes au in au- fero and aufugio. Ad, — unchanged before vowels and before 5, d, A, j, m, and v ; d gen- erally assimilated before the other consonants, but changed to c before q and dropped before gn and often before sc, sp, and st : dd-eo, ad-do, ad- jungo ; af-fero, al-ligo ; ac-quiro, a-gnosco (gd and gnosco), a-scendo. Ante, — the original form anti, retained in anti-cipo and anti-sto. Cirenm, — unchanged, except in circu-eo. Cbm for cum, — (1) unchanged before h, m, p: com-hiho, com-mitto, (2) m generally dropped before vowels. A, and gn : co-eo, co-haero, co-gnosco, — (3) m assimilated before I, n, r : col-ligo, cor-rumpo, — (4) m changed to n before the other consonants : con-fero, con-gero. E, ex :—ex before vowels and before c, A, p, q, s, t, and with assimi- lation before/; c generally before the other consonants and sometimes before p and s ; ex-eo, ex-pdno, effero ; e-duco, e-ligo, e-polo, e-scendo. S after ex is often dropped : exspecto or expecto. In, — n assimilated before I, m, r, changed to m before h, p ; in other situations unchanged: il-ludo, im-mittd; im-huo,im-p6no ; in-eo, in-duco. 1 Except of course euphonic changes. 152 COMPOSITIOIir OF WORDS. Inter, — unchanged, except in intel-ligo. Ob, — assimilated before c, /, p ; in other situations generally un, changed: oc-ciirro^ of-ficio^ op-pono ; oh-jicio^ oh-sto. But b is dropped in and an old form ohs occurs in a few words : obs-olesco, os-tendo for ohs-iendo (b dropped). Per, — unchanged, except in pel-Iicio, pel-luceo, and pe-jh'o. Post, unchanged except in pd-moerium and p6-merldidnus. Pro, prod \—prdd the usual form before a vowel : prod-eo^ prdd-igo. Sub, — b assimilated before c, /, jo, generally before m and r : dropped before sp ; in other situations unchanged : mc-cumbo^ sii-spicio for sicb- spicio ; sub-eo^ sub-duco. An old form subs shortened to sus occurs in a few words : sus-cipio^ sus-pendo. Trans drops s before s, and often ns before d^ n : trans-eo^ trans^ fero ; iran-silio for trans-sVio ; tra-do for irans-do ; tra-jicio for tram- jicio ; trd-no for tram-no. 3. Inseparable Prepositions (307) also admit euphonic changes: Ambi, amb : — amb before vowels ; ambi^ am^ or an before conso- nants : amb-igo ; ambX-dem^ am-puto^ an-quiro. Dis, di : dXs before c, jo, s before a vowel, and with assimilation, before/; di in most other situations: dis-curro, dis-pono, dif-Jiuo ; di- duco, di-moveo. But dir occurs in dXr-imo and dXr-Xbeo (dis and habeo), and both dis and di occur before y.* dis-jungo, di-Judico. In, — n dropped before gn : i-gnosco ; otherwise like the prep, in above. Por, — r assimilated before I and s ; in other situations unchanged : pol-liceor, pos-sXdeo, por-rXgo. Red, re : — rH before vowels, before h, and in red-do ; r^ in other situ- ations : red-eo, rM-Xgo, red-hXbeo ; re-clddo, re-vello. Sed, se : sed before vowels, se before consonants : sed-itio, se-pono. 339. In Compound Nouns, the first part is generally a noun, but sometimes an adjective, adverb, or preposition ; the second part i arti-fex, capri-cornus, aequi-noctium, ne-mo, pro-nomen. a verb or noun : artist, from capricorn, “ equinox, “ nobody, “ pronoun, “ ars and facio, cap Sr and cornu, aequus and nox. ne and homo, pro and nomen. 1. Genitive in Compounds. — In compounds of two nouns, or of a noun and an adjective, the first part is often a genitive: legis-lator, legislator; juris-consultus, lawyer. 2. Compounds in fex, c^n, and cbla, are among the most important compounds of nouns and verbs ; fex from, fdcio ; c^n from cdno ; chla from cblo : artX-fex, artist ; tubX-chi, trumpeter ; Hgri-cbla, husbandman. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 153 340. In Compound Adjectives, the first part is gen- erally a noun, adjective, or preposition, and the second a noun, adjective or verb: leti-fer, death-hearing, from ietum and fero.^ magn-animus, magnanimous, “ magnus and animus, per-facilis, very easy, “ per and facilis. 341, In Compound Verbs the first part is a noun, adjective, verb, adverb, or preposition, and the second is a verb: aedi-fico, ampli-fico, pate-fScio, bene-facio, ab-eo, to build, from to enlarge, “ to open, “ to benefit, “ to go avmy, “ aedes and facio, amplus and facio, pateo and facio, bene and f^cio. ab and eo. 1. When the first part is a verb, the second is generally /«cm .* phte- fdcio. 2. When the first part is a noun or adjective, the second is generally fitdo or ago. These verbs then become fuo and Kgo of Conj. I. : aedi-fico, are, to build; nav-igo, are, to sail, from navis and ago. 3. Verbs compounded with prepositions often undergo certain vowel- changes. 1) ^ short and e generally become^; habeo, dd-hibeo ; teneo, con-tmeo. But a sometimes becomes e ov u: carpo, de-cerpo ; calco, con-culco. 2) Ae becomes i : caedo, in-cido. 3) Au generally becomes 6 ov u: plaudo, ex-plodo ; claudo, in-cludo. 4. Changes in Prepositions. — See 338, 2 and 3. 342. Compound Adverbs are variously formed, but most of them may be divided into three classes: 1. Such as consist of an oblique case with its preposition; ad-modum, very, to the full measure ; ob-viam, in the way. 2. Such as consist of a noun with its adjective : hb-die {hoc and die), to- day, on this day ; qua-re, wherefore, by which thing. 3. Such as consist of two particles : dd-huc, hitherto ; inter-dum, some- times ; in-supbr, moreover. PART THIRD. SYNTAX. CHAPTEE I. SYNTAX OE SEHTEHCES. SECTION I CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 343. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 344. A sentence is thought expressed in language. 345. In their structure, sentences are either Simple^ Complex., or Compound : I. A Simple Sentence expresses but a single thought : Deus mundum aedificavit, God made the world. Cic. II. A Complex Sentence expresses two (or more) thoughts so related that one is dependent upon the other : Donee eris felix, multos numerabis amicos; So long as yoti are pros- perous, you will nuinber many friends, Ovid. 1. Clauses.— In this example two simple sentences, (1) “Fow will te prosper- ous^'' and (2) '''‘You will number many friends^'" are so united that the first only specifies the time of the second: You will number many friends (when ?), so long as you are prosperous. The parts thus united are called Clauses or Members. 2. Principal and Subordinate. — The part of the complex sentence which makes complete sense of itself— numerabis amicos— called the Principal Clause; and the part which is dependent upon it — donee eris felix— is, called the Subordinate Clause. III. A Compound Sentence expresses two or more in- dependent thoughts : Sol ruit et montes umbrantur, The sun descends and the mountains are shaded. Yirg. 346. In their use, sentences are either Declarative., Li' terrogative., Imperative., or Exclamatory. I. A Declarative Sentence has the form of an asser- tion : Miltiades accusatus est, Miltiades was accused. Nep. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 155 11. All Interrogative Sentence lias the form of a question : Quis non paupertatem extimescit, WIio does not fear poverty^ Cic 1, Interrogative Words. — Interrogative sentences generally contain some interrogative word— either an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or ad- verb, or one of the interrogative particles, ne, nonne, num : 1) Questions with ne ask for information: Scrlhitne, Is he writing? is always thus appended to some other word. But ne appended to the principal verb often suggests the answer ^jes, while appended to any other word, it often suggests the answer no. It is sometimes appended to utrum, num, or an, without affecting their meaning, and sometimes inserted in the clause after utrum : Utrum taceamne, an praedicem, Shall I he silent, or shall I speak? Ter. 2) Questions with nonne expect the answer yes: Nonne scribit. Is he not writing ? Non for nonne indicates surprise that there should be any doubt on the question : Non mdes, Do you really not see? 3) Questions with num expect the answer no : Num scribit. Is he writing.*' 4) Questions with an. See 2. 4) below. 5) The interrogative word is sometimes omitted, and sometimes numquid is used for num, and ecquid for ne or nonne : Ecquid mdes. Do you not see? 2. Double Questions. —Double or disjunctive questions offer a choice or alternative, and generally take one of the following forms • 1) The first clause has utrum, num, or ne, and the second an : Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est. Is that your fault or oui's ? Cic. 2) The first clause omits the particle, and the second has an or ne : Eloquar an sileam, Shall I utter it, or keep silence ? Virg. 3) When the second clause is negative, the particle generally unites with the negative, giving annon or necne: Sunt haec tua verba necne. Are these your words or not ? Cic, 4) By the omission of the first clause, the second often stands alone with an. In the sense of or : An hoc timemus. Or do we fear this ? Liv. 5) Other forms are rare. 3. Answers. — In answers the verb or some emphatic word is usually repeated, often prorsus, vero, and the like ; or if negative, with non : Dixitne causam ? Dixit. Did he state the cause? He stated it. Cic. Pos- Biimusne tuti esse? Non possumus. Can we be safe ? We cannot. Cic. 1) Sometimes the simple particle is used; affirmatively, sane, etiam, Ita, v^ro, certe, etc., negatively, non, minime, etc. /J Venitne? Non. Has he come? No. Plant. III. An Imperative Sentence has the form of a com inaiid, exhortation, or entreaty : Justitiam cole, Cultivate justice, Cic. IV. An Exclamatory Sentence exclamation : has the form of an 156 SIMPLE SENTENCJESv SECTION II. SIMPLE SENTENCES. Elements of Sentences. 347. The simple sentence in its most simple form con- sists of two distinct parts, expressed or implied : 1 . The Subject, or that of which it speaks. 2. The Pkedicate, or that which is said of the subject : Cluilius moritur, Clmlius dies. Liv. Here Cluilius is the subject, and moritur the predicate. 348. The simple sentence in its most expanded form consists only of these same parts with their various modi- fiers : In his castris Cluilius, Albanus rex, moritur ; Cluilius^ the Alban king^ dies in this camp. Liv. Here Cluilius, Albanus rex, is the subject in its enlarged or modified form, and in his castris moritur the predicate in its enlarged or modified form. 349. Peincipal and Suboedinate. — The subject and predicate, being essential to the structure of every sen- tence, are called the Principal or Essential elements ; hut their modifiers, being subordinate to these, are called the Subordinate elements. 350. Simple and Complex. — The elements, whether principal or subordinate, may be either simple or complex : 1. Simple.^ when not modified by other words. 2. Complex.^ when thus modified. Simple Subject. 351. The subject of a sentence, expressed or implied, must be a noun or some word or words used as a noun v Rex decrevit, The king decreed. Nep. scrlbo, I write. Cic. Video idem valet, The word video has the same meaning. Quint. Complex Subject. 353. The subject admits the following modifiers : I. An Adjective : Populus Romanus decrevit. The Roman people decreed. Cic. II. A Noun either in apposition with the subject, in the genitive, or in an oblique case with a preposition : SIMPLE SENTENCES. 157 Cluilius rex moritur, Cluilius the king dies. Liv. Rex Rutulorum^ the king of the Rutuli, Liv. Liber de ojfic'tis^ The book on duties. Cic. 1. Modifiers op Nouns. — Any noun may be modified like the subject. 2. Appositive and its Subject. — The noun in apposition with another is called an Appositive^ and the other noun is called the Subject of the appositive. 3. Adverbs with Nouns. — Sometimes adverbs and adverbial expres- sions occur as modifiers of nouns : Non ignari siimus ante malorum, We are not ignorant of past misfor^ tunes, Virg. Victoria apud Cnidum, The victory at Cnidus. Nep. Simple Predicate. 353. The simple predicate must he either a verb or the copula sum with a noun or adjective: Miltiades est accusatus, Miltiades was accused. Nep. Tu es testis, You arc a wHness. Cic. Eortuna caeca est, Fovtu^ie is blind. Cic. 1. Like Sum several other verbs sometimes unite with a noun or adjec- tive to form the predicate. See 362. 2. A noun or adjective thus used is called a Predicate Noun or Predicate Adjective. 2. Sum with an Adverb sometimes forms the predicate : Omnia recte sunt, All things are right. Cic. Complex Predicate. 854. I. The Verb admits the following modifiers : I. Objective Modifiers : 1. K Direct Object in the Accusative— that upon which the action is directly exerted : Miltiades Athenas Uberavit, Miltiades liheraied Athens. Nep. 2. An Indirect Object in the Dative — that to or for which something is or is done : Ldbori student. They devote themselves to labor. Caes. 3. Combined Objects consisting of two or more cases : Me rbgavit sententiam, He asked me my opinion. Cic. ^ Pons iter hos- tibus dedit. The bridge furnished a passage to the enemy. Liv. II. Adverbial Modifiers : 1. Adverbs : feliciter gessit, He waged wars successfully. Cic. 2. Adverbial Expressions — consisting of oblique cases of nouns, with or without prepositions: 158 COMPLEX SENTENCES. In his castris moritur, He dies (where ?) in this camp. Liv. Vere coiIn venere, They assembled (when ?) in the spring. Liv. 355. 11. The Peedicate IsToun is modified in the va- rious ways specified for the subject ( 352 ). 356. III. The Peedicate Adjective admits the fol- lowing modifiers : I. An Adveeb : Satis humilis est, He is sufficiently humble. Liv. II. A Noun in an oblique case : 1. Genitive : Avidi laudis fuerunt, They were desirous of praise. Cic. 2. Dative : Omni aetati mors est communis, Death is common to every age. Cic. 3. Ablative : Digni sunt amicitia. They are worthy of friendship. Cic. SECTION III. COMPLEX SENTENCES. 357. A Complex sentence differs from a Simple one only in taking a sentence or clause as one (or more) of its elements : I. A Sentence as an Element : ‘‘Civis Komanus sum” audiebatur, “ J am a Roman citizen'^'' was heard. Cic. Aliquis dicat mihi : “ Nulla habes vitia ; ” Some one may say to me., “ Have you no faults i ” Hor. 1. In the first example, an entire sentence— Romanus swm— is used as the Subject of a new sentence ; and in the second example, the sen tence — Nulla hales vitia — is the Object of dicat. 2. Any sentence may be thus quoted and introduced without change of form as an element in a new sentence. II. A Clause as an Element : Traditum est Homerum caecum fuisse. That Homer was blind has been handed down by tradition. Cic. Qualis sit Animus, animus nescit. The soul knows not what the soul is. Cic. 1. In these examples the clauses used as elements have undergone cer- tain changes to adapt them to their subordinate rank. The clause Homerum caecum fuissCf the subject of traditum est, if used as an independent sen- tence, would be Homerus caecus fuit / and the clause Qualis sit animus, the object oi nescit, would be Qualis est animus. What is th.e soul ? 2. Forms of Subordinate Clauses. 1) Infinitive with Subject Accusative : IToc majores dicere audivi, I have heard that our ancestors said this. Cic. 2) Indirect Questions : COMPOUND SENTENCES. 159 Quid dies fcrat, incertum cst, What a day may hring forth is uncertain. Cic. 3) Relative Clauses : Sententia, quae tutissima videbatur, The opinion ichich seemed the safest. Liv. 4) Clauses with Conjunctions : Mos est ut dicat. It is his custom to speak. Cic. Priusquam lucet, adsunt. They are present before it is light. Cic. 358. Infinitive Clauses sometimes drop tlieir subjects: Dlligi jucundum est, It is pleasant to he loved. Cic. Ylvere est cogi- tare, To live is to think. Cic. See 545. 2. 359. Participles often supply the place of subordinate clauses. Plato scribens mortuus est, Plato died while writing^ or while he was writing. Cic. See 576-5V8. SECTION lY. COMPOUND SENTENCES. 369. Compound sentences express two or more inde- pendent thoughts, and are of five varieties : I. Copulative Sentences — in which two or more thoughts are presented in harmony with each other : Sol ruit et montes umbrantur. The sun descends and the mountains are shaded. Yirg. II. Disjunctive Sentences — in which a choice be- tween two or more thoughts is offered : Audendum est aliquid aut omnia patienda sunt. Something must he risked or all things must he endured. Liv. III. Adversative Sentences — in which the thoughts are opposed to each other : Gyges a nullo videbatur, ipse autem omnia videbat, Gyges was seen hy no one., hut he himself saw all things. Cic. IV. Illative Sentences — which contain an inference : Nihil laboras, ideo nihil habes ; You do nothing, therefore you have nothing. Phaed. V. Causal Sentences^ — which contain a cause or rea^ son : Difficile est consilium, sum enim s5lus ; Consultation is difficult, foi lam alone. Cic. IGO COMPOUND SENTENCES. 1. The CoNNECTiYES generally used in these several classes of compounds ar*. the corresponding classes of conjunctions, i. e., copulati'ce^ disjunctive^ adversative^ illative^ and causal conjunctions. See 310. But the connective is often omitted. ’ 2. Disjunctive Questions have special connectives. See 346. II. 2. 361. Compound sentences are generally abridged when their members have parts in common. Such sentences have compound elements : 1. Compound Subjects : Aborigines Troj unique ducem amisere, The Aborigines and the Tro- jans lost their leader. Liv. The two members here united are : Aborigines ducem amisere and Trojani ducem amisere; but as they have the same predicate, ducem amisere., that predi- cate is expressed but once, and the two subjects are united into the compound sub- ject: Aborigines Trojanlque. 2. Compound Predicates : Romani parant consultantque, The Romans prepare and consult. Liv. 3. Compound Modifiers : Athenas Gracciamque liberavit, He liberated Athens and Greece. Nep. CHAPTEK 11. SYNTAX OF NOUNS. SECTIOI^^ I. AGREEMENT OF NOUNS. RULE I— Predicate Nouns. 362. A Predicate Noun denoting the same person or thing as its Subject agrees with it in case : ' Ego sum nuntius, lam a messenger. Liv. Servius rex est declaratus, Servius was declared king. Liv. Orestem se esse dixit. He said that he was Orestes. Cic. See 353. 1. In Gender and Nu^^iber Agreement either may or may not take place. But 1) If the Predicate Noun has different forms for different genders, it must agree with its subject in gender : Usus magister est, Experience is an instructor. Cic. Historia est magistra {not magister). History is an instructress. Cic. 1 For Pred. Noun denoting a different person or thing from its wSubject, see 401. For convenience of reference the Rules will bo presented in a body on page 274. AGKEEMEOT OP NOTOS. 161 2. With Finite Yeebs. — Predicate ISTouns are most frequent . 1) With Sum and a few intransitive verbs ; evado, exsisto, a]opdreo,d,n^ the like : Ego sum nuntius, I am a messenger. Liv. Homo magnus evaserat, Ile had become (turned out) a great man. Cic. Exstitit vindex libertatis, He became (stood forth) the defender of liberty. Cic. 2) With Passive verbs of appointing, making, naming, regarding, es- teeming, and the like : Servius rex est declaratus, Servius was declared king. Liv. Mundus civitas existimatur. The world is regarded as a state. Cic. (1) In the poets. Predicate Nouns are used with great freedom after verbs of a great variety of significations. Thus Avith audio — appellor / Kex aiidi-sti, You have been called king; i. e., have heard yourself so called. Her. (2) For Predicate Accusative, see 373. 1. (3) The Dative of the object for which (390), pro with the AbL, and loco or in nhmero with the Gen. are often kindred in force to Predicate Nouns ; hosti, pro koste, loco hostis, in numero hostium, for or as an enemy. See also Pred. Gen. 401. 3. With Infinitives, Participles, etc. — Predicate Nouns are used not only with finite verbs, but also with Infinitives and Participles, and some- times without verb or participle : Declaratus rex Numa, Numa having been declared king. Liv. Caninio con- sule, Caninius being consul. Cic. See 431, also Orestem under the rule. 1) For Predicate Nominative after esse, see 517. 2) For Infinitive or Clause as Predicate, see 553, L ; 495, 3. RULE n.— Appositives. 363. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in case : Cluilius rex moritur, Cluilius tlie king dies. Liv. Urbes Carthago atque Numantia, the cities Carthage and Numantia. Cic. See 352. 2. 1. In Gender and ISTumber the appositive conforms to the same rule as the predicate noun. See 362. 1. 2. The Subject of the appositive is often omitted : Hostis hostem occidere volui, / {ego understood) an enemy wished, to slay an enemy. Liv. 3. Force of Appositives. — Appositives are generally kindred in force to Relative clauses, but sometimes to Temporal clauses: Cluilius rex, Cluilius (who was) the king. Liv. Flirius pucr didicit, Furius learned, when a boy, or as a boy. Cic. 4. Partitive Appositive. — The parts are sometimes in apposition with the whole : Duo reges, ille hello, hie pace civitatem auxerunt. Two kings advanced the state, the former by war, the latter by peace. Liv. Conversely the whole may be in apposition with its parts. 5. Clauses. — A noun or pronoun may be in apposition with a clause, ora clause in apposition with a noun or pronoun. See 445, 7,; 553, IL 162 :^OMINATIVE CASEo SECTIO]^ II. NOMINA TIYE. 364. Cases. — Nouns have different forms or cases to mark the various relations in which they are used. These cases, in accordance with their general force, may he ar- ranged and characterized as follows : I. Nominative, II. Yocative, III. Accusative, IV. Dative, Y. Genitive, YI. Ablative, Case of the Subject. Case of Address. Case of Direct Object. Case of Indirect Object. Case of Adjective Delations. Case of Adverbial Delations.^ 365. Kindred Cases. — The cases naturally arrange themselves in pairs : the Nominative and Yocative require no governing word ; the Ac- cusative and Dative are the regular cases of the Object of an action ; the Genitive has usually the force of an Adjective, and the Ablative that of an Adverb. 366. NoMmATivE. — The Nominative is either the Sub- ject of a Sentence or in agreement with another Nomina- tive. RULE m. — Subject Nominative. 367. The Subject of a Finite Verb is put in the Nominative : ^ Servius regnavit, Servius reigned. Liv. Patent portae. The gates are open. Cic. Rex vicit, The king conquered. Liv. 1. The Subject is always a substantive, a pronoun, or some word or clause used substantively : Ego reges ejeci, I have banished kings. Cic. 2. Subject Omitted. — The subject is generally omitted 1) When it is a Personal Pronoun, unless expressed for contrast or emphasis, and when it can be readily supplied from the context ; Discipulos mdneo, ut studia ament, I instruct pupils to love their studies. Quint. 2) When it means men, people : Ferunt^ They say. 8) When the verb is impersonal : Pluit, It rains. 3. Yerb Omitted. — The Yerb is sometimes omitted, when it can be readily supplied, especially est and sunt : 1 This arrangement is adopted in the discussion of the cases, because, it is thought, it will best present the force of the several cases and their relation to each other. 2 For the Subject of the Infinitive, see 545. For the agreement of the verb with its subject, see 460. NOMINATIVE. VOCATIVE. IG3 Ecce tuae littSrae, Lo your letter (comes). Cic. Tot sententiae, There are (sunt) so many ojyinions. Ter. Consul profectus (est), The consul set out, Liv. 1) Fdcio is often omitted in short sentences and clauses. Thus with nihil dliud (amplius, minus, etc.) quam^ nihil praeterquam — merely, si nihil dliud^ flnem, etc. ; Nihil aliud quam steterunt. They merely stood (did nothing other than). Liv. Also in brief expressions of opinion ; Kecte illc. He does rightly. Cic. 368. Agreement. — A Nominative in agreement with another nominative is either a Predicate Noun or an Ap- positive. See 362 and 363. For the Predicate Nominative after a verb with ^sse, see 547. SECTION III. VOCATIVE. SULE IV.— Case of Address. 369. The Name of the person or thing addressed is put in the Vocative : Perge, Laeli, Proceed^ Laelius. Cic. Quid est, Catilina, Why is ity Catiline? Cic. Tuum est, Servi, regnum. The kingdom is yours, Servius. Liv. 0 dii immortales, 0 immortal gods. Cic. 1. With Interjections.— The vocative is used both with and without interjections. 2 Nominative for Vocative. — In poetry and sometimes in prose, the nominative in apposition with the subject occurs where we should expect the vocative : Audi tu, pSpidus Albanus, ITear Alhan peopU. Liv. Here populus may be treated as a Nom. in apposition with tu, though it may also be treated as an Irieg- ularVoc. See 52,3. 8. Vocative for Nominative.— Conversely the vocative by attraction sometimes occurs in poetry where we should expect the nominative . Quibus, Hector, ab oris exspectate venis. From what shores. Hector, do you anxiously awaited come ? Virg. SECTION IV. accusa tive. 370. The Accusative is used I. As the Direct Object of an Action. II. As the Subject of an Infinitive. III. In Agreement with another Accusative. IV. In an Adverbial Sense— with or without Prepositions. V. In Exclamations— with or without Interjections. 164 ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECT OBJECT. L Accusative as Direct Object. E.TJLE V— Direct Object. 371 . The Direct Object of an action is put in the Accusative : Deus mundum aedificavit, God made the world. Cic. Libera rem publicam, Free the republic. Cic. Populi Romani salutem defendite. De- fend the safety of the Roman people. Cic. 1. The Direct Object may be 1 ) The Object^ person or thing, on which the action of the verb is di- rectly exerted, as salutem above. 2) The Effect of the action, i. e., the object produced by it, as mun- dum above. 3) The Cognate Accusative. Many verbs, generally intransitive, some- times become so far transitive as to admit an accusative of cognate or kindred meaning : Earn vitam vivSre, to live that life. Cic. Mirum somniare somnium, to dream a wonderful dream. Plaut. Servitutem servire, to serve a servitude. Ter. (1) This accusative is usually qualified by an adjective as in the first two exam- ples. (2) Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives often supply the place of the Cognate ac- cusative : Elidem peccat, He makes the same mistakes. Cic. Hoc studet unum, He studies this one thing (this one study). Hor. Id assentior, I make this assent. Cic, Idem gloriari, to make the same hoast. Cic. (3) The object is often omitted when it is a reflexive (184, 5) or can be easily supplied : moveo =- moveo me, I move (myself) ; vertit == vertit se, he moves (him- self). (4) Some verbs are sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive: augeo., diiro^ incipio., laxo., ruo, suppedito., turbo, etc. 2. With or Without other Cases. — T he direct object may be used with all transitive verbs, whether with or without other cases. See 384. 410. 419. 3. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. — M any verbs transi- tive in English are intransitive in Latin. See 385. Conversely some verbs intransitive in English are transitive in Latin, or at least are often so used, especially verbs denoting 1) Feeling or Mental State : despero, to despair of ; dblco, to grieve for ; gemo, to sigh over; horreo, to shudder at; Idcrimo, to weep over; moereo, to mourn over; miror, to wonder at ; rideo, to laugh at ; to thirst for, etc. , V _ /777 Honores desperat. He despairs of honors. Cic. Ilaec gemebant. They were sighing over these things. Cic. Detrimenta ridet. He laughs at losses. Hor. 2) Taste or Smell: dleo, sdpio, and their compounds, both literally and figuratively : Bir.ECT OBJECT. TWO ACCUSATIVES. 165 Olet unguenta, He smells of p erf umes. Ter. Oratio redolet antiquitatem, T^ic oration smacks of antiquity, Cic. 4. Compounds of Peepositions. — W e notice two classes: 1) Many compounds become transitive by the force of the prepositions with which they are compounded, especially compounds of circum^ per^ prae- ter y trans y super y and subter : Murmur concionem pervasit, A murmur went through the assembly. Liv. Rhenum transierunt, They crossed (went across) the Rhine. €aes. 2) Many compounds, without becoming strictly transitive, admit an Accus. dependent upon the preposition : Circumstant senatum, They stand around the senate. Cic. 5. Clause as Object. — An Infinitive or a Clause may be used as Direct Object: Imperare ciipiunt, They desire to rule. Just. Sentimus ca.ere ignem. We perceive that fire is hot. Cic. 6. Passive Consteuction, — W ben a verb takes the passive construction 1) The direct object of the active becomes the subject of the passive, and 2) The subject of the active becomes the Ablative of Cause (414) or the Ablative of Agent with a or ab (414. 5),. Thebani Lysandrum occiderunt. The Thebans slew Lysander. Passive: Lysander occisus est aTliebanis, Lysander was slain by the Thebans. Nep. 7. Accusative in Special Instances. — P articiples in duSy ver- bal adjectives in hundm., and in Plautus a few verbal nouns, occur with the accusative : Vitabundus castra, avoiding the camp. Liv. Quid tibi hanc curatio est rem. What care have you of this f Plant. 372. Two Accusatives.— Two accusatives without any connective, expressed or understood, may depend upon the same verb. They may denote 1. The same person or thing. 2. Dififerent persons or things. Any number of accusatives connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, may of course depend upon the same verb. EULE VI.— Two Accusatives— Same Person. 373. Verbs of making, choosing, calling, eegaed- iNG, SHOWING, and the like, admit two Accusatives of the same person or thing : Hamilcarem imperatorem fecSrunt, They made Hamilcar commander* Nep. Ancum rSgem populus creavit, The people elected Ancus king. Liv. Summum consilium appellarunt Senatum, They called their highest cmmcil Senate. Cic. Se praestitit propugnatorem libertatis, He showed 166 TWO ACCUSATIVES. himself the champion of liberty, Cic. Flaccum habuit ccllSgam, He had Flaccus as colleague, Nep. 1. Predicate Accusative. — O ne of the two accusatives is the Direct Ob- jecty and the other an essential part of the Predicate. The latter may 6e called a Predicate Accusative, See 362. 2. (2). 2. Verbs with Predicate Accusative. — T he verbs which most frequent- ly admit a Direct Object with a Predicate Accusative are verbs of 1) Making^ electing : facio, efficio, reddo,— creo, elTgo, designo, declaro. 2) Calling^ regarding : appello, nomino, voco, dico, — arbitror, existimo, duco, judico, habeo, puto. 3) Showing : praesto, praebeo, exhibeo. 3. Adjective as Predicate Accusative.— T he Predicate Accusative may be either Substantive or Adjective : Homines caecos reddit avaritia, Avarice renders men olind. Cic. 4. Passive Construction. — I n the Passive these verbs take two Nomina- tives, a Subject and Predicate^ corresponding to the two Accusatives of the Active : Servius rex est declaratus, Servius was declared king. Liv. See 362. 2. 2.) EXILE VII.— Two Accusatives— Person and Thing. 874. Some verbs of asking, demanding, teaching, and CONCEALING, admit two Accusatives in the Active, and one in the Passive : Me sententiam rogavit, He ashed me my opinion. Cic. Ego senten- tiam rogatus sum, I was asked my opinion. Cic. Philosophia nos res om- nes docuit, Philosophy has taught us all things. Cic. Artes edoctus fue- rat, He had been taught the arts. Liv. Non te celavi sermonem, I did not conceal from you the conversation. Cic. 1. Peeson and Thing. — One accusative generally designates the person^ the other the thing : with the Passive the accusative of the Person becomes the subject and the accusative of the thing is retained : see examples. 2. Yeebs with two Accusatives. — Those most frequently so used are 1) Regularly : celo — doceo, edoceo, dedoceo. 2) Sometimes: oro, exoro, r5go, interrbgo, percontor, flagito, posco, reposco. 8. Othee Oonsteuctions also occur : 1) Celo : Ablative with a preposition : Me de boc libro celavit, Ile kept me ignorant of this hook. Cic. Passive : Acens, of Neuter pronoun or Abi. with de : Hoc celari, to he kept ignorant of this. Ter. Celari de consilio, to he kept ignorant of the plan. Cic. The Dative is rare: Id Alcibiadi celari non potuit. This could not he concealed from Alcibiades. Nep. 2) Verbs of Teaching : Ablative with or without a preposition : De sua re me docet ; He informs me in regard to his case. Cic. SScr^tem fidi- bus dbcuit, He taught Socrates (w'ith) the lyre. Cic. TWO ACCUSATIVES. 167 ^ S) Verbs of Asking^ Demanding ; Ablative with a preposition : Hoc a me poscSre, to demand this from me. Cic. Te iisdem de rebus iaterr6go, i ask you in regard to the same things. Cic. 4) postulo^ and quaero take the Ablative of the person with a V preposition : Pacem a Pwomanis petierunt, They asked peace from the Romans. Caes. i 4. Infinitive or Clause as Accusative of thing : \ Te sapere docet, De teaches you to he wise. Cic. 5. A Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as a second accusative occurs with many verbs which do not otherwise take two accusa-* y txyes: ^ Hoc te hortor, 1 exhort you to this, 1 give you this exhortation. Cic. Ea V monemur, iVe are admonished of these things. Cic. 6. Compound Verbs. — A few compounds of tram., circum, ad, ^ and in admit two accusatives, dependent the one upon the verb, the other upon the preposition : y Iberum copias trajecit, He led his forces across the Ebro. Liv. In the Passive, not only these, but even other compounds sometimes admit an ^ Accus. depending upon the preposition : y Praetervehor ostia Pantagiae, I am carried by the mouth of the Pantagia. Virg. 7. Poetic Accusative. — In poetry, rarely in prose, verbs of clothing, unclothing — induo, exuo, cingo, accingo, induco, etc. — sometimes take in the Passive an accusative in imitation of the A Greek: s Galeam induitur, He puts on his helmet. Virg. Inutile ferrum cingitur, ^ He girds on his useless sword. Virg. Virgines longam indutae vestem, j maidens attired in long robes. Liv. II. Accusative as Subject oe Infinitive, 375. The Accusative is used as the Subject of an Infin- itive ; see 545 : Platonem ferunt in Italiam venisse, They say that Plato came into Holy. Cic. Platonem is the subject of venisse. III. Accusative in agreement with an Accusative. 376. The Accusative in agreement with another Accu- sative is either a Predicate Noun or an Appositive : Orestem se esse dixit. He said that he was Orestes. Cic. Apud Hero- 's dotum, patrem historiae, in Herodotus, the father of history. Cic. See 862 and 803. i6S ADVERBIAI. ACCUSATIVE, IV. Accusative in an Adverbial Sensi: 377. In an Adverbial sense the Accusative is used either with or without Prepositions, 1. With Prepositions. See 483. 2. Without Prepositions.— Tho Adverbial use of the Accusative without Prepositions is presented in the following rules. EULS VIII.— Accusative of Time and Space. 378. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusative : Romulus septem et triginta regnavit annos, Romulus reigned thirty- seven years, Liv. Quinque millia passuum ambulare, to walk Jive miles. Cic. Pedes octoginta distare, to he eighty feet distant. Caes. Nix quat- tuor pSdes alta, snow four feet deep. Liv. But 1. Duration of Time is sometimes expressed by the Ablative or the Accusative with a Preposition : 1) By the Ablative : Pugnatum est horis quinque, The battle was fought five hoxirs. Caes. 2) By the Accusative with Preposition : Per annos viginti certatum est, The war was waged for twenty years. Liv. 2. Distance is sometimes expressed by the Ablative : Millibus passuum sex consedit, He encamped at the distance of six miles. Caes. Sometimes with a preposition ; Ab millibus passuum duobus, at th^ distance of two miles. Caes. RULE IX.— Accusative cf Limit. 379. The Name of a Town used as the Limit of motion is put in the Accusative : Nuntius Romam redit. The messenger returns to Rome. Liv. Plato Tarentum venit, Plato carne to Tarentum. Cic. Fugit Tarquinios, He fed to Tarquinii. Cic. But 1. The Accusative with Ad occurs : 1) In the sense of — to^ toward^ in the direction of, into the vicinity of : Tres sunt viae ad Mutinam, There are three roads to Mutina. Cic. Ad Z^mam pervenit, He came to the vicinity of Zama. Sail. 2) In contrast with a or ab : A Dianio ad Sinopen, /rcw Dianium to Sinope. Cic. 2. Urbs or Oppidum with a Preposition : Pervenit in oppidum Cirtam, He came into the town of Cirta. Sail. 8. Like INames of Towns are used ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE. 169 1) The Accusatives domum, domos, rus ; Scipio domum i eductus est, 8ci]^io was conducted home, Cic. Ldmos abducti, led to their homes, Liv. Rus evolare, to hasten into the country. Cic. 2) Sometimes the Accusative of names of Islands and Peninsulas : Latona confugit Delum, Latona fled to Deloe. Cic. Pervenit Chers8n6- sum, He went to the Chersonesus. Nep. 4. Names of Other Places used as the limit of motion are generally in tie Accusative with a Preposition : lu Asiani redit, He returns into Asia. Nep. But the preposition is sometimes omitted before names of countries, and, in the poets, before names of nations and even before common nouns : Aegyptum profugit, He Jied to Egypt. Cic. Italiam venit, He came to Italy. Virg, Ibimus Afros, We shall go to the Africans. Virg. Lavinia venit litora, Hi came to the Larinian shores. Virg. 5. A Poetic Dative for the accusative with or without a preposition occurs : It clamor coelo (for ad coelum). The shout ascends to heaven. Virg. ETJLE X.— Accusative of Specification. 380. A Verb or A(3jective may take an Accusative to define its application : Capita velamur, We have our heads veiled (are veiled as to our heads). Virg. Nube humeros amictus, with his shoulders enveloped in a cloud, Hor. Miles fractus membra labore, the soldier with limbs shattered with labor (broken as to his limbs). Hor. Aeneas os deo similis, Aeneas like a god in appearance. Virg. 1. In a strict sense, the Accusative of Specification generally specifies the part to which the action or quality particularly belongs. In this sense, it is mostly poetic, but occurs also in prose. See 429. 2. In a freer sense, this Accusative includes the adverbial use ai partem, vicem, nihil, oiid and genus in id temporis, id aetatis (at this time, age), id genus, omne genus, quod genus {fov ejus generis, etc.), etc. ; also oi secus, libra and of many neuter pronouns and adjectives ; hoc, illud, id, quid (454, 2), multum, summum, cetera, reliqua, etc. In this sense, it is common in prose. Maximam partem lacte vivunt, They live mostly (as to the largest part) upon milk. Caes. Nihil moti sunt, They were not at all moved. Liv.^ Locus id temporis vacuus erat, The place was at this time vacant. Cic. Aliquid id genus scribere, to write something of this hind. Cic. Quaerit, quid possint. He inquires how powerful they are. Caes. Quid vSuis, Why do you comef V. Accttsative in Exclamations. EULE XI.— Accusative in Exclamations. 381. The Accusative either with or without an In- terjection may he used in Exclamations : 170 ACCUSATIVE. DATIVE. Eeu me miserum, Ah me unhappy / Cic. Me miserum, Me miserable ! ' Cic. 0 fallacem spem, O deceptive hope I Cic. Me caecum. Blind that 1 am I Cic. Pro deorum fidem, Li the name of the gods ! Cic. But 1. An Adjective or Genitive generally accompanies this accusative, as in the ex- amples. 2. 0, &heu, lieu are the Interjections most frequently used with the Accusative, though others occur. 8. Other Cases also occur in exclamations : ^ 1) The Vocative— an address as well as an exclamation is intended : Pro sancte Jupiter, 0 holy Jupiter. Cic. Infelix Dido, Unhappy Dido. Virg. 2) The Nominative— the exclamation approaches the form of a statement: En dextra, Lo the right hand (there is, or that is the right hand) 1 Virg. Ecce taae litterae, Lo your letter (comes) I Cic. 8) The Dative— to designate the person after he% vae^ and sometimes after ecce^ en^ hem . Hei mihi, Woe to me. Virg. Vae tibi. Woe to you. Ter. Ecce tibi, Lo to you (lo here is to you = observe). Cic. En tibi, This for you (lo I do this for you). Liv. See 889. 2. SECTIO^^ Y. DAT I VE. 382. The Dative is the Case of the Indirect Object, and is used L With Verbs, IL With Adjectives. III. With their Derivatives — Adverbs and Substantives. I. Dative with Veebs. 383. Indirect Object. — A verb is often attended by a noun designating the object indirectly affected by the action, that to or for which something is or is done. A noun thus used is called an Indirect Object. EULE XII.— Bative with Verbs. 384. The Indirect Object is put in the Dative : I. With Intransitive and Passive Verbs : Tempori cedit, He yields to the time. Cic. Sibi timugrant, They had feared for themselves. Caes. Labori student, They devote themselves to labor. Caes. Mundus deo paret, The world obeys God.’^ Cic. Caesari supplicabo, I will supplicate Caesar f Cic. Nobis vita data est. Life has ^ Milton, Par. Lost, iv. 73 ^ Is subject to God. 3 Will make 6ui)plication to Caesar. DATIVE WITH VERBS. 171 been granted to us, Cic. Numitori deditur, He is delivered to Numitor. Liv. II. With Teansitiye Verbs, in connection with the Accusa- tive : Pons iter hostibus dedit, TJie bridge gave a passage to the enemy. Liv. Leges civitatibus suis scripserunt. They prepared laws for their states. Cic. 1. Double Construction. — A few verbs admit (1) the Dative of the per- son and the Accusative of the thing, or (2) the Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the thing : alicui rem donare^ to present a thing to any one, or aliquem re dondre, to present any one with a thing. For the Dat. of the per- son, the Dat. of a thing sometimes occurs, especially if it involves persons or is in a measure personified : Murum urbi circumdedit, He surrounded the city with a wall. Nep. This double construction occurs chiefly with : aspergo, circumdo, circumfun- do, dono, exuo, impertio, induo, inspergo, intercludo. 2. To and For are not always signs of the Dative : thus 1) To, denoting mere motion or direction, is generally expressed by the Accusative with or without a preposition (379. and 379. 4) : Veni ad urbem, I came to the city. Cic. Delum venimus, We came to Delos. Cic. But the Dative occurs in the poets : It clamor coelo, The shout goes to heaven. 2) For, in defence of, in behalf of , is expressed by the Abl. with^ro ; for the sake of, for the purpose of, sometimes by the Accus. with in. Pro patria mori, to die for one's country. Hor. Dimicare pro libertate, to fight for liberty. Cic. Satis in usum, moughfor use. Liv. 3. Other English Equivalents.— Conversely the dative is often used where the English either omits to or for, or employs some other preposi- tion. We proceed to specify the cases in which this difference of idiom requires notice. 385. The Dative of Advantage and Disadvantage is used with verbs signifying to henejlt or injure., please or displease, command or obey, serve or resist also, indulge., spare, pardon, envy, threateyi, be angry, believe, persuade, and the like ; Sibi prosunt, They benefit themselves. Cic. Nocere alteri, to injure an- other. Cic. Zenoni placuit, It pleased Zeno. Cic. Displicet Tullo, It dis- pleases Tullus. Liv. Cupiditatibus imperare, to command desires. Cic. j Deo parere, to obey God. Cic. Regi servire, to serve the king. Cic. Hos- tibus resistSre, to resist the enemy. Caes. Sibi indulgere, to indulge one's self. Cic. Yitae parcere, to spare life, Nep. Mihi ignoscere, to pardon me, Cic. Minitans patriae, threatening his country. Liv. Irasci amicis, I j to be angry with f riends. Cic. Mihi cr^de. Believe me. Cic. lis persua- i; / deie, to persuade them. Caes. 172 DATIVE WITH VERBS. 1. Other Cases.— Some verbs of this class take the Accusative : delecto, fuvo, laedo, offendo, etc. ; fldo and confido generally the Ablative (419) : Marium juvit, He helped Marius. Nep. 2. Special Verbs.— W ith a few verbs the force of the dative is found only by attending to the strict meaning of the verb: nuho, to marry, strictly to veil one’s self, as the bride for the bridegroom ; medeor, to cure, to adminis- ter a remedy to; satisfacio, to satisfy, to do enough for, etc. 8. Accusative or Dative with a difference of signification : ca^ere dll- quern, to ward off some one; cdvere dlicui, to care for some one; consulere aliquem, to consult, etc.; dlicui, to consult for; mHioere, tlmere dliquem, to fear, etc. ; dlicui, to fear for; prospicere, procidere aliquid, to foresee; dlicui, to provide for; temperare, Tnoderdri dllquid, to govern, direct; dlicui, to re- strain, put a check upon ; temperare (sibi) ah dllquo, to abstain from. A few verbs admit either the Acc. or Dat. without any special difference of meaning ; ddulor, to flatter ; comitor, to accompany, etc. 4. Dative rendered From, occurs with a few verbs of differing, dissent- ing, repelling, talcing away : differo, discrepo, disto, dissentio, arceo, etc. , Differre cuivis, to differ from any one. Nep. Discrepare istis, to differ from those. Hor. Sibi dissentire, to dissent from himself. Cic. See 412, 5. Dative rendered With, occurs with misceo, admisceo, permisceo, jun- go, certo, decerto, lucto, altercor, and sometimes/acw (434. 2) : Severitatem miscSre comitati, to unite severity with affability. Liv. Misceo and its compounds, as also junctus and conjunctus, also take the AbL with or without cum. 386. Dative witli Compounds. — The dative is used with many verbs compounded with the prepositions : ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, sub, super: Adsum amicis, 1 am present with my friends. Cic. Omnibus ante- stare, to surpass all. Cic. Terris cohaeret, It cleaves to the earth. Sen. Voluptati inhaerere, io he connected with pleasure. Cic, Interfuit pugnae, He participated in the battle. Nep. Consiliis obstare, to oppose plans. Nep. Libertati opes postferre, to sacrifice wealth to liberty. Liv. Pdpulo praesunt. They rule the people. Cic. Succumbere doloribus, to yield to sorroios. Cic. Superfuit patri, He survived his father. Liv. 1. Transitive Verbs thus compounded admit both the Accusative and Dative: Se opposuit hostibus, He opposed himself to the enemy. Cic. 2. Compounds of other Prepositions, especially ah, de, ex, pro, and circum, sometimes admit the Dative ; while several of the compounds specified under the rule admit the Abl.: assuesco, consuesco, insuesco, acquiesco, supersedeo (also with Acc.), etc. Hoc Caesari defuit, This failed (was wanting to) Caesar. Caes. 3. Motion or Direction. — Compounds expressing mere raoti^'n ur direction Kenerallj take the Accusative or repeat the preposition: DATIVE WITH VERDS. ns Adire uras, to approach the altars. Cic. Ad consules adire, to go to the con- S'lHs. Cic. In some instances where no motion is expressed, several of these compounds admit some other construction for the Dative : In oratore inest scientia, In the orator is knowledge. Cic. 387. The Dative of Possessor is used with the verb &um : Mibi est noverca, I have (there is to me) a stepmother. Yirg. Fonti nomen Arethusa est, The fountain has (there is to the fountain) the name Arethusa. Cic. But 1. The Dative ot the Name as well as of the possessor is common in expres- sions of naming: nbmen est nomen ddiur., etc. : Scipioni Africano cognomen fuit, Scipio had the surname Africanus. Sail. Here Africano, instead of being in apposition with cognomen, is put by attraction iu apposition with Scipioni. 2. The Genitive of the Name dependent upon nomen occurs: , Nomen Mercurii est mihi, I have the name of Mercury. Plant. 8. By a Greek Idiom, vblens, cUpiens, or invitus sometimes accompanies the dative of possessor : Quibus bellum volentibus erat, They liked the war (it was to them wishing). Tac. 388. Dative of Agent.—The Dative of Agent is used with the Participle in dus : Suum culque incommodum ferendum est, Every one has his own trouble to bear, or must bear his own trouble. Cic. 1. Dative with Compound Tenses. — The Dative of the Agent is some- times used with the compound tenses of passive verbs ; Mihi consilium captum jam diu est, lhavea plan long since formed. Cic. 1) The Dative of Agent, with the Participle in dus, as in the Periphrastic Con- lugation, designates the person who has the work to do; while with the Componnd Tenses of passive verbs, it designates the person who has the work already done. See examples above. ..t 2) Habeo with the Perfect Participle has the same force as est mihi with the Perfect Participle (388, 1) : t ^ Bellum habuit indictum, He had a war (already) declared. Cic. 8) The Ablative with a or ah occurs: Est a vobis consulendum. Measures must he taken hy you. Cic. 2. The Real Agent with Passive verbs is denoted by the AblaUve with a OTab. The Dative, though the regular construction with the Passive Peri- phrastic conjugation, does not regard the person strictly as agent, but rather as possessor or indirect object. Thus, Suum cuique incommodum est, means. Every one has his trouble {cuique Dative of Possessor), and Suum cuique incommodum ferendum est. Every one has his trouble to bear. So too, Mihi consilium est, I have a plan ; Mild consilium captum est, I have a plan {already) formed. 3. Dative with Simple TENSES.-The Dative is used with the tenses for incomplete action, to designate the person who is at once Agent and Indi^ red Object, the person bt whom and for (to) whom the action is performed: 174 TWO DATIVES. Honesta bonis viris quaeruntur, HonorahU things are sought hy good men i. e., for themselves. Cic. * 4. Dative of Agent in Poets.— In the poets the Dative is often used for the Ablative with a or ah, to designate simply the agent of the action : Non intelligor ulli, I am not understood hy any one, Ovid. 389. Ethical Dative. — Dative of the person to whom the thought is of special interest is often introduced into the Latin sentence when it cannot be imitated in English : vemt ad me, But lo, he comes to me, Cic. Ad ilia mihi in- tendat animum, Let him, I pray, direct his attention to those things. Liv. Quid mihi Celsus agit ? What is my Celsus doing? Hor. But 1. The Ethical Dative is always a personal pronoun. 2. Ethical Dative with volo and interjections : _ 1) With Volo: Quid vobis vultis? What do you wish, intend, mean? Liv. Avaritia quid sibi vult, What does avarice mean, or what object can it have^i Cic. 2) With Interjections: hei, vae and some others: Hei mihi, ah me Virsr V ae tibi, Woe to you. Ter. See 381. 3. 3). EULE ZIU.— Two Datives— To which and Eor which. 390. Two Datives — the object to which and the OBJECT FOR WHICH — occur with a few verbs : I. With Ioteansitive and Passive Verbs : Malo est hominibus avaritia. Avarice is an evil to men (lit. is to men for an evil). Cic. Est mihi cQrae, It is a care to me. Cic. Domus dede- cori domino fit. The house becomes a disgrace to its owner. Cic. Vgnit Atticis auxilio. He came to the assistance of the Athenians. Nep. Hoc illi tribuebatur ignaviae. This was imputed to him as cowardice (^for cowardice), Cic. lis subsidio missus est. He was sent to them as aid. Nep. II. With Teansitive Verbs in connection with the Accusa- tive : Quinque cohortes castris praesidio reliquit. He left five cohorts for the d.efence of the camp (lit. to the camp for a defence). Caes. Pericles agros suos dono rei publicae dedit, Pericles gave his lands to the republic as a present (lit. for a present). Just. 1. Verbs with Two Datives are 1) Intransitives signifying to he, become, go, and the like; sum, flo, etc. 2) Transitives signifying to give, send, leave, impute, regard, choose, and the like: do, dbno, duco, hdheo, mitto, relinquo, tribuo, verto, etc. These take in the Active two datives with an accusative, but in the Passive two datives only, as the Accusative of the active becomes the subject of the pas- «ive. See 371. 6. DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. 175 ' 2. One Dative Omitted. — One dative is often omitted or its place supplied by a Predicate Noun : Ea sunt usui, These things are of use (for use). Caes. Tu illi pater es, You are a father to him. Tac. 3. With Audiens two Datives sometimes occur, the Dat. dicto dependent upon audims and a personal Dat. dependent upon dicto-audiens treated as a verb of obeying (385) : Dicto sum audiens, I am listening to the word., I obey. Plant. Nobis dicto aud- iens est. He is obedient to us. Cic. Sometimes dicto obediens is used iu the samo way ; Magistro dicto obediens, obedient to his mdster. Plaut. II. Dative avith Adjectives. EULE XIV.— Dative. 391. "With Adjectives the object to which the qual- ity is directed is put in the Dative : Patriae solum omnibus carum est, The soil of their country is dear to all. Cic. Id aptum est tempori, This is adapted to the time. Cic. Omni aetati mors est communis. Death is common to every age. Cic. Canis sim- ilis lupo est, A. dog is similar to a wolf. Cic. Naturae accommodatum, adapted to nature. Cic. Graeciae utile, useful to Greece. Nep. 1. Adjectives with Dative. — The most common are those signifying : Agreeable, easy, friendly, like, near, necessary, suitable, subject, useful, together with others of a similar or opposite meaning, and verbals in bilis. Such are : accommodatus, aequalis, alienus, amicus and inimicus, aptus, carus, fMisand difficilis, fidelis and infidelis, finitimus, gratus and ingratus, idoneus, ju- cundus and injucundus, molestus, necesstirius, notus and ignotus, noxius, par and dispar, perniciosus, propinquus, proprius, salutaris, similis and dissimilis, vicinus, etc. 2. Other Constructions sometimes occur where the learner would ex- pect the Dative : 1) Accusative with a Preposition : (1) in, erga, adversus with adjec- tives ^igmijmgfriendly, hostile, etc., and (2) ad, to denote the object or end for which, with adjectives signifying useful, suitable, inclined, etc. : Perindulgens in patrem, very kind to his father. Cic. Multas ad res pSrtitilis, very useful for many things. Cic. Ad comitatem proclivis, incline ed to affability. Cic. Pronus ad luctum, inclined to mourning. Cic. 2) Accusative without a Preposition with propior, proximus j Propior montem, nearer the mountain. Sail. Proximus mare, nearest to to the sea. Caes. See 433 and 437. 3) Ablative with or without a Preposition : ^ • w Alienum a vita mea, foreign to my life. Ter. Hdmine alienissimum, most foreign to man. Cic. Ei cum Poscio commUnis, common to him and Roscius (with Roscius). Cic. 4) Genitive : (1) with proprius, cornmUmis, contrarius / (2) with dmilis. 176 DATIVE WITH NOUNS AND ADVERBS. dissimilis^ assimilis^ consimilis^ far and dispar^ especially to express likeness in character ; (3) with adjectives used substantively, sometimes even in the superlative j (4) sometimes with affinis^ alienus, insuetus, and a few others : Populi Romani est propria libertas, Liberty is characteristic of the Roman people, Cic. Alexandri similis, like Alexander, i. e., in character. Cic. Dis- par sui, unlike itself. Cic. Cujus pares, like whom. Cic. Amicissimus hom- inum, the best friend of the men, i. e., the most friendly to them. Cic. 3. Idem occurs with the Dative, especially in the poets : Idem facit occidenti. He does the same as kill, or as he who kills. Hor. 4. For the Genitive and Dative with an adjective, see 899. 6. III. Dative with Derivative Nouns and Adverbs. E,ULE XV.—Bative. 392. A few Derivative Nouns and Adverbs take the Dative after the analogy of their primitives : I. Yerbal\ Nouns. — Justitia est obtemperatio legibus, is dience to laws. Cic. Sibi responsio, replying to himself. Cic. Opulento homini servitus dura est, Serving a rich man (servitude to) is hard. Plaut. II. Adverbs. — Congruenter naturae vivere, to live in accordance with nature. Cic. Sibi constanter dicere, to speak consistently with himself. Cic. Proxime hostium castris, next to the camp of the enemy. Caes. 1. Dative with Nouns. — Nouns construed with the Dative are derived from verbs which govern the Dative. "With other nouns the Dative is generally best ex- plained as dependent upon some verb, expressed or understood: Tegimenta galeis milites facere jubet, He orders the soldiers to make coverings for their helmets. Caes. Here galeis is probably the indirect object of facere and not dependent upon tegimenta. In conspectum venerat hostibus. He had come in sight of the enemy. Caes. Here hostibus is dependent not upon conspectum, but upon venerat; the action, coming in sight, is conceived of as done to the enemy. See 898. 5. 2. Dative with Adveees. — A few adverbs not included in the above rule occur with the Dative: huic una ==» iina cum hoe, with him. SECTION YI. GEIUTIVE. 393. The Genitive in its primary meaning denotes source or cause^ but in its general use, it corresponds to the English possessive, or the objective with q/*, and expresses various adjective relations. 1. But sometimes, especially when Objective (396, II.), the Genitive is best rendered by to, for, from, in, on account of, etc. : BSnbficii gratia, gratitude for a favor. Cic. Laborum fuga, escape from labors. Cic. GENITIVE WITH NOUNS. Ill 394. The Genitive is used 1. With Nouns. II. With Adjectives. III. With Verbs. lY. With Adverbs. I. Genitive with Nouns. RULE XVI-Genitive. 