urn S* Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign http://www.archive.org/details/organizingcornbe329case NOTICE: Return or renew all Library Materials! The Minimum Fee for each Lost Book is $50.00. The person charging this material is responsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for discipli- nary action and may result in dismissal from the University. To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN L161— O-1096 1 iue»9&J V V UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Agricultural Experiment Station BULLETIN No. 329 ORGANIZING THE CORN-BELT FARM FOR PROFITABLE PRODUCTION BASED ON STUDIES OF FARMS IN EAST-CENTRAL ILLINOIS By H. C. M. Case, R. H. Wilcox, and H. A. Berg URBANA, ILLINOIS, JUNE, 1929 s\ CONTENTS PAGE PART I. PRINCIPLES OF GOOD FARM ORGANIZATION 262 Good Crop