395. Any Noun, not an Appositive, qualifying the .meaning of another noun, is put in the Genitive : CatOnis orationes, Cato's orations. Cic. Castra hostium, the camp of the enemy. Liv. Mors Hamilcaris, the death of Hamilcar. Liv. Deum mfetus, the fear of the gods. Liv. Vir consilii magni, a man of great pru- dence. Caes. See 363. 396. Varieties of Genitive with Nouns, — The principal varieties of the Genitive are the following : I. The Subjective Genitive designates the subject or agent of the action, feeling, etc., including the author and f)ossessor : Serpentis morsus, the bite of the serpeiit. Cic. Favor NumidO-rum, the fear of the Numidians. Liv. Xenophontis libri, the hooks of Xenophon. Cic. Ffinum Xeptuni, the temple of Neptune. Nep. II. The Objective Genitive designates the object tow- ard which the action or feeling is directed : Amor gloriae, the love of glory. Cic. Memoria malorum, the recollec- tion of sufferings. Cic. Deum metus, the fear of the gods. Liv. III. The Partitive Genitive designates the whole of which a is taken : Quis vestrum, which of you? Cic. Yitae pars, a part of life. Cie. Omnium sapientissimus, the wisest of all men. Cic. 1. Nostrum and Yestrum. — As partitive genitives, nostrum and ves- trum are generally used instead of nostri and vestri. 2. Use. — The Partitive Genitive is used 1) WithjDars, nemo^ nihil ; nouns of quantity, number, weight, etc.: mbdius^ legio^ talentum^ and any nouns used partitively : Equorum pars, apart of the horses. Liv. Medimnum tritici, a bushel of wheat. Cic. Pecuniae talentum, a Nep. Quorum Caius, of whom Caius. Cic. 2) With Numerals used Substantively ; 178 GENITIVE WITH NOUNS. Quorum quattuor, /owr of whom. Liv. Sapientum octavus, the eighth of the wise men. Hor. (1) But the Genitive should not be used when the two words refer to the same number of objects, even though of be used in English : Vivi qui (not quorum) dKO supersunt, the living., of whom two survive. Cic. 3) With Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively, especially (1) with Azc, ille., quis.^ qui., alter., uter, neuter., etc. ; (2) with comparatives and superlatives; (3) with neuters : hoc, id, illud, quid ; multum, plus, pluri- mum, minus, minimum, tantum, quantum, etc. ; (4) with omnes and cuncti, rarely : Quis vestrum, which of you? Cic. Consiilum alter, one of the consuls. Liv. Prior horum, the former of these. Nep. Gallorum fortissimi, the bravest of the Gauls. Caes. Id temporis, that {of) time. Cic. Multum operae, much {of) service. Cic. Hominum cuncti, all of the men. Ovid. But omnes and cuncti generally agree with their nouns : Omnes homines, all men. Cic. Pronouns and Adjectives, except neuters, when used with the Part. Gen. take the gender of the Gen. unless they agree directly with some other word ; see Consu- lum alter above. 4) With a few Adverbs used substantively; (1) with adverbs of Quan- tity — abunde, affatim., ramis, parum, partim, quoad, satis, etc. ; (2) with adverbs of Place — hic, huc, nusquam, ubi, etc. ; (3) with adverbs of Extent, degree, etc. — eo, hue, quo ; (4) with superlatives ; Armorum affatim, abundance of arms. Liv. Lticis nimis, too much {of) light. OYidi. little {of ) wisdom. Sail. Partim copiarum, a portion of the forces. Liv. Quoad ejus facere pStest, as far as (as much of it as) he is able to do. Cic. Nusquam gentium, nowhere in the world. Cic. Hue arrogantiae, to this degree of insolence. Tac. Maxime omnium, most of all. Cic. 3. Loci and locorum occur as partitive genitives in expressions of time : \vi\hrQ, 2 ,VdQ\,in the mean time. Ter. Adhuc locorum, Plaut. 4. For id genus — ejus generic, secus, libra, etc., see 380. 2. 6. For Predicate Genitive, see 401. ly. The Genitive of Charactebistic designates character or quality, including value, price, size, weight, age, etc. Vir maximi consilii, a man of very great prudence. Nep. Mitis inge- nii juvenis, a youth of mild disposition. Liv. Vestis magni pretii, a gar- ment of great value. Cic. Exsilium decem annorum, an exile of ten years. Nep. Corona parvi ponderis, a crown of small weight. Liv. See 402, HI. 1. 1. A noun designating character or quality may be either in the Gen. or in the Abl. See 428. ge:nitiye with nouns. 179 1) But it must be accompanied by an adjective, numeral, or pronoun, unless it t>e a compound containing such modifier; as hujusmodi = hujus modi : tridui^ from tres dies ; Vxdui^ from duo (bis) dies. With tridui and bidui^ via or spatium is some- times omitted; Aberant bidui. They were two days" journey distant, Cic. V. The Genitive op Specification has the general force of an Appositi ve (363) : Yirtus continentiae, of self-control, Cic. Verbum volupta- tis, the word (of) pleasure. Cic. Oppidum Antiochiae, the city of Antioch, Cic. Tellus Ausoniae, the land of Ausonia. Yirg. 397. Peculiarities. — We notice the following: 1. The Goyeenino Woed is often omitted. Thus Aedes, templum, discipulus, homo, juvenis, puer, etc. ; causa, gratia, and indeed any word when it can be readily supplied : Ad Jovis {sc. aedem), near the temple of Jupiter. Liv. Hannibal anno- rum novem (sc. puer), Hannibal a hoy nine years of age, Liv. Naves sui commodi (causa) fecerat, He had built vessels for his own advantage. Caes, Conferre vitam Trebonii cum Dolabellae (sc. vita), to compare the life of Trebonius with that of Dolabella. Cic. 1) The governing word is generally omitted when it has been expressed before another Gen. as in the last example ; and then the second Gen. is sometimes attracted into the case of the governing word : Natura hominis beluis (for beluarum naturae) antecedit, The nature of man surpasses (that of) the brutes. Cie. 2) In many cases where we supply son, daughter, husband, wife, the ellipsis is only apparent, the Gen. depending directly on the proper noun expressed : Hasdrubal Gisconis, Giseo''s Hasdrubal, or Hasdrubal the son of Gisco. Liv. Hectoris Andromache, Hector" s Andromache, or Andromache the wife of Hector. Virg. 2. Two Genitives are sometimes used with the same noun — generally one Subjective and one Objective : Memmii odium potentiae, Memmius"' s hatred of power. Sail. 3. Genitive and Possessive. — A Genitive sometimes accompa- nies a Possessive, especially the Gen. of ipse, solus, unus, omnis : Tua ipsius Smlcitia, your own friendship. Cic. Meum sollus peccatum, my fault alone. Cic. Nomen meum absentis, my name while absent. Cic. Here ipslus agrees with tui (of you) involved in tua; sollus and absentis, with mei (of me) involved in meum. 328. Other Constructions — for the Genitive occur. 1. Ablative of Characteristic. See 428. 2. An Adjective is sometimes used for the Genitive ; Bellica gloria = belli gloria, the glory of war. Cic, Conjux Hectdrea — conjux Heetdris, the wife of Hector. Yirg, 9 180 GEKITIVE WITH NOUNS. WITH ADJECTTYES. 3. The Possessive is regularly used for the Subjective Gen. of Per- sonal pronouns, rarely for the Objective: Mea domus, my home. Cic. Fama tua. your fame, Cic. 4. Case with Preposition.— A case with a preposition may be used for the Gen. ; especially, 1) For the Objective Genitive^ the Accusative with in, erga, adversus : — 2) For the Fartitive Genitive^ the Accusative with iirter, ante, apud, or the Ablative with es, de, in : - Odium in hominum genus, hatred of or towards the race of men. Cic. Erga VOS amor, love towards you. Cic. Inter reges opulentissimus, the most, ivealthy of (among) hings. Sen. Unus ex viris, one of the heroes. Cic. 5. A Dative depending on the verb is sometimes used, instead of the Genitive depending on a noun : Urbi fundamenta jacere, U lay the foundations of (for) the city. Liv. Caesari ad pedes projicere, to cast at the feet of Caesar y i. e., before Caesar at his feet. Caes. See 392. 1. 1) The two constructions, the Gen. and the Case with Prep., are sometimes com- bined in the same sentence. II. Genitive with Adjectives. EULE XVII -Genitive. 399. Many Adjectives take a Genitive to complete their meaning : Avidus laudis, desirous of praise. Cic. Otii cupidus, desirous of leis-^ ure. Liv. Amans sui virtus, virtue fond of itself . Cic. Efficiens volup- tatis, productive of pleasure. Cic. Gloriae m&mor, mindful of glory. Liv. 1. PoECE OF THIS Genitive.— The genitive here retains its usual force — of in respect and may be used after adjectives which admit this relation. 2. Adjectives with the Genitive. — The most common are 1) Verbals in ax and participles in ans and ens used adjectively r Virtutum productive of virtues. Liv. T6nax propositi, tenacious (steadfast) of purpose. Ilor. Amans patriae, loving (fond of) his counti'y. Cic. Eiigiens laboris, shunning labor. Caes. I 2) Adjectives denoting desire^ hnowled.gey sHll, recollection., participation., mastery ., fulness, and their conti aries. (1) Desire, Aversion — dvKdus, cupidus, studiosus ; fastidiosus, etc. ; sometimes aemulus and invidus, which also take the Dative : Contentionis cupidus, desirous of contention. Cic. Sapientiae stiiaiOsus, studious of (student of) wisdom. Cic. (2) Knowledge, Skill, Recollection with their contraries— y war GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. 181 ignarus^ consultuSy consciuSy insciusy nescius^ certuSy incertuSy suspensus j pro- mduSy prudens y imprudens ; peritus y imperitus y rudis y insuetus ; memory irn- memory etc. : Rei gnarus, acquainted with the thing. Cic. Prudens rei militaris, sUll- ed in military science. Nep. Peritus belli, shilled in war. Nep. Insuetus laboris, unaccustomed to labor. Cues. Gloriae mSmor, mindful of glory. Liv. Imm§mor \iQ\iMiQi\y forgetf ul of hindness. Cic. (3) Participation, Fulness, Mastery, with their contraries — afflniSy con- sorsy exsorsy exp erSy particeps ; plenus y fertilis y refertuSy egenuSy inopSy vacuus; pbtenSy impbtenSy compoSy impoSy etc. : Affinis culpae, sharing the fault. Cic. Rationis particeps, endowed with (sharing) reason. Cic. Rationis expers, destitute of reason. Cic. Vita me- tus plena, a life full of fear. Cic. Mei potens sum, / am master of myself. LiY. Virtutis compos, capable of virtue. Cic. 3. Other Adjectives also occur with the Genitive. 1) A lew of a signification kindred to the above : Manifestus rerum capitalium, convicted of capital crimes. Sail. Noxius conjurationis, guilty of conspiracy. Tac. 2) SimiliSy assimilisy consimilis y dissimilis ; par and dispar y especitilly to denote internal or essential likeness. See 391. 2. 4). 3) Sometimes dlienuSy communiSy propriuSy puhlicuSy sacer y vlclnus : Alienus dignitatis, inconsistent with dignity. Cic. Vin proprius, char^ acteristic of a man. Cic. 4) In the poets and late prose writers, especially Tacitus, a Genitive of Cause occurs with a few adjectives, especially those denoting emotion ovfeel-^ ingy and a Gen. having the force of — iny in respect ofyfory especially animi and ingeniiy with many adjectives : Anxius potentiae, anxious for power. Tac. Lassus militiae, tired of mil- itary service. Hor. See Gen. with Verbs, 409. 2 and 4. Aeger animi, afflicted in mind. Liv. Anxius animi, anxious in mind. Sail. Integer aevi, whole in respect of agCy i. e., in the bloom of youth. Virg. 4. Partitive Genitive with Adjectives. See 396. III. 3). 5. Other Constructions for the Genitive also occur : 1) Dative: Manus subitis avidae, hands ready for sudden events. Tac. Insuetus moribus Romanis, unaccustomed to Roman manners. Liv. Facind- ri mens conscia, a mind conscious of crime. Cic. 2) Accusative with Preposition : InsuStus ad pugnam, unaccustomed to battle. Liv. Fertilis ad omnia, productive for all things. Plin. Avidus in novas res, eager for new things. Liv. 3) Ablative with or without Preposition : Prudens in jure civili, learned in civil law. Cic. Riidis in jure civili, uninstructed in civil law. Cic. His de rebus conscius, aware (f those things. Cic. Vacuus de defenso- ribus, o/ Caes. 's^cxxa’&y free from caves. Cic. R6- fertus bdnis, replete with blessings. Cic. 6. The Genitive and Dative occur with the same adjective: SIbi conscii culpae, conscious to themselves of fault. Cic. 182 GENITIVE WITH VEEBS. III. Genitive with Veebs. 400. The Genitive with Verbs includes I. Predicate Genitive. II. Genitive in Special Constructions. Predicate Genitive, EULE XVIII.— Predicate Genitive. 401. A Predicate IToun denoting a different person or thing from its Subject is put in the Genitive : Omnia hostium grant, All things belonged to the enemy} Liv. Senatus Hannibalis grat, The senate was Hannibal’s^ i. e., in his interest. Liv. Judi- cis est verum sequi, To follow the truth is the duty of a judge} Cic. Parvi prgtii est, It is of small value, Cic. 1. Predicate Genitive and Predicate Nominative. — The Predicate Gen- itive is distinguished from the Predicate Nominative and Accusative by the fact that it always designates a different person or thing from its subject, while they always designate the same person or thing as their subjects. See S62. 2. Predicate Genitive and Predicate Adjective. — The genitive is often nearly or quite equivalent to a predicate adjective (353. 1) : hominis est = humanum est, it is the mark of a man, is human ; stulti est = stultum est, it is foolish. The Gen. is the regular construction in adjectives of one end- ing : sapientis est (for sapiens est), it is the part of a wise man, is wise. 402. Varieties of Predicate Genitive. — The principal are, I. Subjective or Possessive Genitive — generally best rendered by — of property of duty, business, mark, characteristic of : Haec hostium grant, These things were of (belonged to) the enemy. Liv. Est impgratoris superare. It is the duty of a commander to conquer. Caes. II. Partitive Genitive : Pies nobilium fontium, You will become one of the noble fourdains. Hor. III. Genitive of Characteristic — including value, price, size, weight, etc. : Summae facultatis est. He is (a man) of the highest ability. Cic. Opgra magni fuit. The assistance was of great value. Nep. 1. The Genitive of Price or Value is generally an adjective belonging to fvetii understood ; but sometimes is expressed : ^ Lit. were of the enemy ^ or were the enemy's, * Lit. is ofapidge. GENITIVE WITH VERBS. 183 Parvi prStii est, It is of little value, Cic. See 396. IV, 2. Price and Value with verbs of 'bmjing^ selling^ and the like, are ex- pressed 1) Regularly by the Ablative. See 416. 2) Sometimes by the Genitive of adjectives, like the Pred. Gen. of price: 'Vendo frumentum pluris, I sell grain at a higher f rice, Cic. But the Gen. is thus used only in indefinite and general expressions of price and vaiue. A definite price or value regularly requires the Ablative. 3) In familiar discourse sometimes by the genitives, assisy flocciy nihili, pili and a few others : Non flocci pendere, not to care a straw (lock of wool)ybr. Plant. 3. B6ni and Aeguiy as Predicate Genitives, occur in such expressions as aegui hbni fdcere and loni consulere^ to take in good part. 403. Verbs with Predicate Genitive. — The Predicate genitive occurs most frequently with sum and fdcio^ but sometimes alsp with verbs of seeming and regarding : Haec hostium §rant, These things were the enemfs. Liv. Oram Ro- manae ditionis fecit, He brought the coast under (of ) Roman rule, Liv. 1. Transitive Verbs of this class admit in the active, an Accusative with the Genitive, as in the second example. 2. With Verbs of Seeming and Regarding — videor, habeo, duco, pdto, etc. — esse may generally be supplied : Hominis videtur, It seems to he (esse) the marie of a man, Cic. 404. Other Constructions for the Genitive also occur. 1. The Possessive is regularly used for the Pred. Gen. of personal pro- nouns : Est tuum (not iui) videre, It is your duty to see, Cic. 2. The Genitive with Officium^ MunuSy Negotium^ Proprium : Senatus officium est, It is the duty of the senate, Cic. Euit proprium populi. It was characteristic of the people, Cic. The Predicate Genitive could in most instances be explained by supplying some such word, but it seems to be more in accordance with the idiom of the Latin to re- gard the genitive as complete in itself. 3. The Ablative of Characteristic, See 428. IL Genitive in Special Constructions, 405. The Genitive, either alone or with an Accusative, is used in a few constructions which deserve separate men- tion. 184 GENITIVE WITH VERBS. RULE XIX.— Genitive with Certain Verbs. 406. Tlie Genitive is used I. With misereor and miseresco: Miserere laborum, Pity the labors, Yirg. Miserescite regis, Pity th$ king, Yirg. II. With recordor, memini, reminiscor, and obliviscor: Meminit praeteritorum. He remembers the past, Cic. Oblitus sum mei, I have forgotten myself. Ter. Elagitiorum recordari, to recollect base deeds, Cic. Reminisci virtutis, to remember virtue, Oaes. III. Yv^ith refert and interest; Illorum refert. Ii concerns them. Sail. Interest omnium, It is the in- terest of all, Cic. 1. Explanation. — The Genitive may be explained as dependent upon re in r'efert^ and upon re or causa to be supplied with interest. With the other verbs it accords with the Greek idiom, and with verbs of remembering and forgetting^ it also conforms to the analogy of the Gen. with the adjectives memor and immemor (399. 2. 2) ). 2. Construction according to sense. — The expression Venit mild in mentem^ It occurs to my mind, equivalent to reminiscor, is sometimes con- strued with the Gen. ; Yenit mihi Platonis in mentem, The recollection of Plato comes to my mind, or I recollect Plato. Cic. But the Nom. is also admissible : Non venit in mentem pugna. Does not the battle come to mind ? Liv. 407. Other Constructions with verbs of JRememher- mg and Forgetting also occur : 1. The Accusative : MSminSram Paulum, I remembered Paulus. Cic. This is the regular construction for the thing (not person), with recordor, and, if it be a neuter pronoun or adjective, also with other verbs : Triumphos recordari, to recall triumphs, Cic. Ea reminiscere, Remember thos^ things. Cic. 2. The Ablative with De : Recordare de cgteris. Bethink yourself of the others. Cic. This is the regular construction for the person with recordor, and occurs also with memhii, though that verb takes the Acc. of a contemporary. 408. The Construction with Befert and Interest is as follows : 1. The Person or Thing interested is denoted 1) By the Genitive as under the rule. GENITIVE WITH VEKBS. 185 S) By the Ablative Feminine of the Possessive : Mea refert, It concerns me. Ter. Interest iiiea, It interests me. Cic. This possessive r-eguharly takes the place of the Gen. of personal pronouns, and may be explained as agreeing with re in refer% and with re or causa to be supplied with interest. 8) By the Dative^ or Accusative with or without Ad ; but rarely, and chiefly with refert, which moreover often omits the person : Quid refert viventi, What does it concern one living ? Hor. Ad me refert, It concerns me. Piaut. 2. The Subject op Importance, or that which involves the interest, is expressed by an Infinitive or Clause, or by a Neuter Pronoun : Interest omnium recte faccre. To do right is the interest of all. Cic. Vestra hoo interest. This interests you. Cio- 3. The Degree of Interest is expressed by an Adverb, by a Neuter used adverbially, or by a Gen. of Value (402. 1 and 2) : . Vestra maxime interest, It especially interests you. Cic. Quid nostrS refert. What does it concern us ? Cic. Magni interest mea. It greatly interests me. Cic. 4. The Object or End for which it is important is expressed by the Ac* cusative with ad, rarely by the Dative : Ad honorem nostrum interest, It is important for our honor. Cic. 409. Genitive WITH otheeYebbs. — M any other verbs sometimes take the Genitive : 1. Some Verbs of Plenty and Want, as egeo, indigeo, like adjectives of the same meaning (399. 2. 2) ) : Virtus exercitationis Indiget, Tirtue requires exercise. Cic. Auxilii egere, to need aid. Caes. 2. Some Verbs of Emotion or Feeling like adjectives (399. 3. 4) ) : Animi pendeo, I am uncertain in mind. Cic. Discrucior animi, I am troubled in mind. Plant. 3. A few Verbs denoting Mastery or Participation like adjectives {399. 2. 2) ), potior, adipiscor, regno : Siciliae potitus est, Ile 'became master of Sicily. Nep. Eerum adeptus est, Ile obtained the power. Tae. Eegnavit populorum, He was king of the people. Hor. 4. A Genitive of Separation or Cause occurs in the poets, with a few XQrbs— abstineo, decipio, desino, desisto ; miror : AbstinSre Irarum, to abstain from anger. Hor. Laborum decipitur, He is be^ gulled of his labors. Hor. Desine querelarum, Cease from complaints. Hor. De- gistere pugnae, to desist from the battle. Vii^. 5. Sdtdgo and Satagito admit a genitive dependent upon sat (396. 4) \ and verbs of Promising admit the Gen. damni infecti .* Eerum satagere, to be occupied with (have enough of) business. Ter. 6. Genitive of Gerunds and Gerundives. See 563 and 563, 5. 186 ACCUSATIVE AND GENIHYE. EUIE ZX— Accusative and Genitive. 410. A few transitive verbs take both the Accnsar tive of the Person and the Genitive of the Thing : I. Verbs of Reminding^ Admonishing. II. Verbs of Accusing^ Convicting^ Acquitting. III. Miseret^ Poenitet^ Pudet^ Taedet^ and Piget. I. Keminding, etc. — Te amicitiae commonefacit, He reminds you of friendship. Cic. Milites necessitatis monet, He reminds the soldiers of the necessity. Ter. II. Accusing, etc. — ^Yiros sceleris arguis, You accuse men of crime. Cic. Levitatis eum convincere, to convict him of levity. Cic. Absolvere injuriae eum, to acquit him of injustice. Cic. III. Miseret, Poenitet, etc. — E5rum nos misSret, We pity them (it moves our pity of them). Cic. Consilii me poenitet, I repent of my pur- pose. Cic. Me stultitiae meae piidet, I am ashamed of my folly. Cic. 1. The Genitive of Thing designates, with verbs of reminding., etc,, that to which the attention is called ; with verbs of accusing., etc., the crime, charge, and with miseret., poenitet^ etc., the object which produces the feeling. See examples. 2. Passive Construction. — The personal verbs included under this Rule retain the Genitive in the Passive : Accusatus est proditionis, He was accused of treason. Nep. 3. Verbs of Reminding, moneo., admbneOy commoneo, common facio, sometimes take, instead of the Genitive, 1) The Accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective, rarely of a sub- stantive, thus admitting two accusatives : Illud me admones, You admonish me of that. Cic, 2) The Ablative with de, moneo generally so : De proelio vos admonui, I have reminded you of the battle. Cic. 4. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, sometimes take, instead of the Genitive of the crime, etc., 1) The Genitive with nomine or crimine : Nomine conjurationis damnati sunt. They were condemned on the charge of conspiracy. Cic. 2) The Accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective, rarely : Id me accusas, You accuse me of that. Plant. 3) The Ablative alone or with a preposition, generally de : De pScuniis repetundis damnatus est. He was convicted of extortion. Cic. 6. With Verbs of Condemning, the Punishment may be expressed GENITIVE WITH VERBS AND ADVERBS. 187 1) By the Genitive : Capitis condemnare, to condemn to deaths Cic. (1) Yoti damnari^ to be condemned to fulfill a vow = to obtain a wish. 2) By the Accusative with a preposition, generally ad: Ad bestias condemnare, to condemn to the wild beasts. Suet. 3) By the Ablative; and, in the poets, sometimes by the Dative: Capite damnare, to condemn to death, Cic. 6. With Miseret, Poenitet, Pudet, Taedet, and Piget, an Infinitive or Clause is sometimes used, rarely a neuter pronoun or niUl : Me poenitet vixisse, I rej^ent having lived, Cic. 1) Like Mls^ret 2 .v% sometimes used miserescit^ commiserescit ^miseretur ^com- miseretur. Like Taedet are pertaedet., pertaesum est. 2) PiXdet sometimes takes the Gen. of the Person before whom one is ashamed: Me tui pudet, I am ashamed in your presence. Ter. Pudet hominum, Ii is a shame in the sight of men. Liv. 8) Pertaesus admits the Accusative of the object: Pertaesus ignaviam suam, disgusted with his own inaction. Suet. 7. The Accusative and Genitive occur with other Verbs. — Thus 1) With some Verbs of Freeing with the accessory notion of acquitting; Eum culpae liberare, to free him from blame, i. e., to acquit him of fault. Liv. ^0 purgo, decipio, and the like. 2) With a few Verbs of Filling, like adjectives and verbs of plenty (899. 2. 2) and 409. 1), especially compleo and impleo : Multitudinem religionis implevit, Ile inspired (filled) the multitude with religion, Liv. See 419. 2. 3) With a few transitive verbs of Emotion or Feeling (409. 2), rarely: Te angis animi, You male yourself anxious in mind. Plant. IV. Genitive with Adverbs. 411. The Genitive is used with a few Adverbs : 1. With Partitives, See 396. III. 2. 2. With Pridie. and Postridie, perhaps dependent upon die contained in them, and with Ergo and Tenus, originally nouns : Pridie ejus diei, on the day before that day, Caes. Postridie ejus diei, on the day after thai day, Caes. Virtutis ergo, on account of virtue. Cic. Lumborum tenus, as far as the loins, Cic. For tenus with the Abl., see 434. SE0TIO^7 YII. ABLATIVE. 412. The Ablative in its primary meaning is closely re- lated to the Genitive ; but in its general use, it corresponds to the English objective with— /rom, by, in,, with, and ex- presses various adverbial relations. It is accordingly used 188 ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, MARKER, MEANS. witliYerbs and Adjectives, while the genitive, as the case of adjective relations, is most common with Nouns. See 393. 413. The Ablative is used as I. Ablative of Cause, Manner, Means — including 1. Ablative of Price. 2. Ablative after Comparatives. 3. Ablative of Difference. 4. Ablative in Special Constructions. II. Ablative of Place. III. Ablative of Time. IV. Ablative of Characteristic. Y. Ablative of Specification. VI. Ablative Absolute. VII. Ablative with Prepositions. I. Ablative of Cause, Manner, Means. EULE XXI.— Cause, Manner, Means. 414. Cause, Manner, and Means are denoted by the Ablative : Ars utilitate laudatur, An art is praised because of its usefidness. Cic. Gloria dticitur, He is led by glory. Cic. Duobus modis fit, It is done in two ways. Cic. Sol omnia luce collustrat. The sun illumines all things with its light. Cic. Aeger erat vulneribus. He was ill in consequence of his wounds, Nep. Laetus sorte tua, pleased with your lot. Hor. 1. Application of Pule. — This ablative is of very frequent occurrence, and is used both with verbs and adjectives. 2. The Ablative of Cause designates that by which., by rea- son of which., because of which., in accordance with which anything is or is done. 1) This includes such ablatives as meo judicio, in accordance with my opinion; mea sententia, jussu, impulsu, monitu, etc.; also the Abi. with dbleo, gaudeo, glorior, laboro, etc. The Abl. with afficio, and with sto in the sense of depend upon, abide by, is best explained as Means. Afficio and the Abl. are tojjether often equivalent to another verb: honor e afficere = hbnorare, to honor; admiratione afficere = ad- mirari, to admire. 2) With Passive Intransitive verbs, Cau^e is regularly expressed by the Abl., though a preposition with the Acc. or Abl. sometimes occurs: Amicitia propter se expetitur, Friendship is sought for itself. Cic. 3) With Transitive verbs the Abl. without a Prep, is rare ; but causa, gratia and ablatives in u of nouns used only in that case jussu, rbgdbji^ mandatu, etc., are thus useds sometimes also other words ABLATIVE OF CAESE, MANNEE, MEANS. 1^9 In other cases, Cause in the sense of — on -account of , because of , is gene- rally expressed — (1) by a Preposition with its case: oh, ‘pro^tev, de, ex,pTae, etc. ; or (2) by a Perfect Participle with an Ablative : In oppidum propter timorem sese recipiunt, They hetahe themselves into idle city on account of their fear, Caes, Eegni cupiditate inductus conjura- tionem fecit. Influenced hy the desire qf ruling, he formed a conspiracy. Caes. Cupiditate in the 2d example really expresses the cause of the action fecit, but by the use of inductus', it becomes the Abl. of Cause with that participle. ' 3. Ablative of Manner.— Tins ablative is regularly accoiu- pauied by some modifier, or by the Prep, cum ; but a few ablatives, chiefly those signifying maniiCT — more^ ordlne., q-^dtidne,, _ Qtc, — oc- cur without such accompaniment : Vi summa, with the greatest violence, Nep. More Persarum, in the man- ner of the Persians. Nep. Cum silentio audire, to hear in silence, Liv. Per with the Acc. sometimes denotes Manner : per vim, violently. 4. Ablative of Means. — This includes the Instrument and all other Means employed. See also 434. 2 ; 414, 2, 1). 5. Ablative of Agent,— This designates the Person by whom anything is done as a voluntary agent, and takes the Prep. A or fib: Occisus est a Thebanis, Ile ivas slain hy the Thebans. Nep. 1) The Abl without a Prep, or the Accus. whth per is sometimes used, especially when the Person is regarded as the Means, rather than as the Agent, Cornua Niimidis firmat. He strengthens the wings with Numidians. Liv. Per Fabricium, by means of (through the agency of) Fabricius, Cic. 2) Dative of Agent. See 388. 6. Person IFIOATION. — When anything is personified as agent, the ablative with A or Al) may be used as in the names of persons: Vinci a voluptate, to be conquered hy pleasure. Cic. A fortuna datam oc- casionem, an opportunity furnished by fortune. Nep. 7. Ablative of Accompaniment. — This generally takes cum : Yivit cum Balbo, He lives with Balbus. Cic. But In describing military movements, the preposition is often omitted, especially when the Abl. is qualified by an adjective : Ingenti exercitu profectus est, He set out with a large army. Liv. 415. Kindred Uses of the Ablative.- — K indred to the Ablative of Cause, etc., are I. The Ablative of Price — that by which the trade is effected. II. The Ablative with Comparatives — that by wbicli the comparison is effected. III. The Ablative of Difference — that by which one object differs from another. IV. The Ablative in Special Constructions. 190 ABLATIVE OE EP.ICE. EULE XXII.— Ablative of Price. 416. Peice is generally denoted by tbe Ablative : Vendidit auro patriam, He sold his country for gold. Virg. Conduxit magno domum, He hired a house at a high price, Cic. Multo sanguine Poenis victoria stetit. The victory cost the Carthaginians (stood to tbe Carthaginians at) much Hood. Liv. Quinquaginta talentis aestimari, to he valued at fifty talents. Nep. Vile est viginti minis, It is cheap at tv)enty minae. Plant. 1. Th Ablative of Price is used 1) With verbs of buying, selling, hiring, letting, ^mOy vendOy conducOy LocOy veneOy etc. 2) With verbs of costing, of being cheap or dear, stOy constOy UceOy suniy etc. 8) With verbs of valuing, aestimOy etc. 4) With adjectives of value, edruSy vendliSy etc. 2. Exchanging. — With verbs of exchanging — mutOy coinmMOy etc. — the thing received is generally treated as the price, as with verbs ci selling : V^ceh^MXiwavX^Vity He exchanged ivar for peace. Sail. But sometimes the thing given is treated as the price, as with verbs of buying, or is put in the Abl, with cum : Exsilium patria mutavit, He exchanged country for exile* Curt. 8. Adverbs of Price are sometimes used : hene emere^ to purchase well, i. e.y at a low price ; care aestimare, to value at a high price. 4. Genitive of Price. See 402. III. EULE XXIII.— Ablative with Comparatives. 417. Comparatives without qijam are followed by the Ablative : Nihil est amabilius virtute, Nothing is more lovely than virtue. Cic. Quid est melius bonitate. What is better than goodness i Cic. 1. Comparatives with Quam are followed by tbe Nomina- tive, or by the case of the corresponding noun before them : Hibernia minor quam Britannia existimatur, Hibernia is considered small- er than Britannia. Caes. Agris quam urbi terribilior, more terrible to the country than to the city. Liv. 2. Ablative, when admissible. — The construction with quam is the full form for which the Ablative is an abbreviation. This abbreviation is admissible only in place of quam with the Nomina- tive or Accusative, but is not necessary even here except for quam with a Relative : ABLATIVE WITH COMPAEATIYES. DIFEEEEKCE. 191 Scimus solem majorem esse terra, We Icnow that the sun is larger then the earth. Cic. Amicitia, qua nihil melius habemus ; friendship^ than which we have nothing better. Cic. See also examples under the Rule. 1) In the first example the Ablative {terra) is admissible but not necessary, quam terram might have been used; but in the second example the Ablative i^qud) is necessary, the conjunction quam would be inadmissible. 2) In the examples under the rale the ablatives mrtute and bonitate are both equivalent to quam with the Nom. quam 'cirtus and quam bonitas^ which might have been used. 3) Instead of the Abl., a Preposition with its case, ante, prae, praeter, or supra is sometimes used : Ante alios immanior, more monstrous than (before) the others. Yirg. 8. Construction with Plus, Minus, etc. — Plus, minus, amplius, or longius, with or without quam, is often introduced in expressions of num- ber and quantity, without influence upon the construction j sometimes also major, minor, etc. ; Tecum plus annum vixit, He lived with you more than a year. Cic. Mi- nus duo millia, less than two thousand. Liv. So in expressions of age : nStus plus triginta annos, having been born more than thirty years. The same meaning is also expressed by— major triginta annos natus, major triginta annis, major quam triginta annorum, or major triginta annorum. 4. Atque or Ac for Quam occurs chiefly in poetry and late prose : Arctius atque hedera, more closely than with ivy. Hor. 5. Alius with the Ablative sometimes occurs. It then involves a com- parison, other than : Quaerit alia his, He seelcs other things than these. Plaut. 6. Peculiarities. — Quam pro denotes disproportion, and many ablatives --^bj'inibne, spe, aequo, justo, solito, etc. — are often best rendered by clauses : Minor caedes quam pro victoria, less slaughter than was proportionate to thj victory. Liv. SSrius spe venit. He came later than was hoped (than hope). Liv. Plus aequo, more than is fair. Cic. RULE XXIV.— Ablative of DiSereace. 418 . Tlie Measuee of Diffeeence is denoted by the Ablative : Uno die longiorem mensem faciunt, They make the month one day longer (longer by one day). Cic. Biduo me antecessit, He preceded me by two days. Cic. Sunt magnitQdIne paulo infra elephantos. They are in size a little below the elephant. Caes. 1. The Ablative is thus used with all words involving a comparison, but adverbs often supply its place : Multum robustior, much more robust. 2. The Ablative of Difference includes the Abl. of Distance (878. 2), and the Abl. with ante, post, and abhinc in expressions of time (427). 192 ABLATIVE m SPECIAL COKSTRITCTIOISrS. EULE SXV.— Ablative in Special Constructions. ^ 419, The Ablative is used I. With utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their com pounds : Plurimis rebus fruimur et utimur, We enjoy and use very many things. Cic. Magna est praeda potitus, He obtained great booty. Nep, Vescimur bestiis, We live upon animals, Cic, II. With fido, confido, nitor, and innitor: Nemo potest fortunae stabilitate confidere, No one can trust (confide in) the stability of fortune. Cic. Salus veritate nititur. Safety rests upon truth. Cic. III. With Verbs and Adjectives of Plenty and Want : Non egeo medicina, Ido not need a remedy. Cic. Vacare culpa, to be free from faidt. Cic, Villa abundat lacte, caseo, meile; The villa abounds in milk^ cheese^ and honey, Cic, Urbs nuda praesidio, a city destitute of defence, Cic. Virtute praeditus, endowed with virtue. Cic. IV. With dignusj indignus, contentus, and fretus; Digni sunt amicitia, They are worthy of friendship. Cic. Natura parvo contenta, nature content with little. Cic. Pretus amicis, relying upon his friends. Liv. V. With opus and usus; Auctoritate tua nobis opus est, We 7teed (there is to us a need of) your authority. Cic. Usus est tua mihi opera, I need your aid. Plant. 1. Explanation. — This Ablative may in most instances be readily ex- plained as the Ablative of Cause or Means : thus utor.^ I use, serve myself by means of ; fruor., I enjoy, delight myself with ; vescor ^ I feed upon, feed myself with ; fldo^ confido^ I confide in, am confident because of, etc. 2. Accusative and Ablative. — Dignor and transitive verbs of Plenty and Want take the Accusative with the Ablative : Me dignor honore, I deem myself worthy of honor. Virg. Armis naves bnerat, He loads the ships with arms. Sail. Oculis se privat. He deprives himself of his eyes. Cic. See 371. 2. 1) Transitive verbs of Plenty and Want signify to fill, furnish with, depHve of, etc.: afficio., cumiilo., compleo., impleo, imhuo., instruo., onero., orno., etc. — orlto^ privo., spolio, etc. Dignor in the best prose admits only the Abi. 2) For the Accusative and Genitive with some of these verbs, see 410. 7. 2). 8. Dative and Ablative. — Opus est and usus est admit the Dative of the person with the Ablative of the thing. Se^ examples. AELATIYE IN SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS. 193 1) The Ablative is sometimes a Perfect Participle, or, with ®pus est^ a Noun and Participle : Consulto opus est, There is need of deliberation. Sail. Opus fuit Hirtio con- vento, There was need of meeting Hirtius. Cic. 2) With opus est, rarely with usus est, the thing needed may be denoted (1) By the Nominative, rarely by the Genitive or Accusative ; Dux nobis opus est, We need a leader, or a leader is necessary (a necessity) for us, Cic. Temporis opus est, There is need of time. Liv. Opus est cibum, Hiere is need of food. Plant. (2) By an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Supine : Opus est te valere. It is necessary that you be '‘cell. Cic. Opus est ut lavem. It is necessary for me to bathe (that I bathe). Plaut. Diclu est opus, It is necessary to be told. Ter. 4. Other Constructions also occur. Thus 1) Uior, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, originally transitive, are occasionally go used in classic authors. Their participle in dus is passive in sense. TJior admits two ablatives of the same person or thing: file utetur pHtre, He will find (use) me a father. Ter. 2) Fldo, confido, and innitor admit the Dative, rarely the Abl. with in. Wriuti to confide in virtue. Q\c. See 3S5. 1. 3) Dignus and indignus admit the Gen., fretus the Dat, nltor and innitor the Acc. or Abl. with Prep., and some verbs of Want the Abl. with Prep. Dignus salutis, worthy of safety. Plant. Pei fretus, relying upon the thing. Liv. Vucure ab opere, to be free from work. Caes. 4) Genitive.— the gemitive with potior, see 409. 8 . For the genitive with verbs and adjectives of Plenty and Want, see 409. 1, 410. 7, and 399. 2. 2). II. Ablative of Place. 420. This Ablative designates I. The PLACE IN WHICH anything is or is done : II. The PLACE FROM WHICH anything proceeds; — in- cluding Source and Separation. EULE XXVI —Ablative of Place. 421. I. The PLACE in which and the place from WHICH are generally' denoted by the Ablative with a Preposition. But II. Names of Towns omit the Preposition, and in the Singular of the First and Second declensions desig- nate the PLACE IN WHICH by the Locative, (45, 2) : 194 ABLATIVE OF PLACE. I. Hannibal in Italia fuit, Hannibal wa^ in Italy, Nep. In nostris \ castris, in our camp. Caes. In Appia via, on the Appian way, Cic. Ab urbe proficiscitur. He departs from the city, Caes. Ex Africa, from Afri- ca, Liv. II. Athenis fuit, He was at Athens, Cic. Babylone mortuus est, He died at Babylon, Cic. Fugit Corintho, He fed from Corinth. Cic. Ptomae fuit. He was at Rome. Cic. See 48, 4. 422. Names of Places Towis^s sometimes omit the preposition : 1. The Ablative of place in which, sometimes omits the preposition : 1) Generally the Ablatives — IbcOj locis ^ parte^ partibus^ dextra^ laeva f sinistra^ terra, mari, and other Ablatives when qualified by totus : Aliquid loco ponere, to put anything in its place. Cic. Terra marique, on land and sea. Liv. Tota Graecia, in all Greece. Nep. 2) Sometimes other Ablatives, especially when qualified by adjectives : Hoc libro, in this booh. Cic. In poetry the preposition is often omitted even when the ablative has no modifier: Silvis agrisque, in theforests and fields. Ov. 2. The Ablative of place peom which sometimes omits the preposition, especially in poetry : Cadere nubibns, to fall from the clouds, Yirg. Labi Squo, to fall from a horse, Ilor. 423. Names of Towns differ in their construction from other names of places, 1. Generally in simply omitting the preposition. But II. In the Singular of the First and Second declensions they designate the place m which by the Locative. See examples under the Rule. 1. Preposition Ketained. — The preposition is sometimes retained, especially for emphasis or contrast : Ab Ardea R3mam venerunt, They came from Ardea to Rome. Liv. So also when the vicinity rather than the town itself is meant : Discessit a Brun- | disio. He departed from Brundisium, i. e., from the port. Caes. Apud Man- tineam, near Mantinea. Cic. Ad Trebiam, at or near the Trebia. Liv. 2. Locative. — ^The original Locative, denoting the place in which, was blended with the Ablative, except in the Singular of the Fifst and Second Declensions, where it still remains distinct, though with the same form as the Genitive. A few traces of it also remain in the Singular of the Third Declension, where it ends in i. See 62, IV. 3. 3. Other Constructions for the Genitive also occur : i ABLATIVE OF PLACE, SOUECE, SEPARATION. 195 1) AUati've hy Attraction : • • t • In monte Albano Lavinioque, on the Alban mount and at Lammum, Liv. 2) Ablative without Attraction, generally with a preposition : In ipsa Alexandria, in Alexandria itself, Cic. Longa Alba, at Aim Longa, Yirg. This is the regular construction when the noun takes an adjective or adjective pronoun, but the Locative domi (424, 2) admits b, possessive or alienus : D5mi, suae, at his home. Cic. 3) With an Appellative— oi^pidum—Xhoi name of the town is in the Loc or AbL, but the appellative itself is in the Abb, generally with a Prep. : In oppido Antiochiae, in the city of Antioch. Cic. In oppido Citio, the town Citium. Nep. Albae, in urbe opportuna, at Alba, a convenient city, Cic. 424 . Like Names oe Towns are used 1. Many names of Islands: Vixit Cypri, He livedin Cypi-us. Nep. Delo proficiscitur, He proceeds from Delos, Cic. 2. D5mus, rns, and tbe Locatives humi, militiae, and belli: Ruri Severe vitam, to spend life in the country. Liv. Domi militiaeque, at home and in the field. Cic. Domo profugit, Defied from home. Cic. 3. Tlie Locative of other nouns also occurs : 1) By Attraction after names of towns : Romae Niimidiaeque, at Rome and in Numidia. Sail. 2) Without Attraction in a few proper names, and rarely also the Loca- tives arenae, foci, terrae^ mclniae : D6mum Chersonesi habuit. He had a house in the Chersonesus, Nep. Truncum reliquit arenae, He left the iody in the sand* Viig. ETILE XXYII.— Ablative of Source and Separation. 425 . Soukce and Sepaeation are denoted by the Ablative, generally witb a preposition : Source. — Hoc audivi de parente meo, I heard this from my father. Cic. Oriundi ab Sabinis, descended from the Sabines. Liv. Statua ex acre facta, a statue made of bronze. Cic. Jove natus, son of Jupiter. Cic. Separation. — Caedem a vobis depello, I ward off slaughter from, you, Cic. Hunc a tuis aris arcebis. You will keep this one from your altars. Cic. Expulsus est patria. He was banished from his country. Cic. 1. The Ablative of Source designates that from which any- thing is derived, including parentage, material, etc. 2. The Ablative of Separation designates that from which anything is separated, or of which it is deprived, and is used . 196 ABLATIVE OP SOURCE, SEPARATION, TIME. 1) With Intransitive verbs signifying, to abstain from, be distant from, etc. 2) In connection with the Accusative after transitive verbs signifying, lo hold from, separate from, free from, and the like : arceo, abstineo^ deterreo, ejicio, excludo, exsolvo, libero, pello, prQhibeo, removeo, solvo, etc. : 3) A few verbs of separation admit the Dative: dliem, f uror, etc See 385. 4. 8. Preposition Omitted. — This generally occurs 1) With Perfect Participles denoting parentage or birth— genitus, natus, oi'tus, etc. : son of Jupiter. Cic. 2) With Verbs of Freeing, except lilero, which is used both with and without a preposition : Somno solvi, to be released from sleep. Cic. But in the sense of acquitting these verbs admit the genitive (410. 7) : Aliquem culpae liberare, to free one from blame, i. e., acquit him. Liv. 3) With Moveo before the ablatives — loco, sendtu and tr^u : Signum movere loco, to move the standard from the place. Cic. 4) The preposition is sometimes omitted with other words, especially in poetry. III. Ablative of Time. EULE XXVIII-Time. 426. The Time of an Action is denoted by the Ab- lative : Octogesimo anno est mortuus, He died in his eightieth year. Cic. Yere convenere, They assembled in the spring. Liv. Natali die suo, on his birth- day. Nep. HiSme et aestate, in winter and summer. Cic. 1. Designations of Time. — Any word, so used as to involve the time of an action or event, may be put in the ablative: bello, in the time of war; pugna, in the time of battle ; ludis, at the time of the games ; mhnoria, in memory, i. e., in the time of one’s recollection. 2. The Ablative with In is used to denote 1) The circumstances of the time, rather than time itself ; In tali tempdre, under such circumstances. Liv. 2) The time in or within which anything is done : '' In diebus proximis decem, in the next ten days. SalL (1) This is used especially after numeral adverbs and in designating the periods of life : his in die, twice in the day; in pueritia, in boyhood. (2) In a kindred sense occur also the Ahl. with de and the Accus. with inter or i/ntra : De media nocte, in the middle of the night. Caes. Inter annos quattuorde- cim, in fourteen years. Caes. (3) The Ablative with or without in sometimes denotes the time within which or after which: paucis diebus, within (or afterj a few days. ABLATIVE OF TIME, CHA.EACTEIIISTIC. 197 427. Accusative or Ablative. — The time since an ac- tion or event is denoted by Abhinc or Ante with the Ac- cusative or Ablative, and the time between two events, by Ante or Post with the Accusative or Ablative : Abhinc annos trecentos fuit, He lived (was) three hundred years dnce. Cic. Abhinc annis quattuor, four years since. Cic. Homerus annis multis fuit ante Romulum, Homer lived many years before Eomulus. Cic. Paucis ante diebus, a few days before. Cic. Post dies paucos venit. He came after a few days. Liv. 1. Explanation.— (1) The Accusative with abUnc is explained as Dura- tion of Time (378), with ante and post as dependent upon those prepositions. (2) The Ablative in both cases is explained as the Ablative of Difference (418). With the Ahl. ante and post are used adverbially unless an Accus. is expiessed after them. Paucis his (illis) diebus, means in these (those) /ew? days. 2. Kumerals with Ante and Post. — These may be either cardinal or ordinal. Thus : five years after = quinque annis post, or quinto anno post ; >r post quinque annos, or post quintum annum; or with post between the numeral and the noun, quinque post annis, etc. 3. Quam with Ante and Po^T.— Qua7n may follow ante and post, may be united with them, or may even be used {ov postquam : \ Quartum post annum quam rfedierat, four years after he had returned. Nep. Nono anno postquam, nine years after. Nep. Sexto anno quam 6rat expulsus, six years after he had been banished. Nep. 4. The Ablative of the Relative or Quum may be used iov postquam • Quatriduo, quo occisus est,/<9wr days after he was killed. Cic. IV. Ablative of Characteristic. EULE XXIZ.— Characteristic. 428. The Ablative wdth an adjective may be used to characterize a person or thing : Summa virtute adolescens, a youth of the highest virtue. ^ Caes. Cati- line, ingenio malo fuit, Catiline was a man of a had spirit Sad. 1. Ablative of Characteristic is used 1) With Substantives as in the first example. ^ ^ 2) In the Predicate with sum, and the other verbs which admit a Predi- cate Genitive (403) as in the second example. 2. The Ablative with a Genitive instead of the ablative with an adjec- tive is sometimes used : Uri sunt specie tauri. The urus is of the appearance of a bull. Caes. 3. Genitive of Characteristic. — See 396. IV. 4. Genitive and Ablative Distinguished.— The Genitive generally ex- presses permanent and essential qualities j the Ablative is not limited to any particular kind of qualities. 198 ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. V. Ablative of Specification. EULS XXX.— Specification. 429. The Ablative may be used with a word to de- fine its application : Agesilaus nomine, non potestate fuit rex, Agesilaus was king in name, not in power. Nep. Claudus altero pede, lame in one foot. Nep. Moribus similes, similar in character.. Cic. 1. Force op Ablative. — This shows in lohat respect or particular any- thing is true ; thus, king (in what respect ?) in name : similar (in what re- spect ?) in character. 2. Accusative of Specification. See 880. VI. Ablative Absolute. 430. A noun and a participle, a noun and an adjective, or two nouns may be grammatically independent of {ab- solved from) the rest of the sentence, and yet may express \ various adverbial modifications of tb6 predicate. When used thev are said to be in the case Absolute. ' SO used they are said to be in the case Absolute. EULE XXXI.— Ablative Absolute. 431. The Ablative is used as the Case Absolute : Servio regnante viguSrunt, They flourished in the reign of Servius (Servius reigning). Cic. Regibus exactis, consules creati sunt. After the banishment of the kings, consuls were appointed. Liv. Sereno coelo, when the sky is clear. Sen. Caninio consule, in the consulship of Caninius. Cic. 1. Use. — The Ablative Absolute is much more common than the Eng- lish Nominative Absolute, and expresses a great variety of relations, — time, cause, reason, means, condition, concession, etc. 2. |5ow Rendered. — This ablative is generally best rendered (1) by a Clause with — when, while, for, since, if, though, etc., (2) by a Wowti with a Preposition, — in, during, after, by, from, through, etc., or (3) by an Ac^ tive Participle with its Object : Servio regnante, while Servius reigned^ or in the reign of Servius. Cic- Religione neglecta, because religion was neglected. Liv. Perditis rCbus omni- bus, tamen, etc., Though all things are lost^ still, etc. Cic. Equitatu praemis' so, subs6qu6batur. Having sent forward his cavalry, he followed. Caes. 3. A Connective sometimes accompanies the Ablative : Nisi munitis castris, unless the camp should be fortified. Caes. CASES WITH PEEPOSITIONS. 199 4. An Infinitive or Clafse may be in the Abl. Absolute with a neuter parti- ciple or adjective: Audito Darium mdvisse, pergit, Hating heard that Darius had withdrawn (that Darius had, etc., having been heard), he advanced. Curt. Multi, incerto quid vitarent, interierunt. Many., uncertain what they should avoid (what they, etc., being uncertain), perished. Liv. 5. A PapwTiciple or Adjective may stand alone in the Abl. Absolute : Multum certato, pervicit, He conquered after a hard struggle (it having been much contested). Tac. 6. Quisque in the Nominative may accompany the Abl. Absolute : Multis sibi quisque petentibus, while many sought., each for himself. Sail. VII. Ablative with Prepositions. See 432 and 434. SECTION VIII. CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. EULE XXXIL— Cases v/itli Prepositions. 432. The Accusative and Ablative may be used with Prepositions : Ad amicum scripsi, / have wrillen to a friend. Cie. In curiam, into the senate house. Liy. In Italia, in Italy. Nep. Pro castris, before the camp. 433. The Accusative is used with Ad, adversus (adversum), ante, apud, circa, circum, circiter, cis, citra, contra,’erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, juxta, ob, penes, per, pone, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, trans, ultra, versus : Ad urbem, to the city. Cic. Adversus deos, toward the gods. Cic. Ante lucem, before light. Cic. Apud concilium, in the presence of the ^ council. Cic. Circa forum, around the forum. Cic. Citra flumen, on tUs side of the river. Cic. Contra naturam, contrary to nature. Cic. Intra muros, within the walls. Cic. Post castra, behind the camp. Caes. Secundum naturam, according to nature. Cic. Trans Alpes, across the Alps. Cic. 1. Like Prdpe, the derivatives propior and proximus take the Accus. depend- ent perhaps upon ad understood. Exadversus (urn) also occurs with the Accus. : Propior montem, nearer to the mountain. Sail. Proximus mure, nearest to the sea. Caes. See also 437, and for compounds, 371. 4. and 374. 6. ^ 2. Versus (um)^^nd usque as adverbs often accompany prepositions, especially ad and in : Ad Alpe^ versus, towards the Alps. 434. The Ablative is used with A or ab (abs), absque, coram, cum, de, e or ex, prae, pro, sine, tSnus ' 200 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. Ab urbe, from the city. Caes. Coram conventu, in the presence of thb adsernhly. Nep. Q\xm Awiiocho^ with Antiochus. Cic. from the fo^ rum. Cic. Ex Asia, from Asia. Nep. Sine corde, without a heart. Cic. 1. Many verbs compounded with aby de, eXy or super^ admit the Ablative dependent upon the preposition : Abire magistratu, io retire from office. Tac. Pugna excedunt, They retire from the battle. Caes. Sometimes the Prep, is repeated, or one of kindred meaning is used : De vita decedere, to depart from life. Cic. Decedere ex Asia, to depart from Asia. Cic. 2. The Ablative with or without De is sometimes used with FdciOy FlOy or Sumy as follows ; Quid hoc homine facias, What are you to do with this man ? Cic. Quid te {or de te) futurum est, What will become of you f Cic. The Dative occurs in nearly the same sense : Quid huic homini facias, What are you to do with (or to) this man ? Cic. 8. Ay aby abSy e, ex. — A and e are used only before consonants, ab and ex either before vowels or consonants. Abs is antiquated, except before te. 4. Tenus follows its case : Collo tenus, up to the neck. Ov. 5. Cum with the Abl. of a Pers. Pronoun is appended to it : mecumy UcurPy etc., generally also with a relative : qubcumy quibuscwn. 435. The Accusative or Ablative is used with In, sub, subter, super : In Asiam profugit. He fled into Asia. Cic. Hannibal in Italia fuit, Han- nibal was in Italy. Nep. Sub montem, toward the mountain. Caes. Sub monte, at the foot of the mountain. Liv. Subter togam, under the toga, Liv. Subter testudine, under a tortoise or shed. Virg. Super Numidiam, beyond Numidia, Sail, vq ^c,\nAi^my I will write on this subject, Cic. 1. In and take the Accusative in answer to the question whither? the Ablative in answer to where? In Asiam (whither?), into Asia/ In Italia (where?), in Italy, 2. Subter and Super generally take the Accusative, but super with the force of — concerning y ofy on (of a subject of discourse), takes the Ablative ; see examples. 436. Prepositions as Adverbs. — The prepositions were originally adverbs, and many of them are sometimes so used in classical authors. 437. Adverbs as Prepositions. — Conversely several adverbs are sometimes used as prepositions with an oblique case, though in most in- stances a preposition could readily be supplied. Such are 1. AVith Accusative: propiuSy proxhmCy prldiCy postridiCy usquCy desiiper : Propius periculum (ad), nearer to danger. Liv. Pridie Idus (ante), the day before the Ides. Cic. Usque pedes (ad), even to the feet. Curt. 2. With Ablative : pdlamy prbeuly slmul (poetic) : Palam populo, in the presence of the people. Liv. Pr5cul castris, at a distance from the camp. Tac. Simul his, with these. Hor. 8, With Accusative or Ablative: clamyinsuper : Clam patrem, without ihr father'' s knowledge. Plant Clam vbbis, without your SYITTAX OF ADJECTIVES. rule XXXin.— Agreement of Adjectives. 438 . An Adjective agrees with its Noun in genuer, iniMBEE, and case : Fortuna caeca est, Fortune is b)^d. Cic. VSrae amicitiae, true friend- nhi'ps, Cic. Magister optimus, the best teacher, Cic. 1. This Riyfe incudes Adject|V^s, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles. 2. Attributive and Predicate Adjectives.— An adjective is called attrihutivey unless it unites with the verb (generally sum)y to form the ^predicate; it is then called 2 . predicate-adjective : as caeca ect, above. 3. Agreement Clause, ^tc.—AA adjective may agree with a^y word or words used substantively, as a pronouny clausCy infinitivCy etc. : Quis clarior. Who is more illustrious? Cic. Certum est liberos amari, It is certain that children are loved. Quint. See 42, III. An adjective agreeing with a clause is sometimes plural, as in Greek. 4. Neuter with Masculine. — Sometimes the Predicate Adjective is neuter, when the subject is Masc, or Fern , : Mors est extremum. Death is the last (thing). Cic. 5. Neuter with Genitive.— A neuter adjective with a genitive is often used instead of an adjective with its noun : 6. Construction according to Sense.— Sometimes the adjective or par- ticiple conforms to the real meaning of its noun, without regard to gran>- matioal gender or number : Pars certare parati, a part (some), prepared to contmd. Virg. N5bis (for me, 446, 2), praesente, loe (1) being present. Plant. Demosthenes cum ceteris ^rant expulsi, Demosthenes with the others had been bamshed, JNep. 7. Agreement with Predicate Noun or Appositive.— See 462. 8. Agreement with one Noun for Another. — When a noun governs another in the Genitive, an adjective belonging in sense to one of the two nouns, sometimes agrees with the other; Majora (for majorum') initia r6rum, the beginnmus of great^^ things^ Liv. Cursus justi (^justus) amnis, the regular course of the rioer. Liv. 202 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 439. With two or more Nouns. — An adjective or participle, belonging to two or more nouns, may agree with them all conjointly, or may agree with one and be understood with the others : Castor et Pollux visi suut, Castor and Pollux were seen, Cic. Teme- ritas ignoratioque vitiosa est, Rashness and ignorance are had, Cic. 1. The Attributive Adjective generally agrees with the nearest noun: Agri omnes et maria, all lands and seas, Cic. 2. Different Genders. — When the nouns are of different genders, they may denote 1) Persons: then the adjective or participle agreeing with them con- jointly is masculine : Pater et mater mortui sunt. Father and mother are dead. Ter. 2) Persons and Things : then the adjective generally takes the gender of the person : Rex regiaque classis profecti sunt, The king and the royal fleet set out, Liv. 8) Things : then the adjective is generally neuter : Honores, victoriae fortuita sunt, Honors and victories are accidental (things). Cic. 3. Neuter with Masculine or Feminine. — With masculine or feminine nouns denoting inanimate objects, the adjective is often neuter: Labor et dolor sunt finitima, Labor and pain are kindred (things). Cic. Nox atque praeda hostes remorata sunt. Night and plunder detained the enemy. Sail. 4. Two OR MORE Adjectives. — Two or more adjectives in the singular may belong to a plural noun : Prima et vicesima legiones, the first and the twentieth legions, Tac. So in proper names: Cnaeus et Publius Scipiones, Cnaeus and Publius Scipio. Cic. 440. Use of Adjectives. — The Adjective in Latin corresponds in its general use to the Adjective in English. 1. An adjective may qualify the complex idea formed by a noun and an adjec- tive: aes alienum grande^ a great debt. Here qualifies not aes alone, but aes alienum. In such cases no connective is used between the adjectives. But the Latin uses the conjunction after multi even where the English omits it: multae et magnae tempestates^ many great emergencies. 441. Adjectives are often used substantively v the learned ; muUi^ many persons ; multa,, many things. 1. In the Plural, Masculine Adjectives often designate persons, and Neuter Adjectives things: fortes^ the brave; divites, the rich; pauperes, the poor; multi, many: pauci, few; omnes, all; mei, my friends ; utilia, useful things ; mea, nostra, my, our things; omnia, all things; haec, ilia, these, those things. 2. In the Singular, Adjectives are occasionally used substantively, especially in the Neuter with an abstract sense: docttis, a learned man; USE OF ADJECTIVES. 203 xTerum^ a true thing, the truth ; nihil sinc^i, nothing of sincerity, nothing sincere. 3. Noun Understood. — Many adjectives become substantives, by the omission of their nouns : patria (terra), native country ; dextra (manus), right hand ; fera (bestia), wild beast ; hiberna (castra), winter-quarters. 4. With Res.— Adjectives with res ave used with great freedom : res adversae^ adversity ; res secundae, prosperity j respublica, republic. 5. From Proper Names. — Adjectives from proper names are often equivalent to the English objective with of: pugna Marathonia, the battle of Marathon; Diana Ephesia, Diana of Ephesus ; Hercules Xenophontius, the Hercules of Xenophon, 6. Designating a Part. —A few adjectives sometimes designate a par- ticular part of an object ; primus, medius, ultimus, extremus, postremus, inti- mus, summus, infimus. Imus, suprenms, reliquus, cetera, etc. : prima nox, the first part of the night ; summus mons, the highest part of the mountain. In Livy and late writers, the neuter of these adjectives with a genitive some- times occurs : Ad ultimum inopiae, /or ad ultimam inopiam, io extreme destitution. Liv. 442. Equivalent to a Clause. — Adjectives, like nouns in apposition, are sometimes equivalent to clauses: Nemo saltat sobrius. No one dances when he is sober, or when sober, Cic. Hortensium vivum amavi, I loved Hortensius, while he was alive, Cic. Homo nunquam sobrius, a man, who is never sober, Cic. 1. Prior, primus, ultimus, postremus, are often best rendered by a rela- tive clause : Primus morem solvit, lie was the first who hrohe the custom, Liv. With the adverb prlmum, the thought would be, he first broke the custom, and then did something else. 443. Instead of Adverbs.— Adjectives arc sometimes used where our idiom employs adverbs : Socrates venenum laetus hausit, Socrates cheerfully drank the poison. Sen. Senatus frequens convenit. The senate assembled in great numbers, Cic. Roscius erat Romae frequens, Boscius was frequently at Borne, Cic. Adjectives thus used are: (1) Those expressive of joij, knowledge, and their op- posites : laetus, libens, inmtus, tristis, sciens, insciens, prudens, imprudens, etc. (2) Nullus, solus, totus, unus ; prior, primus, propior, proximus, etc. (3) In the Poets several adjectives of time and place: Domesticus dtior, I idle about home. IIor.‘ Vespertinus pete tectum, At even- ing seek your abode. Hor. See Examples above ; also 335. 4. 444. Comparison. — A comparison between two ob- jects Requires the comparative degree ; between more than two, the superlative : the former of these Nep. Gallorum fortissimi^ bravest of the Gauls, Caes. 10 204 ADJECTIVES. PKONOUI^-S. 1. With the force of Too or Very. — The comparatire sometimes has the force of too^ unusuallyy somewhat^ and the superlative, the force of '’sej'y : doctior, too learned, or somewhat learned ; doctissimus, very learned. 2. Comparative after Quam. — When an object is said to possess one quality in a higher degree than another, both adjectives are put in the comparative ; but when it is said to possess one quality rather than an- other, both are in the positive, the former with mdgis ov ggotius: Clarior quam gratior, more illustrious than pleasing, Liv. Disertus piagis quam sapiens, jiuent rather than wise. Cic, In the first case the positive is sometimes used in one or both members ; and in the second case mdgis is sometimes omitted, and occasionally the adjective before quam is in the comparative. 3. Strengthening Words. — Comparatives and Superlatives are often strengthened by a Prep, with its case, ante, prae, praeter, supra (417. 2. 3), unus, unus omnium, alone, alone of all, far, by far ; Comparatives also by etiam, even, still ; multo, much, and Superlatives by longe, multo, by far, much, quam, quantus, as possible : Multo maxima pars, hy far the largest part. Cic. Res una omnium difficillima, a thing hy far the most difficult of all. Cic. Quam maximae copiae, forces as large as possible. Sail. Quanta maxima vastitas, the greatest possible devastation. Liv. 4. Comparison in Adverbs has the same force as in adjectives: Quam saepissime, as often as possible. Cic. Fortius quam felicius, with more bravery than success. Liv. CHAPTER IV. SYNTAX OF PEONOTINS, RULE XXXIV.— Agreement of Pronouns. 445. A Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gen- DER, NUMBER, and PERSON : Animal quod sanguinem hSbet, an animal which has blood. Cic. Ego, qui te confirmo, I who encourage you. Cic. Vis est in virtutibus ; eas ex- cita, There is strength in virtues, arouse them. Cic. 1. Application of Rule.— This rule applies to all Pronouns when used as nouns. Pronouns used as adjectives conform to the rule for adjec- tives. See 438. The Antecedent is the word or words t(» which the pronoun refers, and whose place it supplies. Thus, in the examples under the rule, animal is the antecedent otquod, and virtutibus the antecedent of eas. AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS. 205 2. Agreement with Personal Pronoun. — When the antecedent is a Demonstrative in agreement with a Personal pronoun, the relative agrees with the latter : Tu es is qui me ornasti, You are the one loho commended me, Cic. 3. With two Antecedents. — When a relative or other pronoun, re- fers to two or more antecedents, it generally agrees with them conjointly, but it sometimes agrees with the nearest : Pueri miilieresque, qui, hoys and women^ who, Caes. Peccatum ac culpa, quae, error and faulty which. Cic. 1) With antecedents of different genders, the pronoun conforms in gender to the rule for adjectives (439. 2 and 3)*, hence muUeresque qui, above. 2) With antecedents of different persons, the pronoun prefers the first ])erson to the second, and the second to the third, conforming to the rule for verbs. See 4G3. 1. 4. With Predicate Noun or Appositive. — A pronoun sometimes agrees with a Predicate-Noun or an Appositive instead of the antecedent: Animal quern (for quod) vocamus hominem, the animal which we call man. Cic. Thebae, quod {quae) caput est, Thebes which is the capital. Liv. Ea {id) erat confessio. That (i. e., the action referred to) was a con- fession. Liv. Flumen Rhenus, qui, the river Rhinc^ which. Caes. In the last example, qui agrees with the appositive Rhenus ; in the other exam- ples, the pronouns quern, quod, and ea, are attracted to agree with their predicate nouns hominem, caput, and confessio. 5. Construction according to Sense. — Sometimes the pronoun is construed according to the real meaning of the antecedent, without regard to grammatical form ; and sometimes it refers to the class of objects to which the antecedent belongs : Equitatus, qui viderunt, the cavalry vdio saw. Caes. Earum rerum utrumque, each of these things. Cic. Demociitum omittamus ; apud istos ; let us omit Democritus ; with such (i. e., as he). Cic. 6. Antecedent Omitted. — The antecedent of the relative is often omit- ted when it is indefinite, is the pronoun is, or is implied in a possessive : Sunt qui censeant. There are some who think. Cic. Terra reddit quod accepit, The earth returns what it has received. Cic. Vestra, qui cum in- tjerritate vixistis, hoc interest, This interests you who have lived within^ Ucjriiy^ Cic. Here the antecedent is vos, implied in vestra. Y. Clause as Antecedent. — When the antecedent is a sentence or clause, the pronoun, unless attracted (445. 4), is in the Neuter Singular, but the relative generally adds id as an appositive to such antecedent : Nos, id quod debet, patria delectat. Our country delights us,asit ought (lit. that which it owes). Cic. 8. Relative Attracted. — The relative is sometimes attracted into the case of the antecedent, and sometimes agrees with the antecedent repeated ; Judice quo (for quern) nosti, the judge whom you know. Hor. Dies in- 20G PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. Btat, quo die, The day is at handy on ivhich day, Caes. Cumae, quam urbem tenebant, Cumaty which city they held. Liv. 9. Antecedent Attracted. — In Poetry, rarely in prose, the antecedent is sometimes attracted into the case of the relative ; and sometimes incor. porated in the relative clause in the same case as the relative : Urbem quam statuo, vestra est, The city which I am building is yours. Virg. Malarum, quas amor curas habet, oblivisci (for malarum aurarum qua8)y to forget the wretched cares which love has. Hor. I. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. 446. The Nominative of Personal Pronouns is used only for emphasis or contrast : Significamus, quid sentiamus, ^Ye show what we think. Cic. Ego reges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis, I have banished kingSy you introduce tyrants. Cic. 1. With quidem the pronoun is usually expressed, and then the third person is supplied by 7u’c, «s, illey which are then often redundant : iu quidem^ you indeed, ille quidemy he indeed. Quidem adds emphasis; equidem = ego quidem. 2. The writer sometimes speaks of himself in the plural, using nos for egOy nos- ier for meuSy and the plural verb for the singular. 8. For Nostrum and Vestrumy see 396. 1. 447. Possessive Pronouns, when not emphatic, are sel- dom expressed, if they can be supplied from the context : Manus lava. Wash your hands. Cic. Mihi mea vita cara est, My life is dear to me. Plaut. For Possessive with Genitive in the sense of own, see 397. 3. Reflexive rise of Pronouns, 448. Sui and Suus have a reflexive sense {himself etc.) ; sometimes also the other Personal and Possessive pronouns, together with Is^ lUe.^ and Ipse : Se diligit, Ile loves himself. Cic. Sua vi movetur, He is moved by his own power. Cic. NLq con^oloVy I console myself . Cic. Persuadent Tulingis uti cum iis proficiscantur. They persuade the Tulingi to depar't with them. Caes. 1. Inter noSy inter vos, inter sCy have a reciprocal force, each othery one anotheVy together ; but instead of inter se, the noun may be repeated in aii oblique case : Colloquimur inter nos. We converse together. Cic. Amant inter se. They love one another. Cic. Homines hbminibus utiles sunt. Men are useful to meUy i. c., to each other. Cic REFLEXIVE USE OF PRONOUNS. 207 449. Sui and Situs generally refer to the Subject of the clause in which they stand : Se diligit, He loves himself, Cic. Justitia propter sSse colenda est, Justice should he cultivated for its own sake. Cic. Annulum suum dedit, He gave his ring. Nep. 1. In Subordinate Clauses expressing the sentiment of the principal subject, Sui and Suus generally refer to that subject: Sentit animus se vi sua moveri. The mind perceives that it is moved by its own power. Cic. A me petivit ut secum essem, He asked (from) me to he with him (that I would be). Cic. Pervestigat quid sui cives cogitent. He tries to ascertain what his fellow citizens think. Cic. 1) As Sui 2 ,\i^Suus thus refer to subjects, the demonstratives, /«, llle., etc., gen- erally refer either to other words, or to subjects, which do not admit sui and suus. Deum agnoscis ex ejus operibus. You recognize a god by (from) his works. Cic. Obligat civitatem nihil eos mutaturos, He hinds the state not to change anything (that they will). J ust. 2) In some subordinate clauses the writer may at pleasure use either the flexive or the Demonstrative, according as he wishes to present the thought as that of the principal subject, or as his own. Thus in the last example under 448, cum Us is the proper language for the writer without reference to the sentiment of the princi- pal subject; secum., which would be equally proper, would present the thought as the sentiment of that subject. 3) Sometimes the Reflexive occurs where we should expect the Demonstrative, and the Demonstrative where we should expect the Reflexive. 2. Suus = His own, etc. — Suus in the sense of his own, fitting^ etc., may refer to subject or object : Justitia suum cuique tribuit, Justice gives to every man his due (his own). Cic. 3. Construction according to Sense.— When the subject of the verb is not the real agent of the action, sui and suus refer to the latter : A Caesare invitor sibi ut sim legatus, 1 am invited by Caesar (real agent) to be his lieutenant. Cic. 4. Suus Substantively.— The Plural of Suus used substantively— 7wV, their friends, possessions, etc. — is used with great freedom, often referring to oblique cases : Fuit hoc luctuosum suis. This was aficting to his friends. Cic. Here $uis refers to an oblique case in the preceding sentence. 5. Sui and Suus sometimes refer to an omitted subject : Deforme est de se praedicare. To boast of onds self is disgusting. Cic. 6. Reflexives referring to different Subjects. — Sometimes a clause has one reflexive referring to the principal subject, and another referring to the subordinate subject : Respondit neminem secum sine sua pernicie contendisse. He replied that no one had contended ivith him without (his) destruction. Caes. Here se refers to the subject of respondit and sua to neminem, the subject of the subordinate clause. 208 PRONOUNS. II. Demonstrative Pronouns. 450. Iste^ Ille^ are often called respectively de- monstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons, as hie designates that which is near the speaker; iste^ that which is near the person addressed, and ille^ that w^hich is remote from both, and near only to some third person. Custos hujus urbis, the guardian of this city. Cic. Muta istam men- tem, Change that purpose of yours. Cic. Si illos negligis, if you disregard those. Cic. 1. Hic AND Ille in Contrasts. — Hie designates an object conceived as near, and ille as remote, whether in space or time : Non antiquo illo more, sed hoc nostro fuit eruditus, He was educated, not in that ancient, hut in this our modern way. Cic. 2. Hic and Ille, former and latter.— I n reference to two objects previously mentioned, (1) Hic generally follows Ille and refers to the lat- ter object, while Ille refers to the former ; but (2) Hic refers to the more important object, and Ille to the less important : Ignavia, labor : ilia, hic ; Indolence, labor : the former, the latter. Cels. Pax, victoria : haec {pax) in tua, ilia in deorum potestate est ; Peace., vic- tory : the former is in your power, the latter in the power of the gods. Liv. 3. Hic and Ille are often used of what immediately follows in dis- course, and Iste sometimes indicates contempt : haec verba, these words, i. G., the following words ; iste, that man, such a one. 4. Ille is often used of what is well known, famous : Medea ilia, that well-known Medea. Cic. 1) Hic with or without homo., is sometimes equivalent to ^go. Alone it is some- times equivalent to mens or noster. 2) //ic, ille, and is are sometimes redundant, especially with quldem • Scipio non multum ille quidem dicebat, Scipio did not indeed say much. Cic. See 446. 1. 3) A Demonstrative or Relative is sometimes equivalent to a Genitive or a Prep, with its case: hic dolor = dolor hujus rei, grief on account of this; haec cura = cura de hoc, care concerning this. 451. Is and Idem refer to preceding nouns, or are the antecedents of relatives: Dionysius aufugit : is est in provincia, Dionysius has f ed : he is in the province. Cic. Is qui satis habet, he who has enough. Cic. Eadem audire malunt. They prefer to hear the same things. Liv. 1. /s is often omitted, especially before a relative or a genitive : Flcbat pater de filii morte, de patris illius, The father wept over the death of the son, the son over (that) of the father. Cic. See also 445. 6. 2. Is or Ipse with a Conjunction is often used for emphasis, like the English and that too, and that indeed : DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS, 209 Unam rem explicabo eanaque maximam, One thing 1 will explain and that too a most important one. Cic, , ^ . thus used often refers to a clause or to the general thought, and et tpse often best rendered, too or also : Audire Cratippum, klque Athenis, to hear Cratip- pus., and that too at Athens. Cic. 3. Idem is sometimes best rendered, also^ yet : Nihil utile, quod non Idem honestum, Nothing useful, which is not also honor- able. Cic. Quum dicat— negat idem. Though he asserts— he yet denies (the same denies). Cic. 4^ Js—qui = he — who, such— as, such — that: li sumus, qui esse debemus, We are such as we ought to be. Cic. Ea est gens quae nesciat. The race is such that it knows not. Liv. 5. Idemr—qui ; idem — ac, atque., quam., qudsi^ ut^ cum with Abl. = the same— who, the same— as : lidem mores, qui, The same manners which or as. Cic. Est idem ac fuit, He is the .same as he was. Ter. 6. Is Reflexiue. See 448. 452. Ipse adds emphasis, generally rendered self : Ipse Caesar, Cwsar himself. Cic. Fac ut te ipsum custodias, See that you guard yourself. Cic. 1. Ipse with Subject. — Ipse belongs to the emphatic word, whether subject or object, but with a preference for the subject : Me ipse consolor, I myself (not another) console myself. Cic. 2. Ipse, Very.— is often best rendered by very : Ipse ille Gorgias, that very Gorgias. Cic. 3. With Numerals Ipse has the force oi—gusi so many., just : Triginta dies ipsi,jiis^ thirty days. Cic. 4. Ipse in the Genitive with possessives has the force of own. one's own : Nostra ipsorum amicitia. Our own friendship. Cic. See 397. 3. 5. Ipse Reflexive^ sometimes supplies the place of an emphatic sui or suus: Legatos misit qui ipsi vitam peterent. He sent messengers to ask life for him- self. Sail. III. Relative Pronouns. 453. The relative is often used where the English idiom rec]^uires a demonstrative or personal pronoun • some- times even at the beginning of a sentence : Res loquitur ipsa ; quae semper valet ; The fact itself speaks, and this (which) ever has weight. Cic. Qui proelium committunt, They engage bat- tle. Caes. Quae quum ita sint, shice these things are so. Cic. 1. Relative with Demonstrative. — Relatives and Demonstratives are often correlatives to each other ; hie — qui, iste — gui, etc. These combina- tions generally retain the ordinary force of the separate words, but see is — quiy idem — qui, 451. 4 and 5. 1) Quictmque and Quisquis, whoever, whatever, sometimes have the force of tvery by the ellipsis of fieri potest: quacunque ratione, in every way, i. e., in what- ever way it is possible. 210 RELATIVE AND INTERROGATI VE PRONOUNS. 2. A Demonstrative may supply the place of a Relative when other- wise two relative clauses would be brought together : Quae nec haberemus nec his uteremur, Which we should neither havi nor use. Cic. 1) A Relative Clause with is is often equivalent to a substantive : ii qui diunt — auditores, hearers. 3. Two Relatives sometimes occur in the same clause : Artes quas qui tenent, arts^ whose possessors (which, who possess). Cic, 4. A Relative Clause is sometimes equivalent to Fro with the Abl. ; Quae tua prudentia est = qua es prudentia = pro tua prudentia = such is your prudence^ or you are of such prudence^ or in accordance with your prudence, etc. : Spero, quae tua prudentia est, te valere, 1 hope you are well, such is your prudence (which is, etc.). 5. Relative with Adjective.— Adjectives belonging in sense to the antecedent, sometimes stand in the relative clause in agreement with the relative, especially comparatives, superlatives, and numerals : Vasa, quae pulcherrima viderat, the most heautiful vessels which he had seen (vessels, which the most beautiful he had seen). Cic. De servis suis, quem habuit fidelissimum, misit. He sent the most faithful of the slaves which he had. Nep, 6. Quod Expletive, or apparently so, often stands at the beginning of a sentence, especially before ni, nisi, etsi, and sometimes before quia, quoniam, ut\nam, etc. In translating it is sometimes omitted, and sometimes rendered by now, but, and : Quod si ceciderint, «/or but if they should fall. Cic. 7. Qui dicitur, qui vocatur, or the corresponding active quern dleunt, quern vbcant, are often used in the sense of so called, the so called, uhat they or you call, etc. : Vestra qnae dicitur vita, mors est, Your so called life (lit. your, which is called life) is death. Cic. Lex ista quam vocas non est lex, That law as you call it. is not a law. Cic. IV. Interrogative Pronouns. 454. The Interrogative quis, is used substantively ; qici^ adjectively : Quis ego sum, Who am Cic. Quid fSciet, Wliat will he do i Cic. Qui vir fuit, What kind of a man was he ? Cic. 1. Quis AND Qui. — Occasionally quis is used adjectively and qui substantively: Quis rex nnquam fuit, What king was there ever ? Cic. Qui sis, considera, Consider who you are. Cic. 2. Quid, why, how is it that, etc., is often used adverbially (380. 2), or stands apparently unconaeeted, by the ellipsis eapropter or a verb : Quid enim, why then? what indeed {est or dlcam) ? Quid quod, what ot the fact that? 8. Two Interrogatives sometimes occur in the same clause: Quis quern fraudavit, who defrauded, and whom did he defraud (lit. who de- frauded whom) Cic. 4. Attraction.— T he interrogative often agrees with the predicate noun.* Quam (for quid) dlcam voluptatem videtis. You see what 1 call pleasure. Cic. PRONOUNS. 11 V. Indefinite Pronouns. 455. A.liquls^ quis^ qiii^ and quispiam^ are all indeii- nite, some one^ any one : Est aliquis, there is some one. Liv. Dixit quis, some one said. Cic. Si quis rex, if any king. Cic. Alia res quaepiam, any other thing. Cic. 1. Aliquis is less indefinite than quis, qui, and quispiam. 2. Quis and qui are used chiefly after si, nisi, ne, and num. Quis is generally used substantively and qui adjectively. Aliquis after si, etc., is emphatic. 456. Quldam, a certain one, is less indefinite than altquis : Quldam rhetor antiquus, a certain ancient rhetorician. Cic. Accurrit quldam, A certain one runs up, Hor. 1. Quldam with an Adjective is sometimes used to qualify or soften the state- ment : Justitia mirifica quaedam videtur, Justice seems somewhat wonderful. Cic. 2. Quldam with quasi and sometimes without it, has the force ot a certain, a kind of, as it were : Quasi alumna quaedam, a certain foster child as it were. Cic. 457. Quisqiiam and nllus are used chiefly in negative and conditional sentences, and in interrogative sentences implying a negative : Neque me quisquam agnovit, Nor did any one recognize me. Cic. ^ Si quisquam, if any one. Cic. Num censes ullum animal esse, do you think there is any animal ? Cic. 1. Nemo is the negative of quisquam, and like quisquam is generally used sub- stantively, rarely adjectively : Neminem laesit, Ile harmed no one. Cic. Nemo poeta, no poet. Cic. 2. Nullus is the negative of ullus, and is generally used adjectively, but it some times supplies the Gen. and Abl. of nemo, which generally wants those cases ; Nullum animal, no animal. Cic. Nullius aures, the ears of no one. Cic. 8. Nullus for non.— Nullus and nihil are sometimes used for an emphatic non. Nullus venit, He did not come. Cic. Mortui nulli sunt. The dead are not. Cic. 458. Qicwis., QidUbet^ any one whatever, and Quisque^ every one, each one, are general indefinites (191) : Quaelibet res, any thing. Cic. Tuorum quisque necessariorum, each one of your friends. Cic. 1. Quisque with Superlatives and Ordinals is generally best rendered by all or by ever, always, with primus by very, possible : Epicureos doctissimus quisque contemnit. All the most learned despise the Epi- cureans, or the most learned ever despise, etc. Cic. Primo quoque die, the earliest day possible, the very first. Cic. 2. Ut Quisque— xta with the superlative in both clauses is often best rendered, the more— the more : Ut quisque sibi plurimum confidit, ita maxime excellit, The more one confides in himself the more he excels. Cic. rrvONOUNS. verbs. O 1 o ■ ^ L ^ 459. Alius and Alter are often repeated : alius — alius^ one — another ; alii — alii^ some — others ; alter — alter^ the one — the other ; alteri — alteri^ the one party — the other : Alii gloriae serviunt, alii pecuniae, Borne are slaves to glory ^ others to money. Cic. Alteri dimicant, alteri timent. One party contends^ the other fears. Cic. 1. Alms repeated in dilForent cases often involves an ellipsis : Alius alia via civitatem auxerunt, They advanced the state., one in one way., another in another. Liv. So also with alias or dliter : Alrter alii vivunt, Some live in one way., others in another. Cic. 2. After Alius., Aliter^ and the like, atque., ac, and et often mean than: Non alius essem atque sum, I would not he other than 1 am. Cic. 3. Alter means the one., the other (of two), the second ; alius, another., other. When alter— alter refers to objects previously mentioned, the first alter usually refers to the latter object, but may refer to either: Inimicus, competitor, cum altcro— cum altcro, an enemy., a rival., with the laU ter — with the former. Cic. 4. Uterque means both., each of two, and in the Flu. both., each of two parties. CHAPTEE V. SYNTAX OF VEEBS. SECTION I. AGREEMENT OF VERBS. EXILE XXXV.-Verb with Subject. 460 . A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in num- ber and PERSON : Deus mundum aedificavit, God made the world. Cic. Ego reges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis, I have banished kings, you introduce ty- rants. Cic. 1. Participles in Compound Tenses agree with the subject according to 438. See also 301. 2 and 3 : Thebani accusati sunt, The Thebans were accused. Cic. 1) In the Infinitive, the Participle in um sometimes occurs without any reference to the gender or number of the subject: Diffidentia futurum quae imperavisset, /row doubt that those things which he had commanded would take place. Sah. AGREEMENT OF VERBS. 213 2. Subject Omitted. See 367. 2. 1) An Indefinite Subject is often denoted by the Second Pers. Sing., or by the First or Third Plur.; dlcas.yow. (any one) may say; dlcimus.vfd (people) say; diciinU they say. 3. Yekb Omitted. — See 367. 3. 461 . Constructi ON according to Sense. — Sometimes the Predicate is construed according to the real meaning of the subject without regard to grammatical gender or number. Thus 1. With Collective Nouns, pars, multitudo, and the like : Multitudo abeunt, The multitude depart, Liv. Pars per agros dilapsi, a part (some) dispersed through the fields. Liv. 1) Here multitudo and pars, though Sing, and Fern, in form, are Plur. and Masc. in sense. See also 438. 6. 2) Conversely the Imperative Singular may be used in addressing a multitude individually: Adde defectionem Siciliae, Add (to this, soldiers,) the revolt of Sicily. Liv. 3) Of two verbs with the same collective noun, the former is often Sing., and the latter Plur. : Juventus ruit certantque. The youth rush forth and contend. \ irg. 2. With Millia, often masculine in sense; Caesi sunt tria millia. Three thousand men were slain. Liv. 3. With Quisque, Uterque, Alius— Alium, Alter— Alterum, Uterque educunt, they each lead out. Caes. Alter alterum viaemus. We see each other. Cic. 4. With Singular Subjects accompanied by an Ablative with cum: Dux cum principibus capiuntur, The leader with his chiefs is talcen. Liv. See 438. 6. 5. With Partim — Partim in the sense of pars— pars : Bonorum partim necessaria, partim non necessaria sunt, Of good things some are necessary, others are not 7 iecessary. Cic. 462. Agreement with Appositive or Predicate Noun. — Sometimes the verb agrees, not with its subject, but with an Appositive or Predicate Noun : Volsinii, oppidum Tuscorum, concrematum est, Volsinii, a toimi of the Tuscaiis, was humied. Plin. Non omnis error stultitia est dicenda. Not every error should he called folly. Cic. 1. The Verb regularly agrees with the appositive when that is urhs, oppidum, or civitas, in apposition with plural names of places, as in the first example. 1) The verb sometimes agrees with a noun in a subordinate clause after quam, nisi, etc. : Nihil aliud nisi pax quaesita est (not quaesitum), Nothing hut peace was sought. Cic. 2. The verb agrees with the predicate noun, when that is nearer or more eni- phatic than the subject, as in the second example. 214 AGEEEMENT OF VERBS. 463. Agreement with Compound Subject. — With two or more subjects the verb agrees — I. With one subject and is understood with the others : Aiit mores spectS,ri aut fortuna solet, Either character or fortune is loont to be regarded. Cic. Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Rdmam condi- tam, Homer and Hesiod lived (were) before the founding of Rome, Cic. II. With all the subjects conjointly, and is accordinaly in the Plural I^umber: Lentulus, Scipio perierunt, Lentulus and Scipio perished, Cic. Ego et Cicero valemus, Cicero and I are well. Cic. Tu et TuUiu caletis, You. and Tullia are well. Cic. 1. Person. — With subjects differing in Person, the verb takes the First Person rather than the Second, and the Second rather than tae Third* as in the examples just given. 2. Participles. — See 43 ft. 8. Two Subjects as a Unit. — Two singular subjects foiming in sense a unit or whole, admit a singular verb : Senatus popiilusque intelligit. The senate and people (i. e., the state as a unit) understand. Cic. Tempus necessitasque postulat. Time and necessity (i. e., the crisis) demand. Cic. 4. Subjects with Aut or Nec. — With singular subjects connected by aut^ vel, neCy neque or seUy the verb generally agrees with the nearest sub- ject, but with subjects differing in person, it is generally Plur. : Aut Brutus aut Cassius judicavit, Either Brutus or Cassius judged. Cic. Haec neque 6go neque tu fecimus. Neither you nor I have done these things. Ter. SECTION II. VSE OF VOICES. 464. Ill a transitive verb, the Active voice represents the subject as acting upon some object, the Passive, as act- ed upon by some other person or thing : Deus mundum aedificavit, God made the world. Cic. A Deo omnia facta sunt, All things were made by God. Cic. 465. Active and Passive Construction. — ^With trans- itive verbs, a thought may at the pleasure of the writer be expressed either actively or passively. But I. That which in the active eonstruction would be the object must be the subject in the passive ; and II. That which in the active would be the subject must be put in the ablative with a or «6, for persons, without it for things: (371.6) ; TOICES* TENSES. 215 Deus oiiinia Constituit, God ordained all things^ or? A Deo omnia consti- tuta sunt, All things were ordained by God. Cic. Dei providentia mundum -K^dministrat, The 'providence of God rules the worlds or : Dei providentia C^undus administratur. The world is ruled by the providence of God. Cic. 1, The Passive Voice is sometimes equivalent to the Act. with a reflex- pronoun, like the Greek Middle : ' Lavantur in fluminibus. They bathe (wash themselves) in the rivers. Caes. 2. Intransitive Verbs (193) have regularly only the active voice, but they are sometimes used impersonally in the passive : Curritur ad praetorium. They run to the praetorium (it is run to). Cic. 3 Deponent Verbs, though Passive in form, are in signification transi- tive or intransitive ; Illud mirabar, I admired that. Cic. Ab urbe proficisci, to set out from the city. Caes. 4. Semi Deponents (271, 3) have some of the Active forms and some of the Passive, without change of meaning. y TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. I. Present Indicative. 466. The Present Indicative represents the action of the verb as taking place at the present time : Ego et CicSro valemus, Cicero and I are well. Cic. Hoc te rogo, 1 a^lc you for this. Cic. 467. Hence the Present Tense is used, I. Of actions and events which are actually taking place at the present time, as in the above examples. II. Of actions and events which, as belong’ ng to all time, be- long of course to the present, general truths and customs: Nihil est amabilius virtute, Nothing is more lovely than virtue. Cic. Fortes fortuna adjuvat. Fortune helps the brave. Ter. III. Of past actions and events which the writer wishes, for effect, to picture before the reader as present. The Present, when so used, is called the Historical Present : Jugurtha vallo moenia circumdat, Jugurtha surrounds the city with a rampart. Sail. 1. Historical Present.-— The historical present may sometimes be best rendered by the English Imperfect, and sometimes by the English Present, as that has a sis^ilar historical use. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE, 21<) 2. Present with Jamdiu, Jamdudum, — The Present is often used of a present action which has been going on for some time, rendered have, espe- cially after jamdiu, jamdudum, etc. Jamdiu ignoro quid %as, I have not knoivn for a long time what you are doing. Cic. 1) The Imperfect is used in the same way of a past action w’hich had been going on for some time. Thus in the example above, Jamdiu ignorabam, would mean, 1 had not known for a long time. 2) The Present in the Infinitive and Participle is used in the same way of an action which has been or had been going on for some time. 3. Present applied to Authors. — The Present in Latin, as in English, may be used of authors whose works are extant : Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem, Xenophon represents Socrates discussing. Cic, 4. Present with Dum. — With dum, in the sense of while, the Present is generally used, even of past actions ; Dum ea parant, Saguntum oppugnabatur, While they were (are) making these preparations, Saguntum was attacked. Liv. 5. Present for Future. — The Present is sometimes used of an action really future, especially in conditions : Si vincimus, omnia ttita erunt, Jf we conquer, all things will 'be safe. Sail. II. Imperfect Indicative. 46S. The Imperfect Indicative represents the action as taking place in past time : Stabant nobilis^mi juvenes, There stood (were standing) most noble youths. Liv. Colies oppiiium cingebant, Hills encompassed the town. Caes. 469. Hence the Imperfect is used especially I. In lively description., whether of scenes or events ; Ante oppidum planities patebat, Before the town extended a plain. Caes. Fulgentes gladios videbant, They saw (were seeing) the gleaming swords. Cic, II. Of customary or repeated actions and events, often render- ed by was wont, etc, : Pausanias epulabatur more Persarum, Pausanias was wont to banquet in the Persian style. Nep. 1. Imperfect of Attempted Action.-— The Imperfect is sometimes used of an attempted or intended action : Sedabant tumultus, They attempted to quell the seditions. Liv. 2. Imperfect in Letters. — See 472, 1. FUTURE AND PERFECT. 217 III. Future Indicative. 470. The Future Indicative represents the action as one which will take place in luture time ; Scribam ad te, / will write to you. Cic. Nunquam aberrabimus, We shall never go astray, Cic. 1. Fotuke with Imperative Force.— In Latin as in English, the Future Indicative sometimes has the force of an Imperative : Cflrabis et scribes, You will take care and write. Cio. 2. Latin Future for English Present.— Actions which really belong to future time are almost invariably expressed by the Future Tense, though sometimes put in the present in English : „ ^ , Naturam si sequSmur, nunquam aberrabimus. If we follow nature, we shall never go astray. Qtic. -n a t 3. Future Indicative with Melius.— With melius the Future Indicati e has often the force of the Subjunctive : ^ j? * Melius peribimus, wouU perish rather, or it would be better for us to perish. Liv. IV. Perfect Indicative. 471. The Perfect Indicative has two distinct uses: I. As the Present Perfect or Perfect Definite, it represents the action as at present completed, and is ren- dered by our Perfect with have : De genere belli dixi, I have spoken of the character of the war. Cic. II. As the Historical Perfect or Perfect Indefi- nite, it represents the action as a simple historical fact : Miltiades est accusatus, Miltiades was accused. Nep. 1. Perfect of what has ceased to be.— The Perfect is sometimes used where the emphasis rests particularly on the completion of the action, im- plying that what was true of the past, is not true of the present : Habuit, non habet, He had, hut has not. Cic. Fuit Ilium, Ilium was. Virg. 2. Perfect Indicative with Paene, Prope.— The Perfect Indicative with paene, prope, may often be rendered by might, would, or by the Plu- perfect Indicative : Brutum non minus amo, paene dixi, quam te, / love Brutus not less, 1 might almost say, or I had almost said, than I do you. Cic. 3. Perfect for English Present.— The Latin sometimes employs the Perfect and Pluperfect where the English uses the Present and Imperfect, especially in repeated actions, and in verbs which want the Present (297). 218 PLUPERFECT AKD FUTURE PERFECT. MSminit praeteritorum, He remembers the past, Cic. Quum ad villam reni, hoc me delectat. When I come (have come) to a villa^ this pleases me, Cic. 1 remembered Paulus, Cic. 4. Perfect with Postquam. — Postquam^ ut^ ut prlmum^ etc., in the sense of as soon aSy are usually followed by the Perfect ; sometimes by the Imperfect or Historical Present. But the Pluperfect is generally used of repeated actions ; also after postquam when a long or definite interval intervenes : Postquam cecidit Ilium, after (as soon as) Ilium fell. Virg. Anno tertio postquam profugerat, in the third year after he had fled, Kep. 1) As a Rare Exception the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive occur after postquam (posteaquam) : Posteaquam aedificasset classes, after he had built fleets, Cic. V. Pluperfect Indicative. 472. The Pluperfect Indicative represents the action as completed at some definite past time : Copias quas pro castris collocaverat, reduxit, He led hack the forces which he had stationed before the camp, Caes. 1. Tenses. — In letters the writer often adapts the tense to the time of the reader, using the Imperfect or Perfect for the Present, and the Pluper- fect for the Imperfect or Perfect ; Nihil habebam quod scriberem : ad tuas omnes epistolas rescripseram, I have (had) nothing to write : I have already replied to all your letters (I had replied, i. e., before writing this). Cic. 1) The Perfect is sometimes used of Future actions, as events which happen after the writing of the letter but before the receipt of it will hci Future to the writer but Past to the reader. 2. Pluperfect for English Imperfect. — See 471. 3. 3. Pluperfect to denote Rapidity. — The Pluperfect sometimes denotes rapidity or completeness af action : Urbem luctu compleverant, They (had) filled the city with mourning. Curt. VI. Future Perfect Indicative. 473. The Future Perfect Indicative represents the ac- tion as one which will be completed at some future time : Romam quum venero, scribam ad te. When I shall have reached RomCy I will write to you. Cic. Dum tu haec leges, ego ilium fortasse convenero. When you read thiSy I shall perhaps have already met him. Cic. 1. Future Perfect to denote Certainty. — The Future Perfectis some' times used to denote the speedy or complete accomplishment of the work : Ego moil in ofiToinm ]>raestTf . I will surely discharge my duty. Caea. INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. 219 2. The Flture Perfect for English Present or Future is rare, but occurs in conditional clauses : Si interpretari potuero, his verbis utitur, If lean (shall have been able to) understand himy he uses these words, Cic. SECTION IV. USE OF THE INDICATIVE, rule XXXVL— Indicative. 474. The Indicative is used in treating of facts : Deus mundum aedificavit, God made the world, Cic. Nonne expul- sus est patria, Was he not banished from his country i Cic. Hoc feci, dum licuit, / did this as long as it was permitted, Cic. 475. Special Uses. — T he Indicative is sometimes used where our idiom would suggest the Subjunctive : 1. The Indicative of the Periphrastic Conjugations is often so used in the historical tenses, especially in conditional sentences (612. 2) : Haec conditio non accipienda fuit, This condition should not have been accepted, Cic. 2. The Historical Tenses of the IndicativCy particularly the Fluperfecty are sometimes used for Effecty to represent as an actual fact something which is shown by the context never to have become fully so : VicerSmus, nisi recepisset Antonium, We should have {jit. had) coyi-^ queredy had he not received Antony, Cic. See 511. 2. 3. Pronouns and Relative AdverbSy made general by being doubled or by assuming the suffix cunque (187. 4), take the Indicative : Quisquis est, is est sapiens. Whoever he iSy he is wise, Cic. Hoc ulti- mum, utcunque initum est, proelium fuit, ThiSy however it was commenced y was the last battle, Liv. 4. In Expressions of Duty y JNecessihjy Ability y and the like, the Latin often uses the Indicative where the English does not : Tardius quam debuerat, more slowly than he should have done. Cic. 1) So also in sum with aequumy par^ justumy melius, vtiliuSy longumydifftcUCy ind the like : Longum est persequi utilitates, It would he tedious (is a long task) to enumerate the uses. Cic. SECTION Y. TENSES OF THE SUBJ UNCTIVE. 476. Tense in the Subjunctive does not designate the time of the action as definitely as in the Indicative, but it marks with great exactness its continuance or completion. 220 TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 477. The Present and Imperfect express Incomplete action : Valeant elves, May the citizens he well. Cic. Utmam vera invenire possem, 0 that I were able to find the truth. Cie. 478. The Perfect and Pluperfect express Completed action : Oblitus es quid dixerim, You have forgotten what I said. Cic. ThS- mistocles, quum Graeciam lib^rasset, expulsus est, Themistocles was ban- ished^ though he had liberated Greece. Cic. 479. The Future Tenses are wanting in. the Subjunctive: the mood itself — used only of that which is merely conceived and uncertain — is so nearly related to the Future, that those tenses are seldom needed. Their place is however supplied, when necessary, by the periphrastic forms in Tus (481. III. 1), 480. Sequence of Tenses. — The Subjunctive Tenses in their use conform to the following EULE XXXVII —Sequence of Tenses. Principal tenses depend upon Principal tenses : His- torical upon Historical : Nititur ut vincat, He strives to conquer. Cic. Nemo erit qui censeat. There will be no one who will think. Cic. Quaesieras nonne putarem. You had asked^ whether I did not think. Cic. 481. Application of the Eule. — In accordance with this rule, I. The Subjunctive dependent upon a Principal tense— present perfect f uture., future perfect — is put, 1. In the Present for Incomplete Action: Video quid agas, Vidi quid agas, Videbo quid agas, Videro quid agas. I see what you are doing. 1 have seen what you are doing. I shall see what you do. I shall have seen what you do. 2. In the Perfect for Completed Action : Video quid egSris, Vidi quid egeris, Videbo quid egeris, Videro quid egeris, I see what you have done. 1 have seen what you have done. I shall see what you have done. J shall have seen what you have done. SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 221 II. The Subjunctive dependent upon a Historical tense — im- •perfect^ historical perfect^ pluperfect — is put, 1. In the Imperfect for Incomplete Action : Videbam quid ageres, I saw what you were doing, Vidi quid ageres, I saw what you were doing. Videram quid ageres, I had seen what you were doing. 2. In the Pluperfect for Completed Action : Videbam quid egisses, I saw what you had done. Vidi quid egisses, I saw what you had done. Videram quid egisses, I had seen what you had done. III. The Periphrastic Forms in rus conform to the rule : Video quid acturus sis, I see what you are going to do. Videbam quid acturus esses, I saw what you were going to do. 1. Future Supplied.— The Future is supplied when necessary (479), (1) by the Present i or Imperfect Subjunctive of the periphrastic forms in rws, or (2) hj futurum sit ut,^ with the regular Present, futurum esset ut, with the regular Imperfect. The first method is confined to the Active, the sec- ond occurs in both voices : Incertum est quam longa vita futUra sit, It is uncertain how long life will continue. Cic. Incertum erat quo missuri classem forent. It was uncer- tain whither they would send the fled. Liv. 2. Future Perfect Supplied.— The Future Perfect is supplied, when necessary, hj futurum sit ut, with the Perfect, A futurum esset ut, with the Pluperfect. But this circumlocution is rarely necessary. In the Passive it is sometimes abridged to futurus sim and futurus essem, with the Perfect participle : Non diibito quin confecta jam res futura sit, I do not doubt that the thing will have been already accomplished, Cic. lY. The Historical Present is treated sometimes as a Prin- cipal tense, as it really is in Form, and sometimes as a Historical tense, as it really is in Sense * 1. As Principal tense according to its Form : Ubii orant, ut sibi parcat, The Ubii implore him to spare them. Caes. 2. As Historical tense according to its Sense : Persuadet Castico ut regnum occuparet, He persuaded Casticus to seize the government. Caes. V. The Imperfect Subjunctive often refers to present time, especially in conditional sentences (510. 1); accordingly, "when thus used, it is treated as a Principal tense : 1 The Present, of course, after Principal tenses, and the Imperfect after Histori- cal tenses, according ^o 480. 2 Futurum «lY, etc., after Principal tenses, d,n^futtlrum esset, etc., after Historl cal tenses. 222 SEQUENCE OF TENSES. Memorare possem quibus in locis hostes fuderit, I might (now) state in what places he routed the enemy, ball. YL The Peesent and Futuee Infinitives, Present and Future Paeticiples, as also Geeunds and Supines, share the tense of the verb on which they depend, as they express only relative time (540. 571) : Spero fore ^ ut contingat, I hope it will happen (I hope it will be that it may happen). Cic. Non speraverat fore ut ad se deficerent. He had not hoped that they would revolt to him. Liv. 482. Peculiarities in Sequence. — The following peculiarities in the sequence of tenses deserve notice : 1. Aftee Peefeot Tense. — The Latin Perfect is sometimes treated as a Historical tense, even when rendered with have., and thus admits the Imperfect or Pluperfect : Quoniam quae subsidia haberes exposui,^ nunc dicam. Since I have shown what aids you have (or had), I will now speak. Cic. 2. Aftee Histoeical Tenses. — Conversely Historical tenses, when followed by clauses denoting consequence or result, often con- form to the law of sequence for Principal tenses, and thus admit the Present or Perfect : Epaminondas fide sic usus est, ut possit judicari, Epaminondas used such fidelity that it may he judged. Nep. Adeo excellebat Aristides ab- stinentia, ut Justus sit appellatus, Aristides so excelled in self-control, that he has been called the Just. Nep. This peculiarity arises from the fact that the Eesult of a past action may itself be present and may thus be expressed by a Principal tense. When the result belongs to the present time, the Present is used ; possit judicari.^ may be judged now; when it is represented as at present completed, the Perfect is used : sit appellatus., has been called i. e. even to the present day; but when it is represented as simulta- neous with the action on which it depends, the Imperfect is used in accordance with the general rule of sequence (480). 3. In Indieect Discouese, Oeatio Obliqua. — In indirect dis- course (528. and 533. 1) dependent upon a Historical tense, the narrator often uses the Principal tenses to give a lively effect to his narrative ; occasionally also in direct discourse : Exitus fuit orationis : Neque ullos vacare agros, qui dari possint * The close of the oration was, that there were (are) not aiiy lands unoccupied which could (can) be given. Caes. ^ H&TQfore shares the tense of spero., and is accordingly followed by the Present contingatA^^ below it shares the tense of speraverat., and is accordingly followed by the Imperfect deficerent. 2 Exposui, though best rendered by our Perf. Def. with have, is in the Latin treated as the Historical Perf. The thought is as follows: Since in the preceding topics I set forth the aids which you had, I will now speak, &c. SEOTIOIsr YI. USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 483. The Subjunctive represents the action of the verb, not as an actual fact, but as something supposed or con- ceived. It may denote that the action is conceived, 1. As Possible, Potential. 2. As Desirable.. 3. As a Purpose or Eesult. 4. As a Condition. 5. As a Concession. 6. As a Cause or Reason. 7. As an Indirect Question. ^ ^ 8. As dependent upon another subordinate action : (1) By At- traction after another Subjunctive, (2) In Indirect Discourse. 484. Varieties.— The Subjunctive in its various uses may accordingly be characterized as follows : I. The Potential Subjunctive. II. The Subjunctive of Desire. III. The Subjunctive of Purpose or Result IV. The Subjunctive of Condition. V. The Subjunctive of Concession. VI. The Subjunctive of Cause or Reason. VII. The Subjunctive in Indirect Questions. VIII. The Subjunctive by Attraction. IX. The Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse. I. The Potej^tial Subjunctive. RULE XXXVIII.— Potential Subjunctive. 485. The Potential Subjunctive represents tlie ac- tion not as real, but as possible : Forsitan quaeratis, Perhaps you may inquire. Cic. Hoc nemo dixe- rit, No one would say this. Cic. Huic cedamus, hujus conditiones audia- mus, Shall we yield to him., shall we listen to his terms ? Cic. Quis diibitet (= nemo dubitat). Who would doubt, or who doubts (—no one doubts) ? Cic. Quid facerem. What was I to do, or what should I have- done ? Yirg. 486. Application of the Rule.— In the Potential sense, the Subjunctive is used. / •! 224 POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. I. In Declarative Sentences^ to express an affirmation doubtful^ or conditionally^ as in the first and second examples. II. In Questions of A'p'peal^ to ask not what is, but what may be or should be^ generally implying a negative answer, as in the last example under the rule. III. In Subordinate Clauses^ whatever the connective, to rep- resent the action as possible rather than real: Quamquam Epulis careat senectus, though old age may he without its ^easts. Cic. Quoniam non possent, since they would not he able. Caes. Jbi res posceret, whenever the case might demand, Liv. Here the Subjunctive after quamquam,, quoniam,, and ijCbi,, is entirely indepen- dent of those ccnjunctions. In this way many conjunctions which do not require the Subjunctive, admit that mood whenever the thought requires it. 1. Use op the Potential Subjunctive. — This Subjunctive, it will be observed, has a wide application, and is used in almost all kinds of sen- tences and clauses, whether declarative or interrogative, principal or sub- ' K ordinate, whether introduced by conjunctions or relatives. 2. How rendered, — The Potential Subjunctive is generally best rendered by our Potential signs — may^ can^ must,, might, etc., or by shall or will. 3. Inclination. — The Subjunctive sometimes denotes inclination ; Ego censeam, I should think, or lam inclined to think, Liv. 4. Imperfect for Pluperfect. — In the Potential sense, the Imperfect is often used where we should expect the Pluperfect : dlch'cs, you would have said ; crederes, putares, you would have thought; videres, cerneres, you would have seen ; Moesti, crederes victos, redeunt in castra. Sad, vanquished you would have thought them, they returned to the camp, Liv. 5. Subjunctive of Repeated Action. — Subordinate clauses in narration sometimes take the Subjunctive to denote that the action is often or indefi- nitely repeated. Thus with uhi, whenever, quoties, as often as, qulcunque, whoever, ut quisque, as each one, and the like : Id fetialis ubi dixisset, hastam mittebat, The fetial priest was wont to hurl a spear whenever (i. e., every time) he had said this. Liv. I 6. Present and Perfect.— In the Potential Subjunctive\the Perfect often has nearly the same force as the Present : ^ Tu Platonem laudaveris. You would praise Plato. Cic. ^ , 1) The Perfect with the force of the Present occurs also in some of the other uses of the Subjunctive. 7. Conditional Sentences. — The Subjunctive in the conclusion of con- ditional sentences is the Potential Subjunctive, but conditional sentences will be best treated by themselves. See 502. 1 These are also variously called Deliberative, Doubting, or Rheioi^u-id Q 'i.Astions. SUBJUNCTIVE. 225 II. The Subjunctive of Desiee. EULE XXXIX.— Desire, Command. 487. The Subjunctive of Desire represents the ac- tion not as real, but as desired : Valeant cives, May the citizens he well. Cic. Amemus patriam, Let us love our country, Cic. Kobore utare. Use your strength, Cic. Scribere ne pigrSre, Do not neglect to write. Cic. 488. Application of the Eule. — The Subjunctive of Desire is used, I. To express a wish, as in prayers^ exhoi^tations^ and entrea- ties., as in the first and second examples. II. To express a command mildly, as in admonitions^ ;preceptSy and warnings., as in the third and fourth examples. 1. With Utinam.— The Subjunctive of Desire is often accompanied by utmam, and sometimes— especially in the poets, by ut, si, osz.’ Utinam conata efficto possim, May I he able to accomplish my endeav- ors. Cic. , . , . v 2. Force of Tenses.— The Present and Perfect imply that the wish may be fulfilled ; the Imperfect and Pluperfect, that it cannot be fulfilled : Sint beati, May they he happy. Cic. Ne transieris Iberum, Do not cross the Ebro. Liv. Utinam possem, utinam potuissem. Would that I were ahle^ would that I had been able. Cic. See also 486. 6. 1). The Imperfect and Pluperfect may often be best rendered, i^hould have been, ought to have been: ^ , 7j Hoc diceret, He should have said this. Cic. Mortem oppetiisses, Jou should have met death. Cic. 3. Negative Ne.— With this Subjunctive the negative is ne, rarely non .■ Ne audeant, Let them not dare. Cic. Non r6c6danius, Let us not recede. 4. In Asseverations.— The first person of tlie subjunctive is often found in earnest or solemn affirmations or asseverations . i Moriar, si piito. May I die, if I think. Cic. Ne sim salvus, si scribo, May I not be safe, if I write. Cic. So with ita and sic : Sollicitat, ita vivam, As I Uve, %t troubles me. Cic. Here ita vivam means literally, may I so live, i. e., may I live only in case tins is true. 5. In Relative Clauses.— Tiie Subjunctive of desire is sometimes used in relative clauses : , . i • • Quod faustum sit, regem create. Elect a king, and may it be an auspicious event (may which be auspicious). Liv. Senectus, ad quam Mnam pervfenia- tis, old age, to which may you attain. Cic. 226 SUBJUNCTIVE. III. Subjunctive of Purpose or Result. EULE XL.— Purpos3 or Eesult, 489. The Subjunctive of Purpose or Result is used, I. With ut, ne, quo, quin, quominus : Purpose. — Enititur ut vinbat, He strives that he may conquer. Cic. Punit ne peccetur, He punishes that crime may not he committed. Sen. Result. — Ita i^jxit ut Atheniensibus esset carissimus, He so lived that he was very dear to t^e\AtMnians. Nep. II. With qui ^s^iis, ut ego, tu, etc. : Purpose. — Missi ^sbnt, qui {ut ii) consulerent Apollinem, They were sent to consult Apioltot^Q should or that they should). Nep. Result.— Non is sttj^Mui {ut ego) his utar, 1 am not such an one as to use these things. Cic.- ^ 1. J^t with the Subjunctive sometimes forms with fdcio^ or dgo. rarely with esi a circumlo^tion for the Indicative : fdcio ut dicam = dico ; fdcio ut scribam — scribo: Invitus facio ut recorder, 1 unwillingly recall. Cic. Conjunctions of Purpose or Pesult. ^ 493. ITt and Ne. — TJt and ne are the regular conjunc- tions in clauses denoting Purpose or Result. Ut and ne denote Purpose ; ut and ut non^ Result. 1. With connective ne becomes neve., neu, rarely n^que. Neve, neu, = aut ne or et ne : Legem tulit nequis accusaretur neve multaretur, Ile proposed a law that no one should be accused or punished. Nep. 491. Pure Purpose. — Tit and ne — that., in order that., that not., in order that not., lest., etc. — are used after verbs of a great variety of significations to express simply the Purpose of the action. A correlative — ideo., idcirco., etc. — may or may not precede : Legura idcirco servi siimus, ut liberi esse possimus, We are servants of the law for this reason, that we may be free. Cic. See also the examples under the Rule. 492. Mixed Purpose.— In their less obvious applica- tions, ut and oie are used to denote a Purpose which par- takes more or less of the character of a Direct Object, sometimes of a Subject, Predicate or Appositive — Mixed Purpose. Thus with verbs and expressions denoting 1. Effort. — striving for a purpose ; attaining a purpose : nitor, contendo, stiideo, — euro, id Sgo, dpSram do, etc., fScio, efficio, impetro, consequor, etc. : PURPOSE OR RESULT. 227 Contendit, ut vincat, He strives to conquer. Cic. Ciiravi ut bene vivfe' rem, Itooh care to lead a good life. Sen. Effecit ut impSrator mittSretur, He caused a commander to le sent (attained his purpose). Nep. But see 495. 2. Exhoktation, Impulse — urging one to effort : admoneo, moneo, hortor,— cOgo, impello, moveo, — oro, rogo, — impero, praecipio, etc. : Te hortor ut legas, I exhort you to read, Cic, Movemur ut boni simuS; We are influenced to he good, Cic. Te rogo ut eum juves, I ash you to aid him, Cic. See also 551. II. 1 and 2 ; 558. VI, 3. Desike and its Expression : hence decision,, decree,, etc. : opto, postulo, — censeo, decerno, statuo, constituo, etc, — rarely v51o, colo, malo : Opto ut id audiatis, 1 desire (pray) that you may hear this, Cic. Sana- tus censuerat, iiti Aeduos defenderet. The senate had decreed that he should, defend the Aedui, Caes. See 551. II. and 558, II, and VI. 4. Fear, DangePw : metuo, timeo, vereor, — periculum est, cura est, etc. : Timeo, ut sustineas, endure them, Cic. \6reor ne laborem augeam, Ifear that I shall increase the labor, Cic. 1) By a Difference of Idiom ut mast here be rendered that not, and ne by that or lest. The Latin treats the clause as a wish, a desired purpose. 2) After verbs of fearing ne non is sometimes used for ut^ regularly so after negative clauses: Vereor ne non possit, Ifear that he icill not he able. Cic. 3) After verbs of fearing, especially v^reor., the infinitive is sometimes used : Vereor laudare, I fear (hesitate) to praise, Cic. 493. Peculiarities. — Expressions of Purpose present the following peculiarities: 1. Ut ne,, rarely ut non,, is sometimes used for ne : Praedixit, ut ne legatos dImittSrent, He charged them not to (that they should not) release the delegates, Nep. Ut plura non dicam, not to say more^ i. e., that I may not. Cic. 2. Ut is sometimes omitted, especially with rolo^ nolo,, mdlo^ fdcio,, and verbs of directing, urging, etc. JSfe is often omitted with care : Tu velim sis, 1 desire that you may he, Cic. Fac habeas, see (make) that you have, Cic. Senatus decrevit, darent dperam consules. The senate de- creed that the consuls should see to it. Sail. See also 535. 1, 2). 8. Clauses with Ut and Ne may depend upon a noun or upon a verb omitted : Fecit pacem his conditionibus, ne qui afficerentur exsilio. He made peace on these terms, that none should he punished with exile, Nep. Ut ita dicam, so to speak (that I may speak thus). Cic. This is often inserted in a sen- tence, like the English so to speak. 11 228 SUBJUNCTIVE. 4. Nedum and Ne in the sense of much hss^ not to say^ are used with the Subjunctive : Vix in tectis frigus vitatur, nedum in mari sit facile, The cold is avoided with difficulty in our houses^ much less is it easy {to avoid it) on the sea, Cic. 494. Pure Result. — Ut and ut non — so that^ so that not — are often used with the Subjunctive, to express simply a Result or a Consequence : Ita vixit ut Atheniensibus esset cSrissimus, He so lived that he was very dear to the Athemam, Nep. Ita laudo, ut non pertimescam, 1 so praise as not to fear. Cic. A correlative — Ita in these examples — generally precedes: thus, ddeo^ tantopere^ — tdlis.^ tanius., ejusmodi. 495. Mixed Result. — In their less obvious applica- tions, ut and ut non are used with the Subjunctive to de- note a Result which partakes of the character of a Direct Object.^ Subject., Fredicate^ or A f positive : Thus 1. Clauses as Object and Eesult occur Niihfdcio, efficio., of the action of irrational forces : Sol efficit ut omnia floreant, The sun causes all things to bloom, i. e,, produces that result. Cic. See 492. 1. 2. Clauses as Subject and Result occur with impersonal verbs signifying it happens, remains, follows, is distant, etc. : accidit, contingit, evenit, fit, restat,— sequitur,— abest, etc. Fit ut quisque delectetur, The resuit is (it hayigens) that every one is delighted, Cic. Sequitur ut falsum sit. It follows that it is false. Cic. 1) The Subjunctive is sometimes, though rarely, used when the predi- cate is a Noun or Adjective with the copula sum : Mos est ut nolint. It is their custom not to he willing (that they are un. willing). Cic. Proximum est, ut doceam. The next point is, that I show. Cic. See 556. I. 1 and 2. 2) Subjunctive Clauses with ut, in the form of questions expressive of surprise, sometimes stand alone, by the omission of some predicate, as - tus take the subjunctive : Fabulae dignae sunt, quae legantur. The fables are worthy to be read (that they should be read). Cic. Rufum Caesar idoneum judicavbrat quern mittSret, Caesar had judged Rufus a suitable person to send (whom he might send). Caes. 232 SUBJUNCTIVE. ly. Kelative clauses after Comparatives with Quam take the subjunctive : Damna majora sunt quam quae { — ut ea) aestimari possint, The losses are too great to he estimated (greater than so that they can be). Liv. IV, Subjunctive of Condition. 502. Every conditional sentence consists of two dis- tinct parts, expressed or understood, — the Condition and the Conclusion: Si negem, mentiar, If I should deny it, I should speak falsely, Cic. Here si negem is the condition, and mentiar, the conclusion. RULE XLI.— Subjunctive of Condition. 503. The Subjunctive of Condition is used, I. With dum, mbdo, dummbdo: Manent ingenia, modo permaneat industria, Mental powers remain, if only industry remains, Cic. II. With ac si, ut si, quasi, quam si, tanquam, tanquam si, valut, velut si; Crudelitatem, velut si adesset, horrebant, They shuddered at his cruelty, ecs if he were present. Caes. III. Sometimes with si, nisi, ni, sin, qui =: si is, si quis ; Dies deficiat, si velim numerare. The day would fail me, if I should wish to recount, Cic. Improbe feceris, nisi monueris. You would do wrong, if you should not give warning. Cic. Si voluisset, dlmicasset. If he had wished, he would have fought. Nep. 1. Si Omitted. — Two clauses without any conjunction some- times have the force of a conditional sentence : NSgat quis, nego, Does any one deny, I deny. Ter. Kdges me, nihil re- spondeam, Should you ask me, I should make no reply. Cic. See also Imper- ative, 535. 2. 2. Condition Supplied. — The condition may be supplied, 1) Participles : Non potestis, voluptate omnia dirigentes {si dlrigi- tis), retinere virtutem. You cannot retain your manhood, if you arrange all things with reference to pleasure. Cic. 2) By Oblique Cases: Nfimo sine spe {nisi spem haberet) se offerret ad mortem. No one without a hope (if he had not a hope) would expose himself to death. Cic. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 283 8. Irony.— The condition is sometimes ironical, especially with nisi vero, nisi forte with the Indicative, and with quasi, quasi viro with the Present or Perfect Subjunctive : Nisi forte insanit, unless perhaps he is insane. Cic. Quasi vero necesse sit, as if indeed it were necessary. Caes. 4 Ita SI, ETC. — Ita — 5^*, so — if, means only — if Si^uideniy if indeed, sometimes has nearly the force of since. 5. Et omitted. — See 587. I. 6. 504. Force of Tenses. — In conditional sentences the Present and Perfect tenses represent the supposition as not at all improbable, the Imperfect and Pluperfect represent it as contrary to the fact. See examples above. See also 476 to 478. 1. Present for Imperfect. — The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used for the Imperfect, when a condition, in itself contrary to reality, is stili con- ceived of as possible : Tu si hie sis, aliter sentias. If you were the one (or, should be), youivould think differently. Ter. 2. Imperfect for Pluperfect. — The Imperfect Subjunctive is some- times used for the Pluperfect, with the nice distinction that it contemplates the supposed action as going on, not as completed : Num Opimium, si turn esses, temerarium civem putares? Would you think Opimius an audacious citizen, if you were living at that time (Pluperf. would you have thought — if you had lived) ? Cic. 505. Dum, Mono, Dummodo. — Dum, mbdo, and dum- modo, m conditions, have the force of — if only provided that., or with ne, if only not^ provided that not : Dum res maneant, verba fingant. Let them make words, if only the facts remain. Cic. Modo permaneat industria, if only industry remains. Cic. Dummodo repellat periculum, provided he may avert danger. Cic. Modo no laudarent, if only they did not praise. Cic. When not used in conditions, these conjunctions often admit the indicative : Dum leges vigebant, while the laws were in force. Cic. 503. Ac SI, Ut si. Quasi, etc. — Ac si, ut si, quam si, quasi, tanquam, tanquam si, velut, velut si, involve an ellipsis of the real conclusion : MisSrior es, quam si ociilos non habfires. You are more unhappy than (esses, you would be) if you had not eyes. Cic. Crudelitatem, velut si ades- set, horrebant. They shuddered at his cruelty as (they would) if he were pres- ent. Caes. Ut si iu suam rem aliena convertant, as if they should approprU ate other i possessions to their own use. Cic. Tanquam audiant, as if they may hear. Sen. Ceu and Slcuti are sometimes used in the same way: Ceu bella forent, as if there were wars. Virg. Siciiti audiri possent, as if they could he heard. Sail. 234 subjunctivi:. 507. Si, Nisi, Ni, Sin, Qui. — The Latin distinguishes three distinct forms of the conditional sentence with sij msi, ni, sin: I. Indicative in botli Clauses. II. Subjunctive, Present or Perfect, in both Clauses. III. Subjunctive, ImjDerfect or Pluperfect, in both Clauses. 508. First Form. — Indicative in both Clauses. — This form assumes the supposed case as rea/, basing upon it any statement which would be admissible, if it were a known fact : Si haec civitas est, civis sum ego, If this is a state^ I am a citizen. Cia Si non licebat, non necesse erat, If it luas not lawful^ it was not necessary. Cic. Dolorem si non potero frangere, occultabo, ^ I shall not he able to overcome sorrow^ I will conceal it. Cic. Parvi sunt foris arma, nisi est consilium domi, Arms are of little value ahroady unless there is wisdom at home. Cic. 1. Condition. — The condition is introduced, when affirmative, by si, with or without other particles, as quidem^ modo, etc., and when negative, by si noUy nisi, ni. The time may be either jyresenty fast, or future. See examples above. 2. Conclusion. — The conclusion may take the form of a command : Si peccavi, ignosce. If Ihav e erred ^ far don me. Cic. 3. Si non, Nisi. — Si non and nisi are often used without any percepti- ble difference of meaning; but strictly si non introduces the negative con- dition on which the conclusion depends, while nisi introduces a qualifica- tion or an exceftion. Thus in the second example above the meaning is. If it was not lawful, it follows that it was not necessai'y, while in the fourth the meaning is. Arms are of little value abroad, except when there is wisdom at home. 509. Second Form . — Subjunctive Present or Perfect in both Clauses . — This form assumes the condition as possible: Haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat, If your country should speak thus with you, ought she not to obtain her request ? Cic. Im- probe feceris, nisi monueris. You would do wrong, if you should not give warning. Cic. See also examples under the Kule, 503 ; also 486. 7. 1. When dependent upon a Historical tense, the Present and Perfect are of course generally changed to the Imperfect and Pluperfect, by the law for Sequence of tenses (480). Metuit no, si iret, retraheretur, He feared lest if he should go, he might be brought bach. Liv, CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 235 610. Third Form. — Subjunctive Imperfect or Pluper- fect in both Clauses. — This form assumes the supposed case as contrary to the reality., and simply states what would have been the result, if the condition had been fulfilled : Sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil efficeret, Wisdom would not be sought (as it is), if it accomplished nothing, Cic. Si optima tenere posse- mus, haud sane consilio egeremus. If we were able to secure the highest good^ we should not indeed need counsel. Cic. Si voluisset, dlmicasset. If he had wished^ he would have fought. Nep. Nunquam abisset, nisi sibi viam munivisset, He woidd never have gone^ if he had not prepared for himself a way. Cic. See also 486. Y. 1. Here the Imperfect relates to Present time, as in the first and second examples : the Pluperfect to Past time, as in the third and fourth examples. 2. In the Periphrastic forms in rus and dus and in expressions of Duty^ Necessity^ and Ability, the Perfect and Imperfect Indicative sometimes occur in the conclusion. Quid futurum fuit, si plebs Sgitari coepta esset, What would have been the result, if the plebeians had begun to be agitated f Liv. See also 512. 2. 1) When the context, irrespective of the condition, requires the Subjunctive, the tense remains unchanged without reference to the tense of the principal verb : Adeo est inopia coactus ut, nisi timuisset, Galliam repetiturus fuerit, Ile was so pressed hy want that if he had not feared, he would have returned to Gaul. Liv. Here repetiturus fuerit is in the Subj. not because it is in a conditional sentence, but because it is the Subj. of Kesult with ut; but it is in the Perfect, because, ii it were not dependent, the Perfect Indicative would have been used. 511. Mixed Fokms. — The Latin sometimes unites a condition belonging to one of the three regular forms with a conclusion belonging to another, thus producing certain Mixed Forms. I. The Indicative sometimes occurs in the Condition with the Subjunctive in the Conclusion, but here the Subjunctive is gener- ally dependent not upon the condition, but upon the very nature of the thought : P^ream, si potSruiit, May I perish (subj. of desire, 487), if they shall be able. Cic. Quid timeam, si beStus fiiturus sum. Why should I fear (486. II.), if I am to be happy f Cic. II. The Subjunctive sometimes occurs in the Condition with the Indicative in the Conclusion. Here the Indicative often gives the effect of reality to the conclusion, even though in fact depend- ent upon contingencies ; but see also 512 : Dies deficiet, si velim causam defendere. The day would (will) fail me, if I should wish to defend the cause, Cic. Viceramus nisi recepisset Antonium, We had conquered, had he not received Antony. Cic. 236 SUBjraCTIVE. 1. The Future Indicative is often thus used in consequence of its near relation- ship in force to the Subjunctive, as whatever is Future is more or less contingent. See first example. 2. The Historical tenses^ especially the Pluperfect^ are sometimes used, for effect^ to represent as an actual fact something which is shown by the context never to have become fully so, as in the last example. 8. Conditional sentences made up partly of the second form (509) and partly of the third are rare. 512. Subjunctive and Indicative. — The combination of the Subjunctive in the Condition with the Indicative in the Conclusion is often only apparent. Thus 1. When the truth of the conclusion is not in reality affected by the condition, as when si has the force of even if^ although : Si hoc placeat, tamen volunt. Even if (although) this pleases them, they still ivish. Cic. 2. When that which stands as the conclusion is such only in appear- ance, the real conclusion being understood. This occurs 1) With the Indicative of Debeo, Possum, and the like : Quern, si ullain te pietas esset, colere debebas. Whom you ought to have honored (and would have honored), if there were any filial affection in you, Cic. DelSri exercitus potuit, si persecuti victores essent. The army might have been destroyed (and would have been), if the victors had pursued, Liv. 2) With the Imperfect and Perfect Indicative of other verbs, especial- ly if in a periphrastic conjugation or accompanied by Paene or Prope : Relicturi agros erant, nisi litteras misisset. They were about to leave their lands (and would have done so), had he not sent a letter. Cic. Pons iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, The bridge almost furnished apas~ sage to the enemy (and would have done so), had there not been one man. Liv. 513. Relative involving Condition. — The relative takes the subjunctive when it is equivalent to si or dunt with the subjunctive : Errat longe, qui credat, etc.. He greatly errs who supposes, etc., i. e., if or provided any one supposes, he greatly errs. Ter. Haec qui videat, cogatur, If any one should see these things, he would he compelled. Cic. V. Subjunctive in Concessions. 514. A concessive clause is one which concedes or admits something, generally introduced in Englisli by though or although : Quamquam intclligunt, though they understand. Cic. CONCESSIONS. 237 RULE XLII — Subjunctive of Concession. 515. The Subjunctive of Concession is used, I. With licet, quamvis, quantumvis,— ut, ne, quum (although); Licet irrideat, plus tamen ratio valebit, Though he may deride^ reason will yet avail more. Oic. Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas, Though the strength fails^ still the will should be approved. Ovid. II. With qui = quum (licet) is, quum ego, etc., though he: Absolvite Verrem, qui {quum is) se fateatur pecunias cepisse, Acquit Verres^ though he confesses (who may confess) that he has accepted money. Cic. III. Generally with etsi, tametsi, etiamsi : Quod sentiunt, etsi optimum sit, tamen non audent dicere. They do not dare to state what they think^ even if (though) it be most excellent. Cic. 516. Concessive Clauses may be divided into three classes : I. Concessive Clauses with quamquam in the best prose generally take the Indicative : Quamquam intelligunt, tamen nunquam dicunt, Thoiiglitltey uihderctandy they never speak. Cic. 1. The Subjunctive may of coarse follow quamquam, whenever the thought itself, irrespective of the concessive character of the clause, requires that moofl (4S5). 2. The Subjunctive, even in the best prose, sometimes occurs with quamquam where we should expect the Indicative: Quamquam ne id quidem suspicionem habu- erit, Though not even that gave rise to any suspicion. Cic. 3. In poetry and some of the later prose, the subjunctive with quamquam is not uncommon. In Tacitus it is the prevailing construction. 4. Quamquam and etsi sometimes have the force of yet. but yet. and yet: Quamquam quid loquor, And yet what do I say? Cic. II. Concessive Clauses with Ucet.^ quamvis., quantumvis., — ut^ ne., quum (although ); — qui = quum (or licet) is, ego, tu, etc., take the Subjunctive : Non t'u possis, quantumvis excellas. You would, not he able, however much (although) you excel. Cic. Ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est. Though pain may not he the greatest evil, it is certainly an evil. Cic. See 518. I. Ut and Ne. — This concessive use of ut aud ne may readily be ex- plained by supplying some verb like fac or sine : thus, ut desint vires (515. I.) =/ac or sine ut desint vires, make or grant that strength fails. See 489. The Concessive Particle is sometimes omitted : Sed habeat, tamen, But grant that it has it. yet. Cic. Ut — SIC or ita, as— so. though— yet. does not require the subjunctive. 238 SUBJUNCTIVE. 2. Quamvis and Quantumvis. — These are strictly adverbs, in the sens^ of however mucky but they generally give to the clause the force of a conces- sion. When used with their simple adverbial force to qualify adjectives, they dp not affect the mood of the clause : quamvis multiy however many. 3. Mood with Quamvis. — In Cicero and the best prose, quamvis takes the Subjunctive almost without exception, generally also in Livy and Nepos j but in the poets and later prose writers it often admits the Indicative : Erat dignitate regia, quamvis carebat nomine. He was of royal dignity y though he was without the name. Nep. 4. Relative in Concessions. — The relative denoting concession is equiv- alent to licety or quum, in the sense of thoughy with a Demonstrative or Per- sonal pronoun, and takes the Subjunctive for the same reason : qui = licei (quum) iSf licet egOj tUf etc. See examples under the Rule, 515. III. Concessive Clauses with the compounds of si : etsi^ Uiams% tametsi in the use of Moods and Tenses conform to the rule for conditional clauses with 8% : Etsi nihil habeat in se gloria, t^men virtutem sequitur. Though glory may not possess anything in itself, yet it follows virtue. Cic, Etiamsi mors oppetenda esset, even if death ought to he met. Cic, VI. Subjunctive of Cause and Time. RULE XLIII.— Sutjunctive of Cause. 517. The Subjunctive of Cause or Reason is used^ I. With quum (cum), since ; qui = quum is, etc. : Quum vita metus plena sit, since life is full of fear. Cic. Quae quuiu Ita sint, perge, Since these things are so, proceed. Cic. 0 vis veritatis, quae {quum ea) se defendat, O the force of truths since it defends Itself. Cic. II. With quod, quia, quoniam, quando, to introduce a reason on another’s authority : Socrates accQsatus est, quod corrumperet juventutem. Boci^ates was ac» cusedy because (on the alleged ground that) he corrupted the youth. Quint. Causal Clauses with Quum and Qui. 518. Quum.^ — Quum takes the Subjunctive when it de- notes, I. Cause or Concession : Quum sint in nobis rStio, prGdentia, since there is in us reason and pru» dence. Cic, Phocion fuit pauper, quum divitissimus esse posset, Phocion was poor, though he might have been very rich. Nep. See also 515. CAUSE AND TIME. 239 II. Time with the accessory notion of Cause or Con- cession : Quum dimicaret, occisus est, When he engaged battle, he was slain. Nep. ZSnonem, quum Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter, I often heard Zeno, when I was at Athens, Cic. 1. Quum in Narration, — Quum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sut junctive is very frequent in narration even in temporal clauses. See exam pies under II. above. This use of Quum with the Subjunctive may in most instances be readily ex plained by the fact that it involves Cause as well as Time. Thus quum dimicaret, ill the first example, not only states the time of the action— est, but also its cause or occasion : the engagement was the occasion of his death. So with quum essein, as presence in Athens was an indispensable condition of hearing Zeno. But in gome instances the notion of Cause or Concession is not at all apparent. 2. Quum with Tempus, etc. — Quum with the Subjunctive is sometimes used to characterize a period : Id saecdlum quum plena Graecia poetarum esset, that age when (such that) Greece was full of poets, Cic. Erit tempus, quum desideres, the time will come, when you will desire, Cic. So without tempus, etc. : Fuit quum arbitrarer, there was (a time) when I thought, Cic. 3. Quum with Indicative.— denoting time merely, with perhaps a few exceptions in narration, takes the Indicative : Quum quiescunt, probant. While they are quiet, they approve. Cic. Pa- ruit, quum necesse erat, He obeyed when it was necessary, Cic. 519. Qui, Cause or Reason. — A Relative clause de- noting cause or reason, is equivalent to a Causal clause with Quum, and takes the Subjunctive for the same reason: 0 fortflnate Adolescens, qui {quum iu) tuae virtutis Homerum praeco- nem inveneris, 0 fortunate youth, since you (lit. who) have obtained Homer as the herald of your valor, Cic. 1. Equivalents.— In such clauses, qui is equivalent to quum ego, quum tu, quum is, etc. 2. Indicative.— When the statement is to be viewed ‘dsafact rather than as a reason, the Indicative is used : Habeo sfinectati gratiam, quae mihi sermonis Aviditatem auxit, I cherish gratitude to old age, which has increased my love of conversation, Cic. 3. Qui with Conjunctions. — When a conjunction accompanies the rela- tive, the mood varies with the conjunction. Thus, 1) The Subjunctive is generally used with quum, quippe, ut, utpbte : Quae quum ita sint, since these things are so. Cic. Quippe qui blandia- tur, since he flatters. Cic. Ut qui coloni essent, since they were colonists. Cic. But the Indicative is sometimes used to give prominence to the fact. 2) The Indicative is generally used with quia, quoniam : Quae quia certa esse non possunt, since these things cannot be sure. Clo. Qui qu6niam intelligi noluit, since he did not wish to be understood, Cic. 240 SUBJUNCTIVE. Causal Clauses with Quod^ Quia^ Quoniam^ Quando, 620, Quod^ quia^ quoniam^ and quando generally take, 1. The Indicative to assign a positively on onds own authority : Quoniam supplicatio decreta est, nince a thanksgiving has been decreed, Cic. Gaude quod spectant te, Rejoice that (because) they behold you, Hor. II. The Subjunctive to assign a reason doubtfully^ or on another'* s ojuthority: Aristides nonne expulsus est patria, quod justus esset. Was not Aris- tides banished because (on the alleged ground that) he was just ? Cic. 1. Quod with Dico, etc.— anSiputo are often in the Subjunctive instead of the verb depending upon them : Quod se bellum gesturos dicerent = quod bellum gesturi essent, ut dice- bant, because they were about ^ as they saidy to wage war, Caes. 2. Clauses with Quod Unconnected. See 554. IV. 3. Non Quo, etc. — Non quOy non quody non quiny rarely non quiOy also quam quody etc., are used with the Subjunctive to denote that something was mt the true reason : Non quo haberem quod scribSrem, not because (that) I had anything to write. Cic. Non quod doleant, not because they are pained. Cic. Quia ne- quiverat quam quod ignoraret, because he had been unabUy rather than because he did not know. Liv. 4. Potential Subjunctive. See 485 and 486. EULE XLIV.— Time with Cause. 521. The Subjunctive of Time with the accessory notion of Cause or Purpose is used, I. With dum, donee, quoad, until: Exspectas dum dicat. You are waiting till he speaksy i. e., that he may speak. Cic. Ea continebis quoad te videam, You will keep them till I see you. Cic. II. With antequam, priusquam, before, before that : Antequam de re publica dicam, exponam consilium, I will set forth my plan before I (can) speak of the republiCy i. e., preparatory to speaking of the republic. Cic, Priusquam incipias, before you begin. Sail. 1. Explanation. — Here the temporal clause involves purpose as well as time : dum dlcat is nearly equivalent to ut dicaty which is also often .used after exspecto. Antequam dicam is nearly equivalent to ut postea dicam i I will set forth my views, that I may afterw^ards speak of the republic. CAUSE AND TIME. 241 2. With otheh Conjunctions.— The Subjunctive may of course be used to any temporal clause, when the thought, irrespective of the temporal par- ticle, requires that mood ; see 486. III. Ubi res posceret, whenever the case might require, Liv. 522. Dum, Donec, and Quoad take I. The Indicative^ — (1) in the sense of as long as, and (2) in the sense of until, if the action is viewed as an actual fact : Dum leges vigebant, as long as the laics were in force, Cic. Quoad renuntiatum est, until it was (actually) announced. Nep. II. The Subjunctive, when the action is viewed not so much as a fact as something desired or proposed : Differant, dum defervescat Ira, Let them defer it, till their anger cools, i. e., that it may cool. Cic. See also examples under the rule. 1. Donec, in Tacitus, generally takes the Subjunctive : Rhenus servat violentiam cursus, donec Oceano misceatur, The Rhine 'preserves the rapidity of its current, till it mingles with the ocean, Tac. 2. Donec, in Livy, occurs with the Subjunctive even in the sense of while, but with the accessory notion of cause: Nihil trepidabant donec ponte agerentur. They did not fear at all whiU (and because) they were driven on the bridge. Liv. 523. Antequam and Priusquam generally take, I. The Indicative, when they denote mcj-e priority of time : Priusquam lucet, adsunt, They are present h fore it is light. Cic. An- tequam in Siciliam veni, before I came into Sicily. Cic. II. The Subjunctive, when they denote a dependence of one event upon another. Thus, 1. In any Tense, when the accessory notion of purpose or cause is in- volved : Priusquam incipias, consulto opus est. Ref ore you begin there is need of deliberation, i. e., as preparatory to your beginning. Sail. Tempestas mina- tur, antequam sufgat, The tempest threatens, before it rises, i. e., the threaten- ing of the tempest naturally precedes its rising. Sen. 2. In Imperfect and Pluperfect, as the regular construction innatr- ration, because the one event is generally treated as the occasion or natu- ral antecedent of the other. See also 471. 4. Antequam urbem caperent, before they tool the city. Liv. Priusquam de meo adventu audire potuissent, in Macedoniam perrexi. Ref orethey were able to hear of my approach, 1 went into Macedonia, Cic. 3. Pridie qvam takes the same moods as Priusquam, 242 SUBJUNCTIVE. 1) Indicative or Sdbjdnctive. — With anUquam b.vA priu8quam^\}^^ Indicf*- tive and Subjunctive are sometimes used without any apparent difference of meaning, but the Subjunctive probably denotes a closer connection between the two events: Ante de incommodis dico, pauca dicenda, Before I (actually) speak of disad’^ vaiitages^ a few things should he mentioned. Cic. Antequam de re publica dicam, exponam considum, Before I speak of the repuhlic^ I will set forth my plan. Cic. 2) Ante— QD AM, Prius— quam.— The two parts of which anUquam^ priusquam.^ and postquam are compounded are often separated, so that ante., prius., or post stands in the principal clause and quam in the subordinate clause : Paucis ante diebus, quam Syracusae caperentur, a few days before Syracuse was taken. Liv. See Tmesis, 704. IV. 8. VII. Subjunctive in Indirect Questions. 624. A clause which involves a question without dl rectly asking it, is called an indirect or dependent question. EULE XLV.— Indirect Gaestions. 625 . The Subjunctive is used in Indirect Questions : i Quid dies f^rat incertum est, What a day may bring forth is uncer- tarn. Cic. Quaeritur, cur doctissimi homines dissentiant, It is a question^ , why the most learned men disagree. Cic. Quaesieras, nonne putarem, you had asked whether I did not think. Cic. Qualis sit animus, animus nescit. The soul knows not what the soul is. Cic. ! 1. With Interrogatives.— or Dependent questions, like those not dependent, are introduced by interrogative words : quid, cur, nonne, qualis, etc.-j rarely by si, sive, sen, whether; ut, how. See examples above. 2. Substantive Indirect questions are used substantively, and generally, though not always, supply the place of subjects or objects of verbs. But an Accusative, referring to the same person or thing as the subject of the question, is sometimes inserted after the leading verb. Ego ilium nescio qui fuferit, I do not know (him), who he was. Ter. 3. Direct and Indirect. — An indirect question may be readily changed to a direct or independent question. Thus the direct question involved in the first example is: Quid dies f^ret. What will a day bring forth ? So in the second : Cur doctissimi homines dissenti- unt, Why do the most learned men disagree ? 4. Subjunctive Omitted. — After nescio quis, I know not who = quldam, some one ; nescio quomodo, I know not how, etc., as also after mlrum quan- tum, it is wonderful how much = wonderfully much, very much, there is an ellipsis of the Subjunctive : ‘ Nescio quid animus praesSgit, The mind forebodes, I know not what (it forebodes, praesagiat, understood). Ter. Id mirum quantum prOfuit, Thu profited, it is wonderful how much, i. e., it wonderfully profited. Liv. INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 243 5. Indirect Questions Distinguished. — Indirect Questions must be care- fully distinguished from certain similar forms. Thus, 1) I'rom Relative Clauses— Clsm&es introduced by Relative Pronouns or Relative Adverbs always have an antecedent or correlative expressed or un- derstood, and are never, as a whole, the subject or object of a verb, while Indirect Questions are generally so used ; Dicam quod sentio (^vel, clause)* I will tell that which (id quod) I thiuL. Cic. Dicam quid intelligam {indirect question)^ I ivill tell what I know. Cic, Quaeramus iibi maleficium est, Let us seek there (ibi) where the cri/ine is. Cic. In the first and third examples, quod sentio and ubi—est are not questions, but relative clauses; id is understood as the antecedent of quod., and \bi as the antece- dent or correlative oixthi ; but in the second example, quid intelVigam is an indirect question and the object of dlcam : 1 will tell (what ?) what I know, i. e., will answer that question. 2) From Direct Questions and Exclamations ; Quid agendum est? Nescio, is to be done? I know not, Cic. Vide ! quam conversa res est. See ! how changed is the case, Cic. 6. Indicative in Indirect Questions. — The Indicative in Indirect Ques- tions is sometimes used in the poets ; especially in Plautus and Terence : Si memorare v61im, quam fideli animo fui, possum. If I wish to mention how much fidelity I showed, I am able. Ter. 7. Questions in the Oratio Obliqua. See 530. II. 2. 526 . Single and Double Questions.— Indirect ques- tions, like those which are direct (346. II.), , may he either single or double. I. An Indirect Single Question is generally introduced by some inter- rogative word — either a pronoun, adjective, or adverb, or one of the parti- cles ne, nonne, num. Here nmn does not imply negation : Rogitat qui vir esset (481. IV.), He asked who he was. Liv. EpSminon- das quaesivit, salvusne esset clipeus, Epaminondas inquired whether his shield;- was safe. Cic. Diibito num debeam, I doubt whether I ought. Phn. See also the examples under the Rule, 525. II. An Indirect Double Question {y;1iether — or) admits of two con- structions : 1. It generally takes uty'um or ne in the first member, and an in the second : Quaeritur, virtus suamne propter dignitatem, an propter fructus aliquos expetatur. It is asked whether virtue is sought for its own worth, or for cer- tain advantages. Cic. 2. But sometimes it omits the particle in the first member, and takes an or ne in the second. Other forms are rare : Quaeritur, natura an doctrina possit effici virtus. It is asked whether vir- tue can be secured by nature or by education. Cic, See also 346. 1. 1). 244 SUBJUNCTIVE. 1) In the second member, necne^ sometimes an non, is used in the sense of or not: Sapientia beatos eff iciat necne, quaestio est, Whether or not wisdom makes men happy, is a question. Cic. 2) An, in the sense of whether not, implying an affirmative, is used after verbs and expressions of doubt and uncertainty : dublto an, nescio an, hand scio an, I doubt whether not, I know not whether not = I am inclined to think; dubium est an, incertum est an, it is uncertain whether not = it is probable : Diibito an Thrasybulum primum omnium ponam, I doubt whether I should no* place Thrasybulus first of all, i. e., I am inclined to think I should. Nej). 8) sometimes has the force of aut, perhaps by the omission of incertum est, as used above ; Simonides an quis Tilius, Simonides or some other one. Cic. VIII. Subjunctive by Attraction. RULE XLVI.— Attraction. 527. The Subjunctive by Attraction is often used in clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive : Voreor, ne, dum mmuere velim laborem, augeam, I fear I shall in- crease the labor., while I wish to diminish it, Cie. Tempus est hujusmodi, ut, ubi quisque sit, ibi esse minime velit, The time is of such a character that every one wishes to be least of all where he is. Cic. Mos est, ut dicat sententiam, qui velit, The custom is that he ivho wishes expresses his opin- ion. Cic. 1. Application. — This rule is applicable to clauses introduced by con- junctions, adverbs, or relatives. Thus, in the examples, the clauses intro- duced by dum, ubi, and qui, take the subjunctive, because they are dependent upon clauses which have the subjunctive. 2. Indicative or Subjunctive. — Such clauses generally take, 1) The Indicative, when they are in a parenthetical or give spe- cial prominence to the fact stated : Milites misit, ut eos qui fugSrant persequerentur, lie sent soldiers to pur- sue those who had fed, i. e., the fugitives. Caes. Tanta vis probitatis est, ut earn, vel in iis quos nunquam vidimus, diligamus, Such is the force of in- ierjrity that we love it even in those whom we have never seen. Cic. The Indicative with dum is very common, especially in the poets and historians: FuGre qui, dum dubitat Seaevinus, hortarentur Pisonem, There were tlujse w.oo exhorted Piso, while Scaevinus hesitated. Tac. See also 467. 4. 2) The Subjunctive, when the clauses are essential to the general thought of the sentence, as in the examples under the rule. 3. After Infinitive Clauses. — The principle just stated (2) applies also to the use of Moods in clauses dependent upon the Infinitive. This ATTEACTION. IKDIEECT DISCOUESE. 245 often explains the Subjunctive in a condition belonging to an Infinitive, especially with Nec bonitas esse potest, si non per se expetatur, Nor can goodness exist (= it is not possible that), if it is not sought for itself. Cic. But clauses dependent upon the Infinitive are found most frequently in the Oratio Ohllgua and are accordingly provided for by 529. IX. Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, — Oratio Obliqua, 528. When a writer or speaker expresses thoughts, whether his own or those of another, in any other form than in the original words of the author, he is said to use the Indirect Discourse — Obliqua : Platonem ferunt in Italiam venisse, They say that Plato came i7ito Italy Cic. Respondeo te dolorem ferre moderate, I reply that you bear the affliction with moderation. Cic. Utilem arbitror esse scientiam, I think that knowledge is useful. Cic. 1. Direct and Indirect. — In distinction from the Indirect Discourse Oratio Obliqua^ the original words of the author are said to be in the Direct Discourse— Becta. Thus in the first example, Platonem ^ in Italiam venisse is in the indirect discourse ; in the direct, i. e., in the original words of those who made the statement, it would be : Plato in Italiam venit. 2. Quotation.— Words quoted without change belong of course to the Direct Discourse : ^ . -j r Rex “duumviros’' xnquit “ si^cundum legem facio,” The king said^ “/ appoint duumvirs according to law.^\ Liv. RULE XLVII— Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse. 529. The Subjunctive is generally used in the In- terrogative, Imperative, and Subordinate clauses of the Oratio Obliqua : Ad postulata Caesaris respondit, cur veniret {direct: cur renis ?), To the demands of Caesar he replied, why did he come. Caes. Scnbit Labieno cum legione vgniat {direct: cum legione veni), He writes to Labienus k come (that be should come) with a legion. Caes. Hippias gloriatus est, annulum quem babSret {direct : babeo) se sua manu confecisse, Hippias boasted that he had made with his own hand the ring which he wore. Cic. UoTE.— For convenience of reference tbe following outline of tbe us> of Moods, Tenses, Pronouns, etc. in tbe Oratio Obliqua is bere inserted. 246 OEATIO OBLIQUA. f' 530. Moods m Peincipal Clauses. — The Principal^ clauses of the Direct discourse, on becoming Indirect, undergo the following changes of Mood : I. When Declarative^ they take the Infinitive (551) : Dicebat ammos esse dlvlnos (direct: ammi sunt divini), He was wont to say that souls were divine. Cic. PlStonem Tarentum venisse reperio\J)'i {Plato Tarentum venit\ I find that Plato came to Tarentum, Cic. C^to ^ mirari se {rnxror') aiebat, Cato was wont to say that he wondered. Cic. \ II. When Interrogative or Imperative., they generally take the Subjunctive according to Rule XL VII. 1 . Verb Omitted. — The verb on which the Infinitive depends is often omitted, or only implied in some preceding verb or expression j especially after the Subjunctive of Purpose : Pythia praecepit ut Miltiadem imperatorem sumerent 4 incepta pros- pera futura, Phthia commanded that they should take Miltiadm as their com^ mander, (telling them) that their efforts would he successful. Nep. 2. Ehetorical Questions. — Questions which are such only in form, requiring no answer, are generally construed, according to sqnse, in the Infinitive. They are sometimes called Ehetorical questions, as they are often used for Ehetorical effect instead of assertions : thus num possit, can he ? for non potest, he can not ; quid sit turpius, what is more base ? for nihil est turpius, nothing is more base. y Here belong many questions which in the direct form have the verb in the first or third person : Eespondit num memoriam deponere He PcfiUmfcould he lay aside the recollection. Caes. Here the direct question would be : Num memoriam deponere possim ? 0 . Imperative Clauses with the Infinitive. See 551. II. 1 . 531. Moods in Suboedinate Clauses. — The Subor - 1 dinate clauses of the Direct discourse, on becoming Indi- i rect, put their finite verbs in the Subjunctive : ! ; Orabant, ut sibi auxilium ferret quod premerentur (direct : nobis auxilium fer, quod premimur). They prayed that he would bring them help, . , because they were oppressed. Cacs. ^ * 1. Infinitive in Eelative Clauses. — It must be remembered (453), ij that Eelative clauses, though subordinate in form, sometimes have the force of Principal clauses. When thus used in the Oratio Obliqua, they may be ^ construed with the Infinitive : Ad eum defertur, esse civem Eomanum qui quereretur : quem (= et eum) asservatum esse. It was reported to him that there was a Homan citizen who made a complaint, and that he had been placed under guard. Cic. So also comparisons : Te suspicor iisdeth/ quibus me ipsum, commoveri, Isu^' pect that you are moved by the same things as I am. Cic. vP Ol i : '' MOOlis' AND TENSES. ^ 247 fV ' \ 2. Infinitive after certain Conjunctions. — The Infinitive occurs, es;.' ^'pecially in Livy and Tacitus, even in clauses after quia^ quumy■q^twm'q'UU 1 nf ' and some other conjunctions : V Dicit, se moenibus inclusos tenSreeos7’^i|UiarRer agros vagari. He says that he Tceeps them shut up within the walls, because (VU^rwise) they would wander through the fields, Liv. See also 551. I. 5 and 6. 3, Indicative in Parenthetical Clauses. — Clauses may be ihtij^uced parenthetically in the oratio obliqua without strictly forming a part and may accordingly take the Indicative : Referunt silvam esse, quae appellatur Bacenis, They report that there is a forest which is called Bacenis, Caes. 4. Indicative in Clauses not ParIpnthetical.— Sometimes clauses not-^' parenthetical take the Indicative to give prominence to the fact staled. ' This occurs most frequently in Relative clauses : Certior factus est ex ea parte vici, quam Gallis concesserat!, omnes ^ " discessisse, Ee was informed that all had withdraim from thatpaH of the \ village which he had assigned to the Gauls, Caes. I ‘ ^ 532 . Tenses.— Tenses in the Oratio Ohliqna generally^ / j conform to the ordinary rules fo5 Infinitive and bubjunc- ^tive Tenses (480, 540), ‘but the law of Sequence of T^ses ^ admits of certai/i qualifications^ / 1. The Present and Perfect ma/ be used even after a Historical tense, ^ to impart a more lively effect to the'^iarrative : / Caesar respondit, si obsides sibi dentur, sese pacem esse factutum, Cae- $ar replied, tlic^ if hostages should be given him, he would makepeace, Caes. 2. In Goiiiiitional sentences of^the-third form (510), l)(The condition retains the Imperfect or Pluperfect without reference to the tense of the Principal verb '^ \ V 2) The Conclusion changes t^ Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive ^Into the Periphrastic Infinitive^h rus (or diis) esse or fuisse : Censes ]p^npeium laetat^um fuisse, si sciret. Do youj'hink Pompey would have r^mced, if he had kndtvn f Cic. Clamitabat,^^^i4lle adesset, ven- \ turos esse, Heh^ed out that they idould come, if he wefe present, Caes. A But the Regular Infinitive, ^stead^f the periphrastic forms, sometimes occurs la this constructiQg*/6specially ihexprcssions of Duty, etc. (475. 4). ^ 8. In Conditional Sentefices of the seco^ ^&rnx450^9), the Condition > generally conforms to the\Rule for Sequence of Tenses (480), but the Conclusion ch^n^^^s the Su^^nctive to the Puture Infinitive : Respondit^ si Aeduis sa^sfaciaht, sese cum iis pacem esse facturum. He replied thaitf they woulkysatisfy the Aeduans, he would makepeace with them, Caes. -l4^atos mittit, ^ ita fecisset, hmlcitiam futuram. He sent messengers sa^fipg that, if he wouM do thus, there would be f riendship, Caes. 248 ORATIO OBLIQUA. IMPERATIVE. Here mittit is the Historical Present. See 467. III. 4. The Future Perfect in a Subordinate clause of the Direct discourse is changed in the Indirect into the Perfect Subjunctive after a Principal tense, and into the Pluperfect Subjunctive after a Historical tense : Agunt ut dimicent ; ibi imperium fore, unde victoria fuerit, They ar- range that they shall fight ; that the sovereignty shall he on the side which shall win the victory (whence the victory may have been). Liv. Apparebat regnaturum, qui vicisset. It was evident that he would he Icing who should conquer. Liv. 533. Pronouns, Adverbs, etc. — Pronouns and ad- verbs, as also the persons of the verbs, are often changed in passing from the Divect discourse to the Indifect : Gloriatus est annulum se sua manu confecisse {direct : anniilum ego mea manu confeci), He boasted that he had made the ring with his own hand. Cic. 1. Pronouns of first and second persons are often changed to the third. Thus above ego in the direct discourse becomes sCy and mea becomes 8ua. In the same way hie and iste are often changed to ille. 2. Adverbs meaning here or now are often changed to those meaning there or then / nunc to turn / hie to illic. 3. In the use of pronouns observe 1) That references to the Speaker whose words are reported are made, if of the 1st Pers. by egOy meuSy nosteVy etc., if of the 2d Pers. by tUy tuuSy etc., and if of the 3d Pers. by suiy suuSy i^psCy etc., though sometimes by liiCy iSy ille. 2) That references to the Reporter, or Author, are made by ^Oy meuSy etc. 3) That references to the Person Addressed by the reporter are made by tUy tuuSy etc. Ariovistus respondit nos esse iniquos qui se interpellaremus {direct : vos estis iniqui qui me, etc.), Ariovistus replied that we were unjust who interrupted him. Caes. Here nos refers to the Reporter^ Caesar, we Romans. Se refers to the SpeakeCy Ariovistus. In the second example under 528, ie refers to the Person Addressed. SECTION YII. IMPERA TJ VE. I. Tenses of the Imperative. 534. The Imperative has but two Tenses : I. The Present has only the Second person, and cor- responds to the English Imperative : Justitiam colo. Practise justice . Cic. Perge, Catilina, (7o, Cat iline. Cic. IMPERATIVE. 249 II. The Future has the Second and Third persons, and corresponds to the imperative use of the English Future with shall, or to the Imperative let : li consules appellantor, They shall he called consuls^ or let them he called consuls. Cic. Quod dixero, facitote, leou shall do what I say (shall have said). Ter. 1. PuTURE FOR Present. — The Future Imperative is sometimes used where we should expect the Present : Quoniam supplicatio decreta est, cSlebratSte illos dies, Since a ihanlcs* giving has been decreed^ celebrate those days, Cic. This is particularly common in certain verbs : thus scio has only the forms of the Future in common use. 2. Present for Future. — The Imperative Present is often used in poetry, and sometimes in prose, of an action which belongs entirely to the future : Ubi aciem videris, tum ordines dissipa, W hen you shall see the line of battle^ then scatter the ranks. Liv. II. Use of the Imperative. EULE XLVIII.— Imperative. 535. The Imperative is used in commands, exhor- tations, and entreaties : Justitiam cole. Practise justice. Cic. Tu ne cede malls, Do not yield to misfortunes. Virg. Si quid in te peccavi, ignosce. If I have sinned against you., pardon me. Cic. 1. Circumlocutions. — Instead of the simple Imperative, several ciicum- locutions are common : 1) Cura utyfac utyfac, each with the Subjunctive : Cura ut venias. See that you come. Cic. See 489. 2) Fac ne, cave ne, cave, with the Subjunctive : Cave facias. Beware of doing it, or see that you do not do it. Cic. S) Noli, nollte, with the Infinitive: Noli imitari, do not imitate. Cic. See 538. 2. 2. Imperative Clause for Condition.— An Imperative clause may be used instead of a Conditional clause : Lacesse; jam videbis furentem. Provoke him (i. e., if you provoke him^, you will at once see him frantic. Cic. 8. Imperative Supplied.— The place of the Imperative may be variously supplied : 1) By the Subjunctive of Desire (487) : Sint beati, Let them be happy. Cic. Impii ne audeant, Let not the im- vious dare. Cic 250 IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. 2) By the Indicative Future : Quod optimum videbitur, facies, You will do (for Imper. do) wTiat shall seem best. Cic. 536. The Imperative Present, like the English Impera- tive, is used in commands, exhortations, and entreaties. See examples under the Rule. 537. The Imperative Future is used,.^ I. In commands involving future rather than present action : Rem penditote, You shall consider the subject. Cic. Cras petito ; dabi- tur, Ask to-morrow ; it shall he granted. Plaut. II. In laws, orders, precepts, etc. : Consules nemini parento. The consuls shall he subject to no one. Cic. Salus populi suprema lex esto. The safety of the people shall he the supreme law. Cic. 538. Imperative in Prohibitions. — In prohibitions or negative commands, 1. The negative rarely accompanies the Imper- ative, and if a connective is required, neve.^ or neu^ is gen- erali used, rarely neque : Tu ne cede malis, Bo not yield to misfortunes. Yirg. Hominem mor- tuum in urbe ne sepelito, neve urito. Thou shall not bury or burn a dead body in the city. Cic. 2. Instead of 7 ie with the Present Imperative, the best prose writers generally use noli and nollte with the Infini- tive : Kblite putare {for ne putate), do not think (be unwilling to think). Cic. SEOTIOX YIII. INFINITIVE. 539. The treatment of the Latin Infinitive embraces four topics : I. The Tenses of the Infinitive. II. The Subject of the Infinitive.^ ^ III. The Predicate after the Infinitive. IV. The Construction of the Infinitive. INFINITIVE. 251 I. Tenses of the Infinitive. 540. The Infinitive has three tenses, Present^ Perfect, and Future. They express however not absolute, but rel- ative time, denoting respectively Present, Past, or Future time, relatively to the Principal verb. 1. Peculiarities.— These tenses present the leading peculiarities specified under these tenses in the Indicative. See 46T. 2. 541. The Peesent Infinitive represents the action as taking place at the time denoted by the principal verb : Cupio me esse clementem, I desire to he mild. Cic. Maluit se diiigi quam metui, Me 'preferred to he loved rather than feared. Nep. 1. Keal Time.— Hence the real time denoted by the Present Infinitive is the time of the verb on which it depends. 2. Present fob Future.— The Present is sometimes used for the Future and sometimes has little or no reference to time : Cras argentum dare dixit, He said he would give the silver to-morrow. Ter. 3. Present with Debeo, Possum, etc.— After the past tenses of deheo^ oportet., possum^ and the like, the Present Infinitive is used where our idiom would lead us to expect the Perfect ; sometimes also after memlni^ and the like : Debuit officiosior esse, lie ought to have been more attentive. Cic. Id potuit facere, He might have done this. Cic. 542. The Perfect Infinitive represents the action as completed at the time denoted by the principal verb : Platonem ferunt in Italiam venisse. They say that Plato came into Italy. Cic. Conscius mihi eram, nihil a me commissum esse, I was conscious to myself that no offence had been committed hy me. Cic. 1. Real Time. — Hence the real time denoted by the Perfect Infinitive^® of the Perfect tense, if dependent upon the Present, and that of the Pluperfect, if de- pendent upon a Historical tense, as in the examples. 2. Perfect for Present. — In the poets the Perfect Infinitive is sometimes used ' for the Present, rarely in prose : Tetigisse timent poetam. They fear to touch (to have touched) the poet. Hor. 3. Passive Infinitive. — The Passive Infinitive with esse sometimes denotes the result of the action : victus esse., to have been vanquished, and so, to be a van- quished man. Fuisse for esse emphasizes the completeness of the action ; victus fuisse., to have been vanquished. See 575. 1. 543. The Future Infinitive represents the action as about to take place in time subsequent to that of the principal verb : Brutum visum iri a me piito, I thinh Brutus will he seen hy me. Cic. Oraculum datum erat victrices Athenas fore. An oracle had been given, that Athens would he victorious. Cic. Hence after a Principal tense the real time of the Future Infinitive is Future, but after a Historical tense the real time can be determined only by the context. 12 252 INFINITIVE. 544. Circumlocution for Future Infinitive. — In- stead of the regular Future Infinitive, the circumlocution futurum esse ut^ or fore ut^ with the Subjunctive, — ^Present after a Principal tense, and Imperfect after a Historical tense, — is frequently used : Spero fore ut contingat id nobis, I hope this will fall to our lot (I hope it will come to pass that this may happen to us). Cic. Non spgraverat Han- nibal, fore ut ad se deficerent, Hannibal had not hoped that they would revolt to him, Liv. See 556. II. 1. 1. Circumlocution necessary. ease ut, or fore ut, with the Subjunc- tive, for the Future Infinitive, is common in the Passive, and is moreover necessary in both voices in all verbs which want the Supine and the Participle in rus. 2. Fore ut with Perfect Subjunctive. — Sometimes fore ut with the Subjunc- tive, Perfect or Pluperfect, is used with the force of a Future Perfect ; and in Passive and Deponent verbs, /dre with the Perfect Participle may be used with the same force : EIco me satis adeptum fore, I say that I shall have obtained enough. Cic. 3. Futurum fuisse ut with Subjunctive.— ut with the Sub- junctive may be used in the conclusion of a conditional sentence of the third form when made dependent : Nisi nuntii essent allati, existimabant futurum fuisse, ut oppidum amitteretur. They thought that the town would have been lost, if tidings had not been brought, Caes. See 533. 2. , II. Subject of Infinitive. RULE XLIX.-Subject. 545. The Subject of an Infiniti-e is put in the Ac- cusative : Sentimus calere ignem, Vfe perceive that fire is hot. Cic. Platonem Tarentum venisse reperio, I find that Plato came to Tarentum. Cic. 1. Historical Infinitive.^Iu lively description the Infinitive is some- times used for the Indicative Imperfect. It is then called the Historical In- finitive, and, like a finite verb, has its subject in the Nominative: Hostes gaesa conjicere. The enemy hurled their javelins, Caes. The Historical Infinitive may often be explained by supplying coepit or coeph runt; but in most instances it is better to treat it simply as an idiom of the language. 2. Subject Omitted. — The Subject of an Infinitive may be omitted : 1) When it denotes the same person or thing as the subject of the prin- cipal clause, or may be readily supplied from the context : Magna negotia volunt agere. They wish to accomplish great undertakings. Cic. Peccare licet nemini, It is not lawful for any one to sin. Cic. INFINITIVE. 253 2) When it is indefinite or general : Dliigi jucundum est, It is ‘pleasant to he loved. Cic. 3. Infinitive Omitted. — Esse and fuisse are often omitted in the compound forms of the Infinitive and with predicate adjectives, other in- finitives less frequently (551. 5) : Audivi sdlitum Fabricium, I have heard that Fabricius was wont. Cic. Speramus nobis profuturos. We hope to benefit 'you. Cic. III. Predicate after Infinitive. 540. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after an Infinitive regularly agrees with the Subject, expressed or understood 1 ( 362 . 3 ): \ Ego me Phidiam esse mallem, I sJwuld prefer to he Phidiae. Cic. Tradp Htum est, H6m6rum caecum fuisse, It has been handed down oy tradition, that Homer was blind. Cic. Jiigurtha omnibus carus esse {hUtoriead infini- tive)y Jugurtha was dear to all* Sail. 547. A Predicate Noun or Adjective, after an Infinitive whose Subject is omitted, is often attracted into the Nom* inative or Dative : 1. It is attracted into the ISTorainative to agree with the Sub- ject of the principal verb, when the latter is the same person or thing as the^ omitted Subject : Nolo esse laudator, I am unwilling to he an eulogist. Cic. Beatus esse eine virtute nemo potest, No one caft be happy without virtue. Cic. 1. This occurs most frequently (1) after verbs of duty, ability, courage, custom, desire, beginning, continuing, ending, and the like — debeo, possum, audeo, soleo, ciipio, volo, malo, nolo, incipio, pergo, desino, etc., and (2) after various Passive verbs of saying, thinking , finding , seeming, and the like— dicor, trSdor,feror— credor, existimor, putor— reperior— videor, etc.: Quis scientior esse debuit. Who ought to have been more learned? Cic. Parens dici potest. He can be called a parent. Cic. Stoicus esse voluit. He wished to be a Stoic. Cic. Desinant esse timidi. Let them cease to be timid. ‘ Cic. Inventor esse dicitur. He is said to be the inventor. Cic. Prudens putabatur. He was thought to he prudent. Cic. 5 Participles in the compound tenses of the Infinitive are also attracted : Pollicitus esse dicitur. He is said to have promised. Cic. ^ II. The Predicate Nonn or Adjective is sometimes attracted in- ,Ato the Dative to agree with a Dative in the principal clause, when ^the latter denotes the same person or thing as the omitted Subject : i.r Patricio tribuno plebis fieri non licebat. It 'was not lawful for a pair f man to be made tribune of the peo'ple. Cic. Mihi negligenti esse non licuit, ! ^ It was ivot permitted me to he negligent. Cic. 254 INFINITIVE. 1. This is rare, but is the regular construction after I'icet., and sometimes occurs after n&cesse est, when used after licet, and occasionally in other connections : Illis timidis licet esse, nobis necesse est fortibus viris esse, It is permitted them to he timid, it is necessary for us to he hr are men. Liv. But, 2. Even with Licet the attraction does not always take place : Ei consulem fieri licet, It is lawful for him to he made consul. Caes. IV. Construction of the Infinitive. 548. The Infinitive, with or without a Subject, has in general the construction of a Noun in the Nominative or Accusative, and is used, I. As a Nominative — Subject of a Verb. II. As an Accusative — Object of a Verb. III. In Special Constructions. I, Infinitive as Subject. 549. The Infinitive, with or without a Subject, is often used as a Nominative, and is thus made the Subject of a sentence, according to Rule III. : With Subject. — Facinus est vinciri civem Romanum, That a Roman citizen should he hound is a crime. Certum est liberos amari, It is cer- tain that children are loved. Quint. Legem brevem esse oportet, It is neces- sary that a law he brief . Sen. Without Subject.— Ars est difficilis rem publicam regere. To rule a state is a difficult art. Cic. Carum esse jucundum est. It U pleasant to he held dear. Cic. Haec scire jiivat. To Jcnow these things affords pleasure. Sen. Peccare licet nemini, To sin is not lawful for any one. Cic. 1. Infinitive as Subject.— When the subject is an Infinitive, the Predi- cate is either (1) a Noun or Adjective with Rtum, or (2) an Impersonal verb or a verb used Impersonally. See the examples above. . 1) Tempus = tempestivum is thus used with the Infinitive : Tempus est dicere. It is time to speaJc. Cic. 2. Infinitive as Subject of an Infinitive. — The Infinitive maybe the subject of anotheV Infinitive ; Intelligi necesse est esse deos. It must he understood that there are gods, Cic. Esse deos is the subject of intelligi, and intelligi esse deos necesse est. 3. Infinitive with Demonstrative.— The Infinitive sometimes takes a Demonstrative-as an attributive in agreement with it : ^ ^ ^ j Quibusdam hoc displicet philosophari, T his philosopJdzing (thisfio i^hi- ] losophize) displeases some persons. Cic. Vivere ipsum turpe est nfibis. To live is itself ignoble for us. Cic. . . u • 4. Personal construction for Impersonal. — With Passive verbs, in- stead of the Infinitive with a subject accusative, a Personal construction is INFINITIVE. 255 common, b j which the Subject Accusative becomes the Subject Nominative of the leading verb : Aristides justissimus fuisse traditur (for Aristidem justissimum f uisse traditur)^ Aristides is said io have been most just, Cic. 1) The Personal Construction is used, (1) regularly with videor ^ jubeor, vetor, and the Simple Tenses of many verbs of saying, thinking, and the like — dicor, trddor, feror, perhibeor, putor, existimor, etc., also with coeptus sum and desitus sum with a Passive Infinitive, and (2) sometimes with other verbs of saying, showing, perceiving , finding, and the like. Solem e mundo tollere videntur. They seem to remove the sun from the world. Cic. Platonem audivisse dicitur, Ile is said to have heard Plato, Cic. Dii beati esse intelliguntur. The gods are understood to be happy. Cic. 2) In successive clauses the Personal construction is often followed by the Impersonal. 3) Videor with or without a Dative often means to fancy, think: mihi videor or videor, I fancy ; ut videmur, as we fancy. II, Infinitive as Object, 550. The Infinitive, with or without a Subject, is often used as an Accusative, and is thus made the object ot a verb, according to Rule V. : Te dicunt esse sapientem, They say that you^ are wise. Cic._ Haec vitare cupimus, We desire to avoid ijiese things. Cic. Manere decrevit^ Ile decided to remain. Nep. 551. Infinitive with Subject Accusative. — This is used as object with a great variety of verbs. Thus, I. With Verbs of Perceiving and Declaring, — Verba Sentiendi et Declarandi. II. With Verbs of Wishing and Desiring. III. With Verbs of Emotion and Feeling. I. With Verbs of Perceiving and Declaring. — Sentimus calere ignem, We perceive that fire is hot. Cic. Mihi narravit te sollicitum esse, He told me that you were troubled. Cic. Scripserunt Themistoclem in Asiam transisse, They wrote that Themistocles had gone over to Asia. Nep. 1. Verba Sentiendi. — Verbs of Perceiving include those which involve (1) the exercise of the senses : audio, video, sentio, etc., and (2) the exercise of the mind : thinking, believing, knowing, cogito, puto, existimo, credo, spero, — intelligo, scio, etc. 2. Verba Verbs of Declaring are such as state or commu- nicate facts or thoughts : dico, narro, nuntio, doceo, ostendo, promitto, etc. 3. Expressions with the Force of Verbs. — The Infinitive with a sub- ject may be used with expressions equivalent to verbs of perceiving and de- claring. Thus : / 250 INFINITIVE. With fdma fert^ report says, testis sum, I am a witness = I testify; eonsciui mihi sum, I am conscious, I know: Nullam mihi relatam esse gratiam, tu es testis. You are a witnesf (can testify) that no grateful return has teen made to me. Cic. 4. Participle for Infinitive. — Verbs of Perceiving take the Accusative with the Present Participle, when the object is to be represented as actually seen, heard, etc., while engaged in a given action : Catonem vidi in bibliotheca sedentem, I saw Cato sitting in the library, Cic. 5. Subjects Compared. — When two subjects with the same predicate are compared by means of quam, idem — qui, etc. ; if the Accusative with the Infinitive is used in the first clause, the Accusative with its Infinitive omitted may follow in the second : Platonem ferunt idem sensisse, quod Pythagoram, They say that Plato held the same opinion as Pythagoras. Cic. 6. Predicates Compared. — When two predicates with the same subject are compared and the Infinitive with a Subject is used in the first clause, the Infinitive with its subject omitted often follows in the second : Num putatis, dixisse Antonium minacius quam facturum fuisse, Do you thinh Antony spohe more threateningly than he would have acted f Cic. But the second clause may take the subjunctive, with or without ut: Audeo dicere ipsos potius cultores agrorum fore quam ut coli prohibeant, / say that they will themselves become tillers of the fields rather than prevent them from being tilled. Liv. II. With Verbs of Wishing and Desiring. — The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is also used with verbs of Wishing and Desiring : Te tua frui virtute cupimus, We desire that you should enjoy your vir' tue. Cic. Pontem jubet rescindi, He orders the bridge to he broken down (that the bridge should be broken down). Caes. Lex eum necari vStuit, The law forbade that he should be put to death. Liv. 1. Verbs op Wishing. — The Infinitive is thus used not only with verbs which directly express a wish, cupio, volo, nolo, mdlo, etc., but also with many which involve a wish or command: pdtior, sino, to permit; impero, jubeo, to command ; prohibeo, veto, to forbid. See also 558. II. 2. Subjunctive for Infinitive. — Several verbs involving a wish or command admit the Subjunctive : 1) Opto. See 492. 3, 2) Volo, malo, nolo, impero, and jiibeo admit the Subjunctive, generally with ut or ne : Yolout respondeas, I wish you would reply. Cic. Mulo to hostis metuat, / prefer that the enemy should fear you. Cic. 8) Concedo, permitto, raxe\j pdtior and sino, admit the Subjunctive with ut: Concedo ut haec apta sint, I admit that these things are suitable. Cic. III. With Verbs of Emotion or Feeling. — The Infinitive with Sub* ject Accusative is also used with verbs of Emotion or E'eeling : INFINITIVE. 257 Gaudeo, te mihi suadere, / rejoice that you advise me. Cic. Miramur, te laetari. We worider that you rejoice. Cic. Verbs of emotion are gaudeo, doleo, miror, queror, aoi the like; also aegre fero, grdvUerfero, etc. 552. Iotinitiye without Subject Accusative* Tais is used as Object with many verbs: VineSre scis, You know how to conquer (you know to conquer). Liy. Creduli esse coeperunt, They began to he credulous, Cic. Haec vitare cu- pimus, We desire to avoid these things, Cic. Solent cogitare, accustomed to think, Cic. Nemo mortem effugere potest, No one is able to escape death, Cic. 1. Verbs with the Infinitive.— The Infinitive may depend upon verbs signifying to dare, desire, determine— begin, continue, end— know, learn, neg- lect— owe, promisi, etc., also to be able, be accustomed, be wont, etc. 2. Infinitive as a Second Object.— With a few verbs— (foew, cogo, as- suefacio, arguo, etc.— the Infinitive is used in connection with a direct object; see 374. 4: . . Te sapere ddeet, He teaches you to be wise, Cic. Natidiies parere assue- fecit, He accustomed the nations to obey, Cic. In the Passive these verbs of course retain the Infinitive: Num sum Graece loqui ddeendus, Must 1 be taught to speak Greek ? Cic. 3. Infinitive after Adjectives.— By a construction according to sense, the Infinitive is used after adjectives in the sense of participles or verbs with the Infinitive : Est paratus {vult) audire, He is prepared to hear (is willing to hear). Cic Pelides cedere nescius (= nesciens), Pelides not knowing how to yield, Hor. Avidi committere pugnam, eager to engage battle, Ovid. This construction is rare in good prose, but common in poetry. 4. Infinitive with Prepositions. — The Infinitive regarded as a noun in the accusative, sometimes depends upon a preposition . Multum interest interdare et accipere, There is a great difference between giving and receiving. Sen. IIL Infinitive in Special Constructions. 553. The Infinitive, with or without a Subject, is gen- erally used as the Subject or Object of a verb, but some- times occurs in other relations. It is thus used, I. As Predicate ; see 362 : Exitus fuit orationis : sibi nullam cum his amicitiam, The close^ of his oration was that he had no friendship with these, Caes. Vivere est cogitare, To live is to think. Cic. Here sihi—dmlcUiam is used substantively, and is the Predicate Nominative TtiiQvfuit, according to Rule I. Cbgxtdre is in the same conatmcaou after est. 258 INFINITIVE. II. As Appositive ; see 363 : Oraculum datum erat victrices Athenas fore, The oracle that Athens would be mctorious had been given. Cic. Iliud soleo mirari non me accipere tuas litteras, / am accustomed to wonder at this^ that I do not receive your letter» Cic. 1. With Subject.— In this construction the Infinitive takes a subject accusative, as in the examples. 2. Explanation.— I n the examples, the clause victrices Athenas fore is in ap- position with oraculum., and the clause non me accipere tuas liUeraSj in apposition with illud» III. In Exclamations ; see 381 : Te sic vexari, that you should be thus troubled! Cic. Mene incepto de- sistere victam, that 1 vanquished should abandon my undertaking ! Virg. 1. With Subject.— In this construction the Infinitive takes a Subject, as in the examples. 2. Explanation. — This use of the Infinitive conforms, it will be observed, to the use of Accusative and Nominative in exclamations (381, 381. 3). It may often be ex- plained as an Accus. by supplying some verb, as doleo^ etc., or as a Nom. by supplying credendum est or credAblle est. Thus the first example becomes : I grieve (doleo) that you., etc., and the second becomes : Is it to be supposed (erodendum est) that 1 vanquished., etc. 3. Impassioned Questions. — This construction is most frequent in impassioned questions, as in the second example. IV. As Ablative Absolute. See 431. 4. V. To express Purpose : Pecus egit altos visere montes, He drove his herd to visit the lofty moun- tains. Ilor. Non populare penates venimus. We have not come to lay wasU your homes. Virg. This construction is confined to poetry. VI. Poetic Infinitive for Gerund. See 563. 6. SECTIO^T IX. SUBJECT AND OBJECT CLAUSES. 554. Subject and Object Clauses, in which, as we have just seen (549 and 550), the Infinitive is so freely used, assume four distinct forms : I. Indikect Questions. — These represent the Subject or Object as Interrogative in character: Quaeritur, cur dissentiant, It is asked why they disagree, Cic. Quid agendum sit, nescio, 1 do not know what ought to be done» Cic. See 625. SUBJECT AND OBJECT CLAUSES 259 II. Infinitive Clauses. — -Thesa have simply the force of Nouns, merely supplying the place of the Nominative, or the Accusative : AntScellSre contigit, It was his good fortune to excel (to excel happened). Cic. Magna n6gotia voluit agere, He wished to achieve great undertakings, Cic. See 549, 550. III. Subjunctive Clauses. — These clauses introduced by ne, etc., are only occasionally used as subject or ob- ject, and even then involve Purpose or Result : Contigit nt patriam vindicaret, It was his good fortune to save his coun- try. Nep. Volo ut mihi respondeas, I wish you would answer me. Cic. See 492, 495. Here ut — vindicaret is at once subject and result : it was bis good fortune to save his country, or his good fortune was such that he saved his country. In the second example, ut—respondeas expresses not only the object desired, but also the purpose of the desiae. IV. Clauses with Quod.— These again are only occa- sionally used as subject or object, and even then either give prominence to the fact stated, or present it as a Ground or Reason : BenSficium est quod necesse est mori, It is a Messing that it is necessary to die. Sen. Gaudeo quod te interpellavi, I rejoice that (because) I have in* terrupted you. Cic. See 520. Clauses with quod sometimes stand at the beginning of sentences to announce the subject of remark : Quod me Agamemnonem aemulari putas, falleris, As to the. fact that you think I emulate Agamemnon., you are mistaken. Nep. I. Fobms of Subject Clauses. 555. Interrogative. — Subject clauses which are in- terrogative in character, of course take the form of indirect questions. See 525. 2 and 554. I. 656. Not Interrogative. — Subject clauses which are not interrogative, with some predicates take the form of Infinitive clauses, or clauses with quod ; while with other predicates they take the form of Subjunctive clauses with ut.^ ne^ etc. Thus, I. With most impersonal verbs and with predicates consisting of est with a or Adjective, the Subject may be supxdied (1) by the Infinitive with or without a Subject Accusative, or, (2) if 260 SUBJECT AND OBJECT CLAUSES. the fact is to he made prominent or adduced as a reason, bj a clause with quod : Me poenitet vixisse, I regret that I have lived, Cic. Quod te ofifendi mv» poenitet, I regret that (or because) I have offended you, Cic. 1. Substantive Predicates with Subjunctive. — Mos est, moris est, consue- tiido est, consuetudinis est, It is a custom,, etc., admit the Subjunctive for the Infin- itive : Mos est hbminum ut nolint. It is a custom of men that they are not willing, Cic. 2. Adjective Predicates with Subjunctive.— Eeliquum est, proxTmum est, extremum est — verum est, verisimile est, falsum est — gloriosum est, mirum est, opti- mum est, etc., admit the Subjunctive for the Infinitive: Eeliquum est ut certemus, it remains that we contend. Cic. Verum est ut bonos diligant. It is true that they love the good, Cic. II. With Impersonal verbs signifying to happen — accidit, con- tingit, evenit, fit — ut non., with the Subjunctive, i& generally used (495. 2) : Thrasybulo contigit, ut patriam vindicaret. It was the good fortune of Thrasybulus (happened to him) to deliver his country, Nep. 1. Here belong accedit ut, est ut^fMhrum esse ut, or fore ut. See 544. 2. Clauses with quod also occur with verbs of happening. III. With Impersonal verbs signifying it folloics., remains^ is distant, and the like, the Subjunctive clause with ut is generally used : Relinquitur, ut quiescamus, It remains that we should submit- Cic, See 495. 2. lY. Subjunctive clause standing alone. See 495. 2. 2). II. Forms of Object Clauses. 557 . Interrogative. — Object clauses which are inter- rogative in character, of course, take the form of indirect questions. See 554. 1. 558 . "Not Interrogative. — Object clauses w^hich are not interrogative in character, supplying the place of direct objects after transitive verbs, sometimes take the form of Infinitive clauses, sometimes of Subjunctive clauses, and sometimes of clauses with quod. Thus, I. Verbs of declaeino take, 1. Eegularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. See 551. I. , . ^ 2. But the Subjunctive with ut or ne, when they involve ^ fommand : i OBJECT CLAUSES. 261 DSlabellae dixit, ut ad me scrIbSret ut in Italiam venirem, He told Dola- bella to write to me to come into Italy, Cic. See 492. 2. II. Verbs of determining, stdtuo,, constituo,, decerno,, and the I'ke take 1. Generally the Infinitive, when the subject is the same as that of the principal verb, rarely the Subjunctive: Manere decrevit, He determined to remain, Nep. Statuerunt, ut libertS tern defenderent, They determined to defend liberty, Cic. See 551. II. 2. The Subjunctive with ut or ne (expressed or understood), when a new subject is introduced : Constituerat, ut tribunus quereretur, He had arranged that the tribune should enter the complaint. Sail. Senatus decrevit, darent operam consules, The senate decreed that the consuls should attend to it. Sail. See 492. 3. Stdtuo, decerno, etc., when they mean to think, deem, suppose, etc., become verba sentiendi (551. 1. 1), and of course take the infinitive : Laudem sapientiae statuo esse maximam, I deem it to be the highest praise of wisdom. Cic. III. Verbs of striving, endeavoring, take the Subjunctive with ut or ne. See 492. 1. But contendo,, nitor,, studeo,, and tento,, generally take the Infinitive when the subject is the same ; Locum oppugnare contendit. He proceeds to storm the city. Caes. Ten- tabo de hoc dic6re, I will attempt to speak of this. Quint. See 552. IV. Verbs of causing, making, accomplishing, take the Sub- junctive with ut,, ne,, ut non. See 492, 495. 1. Examples.— Facio, eflficio, perficio— adipiscor, impetro— assequor, consequor, and sometimes fero, are examples of verbs of this class. 2. Facio and Efficio. — Facio in the sense of assume, suppose, takes the Infinitive ; efficio in the sense oi prove, show, either the Infinitive or the Sub- junctive with ut, etca : j ± • Fac animos non rSmangre post mortem. Assume that souls do not survive after death. Cic. Vult eff icSre animos esse mortales. He wishes to show thal souls are mortal. Cic. V. Verbs of emotion or feeling, whether of joy or sorrow, ^ \ The Infinitive with Subject Accusative, to express the Ob- ject in view of which the feeling is exercised. See 661. 111. 2. Clauses with quod^ to make more prominent the Keason tor the feeling : Gaudeo quod te interpellavi, Iryoice that (or because) I have interrupt- ed you. Cic. DSlebam quod socium amiseram, I was grieving because I had lost a companion. Cic. See 520. I. For Verbs of Desiring, see 551. II. 2. VI. Verbs of asking, demanding, advising, warning, com- 262 OBJECT CLAUSES. GERUNDS. MANDiNG, and the like, take the Subjunctive, generally with ut or ne : Oro ut homines miseros conserves, I implore that you would preserve the unhappy men. Cic. Postulant ut signum detur, They demand that the sig- nal le given. Liv. See 492. 2. 1. Examples. — Verbs of this class are numerous — the following are examples: oro, rogo, peto, precor, obsecro— flagito, postulo, praecipio— hortor, moueo, suadtto, persuadeo— impello, incito, moveo, commoveo. 2. Used as Verba Declarandi. — Some of these verbs in particular significa- tions become verha declarandi (551. 2), and accordingly take the Infinitive with Subject Accusative: thus moneo^ in the sense of remind persuadeo in the sense of convince. 3. Infinitive.— Even in their ordinary significations some of these verbs, espe- cially horior^ moneo.^ and postulo^ sometimes take the Infinitive with or without a Subject Accusative : Postulat se absolvi, He demands that he should te acquitted. Cic. See 551, II. 1 and 2. The Infinitive is much more common in poetry than in prose. SECTION X GERUND. 559. The Gerund is a verb in force, but a noun in form and inflection. As a verb it governs oblique cases and takes adverbial modifiers, as a noun it is itself governed. 560. The Gerund has four cases : Genitive, Dative, Ac- cusative, and Ablative, governed like nouns in the same sit- uation : Beate vivendi cupiditate incensi sumus, We are animated with the desire of living happily. Cic. Charta inutilis paper unfit for writing. Plin. Ad agendum natus, horn for action. Cic. In agendo, in acting. Cic. 1. Accusative. — The Accusative of the Gerund is used only after Prepo- sitions. 2. Gerund and Infinitive. — The gernnd and the infinitive are kindred forms, expressing the meaning of the verb in the form of a noun (196. II.). They are also complements of each other, the one supplying the parts which are wanting in the other. Thus the infinitive supplies the nominative and the accusative after verbs (548) ; the gerund supplies the genitive, dative, and ablative, and the accusative after prepositions. 561. Gerunds with Direct Objects are regularly used only in the Genitive and in the Ablative without a prepo- sition : Jus vocandi the right of summoning the senate. Liv. Injurias ferendo laudem mereberis. You will merit praise by hearing wrongs. Cic. GEKUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 283 662. Gerundive. — The place of the Gerund with a Di- rect Object is supplied by putting that object in the case of the Gerund and changing the latter into the participle in -dus in agreement with it. The participle is then called a Gerundive : Inita sunt consilia urbis delendae = urbem dSlendi, Plans have heen formed for destroying the city (of the city to be destroyed). Cic. Niima sa- cerdotibus creandis animum adjecit, Nuina gave his attention to the appoint^ ment of priests, Liv. 1. Explanation.— With the Gerund, the first example would be : Inita sunt consUia urlem delendi, in which delendi is governed by consUia, and urbem by delendi. In changing this to the Gerundive construction, 1) Urhem, the object, is changed into urhis, the case of the gerund, and is governed by consilia. . 2) Delendi, the gerund, is changed into delendae, the gerundive, in agree- ment with urbis. 2. Gerundive. — For the sake of brevity, the term Gerundive is used not only to designate the Participle, but also the Construction as a whole, includ- ing both the participle and the noun with which it agrees. 3. Use op Gerundive.— The Gerundive may be used for the Gerund with a Direct Object, and is almost invariably so used when the Gerund would be in the Dative or would depend upon a preposition. But see 563. 2. But in a few instances the Gerund with a Direct Object occurs in the Dative or dependent upon a preposition. See 564. 1 ; 565. 2 ; and 566. 2. 4. Gerundives of utor, fruor, etc.— In general only the gerundives of transitive verbs are used with their nouns as equivalents for Gerunds with Direct Objects; but the gerundives of utor, fruor, fungor, pUior, and vescor, originally transitive verbs, admit this construction : Ad munus fungendum, /or discharging the duty. Cic. Spes potiundo- rum castrorum, the hope of getting possession of the camp. Caes. 5. Passive Sense. — In a few instances, the Gerund has in appearance a passive sense : N^que habent propriam percipiendi notam. Nor have they any proper marl of distinction, i. e., to distinguish them. Cic. I. Genitive of Gerunds and Gerundives. 563. The Genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is used with nouns and adjectives : Gerund.— Ars vivendi, the art of living. Cic. Studiosus 6rat audiendi, Ile was desirous of hearing. Nep. Jus v5candi sSnatum, the right of sum^ moning the senate. Liv. Cupidus te audiendi, desirous of hearing you. ^Cic. Gerundive. — Libido ejus videndi, the desire of seeing him. Cic. Platonis studiosus audiendi fuit. He was fond of hearing Plato, Cic. 264 GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 1. The genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive occurs most frequently ~ 1) With ars, scientia, consuetildo, — cupiditas, libido, stiidium, consilium, vdluntas, spes,~pdtestas, facultas, difficultas, occasio, tempus,— ggnus, mo* dus, ratio, — causa, gratia, etc. ^ 2) With adjectives denoting desire^ Tcnowledge, skill, recollection, and their opposites: avidus, cupidus, studiosus — conscius, gnarus, ignarus p6il- tus, imperitus, insuetus, etc. 2. Gerund preferred.— A gerund with a neuter pronoun or adjective as object should not be changed to the participial construction, because the lat- ter could not distinguish the gender : Artem vera ac falsa dijudicandi, the art of distinguishing true things from the false, Cic. 3. Gerund with Genitive.— The Gerund in the Genitive sometimes as- sumes so completely the force of a noun as to govern the Genitive instead of the Accusative : Kejiciendi judicum pStestas, tU power of challenging (of) the judges. Cic. Here reficiendi may be governed by poUstas, and may itself by its substantive force govern yadlcam, the challengingof the judges, etc. But these and similarforms in di are sometimes explained not as Gerunds but as Gerundives, like Gerundives with mei, nostri, etc. See 4 below. 4, Participial Construction with mei, nostri, etc.— With the Geni- tiye of personal pronouns-mef, nostri, tui, resiri, sui—the participle ends in di without reference to Number or Gender : ^ Copia placandi tui {of a woman), an opportunity of appeasing you, Ov. Sui conser vandi causa, /or the purpose of preserving themselves, Cic. Vestri adhortandi causa, /or the purpose of exhorting you, Liv. This apparent irregularity may be accounted for by the fact that these genitives though used as Personal Pronouns, are all strictly in form in the neuter singular of the Possessives meum, tmmi, suum, etc., hence the participle in di agrees with them perfectly. ^ 5. Purpose.— The Genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is sometimes used to express Purpose or Tendency : Haec tradendae Hannibali victoriae sunt. These things are for the purpose of giving victory to Hannibal, Liv. Leges pellendi claros viros, Uws for driving away illustrious men, Tac. Proficiscitur cognoscendae antiquitatis. He sets out for the purpose of studying antiquity, Tac. This genitive is sometimes best explained as Predicate Genitive (401), as in the first example; sometimes as dependent upon a noun, as pellendi dependent upon leges in tbe second example; and sometimes simply as a Genitive of Cause (393, 409. 4), as in the third example ; though in such cases, especially in the second and third, causa may be supplied. 6. Infinitive for Gerund.— The Infinitive for the Genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is often used in the poets with nouns and adjectives, sometimes even in prose : Cupido Stygios iunare lacus, the desire to sail upon the Stygian lakes, V^ir-g. Avidus committere pugnam, eager to engage battle, Ovid. GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 265 II. Dative of Gerunds and Gerundives. 564. The Dative of the Gerund or Gerundive is used with a few verbs and adjectives which regularly govern the Dative : Gerund.— Quum solvendo non essent, they were not able to pay Cic, Aqua utilis est bibendo, Water is useful for drinking. Plm. Gerundive.— Ldcum oppido condendo ceperunt, They selected a placi for founding a city, Liv. Tempera demetendis fructibus accommodata, seasons suitable for gathering fruits, Cic. 1. Gerund.— The Dative of the Gerund is rare and confined mostly to late writers ; with an object it is almost without example. 2. Gerundive op Purpose.— In Livy, Tacitus, and late writers, the Da- tive of the Gerundive often denotes purpose : ^ Firmandae valetudini in Campaniam concessit, He withdrew Mo Cam- pania to confirm his health. Tac. 3. Gerundive with Official Names.— The Dative of the Gerundive also stands after certain official names, as decemviri, triumviri, comitia : DScemviros Iggibus scribendis creavimus. We have appointed a commit- tee often to prepare laws. Liv. But the Dative is perhaps best explained as dependent upon the verb. III. Accusative of Gerunds and Gerundives. 565. The Accusative of the Gerund or Gerundive is used after a few prepositions : Gerund. — Ad discendum propensi siimus, We are inclined to learn (to learning). Cic. Inter ludendum, in or during play. Quint. Gerundive. — for cultivating the fields, Cic. Ante condendam urbem, before the founding of the city, Liv. 1. Prepositions.— The Accusative of the gerund or gerundive is used most frequently after ad j sometimes after inter and ob j very rarely after ante, circa, and in. 2. With Object. — The aceusative of a gerund with a direct object sometimes occurs, but is rare : Ad placandum deos pertinet. It tends to appease the gods, Cic. 3. Purpose.— With verbs of leading, taking, etc., the purpose of the action is sometimes denoted by the Gerund with ad, or by the Gerundive in agreement with a noun : Ad imitandum mihi propositum exemplar illud. That model has been set before me for imitation. Cic. Attribuit Italiam vastandam (for ad vastan- dum) Catilinae, He assigned Italy to Catiline to ravage {io be ravaged). Cic. 206 SUPINE. IV, Ablative op Gerunds or Gerundives. 606. The Ablative of the Gerund or Gerundive is used, I. As Ablative of Means or Instrument: Gerund, — Mens discendo alitnr, The mind is nourished hy learning, Cic. Salutem hominibus dando, hy giving safety to men, Cic. Gerundive. — Legendis oratoribus, hy reading the orators, Cic. II. With Prepositions : Gerund.— Virtutes cernuntur in agendo, Virtues are seen in action, Cic. Deterrere a scribendo, to deter from writing. Cic. Gerundive. — Brutus in liberanda patria est interfectus, Brutus was slain in liherating his country. Cic. 1. Prepositions. — The ablative of the gerund or gerundive is used most frequently after in j sometimes after a (ab), de, ex (e) ; very rarely after cum and pro. 2. With Object. — After prepositions, the ablative of the gerund with a direct object is exceedingly rare : In tribuendo suum cuique, in giving every one his own, Cic. 3. Without a Preposition, the ablative of the gerund or gerundive de- notes in a few instances some other relation than that of means, as time^ separations etc. : Incipiendo refugi, I drew hack in the very heginning, Cic, SECTION XL SUPIBE. 567. The Supine, like the Gerund, is a verb in force^ but a noun in form and inflection. As a verb it governs oblique cases, as a noun it is itself governed. 568. The Supine has but two cases : the Accusative in um and the Ablative in ii. RULE L.—Supine in Um. 569. The Supine in mii is used after verbs of mo- tion to express purpose : Legati venerunt res repetitum, Deputies came to demand restitution. Liv. Ad Caesarem congratulatum convenerunt, They came to Caesar to congratulate him. Caes. 1. The Supine in um occurs in a few instances after verbs which do not directly «xpresa motion : PARTICIPLES. 267 Filiam Agrippae nuptum dedit, He ga'ce his daughter in marriage to Agrip^ pa. Suet. 2. The Supine in um with the verb eo is equivalent to the forms of the first Per- iphrastic Conjugation, and may often be rendered literally ; Bonos omnes perditum eunt, They are going to destroy all the good. Sail. But in subordinate clauses the Supine in um with the verb eo is often used for the simple verb : Ultum ire, (= ulcisci) injurias festinat, He hastens to arenge the injuries. Sail, 3. The Supine in um with Iri, the infinitive passive of eo, forms, it will be re^ membered (215, III. 1), the Future Passive Infinitive : Brutum visum iri a me puto, I think. Brutus will he seen hy me. Cic. 4. The Supine in um as an expression of purpose is not very common, its place is often supplied even after verbs of motion by other constructions : 1) By ut or qui with the Subjunctive. See 489. 2) By Gerunds or Gerundives. See 563. 5 ; 564. 2; 565. 3. 3) By Participles. See 578. V. 570. The Supine in it is generally used as an Ablative of Specification ( 429 ) : Quid est tam juqundum auditu, What is so agreeable to hear (in hear- , ing) ? Cic. Difficile dictu est, It is difficult to tell, Cic. 1. The Supine in u is used chiefly with— jiicundus, optimus— facilis, proclivis, difficilis— incredibilis, memorabilis— honestus, turpis, fas, nefas— dignus, indignus— opus est. 2. The Supine in u is very rare, and does not occur with an object. The only examples in common use are : audltu., cognitu., dictu., and factu. 3. As the Supine in u is little used, its place is supplied by other constructions • 1) By ad with the Gerund: Verba ad audiendum jilcunda, words agreeable to hear. Cic. 2) By the Infinitive : Facile est vincere, It is easy to conquer. Cic. 3) By a Finite Mood with an adverb: Non facile dijudicatur amor fictus, Pre- iended love is not easy to detect (is not easily detected). Cic. SECTION XII. PAR TICIPLES, I. Tenses of Participles. 671. Participles, like Infinitives, express only relative time, and represent the action as Present, Past, or Future, f relatively to the principal verb. Peculiakities. — Tenses in Participles present the leading peculiarities specified under the corresponding tenses in the Indicative. See 467. 2. 572. Present Participle. — The present participle rep- resents the action as taking place at the time denoted by ; the principal verb : r Oculud se non videns alia cernit, The eye, though it does not see itself (not 268 USE OF PARTICIPLES. seeing itself), discerns other things. Cic. Plato scribens mortuus est, Flato died while writing. Cic. 573. Future Participle. — The future active parti- ciple represents the action as about to take place, in time subsequent to that of the principal verb : Sapiens bona semper placitura laudat, The wise man praises blessings which will always please (being about to please). Sen. ) But the Future Passive generally loses in a great de- gree its force as a tense, and is often best rendered by a verbal noun. See 562 and 580. 574. Perfect Participle. — The perfect participle rep- resents the action as completed at the time of the principal verb. Uva maturata dulcescit, The grape, when it has ripened (having ripen- ed), becomes sweet. Cic. 1. The Perfect Participle, both in Deponent and in Passive verbs, is sometimes used of present time, and sometimes in Passive verbs it loses in a great degree its force as a tense, and is best rendered by a verbal noun. See 580. 2. For the Participle with habeo, see 388. 1 2). II. Use of Participles. 575. Participles are verbs in force, but Adjectives in form and inflection. As verbs they govern oblique cases, as adjectives they agree with nouns : Animus se non videns alia cernit. The mind, though it does not see itself, discerns other things. Cic. 1. Participles in the Present or Perfect, rarely in the Future, may be used as adjectives or nouns : scripta epistola, a written letter ; mortui, the dead. Participles with the force of adjectives maybe used as predicate adjectives with sum: occiipdti erant, they were occupied; as a verb, had been occupied. 576. Participles are used to abridge or shorten dis- course by supplying the place of finite verbs with relatives or conjunctions. They are used with much greater free- dom in Latin than in English. 577. Participle for Relative Clause. — In abridged sentences, the Participle often supplies the place of a Rela- tive Clause ; USE OF PARTICIPLES. 269 Omnes Sliud agentes, aliud simulantes improbi sunt, AU who do one thing andjpretend another are dishonest, Cic. 578. For other Subordinate Clauses. — The Parti- ciple often supplies the place of a subordinate clause with a conjunction. It may express, I. Time : Plato scribens mortuus est, Plato died while writing, Cic. Ittiri in proelium canunt. They sing when about to go into battle, Tac, II. Cause, Manner, Means : Sol driens diem conficit. The sun by its rising causes the day, Cic. Milites renuntiant, se perfidiam veritos revertisse, The soldiers rejyort that they returned because they feared perfidy (having feared). Caes. III. Condition : Mendaci homini ne verum quidem dicenti credere non solemus, We are not wont to believe a liar, even if he speaks the truth, Cic. Reluctante natura, irritus labor est. If nature opposes, effort is vain. Sen. IV. Concession : Scripta tua jam diu exspectans, non audeo tamen flagitare. Though 1 have been long expecting your work, yet I do not dare to ask for it, Cic. V. Purpose : Perseus rediit, belli casum tentaturus, Perseus returned to (about to try) the fortune of war, Liv. Attribuit nos trucidandos Cethego, He as^ signed us to Cethegus to slaughter, Cic. 579. Participle for Principal Clause.— The Parti- ciple sometimes supplies the place of a principal or dinate clause, and may accordingly be best rendered by a finite verb with and or but : Classem devictam cepit, He conquered and took the fleet (took the fleet conquered). Nep. Re consentientes vocabulis differebant. They agreed in fact, but differed in words, Cic. 580. Paeticiple foe Veebal Noux.— The Passive Participle is often used in Latin where the English idiom requires a participial noun, or a verbal noun with of: In amicis eligendis, in selecting friends. Cic. HomSrus fuit ante RS- mam conditam, Homer lived (was) before the founding of Home (before Rome founded). Cic. 581. Participle with Kegatiye. — The Participle 270 PARTICLES. with a negative, as non^ nihil^ is often best rendered by a participial noun and the preposition without : Miserum est, nihil proficientem angi, It is sad to he troubled without accomplishing anything, Cic. Non erubescens, without blushing. Cic. CHAPTEE YI SYNTAX OF PASTICLES. EULS LI— Use of Adverbs. 582. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other ADVERBS : Sapientes feliciter vivunt. The wise live happily. Cic. Facile doctis- simus, unquestionably the most learned. Cic. Ilaud aliter, not otherwise. Virg. 583. Adverbs are sometimes used with nouns : 1. When the nouns are used with the force of adjectives or participles : 3Iinime largitor dux, a leader by no means liberal. Liv. Populus late rex, a people of extensive sway (ruling extensively). Yirg. 2. When in sense a participle or verb may be supplied : Marius, plane vir, Marius^ truly a man. Cic. Omnes circa populi, all the surrounding peoples. Liv. See also 353. 2. 584. The Common Negative Particles are : 7ion^ nd, hand. 1. Non is tho usual negative, ne is used in prohibitions, wishes and purposes (489), and liaudi^ in haud scio an and with adjectives and adverbs; hand mlrdhlle^ not wonderful ; haud dlUer^ not otherwise. Ni for ne is rare. Ne non after vide is often best rendered whether. 2. In non mbdo non and in non solum non., the second non is generally omitted before sed., or nerum., follow’ed by ne — quldem or nix (rarely etiam)., when the verb of the second clause belongs also to the first : Assentatio non modo amico, sed ne libSro quidem digna est. Flattery is not only not worthy of a friend, hut not even of a free man. Cic. 8. Minus often has nearly the force of non ; si minus = si non. Sin dliter has nearly the same force as si minus. PARTICLES. 271 585. Two Negatives are generally equivalent to an affirmative, as in English : Nihil non arroget, Ld Urn claim everytUng. Hor. Neque hoc Zeno non videt, Nor did Zeno overlook this. Cio. I WO» hefore a general negative gives it the force of an indefinite afllrmativc, bnt after such negative the force of a general affirmative; KonndL, some one; nonnihil, something; nonnunquam, sor^Umes. Nemo non every one ; nihil non, en^ery thing; nunquam non, always. f Zer a geneL negative, ne-guUem gives emphasis to the negation, and tierce, and th ^^.tnntpass hyeven this. Cic. Nemo Non f actoera t ^ ^ Cio. unqi^mneque^po^ mean so, thus. Ita has also a limiting sense in ^ 4^ Adeo to such a degree or result, tom, tan- «Srsfn^LMZ used mostUofore adjectives and adverbs, and before verbs. 586. For the use of Prepositions, see 432 to 437. 587. Coordinate Conjunctions unite similar construc- tions (309). They comprise five classes: I. Copulative Conjunctions denote union: Castor et Pollux, Castor and Pollux. Cio. Sgnatus populusque, thesen- ale and people. Cic. Nec 6rat difificlle, Nor was it difficult. Liv. 1. List. See 310. 1. > . a. 2*Diffeeence in Force.-^ simply connects; que implies a more intimate relationship; generally gives prominence to what follows, especWly at the be- Kinnin- of a sentence; «c, abbreviated from atque, has generally the force of et. Miqmaad. nec have the force of et non. Et and etiam sometimes mean erm. Atque and ac generally mean as, than after adjectives and adverbs of likeness and unlikeness; simiUs, dissimilis, similiter, par, pariter, aeque, alms, a.iter, secus: aeque ac, equally as ; alter atque, otherwise than. See also 451. 5. 8. Que ao atque,— is an enclitic, i. e., is always appended to some other word. Ac in the best prose is used only before consonants ; atque, either before vowels or consonants, 4. Etiam, quoque, adeo, and the like, are sometimes associated with et, atque, ac and que, and sometimes even supply their place. Quoque follows the word which it connects: is quAque, he also. Etiam, also, further, even, is more comprehensive than qubque and often adds a new circumstance. ■ 6 CoEEELATivES.-Sometimes two copulatives are used: et (que)-et (que), turn-turn, quum-tum, loth-and ; but quum-tum gives prominence to the second word or clause; non solum (non mode, or non tantum)-sed etiam (verum etiam), not only-but also; neque (nec)-n6que (uec),neither-nor ; neque (nec)-et (que), not— hut (both)— and not. 6 Omitted.— Between two words connected copulatively the conjunction is generally expressed, though sometimes omitted, especialiy between the names of two Llleagues. Between several words it is in the best prose generally repeated or 272 PARTICLES. omitted altogether, though que may be used with the last even when the conjunction is omitted between the others : pax et tranquillitas et concordia^ or pax^ tranquil- litas^ concordia^ or pax^ tranquillitas^ concordidque. Et is often omitted between conditioual clauses, except before non. II. Disjunctive Conjunctions denote separation : Aut vestra aut sua culpa, either your fault, or his own. Liv. Duabus tribusve horis, in two or three hours. Cic. 1. List. See 310. 2. 2. Aut, vel, ve.— denotes a stronger antithesis than rel, and must be used if the one supposition excludes the other: aut rerum aut falsum, either true or false. Vel implies a difference in the expression rather than in the thing. It is generally cor- rective and is often followed potius, etiam or dicam : laudatur rei etiam amatur, he is praised, or even (rather) loved. It sometimes means eren and sometimes /or example. Velut often means/or example. Ye for rel is appended as an enclitic. In negative clauses aut and re often continue the negation : non honor aut vir- tus, neither (not) honor nor virtue. 8. SiVB {si — re) does not imply any real difference or opposition; it often con- nects different names of the same object: Pallas sire Minerra, Pallas or Minerva (another name of the same goddess). III. Adversative Conjunctions denote opposition or contrast : Ciipio me esse elementum, sed me inertiae condemno, I wish to he mild, hat I condemn myself for inaction. Cic. 1. List. See 810. 8. 2. Difference in Force. — Sed and rerum mark a direct opposition ; autem and rero only a transition ; at emphasizes the opposition; atqui often introduces an objection; ceterum, but still, as to the rest; tdmen, yet. 3. Compounds of tamen are : attamen, sedtdmen, reruntdmen, but yet. 4. Autem and vero follow the words which they connect: Me autem, hic r^ro, but this one. They are often omitted, especially before non. They are admissible with qui only when it is followed by its antecedent. IV. Illative Conjunctions denote inference : In umbra igitur pugnabimus, shall therefore fight in the shade. Cic. 1. List. See 810. 4. 2. Other Words. — Certain other words, sometimes classed with adverbs and sometimes with conjunctions, are also illatives: eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea, quam- obrem, quapropter, quare, quocirca. 3. Igitur. — This generally follows the word which it connects: hie igitur, this one therefore. After a digression igitur, sed, sed tdmen, rerum, rerum tdmen, etc., are often used to resume an interrupted thought or construction. They may often be rendered I say : Sed si quis ; if any one, I say. V. Causal Conjunctions denote cause : Difficile est consilium; sura Snim solus, Counsel is difficult, for 1 am alone. Cic. EtSnim jus amant. For they love the right. Cic. 1. List. See 310. 5. PAETICLES, 273 2. Etenim and Namqfe denote a closer connection than ^nim and nam, 3. Enim follows its word. 588 Subordinate Conjunctions connect subordinate with principal constructions (309. II.). They comprise eight classes. I. Temporal Conjunctions denote time : Paruit quum necesse erat, He obeyed when it was necessary. Cic. Dum Qyo in Sicilia sum, while lam in Sicily, Cic. See also 311. 1 ; 521-523. ° 1. Dum added to a negative means yet ; nondum., not yet ; vixdum., scarcely yet. II. Comparative Conjunctions denote comparison : Ut optasti, ita est. It is as you desired. Cic. Velut si adesset, as ij he were 'present. Caes. See also 311. 2 ; 503, 506. 1, C 0 P.KELATIVE 8 are often used: Tam — quam, crs, so — as., as much as ^ tarn quara quod maxime, as much as possible ; non minus— quam, noi less than ; non magis — quam, not more than. Tam— quam and ut—Ua with a superlative are sometimes best rendered by the with the comparative : ut maxime — ita max\me,ihe more— the more. III. Conditional Conjunctions denote condition ; Si peccavi, ignosce, If 1 Timi erred, pardon me. Cic. Nisi est con- cilium ddmi, ■unless there is wisdom at home. Cic. See also 311. 3 ; 503. 507. 1 msi if not, In negative sentences often means eiecept, and nisi q'uod, except that, may be used even in affirmative sentences. Nisi may mean than. MMl mud nisi = nothing further (more, except) ; nihil dliud qnam = nothing else (other than). IV. Concessive Conjunctions denote concession : Quamquam intelligunt, thovqh they ■understand. Ck. Etsi nihil habeat, although he has nothing. Cic. See also 311. 4; 515. 516. V. Final Conjunctions denote purpose : Esse oportet, ut vivas. It is necessary to eat, that you may live. Cic. See also 311. 5 ; 48.9-499. VI. Consecutive Conjunctions denote consequence or result : Atticus ita vixit, ut Atheniensibus esset carissimus that he was ■very dear to the Athenians. Nep. See also «11. 6 ; VII. Causal Conjunctions denote cause : Quae quum ita sint. Since these things are so. Cic. See also 311. 7 ; 517. 518. VIII. Interrogative Conjunctions or Particles denote inquii'y or question : Quaesieras, nonne putarem. You had ashed whether I did not think Cic. See also 311. 8 ; 846. II., 525. 526. INTERJECTIONS. RULES, 2H IV. Interjections. 689. Interjections are sometimes used entirely alone, as cheu^ alas I and sometimes with certain cases of nouns. See 381 and 381. 3.' 590. Various parts of speech, and even oaths and im- precations, sometimes have the force of interjections. Thus; Pax {peace)y he still! miserum, miserabile, sadi, lamentable! OYo^prayi Sge, Sgite, come, well! meberciiles, by Hercules! per deum fidem, in the name of the gods ! sodes = si audes {for audies), if you will hear! CHAPTER VII. RULES OF SYNTAX. 591. For convenience of reference, the principal Sales of Syntax are here introduced in a body. The enclosed numerals refer to the various articles in the work where the several topics are more fully discussed. XOUKS. Ageekment. _ A Peedicate Notin' denoting the same person or thing as its Subject, agrees with it in case (362) ; Ego sum nuntius, I am a messenger. Liv. II. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in case (363) : Cluilius rex moritur, Cluilius theUng dies. Liv. Nominative. III. The Subject of a Finite verb is put in the Nomina- tive (367): Servius regnavit, Servius reigned. Liv. Vocative. IV. The Name of the person or thing addressed is put in the Vocative (369) : Perge, Laeli, Proceed, Laelius. Cic. RULES OF SYisTAX. 275 Accusative. V. The Direct Object of an action is put in the Accu- sative (371) : Deus mundum aedificavit, God mads the world, Cic. VI. Verbs of making, choosing, calling, regarding, SHOWING, and the like, admit two Accusatives of the same person or thing (373) : Hamilcarem imperatorem fecerunt, They made Hamilcar commander, Nep. VII. Some verbs of asking, demanding, teaching, and CONCEALING, admit two Accusatives in the Active, and one in the Passive (374): Me sententiam rogavit, He asked me my opinion, Cic, VIII. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusative (378) : Septem et triginta regnavit anpos, He reigned thirty-seven years, Liv. Quinque millia passuum ambiilare, to walk five miles, Cic. IX. The Name of a Town used as the Limit of motion is put in the Accusative (379) : Nuntius Romam redit, The messenger returns to Rome, Liv. X. A Verb or Adjective may take an Adverbial Accu- sative to define its application (380) : Capita velamur, We have our heads veiled. Yirg. Nube humeros amictus, with his shoulders enveloped in a cloud. Ilor. XI. The Accusative, either with or without an Interjec- tion, may be used in Exclamations (381): Heu me miserum, Ah m^ unhappy I Cic. I Dative. 4^ * XII. The Indirect Object is put in the Dative (384) : Tempori cedit. He yields to the time. Cic. Dative of Advantage and Disadvantage (385). Dative with Compounds (386). Dative of Possessor (387). Dative of Apparent Agent (388). Ethical Dative (389). IB 276 KULES OF SYNTAX. XIII. Two Datives — the object to which and the ob- ject FOR WHICH — occur witli a few verbs (390) ; Malo est hommibus avaritia, Avarice is (for) an evil to men. Cic, XIV. With Adjectives the object to which the quality is directed is put in the Dative (391) : Omnibus carum est, It is dear to all. Cic. XY. A few Derivative Nouns and Adverbs take the Dative after the analogy of their primitives (392) : Obtemperatio legibus, obedience to the laws. Cic. Congruenter natu- rae, agreeably to nature. Cic. Genitive. XVI. Any noun, not an Appositive, qualifying the meaning of another noun, is put in the Genitive (395) : Catonis orationes, Cato's orations. Cic. XVIL Many Adjectives take a Genitive to complete their meaning (399) : Avidus laudis, desirous of praise. Cic. XVIIL A Predicate Noun denoting a different person or thing from its Subject, is put in the Genitive (401) : Omnia hostium erant, All things belonged to (were of ) the enemy. Liv. XIX. The Genitive is used (406), I. With missreor and miseresco : Miserere laborum, pity the labors. Yirg. II. With recordor, memini, reminiscor, and obliviscor : Meminit praeteritorum, He remembers the past. Cic. III. With refert and interest ; Interest omnium. It is the interest of all. Cic. XX. A few verbs take the Accusative of the Person and the Genitive of the Thing (410) : I. oi Reminding^ Admonishing : Te amicitiae commonefacit, He reminds you of friendship. Cic. II. Verbs of Accusing., Convicting., Acquitting : Viros scMeris arguis. You accuse men of crime. Cic. III. Mlscret., Poenltety Pudet., Taedet., and Piget : Eorum nos misSret, We pnty them. Cic. RULES OF SYNTAX. 277 For the Genitive of Place^ see Rule XXVL Ablative. XXI. Cause, Manner, and Means are denoted by the Ablative (414) : UtHitate laudatur, It is praised because of its usefulness, Cic. XXII. Price is generally denoted by the Ablative (416): Yendidit auro patriam, He sold his country for gold, Yirg. . XXIIL Comparatives without quam are followed by the Ablative (417) : Nihil est amabilius virtute. Nothing is more lovely than virtue, Cic. XXIV. The Measure of Difference is denoted by the Ablative (418) : Uno die longior, longer by one day, Cic. XXV. The Ablative is used (419), 1. With utor, fnior, fiingor, potior, ves^or, and their co pounds : Plurimis rebus fruimur. We enjoy very many things.' X^\c, ^ II. Withfido, confido, nitor, innitor: Salus veritate nititur. Safety rests upon truth, Cic. III. With Yerbs and Adjectives op Plenty and Want : Non 6geo mSdicina, Ido not need a remedy. Cic. v lY. With dignus, indignus, contentus, and fretus : Digni sunt amicitia. They are worthy of friendship. Cic. Y. With opus and usus: Auctoritate tua nobis opus est, We need your authority. Cic. XXVI. I. The PLACE IN WHICH and the place from WHICH are generally denoted by the Ablative with a Prepo- sition. But _ T • 1 II. Names of Towns drop the Preposition, and in the Singular of the First and Second declensions designate the PLACE IN WHICH by the Locative (421) : In Italia fuit, He was in Italy. Nep. Ex Africa, from Africa. Athenis fuit. He was at Athens. Cic. Romae fuit. He was at Rome. Ci XXVII. Source and Separation are denoted by Ablative, generally with a preposition (425) : Oriundi ab Sabinis, descended from the Sabines, Liv. Caedem a vobis depello, I ward off slaughter from you. Cic. XXVIII. The Time of an Action is denoted by the Ab- lative (426) : Octogesimo anno est mortuus, He died in his eightieth year. Cic. XXIX. The Ablative with an adjective may be used to characterize a person or thing (428) : Summa virtute adolescens, a youth of the highest virtue, Caes. XXX. The Ablative may be used with a word to de- fine its application (429) : Nomine, non potestate fuit rex. He was king in name^ not in power. Nep. XXXI. The Ablative is used as the Case Absolute (431): Servio regnante, in the reign of Servius (Servius reigning). Cic. Cases with Prepositions. XXXII. The Accusative and Ablative may be used with Prepositions (432) : Ad amicum, to a friend. Cic. In Italia, in Italy. Nep. ADJECTIVES. XXXIII. An Adjective agrees with its Noun in gen- der, NUMBER, and CASE (438) : Fortuna caeca est. Fortune is blind. Cic. PRONOUNS. XXXIV. A Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in GENDER, NUMBER, and PERSON (445) : Animal, quod sanguinem habet, an animal which has blood. Cic. BULES OF SYNTAX. 279 Indicative Mood. XXXYI. The Indicative is used in treating of facts (474): Deus mundum aGdificSvit, God made the world. Cic. Subjunctive Tenses. XXXVII. Principal tenses depend upon Principal tenses : Historical, upon Historical (480) : Nititur ut vincat, He strives to conquer. Cic. QuaesiSras nonne puta- rem, You had asked whether I did not think, Cic. Subjunctive Mood. XXXVIII. The Potential Subjunctive represents the action not as real, but as possible (485) : Forsitan quaeratis, perhaps you may inquire. Cic. XXXIX. The Subjunctive oe Desike represents the action not as real, but as desired (487) : Valeant elves, May the citizens be well. Cic. XL. The Subjunctive of Purpose or Result is used (489), I. Withut, ne, quo, quin, qu5minus: Enititur ut vincat. He strives that he may conquer. Cic. II. With qui = ut is, ut ego, tu, etc. : Missi sunt, qui {ut ii) consulerent Apollinem, They were sent to consult Apollo. Nep. XLI. The Subjunctive of Condition is used (503), I. With dum, mbdo, dummodo : Modo permaneat industria, if only industry remains. Cic. II. With ac si, ut si, quasi, quam si, tanquam, tanquam si, velut, velut si: Velut si adesset, as if he were present, Caes. III. Sometimes with si, msi, ni, sin, qui = si is, si quis : Si velim niimSrare, if I should wish to recount. Cic. XLII. The Subjunctive of Concession is used (515). I. With licet, quamvis, quantumvis, ut, ne, quum, although. Licet irrideat, though he may deride. Cic. 280 BULES OF SYNTAX. IT. With qui = quum (licet) is, quum ego, etc., though he : Absolvite Verrem, qui {quum is) fateatur, Acquit VerreSy though he confesses, Cic. III. Generally with etsi, tametsi, etiamsi : Etsi optimum sit, even if (though) it be most excellent, Cic. XLIII. The Subjunctive of Cause or Reason is used (517), I. With quum (cum), since ; qui = quum is, etc. Quum vita m§tus plena sit, since life is full of fear, Cic. II. With quod, quia, quoniam, quando, to introduce a reason on another’s authority : Quod corrumperet juventutem, because (on the ground that) he corrupt- ed the youth. Quint. XLIV. The Subjunctive of Time with the accessory notion of Cause or Pukpose is used (521), I. With dum, d5nec, quoad, until : Exspectas, dum dicat. You are waiting till he speaJcSy i. e., that he may speak. Cic. II. With antequam, priusquam, before: Antequam de re publica dicam, before I {cdin) speak of the republic. Cic. XLV. The Subjunctive is used in Indirect Questions (526) : Quid dies ferat, incertum est. What a day may bring forth is uncer ^ tain, Cic. XL VI. The Subjunctive by Attraction is often used in clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive (527) : Vereor, ne, dum minuere vglira laborem, augeam, I fear I shall in crease the labor y while I wish to diminish it, Cic. XLVIL The Subjunctive is generally used in the Inter- rogative, Imperative, and Subordinate clauses of the Oratio Obliqua (529) : Respondit, cur veniret, He repliedy why did he come, Caes. Scribit Labieno veniat. He writes to Labienus to come, Caes. Imperative. RULES OF SYNTAX. 281 Infinitive, XLIX. The Subject of an Infinitive is put in the Ac- cusative (545): Sentimus calSre ignem, We perceive that fire is 7hot Cic. Participles, Gerunds, and Supines. Participles are construed as adjectives (575), Gerunds and Supines as nouns (559, 567). But L. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion to express purpose (569) : V enerunt res rSpetitum, They came to demand restitution. Li v. PARTICLES. LI. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other ad- verbs (582) : Sapientes feliciter vivunt, The wise live happily. Cic. 1. For Prepositions, see Rule XXXII. 2. Conjunctions are mere connectives. See 687 and 588. 3. Interjections are expressions of emotion or mere marks of address. Sec 68^ CHAPTER YIII ASRANGEMENT OF WORDS AHD CLAUSES. SECTION 1. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 592. The Latin admits of great variety in the arrange- ment of the different parts of the sentence, thus affording peculiar facilities both for securing proper emphasis and for imparting to its periods that harmonious flow which charac- terizes the Latin classics. But with all this freedom and variety, there are certain general laws of arrangement which it will be useful to notice. 282 AKRAl^GEMENT OF WORDS. I. General Rules. 593. The Subject followed by its modifiers occupies the first place in the sentence, and the Predicate preceded by its modifiers the last place : Sol oriens diem conficit, The sun rising makes the day. Cic. Animus aeger semper errat, A diseased mind always errs, Cic. Miltiades Alhanas liberavit, Miltiades liberated Athens, Nep. 594. Emphasis and euphony often affect the arrange- ment of words : I. Beginning. — Any word, except the subject, may be made emphatic by 'being placed at the beginning of the sentence : Silent leges inter arma, Laws are silent in war. Cic. Numitori Remus deditur, Remus is delivered to Numitor, Liv. Jgni %er vastabatur. The field was ravaged with fire. Sail. II. End. — Any word, except the predicate, may be ren- dered emphatic by being placed at the end of the sentence : Nobis non satisfacit ipse Demosthenes., Even Demosthenes does not satisfy us. Cic. Consulatum petivit nunquam, He never sought the consulship, Cic. Exsistit quaedam quaestio subdifficilis, There arises a question somewhat dif- ficult, Cic. III. Separation. — ^Two words naturally connected, as a noun and its adjective, or a noun and its genitive, are sometimes made emphatic by separation : Objurgationes nonnunquam incidunt necessariae, Sometimes necessary re- proofs occur, Cic. Justitiae fungatur officiis. Let him discharge the duties of justice, Cic. 595. Contrasted Groups. — When two groups of words are contrasted, the order of the first is often reversed in the second : Fragile corpus animus sempiternus movet. The imperishable soul moves the perishable body, Cic. 596. Kindred Words.— Different forms of the same word, or different words of the same derivation, are gener- ally placed near each other : Ad senem sSnex de senectute scripsi, I, an old man, wrote to an old man on the subject of old age, Cic. Inter se aliis alii prosunt, They mutually bene- fit eaffi other, Cic. arrangement of words. 283 597. Words with a common Relation. — A word which has a common relation to two other words connected by conjunctions, is placed, I. Generally before or after both : PScis et artes et gloria, both the arts ani the glory of peace. Liv. Belli pScisque artes, the arts of war and of peace. Liv. A Genitive or Adjective following two nouns may qualify both, but it more fre- QueDtly qualifies only the latter: ^ Haec percunctatio ac denuntiatio belli, this inquiry and this declaration, of war. Liv. II. Somotiiiies directly after the first before the con- junction : Honoris certamen et gloriae, a struggle for honor and glory. Cic. Agri omnes et maria, all lands and seas. Cic. II. Special Rules. 598. Modifiees of ISTouifS.— The modifiers of a noun generally follow it. They may be either adjectives or nouns : Populus Romanus decrevit. The Roman people decreed. Cic. Herodotus, pSter historiae, Herodotus, the father of history. Cic. Liber de ofificiis, thi booh on duties. Cic. 1. Noun.— A noun as modifier of another noun is generally an appositive, a genitive, or a case with a preposition, as in the examples. 2. With Emphasis.— Modifiers when emphatic are placed before theii Tuscus ager Romano adjacet. Tie Tuscan territory borders on the Roman. Liv. Catonis orationes, Cato's orations. Cic. 8. Adjective and Genitive. — When a noun is modified both by an ad- jective and by a genitive, the usual order is, adjectire— genitive— noun : Magna civium penuria, a great scarcity of citizens. Cic. 599. Modifiers of Adjectives. — ^The modifiers of the adjective generally precede it, but, if not adverbs, they may follow it : Facile doctissimus, unquestionably the most learned. Cic. Omni aetati communis, common to every age. Cic. Avidus laudis, desirous of praise. Cic. 600. Modifiers of Verbs. — ^The modifiers of the verb generally precede it : Gloria virtutem sequitur. Glory follows virtue. Cic. Mundus deo paret, The world is subject to God. Cic. Vehementer dixit, He spoke vehemmtlp. Cic. Gloria ducitur, He is led by glory. Cic. 284 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, 1. After the Verb. — When the verb is placed for the sake of emphasis at the beginning of the sentence, the modifiers, of course, follow. See first example under 594. I. 2. Emphasis. — An emphatic modifier may of coarse stand at the begin- ning or at the end of the sentence (594) : Facillime cognoscuntur adolescentes. Most easily are the young men rec- ognized. Cic. 3. Two OR MORE Modifiers. — Of two or more modifiers belonging to the same verb, that which in thought is most intimately connected with the verb stands next to it, while the others are arranged as emphasis and euphony may require ; Rex Scythis bellum intulit, The Icing waged war against the Scythians. Nep. Mors propter brevitatem vitae nunquam longe abest. Death is nerer far distant^ in conseguence of the shortness of life. Cic. 601. Modifiers of Adverbs. — ^The modifiers of the adverb generally precede it, but a Dative often follows it : Valde vehementer dixit, He spohe very vehemently. Cic. Congruenter natilrae vivit, lie lives agreeably to nature. Cic. 602. Special Words. — Some words have a favorite place in the sentence, which they seldom leave. Thus, I. The Demonstrative generally precedes its noun : Custos hujus urbis, the guardian of this city. Cic. 1. Me in the sense of well-known (450. 5) generally follows its noun, if not ac- companied by an adjective : Medea ilia, that well-Jcnown Medea. Cic. 2. Quisque, the indefinite pronoun, follows some other word: Justitia suum cuique tribuit. Justice gives to every man his due (his own). Cic. IT. Prepositions generally stand directly before their cases, but tenus iiiid versus follow their cases : In Asiam profugit, He fled into Asia. Cic. Collo tenus, up to the neck. Ov. 1. After a Pronoun. — The preposition frequently follows the relative, some- times other pronouns, and sometimes even nouns, especially in poetry : Res qua de agitur, the subject of which we are treating. Cic. Italiam contra, over against Italy. Virg. 2. Cum Appended.— See 184, 9 and 187, 3. 3. Intervening Words. — Genitives, adverbs, and a few other words sometimes stand between the preposition and its case. In adjurations per is usually separated from its case by the Acc. of the object adjured, or by seme other word; and some- times the verb bro is omitted : Post Alexandri magni mortem, after the death of Alexander the Great. Cic. Ad heme vIvendum,yoy’ living well. Cic. Per te deos oro, I pray you in the name of the gods. Ter. Per ego vos deos = per deos ego vos oro {bro understood). 1 pray you in the name of the gods. Curt III. Conj^'nctions and Relatives.^ when they introduce clauses, generally ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND CLAUSES. 285 stand at the beginning of such clauses ; but auiem^ enim^ quidem^ quoque^ vero^ and generally ifihiry follow some other word : Si peccavi, ignosce, ^ I have erred^ pardon me. Cic. li qui superiores sunt, those ivho are superior, Cic. Ipse autem omnia videbat. But he him- self saw all things. Cic, 1. Emphatic Wokds and Relatives often precede the conjunction. Id ut audivit, as he heard this. Nep. Quae quum ita sint, since these things are so. Cic. 2. Ne — QUIDEM takes the emphatic word or words between the two parts: Ne in oppidis quidem, not even in the towns. Cic. 3. Quidem often pronouns, superlatives, and ordinals: Ex me quidem nihil audiet, He will hear nothing from me. Cic. 4. Que, ve,ne, introducing a clause or phrase, are generally appended to the first word, but if that word is a monosyllabic preposition, they are often appended to the next word: ad plebemve, for adve, etc., or to the people; in f brogue = inguefbro, and in the forum. Apud quosque, and before whom, occurs for euphony. lY. If on, when it qualifies some single word, stands directly before that word, but when it is particularly emphatic, or qualifies the entire clause, it generally stands at the beginning of the clause : Hac villa carere non possunt. They are not able to do without this villa. Cic. Non fuit Jupiter metuendus, Jupiter was not to be feared. Cic. V. Inquam, sometimes Aio, introducing a quotation, follows one or more of the words quoted. The subject, if expressed, generally follows its verb : Nihil, inquit Brutus, quod dicam. Nothing which 1 shall state, said Brutus. Cic. VI. The Vocative rarely stands at the beginning of a sentence. It usually follows an emphatic word : Perge, Laeli, Proceed, Laelius. Cic. SECTION II. ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES. I. In Complex Sentences. 603. Subject or Predicate. — A clause used as the subject of a complex sentence (357) generally stands at the be^innin^ of the sentence, and a clause used as the predicate at the end : Quid dies ferat incertum est. What a day may bring forth is uncertain. Cic. Exitus fuit orationis : sibi nullam cum his amicitiam esse, The close of the oration was, that he had no friendship with these men. Caes. 1. This arrangement is the same as that of the simple sentence. See 593. 2. Emphasis and euphony often have the same effect upon the arrangement of clauses as of words. See 594. 286 ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUs4:^. ^ M \ 604. Subordinate Elements. — Clauses used as the subordinate elements of complex sentences, admit three different arrangements : I. They are generally inserted within the principal clause, like the subordinate elements of a simple sentence : Hostes, iibi primum nostros equites conspexerunt, celeriter nostros perturbaverunt, The enemy ^ as soon as they saw our cavalry^ quickly jput ovr men to route. Caes. Sententia, quae tutissima videbatur, vicit. The opinion ■which seemed the safest prevailed. Liv. II. They are often placed before the principal clause : Quum quiescunt, probant. While they are quiet, they approve. Cic. Qua- lis sit animus, animus nescit. The soul knows not what the soul is. Cic. Si f baec civitas est, civis sum ego. If this is a state lam a citizen. Cic. This arrangement is especially common when the subordinate clause either re- fers back to the preceding sentence, or is preparatory to the thought of the principal clause. Hence temporal., conditional, and concessive clauses often precede the prin- cipal clause. Hence also, in sentences composed of correlative clauses with is — qui, tails — qudlis, tantus — quantus, tum— quum, ita— ut, etc., the relative member, i. e., the clause with qui, qualis, quantus, quum, ut, etc., generally precedes. III. They sometimes follow the principal clause : Enitiitur ut vincat, He strives that he may conquer. Cic. Sol efficit ut , omnia floreant, l^he sun causes all things to bloom. Cic. This arrangement is common when the subordinate clause is cither intimately connected in thought with the following sentence or is explanatory of the principal clause. Hence clauses of Purpose and Result generally follow the principal clause, as in the examples. See also examples under articles 489-499. 605. Latin Period. — A complex sentence in which the subordinate clause is inserted within the principal clause, as under I., is called a Period in the strict sense of the word. In a freer sense the same term is also applied to any sentence in which the clauses are so arranged as not to make complete sense before the end of the sentence. In this sense the examples under II. are periods. II. In Compound Sentences. 606. Clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions (587) generally follow each other in the natural order of the thought, as in English : Sol ruit et montcs umbrantur. The sun descends and the mountains are shaded. Virg. Gyges a nullo videbatur, ipse autem omnia videbat, Gyges was seen by no one, but he himself saw all things. Cic. - 1 I ^ u ^ 'PaIt FOUPxXk V ^ S; v^rS '-H'^ P K-JO S ip^D Y. '- x.^ 607. Prosody treats of Quantity and Versification. CIIAPTEE I. dVAHTITY. 608. The time occupied in pronouncing a syllable in poetry is called its quantity. Syllables are accordingly characterized as lonff, short, or common.'' 609. The quantity of syllables is determined by poetic usage. But this usage conforms in many cases to general laws, while in other c.ases it seems somewhat arbitrary. 1. Syllables whose quantity conforms to known rules are said to be long or short by rule, 2. Syllables whose quantity does not conform to known rules are said to be long or short by authority. 3. The rules for quantity are either generaly i. e., applicable to most syl- lables, or s^ecialy i. e., applicable to particular syllables. SECTIOIiT I. GENERAL RULES OF QUANTITY. 610. Rule I.— Diphthongs and Contracted syllables are long : Haec, coena, aura; alius /or aliius, cogo for coigo, occido /or occae- do, nil for nihil. 1. Prae in composition is usually short before a vowel : framcutuSy praeustus. 2. Uay ue, ui, uOy and uUy are not strictly diphthongs, and accordingly do not come under this rule. 1 Sometimes long and sometimes short. 288 KULES OF QUANTITY. 611. Rule II. — A vowel is long by position before /5 or any two consonants : ^ Major, r6xi, gaza, mensa, servus. 1. But one of the consonants at least must belong to the same word as the vowel : ah rupe^ per saxa, 1) A final vowel is not usually affected by consonants at the beginning of the following word, except before sCy sp, sq, and si, where a short vowel is rare. 2) ^and U must never be treated as consonants under this rule, 2 except in rare instances where u is so used by Synaeresis. See 669. II, 2. Before a mute followed by Z or 72, a vowel naturally short becomes common : dupleXy dgriy pdtres. 1) In Greek words a vowel is also common before a mute with if or N: Tecmessay cycnus, 2) A mute at the end of the first part of a compound before a liquid at the beginning of the second part makes the preceding vowel long by posi- tion : dh-rumpOy oh rogo. S) A vowel naturally long, of course, remains long before a Mute and Liquid : dceVy dcris. ^ * 3. Compounds of jugiim retain the short vowel before j: hijugusy quadrijugus, 612. Rule III. — A vowel before another vowel, or a diphthong, is shoet by position ; Pius, piae, doceo, traho, ^ ^ - No account is taken of the breathing h\ hence a in traho is treated as a vowel before another vowel. Exceptions. — The following are long before a vowel : 1. A, — (1) in the genitive ending ai of Dec. I. : auldiy — (2) in proper names in dius : Cdius (Cajus), — (3) before iUy iCy iOy iuy in the verb aio, 2. E, — (1) in the ending H of Dec. V. when preceded by a vowel : diei; and sometimes in fideiy m, spH, — (2) in proper names in eius : Pom- peius y — (3) in eheu, 3. in the verb flOy when not followed by er\ flamy fllhamy but furiy — (2) in the genitive alius. In other genitives i in ius is common in poetry, though long in prose, but the i in alterius is short, — (3) in diuSy af umy for dlvuSy ay umy — (4) sometimes in Diana, 4. O, — is common in bhe. ^ Strictly speaking, the syllable, and not the vowel, is lengthened, but the language of convenience refers the quantity of the syllable to the vowel. ^ QUy gUy and suy when u has the sound of Wy are treated as single consonants. RULES OF QUANTITY. 289 5. In Greek words vowels are often long before a vowel, because long in the original : der^ AeneaSy Brlseisy MenelduSy Troes, This often occurs in proper names in — etx, ia, cubSy luSy doiiy loUy diSy diSy dius: Medea, Alexandria, Pencus, Darius, Orion. SEOTIOX 11. SPECIAL BULES OF QUANTITY. I. Quantity of Final Syllables. L 3Ionosyllables, 613. Rule IV.— Monosyllables are long : a, da, te, se, ds, si, qui, do, pro, tu, dos, pes, sis, bos, sQs, par, sol. Exceptions. — T he following are short : 1. Enclitics : que^ ve^ ne^ ce^ te^pse^pte. 2. Monosyllables in b, d, 1, m, t : aby dd^ fel^ surriy U ; except sdly sol. 3. Auy hiSy cisy covy 63 y fdCy fcVy uiy iSy ueCy OS (ossis), pevy Utry qud (indef- inite), quiSymr; probably also vds (vadis), and sometimes hic and hoc as Nom. or Acc. forms. II. Polysyllables. 1. final vowels. 614. Rule V. — In words of more than one syllable, the endings a, e, and y ai-e sliort ; i and u, long ; o, common : Via, maria, mare, misy; mari, audl, fructu, cornu; amo, sermo. 615. A final is short: mensd.^ templd.^ bond. Exceptions. — A final is long, 1. In the Ablative : mensdy hondy illd. V 2. In the Vocative of Greek nouns in as (rarely es) ; Aenedy Palld. 3. In Verbs and Indeclinable words; dmdy curd ; circdy juxtdy antedy frustra. Except itdy quid, ejd, 2 .wdputd used adverbially. 616. E final is short : serue.^ urbe., rege. Exceptions. — E final is long, - 1. In Dec. I. and V. : epUbme, re, die. Hence in the compounds — hodie, pridie, postrldUy qudre. 2. In Greek plurals of Dec. III. : Tempe, mieU. 290 RULES OF QUANTITY. 3. In the Sing. Imperative Act. of Conj. II. ; rmne^ doce. But e is some- times short in cdvl. 4. \\i fere^ fermiCy olie, and in Adverbs from adjectives of Dec. II.: doct^ recte. Except bene^ matey infermy internCy su^errie, 617. TT final is short: mis^,y cotjj. Exceptions. — Contracted endings are, of course, long : = misyi, 618. I final is long : seroi^ boni^ aicdi. Exceptions. — I final is, 1. Common in milily tibiy sibl, ihiy ull. But Observe compounds IhldeiUy Iblque^ ubique^ ublnanXy iibivlSy ublcunquCy hly siciibi. 2. Short, — (1) in msl, quasi, cui (when a dissyllable), — (2) in the Greek ending si of Dat. and Abl. Plur. ; Troasi,—{o) in the Dat. and Voc. Sing., which end short in the Greek: Alexi, Paridi. Vtl follows the rule, but not tlie compounds, utlnam, utique, slciitl, 619. U is long: cornilj clictu. Exceptions. — I?idu for iuy and 7iSn^ for non. 620. O final is common : dmo, sermb.^ virgo. Exceptions. — 0 final is, 1. Long, — (1) in Datives and Ablatives : servo y illb, quo,— {fit) in Greek words, when it represents a long Greek vowel : echo, Argo, — (3) in Adverbs: falso y multby ergOy quando, omnino ; except those mentioned under 2 below. 2. Short in duo, ego, octb, and the adverbs dtb, illico, immo, modo, and its compounds, dummodo, quomodo, etc. 2. FINAL SYLLABLES IN MUTES OR LIQUIDS, C, D, L, M, N, R, T. 621. Rule VI. — In words of more than one syh lable, Final syllables in c are long; Final syllables in d, 1, m, n, r, t, are short: alec, illuc ; illud, consul, amem, carmSn, am5r, caput. Exceptions. — T he following occur, 1. Dome and lien. 2. M final with the preceding vowel is generally elided before a vowel. See 669. I. RULES OF QUANTITY. 291 3. In Greek words,— (1) en is long ; often also ariy in, on, yn : Hymen, Anchisen, Titan, Delphin, Actaeon, Phorcyn,—{T) er is long in aer, aether, trater, and a few other words with long ending in the original. 4. This rule does not, of course, apply to syllables long by previous rules. 3. FINAL SYLLABLES IN S. 622. Hole VII. — In words of more than one syl- lable, the endings as, es, and os are long ; is, us, ys, short : amas, mensas, mones, nubes, hos, serv5s; avis, urbis, bonuSy servus, chlamys. 623. final is long : Aeneas^ honds^ tllds. Exceptions. — As final is short, 1. In anas and in a few Greek nouns in as : Arcas, lampas, 2. In Greek Accusatives of Dec. III. : Arcadas, heroas, 624. long: niches^ moms. Exceptions- — Es final is short, 1. In Nominatives Singular of Dec. TIL, which increase short in the Gen.: miles (itis), obses interpres (etis). Except abies, aries, paries, Ceres, and compounds cA pes ; as bipes, tripes, etc. 2. In penes and the compounds of es ; as ades,pbtes, 3. In Greek words,— (1) in the plural of those which increase in the Gen. : Arcades, Troades,— (T) in a few neuters in es ; Hippomenes,— {2>) in a few V^ocatives singular: Demosthenes, 625. Ob final is long : custos, vh'os. Exceptions. — Os final is short, 1. In compos, impos, ews. 2. In Greek words with the ending short in the Greek : Delos, melos, 626. Is final is short : dms, cavils. Exceptions. — Is final is long, 1. In Plural Cases : mensls, servls, vobls. Hence /om, gratis, ingratis. 2. In Nominatives of Dec. IIL, increasing long in the Gen. : Quins (itisV Sdldmls (inis). 3. In the Sing. Pres. Indie. Act. of Conj. IV. : audls. Mavis, qulvls, utervis follow the quantity of vis, 4. In the Sing. Pres. Subjiinct. Act. : possls, veils, noils, malls. 5. Sometimes in the Sing, of the Fut. Perf. and of the Perf. Subj. : dmd- oemdtis / PallaSy Palladis. 4. Of the following (1) baccar y liqoary jubar y lary nectary par and its compounds, — (2) dnaSy maSy vas (vadis), — (3) saly faXy and a few rare Greek words in ax. 634. O in the increments of declension is long; honor, honoris j bonus, bonorum , duo, duobus. Exceptions . — 0 is short in the first increment, 1. Of Neuters in Beel. III. : aequor, aequoris ; tempus, temporis. Except OS (oris), ddor (adOris), and comparatives. 2. Of words in s preceded by a consonant ; inopSy inopis. Except Cy- clops and hydrops. 3. Of arbory boSy VepuSy— compos y impoSy memory immemory—AlldbroXy Cappadox., praecox. 4. Of most Patrials : MdcedOy MacedAnis. 5. Of many Greek nouns, — (1) those in on rhUory Hector y (2) many in o and on increasing short in Greek : aedony aedbniSy — (3) in Greek com- pounds in pus : tripus (odis), Oedipus. 635. E in the increments of declension is short : pucr, pueri ; liber, liberi. Exceptions . — H is long in the first increment, 1. Of Deck V., except in the forms rUy and spei ; as dieiy dierumy diAbuSy rebus. 2. Of nouns in en^ mostly Greek: llcny lienis y SlreUy Sirenis. So AniOy Anienis. 3. Of Celtibery Ibery very—hereSy IbciipleSy merceSy quieSy inquieSy requieSy plebSy — leXy reXy dleCy dleXy rervex. 4. Of a few Greek words in es and er, except der and aether; as lebeSy lebetis ; crdtery crateris. 636. I in the increments of declension is short : miles, militis, militibus ; anceps, ancipitis. Exceptions.— / is long in the first increment, 1. Of most words in ix: rddiXy radicis ; fUix, felicis. But short in : appendix, cdliXy CiliXyfilix, forniXy niXy piXy sdliXy striXy and a few others, chiefly proper names. 294 KULSS OP QUANTITY. 2. Of dis^ glisy Us, vis, Qmris, Samnis, 3. Of delphin and a few rare Greek words. 4. For quantity of the ending ius, see 612. 3. 637. U in the increments of declension is short: dux^ duds / arcus, arcubus y sdtur, saturi. Exceptions. — U\% long in the first increment, 1. Of nouns in U3 with the genitive in uris, utis, udis : jus, juris; sdlus, salutis ; palus, paludis. Except intercus, Ligus, pecus, 2. Oi fur, frux, lux, plus ^ Pollux. 638. Y in the increments of declension is short : chid- mys., chlampdis. Exceptions. — This increment occurs only in Greek words, and is long in those in yn, ynis, and in a few others. II, Increments of Cojijugation, 639. Rule IX. — In the Increments of Conjugation (630), a, e, and o are long ; i and ii short : amamus, amemus, amatote, regimus, siimus. 1. In ascertaining the increments of the irregular verbs, fero, vblo, and their compounds, the full form of the second person, yfeHs, volis, etc., must be used. Thus mjereham and volebam, the increments are re and le. 2. In ascertaining the increments of reduplicated forms (254), the reduplication is not counted. Thus d^dimus has but one increment di. 640. A in the increments of conjugation is long: dmdre. Exceptions. — A is short in the first increment of do : dare, dabam, cir- cumdabam, 641. E in the increments of conjugation is long: ncre. Exceptions. — E is short before r, 1. In the tenses in ram, rim, ro: amaveram, amaverim, amavero ; rex- h^at, rexerit. 2. In first increment of the Present and Imperfect of Conj. III. ; regere, regeris, regerem, regerer, 3. In the Put. ending beris, here : amaberis, or -ere, moneberis. 4. Rarely in the Perf. ending erunt : steterunt for steterunt. See 235, also Systole, 669. IV. 642. O in the increments of conjugation is long w ith' out exception : monetote^ regitote. KULES OF QUANTITY, 295 643. I in the increments of conjugation is short: regl- tis, reximus. Exceptions. — / is long, except before a vowel, 1. In the first increment of Conj. IV., except Imus of the Perf. : aud/irey audlvi, auditum ; sentio y sentlmusy sensimus (perf.). 2. In Conj. III. in the first increment of perfects and supines in ivi and itum (276. III.) and of the parts derived from them (except imus of Perf. ; trivimus ) ; cuplviy cupiverat j cupitus ; petlviy petitus ; capessivi, capessiturus,. Gavisus from gaudeo follows the same analogy. 8. In the endings imns and itis of Pres. Subj. : slmus, sltis ; vUlmus, velUis (239.3). 4. In ndllte, nollto, nolitote, and in the different persons of ibam, Ibo, from eo (295). 5. Sometimes in the endings rimus and ritis of the Put. Perf. and Perf. Subj. ; amaverimus, amaveritis, 644. U in the increments of conjugation is short : mlii- mus. Exceptions. — 77" is long in the Supine and the parts formed from it: •volutum, voluturus, amaturus. III. Quantity op Deeivative Endings. 645. Kule X. — The following derivative endings have the penult long : I. abrum, acrum, atrum : flabrum, simulacrum, aratrum. II. edo, ido, udo ; ago, igo, ugo : dulcedo, cupido, solitudo ; vorago, origo, aerugo. III. ais, eis, ois, otis, ine, one — in patronymics : Ptolemais, Chryseis, Minois, Icariotis, Nerine, Acrisione. Except Dandis, Phocais, Thebais, Neriis, IV. eia, ile ; alis, elis, ulis : querela, ovile ; mortalis, fidelis, curalis. V. anus, enus, 5nus, unus ; ana, ena, 6na, una : urbanus, egenus, patronus, tribunus; membrana, habena, annona, 13 ,- cflna. Except galbanus. VI. aris, arus ; orus, osus ; avus, ivus : salutaris, avarus ; canorus, animosus ; octavus, aestivus. 296 EXILES OP QUANTITY. YII. 5tus, itus, utus ; atim, itim, utim ; etum, eta : alatus, turritus, cornutus; singulatim, viritim, tributim; quercetum, moneta. Except (1) dnhUltus^ fortuitus^ gratuitus^ halitus^ hofipltus^ ser'vUus^ spiritus^ (2) affdtim^ stdtim^Vind. adverbs in Uus, as dwlnltus; and (3) participles provided for hy 639. YIII. eni, ini, oni, — in dhtrihutives : septeni, quini, octoni. 646. Eule XI. — The following deriYatiYe endings have the penult short : I. ades, iades, ides, — in patronymics : Aeneades, Laertiades, Tantalides. Except (1) those in Ides from nouns in eus and es ; as, Pelldes (Peleus), Neo- clides (Neocles), and (2) Amphidrdides^ Amy elides^ Belldes^Corbnldes^ L'pcurgldea, II. iacus, icus, idns : Corinthiacus, modicus, cupidus. Except dmlcus^ anticus^ apricus^ mendicus^ posticus^ pddlcus. III. 61us, cla, ^lum j ulus, nia, ulum ; culus, cula, culum, — in diminutives : filiolus, filiola, atriolum ; hortulus, virgula, oppidulum ; flosculus, particula, munusculum. lY. etas, itas, — in nouns ; iter, itus, — in adverbs : pietas, veritas ; fortiter, divinitus. Y. atilis, iKs, bilis, — in verbals ; inus, — in adjectives denoting ma- terial or time : versatilis, docilis, amabilis ; adamantinus, cedrinus, crastinus, diutinus. Except matutinus, repentinus, vespertinus. 1. His in adjectives from nouns usually has the penult long; elvilis, hos, ■ tills, puerilis, virilis. 2. Inus denoting characteristic (325) usually has the penult long : canl<, nus, equinus, marinus. 647. Eule XIT. — The following derivative endings have the antepenult long: I. aceus, uceus, aneus, arius, arium, orius : rosaceus, pannuceus, subitaneus, cibarius, columbarium, censorius. II. abilis, atilis, aticus : .toabilis, versatilis, aquaticus. . 7 KULES OF QUANTITY. 297 ni. aginta, iginti, esimus, — in numerals : nonagiuta, viginti, centesimus. 648. Eule XIII. — ^The following derivative endings have the antepenult short : I. ibilis, itudo, olentus, ulentus . credibilis, sblitQdo, vinolentus, opulentus. II. urio , — in desideratives : ^urio, empturio, partiirio. IV. Quantity of Stem Syllables. jT. In I^rimitives. 649. The quantity of stem-syllables in primitive words, when not determined by the General Rules (Sec. I.), is in most cases best referred to authority. Thus, In mater, cedo, scribo, dono, fitor, the first syllable is long ly authority, while in pater, tego, mico, sono, uter, it is short ly authority. 650. Eule XIV. — The quantity of stem-syllables remains unchanged in inflection : In DECLENSION, — avis, avem ; nubes, nubium. In COMPARISON, — ^levis, ISvior, levissimus. In CONJUGATION, — monco, monebam, monui. 1. Position may however affect the quantity: ager, dgri (611, 612); possumy potui y solvOy solutum y* 'volvOy Mutum. Here d becomes d before gr. The o in possum^ solro, and rolrOy long only by position, becomes short before a single consonant. 2. Gigno gives genui, genitum, and pono, posui, positum. 8. See also 651, 652. 651. Dissyllabic Perfects aud Supines have the first syl- lable long, unless short by position : juvo, juvi, jutum ; foveo, fovi, fotum. 1. These Perfects and Supines, if formed from Presents with the first »y liable short, are exceptions to 650. 2. Seven Perfects have the first syllable short : hlibi, dedi, fidi, scidi, steti, sttti, tuli. 298 RULES OF QUANTITY, 3. Ten Supines have the first syllable short : citum^ datum^ itum^ litum^ quitum^ rdtum^ rutum^ satum^ star turn} 652. In trisyllabic Reduplicated Perfects the first two syllables are short : cado, cecidi ; cano, cecini ; disco, didici. 1. Caedo has cecidi in distinction from c^cldi from cddo. 2. The second syllable may be made long by position : cucurri^ mdmordU II. In Derivatives, 653. Rule XV. — Derivatives retain the quantity of their primitives : bonus, bonitas ; timeo, timor ; animus, animosus ; civis, civicus ; cura, curo. 1. Frequentatives in ito, have i short: clamito. See 882. I. 2. In a few Derivatives the short vowel of the primitive is lengthened : homo, lateo, lego, macer, moveo, persono. humanus, laterna, lex, legis, macero, mobilis, persona, rego, rex, regis, rSgula, secus, secius, s6deo, sedes, sedulus, sero, semen, suspicor, suspicio, tego, tegula. 8. In a few Derivatives the long vowel of the primitive is shortened : acer. acerbus. notum. nota, dico. dicax. odi. odium. duco. dux, diicis. sopio. sopor. fido. fides. vado. vadumj luceo, moles. lucerna, molestus. vox, vocis. voco. This change of quantity in some instances is the result of contraction : movlhUis^ moiVilis^ mdhills^ and in others it serves to distinguish words of the same orthogra- phy : as the verbs legis^ Uges^ vlgis^ rSges^ sSdes^ from the nouns legis^ lege.% regis^ reges^ sedes^ or the verbs dUcis^ duces^ fldes^ from the nouns ducis^ duces^ fides. III. In Compounds. 654. Rule XVI. — Compounds generally retain the quantity of their elements : ante-fero, de-fero, de*duco, in-aequalis, pro-duco. 1. The change of a vowel or diphthong does not affect the quantity: d6 ligo {lego), oc-cido {cddo), oc-cido {caedo). 1 From sisto, but stdl/um from sto. RULES OF QUANTITY, 299 2. L'Tseparable Prepositions. — Di, se, and ve are long, re short ; ne sometimes long and sometimes short : diduco, seduco, vecors, reduco, nedum, nefas: 1) Bi !s short in dirimo^ disertus, 2) Ne is long in nedum^ iiemo^ nequam^ nequaquam^ iiequidquam^ nequitia^ and neve. In other words it is short. 3) Be is sometimes lengthened in a few words: rsligio^ 7‘Uiquiae^ perit ^ repH^ lit, rhuHt, etc. 3. Change of Quantity, — In a few words the quantity of the second element is changed. Thus Dlco gives -dicus ; jurOy -jero ; notus, -mt us; nubo, nuba : male-dicus, de-jero, cog-nitus, prd-nuba. 4. Pro, — Pro is short in the following words : Procella, procul, profanus, profari, profecto, profestus, proficiscor, prd‘ fiteor, profugio, profugus, profundus, pronepos, proneptis, protervus, and most Greek words, as prbpliMa, generally in profundo, propago, pr^lno, rarely in prbeuro, propello, 5. Stem. — When the first element is the stem of a word (338. III.), it is often followed by a short connecting vowel : cal-e-facio, lab-e-facio, bell-i-gero, aed-i-fico, art-i-fex, ampl-i-fico, loc- h-pies. Before /acio in a few compounds e is sometimes lengthened : liquefacio, pdlffd^ do, putrefacio, tepefacio. The first e in videlicet is long. 6. I long. — I is long, — (1) in the first part of compounds of dies : mSri- dies, pridie, postridie, quotidie, triduum, and (2) in the contracted forms, higae, trlgae, quadrigae, ilicet, scilicet, tllicen for tidriicen. But i is short in llduum and quatriduum, 7. 0 LONG. — 0 is long in contrO’, intro-, retro^, and quando- in composi- tion ; as : controversia, introduco, retroverto, quandoque, but quandoquidem. 8. Special Words. — Hodie, quasi, qubque, and siquidem, have the first syllable short. 14 CHAPTEE II VERSIFICATION. SECTION I. GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUBJECT / 655. Latin Versification is based upon Quantity and Accent. Syllables are combined into certain metrical groups called Feet, and feet, singly or in pairs, are combined into Verses. I. Metrical Feet. 656. Feet are either simple or compound. For con- venience of reference we add the following list : I. Simple Feet. Dissyllabic Feet. ^ Spondee, two long syllables^ — LSgSs. ^ Trochee,^ a long and a shorty — w Legis. - Iambus, a short and a long^ V — ParSns. Pyrrhic, two shorty V \J vmr. Teisyllabio Feet. v^acty], a long and two shorty mm. \J carminA Anapaest, two short and a longy \J \J mm bSnitSs. Tribrach, three shorty \J \J \J dominias. Molossus, three longy libertas. Amphibrach, a shorty a longy and a shorty ^ \J Smicus. Amphimacer,’ a longy a shorty and a longy milites. Bacchius, a short and two longy ddlores. Antibacchius, two long and a shorty — C=> M pastoris. IL Compound Feet^ These are only compounds of the dissyllabic feet, and all have four syllables. ^ Sometimes called Chores, - Also cdlod Orctic» METRICAL FEET. 301 Dispondee, Ditrochee, double spondee, double trochee. praecSptores. civitatis. Diiambus, double iambus. V. - w - amoenitas. Proceleusmatic, double pyrrhic. V «.y memoria. Greater Ionic, spondee and pyrrhic. - - V.. V sententia. Lesser Ionic, pyrrhic and spoiidee. — adolescens. Choriambus, trochee (choree), and iambus. — V V — impatiens. Antispast, iambus and trochee. \J ^ — \J verecundus. First Epitrite, iambus and spondee. W amaverunt. Second Epitrite, trochee and spondee. _ W conditores. Third Epitrite, spondee and iambus. - auctoritas. Fourth Epitrite, spondee and trochee, O ornamenta. First Paeon, trochee and pyrrhic, — w w* w historia. Second Paeon, iambus and pyrrhic. \J — \J \J amabilis. Third Paeon, pyrrhic and trochee, puerilis. Fourth Paeon, pyrrhic and iambus, W V V — celeritas. 1. Common Feet.— -The feet of most frequent occurrence in the best Latin poets are, 1) The Dactyl and Spondee, used in the Heroic Hexameter. 2) Less frequent the Iambus, Trochee, Tribrach, Anapaest, and Chori- ambus. 2. Groups. — A Dipody is a group of two feet ; a Tripody, of three ; a Tetrapody, of four, etc. A Triemimeris is a group of three half feet, i. e., a foot and a half; Penthemimeris, of two and a half ; Hephthemimeris, of three and a half, etc. v/ 657. Metrical Equivalents. — A long syllable may often be resolved into two short ones, as equivalent to it in quantity, or two short ones may be contracted into a long one. The forms thus produced are metrical equivalents of the original forms. Thus, The Dactyl becomes a Spondee by contracting the two short syllables into one long syllable; the Spondee becomes a Dactyl by resolving the second syllable, or an Anapaest by resolving the first. Accordingly the Dactyl, the Spondee, and the Ana- paest are metrical equivalents. In like manner the Iambus, the Trochee, and the Tribrach are metrical equivalents. ^ J 658. Metrical Substitutes. — In certain kinds of verse, feet are sometimes substituted for those which are not their metrical equivalents. Thus, The Spondee is often substituted for the Iambus or the Trochee, though not equivalent to either. See 679, 682. ^ 659. Ictus or Rhythmic Accent. — As in the pronun^ ciation of a word one or more syllables receive a special stress of voice called accent, so in the pronunciation of a metrical foot one or more syllables receive a special stress of voice called Rhythmic Accent or Ictus. 302 FEET. VERSES. 1. Simple Feet. — Feet consisting of both long and short syllables have the ictus uniformly on the long syllables, unless used for other feet. Thus, The Dactyl and the Trochee have the ictus on the first syllable ; the Anapaest and the Iambus on the last. 2. Equivalents and Substitutes.— These take the ictus of the feet for which they are used. Thus, The Spondee, when used for the Dactyl, takes the ictus of the Dactyl, i. e., on the first syllable ; but when used for the Anapaest, it takes the ictus of the Anapaest, i. e., on the last syllable. 1) Feet consisting entirely of long or entirely of short syllables are generally equivalents or substitutes, and are accented accordingly. 2) When two short syllables of an equivalent take the place of an accented long syllable of the original foot, the ictus rests chiefly on the first of these two. Thus the Dactyl used for the Anapaest takes the ictus on the first short syllable. 3. Compound Feet. — These take the ictus of the feet of which they are composed. Thus, The Clioriarrihus (trochee and iambus) takes the ictus of the trochee on the first 8} liable and that of the iambus on the last. But Ionic feet are generally read with the ictus on the first long syllable. V/ 660. Arsis and Thesis. — The accented part of each foot is called the Arsis (raising) ; and ^Jie unaccented part, Thesis (lowering), II. Verses. 661. A verse is a line of poetry, and is either simple or compound. I. A Simple verse has one characteristic or fundamental foot, which determines the ictus for the whole verse. Thus, Every Dactylic Verse has the ictus on the first syllable, because the Dac- tyl, its characteristic foot, has it on that syllable. II. A Compound verse has a characteristic foot for each member. See 692 . 662. Caesural Pause. — Most verses are divided into two nearly equal parts by a pause or rest called the caesu- ra^ or caesural pause. See 673 , 674 . 663. Metrical Names of Verses. — The metrical name of a verse designates, I. The Characteristic foot. Thus, 1 Caesura (from caedOy to cut) means a cutting; it cuts or divides the verse into parts. NAMES OF VEESES. 303 Dactylic, Trochaic, and lambic verses have respectively the Dactyl, the Trochee, and the Iambus as the characteristic foot. II. The ISTumher of Feet or Measures.^ Thus, 1. Dactylic Hexameter is Dactylic verse of six measures. 2. Averse consisting of one measure YSi Monometer j of two, Dimeter^ of three, Trimeter; of four. Tetrameter ; Pentameter ; oi siXy Hexam^ eter. III. The Completeness or Incompleteness of the meas- ures. Thus, termed Acatalecticy when its last measure is complete ; CatalectiCy when it is incomplete. 1) A Catalectio verse is said to be catalectie in syllabam^ in disylldhnm^ or in trisyllabum^ according as the incomplete foot has one, two, or three syllables. 2) A BracliycatalecUc verso wants the closing foot of the last Dipody, 3) An Acephalous verse wants the first syllable of the first foot. 4) A Ilypercatalectic verse, also called nypermeteVy has an excess of syllables. 2. The full metrical name combines the three particulars enumerated under I. II. and III., as Dactylic Hexameter Acatalecticy Dactylic Trimeter Catalecticy etc. \ A 1) But for the sake of brevity the term Acatalectie is often omitted when it can bo done without ambiguity. . / 2) Yerses are sometimes known by names which merely designate the number offeet or measures. Thus Hexameter (six measures) sometimes designates the Dac^ tylic Hexameter AcatalectiCy and Senarius (six feet), the lambic Trimeter Acata» lectio. 664. Special Names of Veeses. — Many verses are often designated by names derived from celebrated poeis. Thus, Alcaic from Alcaeus, Archilocliian from Arcuilochus, Sapphic from Sappho, GlyconiCy from Glycon, etc. Verses sometimes receive a name from the kind of subjects to which they were applied: as HeroiCy applied to heroic subjects; ParoemiaCy to proverbs, etc. 665. Final Syllable. — ^The final syllable of a verse may generally be either long or short. 666. Stanza. — A stanza is a combination of two or more verses of different metres into one metrical whole. See 699, VOO. A stanza of two lines is called a Distich ; of three, a Tristich ; of four, a Tetrastich. 1 A measure is a single foot, except in Anapaestic, Trochaic, and lambic verses, *rhere it is a Dipody or Pair of feet. 304 METRE. FIGURES OF PROSODY. 667. Metre. — Metre signifies meamre^ and is used to designate, 1. A Foot or Dipody, as the measure, or metrical ele- ment of a verse. 2. A Verse or Stanza, as the measure of a poem. 668. Scanning. — Scanning consists in separating a poem., or verse, into the feet of which it is composed. III. Figures of Prosody. 669. The ancient poets sometimes allowed themselves, in the use of letters and syllables, certain liberties generally termed Figures of Prosody. These are, I. Synaloepha. — ^This is the elision of a final vowel or diphthong, or of a final m with the preceding vowel, before a word beginning with a vowel : Monstr’ horrend’ inform’ ingens, for Monstrum horrendum informe ingens. Virg, 1. No account is taken of hy as it is only a breathing (2. 2). Hence Tior- rendum is treated as a word beginning with a vowel. 2. Interjections, o, heuj aJiyproliy etc., are not elided, but in other words the elision generally takes place in the best poets. But see Virg. Aen. III. 74. 8. Final e in the interrogative ne is sometimes elided before a consonant : Pyrrhin’ connubia servas ? for Pyrrhine connubia servas ? Virg. 4. The elision of s occurs in the early poets : Ex omnibu’ rebus, /or Ex omnibus rebus. Lucr, 5. Synaloepha may occur at the end of a line when the next line be- gins with a vowel. It is then called Synapheia, IT. Synaeresis. — This is the contraction of two sylla- bles into one : awca, deinde, dmnceps, ildem, fisdem. 1. Synaeresis is of frequent application. It may unite 1) Two successive vowels, as in the examples above. 2) A vowel and a diphthong: modern. 3) Two vowels separated by /i, as only a breathing: pronounced proi- beat. 2. In the different parts orf desurriy ee is generally pronounced as one S}"!- lable : deesse^d^ty d^raty d^rity etc. : so ei in the verb anteeo : ant^r^y anM~ reniy antelSy anteit. 3. / and u before vowels are sometimes used as consonants with the Bound of y and w : Thus, dhiete and dr^tey become dhyUe and dryUe / genua and tenues become glnwd and tenwes. FIGURES OP PROSODY. VARIETIES OP VERSE. 305 III. Diaeresis. — ^This is the resolution of one syllable into two : aurai/or aurae, OrphSus for Orpheus, soluendus, /or solvendus, silua for silva. As a matter of fact the Latin poets seldom, if ever, actually divide any syllable into two, and the examples generally explained by diaeresis are only ancient forms, occasionally used by them for effect or convenience. IV. Systole. — ^This is the shortening of a long syllable: tiilSrunt /or tulerunt, steterunt /or steterunt (235), vide’n /orvMesne. This is arare poetical license, occurring most frequently in the final vowels and difjhthongs, which would otherwise be elided. See 669. I. 2, Y. Diastole. — ^This is the lengthening of a short syl- lable : Priamides for Priamides. 1, This is a poetical license, used chiefly in proper names and in final syllables in the arsis of the foot (660). In the latter case the syllable is said to be lengthened by the ictus. SECTION II. VARIETIES OF VERSE. I. Dactylic Verse. 670 . All Dactylic Verses are measured by single feet (663. II.), and consist of Dactyls and their metrical equiv- alents, Spondees. The ictus is on the first syllable of every foot. 1. Dactylic Hexameter. 671 . The Dactylic Hexameter consists of six feet. The first four are either Dactyls or Spondees, the fifth a Dactyl, and the sixth a Spondee (665). The scale is,^ QuadrupS- 1 dante pii- | trem soni- | tu qnatit j ungiila | campum. Virg, Arma vi- ] rumquS ca- | no Tro- [ jae qui ] primus ab | oris. Virg, Infan- [ dum re- | gina jii- | b6s rSno- ] varS do- | lorem. Virg. Illi 2 in- I ter s6- | so mag- | na vi | brachia | tollunt. Virg. 1 In this scale the sign ' marks the ictus (659). 2 The final i of illi is elided by Synaloepha (669). S06 DACTYLIC HEXAMETEE. 672. Varieties. — ^The scale of dactylic hexameters ad* mits sixteen varieties, produced by varying the relative number and arrangement of dactyls and spondees. 1. Illustration. — Thus a verse may contain, 1) Five dactyls and one spondee, as in the first example above. 2) Four dactyls and two spondees. These again admit four different ar- rangements. 8) Three dactyls and three spondees, as in the second and third example» above. But these again admit six different arrangements. 4) Two dactyls and four spondees. These admit four different arrange- ments. 5) One dactyl and five spondees, as in the fourth example. y* 2. Effect of Dactyls. — Dactyls produce a rapid movement and are adapted to lively subjects. Spondees produce a slow movement and are adapted to grave subjects. But generally the best effect is produced in suc- cessive lines by variety in the number and arrangement of dactyls and spon- dees. S. Spondaic Line.— The Hexameter sometimes takes a spondee in the fifth place. It is then called Spondaic, and generally has a dactyl as its fourth foot : Cara de- | um sdbd- | les mag- | num Jovis | Incre- | mSntum. Vir^, 673. Caesural Pause. — The favorite caesural pause of the Hexameter is after the arsis^ or in the thesis^ of the third foot : Arma- | tl ten- | dunt; || it | clamor et ] agmine | facto. Virg, Infan- | dtim, re- | gina, H jii- | bes reno- | vare do- | Idrem. Virg. In the first line the caesural pause, marked |1 , is after tendunt, after the arsis (/i the third foot ; and in the second line after regina, in the thesis {nd Ju) of the third foot. 1. Rare Caesural Pause. — The caesural pause is sometimes in the fourth foot, and then an additional pause is often introduced in the second foot. Sometimes indeed this last becomes the principal pause : CrSdide- | rim; |I ver | illud e- | rat, 1| ver \ magnus a- | gebat. Virg. 2. Bucolic Caesura. — A pause between the fourth and fifth feet is gen- erally called the bucolic caesura, because often used in pastoral poetry : Ingen- [ tern coe- | Id soni- | turn dedit; H inde se- | cutus. Virg. 8. Faulty Caesura. — A caesural pause at the end of the third foot is regarded as a blemish in the verse : Pulverii- [ lentus e- | quis furit; || dmnes | arma re- | quirunt. Virg. 674. Caesura and Caesural Pause. — ^The ending of a word within a foot always produces a caesura. A line may therefore have several caesuras, but generally only one of these (sometimes two) is mai*ked by the caesural pause : DACTYLIC VEESE. 307 Arma vl- | rumque ca- 1 no, I1 Tro- 1 jae qui 1 primus ab 1 oris. Virg, 1. Here there is a caesura in every foot except the last, but only one of these, that after cdno, has the caesural pause. 2. In determining which caesura is to be marked by the pause the reader must be guided by the sense, introducing the pause where there is a pause of sense, or where at least it will not interfere with the sense. 3. The caesura, with or without the pause, is an important feature in every hexameter. A line without it is prosaic in the extreme : Romae ] moenia 1 terriiit [ Impiger j Hannibal \ armis. Unn. 675. Last Word of the Hexameter. — ^The last word of the Hexameter should be either a dissyllable or a trisyl- lable. See examples above. 1. Two monosyllables are not particularly objectionable, and sometimes even produce a happy effect : Praecipi* 1 tant cu- | rae, H tur- 1 bataque | fanerS | mens est. is indeed often used even when not preceded by another monosyllable. 2. A single monosyllable, except esfy is not often used at the end of the line, except for the purpose of emphasis or humor : Farturi- [ tint mon- \ tes, H nas- j cStur | ridicu- [ lus mus. Ilor, II, Dactylic Pentameter, 676. The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts separated by the caesural pause. Each part consists of two Dactyls and the arsis of a third. The Spondee may take the place of the Dactyl in the first part, but not in the second : Admoni- | tu coe-J pi |1 fortior | esse tu- \ 6, Ovid. 1. Pentameter. — The name I^ntameter is founded on the ancient divi* sion of the line into five feet; the first and second being dactyls or spondees ; the third, a spondee ; the fourth and fifth, anapaests. 2. Elegiac Distich. — The Dactylic Pentameter is seldom, if ever, used, except in the Elegiac Distich, which consists of the Hexameter followed by the Pentameter : SemisS- I pulta vi- \ rtim II efir- | vis fSri- | untiir a- | ratris Ossa, ru- \ Ino- 1 sas 11 occiilit \ herba do- [ mds. Ov, III Other Dactylic Yerses. 677. The other varieties of dactylic verse are less im- portant, but the following deserve mention ; 308 DATYLIC, ANAPAESTIC, AND TROCHAIC VERSES. I. Dactylic Tetrameter. — This consists of the last four feet of the Hexameter : Ibimus 1 0 soci- I I, comi- | tesque. Hor, In compound verses, as the Greater Archilochian, the tetrameter in composition with other metres, has a dactyl in the fourth place. See 691. I. II. Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic. — ^This is the Lesser Archilochian, and is identical with the second half of the Dactylic Pentameter : Arbori- | busque co- | mae. Hor, III. Dactylic Dimeter. — ^This is the Adonic, and con- sists of a Dactyl and Spondee : Montis i- I mago. Hor, II. Anapaestic Verse. 678. Anapaestic verses consist of Anapaestic dipodies. An Anapaestic dipody consists of two Anapaests, but admits Spondees or Dactyls as equivalents. I. Anapaestic Dimeter consists of two dipodies : Venient • annis \\ saeciila • seris. ^ Sen, This is sometimes catalectic (663. III. 1), and has only a long syllable in place of the last foot. It is then called Faroemiac. II. Anapaestic Monometer consists of one dipody: Data res • patriae. Auson, 1. In Anapaestic verse Dactyls are used sparingly, and are generally followed by Spondees. Each dipody generally ends with a word. 2. The last syllable is not common, as in most kinds of verse (665), but subject to the ordinary rules of quantity. 3. Anapaestic verse does not occur in the best Latin Poets. III. Trochaic Verse. 679. Trochaic verses consist of Trochaic dipodies. A Trochaic dipody consists of two Trochees, or of a Trochee and a Spondee ; but it admits the'Tribrach as the equivalent of the Trochee, and the Anapaest, of tlie Spon- dee. The first foot has a heavier ictus than the second : 1 In verses measured by dipodies, a dotted line is placed between the feet, a ftln* gle line between the dipodies, and a double line in the place of the caesural pauso. TROCHAIO VEKSE. 309 I. Trochaic Tetrameter Gatalectic, 680. This consists of four Trochaic Dipodies with the last foot incomplete. The caesural pause is at the end of the fourth foot, and the incomplete dipody admits no equiv- alents : Nulla I vox hu- ] mana j constat |1 absquS j septem | lltle- Rite I voca- 1 les vo- | cavit I1 quas ma- j gistra [ Graeci- i a. Ter. Mau, 1. In Proper Ncrnies^ a dactyl may be introduced in any foot except the fourth and seventh. 2. The Proceleusmatic for the Spondee sometimes occurs. 3. In Comedy the Spondee and its equivalents occur in the odd feet, as well as in the even, except in the last dipody. 4. The Trochaic Tetrameter also occurs in the earlier poets in its complete form, i. e., with eight full feet : Ipse : summis | saxis • fixus |i aspe- • ris e- | visce- • ratus. Enn. II, Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic. 681. This consists of two Trochaic Dipodies with the last foot incomplete. In Horace it admits no equivalents and has the following scale, i. V : Aw I Aw : i Atila : divi- | tern ma- ; net. Hor. 1. This is sometimes called Iamt>ie' Dimeter Acephalous^ i. e., an lambic Dime- ter with the first syllable wanting. 2. A Trochaic Tripody^ — three Trochees — technically called a Trochaic Dime'- ier Brcechycatalectic^ or an Ithyphalicus^ occurs in the Greater Archilochian. See «i91. I. 3. For Sapphic Verse^ see 691. IV. 4. For Phalaecian^ see 691. V. IV. Iambic Verse. 682. lambic verses consist of lambic dipodies. An lambic dipody consists of two Iambi, or of a Spon- dee and an Iambus; but it admits the Tribrach as the equivalent of the Iambus, and sometimes the Dactyl or the IAMBIC VERSE. mo Anapaest, of the Spondee. The first foot has a heavier ictus than the second. In its full form it has the following scale : I, lambic Trimeter, 683. This verse, also called Senariusy consists of three lambic Dipodies. I. The first dipody has the full form. II. The second admits no Anapaest. III. The third admits no Anapaest or Dactyl, and in its second foot, no equivalent whatever. IV. The Oaesural Pause is usually in the third foot, hut may he in the fourth. The scale is, Quid ob- i s&ra- ] tis |{ au- f ribus | fundis j prices? Jlor, Neptu- I nus al- | to || tun- : dit hi- | bernus j salo. Ilor, Has in- j ter epii* | las H tit [ jhvat | pastas j ovcs. Bor, 1. Proper Names. — In proper names an Anapaest is admissible in any foot, except the last, but must be in a single word. 2. Horace. — In Horace the only feet freely admitted are the Iambus and the Spondee; their equivalents, the Tribrach, the Dactyl and Anapaest, are used very sparingly. The Tribrach never occurs in the fifth foot and only once in the first. The Anapaest occurs only twice in all. 3. Comedy. — In Comedy great liberty is taken, and the Spondee and its equivalents are freely admitted in any foot except the last. 4. Choliambus. — This is a variety of lambic Trimeter with a Spondee in the sixth foot and an Iambus in the fifth : Miser j Catul- | 16 de- j sinSs | inep- j tire. Catul. Choliambus means lame or limping Iambus, and is so called from its limping movement. It is sometimes called Scazon for the same reason, and sometimes ILip~ ponacUan, from Hipponax, its reputed inventor. 684. Iambic Teimetee Catalectic. — Tliis is the Iam- bic Trimeter with the last foot incomplete. But in Horace the only feet admissible besides the Iambus are the Tri- IAMBIC YEKSE. 311 brach in the second foot and the Spondee in the first and third : Toca- j tfis at- | que non j voca- \ tiis au- j dit, Ilor, II. Iambic Dimeter. 685. This verse consists of two lambic Dipodies with' their usual equivalents. But in Horace the only feet ad- missible besides the Iambus are the Tribrach in the second place, the Spondee in the first and third, and the Dactyl in the first : ^ Qufirdn- 1 t&r in i silvis \ aves. Ifor, Imbris i nives- \ que com- j parat. Ilor, Ast ego I vicis- | sim ri- \ sero. Ilor. 1. Iambic Dimetee IIypekmetee occurs in Horace with the following scale: Pder I qnis ex | aula | capil- | lis. ITor. This is sometimes called the Alcaic Enneasyllabic verse and forms the third line in the Alcaic Stanza. See TOO. I. 2. Iambic Dimeter Catalectic does not occur in the pure Latin poets. Its scale is, _ Manu ! piier [ loqua- j ci. let. Arb. 8. Iambic Dimeter Acephalous.— This name is som';times given to the Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic (681), which is then treated as lambic Dimeter without the first syllable. Thus Au- I IS di- 1 vitem \ mSnet. Ilor. III. Iambic Tetrameter. 686. The lambic Tetrameter is little used in Latin except in Come- dy. It consists of four lambic Dipodies with their usual equivalents. The caesural pause is usually after the fourth foot : Quantum in- \ telle x- [ I modo • senis H senten- • tiam ) d® nup- • tiis. Ter, 312 IONIC AND CHORIAMBIC VERSES. The Idnib'ic Tetro.inietct' Cdtdlectic belongs mostly to comedy, but occurs also Catullus : Qu6t com- : mddas \ res at- • tuli ? \\ qu5t au- • tern ade- 1 mi cu- • ras. T^r. V. Ionic Verse. 687. The Ionic a Minore consists entirely of Lesser Ionics. It may be either Tetrameter or Dimeter : Simiil tinctos j Tiberinis | humeros la- ] vit in tindis. IIot\ Neque segni ] pede victus. ITor, 1. Horaee has this metre only in one short ode (III. 12). In some edi- tions this ode consists entirely of Tetrameters y but in others it is arranged in stanzas of three lines ; the first two, Tetrameters, and the third, a Dimeter. 2. In this verse the last syllable is not common, but subject to the ordi- nary rules of quantity, as in the Anapaestic verse. See 678. 2. 8. The Ionic a Majore, Sotadean VersCy scarcely occurs in Latin, except in Comedy. In its pure state it consists of three Greater Ionic feet and a Spondee, but in Martial the third foot is a Ditrochee : Has cam gemi- | na compede ] dedicat ca- | tenas. Mart, VI. Choeiambic Verse. 688. Choriambic verses begin with a Spondee followed by one, two, or three Choriambi, and end with an Iambus. lu Horace the Choriambic verse uniformly begins with the Spondee, but in some of the other poets the Trochee, the Anapaest, or the Iambus occasionally takes the place of the Spondee. 689. A Choriambic verse with one Choriambus is called the Glyconie ; or, if catalectic, the Pherecratean ; with two, the A^clepiadcan ; with three, the Greater As^ clepiadean. I. The Glyconic has the following scale : A _ I A . . JL I V i Dongc I gratus gram | tibi. Eor, II. The Pherecratean is catalectic, but otherwise iden- tical with the Glyconic. Its scale is, A I A V V A I 7 Vix da- I rSrg cari- | nae. llor. CHORIAMBIC VERSE. 313 III. The Asclepiadean has the following scale : Maece- 1 nas atavis 11 ^dite reg- | ibus. Eor. IV. The Greater Asclepiadean has the following scale : Seu plu- 1 res hiemes, 11 seu tribuit H Jupiter ul- | timam. Eor, This is sometimes called ChoriamUc Pentameter and sometimes Choriamhic Tetrameter, EpichoriambiG Verse. 690. When a verse begins with a Second Epitrite fol- lowed by one or two Choriambi, and ends with a Bacchius, it is called Epichoriambic. Of this there are two important varieties : I. The Sapphic Verse. — This consists of a Second Epi- trite, a Choriambus and a Bacchius : Namque me sil- | vS H lupiis in j Sabina. Eor, 1. But the Sapphic verse may also be measured as a Trochaic Dipody followed by an Aristophanic verse, i. e., as composed of a Trochee, a Spon- dee, a Dactyl, and two Trochees. See 691. IV. 2. The Caesural Pause usually occurs after the fifth syllable, as in the example, but sometimes after the sixth. 3. Catullus admits two Trochees in place of the Epitrite. II. The Greater Sa^pphic Verse. — ^This differs from the Sapphic proper only in introducing a second Choriam- bus before the Bacchius : IntSr aequa- | les Squitat, H Gallica nec ] liipatis. Eor, This is sometimes improperly called Choriamhic Tetrameter, VII. Logaoedic Verse. 691. Logaoedic verses consist of Dactyls, or their equivalents, followed by Trochees. I. Greater Archilochian. — ^This consists of a Dactylic Tetrameter (677. 1.) followed by a Trochaic Tripody. The first three feet are either Dactyls or Spondees ; the fourth, a Dactyl ; and the last three, Trochees : LOGAOEDIC VERSE. 614 Vittie I summa bre- | vis spem | nos vetat, || incho- \ are \ longam. Bor. The caesural pause is between the two members. II. Alcaic Verse. — This consists of two Dactyls fol- lowed by two Trochees : Purphre- | o vari- | us co- j lore, Bor. III. Aeistophanic Verse. — This consists of a Dactyl followed by two Trochees : i. V, .. I A V : A r Cur nSquS | mill- j taris. Bor. This verse is variously named, Aristophanio^ Choriambic Dhneter^ and Cho- riambic Dimeter Catalectic. IV. Sapphic Verse. — ^This prefixes to the Aristophanic a Trochaic Dipody consisting of a Trochee and a Spondee (690. I.). The scale is, Namque j me sil- 1 va lupus | in Sa- j bina. Bor. Sftppliic verse may he classed at pleasure either with the Logaoedic verses, as here, or with the Epichoriambic verses, as in article 690. 1. V. PiiALAECiAN Verse. — This consists of a Spondee, a Dactyl, and three Trochees : Non est | vivSrg, jl sed vS* | lei e | vita. Mart. This verse is sometimes called, from the number of its syllables, Bendecasyllabie., of eleven syllables. It does not occur in Horace. In Catullus it sometimes has a Trochee, or an Iambus, in the first place. VIIL Miscellaneous Verses. 692. Greater Alcaic Verse. — ^This consists of an lambic PentJiemimeTis and a pure Dactylic Dimeter^ i. e., an lambic Dipody, a long syllable and two Dactyls : VidSs i ut al- I ta II stCt nivb | candidum Sorac- j t6 nec | jSm |1 sfistiiib- | ant ouhs. Bor. 1. The Caesural Pause is usually between the two members. 2. In Horace the first foot is generally a Spondee. 3. This verse forms the first and second lines of the Alcaic Stanza. See roo. I. MISCELLANEOUS VERSES. 315 693. Dactylico-Iambic Verse. — This consists of a pure Dactylic Penthemimeris (656. 2) and an lambic Dimeter ( 685 ): Jussiis ab- | Ire do- | mum, H fere- j bar In- | certo j pede. Ilor, 1. This verse is sometimes called Elegiarribus, 2. This verse and the following compounds— the lambico-Dactylic and the Pri- apeian—'ho.Ye the peculiarity that the two members of each may be treated as sepa- rato lines, as the last syllable of the first member is common, as at the end of a line. 694. Iambico-Dactylic Verse. — ^This consists of an lambic Dimeter and a Dactylic Penthemimeris^ i. e., of the same parts as the preceding, but in an inverted order : Nives- : que de- [ ducunt j Jovem; H nunc mare, [ nunc silii- | ae. lior. 1. This verse is sometimes called lanibelegus. 2. For the final syllable of the first member, see 693. 2. 695. Priapeian Verse. — ^T his consists of a Glyconie and a Pherecratean (689. 1. II.) : Quercus [ arida rus- | tica H cdufdr- ] mala seefi- ] ri. Catul. 1. In this verse, as it appears in Catullus, the Glyconie and the Pherecratean appear with such variations as are allowed in that poet (688). Hence the Trochee quercus for the Spondee, in the example. 2. For the final syllable of the first member, see 693. 2. SECTION' III. THE VEESIFICATIOH OF VIRGIL, HORACE, OVID, AND JUVENAL, 696. Virgil and Juvenal. — Virgil in his Eclogues, Georgies, and Aeneid, and Juvenal in his Satires use only the Dactylic Hexameter. See 671. 697. Ovid. — Ovid uses the Hexameter in his Metamor- phoses, but the Elegiac Distich in his Epistles and other works. See 676. 2. 698. Horace. — Horace uses the Hexameter in his Epis- tles and Satires, but in his Lyrics, i. e., in his Odes and Epodes, he uses a great variety of Metre. 316 METRES OF HORACE. 699. Lyrics of Horace. — Most of the Odes and Epodes consist of Stanzas of two, three, or four verses ; but a few of them consist entirely of a single kind of verse. Lyric Metres of Horace. 700. For convenience of reference the following out- line of the Lyric metres of Horace is here inserted. A. Stanzas of Four Verses, I. Alcaic Stanza. — ^First and second verses, Greater Alcaics (692) ; third, lambic Dimeter Hypermeter (685. I.) ; fourth, Al- caic (691. IL). __ In thirty-seven Odes : 1. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 84, 35, 37 ; II. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20 j III. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29 ; IV. 4, 9, 14, 15. II. Sapphic and Adonic. — The first three verses, Sapphics (691. IV.); the fourth, Adonic (677. III.). In Twenty-six Odes: I. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; II. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16 ; III. 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27 ; IV. 2, 6, 11, and Sec. Hymn. III. AsolepiadEan and Glyconio. — The first three verses, Asclepiadeans (689. III.) ; the fourth, Glyconie (689. I.). 1 . ) ^ 3. ) st 4. In nine Odes: I. 6, 15, 24, 33; II. 12; III. 10, 16; IV. 5, 12. IV. Asolepiadean, Phepecratean, and Glyconio. — The first two verses, Asclepiadeans (689. III.) ; the third, Pherecratean (689. II.) ; the fourth, Glyconie (689. I.). In seven Odes : I. 5, 14, 21, 23 ; III. 7, 13 ; IV. 13. METEES OF HOEACE. 317 B. Stanzas of Three Verses. V. loNio A Minoee (687). — The first two verses, Tetrameters : the third, Dimeter. In Ode III. 12. C. Stanzas of Two Verses. VI. Iambic Teimeteb and Iambic Dimetee (683, 685). 1. vy A : V A V/ — W V w w 2. -i- W w V V In the first ten Epodes. YII. Glyconic AND Asclepiadean (689. L, III.). 1. i - I 1 - - 2. See lY. 1. In twelve Odes : I. 3, 13, 19, 36 ; III. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28 ; IV. 1, 3. YIII. Hexameter and Dactylic Tetrameter (671 ; 677. I.). In two Odes : I. 7, 28, and Epode 12. IX. Hexameter and Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic (671 ; 677. II.). 1. See YIII. 1. , 2. A . V I A . . I 1 In Ode IV. 7. X. Hexameter and Iambic Trimeter (671, 683). See YIII. 1 and YI. 1. In Epode 16. XI. Hexameter and Iambic Dimeter (671, 685). See YIII. 1 and YI. 2. In Epodes 14 and 15. 318 ISIETKES OF HOKACE. XII. Hexameter and Iambico-Dactylio (6T1, 694). 1. See VIII. 1. In Epode 13. XIII. Iambio Trimeter and Bactylico-Iambio (683, 693). 1. See VI. 1. In Epode 11. XI Y. Trochaic Dimeter Oatalectic and Iambic Trimeter Catalectio (681, 684). In Ode II. 18. XV. Greater Archilochian and Iambic Trimeter Cata- BECTIC (691. I. ; 684). 2. See XIV. 2. In Ode I. 4. XYI. Aristophanic and Greater Sapphic (691. III. ; 690. II). In Ode I. 8. D. Verses %ised Smgly, XYII. Asclepiadean (689. III.). In three Odes : I. 1 ; III. SO ; IV. 8. XYIII. Greater Asclepiadean (689. lY.). In three Odes : I. 11, 18 ; IV. 10. XIX. Iambic Trimeter (683). See YI. 1. In Epode 17. METRES OP HORACE. 319 701 . Index to the Lyric Metres op Horace. The Roman numerals refer BOOK I. Odes. Metres. L XVII. - n. 3, VII. 4, XV. 5, IV. G, III. 7, VIII. 8, XVI. 9, I. 10, II. 11, XVIII. 12, II. 13, VII. 14, IV. 15, III. 16, I. IV, I. 18, XVIII. 19, VII. 20, II. 21, IV. 22, II. 23, IV. 24, III. 25, II. 26, I. 27, I. 28, VIII. 29, I. 30, II. 31, I. 82, II. 33, III. 84, I. 35, I. 86, VII. 37, I. 38, II. BOOK II. 1, I. 2, II. 8 I. Odes. 4, 5, 6, 'T, 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13, 14, 15, 16, IV, 18, 19, 20 , to articles in the preceding outline, '700. Odes. Metres. 26, I. 27 U 28, Yll. 29, I. 30, XVII. BOOK IV. 1, VII. 2, II- 3, VII. 4, I. 5, HI. 6, II. V IX. 8, XVII. 9, I- 10, XVIII. 11, II. 12, III. 13, IV. 14, I. 16 I. Metres. II. I. II. I. II. I. II. I. III. I. I. I. II. I. XIV. I. I. BOOK III. 6 I. Epodes. Metres. * 7, iv! Q TT 1, VI. Q VTT 2, VI. TIT 3, VI. 1 1 TT 4, VI. 1 9 V 5, VI. TV 6, VI. ^ A. TT 7, VI. VTT 8, VI. ^ ‘^7 TTT 9, VI. 1 ^ T 10, VI. TT 11, XIII. 1 Q VTT 12, VIII. ■Ld, 90 TT 13, XII. ^^7 91 T 14, XI. ^^7 99 TT 15, XI. OQ T 16, X. ^^7 C)4 VTT 17, XIX. ^^7 25. SECULAR HYMN, II. I. Figuees, of 702. A Figure is a deviation from the ordinary/orm, construction^ or signification of words. Deviations from the ordinary forms are called Figures of Etymology from the ordinary constructions, Figures of Syntax, and from the ordinary significations, Figures of Ehetoric, 703. The Figures of Etymology are the following : 1. Aphaeresis takes a letter or syllable from the beginning of a word : "'st for est 2. Syncope takes a letter or syllable from the middle of a word : virum for virorum, dixe for dixisse, 8. Apocope takes a letter or syllable from the end of a word : tun^ for tune. 4. Prosthesis prefixes a letter or syllable to a word: tetuli for tuU. 5. Epenthesis inserts a letter or syllable in a word : Alcumma for Alcmena, dlMnum for dlitum. 6. Paragoge adds a letter or syllable to a word : dicier for did. T. Metathesis transposes letters or syllables : pistris for pristis. 8. Antithesis substitutes one letter for another : volnus for vulnus, olli for illi. See also Figures of Prosody, 669. 7C4. The Figures of Syntax are the following : I. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words of a sentence : HSbitSbat ad Jovis {sc. templum), He dwelt near the temple of Jupiter. Liv. Abiit, evasit {et), He has gone, has escaped. Cic. 1. Asyndeton is an ellipsis of a conjunction. See 587. I. 6 ; 587. III. 4. 2. Zeugma is an ellipsis which employs a single verb with two subjects or ob- jects, though strictly applicable to only one: Pacem an bellum gSrens, whether at peace (agens) or waging war. Sail. 8. Aposiopesis, also called Reticentia, used for rhetorical effect, is an ellipsis which leaves the sentence unfinished: Quos ego sed motos praestat componere fluctus. Whom I lout it is Met- ier to calm the troubled waves. Virg. 4. Proverbs are often elliptical. 5. Ellipsis of Facio, Dico, Oro. See 460. 3 ; 602, II. 3. II. Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words : Erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus exire possent, There were two ways hy which ways they might depart. Caes. Eurusque Notusque ruunt. Both Eurus and Notus rush forth. Virg. 1. Polysyndeton is a pleonasm in the use of conjunctions, as in the last example. 2. Hendiadys is the use d two nouns with a conjunction, instead of a noun with an adjective or genitive: FIGURES OF SPEECH. 321 Armis virisque, /( 97 * viris armatis, with armed men, Tac. 3. Anaphoea is the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses : Me cuncta Italia, me universa civitas consulem declaravit, Me all Ital/y^ me the whole state declared consul. Cic. 4. Epiphora is the repetition of a word at the end^of successive clauses : Laelius navus erat, doctus erat, Laelius was dilige/nt, was learned. Cic. 5. Monosyllabic prepositions are often repeated before successive nouns, regu- iarly so with et — et : Et in bellicis et in civilibus officiis, hoth in military and in civil offices. Cic. Other prepositions are sometimes repeated. 6. A demonstrative, pronoun or adverb, id., hoc., illud., sic, %ta, is often used somewhat redundantly to represent a subsequent clause. So also quid, in quid censes with a clause : Illud te oro ut diligens sis, I ash you (that thing) to he (that you be) diligent, Cic. 7. Pronouns redundant with quidem. See 440. 1. 8. Pleonasm often occurs with licet : Ut liceat permittitur = licet, It is lawful (is permitted that it is, &c.). Cic. 9. A word is often repeated for emphasis. 10. Circumlocutions with res, genus, modus, and ratio are common. III. Enallage is the substitution of one part of speech for another, or of one grammatical form for another : Popiilus late rex (for regnans), a people of extensive sway (ruling exten- sively). Virg. Serus {sero) in coelum redeas, May you return late to heaven. Hor. Yina cadis {vinis cados) onerare, to fill thefiasks with wine, \ irg. 1. AntimerIa is the use of one part of speech for another, as in the first two ex- ampl(;s. 2. Hypallage is the use of one case for another, as in the last example. 3. Synesis is a construction according to sense, without regard to grammatical forms. See 438. 6 and 461. 4. Anacoluthon is a want of harmony in the construction of the different parts of a sentence : Si, ut dicunt, omnes Graios esse {Graii sunt), if, as they say, all are Greeks. Cic. IV. Hyperbaton is a transposition of words or clauses : Praeter arma nihil Srat super {supererat). Nothing remained, except their arms. Nep. Valet atque vivit {vivit atque valet). He is alive and well. Ter. 1. Anastrophe is the transposition of words only, as in the first example. 2. Hysteron Proteron is a transposition of clauses, as in the second example. 3. .Tmesis is the separation of a compound word. See 523. 2. 2). 705. Figures of Rhetoric, also called Tropes, comprise several varieties. The following are the most important. I. Metaphor. — This is an implied comparison, and as- signs to one object the appropriate name, epithet or action of another : Rei publicae vulnus (for damnum), the wound of the repuUic. Cic. Naufragium fortunae, the wreck of fortune. Cic. IT. Metonymy is the use of one name for another naturally suggested by it : 322 APPENDIX. Aequo Marte (for proelio) pugnatum est, They fought in an equal con- test. Liv. Furit Vulcanus {ignis)^ The fire rages. Virg. By this figure the cause is often put for the effect and the effect for the cause; the property for the possessor, the place or age for the people, the sign for the thing signified, etc. : Mars for 'belhim., Vulcanus for ignis., Bacchus for mnum., nohilitas for ndhiles^ Graecia for Graeci., laurea for Victoria., etc. III. Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole, or of the whole for a part ; of the special for the general, or of the general for the special: In vestra tecta {vestras domos) discedite, Depart to your homes. Cic.' Statio male fida carinis {ndvibus)^ a station unsafe for ships. Virg. IV. Ieoky is the use of a word for its opposite : Legatos bonus (for malus) imperator vester non admisit. Your good commander did not admit the ambassadors. Liv. 1. Enim., etenim., scilicet., videlicet., nlmlrum., credo, and the like, are often ironical. See 503. 3. V. Hypeebole is an exaggeration : Ventis et fulminis ocior alis, swifter than the winds and the wings of the lightning. Virg. VI. Litotes denies something instead of afSrming the opposite : Non opus est = perniciosum est. It is not necessary. Cic. II. Latin Authoes. 703. The history of Roman literature embraces about eight centuries, from 250 B. C. to 550 A. D., and has been divided by Dr. Freund into three principal periods : I. The Ante-Classical Peeiod. — From 250 to 81 B. 0. The principal authors of this period are ; Ennius, Plautus, Terence, Lucretius. II. The Classical Peeiod. — This embraces the Golden and the Silver age : 1. The Golden Age. — From 81 B. G. to 14 A. D. The principal authors are : Cicero, Nepos, Horace, Tibullus, Caesar, hivy, Ovid, Propertius. Sallust, Virgil, Catullus, 2. The Biltcr Age. — From 14 to 180 A. D. The principal authors are : LATIN AUTHORS. ROMAN CALE2^DAR. 323 Phaedrus, The Plinies, Quintilian, Persius, Velleius, Tacitus, Suetonius, Lucan, The Senecas, Curtius, Juvenal, Martial. III. The Post-Classical Period. — This embraces the Brazen and the Iron Age : 1. The Brazen Age , — From 180 to 476 A.D. The principal authors are : Justin, Eutropius, Lactantius, Claudian, Victor, Macrobius, Ausonius, Terentian. 2. The Iron Age , — From 476 to 550 A.D. The principal au- thors are : Boethius, Cassiodorus, Justinian, Priscian. III. The Roman Calendar. 707 . The Julian Calendar of the Romans is the basis of our own, and is identical with it in the number of months in the year and in the number of days in the months. 708 . Peculiarities. — The Roman calendar has the fol- lowing peculiarities : 1. The days were not numbered from the beginning of the month, as with us, but from three ditferent points in the month : 1. The Calends, first of each month ; 2. The Mones, fifths — but the serentJi in March, May, July, and October ; 3. The Ides, the thirteenth^— hni the fifteenth in March, May, July, and October. II. From these three points the days vrere numbered, not for- ward, but backward. Hence after the Ides of each month, the days were numbered from the Calends of the following month. III. In numbering backward from each of these points, the day before each was denoted by pridie Calendas^ Nbnas^ etc. ; the second before each by die tertio (not secundo ; third, not second) cinte Calendas^ etc., the third, by die quarto^ etc., and so on through the month. 1. Numerals.— This peculiarity in the use of the numerals, designating the teeond day before the Calends, etc., as the third, and the third as the fourth, etc., arises from the fact that the Calends, etc., were themselves counted as the first. Thus prldie ante Cdlendas becomes the second before the Calends, die tertio ante Cdlendas, the third, etc. 2. Name of Month.— In dates the name of the month is added in the form of an adjective in agreement with Cdlendas, Nonas, etc., as, die quarto ante Nonas Jdn~ udrias, often shortened to, quarto ante Nonas Jan. or IV. ante Nonas Jan. or with- out ante, as, IV. Nonas Jan., the second of January. 324 APPENDIX. 8. Ante DiEM.—Instead of die-^ante, ante diem is common, as, ante diem quavtum Nonas Jan, for die quarto ante Nonas Jan, 4. As Indeclinable Nouns.— The expressions ante diem—Cal.^ etc., prldie Cal., etc., are often used as indeclinable nouns with a preposition, as, ex ante diem V. Idus Oct., from the 11th of Oct. Liv. Ad prldie Nonas Maias, till the 6th of May. Cic. 709 . Calendae for the Year, Days of the Month. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 80 31 March, May, July, Oct. Calendis.^ VI. Nonas. 1 V. IV. “ III. Pridie Nonas. Nonis. VIII. Idus. VII. VI. V. IV. III. Pridie Idus. Idibus. XVII. Calend.2 XVI. XV. XIV. XIII. XII. XI. X. IX. VIII. VII. VI. V. IV. III. Pridie Calend. Jan. Aug. December. April, June, Sept. Nov. February. Calendis. Calendis. Calendis. IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. III. ‘‘ III. III. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. N ONIS. Nonis. Nonis. VIII. Idus. VIII. Idus. VIII. Idus. VII. VII. VII. VI. “ VI. VI. “ V. “ V. V. “ IV. “ IV. IV. “ III. IIL III. “ Pridie Idus. Pridie Idus. Pridie Idus. Idibus. Idibus. Idibus. XIX. Calend.-» XVIII. Caleud.2 XVI. Calend.2 XVIII. XVII. XV. XVII. “ XVI. XIV. XVI. “ XV. “ XIII. XV. , “ XIV. XII. XIV. XIII. XI. XIII. XII. X. XII. “ XI. IX. XI. “ X. VIII. X. “ IX. VII. IX. VIII. VI. VIII. “ VII. V. (VI.)3 “ VII. “ VI. IV. (V.) “ VI. “ V. III. (IV.) “ ^ V. “ IV. Prid. Cal (Ill.Cal.) IV. “ III. Pridie Calend. III. Pridie Calend. (Prid. (3al.) 710 . English and Latin Dates. — The table (709) will fur- nish the learner with the English expression for any Latin date, or the Latin expression for any English date; hut in translating Latin, it may be convenient also to have the following rule : I. If the day is numbered from the Kones or Ides, subtract the number diminished by one from the number of the day on which the Nones or Ides fall : 1 To the Calends, Nones, etc., the name of the month must of course be added. Before Nonas, Idus, etc., ante is sometimes used and sometimes omitted (708. III. 2). 2 The Calends of the following month are of course meant, as the 16th of March for instance is, XVII. Calendas Apriles. » The enclosed forms apply to leap-yea/r. ROMAN CALENDAR. MONEY. 325 VIII. ante Idas Jan. = 13 — (8 — 1) = 13 — 7 = 6th of January. II. If the day is numbered from the Calends of the following month, subtract the number dim.nished by two from the number of days in the current month : XVIII. ante Cal. Feb. = 31 - (18 — 2) == 31 - 16 = 15th of January. In Leap-year the 24th and 25th February are both called the sixth before the Calends of March, VI. Cal. Mart. The days before the 24th are numbered precisely as if the month contained as usual only 28 days, but the days after the 25th are num- bered regularly for a month of 29 days: F., /F, III. Cal. Mart.^ and prldie Cal. Mart. 711. Divisions of Day and ITight. — The Eoman day, from sun-rise to sun-set, and the night from sun-set to sun-rise, were each divided at all seasons of the year into twelve hours. 1. Night Watches. — The night was also divided into four watches of three Roman hours each. 2. Length of Roman Hour. — The hour, being uniformly yV day or of the night, of course varied in length, with the length of the day or night at different seasons of the year. lY. Roman Money, Weights, and Measures. 712. Coins. — ^The principal Roman coins were the of copper, the sestertius^ quinarius.^ denarius.^ of silver, and the aureus.^ of gold. Their value in the classical period was as follows : As, ...... Sestertius, .... . 4 Quinarius, .... 8 ‘‘ Denarius, .... . 16 “ Aureus = 25 denarii. . $4.00. I* As — THE Unit op Money. — The As was originally the unit of the Roman currency, and contained a pound of copper, but it was diminished from time to time in weight and value till at last it contained only 1/24 of a pound. But whatever its weight, j\ of the as is always called an uncia, y\ a seoitans, y\ n quadrans., a trims, a quincunx, a semis, /5 a septunx, y\ a les, a do- drans, if a dextans, f i- a deunx. 2. Sestertius, Quinarius, and Denarius. — The sestertius contained ori- ginally 2i asses, the quinarius 5, and the denarius 10 ; but as the as depre- ciated in value, the number of asses in these coins was increased. 3. As — THE General Unit op Computation. — The as is also used as the unit in other things as well as in money. Thus 1) In Weight.— as is then a pound, and the uncia an ounce. 2) In Measure.— thQ as is then a foot or a jugerum (718), and the uncia is of A foot or of a jugerum. 326 APPENDIX. 8) In Interest— as Is then the unit of interest, which was one per cent, a month, i. e,, twelve per year, the uncia is month, i. e., 1 per year, and the semis is 1*3 per month, i. e., 6 per year, etc. 4) In Inheritance.— as is then the whole estate, and the uncia of it : heres ex asse., heir of the whole estate ; hires ex dodrante.^ heir of 713. Computation of Money. — ^In all sums of money the common unit of computation was the sestertius^ also called nummus ; but four special points deserve notice : 1. In all sums of money, the units, tens, and hundreds are de- noted by sestertii with the proper cardinals : Quinque sestertii, 5 sesterces^ viginti sestertii, 20 sesterces^ diicenti ses- tertii, 200 sesterces. II. One thousand sesterces are denoted by mille sestertii., or mille sestertium. III. In sums less than 1,000,000 sesterces, the thousands are denoted either (1) by millia sestertium (gen. plur.), or (2) by ses- tertia : Duo millia sestertium, or duo sestertia, 2,000 sesterces; quinque millia sestertium, or quinque sestertia, 5,000 sesterces With sestertia the distributives were generally used, as, llna sestertia., for duo sestertia. lY In sums containing one or more millions of sesterces, ses- tertium with the value of 100,000 sesterces is used with the propei numeral adverb, decies, vicies, etc. Thus DSoies sestertium, 1,000,000 (10 X 100,000) sesterces; Vicies sestertium, 2,000,000 (20 X 100,000) sesterces. 1 SESTEETICM-In the examples under IV., sestertium is treated and declined as a neuter noun in the singular, though originally it was probably the genitive plur. ot sestertius, and the fall expression for 1,000,009 sesterces was DlHes centerm mtlha sestertium. CenKna millia was afterward generally omitted, and finally sssfer- Uum lost its force as a genitive plural, and became a neuter noun in the singular, capable of declension ^ x , . i 2. Sestertium Omitted.— Sometimes sestertium is omitted, leaving only the numeral adverb : as, d^cies^ 1,000,000 sesterces. 3. Sign HS. The sign HS, is often used for sestertii., and sometimes for sester- tia, or sestertium : Decem HS = 10 sesterces (HS = sestertii). Dena IIS = 10,000 sesterces (II3 = sestertia). Decies HS = 1,000,000 sesterces (HS =* sestertium). 714 Weight.— The basis of Boman weights is the Libra, also calle(i4s or Pondo, equal probably to about 11^ ounces avoir- dupois. 1. Ounces.— The Lllra, like the as in money, is divided into 12 parts called by the names given under 712. 1. 2. Fractions of OuNCKS.-Parts of ounces also have special names: \ = semi- uncia, \ = duella, \ = sicilicus, J = sextula, \ = drachma, = scrupaium, vlus. WEIGHTS. MEASURES. ABBREVIATIONS, 327 715. Dey Measuee. — The Modius is the basis, equal to about A peck. 1. Sextarius.— T his is ^ modius. 2. Parts of the Sextarius. — T hese have special names : I =■ hemlna, J- = ace- tabulum, = cyathus. 716. Liquid Measuee. — The Amphora is the most conven- ient unit of the Koman liquid measure, and contained a Roman cubic foot, equivalent probably to about seven gallons, wine measure. 1. Culeus. — Twenty amphorae make one Culeus. 2. Parts op Amphora. — These have special names : I = urna, | = congius, = sextarius, -gV = hemina, = quartarius, = acetabulum, 5^6 = cyathus. 717. Long Measuee. — The basis of this measure is the Ro- man foot, equivalent to about 11.6 inches. 1. Combinations of Feet. — Palmipes = Roman feet; cubitus = ; passus = 5; stadium = 625. 2. Parts of Foot.— Palmus = I foot; uncia = y\; digitus = yV 718. Square Measure. — The basis of this measure is the Jugerum^ containing 28,800 Roman square feet, equivalent to about six tenths of an acre. The parts of the jugarum have the same name as those of the As: uncia = y\„ sextans = y^^, etc. See 712. 1. V. Abbreviations. A. = Aulus. Ap. =: Appius. C. (G.) = Caius (Gaius). Cn. (Gn.) = Cnaeus (Gnaeus). D. = Decimus. 719. Marries, L. = Lucius. M. = Marcus. M’. = Manius. Mam. = Mamercus. N. =: Numerius. P. = Publius. Q. (Qu.) := Quintus. S. (Sex.) =: Sextus. Ser. = Servius. Sp. = Spurius. T. = Titus. Ti. (Tib.) == Tiberius. 720. Other Abbreviations, A. D. = ante diem. Aed. = aedilis. A. U. C. =: anno urbis conditae. Cal. (Kal.) = Calendae. Cos. — consul. Coss. consules. D. = divus. D. D. = dono dSdit. Des. = designatus. D. M. = diis manibus. D. S. = de suo. D. S. P. P. == de sua pScunia posuit. Eq. Rom. — Eques Ro- manus. F. = filius. F. C. = faciendum cu- ravit. Id. = Idus. Imp. =r imperator. Leg. = legatus. Non. = Nonae. O. M. — optimus max- imus. P. C. = patres conscrip- ti. Pont. Max. = pontifex maximus. P. R. populus Ro- manus. Pr. = praetor. Praef. = praefectus. Proc. = proconsul. Q. B. F. F. Q. S. == quod bonum, felix, faustumque sit. Quir. = Quirites. Resp. = res publica. S. = sSnatus. S. C. = senatus con- sultum. S. B. P. = salutem di- cit plurimam. S. P. Q. R. =: senatus populusque Roma- nus. Tr. Pl. tribunus ple- bis. INDEX OF VERBS. 73 1 . This Index contains an alphabetical list, not only of all the simple verbs in common use which involve any important irregularities, but also of such compounds as seem to require special mention. But, in regard to compounds of propositions, two important facts must be borne in mind : 1. That the elements — ^preposition and verb— often appear in the compound in a changed form. See 338, 2, and 341, 3. 2. That the stem-vowel is often changed in the Perfect and Supine. See 214. A. Abdo, ere, didi, ditum, 273. Ab-igo. See ago^ 2Y3, II. Ab-jicio. Seey<5c^o, 273, II. Ab-luo. See luo^ 280. Ab-nuo. See annuo^ 280. Aboleo, ere, evi, itum, 264, 1. Abolesco, ere, olevi, olitum, 277. Ab-ripio. See rapio^ 275. Abs-con-do. See abdo^ 273. Ac-cendo, ere, i, censum, 273, III. Ac-cido. See cddo^ 273, I. 2. Ac-cino. See cdnOy 273. Ac-cipio. See cdpio^ 273, II. Ac-colo. See cdlo^ 274. Ac-cumbo, ere, cubui, ciibitum, 275. Acesco, 5re, acui, — , 282. Ac-quiro. See quaero^ 278, 2. Acuo, ere, ui, utum, 279. Ad-do. See abdo^ 273. Ad-imo. See mo, 273, II. Adipiscor, i, Sdeptus sum, 283. Ad-61esco. See dbdlesco^ 277. Ad-6rior. See drior, 288. Ad-spicio. See aspicio, 272, 1. 2. Ad-sto. See sto, 261. Af-fero. See fero, 292. Agnosco. See nosco, 278, 3. Ag-gredior. See gradior, 283. Ago, ere, egi, actum, 273, II. Aio, def,, 297. Albeo, ere, — , 267. Algeo, ere, alsi, — , 269, I. Al-licio, ere, lexi, lectum, 221, 2; 272, I. 2 ; 275. Al-luo. See luo, 280. Alo, ere, alui, alitum, altum, 274. Amb-igo. See ago, 273, II. Ambio, 295, 3. Amicio, ire, ui, turn, 285. Amo, 205. •Amplector, i, amplexus sum, 283. Ango, ere, anxi, — , 280. Annuo, ere, i, — , 280. Apage, def., 297. Aperio, ire, ui, turn, 285. Apiscor, i, aptus sum, 283. Ap-pareo. See joor^o, 265 ; 301. Ap-peto. Seejoe^o, 278, 2. Ap-plico. ^Qeplico, 260. Ap-pono. SeejooTio, 275. Arcesso, ere, ivi, itum, 278, 2. Ardeo, ere, arsi, arsum, 269, I. Aresco, ere, arui, — , 282. Arguo, ere, ui, utum, 279. Ar-ripio. See rdpio, 275. A-scendo. See scando, 273, III. A-spergo. See spargo, 272, II. A-spicio, ere, spexi, spectum, 272, I. 2. As-sentior, iri, sensus sum, 288. As-sideo. See sMeo, 270, II. At-texo. See texo, 275. At-tineo. See teneo, 268. At-tingo. See tango, 273. At-tollo. See tollo, 273. Audeo, ere, ausus sum, 271. Audio, 211. Au-fero. See/^ro, 292. Augeo, ere, auxi, auctum, 269, II. Ave, def., 297. IISDEX OF VERBS. 329 B. Balbutio, Ire, — , 284, 2. Batuo, ere, i, — , 280. Bibo, ere, i, — , 280. Blandior, Iri, Itus sum, 230. C. Cudo, ere, cecidi, cSsum, 273, I. 2. Caecutio, Ire, — , 284, 2. Caedo, ere, cecidi, caesum, 273, 1. 2. Calesco, Sre, calui, — , 282. Calveo, ere, — , 267. Candeo, ere, ui, — , 266. Caneo, ere, — , 267. Cano, ere, cecini, cantum, 273. Capesso, ere, ivi, itum, 278, 2. C2pio, ere, cepi, captum, 222; 273, II. Carpo, ere, si, tum, 272. Caveo, ere, cavi, cautum, 270, II. Cedo, ere, cessi, cessum, 272, II. Cedo, c?c/., 297. Cello, obs. See excello^ 274. Ceno, 260, 2. Censeo, ere, ui, censum, 268. Cerno, ere, crevi, cretum, 277. Cieo, ere, civi, citum, 269, 1. Cingo, ere, cinxi, cinctum, 272. Circum-sisto. See sisto^ 273. Clango, ere, — , 281. Claudo, ere, clausi, clausum, 272, II. Claudo, ere (to he lame\ — , 281. Co-alesco, ere, Slui, alitum, 282. Co-arguo. See arguo ^ 279. Coepi, c?e/., 297. I Cognosco. See nosco, 278, 3. Cogo, ere, coegi, coactum. See ayo, 273, II. Col-lldo. See laedo ^ 272, II. Col-ligo. See %o, 273, II. I Col-luceo. See luceo ^ 269. Colo, ere, ui, cultum, 274. Com-edo. See Mo^ 291. Comminiscor, i, commentus sum, 2 83. Com-mbveo, See moveOy 270. Com-parco (pereo). See parco^ 273, I. 2. ; CompSrio, Ire, peri, pertum, 287. l Compesco, ere, pescui, — , 275. : Com-pingo. See pango ^ 273. Com-plector, i, plexus sum, 283. Com-pleo, ere, e vi, e tum, 264. Com-primo. Seej^remo, 272, II. Com-pungo, ere, punxi, punctum. Seejown^o, 273. Con-cido. See cMo, 273, 1. 2. Con-cido. See caedo^ 273, I. 2. Con-cino. See cano, 273. Con-cludo. See claudo^ 272, II. Con-cupisco, ere, cupivi, cupitum, 282. Con-cutio. See quatio^ 272, II. Con-do. See abdo^ 273. Con-fercio. See/arcio, 286. Con-ficio. See/acio, 273, II. Confit, def.y 297. Con-fiteor. See fateor , 271. Con-fringo. See frango^ 273, II. Congruo, ere, i, — , 280. Coniveo, ere, nivi, nixi, — , 269, L Con-sero. See sero, 276. Con-sisto. See sisto ^ 273. Con-spicio, ere, spexi, spectum, 221, 2 . Con-stituo. See statuo, 279. Con-sto. See s^o, 261. Consuesco, 297, I. 2. Consulo, ere, ui, tum, 274. Con-temno. See temno, 281. Con-texo. See texo, 275. Con-tingo. See tango, 273 ; 301. Con-valesco, ere, valui, valitum, 282, Coquo, ere, coxi, coctum, 272. Cor-ripio. See rapio, 275. Cor-ruo. See ruo, 279. Crebresco, ere, crebrui, — , 282, II. Credo, ere, credidi, creditum, 273. Crepo, are, ui, itum, 260. Cresco, ere, crevi, cretum, 277. Cubo, are, ui, itum, 260. Cudo, ere, cudi, cusum, 273, III. Cumbo. See accumbo, 275. Cupio, ere, ivi, itum, 221 ; 278. Curro, ere, cucurri, cursum, 273, 1.2. D. De-cerpo, ere, si, tum, 272, I. 1. Decet, impers., 299. De-do. See abdo, 273. De-fendo, 5re, i, fensum, 273, III. De-fetiscor. See fatiscor, 283. 330 I^^DEX OF VERBS. De-fit, def.^ 297. Dego, ere, degi. See 273, II. Deleo, ere, evi, 6tum, 264. De'-ligo. See %o, 273, II. De-raico. See mico^ 260. Demo, ere, dempsi, demptum, 272. De-pango. See pango ^ 273. De-primo. Seejoremo, 272, II. Depso, ere, ui, itum, turn, 275. De-scendo. See scando^ 273, III. De-silio. See salio ^ 285. De-sipio. See sapio ^ 278. De-tendo. See tendo^ 273. D6-tmeo. See teneo ^ 268. De-vertor. See verto^ 273, III. Dico, ere, dixi, dictum, 272 ; 237. Dif-fero. See /ero, 292. Dignosco. See woseo, 278, 8. Di-ligo. See %o, 273, II. Dl-mico. See micOy 260. Dl-rigo, ere, rexi, rectum, 272, 1. 1. Disco, ere, didici, — , 273. Dis-crepo. See crepoy 260. Dis-cumbo. See accumhOy 275. Dis-pertior. See partior y 288. Dis-pliceo. Seejo^ceo, 265. Dis-sideo. See sec^eo, 270, II. Di-stinguo. See stinguo y 281. Di-sto. See stoy 261. Ditesco, ere, — , 282, II. Divide, ere, visi, visum, 272, II. Do, dare, dedi, datum, 261. Doceo, ere, ui, turn, 268. Domo, are, ui, itum, 260. Diico, ere, duxi, ctum, 272 ; 237. Dulcesco, ere, — , 282, II. Duresco, ere, durui, — , 282, 11. E. Edo, ere, edi, esura, 273, 11. ; 291. E-do, ere, edidi, editum, 273. Ef-fero. See /ero, 292. Egeo, ere, ui, — , 266. E-licio, ere, ui, itum, 275. E-ligo. See legOy 273, II. E-mico. See micOy 260. Emineo, ere, ui, — , 266. Emo, ere, emi, emptum, 273, II. E-neco, are, ui, turn, 260. Eo, Ire, Ivi, itum, 295. Esurio, ire, — , itum, 284, 2. E-vado, ere, vasi, vasum, 272, II. Evanesco, ere, evanui, — , 28^ Ex-ardesco, ere, arsi, arsum, 282. Excello, ere, ui (rare), — , 274. Ex-cludo. See claudOy 272, II. Ex-curro. See currOy 273, I. 2. Ex-olesco. See dhUescOy 277. Expedit, impers. Expergiscor, i, experrectus sum, 283. Ex-perior, iri, pertus sum, 288. Ex-pleo. See compleOy 264. Ex-plico. plicOy 260. Ex-plodo. ^QQplaudOy 272, II. Ex-stinguo, ere, stinxi, stinctum,272. Ex-sto. See stOy 261. Ex-tendo. See tendo y 273, I. 2, Ex-tollo. See tollo y 273. F. Facesso, ere, ivi, i, itum, 278, 2. Facio, ere, feci, factum, 221 ; 273, II.; 237. Fallo, ere, fefelli, falsum, 273, 1. 2. Farcio, ire, farsi, fartum, farctum, 286. Fari, def.y 297. Fateor, eri, fassus sum, 271. Fatisco, ere, — , 281. Fatiscor, i, — , 283. Faveo, ere, favi, fautum, 270, II. Fendo, ohs. See defendoy 273, III. Ferio, ire, — , 284, 2. Fero, ferre, tuli, latum, 292. Ferocio, ire, — , 284, 2. Ferveo, ere, fervi, ferbui, — , 270, IIL Fido, ere, fisus sum, 283. Figo, ere, fixi, fixum, 272, II. Findo, ere, fidi, fissum, 273, IIL Fingo, ere, finxi, fictum, 272, 1. Fio, fieri, factus sum, 294. Flaveo, ere, — , 267. Flecto, ere, xi, xum, 272, II. Fleo, ere, evi, etum, 264. Floreo, ere, ui, — , 266. Floresco, ere, florui, — , 282. Fluo, ere, fluxi, fluxum, 279, 1. Fodio, ere, fodi, fossum, 221 ; 273,11. Forem, def.y 297, III. 2. Foveo, ere, fovi, fotum, 270, II. Frango, ere, fregi, fractura, 273, II. Fremo, ere, ui, itum, 274. INDEX OP VEEBS. 331 Frendo, tre, — , fressum, fresum, 272, II. Frico, are, ui, atum, turn, 260. Frigeo, ere, frixi (rare), — , 269, I. Frondeo, ere, ui, — , 266. Fruor, i, fructus, friutus sum, 283. Fugio, ere, fugi, fugitum, 221 ; 273, II. Fulcio, Ire, fulsi, fultum, 286. Fulgeo, ere, fulsi, — , 269, I. Fulminat, impers.^ 300. Fundo, ere, fudi, fusum, 273, II. Fungor, i, functus sum, 283. Furo, ere, ui, — , 271. G. Gannio, Ire, — , 284, 2. Gaudeo, ere, gavisus sum, 271. GSmo, ere, ui, itum, 274. Gero, ere, gessi, gestum, 272. Gigno, ere, genui, genitum, 274. Glisco, ere, — , 281. Gradior, i, gressus sum, 221 ; 283. Grandesco, ere, — , 282, II. Grandinat, impers.^ 300. Gravesco, ere, — , 282, II. H. Haereo, ere, haesi, haesum, 269, I. Haurio, Ire, hausi, haustum, haustu- rus, hausurus, 286. Hebeo, ere, — , 267. Hisco, ere, — , 281. Horreo, ere, ui, — , 266. Hortor, 226. Humeo, ere, — , 267. I. Ico, ere, ici, ictum, 273, III. Il-licio, ere, lexi, lectum, 221 ; 272, I. 2. Il-lido. See laedo ^ 272, II. Imbuo, ere, ui, utum, 279. Immineo, ere, — , 267. Im-parco. Seejoarco, 273, I. 2. Im-pertior. See partior^ 288. Im-pingo. See panao^ 273. In-cendo. See accendo^ 273, III. Incesso, ere, ivi, i, — , 278, 2. In-cido. See cddo^ 273, I. 2. In-cido. See caedo^ 273, I. 2. In-crepo. See crepo^ 260. In-cresco. See cresco^ 277. In-cumbo. See accumbo^ 276. In-cutio. See quatio, 272, II. Ind-igeo, ere, ui, — . See ^geo, 266. Ind-ipiscor. See apiscor, 283. In-do. See abdo, 273. Indulgeo, ere, dulsi, dultum, 269, II. Ineptio, ire, — , 284, 2. Infit, def., 297. Ingruo, ere, i, — , 280. In-notesco, ere, notui, 282, II. 1. In-61esco. See abolesco, 277. Inquam, def,, 297. In-sideo. See sMeo, 270, II. In-spicio, ere, spexi, spectum, 221. In-sto. See sto, 261. Intel-ligo. See lego, 273, II. Interest, impers., 301. Inter-nosco. See nosco, 278, 3. In-veterasco, ere, ravi, ratum, 282. Irascor, i, — , 283. Ir-ruo. See ruo, 279. J. Jacio, ere, jeci, jactum, 221 ; 273, II. Jubeo, ere, jussi, jussum, 269, I. Juro, 260, 2. Juvenesco, ere, — , 282, II. Juvo, are, juvi, jutum, 262. L. Labor, i, lapsus sum, 283. Lacesso, ere, ivi, itum, 278, 2. Lacio, obs. See allicio, 272, I. 2. Lacteo, ere, — , 267. Laedo, 6re, laesi, laesum, 272, II. Lambo, ere, i, — , 280. Langueo, ere, i, — , 270, III. Lapidat, impers., 300. Largior, iri, itus sum, 288. LSteo, ere, ui, — , 266. Lavo, are, lavi, lautum, lotum, lava- tum, 262. Lego, ere, legi, lectum, 273, II. 332 INDEX OF VEEBS. Libet, impers,^ 299. Liceor, 6ri, itus sum, 271. Licet, inipers.^ 299. Lino, ere, livi, levi, litura, 278. Linquo, ere, liqui, — , 273, II. Liqueo, ere, liqui (licui), 270, III. Liquet, impers.^ 299. Liquor, i, — , 283. Loquor, i, locutus sum, 283. Luceo, ere, luxi, — , 269, I. Lucescit, impers.^ 300. Ludo, ere, lusi, lusum, 272, II. Lugeo, ere, luxi, — , 269, I. Luo, ere, lui, — , 280. M. Macresco, ere, macrui, — , 282, II. 1. Madeo, ere, ui, — , 266. Madesco, ere, mSdui, — , 282. Maereo, ere, — , 267. Malo, malle, malui, — , 293. Mando, ere, i, mansum, 273, III. Maneo, ere, mansi, mansum, 269, 1. Maturesco, ere, maturui, — , 282, II. 1. Medeor, eri, — , 271. Memini, def.^ 297. Mentior, iri, itus sum, 288. Mereor, eri, itus sum, 271. Mergo, ere, mersi, mersum, 272, II. Metior, iri, mensus sum, 288. Meto, ere, messui, messum, 275, II. Metuo, ere, ui, — , 280. Mico, are, ui, — , 260. ^ Miniscor, obs. See comminiscor^ 283. ^ Minuo, ere, ui, utum, 279. Misceo, ere, miscui, mistum, mix- tum, 268. Misereor, eri, itus or tus sum, 271. Miseret, impers.^ 299. Mitesco, ere, — , 282, II. Mitto, ere, misi, missum, 272, II. Molior, iri, itus sum, 288. Mollesco, ere, — , 282, II. Molo, ere, ui, itum, 274. Moneo, ere, ui, itum, 207. Mordeo, ere, momordi, morsum, 270. Morior, i (iri), mortuus sum, 221 ; 283. Moveo, ere, movi, motum, 270, II. Mulceo, ere, mulsi, mulsum, 269, I. Mulgeo, ere, mulsi, mulsum, 269, I. N. Nanciscor, i, nactus sum, 283. Nascor, i, natus sum, 28^ Necto, ere, nexi, nexui, nexum, 272, II. ; 275, II. Neg-ligo, ere, lexi, lectum. See 273, II. Neo, ere, nevi, netum, 264. Ne-queo, ire, ivi, itum, 296. Nigresco, ere, nigrui, — , 282, II. 1. Ningo, ere, ninxi, — , 280. Niteo, ere, ui, — , 266. Nitor, i, nisus, nixus sum, 283. Nolo, nolle, nolui, — , 293. Nosco, ere, novi, notum, 278, 3. Nubo, ere, nupsi, nuptum, 272. Nuo, ohs. See annuo^ 280. Nupturio, ire, ivi, — , 284, 2. 0 . Ob-do. See ahdo^ 273. Ob-dormisco, ere, dormivi, dormi- tum, 282. Obliviscor, i, oblitus sum, 283. Ob-mtitesco, ere, mutui, — , 282, II. 1. Ob-sideo. See sMeo^ 270. Ob-s61esco. See abolesco, "2/1^. Ob-sto. See sto, 261. Ob-surdesco, ere, surdui, — , 282. Ob-tineo. See teneo, 268. Oc-cido. See cddo, 273, I. 2. Oc-cido. See caedo, 273, I. 2. Oc-cino. See cano, 273. Oc-cipio. See capio, 273, II. Occulo, ere, ui, tum, 274. Odi, def., 297. Of-fendo. See defendo, 273, III. Oleo, ere, ui, — , 266. Olesco, obsolete. See abolesco, 277. Operio, ire, ui, tum, 285. Oportet, impers., 299. Op-perior, iri, pertus, peritus sum, 288. Ordior, iri, orsus sura, 288. Os-tendo. See tendo, 273, I. 2. Ovat, def., 297. INDEX OF VEEBS, 333 P. Paciscor, i, pactus sum, 283. Paenitet, impers,^ 299. Palleo, ere, ui, — , 266. Pando, ere, i, pansum, passum, 2^73, III. Pango, ere, pepigi, pactum, 273. Pango, ere, panxi, pegi, panctum, pactum, 273. Parco, ere, peperci (parsi), parsum, 273, I. 2. Pareo, ere, ui, Itum, 265. Pario, ere, peperi, partum, 221 ; 273. Partior, Iri, Itus sum, 288. Parturio, Ire, Ivi, — , 284, 2. Pasco, ere, pavi, pastum, 276. Pateo, ere, ui, — , 266. Patior, i, passus sum, 229 ; 221 ; 283. PSveo, ere, pavi, — , 270, II. Pecto, Sre, xi, xum, 272, II. Pel-licio, ere, lexi, lectum, 221 ; 272, 1. 2. Pello, ere, pepuli, pulsum, 273, 1. 2. Pendeo, ere, pependi, pensum, 270. Pendo, ere, pependi, pensum, 273, 1. 2. Per-cello. See excello ^ 274. Per-censeo. See censeo^ 268. Per-do, ere, didi, ditum. See abdo^ 273. Pergo {for per-rigo), ere, perrexi, perrectum. See rego^ 272. Per-petior. patior^ 283. Ter-sto. See sto, 261. Per-tineo. See teneo, 268. Pessum-do. See do, 261. Peto, Sre, Ivi, itum, 278, 2. Piget, impers., 299. Pingo, ere, pinxi, pictum, 272, 1. Pinso (piso), ere, i, ui, pinsitum, pistum, pinsum, 273, III. Plaudo, ere, si, sum, 272, II. Plecto, ere, xi, xum, 272, II. Plector, not used as Dep, See am- plector, 283. Pleo, obsolete. See compleo, 264. Plico, are, avi, ui, atum, itum, 260. Pluo, ere, i or vi, — , 280. Polleo, ere, — , 267. Polliceor, eri, itus sum, 271. Pono, ere, posui, positum, 275. Posco, 5re, poposci, — , 273, I. 2. Pos-sideo. See sMeo, 270, II. Possum, posse, potui, — , 290. Potior, iri. Itus sum, 288. Poto, are, avi, atum, um, 260, 1 and 2. Prae-cino. See canx), 273. Prae-curro. See curro, 273, I. 2. Prae-sideo. See sMeo, 270, II. Prae-sto. See sto, 261. Prae-vertor. See verto, 273, III. Prandeo, ere, i, pransum, 270, III. Prehendo, ere, i, hensum, 273, III. Premo, ere, pressi, pressum, 272, II. Prod-igo. See ago, 273, II. Pro-do. See abdo, 273. Proficiscor, i, profectus sum, 283. Pro-fiteor. See fateor, 271. Promo, ere, prompsi, promptum, 272, I. - Pro-sum, prodesse, profui, — , 290,“^! III. T Pro-tendo. See tendo, 273, I. 2. — ^ Psallo, ere, i, — , 280. Piidet, impers., 299. Puerasco, ere, — , 282, II. Pungo, ere, pupugi, punctum, 273. Q. Quaero, ere, quaesivi, quaesitum, 278, 2. Quaeso, def, 297. Quatio, ere, quassi, quassum, 221 : 272, II. Queo, ire, ivi, itum, 296. Queror, i, questus sum, 283. Quiesco, ere, quievi, quietum, 277. R. Rado, ere, rSsi, rasum, 272, II. Rapio, ere, rapui, raptum, 221 ; 275. Raucio, ire, rausi, rausum, 286, II. Re-censeo. See censeo, 268. Re-cido. See cado, 273, I. 2. ^ Re-cido. See caedo, 273, I. 2. Re-crudesco, ere, crudui, 282, II. 1. Red-arguo. See arguo, 279. Red-do. See abdo, 273. Re-fello. fallo, 273, I. 2. Re -fero. See /ero, 292. Refert, impers., 301. Rego, ere, rexi, rectum, 209 ; 272. INDEX OF VERBS. S3i Ro-linquo. See linquo^' 213^ II. Reminiscor, i, — , 283. Renideo, ere, — , 26Y. Reor, reri, ratus sum, 271. Re-panio. See pango, 273. Rl-pa|co. Bee parco, 273, I. 2. Re-perio, Ire, peri, perWm, 287. ^e-sideo. See sedeo, 270, II. Re-sipio. See sapio, 278. Re-sono. See sono, 260. Re-spergo. See spargo, 272, II. Re-tendo. See tendo, 273, I. 2. Re-tineo. See teneo, 268. Re-vertor. See verto, 273, III. Re-vivisco, ere, vixi, victum, 282. Rideo, ere, risi, risum, 269, I. Ringor, i, — ,283. Rodp, ere, rosi, rosum, 272, II. Rorat, impers., 300. Rjlbeo, ere, ui, — , 266. Ru^o, ^e. Ivi, Itum, 278, 2. Rumpo, ere, rupi, ruptum, 273, II. Ruo, ere, rui, rutum, ruiturus, 279. S. Sagio, Ire, — , 284, 2. Salio, Ire, ui (ii), tum, 2S5. Salve, def., 297. Sancio, Ire, sanxi, sancitum, sanc- tum, 286. SSpil^, ere. Ivi, ui, — , 221 ; 278. Sarcio, Ire, sarsi, sartum, 286. Sat-ago. See ^go, 273, II. Scabo, ere, scabi, — , 273, II. Scal^do, Sre, di, sum, 273, III. Scindo, ere, scidi, scissum, 273, III, Scisco, ere, scl^i, scitum, 282. S^co, a\e, ui, tum, 260. Sedeo, ere, sedi, sessum, 270, II. Se-ligo. See lego, 273, II. Sentio, Ire, sensi, sensum, 286. Sepelio, Ire, Ivi, sepultum, 284. Sepio, Ire, psi, ptum, 286. Sequor, i, secutus sum, 228. Sero, ere, sevi, satum, 276. SSro, ere, serui, sertum, 274. Sido, ere, i, — , 280. Sileo, ere, ui, — , 266. Sino, ere, sivi, situm, 278. Sisto, ^re, stiti, statum, 273. Sitio, ire, ivi, — , 284. Soleo, ere, solitus sum, 271. Solvo, ere, solvi, solutum, 273, III. Sono, are, ui, itum, 260. Sorbeo, ere, ui, — , 266. Sortior, Iri, itus sum, 288. Spargo, ere, sparsi, sparsum, 272, II. Specio, obs. See aspicio, 272. Sperno, ere, sprevi, spretum, 277. Splendeo, ere, ui, — , 266. Spondeo, ere, spopondi, sponsum, 270. Squaleo, ere, — , 267. Statuo, ere, ui, utum, 279. Sterno, ere, stravi, stratum, 276. Sternuo, ere, i, — , 280. Sterto, ere, ui, — , 275. Stinguo, ere, — , 281. Sto, are, steti, statum, 261. Strepo, ere, ui, itum, 275. Strideo, ere, stridi, — , 270, III. Strido, ere, i, — , 280. Struo, ere, struxi, structum, 279, 1, Studeo, ere, ui, — , 266. Stupeo, ere, ui, — , 266. Suadeo, ere, si, sum, 269, I. Sub-do, ere, didi, ditum. See abdo, 273, I. 1. Sub-igo. See ago, 273, II. Sub-silio. See salio, 285. Suc-cedo. See cMo, 272, II. Suc-cendo. See accendo, 273, III. Suc-censeo. See censeo, 268. Suc-cido. See cado, 273, I. 2. Suc-cido. See caedo, 273, I. 2. Suc-cresco. See cresco, 277. Suesco, ere, suevi, suetum, 277. Suf-fero. See /ero, 292. Suf-ficio. See facio, 273, II. Suf- fodio. See fodio, 273, II. Sug-gero. See gero, 272. Sum, esse, fui, — , 204. Sumo, ere, psi, ptum, 272. Superbio, Ire, — , 284, 2. Sup-pono. See 275, 1. Surgo {for sur-rigo), ere, surrexb surrectum. See r^go, 272, I. T. Taedet, impers. ^ 299. Tango, ere, tetigi, tactum, 273. Temno, ere, — , 281. INDEX OF yEKBS< 335 Tendo, ^re, tetendi, tentum, tensum, 273, 1. 2. TSneo, ere, ui, tum, 268. Tepesco, ere, tepui, — , 282. Tergeo, ere, tersi, tersum, 269, I. Tergo, ere, tersi, tersum, 272, IL Tero, ere, trivi, tritum, 278. Texo, ere, ui, tum, 275. Timeo, ere, ui, — . 266. Tollo, ere, sustuli, sublatum, 273. Tondeo, 5re, totondi, tonsum, 270. Tono, are, ui,(itum), 260. Torpeo, ere, ui, — , 266. Torqueo, ere, torsi, tortum, 269, II. Torreo, ere, torrui, tostum, 268. Tra-do. See abdo^ 273. Traho, ere, traxi, tractum, 272. Tremo, ere, ui, — , 274. Tribuo, ere, ui, utum, 279. Trudo, ere, trusi, trusum, 272, II. Tueor, eri, tuitus sum, 271. Tundo, ere, tutudi, tunsum, tusum, 273, 1. 2. Tuor, for tueor^ 283. Turgeo, ere, tursi {rare\ — , 269. Tussio, ire, — , 284, 2. U. Ulciscor, i, ultus sum, 283. Urgeo, ere, ursi, — , 269, I. Uro, ere, ussi, ustum, 272. Utor, i, usus sum, 283. Y. Vado, ere, — , 281. Yagio, ire, ivi, — , 284. Veho, ere, vexi, vectum, 272. Vello, ere, velli (vulsi), vulsum, 273, Vendo, ere, didi, ditum, 273. Ven-eo. See eo, 295. Venio, ire, veni, ventum, 287. Venum-do. See do^ 261. Vereor, eri, veritus sum, 227 ; 271. Vergo, ere, — , 281. Verro, ere, verri, versum, 273, III. Verto, ere, ti, sum, 273, III. Vertor. See devertor, 273, III. Vescor, i, — , 283. Vesperascit, impers., 300. Veterasco, ere, ravi, — , 276. Veto, are, ui, itum, 260. Video, ere, vidi, visum, 270, II. Vieo, ere, — , etum, 264, 2. Vilesco, ere, vilui, — , 282, II. 1. Vincio, ire, vinxi, vinctum, 286. Vinco, ere, vici, victum, 273, II. Vireo, ere, ui, — ,266. Viresco, ere, virui, — , 282. Viso, ere, i, um, 273, III. Vivo, ere, vixi, victum, 272. Volo, velle, volui, — , 293. Volvo, ere, volvi, volutum, 273, IIL Vbmo, ere, ui, itum, 274. Voveo, ere, vovi, votum, 270, II. IKDEX OF SUBJECTS, Note. — The numbers refer to articles^ not to pages. Constr. — construction; w. — with; ff, = and the following ; compels. = compounds; gen. or genit, = genitive ; gend. = gender; acc. or accus. = accusative ; aces. = accusatives ; loc, or locat. = loca- tive ; adjs. — adjectives ; preps. — prepositions, etc. It has not been thought advisable to overload this index with such separate words as may be readily referred to classes, or to general rules, or even with such ex- ceptions as may be readily found under their respective heads. Accordingly, the nu- merous exceptions in Dec. III., and in gender, are not inserted, as they may be best found under the respective endings, 55-115, A SOUND of, 6 ff., 15. Nouns j in «, — ^of 1st dec., 48 ; of 3d dec., 55 ; genitive of, 69 ; gen- der, 111; derivatives in «,320, 6. in acc. sing., 68 ; changed in compds., 311, 3. Ay quantity of, — final, 615; in increments of dec., 633 ; of conj., 640. Ay aby ahsy in compds., 338, 2 ; in compds., w. dat., 386, 2. Ay aby absy w. abl., 434, of agent, 388, in personification, 414, 6. Abbreviations, 719. Abhinc y 427. Ablative, formation of, — in 1st dec., 48, 49; in 2d dec. 51, 52; in 3d dec. 57 ff., 62 ff ; in 4th dec., 117 ; in adjs., 148 ff Ablative, syntax of, 412-437. Of cause, manner, means, 414 ; agent, accompaniment, 414, 5 and 7. Of price, 416. W. com- paratives, 417. Of differ., 418. In special constrs., 419; 385, 5; 386, 2; 434, 2; 414, 2. Of place, 420 ff Of source, 425. Of time, 426. Of charac., 428. Of specification, 429. Abl. ab- sol., 431 ; w. quisquCy 431, 6. W. preps., 432 ff Of gerunds, etc., 566. Of supine, 570. Absolute, ablative, 430 ff ; infini- tive or clause, 431, 4. AbsquCy w. abl., 434. AbstineOy w. acc. and abl., 425, 2 ; w. gen., 409, 4. AbvStract nouns, 39 ; from adjs., 319; from verbs, 321, 3. AbundCy w. gen., 396, III. 4). -abus, for ^s, in 1st dec., 49. Acy for quamy 417, 4. Ac siy w, subj., 503, 606. Acatalectic verse, 663, III. 1. Accediiy constr., 556, II. 1. Accentuation, 24 ff Accidity constr., 556, II. AccingOy constr., 374, 7. Accompaniment, abl. of, 414, 7. Accomplishing, constr. of verbs of, 658, ly. Accusative, formation of, — in 3d dec., 67 ff ; in adjectives, 148 ff. Accusative, syntax of, 370-381. — . Direct object, 371 ff. ; cognate, 371, 1, 3); w. other cases, 371, 2 ; w. compds., 371, 4 ; w. verbal adjs. and nouns, 371, 7. Two aces., 373 ff ; other constrs. for, 374, 3 ; infin. or clause, 374, 4 ; poetic acc., 374, 7. Subj. of in- fin., 375. Agreement, 376. Ad- verbial acc., 377 ff. Acc. of time and space, 378. Of limit, 379, poetic dat. for, 379, 5. Of speci- fication, 380. In exclam., 381. W. preps., 432 ff. Of gerunds and gerundives, 565. Of supine, 569. Accusing and acquitting, constr. of verbs of, 410. Acephalous verse, 663, III. -aceus, adjs. in, 324. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 337 Acquiesco^ 386, 2. Active voice, 195. Act. and pass, constr., 465. Ad, in compds., 338, 2 ; in compds. w. two accs., 374, 6 ; w. dat., 386. Ad, w. acc., 433. -ades, in patronymics, 316 ; quan- tity, 646, 1. Adhuc locorum, 396, 2, 4) (4). Adipiscor, w. gen., 409, 3. Adjective, — Deci, of, 147 ff. Com- parison, 160 If. Numerals, 172 ff. ; decl. of, 175 If. Derivation, 822 ff. Comp., 340. W. dat., 891. W. gen. 396, III. 2; 399. W. abl., 414, 419. Agreement, 438 ff. W. the force of nouns, clauses, adverbs, 441 ff. Use of comparison, 444. Admisceo, w. dat., 385, 5. Admoneo, constr., 410, 3. Admonishing, constr. of verbs of, 410. Adolescens, compared, 168, 4.. Adonic verse, 677, III. Adulor, w. acc. or dat., 385, 3. Advantage, dat. of, 385. Adverbial acc., 377. Adverbs, — Numeral, 181. Classes of, 304. Compar., 305. Deriva- tion, 333 ff. Composition, 342. For adjs., 352, 3. W. dat., 392. W. gen., 396, III. 4). As preps., 437. Use, 582; w. nouns, 683. Negatives, non, ne, haud, 684, two negatives, 585. Adversative conjs., 310; 687, III. Adversative sentence, 360. Adversus, w. accus., 433. Advising, constr. of verbs of, 658,yi. Ae, sound of, 9, 16 ; changed to i, 341, 3. Aedes, sing, and plur., 132. Aeger, w. gen., 399, 3. Aemulus, w. gen. or dat., 399, 2, 2). Aeneas, decl. of, 60. Aequi honi facere, 402, 3. Aer, aether, acc. of, 93, 1, quantity of, 621, 3. -aeus, adjs. in, 326. Affatim, w. gen., 396, III. 4). Afficio, w. abl. 414, 1, 1). Affinis, w. gen., 399, (3). Age, expression of, 417, 3. Agent, — Abl. of, w. a or ah, 388, 2 ; Dat. of, 388. Agreement, — Of Fred. Noun, 362 ; in gend. and numb., 362, 1. Of Appositive, 363, in gend. and numb., 363, 1. Of Adject., 438 ; w. clause, 438, 3 ; constr. accord, to sense, 438, 6 ; w. pred. noun or appositive, 438, 7 ; w. two nouns, 439 ; 439, 2 ; w. part, gen. 396, 2, 3). Of Pronouns, 445 ; w. two antecedents, 445, 3 ; w. pred. noun or appositive, 445, 4 ; constr. accord, to sense, 445, 5; w. clause, 446, 7. Of Verb, 460 ; constr. accord, to sense, 461 ; agreement w. Appos. or Pred. noun, 462 ; w. comp, sub- ject, 463. -ai, for ae, 49, 2 ; quant, of, 612, 1. -al, nouns in, 63. Alcaic verse, 664 ; 691, II. ; greater, 692 ; stanza, 700, I. Alieno, w. dat. 425, 2. Alienus, w. dat., 891, 1 ; w. abl., 891, 2, 3); w. gen., 399, 3. Aliquantus, aliquis, aliquot, 191 ; use of aliquis, 455. -alis, adjs. in, 325. Alius, — Decl. 151. W. abl., 417, 5 ; w. atque, ac, or et, 459, 2. Alius — alius, 469 ; alius — alium, w. plur. verb, 461, 3. Alphabet, 2 ff. Alter,— D qA. 161. Indef, 191, 2; alteruter, 161, 4 ; alter — alter, 459 ; alter — alterum, v/. plur. verb, 461, 3. Altercor, w. dat., 385, 5. Alvus, gender of, 63. Amhi, amb., 338, 3. Ambo, decl. of, 175, 2. Amphora, 716. Amplius without quam, 417, 3. An, annon, 346, II. 2 ; 526, 2, 2). An—aut, 626, 2, 3). Anacoluthon, 704, III. 4. Analysis of verbal endings, 241 ff. — Tense-signs, 242 ff. ; mood- signs, 244 ff. ; personal endings, 247. Anapaestic verse, 678. Anaphora, 704, II. 3. Anastrophe, 704, IV. 1. 338 INDEX OF SIJBJECrrS. Animi^ constr., S99, 3, 4). Answers, 346, 3. Anle^ in compds., 338, 2 ; w. dat., 386. Ante^ in expressions of time, 42Y ; w. acc., 433. Antecedent, use of term, 445, 1 ; omitted, 445, 6 ; attracted, 445, 9. Clause as antecedent, 445, Y. Antequam^ w. indie, or subj., 523. Antimeria, Y04, III. 1. Antithesis, Y03, 8. -anus, adjs. in, 325 ff. Anxius^ w. gen., 399, 3. Aphaeresis, Y03, 1. Apocope, Y03, 3. Aposiopesis, Y04, I. 3. Appendix, Y02-Y20. Appositive, — Agreement of, 363 ; in gend. and numb., 363, 1. Subject omitted, 363, 2. Force of, 363, 3. Aptus^ w. dat., 391, 1 ; aptus qui^ w. subj., 501, III. Apud^ w. accus., 433. -ar, nouns in, 6^ ArceOy w. dat, 385, 4. Archilochian verse, 664 ; 6YY, II. ; greater, 691, I. Arenae^ locat, of place, 424, 3. -aris, adjs. .in, 325. Aristophanic, 691, III. -arium, nouns in, 31Y. -arius, nouns in, 318 ; adjs. in, 325. Arrangement,— Of Words, 592-602, — General rules, 593 ff. Effect of emphasis and euphony, 594. Contrasted groups, 595. Kin- dred words, 596. Words with common relation, 59Y. Special rules, 598 ff. Modifiers of nouns, 598 ; of adjs., 599 ; of verbs, 600 ; of adverbs, 601 ; of special words, — Demon. Prep. Conjunct. Rel. Won, 602. Of Clauses, 603- 606, — Clause as Subj. or Fred., 603 ; as Subord. element, 604 ; in Latin Period, 605 ; in compd. sentence, 606. Arsis and Thesis, 660. As and its divisions, Y12. -as, nouns in, 1st dec., 50 ; 3d dec., Y9 ; gend. of, 105. -as, for ae in gen., 49 ; in Greek acc. plur., 68 ; in patronymics, 316 ; in adjs., 326 ; quantity of, 623. Asclepiadean verse, 689, III. ; great- er, IV. -asco, inceptives in, 332, II. Asking, constr. of verbs of, 3Y4 ; 558, VI. Aspergo^ constr., 384, 1. Aspirated letters, 4, 3. -asso, assim, in fut. perf. and perf. subj., 239, 4. Assuesco^ w. abl. 386, 2. Asyndeton, Y04, I. 1. -atim, adverbs in, 334, 2. Atque ^ for quam^ 41Y, 4. Attraction, of pronoun, 445, 4 ; of antecedent, 445, 9 ; of pred. noun or adj. after an infin,, 54Y. Subj. by attraction, 52Y. Attributive adj., 438, 2. -atus, nouns in, 318; adjs. in, 323. Au^ 9, 16 ; changed, 341, 3. Audio ^ w. Pred. Noun, 362, 2, (1). Audiens^ w. two datives, 390, 3. Aureus^ the coin, Y12. Auterriy place of, 602, III. Authority, long or short by, 609, 2. Authors, Latin, Y06. Avidus, w. gen., 399, 2; w. dat., 399, 5 ; w. acc. and prep., 399, 5. -ax, genit, of nouns in, 92 ; verbals in, 328 ; w. gen., 399, 2. B CHANGED top, 258. j Being angry, verbs of, w. dat., 385. Being distant, constr. of verbs of, 556, III. Believing, verbs of, w. dat., 386. Belli, constr., 424, 2. Beyie, compared, 305, 2 ; w. verbs of buying, 416, 3. Benefiting, verbs of, w. dat., 385. Bibi, quantity of, 651, 2. -bilis, verbals in, 328. Bonus, deck, 148; compar., 165; honi consulo, 402, 3. Bos, deck of, 66. Brachycatalectic, 663, III. Brazen age, Y06, III. -brum, nouns in, 320. -bs, genit, of nouns in, 86. Bucolic caesura, 6Y3, 2. -Bulum, nouns in, 320. -bundus, verbals in, 328 ; w. acc. 3Y1, Y. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 339 C SOUND of, 17 ff. Nouns in, j 74; gend.. 111. (7, quantity of final syllables in, 621. Caelum^ plur. caeli^ 143, 1. Caesura, caesural pause, 662 ; in hexam., 673 ff. ; in anapaestic verse, 678 ; in trochaic, 680 ; in iambic, 683, IV. ; 686. Calendar, Roman, 707. Calends, 708, I. 1. Calling, verbs of, w. two accs., 373. Caput, decl. of, 58; w. verbs of condemning, 410, 6. Carhasfus, gend. of, 63. Cardinals, 172, 174 ; decl. of, 175 ff. Cases, etymology of, — Endings of, 46, 1 ; in 1st dec., 48 ; in 2d dec., 51, 2 ; in 3d dec., 57 ff. ; in 4th dec., 116; in 6th dec., 120; gen- eral endings, 122. Greek cases, 60, 64, 68. Cases of adjs., 151-158. Cases, syntax of, 364-435, — charac- terized, 364 ; kindred, 365 ; nom., 364 ff. ; voc., 369 ; accus., 370- 381; dat., 382-392; gen., 393- 411; abl., 412-431; w. preposi- tions, 432-437. Catalectic verse, 663, III. 1. Causa, gratia, 414, 2, 3). Causal conjunctions, 310, 311 ; 587, V. ; 688, VII. Causal sentences, 360. Cause, abl. of, 414. Cause, Subj. of, 617-523, — Rule, 617, 621; w. quum, 518; qui, 619 ; quod, quia, quoniam, quan- do, 620 ; dum, donec, quoad, 522 ; antequam, priusquam, 623. Cause, denoted by part., 578, II. Causing, constr. of verbs of, 658, IV. Cave, w. subj. for imperat., 535, I. Caveo, constr., 385, 3. -ce, in pronouns, 186. Celo, constr., 374, 2 and 3. -cen, compounds in, 339, 2. Certo, w. dat., 385, 5. Certus, w. gen., 399, (2). Ch, 4, 3 ; sound of, 11, 1. Changes, euphonic, 26 ff. ; in vow- els, 27 ff. ; in consonants, 33 ff. ; in stems, 258. Characteristic, gen. of, 396, IV. ; abl. of, 428 ; gen. and abl. distin- guished, 428, 4. Choliambus, 683, 4. Choosing, verbs of, w. two accs., 373. Choriambic verse, 689 ff. Cingo, constr. of, 374, 7. -cio, derivatives in, 315, 5. Circa, circiter, w. acc., 433. Circum, in compds., 338, 2 ; compds., w. acc., 371, 4; w. two accs., 374, 6. Circumdo, circum- fundo, constr., 384, 1. Circum, w. acc., 433. Cis, citra, w. acc., 433. Citerior, compared, 166. Citum, quantity of, 651, 3. Clam, w. acc. or abl., 437, 3. Clauses, as nouns, gender of, 42. Prin. and sub. clauses, 345, 1 and 2. Clause as object, 371, 5 ; as abl. absol., 431, 4; as antece- dent, 446, 7. Indirect questions, clauses w. infin., subj., and w. quod, compared, 564. Arrange- ment of, 603 ff. Cognate accus., 371, 1. Coins, Roman, 712. -cola, compounds in, 339, 2. Collective nouns, 39. Coins, gender of, 63. Com, con for cum, in compds., 338, 2 ; w. dat., 386. Combined objects, 354, 3. Comitor, w. acc. or dat., 386, 3. Command, subj. of, 487 ff. Constr. of verbs of, 386 ; 558, VI. Common nouns, 39 ; com. quantity, 23. Commoneo, commonefacio, constr., 410, 3. Communis, constr., 391, 2, 4) ; 899, 3. Commuto, constr. of, 416, 2. Comparative conjs., 311; 588, II. Comparative degree, 160 ; wanting, 167 ; formed by magis, 170. Com- paratives w. gen., 396, 2, 3) (2) ; w. abl., 417; w. quam, 417, 1; w. force of too, 444, 1 ; before and after quam, 444, 2 ; w. quam and the subj., 501, IV. Comparative view, of deck, 123 ; of conjugation, 240 ff. Comparison, — of adjs., 160; modes of, 161 ; terminational, 162 ff. ; irreg., 163 ff. ; defect., 166 ff. ; 340 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. adverbial, 170. Use of, 444 ; in adverbs, 444, 4. Compleo^ constr., 410, 7. Complex sentences, 345, 357; abridged, 358 if. Comp, ele- ments, 350; subject, 352; predi- cate, 354. Compos^ 157, 2; w. gen, or abL, 399, (3); 419, III. Composition of words, 313, 338 ff. Compound nouns, — decl. of, 125 ff. ; composition of, 339 ; comp, ad- jectives, 340 ; verbs, 341 ; prin. parts of, 214; comp, adverbs, 342. Comp, sentences, 345, 360 ; abridged, 361. Com. subject, predicate, modifier, 361, 1-3. Compounds of preps, w. acc., 371, 4 ; w. two accs., 374, 6. Computation of money, 713, Con^ see com. Concealing, verbs of, w. two accs., 374. Concedo., constr,, 551, II. 2, Concession, subj. of, 514 ff. ; parti- ciple, 578, IV. Concessive conjunctions, 311 ; 588 IV. Condemning, constr. of verbs of, 410, 5. Condition, — conjunctions of, 311, 588. Subj, of, 502; force of tenses, 504 ; w. moc?o, dum- modo., 505 ; ac si, ut si, etc., 506 ; si, nisi, etc., 507 ff. ; si omitted, 503, 1 ; condition supplied, 503, 2 ; first form, 508 ; second, 509 ; third, 510; mixed forms, 611, 512. Condition in relative clauses, 613 ; in oratio obliqua, 532, 2 and 3 ; denoted by parti- ciple, 678, III. Conditional sentences, 502 ff. Confido, w. dat., 385, 1 ; w. abl., 419. Conjugation, 200 ff, ; of sum, 204. First conj., 205 ff., 259 ff. ; sec- ond, 207 ff., 264 ff. ; third, 209 ff., 272 ff.; fourth, 211 ff., 284 ff. ; of verbs in io of the 3d conj., 221. Periphrastic, 231 ff. Contrac- tions and peculiarities, 234 ff. Comparative view of conj., 240. Conj. of irreg. verbs, 289 ff. ; of defect, 297 ; of impersonal, 298 ff. Conjunctions, 303 ; coordinate, use of, 587 ; subordinate, use of, 688. Place of, in sentence, 602, III. Conscius, w. gen., 399,(2); w. abl., 399, 6 ; w. gen. and dat, 399, 6. Conscius mihi sum, constr., 551, 3. Consecutive conjunctions, 311, 688. Consonants, 3, I. ; double, 4, 2 ; sounds of, 10 ff, 17. Changes in, 33 ff. Consors, w. gen., 399 (3). Constituo, constr,, 558, II. Consuesco, w. abl., 386, 2. Consuetudo, consuetudinis est, con- str., 656, I. 1. Consulo, const., 386, 3, Consultus, w. gen., 399, (2), Contentus, w, abl., 419, IV, Continental pronunciation, 19, Contingit, constr,, 556, IL Contra, w. accus., 433, Contracted syllables, quantity of, 610. Contractions, in conj., 234 ff. Contrarius, constr., 391, 2, 4). Convicting, constr. of verbs of, 410. Coordinate conjunctions, 309. Copulative conjunctions, 310, 687. CopuL sentences, 360. Coram, w. abl., 434. Countries, gender of names of, 42. -cnrni, nouns in, 320. Cuicuimodi, 187, 6. Cujas, 185, 3. Cujus, 186, 3 ; cujusmodi, cujus- cumquemodi, 187, 6. -culum, nouns in, 320. -culus, cula, culum, nouns in, 315 ; adjs. in, 327. Cum, appended, 184, 9; 187, 3; cum, com, in compds., 338, 2. Cum, w. abl., 434. -eundus, verbals in, 328. Cuncti, omnes, w. gen., 396, III. 2, 3). Cupidus, w. gen., 399, 2. Cupiens, idiomatic use of dat., 387, 3. Cupio, constr., 651, II. 1 and 2. D DROPPED before s, 36 ; quan- ) tity of final syllables in, 621. Dactylic verse, 670 ff. Dactylico- iambic, 693. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 341 Dama^ gcnd. of, 48, 5. Damni infecti^ w. verbs of promis- ing, 409, 5. Dates, Lat. and Eng., 710. Dative, formation of, — in 1st dec., 49, 4 ; in 3d dec., 58, 2 ; in 4th dec., 117; in 5th dec., 120. Dative, syntax of, 382-392, — with verbs, 384 if. Of advant. and dis- advant , 385. W. compds., 386. Of possessor, 387. Of agent, 388. Ethical dat., 389. Two dat., 390. W. adjs., 391. W. nouns and adv., 392. Of gerunds, etc., 564. W. verbs of Separ., 425, 2, 3). DMum^ quantity of, 651, 8. De^ in compds. w. dat., 386, 2. De w. abl., 434. Decerno^ constr., 558, 11. Decipio^ w. gen., 409, 4 ; 410, 7. Declarative sentence, 346. Declaring, constr. of verbs of, 551. Declension, 46 ; first, 48 ; second, 51; third, 55; fourth, 116; sec- ond and fourth, 119; fifth, 120. Comparative view of decl., 123. Decl. of compds., 125. Dkl% quantity of, 651, 2. Dedoceo y constr., 374, 2 and 3. Defective nouns, 120, 4; 129; def. adjs., 159 ; def. comparison, 166 ; def. verbs, 297. Deliberative questions, w. the subj., 486, II. Demanding, constr. of verbs of, 374 ; 658, VI. Demonstratives, 1 86 ; use of, 460. Denarius^ 712. Dentals, 3. Deponent verbs, 225 ; 465, 2. Derivation, 313; of nouns, 314 ff.; of adjs., 322 if. ; of verbs, 330 If. ; of adverbs, 333 ff. Derivatives, quantity of, 653 ; quan- tity of deriv. endings, 645 ff. Desideratives, 332, III. Desino^ w. gen., 409, 4. Desire, subj. of, 487 ff. ; in assevera- tions, 488, 4; in relat. clauses, 488, 6. Desiring, constr. of verbs of, 661. Desisto^ w. gen., 409, 4. Despero^ w. acc., 871, 3. Deterior^ compared, 166. Deterreo^ constr., 499, 1, 2. Dem^ 61, 5. Diaeresis, 669, III. Diana^ quantity of, 612, 3. Diastole, 669, IV. Die for dice^ 237. -dicus, compds. in compared, 164. Dido^ 68. Difference, abl. of, 418. Differing, dat. w. verbs of, 385, 4. Differo^ w. dat., 385, 4. Dignor^ constr., 419, 2. Dignus^ constr., 419 ; dignus^ qui, w. subj., 501, III. Dimeter, 663, 2. Diminutive nouns, 315 ; dim. adjs., 327 ; dim. verbs, 332, IV. Diphthongs, 4 ; sounds of, 9, 16 ; quantity of, 610. Dipody, 666, 2. Direct object, 354, 1 ; 371. Dis, di, 338, 3. Disadvantage, dat of, 385. Discrepo, w. dat., 386, 4. Disjunctive conjs., 810 ; 687 ; sen- tences, 360. Dispar, constr., 391, 2, 4). Displeasing, verbs of, w. dat., 885. Dissentio, w. dat., 386, 4. Dissimilis, constr., 391, 2, 4). Dissyllabic perfects and supines, quantity of, 651. Distance, abl. of, 378, 2. Distich, 666. Disto, w. dat., 385, 4. Distributives, 172 ; 174 ; decl. of, 179. Diu, compared, 305, 4. Dius, quantity of, 612, 3. Diversus, compared, 167. Dives, compared, 166, 2. Doceo, constr., 374, 2 and 3. Doleo, w. accus., 371, 3 ; w. clause, 668, V. ; w. abl., 414, 2, 1). Domus, decl. of, 119; gend., 118; constr., 379, 3 ; 424, 2. Donee, w. indie, or subj., 521 ff. Dono, constr., 384, 1. Double constr. of a few verbs, 384, 1. Double consonants, 3. Due for duce, 237. Dum, dummodo, w. subj., 603 ff. ; w. ind. or subj., 521 ff. Duo, decl. of, 175. 42 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. T? SOUND of, 6, 15. Nouns in Ijj e, — 1st dec., 50; 3d dec., 63; gend.. 111. in Greek acc. plur., 68, 6 ; for ei in gen. and dat., 120, 3 ; in adverbs, 335 ; changed to iy 341, 3. By quantity of — in e^, 120, 2; final, 616 ; in increments of deck, 635 ; of conjugation, 641. B or eXy see ex. ^ccewith demonstratives, 186, 4; in exclamations, 367, 3; 381, 3. BcquiSy 188, 3. Bcquidy 346, II. 2. BdoceOy constr., 374, 2 and 3. BgenuSy w. gen. or abl., 399, (3); 419, III. BgeOy constr., 409, 1. EgOy deck of, 184. BheUy quantity of, 612, 2. Biy 9, 16. Ely quantity of, 612, 2. -eis, in patronymics, 316. -eius, quantity of, 612, 2. Ejiismo'diy 186, 5. -ela, nouns in, 320, 7. Elegiac distich, 676, 2. Elegiambus, 693, 1. Elements of sentences, 347 flf Ellipsis, 704 ; of facio, oro, 367, 3 ; 602, II, 3. -olluSj ella, ellum^ nouns in, 315 ; adjs. in, 327, 1. Emotion, constr. of verbs of, 651 ; 558, V. Emphasis and euphony in the ar- rangement of words, 594. -en, nouns in, 76 ; en in Greek acc., 50, 68 ; with demonstratives, 186, 4 ; in exclamations, 367, 3 ; 381, 3. Enallage, 704, III. Enclitics, accent of, 25, 3 ; quantity of, 613, 1. Errloavoring, constr. of verbs of, 558, III. Endings, 46 ; in 1st dec., 48 ; in 2J dec., 61, 2; in 3d dec., 67 ff; in 4th dec., 116; in 5th dec., 120; in comparison, 162 ; in conjuga- tion, 241 fif. English pronunciation of Latin, 6 fif. Enim, place of, 602, III. -ensis, adjs. in, 326 ff. -entior, entissimus, in compari- son, 164. Envying, verbs of, w. dat., 385. Eoy w. gen., 396, 2, 4). Epenthesis, 703, 5. Epicene nouns, 43, 3. Epichoriambic verse, 690. Epiphora, 704, II. 4. Epitome, dec. of, 60. Epulum, plur., epulae, 143. -er, gend. of nouns in, 61, 99. Adjs. in, 153; comparison of, 163, 1. Adverbs in, 335. -ere, for erunt, 236. Erga, w. acc., 433. Ergo, w. gen., 411. -es, nouns in, 58, 64, 120; genitive of, 80, 81; gender of, 104, 109, 120. -es, final, sound of, 8, 1 ; quantity of, 624. -esco, inceptives in, 332, II. -esso, essim, in fut., perf., and perf. subj., 239, 4 ; esso, verbs in, 232. -ester, adjs. in, 326, 1. -etas, nouns in, 319, 1. Ethical dative, 389. Etiamsi, etsi,w. subj., 615, 516, HI. -etum, nouns in, 317. Etymology, 37-342. Eu, sound of, 9. Euphonic clianges, 26 ff. ; in vowels, 27 ff. ; in consonants, 33 ff. ; be- fore si, sum, turn, 258 ; in prep- ositions, 338, 2. Euphony, see Emphasis. -eus, adjs. in, 324, 326. Evenit, constr., 556, II. -ex, genit, of nouns in, 93. Ex, e, in compds. w. dat. 386, 2 . Ex, w. abk, 434. Exchanging, constr. of verbs of, 416, 2. Exclamatory sentences, 346, IV.; accus. in, 381 ; voc., nom., dat. in, 381, 3 ; infinitive in, 563, III. Exoro, constr., 374, 2. Expers, exsors, w. gen., 399, (3). Exterus, compared, 163, 3. Extra, w. acc., 433. Extremum est, constr., 666, I. 2. Exuo, constr., 374, 7 ; 384, 1. F AC, iov face, 237. Facio, w. pred. gen., 403. Facio ut, w. subj.=: indie., 489, 1. Falsum est, constr., 556, I. 2. Falsus, compared, 167. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 343 Fames^ abl. fame^ 137, 2. Familia^ genitive of, 49, 1. Fearing, constr. of verbs of, 492, 4. Feeling, constr. of verbs of, 551 ; 558, V. Feet, metrical, 656 ff. Feminine, 42. Fer^ iov fere^ 237. Fertilis^ w. gen., abl., or acc., 399, 2, (3) and 5. -fex, compds. in, 339, 2. -ficus, adjs. in, compared, 164. Fido^ w. dat., 385 ; w. abl., 419. Figures, — of prosody, 669 ; of ety- mology, 703 ; of syntax, 704; of Rhetoric, 705, Filling, constr. of verbs of, 410, 7. Final conjs., 311 ; 588, V. Final syllables, quantity of, 613 If. ; final syllable of the verse, 665. Finite, or definite moods, 196 ; finite verb, 196. FlOy quantity of, 612, 3. Fi^y constr., 556, II. FlagiiOy w. two accs., 374, 2 ; w. subj., 658, VI. Focly locat, of place, 424, 3. Following, constr. of verbs of, 556, III. Formation, — of cases, 46 ; of parts of verbs, 201 ff.; of words,3 13-342. Fractions, 174, 1. Freeing, constr. of verbs of, 410, 7. Frenurriy igl.y freniy frenay 143. Frequentativos, 332. FretuSy w. abl., 419, IV. Frugiy indecl., 159; compared, 165. FruoTy constr., 419. Fungor y constr., 419. FuroTy w. dat., 425, 2. Future, 197 ; 215, 1. ; in indie., 470; w. force of imperat., 470, 1 ; for Eng. pres., 470, 2 ; w. meZm9,470, 3. Wanting in subj., 479; how supplied, 481, III. 1. In imperat., 634, 537 ; fut. for pres., and pres, for fut., 534, 1 and 2. In infin., 543 ff. ; circumlocution for, 544. In part., 573. Future Perfect, 197 ; 215, II. ; in in- die., 473; to denote certainty, 473, 1 ; for Eng. pres., 473, 2. Wanting in subj., 479 ; how sup- plied, 481, III. 2. Futurum essCy fuissCy forCy uty 644, 1-3. Futurum sit uty 481, III. 1 and 2. G SOUND of, 11 ff., 17; changed, , 258. GaudeOy constr., 371, 3; 551, III.; 558, V. ; 414, 2. GemOy w. accus., 371, 3. Gems, gender of names of, 53. Gender, 42 ff. ; in 1st dec., 48 ; in 2d dec., 51, 63; in 3d dec., 99- 115 ; in 4th dec., 118 ; in 5th dec., 121 ; general table of, 124. Genitive, endings of, 47 ; in 1st dec., 48 ; as for «e, um for arumy 49 ; in 2d dec., 51 ; i for iiy um for orumy 52 ; o or on, 64 ; in 3d dec., 69-98; in 4th dec., 116; uis for icSy 117; in 5th dec., 120; o or i for eiy 120, 3. In adjectives, 151- 158. Genitive, how rendered, 393, 393, 1 . Genitive, syntax of, 393-411, — with nouns, 395 ; varieties, 396 ; pecu- liarities, 397 ; other constrs. for gen., 398. W. adjs., 399. W. verbs, 401 ff. Pred. gen., 401 ff. ; other constrs. for, 404. In special con- strs., 405 ff. Acc. and gen., 410. W. adverbs, 411. Gen. of ge- runds and gerundives, 663. GeniiuSy w. abl., 425, 3. Gentile nouns, 326, 3. Gerund, — Nature of, 559. Cases of, 560. Ger. and Infin., 560, 2. W. direct object, 661. Gerundive, 662; of utory fruory etc., 662, 4. Pass, sense of Ger., 662, 6. Gen- itive of ger. and gerundive, 563 ; ger. when preferred, 663, 2 ; ge- rundive with meiy nosfriy etc., 663, 4 ; of purpose, 663, 5 ; infin. for ger., 663, 6. Dat. of, 664 ; of purpose, with official names, 564, 2 and 3. Accus. of, 565 ; w. ob- ject, 565, 2 ; of purpose, 665, 3. Abl. of, 566. Gloriory w. abl., 414, 2. Gloriosum esty 656, I. 2. Glyconie verse, 664, 689. GnaruSy w. gen., 399, (2). Golden age, 706. 344 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Greek nouns, — in 1st dec., 60 ; in 2d dec., 64 ; in 3d dec., 68. Gutturals, 3. H a breathing, 2. j Hadria^ gender of, 48, 6. Happening, constr. of verbs of, 656, II. Haud^ ne^ non^ 684. Hendecasyllabic verse, 691, Y. Hendiadys, 704, II. 2. Hephthemimeris, 656, 2. Heroic verse, 664. Heros ^ decl. of, 68. Heteroclites, 135 ff. Heterogeneous nouns, 141 if. Hexameter verse, 663, 2. Dactylic, 671. Hic^ iste^ ille^ decl. of, 186, ; use of, 450. Hie and ille^ redundant, 450, 4, 2). Hie (adv.), w. gen., 396, III. 4). Hipponactean, 683, 4. Historical tenses, 198, 2 ; hist, pres- ent, 467, III. ; hist, perfect, 471, II. Hodie^ quantity of, 654, 8. Horace, versification of, 698 ff. Lyric metres of, 700. Index, 701. Horreo^ w. accus., 371, 3. Huc^ w. gen., 396, III. 4). Hujusmodi^ 186, 5. Humus^ gender of, 53 ; constr. of Jiumi^ 424, 2. Hypallage, 704, III. 2. Hyperbaton, 704, lY. Hyperbole, 705, Y. Hypercatalectic verse, 663, III. Hypermeter, 663, III. Hypothetical sentences, see Condi- tional ditto. Hysteron proteron, 704, lY. 2. T SUPPLIES the place of j, 2, 3 ; J-j sound of, 6 if. ; 16 ; with the sound of y, 7 ; 4, 4) ; 15, 3 ; i for u, iCy 52. Nouns in, 71 ; gender of. Ill ; i, final in abl., 62 ff. ; for eiy 120, 3 ; in perfect, 247, 2. /, quantity of, — ^final, 618 ; in incre- ments of decl., 636 ; of conjuga- tion, 643. •ia, nouns in, 319; in nom., acc., and voc. plur., 63. -iacus, adjs. in, 326. -iades, in patronymics, 316. lambelegus, 694, 1. lambic verse, — Dipody, 682. Tri- meter, 683 ; choliambus, 683, 4 ; catalectic, 684. Dimeter, 685 ; hypermeter, 686, 1 ; catalectic, 685, 2 ; acephalous, 685, 3. Te- trameter, 686. lambico-dactylic verse, 694. -ianus, adjs. in, 326. -ias, in patronymics, 316. -ibam, for iebam^ 239, 1. -ibo, ibor, for iam^ iar^ 239, 2. -icius, adjs. in, 324. Ictus, 659. -icus, adjs. in, 325 if. Idern^ deck, 186; w. dat., 391, 3; use of, 451. Idem — qui^ ac or at- que^ 451, 5. Ides, of the calendar, 708, 1. 3. -ides, in patronymics, 316. -ido, nouns in, 320, 7. Idoneus qui^ w. subj., 601, III. -idus, verbals in, 328. -iensis, adjs. in, 326. -ier, for i in infin., 239, 6. Igitur^ place in the clause, 602, III. Ignarus^ w. gen., 399, (2). -igo, nouns in, 320, 7. -ile, nouns in, 317. -iiis, adjs. in, 325, 328 ; compared, 163, 2. Illative conjs., 310; 587, lY. ; sen- tences, 360. Ille^ decl. of, 186 ; use of, 450. lUic for ille^ 186, 3. -illo, verbs in, 832, lY. -illus, ilia, ilium, in nouns, 316, 3 ; in adjs., 327, 1. -im, in acc. 62 ; for exm, or em in pres, subj., 239, 3. Immemor^ w. gen., 399, 2. -imonia, nouns in, 819. Impedio^ constr., 499, 1, 2. Imperative, 196. Tenses, 634. Use, 535, if. ; pres., 536 ; fut., 637 ; in prohibitions, 538. Imperative sentences, 346, III. Imperfect tense, 197; 215, I.; w. jamdiu^ etc. 467, 2. In indie., 468 if; in lively description, of custom- ary or repeated action, 469 ; of at- tempted action, in letters, 469, 1 and 2. In Subj., 477; of present INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 345 time, 481, V.; after Perf. Def., 48:2, 1; for Pluperf., 486, 4; in desires and wishes, 488, 2; in condition, 510; after antequam priusquam^ 623, 2. Imperitus^ w. gen. 399, (2). Impero^ constr., 651, II. 1 and 2. Impersonal verbs, 298 fif. ; subjects of, 666, I.-III. Imperito^ constr., 384, 1. Impleo, constr., 410, 7. Impos, 167, 2 ; w. gen., 399, (3). Impotens, w. gen., 399, (3). Imprudens, w. gen., 399, (2). -in, in Greek accs., 68. In, incompds., 338, 2 ; w. two accs., 374, 6 ; w. dat., 386. In, acc, or abl., 435. In loco, or in numero, w. genit., 362, 2, (3). Inceptives, inchoatives, 832, II. Incertus, w. gen., 399, (2). Inclination, subj. of, 486, 3. Inclutus, compared, 167. Increments, 629 ff. ; quantity of, 632 ff., 639 ff. Indeclinable nouns, gepder of, 42; examples, 128. Indepl. adjs., 159. Indefinite moods, 196. Indefinite propouns, 18y ; use of, 455 ff. \ Index of verbs, 721. Indicative, 196 ; use of, 474 ff. ; spe- cial uses, 476. Indigeo, constr., 409, 1. Indignus, w. abl., 419, IV. ; indignus qui, w. subj., 501, III. Indirect discourse, distinguished from direct, 528. Subj. in, 529. Moods in prin. clause, 630 ; in sub. clause, 531. Tenses, 532 ; Pro- , nouns, adverbs, etc., 633. Indirect object, 364, 2. Rule, 384 : indirect w. direct, 384, II. Indirect questions, 524 ff., — Subj. in, 625. Indie, in, 625, 6 ; in orat. obliqua, 530, II. 2 ; sing, and dou- ble, 526. Induco, constr., 374, 7. Indulging, verbs of, w. dat., 385. Induo, constr., 374, 7; 384, 1. -ine, in patronymics, 316, 5. -ineus, adjs. in, 324. Inferus, compared, 163, 3. Infinitive, 196, II. Tenses of, 540 ff. Subject of, 645 ; of Hist, in- fin., 545, 1. Predicate after, 646 ; attracted, 547. Construction of, 548 ff. ; as Nom., 549 ; as Accus., 550 ff. ; w. another acc., 552, 2 ; in relative clauses, 631, 1 ; after conjunctions, 631, 2 ; after adjs., 652, 3 ; after preps., 652, 4 ; in special constrs., 553 ; as pred., 653, I. ; as appos., 553, II. ; in exclam., 553, III. ; as abl. abs., 653, IV. ; of Purpose, 553, A. ; for Gerund, 653, VI. Infra, w. acc., 433. Ingenii, w. adjs., 399, 3. Injuring, verbs of, w. dat., 385. Innitor, constr., 419. Inops, w. gen. or abl., 399, (3) ; 419, Inscius, w. gen., 399, (2). Inseparable preps., 307 ; 664, 2. Inspergo, constr., 384, 1. Instrument, abl. of, 414, 4. Insuesco, w. abl., 386, 2. Insuetus, w. gen., 399, (2); w. other constrs., 399, 6. Insuper, w. acc., 437, 3. Integer, w. gen., 399, 3. Inter, in compds., 338, 2 ; w. dat., 386. Inter, w. acc., 433. Intercludo, constr., 384, 1. Interest, w. gen., 406, III. Interior, compared, 166. Interjections, 312 ; w. voc., 369, 1 ; w. nom., acc., or dat., 381, 3 ; use of, 689 ff. Interrogative conjunctions, 311, 688. Interrogative pronouns, 188 ; use of, 454. Interrogative sentences, — Form, 346, II. Interrog., words, 346, ll. 1. Double quest., 346, II. 2. Deliber, quest., 486, II. Answers, 346, II. 3. Indirect quest., 525 ; w. indie., 525, 6 ; single and dou- ble, 526. In indirect discourse, 629 ff. ; rhetorical que?t., 630, 2. Interrogo, w. two accs., 374, 2 ; w. acc. and abl., 374, 2, 3. Intra, w. accus., 433. Intransitive verbs, 193 ; 371,3; im- personal pass., 466, 1. -inus, adjs. in, 824 ff. Invidus, w. gen. or dat., 399, 2, 2). 346 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Invitu^^ idiomatic use of dat., 887, 3. -io, verbs of 3d conj. in, 221 If. ; nouns in, 318, 321. Ionic verse, 687. -ior, in comparatives, 162. Ipse^ decl. of, 186 ; use of, 452. Ipsus^ for ipse^ 186, 4. Iron age, 706. Irony, 705, lY. ; in condition, 503, 3. Irregular nouns, 127 tf. ; irreg. adjs., 159 ; irreg. comparison, 163 ff. Irregular pi^cip^ parts of vi|rbs, 259-288 ; irreg. verbs, 287 ff.' Ts, decl. of, 186; use of, 451; re- flexive, 448 ; redundant, 450, 4. Is — qui^ 451, 4. -is, in acc., dat., and a%l. plur., of 8d decl., 58, 2 ; 62. I^ouns in w, 82 ; gender of, 105. ^ -is, in patronymics, 316; quantity of is final, 626. -isco, inceptives in, 332, 11. Islands, gend. of names of, 42 ; con- str. of names of, 424. -issimus, in superlatives, 162. -isso, verbs in, 332. Iste^ decl. of, 186 ; use of, 450. Istic^ isthic, for iste^ 186, 2. Ita-si, only if, 503, 4. -itas, nouns in, 319. -itek a^v^s in, 335. ithyphalicus, 681, 2. -itia, nouns in, 319. -itimuSj adjs. in, 325, 1. -itium, nouns in, 318. -ito, frequentatives in, 332. -itudo, nouns in, 319. Jfuniy quantity of, 651, 3. -itus, nouns in, 318 ; adjs. in, 323 ; adverbs in, 334, 2. -ium, in genit, plur., 62 ff. ; nouns in, 318 ff. -ius, adjs. in, 326; quantity of, 612, 3. -iXj genitive of nouns in, 94. J PLACE supplied by i, 2 ; length- y ens preceding vowel, 611. Jecur y genitive of, 77, lY. JocuSy \\.y jociy jocay ML JoheOy constr., 551, II., 1 and 2. Jugerurriy decl. of, 136 ; use of, 718. Jugurriy quantity of compds. of, 611, 3. Jungo y w. dat., 385, 5. Jupiter y genitive of, 66, 3. Jusjurandumy decl. of, 126. Juvenal, versification of, 696. JuvenaliSy abl. of, 62, lY. 1. JuveniSy abl. of, 62, lY. 1 ; com- pared, 168, 3. JuvOy w. accus., 385, 1. JuxtUy w. accus., 433. K RARE, 2. y Knowing, constr. of verbs of, 551, I. 1. L NOUNS in, 63 ; genit, of, 75 ; y gender. 111 ff. ; quantity of final syllables in, 621. Labials, 3. Labor Oy w. abl., 414, 2. Lacrimo y w. accus., 371, 3. LeadOy w. accus., 385, 1. Lary quantity of genii, 633, 4. LassuSy w. gen., 399, 3. Latin authors, 706. Latin grammar, 1. Latin period, 605. -lentus, adjs. in, 323. Letters, classes of, 3 ; combinations of, 4 ; sounds of, 6 ff. LiberOy w. abl. or gen., 425, 3. Libray 714. Licet y w. subj., 615. Liquids, 3. Litotes, 705, YI. lAtmUy quantity of, 651, 3. Locative, 45, 2 ; in 1st decl., 48, 4 ; in 2d decl., 61, 6 ; in 3d decl., 62, lY. 3. Syntax of, 421 ff. Logaoedic verse, 691. LongiuSy without quaniy 417, 3. -Is, genit, of nouns in, 89. M EUPHONIC changes of, 258, y 338, 2 ; quantity of final syl- lables in, 621 ; elided, 669, I. -ma, dat. and abl. plur. of nouns in, 68, 2. MagiSy maximCy in adverbial com- parison, 170. Magnus y compared, 166. Major y in expressions of age, 417, 3. Making, verbs of, w. two accs., 373 ; w. subj., 658, lY. MalOy constr., 551, II. 1 and 2. INDEX OE SUBJECTS. 347 MaluSy compared, 165. Manifestus^ w. gen., 899, 3. Manner, means, abi. of, 414 ; parti- ciple for, 578, II. Masculine, 42. Material nouns, 39, 1. Measure of difference, abl. of, 418; measure in prosody, 663, II. ; Ro- man measure, 715 ff. Med^ for me^ 184, 8. Medeor^ w. dat., 385, 2. Medius^ designating part, 441, 6. Melius^ w, indie, for subj., 475, 2-4. Melos^ plur. of, 68, 6. Meme^ 184, 7. Memini^ w. gen., 406, II. ; w. acc., 407, 1. Memor^ w. gen., 399, 2). -men, mentum, nouns in, 320 . MensUy decl. of, 48. Mepte^ 184, 8. -met, forms in, 184, 6 ; 185, 2. Metaphor, 705, I. Metathesis, 703, 7. Metonymy, 705, II. Metre, 667. Metrical equivalents and substitutes, 657, 658. Metuo^ constr., 385, 3 ; 492, 4. Meus^ decl., 185. Mi for 184, 8. Militia^ constr., 424, 2. Mille^ decl. and use of, 174, 4 ; 178. Million, cardinal for, 174 ; symbol for, 180. Million sesterces, Latin for, 713, 4. -mine, in imperatives, 239, 5. Minor ^ minus^ without quam^ 417, 3. Miror^ w. accus., 371, 3 ; w. gen., 409, 4. Mirum est^ constr. of, 556, I. 2. Mis for mei^ 184, 8. Misceo^ w. dat., or abl., 385, 5. Misereor^ miseresco^ w. gen., 406. Miseret^ constr., 410. Miserescit^ miseretur^ 410, 6. Moderor^ constr., 385, 3. Modifier, 348 ff. Modius^ 715. Modo^ w. subj., 503, 505. Moereo^ w. accus., 371, 3. Moneo ^ constr., 410, 3. Money, Roman, 712 ff. Monometer, 663, 2. 16 Monosyllables, quantity of, 613. Months, Roman, 707 ; division of, 708 ; gender of names of, 42. Moods, 196, — Indie., 474 ff. Subj., 483-533. Imperat., 634 ff. In- fin., 539-553. Gerund, 559 ff. Supine, 567 ff. Part., 571 ff. Mood-signs, 244 ff. Mos^ moris est^ constr., 656, I. 1. -ms, gen. of nouns in, 87. Multiplicatives, 173. Multus^ comparison of, 165. Mutes, 3. Muto^ constr., 416, 2. NOUNS in, 60; genit, of, 76; 9 gend. of. 111, 113 ; quantity of final syllables in, 621. Name, dat. of, 387, 1 ; gen. of, 387, 2. Names of towns, const., 423. MatuSy w. abl., 425, 3. Mcy nmUy nonnCy interrog. particles, 311, 8; in single questions, 346, II. 1 ; in double, 346, II. 2 ; in in- direct questions, 526. Ncy w. subj. of desire, 488, 3 ; of purpose, 489 ff. ; of concession, 615. Ncy nony handy 684. NcvCy 490, 1. Necncy 346, II. 2, 3) ; 526, 2, 1). Nedum y w. subj., 493, 4. Negatives, 684 ; force of two nega- tives, 685. NemOy 72; use of, 457, 1. NequaiUy indecl., 159; compared, 165, 2. Ne — quidemy 685 j 602, III. 2. Nescio aUy w. subj., 626, II. 2, 2). Nescio quiSy quomodo y etc., w. indie., 525, 4. Nescius y w. gen., 399, (2). -neus, adjs. in, 324. Neuter y decl. of, 151. Neuter adjectives, as adverbs, 335, 4 ; as cognate accus., 371, 1, 3) (2) ; as a second accus., 374, 5 ; w. partitive genit., 396, III. 2, 3) (3) ; as predicate, 438, 4. Neuter nouns, nom., acc., and voc. of, 46, 2 ; neuter by signification, 42 ; by ending, in 2d dec., 61, 63; in 3d dec.. Ill ff. ; in 4th dec., 116. Niy w. subj., 503, 607 ff. 348 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. MmiSj w. gen., 39G, III. 4). Msi, w. subj., 503, 507 if. Msi and si non^ meaning, 508, 3. Nitor ^ constr., 419. Nix^ 66. Nolo^ constr., 551, 11. 1 and 2 ; noZ^, -^7o, in prohibitions, 535, 1, 3). Nomen est^ constr., 387, 1. Nominative, syntax of, 366 if. ; as subject, 367 ; agreement of, 368 ; for voc., 369, 2. Non^ ne^ haud^ 584 ; place of non^ 602, lY., omitted, 584, 2. Non^ w. quo^ quod^ quin^ quia^ w. subj., 520, 3. Nones in the Roman month, 708, 1. 2. Nonne^ non = nonne ^ 346, II. 1. iY)s, for ego^ 446, 2. Nosier^ for meiis^ 446, 2. Nostras^ 185, 3. Nostri^ nostrum^ 396, 1 ; 446, 3. Nouns, etymology of, — gender of, 42 if. ; pers. and numb., 44 ; cases, 45; declensions, 48-126; indecl., 128 ; defect., 129 ; hetero- elites, 135 if. ; heterogeneous, 141. Nouns, syntax of, 362-437, — ^Agree- ment, 362 if. Nom., 364 if. ; Yoc., 369 ; Accus., 370-381; Dat., 382-392; Gen., 393-411; Abl., 412-431; w. preps., 432- 437. NovuSy compared, 167. Noxius^ w. gen., 399, 3. -ns, genit, of nouns in, 90, Nnho^ w. dat., 385, 2. Ndlm, decl. of, 151 ; use of, 457; for non^ 457, 3.. Nmn^ numquid^ 346, II. 1 and 2. Number, 44; in verbs, 199. Numerals, 171 if; adjs., 172 ff. ; decl. of, 175 if; symbols, 180; adverbs, 181. -nus, adjectives in, 324. Nusquam^ w. gen., 396, III. 4). 0 SOUND of, 6 if, 15 ; nouns in, 9 60, 72 ; gend., 99, 100 ; de- rivatives in, 320, 6 ; 331. 0, quantity of, — final, 620 ; in in- crements, 634, 642 ; in compds., 654, 7. Oh, in compds., 338, 2 ; in compds. 17 , dat., 386. Oh^ w. acc., 433. Ohediens, w. two datives, 390, 3. Obeying, verbs of, w. dat., 385. Object, direct, indirect, combined, 354; direct, 371; omit, 371, 1, (3); clause as an object, 371, 5; 557 if See Subject and object clauses. Objective genitive, 396, II. Oblique cases, 45, 1 ; use of, 370- 437. Obliviscor, w. gen., 406, II. ; other constrs., 407. Obsisio, obsto, constr., 499, 1, 2. Odor, compared, 166. Oe, sound of, 9, 16. Officio, constr., 499, 1, 2. Ohe, quantity, 612, 4. -olentus, adjectives in, 323. Oleo and redoleo, w. acc., 371, 3. Ollus, for ille, 186, 4. -oius, ola, olum, in diminutives, — in nouns, 315, 2 ; in adjs., 327, 1. Omnes, w. gen., 396, III. 2, 3). -on, in Greek gen. plur., 68, 4. -one, in patronymics, 316, 5. Operam do^ w. subj., 492, 1. Optimum est, constr., 556, I. 2. Opus, constr., 419. -or, gender of nouns in, 99, 101 ; derivation of, 320 if. Oratio obliqua, see Indirect dis- course. Ordinal numbers, 172, 174; decl. of, 179. Oro, w. two aces., 374, 2 ; w. subj, or infill , 558, YI. 3. Orpheus, 68. Orthography, 2-36. Ortus, w. abl., 425, 3. -os, nouns in, 61 ; genit, of, 83 ; gend., 99, 102. -os, for is in the genitive, 68. -os final, sound of, 8, 1 ; quantity, 625. -osus, adjs. in, 323. Ovid, versification of, 697. -ox, genit, of nouns in, 95. P ALAM, w. abl., 437, 2. Fanthus, voc. of, 54, 4. Far and dispjar, constr., 391, 2, 4). Paragoge, 703, 6. Pardoning, verbs of, w. dat., 385. Paroemiac verse, 664. INDEX OP SUBJECTS. 349 ParSy in fractions, 174, 1. Particeps^ genit, of, 158, 2 ; w. gen., 399, (3). Participles, 196, II. 4 ; as predicate adjs. w. 575, 1. Tenses, relative time, 571. Agreement and use, 438 and 575 if. For rel. clause, 577. For sub. clause, — time, cause, manner, means," condition, concession, purpose, 578. For prin. clause, 579. For verbal noun, 580. W. negative, 581. Particles, etymology of,— Adverbs, 303 ff. ; preps., 306 tf. ; con- juncts., 308 ff. ; interjects., 312. Particles, syntax of, 582-590, — Ad- verbs, 582 IF. ; preps., 586, 432- 437 ; conjuncts., 587 IF. ; inter- jects., 589 ft*. Partim^ w. gen., 396, III. 4). Par- tim — partim^ lov pars — pars^ 461, 5. Partitive genitive, 396, IIIv Partitive appositive, 363, 4. Parts of speech, 38. Parum ^ w. gen., 396, III. 4). Parvus^ compared, 165. Passive voice, 195 ; passive constr., 371, 6. ■ Paterfamilias^ decl. of, 126. Patior^ constr., 551, II. 1, 2. Patrials, 326, 2. Patronymics, 316. Pause, caesural, 662. Peculiarities in conjug., 234 IF. Pelagus^ plur. and gend. of, 53, 54, 4. Penes ^ w. accus., 433. Pentameter, 663, 2. Penthemimeris, 656, 2. Penults, quantity of, 645 IF. Per, in compds., 338, 2; 371, 4; per^ w. acc., 433. Per me stat^ 499, 1. Perceiving, constr. of verbs of, 551. Percontor^ \v. two accs., 374, 2. Perfect, 197; 215, 2; pres, and hist., or definite and indef., 198 ; wanting, 267, 281, 284, 2. Perfect, syntax of, — in indie., 471 ; def. and indef., or pres, and hist., 471 ; of what has ceased to be, 471, 1 ; w. paenc^ prope^ 471, 2 ; for Eng. pres., 471, 3 ; w. post- quam^ ut^ mt primum^ 471, 4. In subj., 478 ; in sequence, 480 ; after hist, tense, 482, 2 ; 533, 1 ; in desires and wishes, 488, 2 ; in condition, 509 ; in orat. obi., 532 IF. ; in infin., 542 ; for pres., 542, ^ -2^ In part., 574 ; for verbal noun, 580. Perfect system, 215, 2. Perfect stem, formation of, 252 ff Period, Latin, arrangement of, 605. Periphrastic conjugation, 231 ff*. Peritus^ w. gen., 399, (2). Permisceo^ w. dat., 385, 5. Permitto^ constr., 551, II. 2. Person, of nouns, 44 ; of verbs, 199. Personal pronouns, 184 ; use of, 446 ; refiex. use of, 448. Personal endings, 247 ; in perfect, 247, 2 ; in imperative, 247, 3. Persuading, verbs of, w. dat., 385. Pertaedet^ pertaesum est^ 410, 6. Peto, constr., 374, 3, 4). PA, 4. Phalaecian verse, 691, Y. Pherecratean verse, 689, II. Piget^ constr., 410. Place, abl. of, 421 ff*.; locative, 421 ff. Pleasing, verbs of, w. dat., 385. Plenty, constr. of verbs and adis. of, 419, III. Plenus^ w. gen. or abl., 399, (3) ; 419. Pleonasm, 704, II. Pluperfect, 197 ; 215, II. — in indie., 472 ; in letters, 472, 1 ; for Eng. imp., 472, 2. In subj., 478 ; se- quence, 480 ; in desires and wishes, 488, 2 ; in condition, 610 ; after antequam and prius- quam^ 623, 2 : in orat. obi., 532 ; 533, 2-4. Plural, 44; wanting, 130; with change of meaning, 132. Plus^ without quam^ 417, 3. Paenitet^ constr., 410. Polysyndeton, 704, II. 1. Pone^ w. accus., 433. Posco, w. two accs. or acc. and abl., 374, 2 ; w. subj., 568, YI. Position, long by, 611 ; short, 612. Positive, 160 ; wanting, 166. Possessives, 185; w. gen., 397, 3; for gen., 398, 3 ; w. refert and 350 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. interest^ 408, 1, 2); use of, 447; reflexive, 448. Possessor, dat. of, 387. Fost^ sound of, 8, 1. Po8t^ in compds., 338, 2 ; in compds. w. dat., 386. Fo8t^ in expressions of time, 427 ; \v. acc., 433. Po8teru8^ compared, 163, 3. Po8tremus^ force of, 442. Po8tridie^ w. gen., 411 ; w, accus., 437, 1. Po8tulOj constr., 374, 3, 4). Poten8^ w. gen., 399, (3). Potential subjunctive, 485 ff. ; in declar. sentences, 486, I. ; in de- liberative questions, 486, II. ; in sub. clauses, 486, III. ; of repeat- ed action, 486, 5. Potior^ w. gen., 409, 3 ; w. abl., 419; 419,4. Prae, in compds. w. dat., 386 ; prae, w. abl., 434. Praeditu8^ w. abl., 419, 3. Praeter^ in compds., w. accus., 371, 4 ; praeter^ w. accus., 433. Predicate, 347 ; simple, 353 ; com- plex, 354 ; compound, 361. Pred. nouns, 355, 362. Pred. adjs., 356 ; 438, 2. Pred. gen., 401 ; varieties of, 402; verbs with, 403 ; other constrs. for, 404. Pred. abl., 428, 1. Prepositions, 306 ; insep., 307 ; in compds., 338, 2. In expressions of time and space, 378, 1 and 2. W. names of places, 379, 1, 2, and 4. Pro with abl., 384, 2, 2). Compds. w. dat., 386. A or ah w. abl. of agent, 388, 1 ; 414, 5. Case w. prep, for the dat., 391, 2 ; for the gen., 398, 4 ; 399, 5 ; 407, 2 ; 410, 4. Cum w. abl. of accompaniment, 414, 7. Quam pro, 417, 6. W. abl. of place, 421 ; of source and separation, 425; of time, 426. Preps, w. cases. Pule, 432, 434 ff. ; preps, as adverbs, 436. Present, 197; 215, I.,— in indie., 466 ff. ; w. jamdiu, etc., 467, 2 ; of general truths, customs, hist, pres., 467. In subj., 477. In imperat., 536. In infin., 541. Part., 572. Present perfect, 471, I. Present stem, formation of, 250 ff. Present system of forms, 215, I. Priapeian verse, 695. Price, gen. of, 396, IV. ; abl. of, 416. Pridie, w. gen., 411 ; w. acc., 437, 1. Primitives and derivatives, 313. Principal parts of verbs, 213 ff. ; 259-288. Prin. clauses, 345, 2 ; in oratio obliqua, 530. Prin. elements, 349 ; tenses, 198, 2. Prior, primu8, 166 ; force of, 442, 1. Priu8quam, w. indie, or subj., 521, 523. Pro, in compds. w. dat., 386, 2 ; pro, w. abl. in defense of, 384, 2, 2) ; pro, w. abl., 434. Pro, quantity of, in compds., 654, 4. Procul, w. abl., 437, 2. Proliiheo, constr., 499, 1 ; 551, II. 1. Pronouns, 182 ff. ; pers., 184; pos- ses., 185; demon., 186; relat., 187 ; interrog., 188 ; indef., 189. Pronouns, syntax of, 445-459, — Agreement, 445. Pers. and Pos- ses., 446 ff. Keflex, use of, 448 vff. Demon., 450 ff. Rel., 453. Interrog., 454. Indef., 455. Pronunciation of Latin, 5-25. Prope, w. accus., 433. Proper nouns, 39. Propior, proximus, 166; w. accus., 391, 2, 2); 433. Propius, w. accus., 437, 1. Proprius, constr., 391, 2, 4) ; 399, 3. Propter, w. accus., 433. Prosody, 607-701, — Quantity, 608- 654. Versification, 655-701. Prospicio, 385, 3. Prosthesis, 703, 4. Provideo, constr., 385, 3. Providus, w. gen., 399, (2). Proxime, w. accus., 437, 1. Proximum est, constr., 556, I. 2. Proximus, w. accus., 391, 2, 2) ; 433. Prudens, w. gen., 399, (2) ; w. abl., 399, 5. -ps, genit, of nouns in, 88. Pudet, constr,, 410. Punishment, w. verbs of condemn- ing, 410, 5. Purgo, constr., 410, 7. Purpose, subjunctive of, 489 ff. ; w. conjuncts., 490 ; pure purpose, INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 351 491 ; mixed, 492 ; peculiarities, 493 ; in rel. clauses, 500 ff. In- fin. of purpose, 553, V. ; gerund, 563, 5 ; 564, 2 ; supine, 569 ; participle, 578, V. Pt/rites^ decl. of, 50. Q U, changed, 258. Qiiaevo^ constr., 374, 3, 4). Qualis^ qualiscumque^ qualisqualis^ 187, 6; qualis^ interrog., 188, 5. Quality, characteristic, genit, of, 396, ly. ; abl. of, 428. Quam^ w. comparatives, 417, 1 ; w. superlatives, 170, 2. Quampro^ w. abl., 417, 6. Quam ut^ w. subj., 496, 2. Quam si^ w. subj., 503, 506. Quam quod^ w. subj., 520, 3. Quamquam^ w. indie, or subj., 516, 1. Quamvis, quantumvis^ w. subj., 515 fF. Quando^ w. indic, or subj., 520. Quantity, 20 ff. ; signs of, 23, 1. General rules for, 610 ff. Special, 613-654; final syllables, 613 ff. ; increments, 629 ff. ; deriv. end- ings, 645 ff. ; stem syllables, 649 ff. Quantus., 187, 6 ; indefinite, 188, 5. Quasi., w. subj., 503, 506. Qui., rel., interrog., indef., 187 ff. ; for quo., qua., 187, 2 ; 188, 3. Use of as rel., interrog., indef., 453 ff. Qui, w. subj. of purpose or result, 489, 500 ff. Qui dicitur^ vocatur., 453, 7. Quicumque., 187, 4. Quia, w. indic, or subj., 520. Quidam, indef., 191, 455. Quidem, place in clause, 602, III. Quilibet, 191 ; use of, 453. Qitin, w. subj., 489, 498. Quinam, 188, 4. Quinarius, 712, Quippe, w. relative, 519, 3, Quis, interrog., 188 ; indef. 189 ff. ; use of, 454 ff. QvAs, for quibus, 187, 2. Quisnam, 188, 4. Quispiam, 191 ; use of, 455. Quisquam, 191 ; use of, 457. Quisque, 191 ; w. abl. absol., 431, 6 ; use of, 458 ; w. plur. verb, 461, 3. Quisquis, 187, 4. Quitum, quantity of, 651, 3. Quivis, 191 ; use of, 458. Quo, w. gen., 396, III. 4) ; w. subj. of purpose, 489, 497. Quoad, w. gen., 396, III. 4) ; w. in- indic, or sub., 521 ff. Quod, expletive, 453, 6 ; w. subj., 520 ; clause w. quod unconnected, 554, ly. ; quod restrictive, 501, 3, Quojus, quoi, for cujus, cui, 187, 2. Quominus, w. subj., 499. Quoniam, w. indic, or subj., 520. Quoque, place in the clause, 602, III. Quot, quotus, 187, 6 ; 188, 5. Quum, w. subj., 515, 517 IF. ; w. in- dic., 518, 3. R for s, 35 ; 258, 1., 5. Nouns in, j 55 ; genit, of, 77 ; gender, 101, 103, 111, 114. R, quantity of final syllables in, 621. Rastrum, plur. rastri, rastra, 143. Ratum, quantity of, 651, 3. Re, red, 338, 3. -re^ for ris, 236. Reason, subj. of, 517 ff. See Cause. Recordor, w. gen., 406, II.; w, accus., 407, 1 ; w. abl. with de, 407, 2. Recuso, constr., 499, 1, 2. Reduplicated perfects, 261, 270, 273 ; quantity of, 652. Refert, constr., 406, III. ; 408. Refetrus, w. gen. or abl., 399, (2) and 5. Reflexive use of pronouns, 448 ff. Regarding, verbs of, w. two accus., 373. Regno, w. gen., 409, 3. Relative, 187 ; as adj., 445, 8 ; use of, 453. Relative clause, w. potential subj., 486, 1 ; w. subj. of desire, 488, 5 ; of purpose, result, 500 ; of result after indefinite or general antece- dents, after unus, solus, dignus, indignus, idoneus, aptus, and com- par. w. quam, 501, I.-iy. ; w. sub. of condition, 513 ; of conces- sion, 515 ; of cause, reason, 517, 519 ; w. infin., 531, 1. Reliquum est, constr., 556, I. 2. 352 mDEX OF SUBJECTS. Remaining, constr. of verbs of, 556, III. Reminding, constr. of verbs of, 410. Reminiscor^ w. gen., 406, II. Repeated action, subj. of, 486, 5. Reposco^ with two aces., 374, 2. Resisting, verbs of, w. the dat., 385. Respublica^ decl. of, 126. Restat ut^ 495, 2. Result, subjunctive of, 489 tf. ; w. conjuncts., 490 ff. ; of pure re- sult, 494 ; mixed, 495 ; peculiari- ties, 496. With relatives, 500. See Relative clause. Reticentia^ 704, 1. 3. Rhetorical questions, 530, 2. Rhythmic accent, 659. Rideo., w. accus., 371, 3. Rivers, gender of names of, 42. Roqo^ w. two aces., 374, 2 ; w. subj., 558, VI. Roman pronunciation, 15 tf. -rs, genit, of nouns in, 91. Rudis, w. gen., 399, (2); w. abl., 399, 5. Rules of Syntax, 591. Rus, constr., 379, 3 ; 424, 2. Rutum, quantity of, 651, 3. q SOUND of, 11 ff., 17 ff. ; w. c lO^ or g forms x, 33; dropped, 34; changed to r, 35. Nouns in, 61 ; genit, of, 79 tf. ; gend., 99 tf. Sacer, compared, 167 ; w. dat. or gen., 391; 399, 3, 3). Saepe, compared, 305, 4. Sapio, w. accus., 371, 3. Sapphic verse, 664 ; 690, I. ; 691, IV. ; greater sapphic, 690, II. Satago, satagito, w. gen., 409, 5. Satis, w. gen., 396, III. 4). Satisfacio, v/. dat., 385, 2. Saturn, quantity of,* 651, 3. Scanning, 668. Scazon, 683, 4. Scidi, quantity of, 651, 2. Secundum, w. accus., 433. Sed, se, 338, 3. Semi-deponents, 271, 3 ; 283 ; use of, 465, 3. Senex, compared, 168, 3. Sentences, syntax of, 343-361 ; clas- sification of, 345 tf. ; simple, 347 tf ; complex, 357 ff. ; compound. 360. See also Declarative, Ex- clamatory, Imperative, Interroga- tive. Separation, abl. of, 425. Sequence of tenses, 480 tf. Rule, 480. Application, 481 ; after hist, pres., 4^, IV. ; after imp. subj., 481, V. ; after infin. or part., 481, VI. Exceptions, 482 ; after perf def., 482, 1 ; hist, tense, 482, 2 ; in orat. obliqua, 482, 3. Sequitur, w. subj. or infin., 495, 2 ; 549, 1. Serving, verbs of, w. dat., 385. Servus, decl. of, 51. Sese, 184, 7. Sestertius, sestertia, sestertium, 712 ff. Sexcenti, indefinite, 174, 4. Showing, verbs of, w. two accs., 373. -si, sin, in Greek datives, 68, 5. Si minus, 584, 3. Si non, and nisi, 508, 3. Silver age, 706. -sim, in perfect subj., 239, 4. Similis, and its compds., constr., 391, 2, 4). Simple, — sentence, 347 ff. ; elements, 350 ; subject, 351 ; predicate, 353 ; words, 313, 1. Simul, w. abl., 437, 2. Sin, w. subjunctive, 503, 507 tf. Sin aliter, 684, 3. Sine, w. abl., 434. Singular, 44 ; wanting, 131. Sino, constr., 551, II. 1. Sitio, w. accus., 371, 3. Situm, quantity of, 651, 3. -so, in tut. perfect, 239, 4 ; in fre- quen., 332. Solus, decl. of, 151 ; solus qui, w. subj., 501, II. Source, abl. of, 426. Space, acc. of, 378. Sparing, verbs of, w. dat., 385. Specification, acc. of, 380 ; genit. of, 396, V. ; abl. of, 429. Spirants, 3. Stanza, 666 ; stanzas of Horace, 699 tf. Stdtum, quantity of, 651, 3. Statuo, constr., 658, II. Stem, 46 ; in the five decls., 47 ff., INDEX OE SUBJECTS. 353 123. -Stems in s, 61 ; in i, 62 ff. Verb-stem, 201 ; Pres, stem, 249 if.: Perf. stem, 252 if.; supine stem, 256 if. Stem-syllables, quantity in primi- tives, 649 if. ; in derivats., 653 ; in compds., 654. Steti^ stiti, quantity of, 651, 2. SlOy w. abl., 414, 2, 1). Striving, constr. of verbs of, 558, III. StudiosuSy w. gen., 399. 8uby in compds., 338, 2 ; compds. w. dat., 386. Sub w. acc. or abl, 435. Subject, — Simple subject, 351 ; com- plex, 352; compound, 361. Subj. nom., 367 ; omitted, 367, 2. Subj. acc., 375, 545 ; omitted, 545, 2. Infin. as subj., 549. Clause as subj., 555 if. Subject and object clauses, 554 ff. Indirect questions, infin. clauses, subjunctive clauses, and clauses with quody compared, 554. Sub- ject clauses, 555 if . ; interrog., 555 ; not interrog., 556. Object clauses, 557 if. ; interrog., 557 ; not. interrog., 558. Subjective genitive, 396, I. Subjunctive, 196 ; syntax of, 483- 533, — Potential subj., 485 ff. Subj. of desire, 487 ff. Of pur- pose or result, 489-501 ; w. con- juncts., 489 ff. ; w. relatives, 500 ff. Of condition, 502 ff. Of concession, 515 ff. Of cause and time, 517 ff. In indirect ques- tions, 524 ff. By attraction, 527. In indirect discourse — oratio ob- liqua, 528. Subordinate, — clauses, 345, 2 ; in oratio obliqua, 531. Sub. con- juncts., 311, 588 ; elements, 349. Substantives, see Nouns. Subter y in compds. w. acc., 371, 4. SubteVy acc. or abl., 435. Suiy decl. of, 184 ; use of, 448 ff. 8um,y w. dat., 387 ; vv. pred. gen., 403. SupeVy in compds. w. accus., 371, 4 ; in compds. with dat., 386. SupeVy w. acc. or abl., 435. Superlative, 160 ; irreg., 163 ; want- ing, 168 ff. ; formed by maximcy 170 ; w. gen., 396, 2, 3), (2). SupersedeOy 386, 2. SuperuSy compared, 163, 3. Supine, 196, II. ; wanting, 266 ff., 280 ff; 284, 2. Use of, 567 ff. Supine-stem, formation of, 256 ff. Supine system, 215. Supplico y w. dat., 385, 2. SuprUy w. accus., 433. Suspensusy w. gen., 399, (2). Suusy decl. of, 185; use of. 4iS ff. Syllables, 13, 18. Synaeresis, 669, II. Synaloepha, Synaphr.p 669, I. 5. Synecdoche, 705, lU. Synesis, 704, III. S. Synopsis of conjugation, 216-226. Synopsis of declension, 69-98. Syntax, 343-606, — of sentences, 343-361 ; of nouns, 362-437 ; of adjectives, 438-444 ; of pronouns, 445-459 ; of verbs, 460-581 ; of particles, 582-590. Rules of syn- tax, 591. Arrangement of words and clauses, 592-606. Systole, 669, IV. T SOUND of, 10 ff., 17 ff. ; nouns 5 in, 58, 78; gender. 111. 7' dropped, 36, 258. 7\ quantity of final syllables in, 621. Taedety constr., 410. TaliSy 186, 5. Talpay gender of, 48, 6. Tametsiy w. subj., 515; 516, III. Tanquamy tanquam si, w. subj., 503, 506. TantuSy 186, 5; tantum abcsty 496, 3. Teaching, verbs of, w. two aecs., 374. 7'ed for tCy 184, 8. Tempero y constr., 385, 3. Templumy decl. of, 51. Temporal conjunctions, 311 ; 588, I. Tenses, 197; prin. and hist., 198; wanting, 198, 3. Use of, in indie., 466 ff. ; in subj., 476 fi‘. ; se- quence of, 480 ff. ; in imperat., 534 ; in infin., 540 ; in part., 571. Use of, in letters, 472, 1. Tense-signs, 242 ff. 354 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Temis^ w. gen., 411 ; w. abl., 434; after its case, 434, 2. -ter, adverbs in, 335. Terrae^ locative, 424, 3. Testis sum^ constr., 551, 3. Tete, 184, 7. Tetrameter verse, 663, 2. Tetrapody, 656, 2. Tetrastich, 666. Th, 4. Thesis, 660. Threatening, verbs of, w. dat., 385. -ticius, -ticus, -tivus, adjs. in, 325, _1; 328, 5. -tiin, adverbs in, 334, 2. Time, accus. of, 378 ; abl. of, 378, 2 ; 423 ; w. the prep, in^ 423, 2 ; w. ahliinc^ 427. Time denoted by acc. or abl. tv. ante or post^ 427 ; by participle, 578, I. Time, Tvith cause or purpose, siibj. of, 521 jff. Timeo ^ constr., 385, 3 ; 492, 4. -tio, nouns in, 321. Tis^ for iui^ 184, 8. -to, for toi\ in imperative, 239, 5. -to, in frequen., 332. -tor, nouns in, 321. Tot^ totus^ 186, 5. Totus^ decl. of, 151. Towns, gender of names of, 42; constr., — accus., 379 ; with icrhs or oppidum^ 379, 2 ; abl. or loca- tive, 421, 11. Trans^ in compds., 333, 2; in compds. w. accus. 371,4; w. two accs., 374, 6. Trails^ w. acc., 433. Transitive verbs, 193 ; 371, 3. Trees, gender of names of, 42. Trimeter, 663, 2. Tripody, 653, 2. Tristich, 666. Trochaic verse, 679 IF. -truni, nouns in, 320. -turn, nouns in, 317. Tn^ decl. of, 184. Tuli^ quantity of, 651, 2. “tiira, nouns in, 321. -tus, nouns in, 318; adjs. in, 323. Taus^ decl. of, 185. U SOUND of, 6 IF., 15 ; tv. sound 5 of 7, 5), 15, 4. Nouns in u, 116; gender of, 116, 118. Cf, quantity of, — final, 619; in in- crements, 637, 644. -u, for ui in dat., 117. Uhi^ TV. genit., 396, 2, 4). -ubus, in dat. and abl., 66, 117. i 11% as diphthong, 9. I -uiSj for ws, in genit., 117. I -ula, nouns in, 320, 5. I -uientus, adjs. in, 323. -uleuSj in derivatives, 315, 5. UUus^ decl. of, 151 ; use of, 457. Ulterior^ ultimus^ 166 ; force of, 442, 1. Ultra^ w. accus., 433. -uluSj ula, ulum, in nouns, 315; I 320, 5 ; in adjs., 327 if. -unij for armn^ 49 ; for ornm^ 52 ; in gen. plur. of 3d dec., 57. -nndus, undi, for endm^ endi^ 238. Unus^ decl. of, 151, 175; iinns qni^ w. subj., 501, II. Unusquisque^ 191, 5. -ur, gend. of nouns in. 111, 114. -urioj desideratives in, 332, III. uSj for e in voc. sing., 52 ; nouns in, 61, 116; gender, 111, 115 fF., 118. Derivatives in, 320, 6; 321; us, final quantity of, 627. Usque, TV. accus., 437, 1. Usus, constr., 419. -ut^ nouns in, 58 ; gend.. 111. Ut, w. subj. of purpose or result, 489 ff ; omitted, 493, 2 ; tv. qui, 519, 3. Ut si, w. subj., 503, 506. Ut quisque — ita, 458, 2. Uter utercunque, 151. U terlihet, ut er que, uter vis, 151. U 'er- que, w. plur. verb, 461, 3. Uiinam, v/. subj. of desire, 488, 1. Utor, constr., 419; 419, 4. Utpote, w. qui, 519, 3. Utrum, 346, II. 2. -utas, adjs. in, 323. -uuSj verbal adjs. in,. 328, 5. -uXj genitive of nouns in, 96. PLACE supplied by w, 2 ; 258, V 9 II. 4. Vacuus, TV. gen. or abl., 399, (3) and 5. Value, genit, of, 396, IV. Vaiinus, gender of, 53. Velut, velut si, w. subj., 503,-506. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 355 Verbal inflections, table of, 213 ff. Verbs, etymology of — Classes, voices, moods, tenses, etc., 192- 203. Paradigms, 204-214. Verbal inflections, 2 1 3 ff. Synopsis, 216- 230. Periphrastic conj., 231 ff. Contractions and peculiarities, 234-239. Comparative view of conjs., 240. Analysis of verbal endings, 241 ff ; tense signs, 242 ff ; mood signs, 244 ff ; personal endings, 24Y. Formation of stems, 249 ff. Euphonic changes in stems, 258. Classification of verbs, 259-288. Irreg. verbs, 289-296. Defect., 29Y. Impers., 298-301. Deriv., 330 ff Com- pound, 341. Irregularities of special verbs, 721. See also Tran- sitive^ Intrans.^ Finite^ Deponent^ Semi-depon.^ Impersonal^ Fre- quent.^ Incept. Desiderat..^ Dimin- utive. Verbs, syntax of, 460, 581, — Agree- ment, 460 ff. Omitted, 367, 3 ; 460, 3. Voices, 464 ff Tenses of Indie., 466 ff. Use of Indie., 474. Tenses of subj., 476 ff. Use of Subj., 483-533. Imperat., 534 ff. Infin., 539-553. Subject and object clauses, 554 ff. Gerund, 559-566. Supine, 567 ff. Parti- ciples, 571-581. Verb-stem, 201, 249. Vereor., constr., 492, 4. Verisimile est., verum est, constr., 556, I. 2. Vero, place in clause, 602, III. Verses, 661 ; names of, 663 ff. Versification, 655, — Feet, 656 ff. Verses, 661 ff. Figures of proso- dy, 669. Varieties of verse, 670 ff. Versus, w. accus., 433. Vesco?*, constr., 419 ; 419, 4. Vestras, 185, 3. Vestri, vestrum, 396, III. 1 ; 446, 3. Veto, constr., 551, II. 1. Vetus, compared, 167. Vicinus, w. dat. or gen., 391, 1 ; 399, 3. Vir, decl. of, 51, 4. Vii'gil, versification of, 696. Vocative, 52, 68, 3. Syntax of, 369. Voices, 195. See also under Ve?*hs, syntax of. Volens, idiomatic use of dat., 387, 3. Volo, constr., 551, II. 1. -volus, compds. in, compared, 164. Voii damnari, 410, 5 (1). Vowels, 3, 1. ; sounds of, 6 ff. , 15 ff. ; changes in, 27 ff. Variable vow- els, 57, 2. W PLACE supplied by u, 2. ^ AVant, constr. of verbs and adjs. of, 419. AA^arning, constr. of verbs of, 558. VI. AVeights, Roman, 714. AVinds, gender of names of, 42. AVishing, constr. of verbs of, 551. AVords, arrangement of, 592. X SOUND of, 11 ff. ; nouns in, 59, 5 92 ff. ; gender of, 105, 108. Y ONLY in Greek words, 2. j Nouns in, 73; gender. 111. Y, quantity of, — final, 617 ; in in- crements, 638. -ySj nouns in, 68, 2 ; gender of, 107 ; quantity of ys final, 628. -ySj nouns in, 97. Z ONLY in Greek words, 2. ^ Zeugma, 704, I. 2. TABLE Showing the corresponding articles in the two editions. Old. Nkw. 1-12 1-12 13 14-16 :..19 17 13, 18 18, 19 14, 18 15-17 20-23 20-23 24 23, 1 25 ^ ^ 25 27 25, 4 28 25, 5 26-36 29 37 80 38 31. 89 32 40 33 41 34; 41, 1 35 42 36 43 37 44 38 45 39 46 40 47 41 46, 1 42 48 42, 3 49 43 50 44 48, 5 45 51 45, 5 52 46.. .. 54 47 53 48 55 49 56 50.. . 57-59 50 63, 64 51 60, 61 62, 66 52-54 57, 63, 67 55-57 58 69 59 70 60 71 61 72 62 73 63 74 Old. Nev,'. 64 ....75 65 70 66 77 67 78 68 79 69 80 70 81 71 82 72 83 73 84 74 8r^ 75 86-8S, \ 76 89-91'' 77 92 78 93 79 94 80 .'95 81 96 82 ■ 97 83 98 84 67, 1 85, 87 62 ' 86 68, 3 88 67 89 65 90 67, 58, 2, 66, 68, 5 91-98 68 ■ 99-104 99-104- . 105,:.:., 105 106 106, 107 107 \ 108-116 108-116 116, 4 117 117 119 118 118 119 120 120 121 121-123 122, 123 124-148 124-148 148 149, 150 149 151 150 152 151 153 152 154 153 155 154-158 156-158 159-174 159-174 175 175, 176 TABLE OF OLD AND NEW ARTICLES, 357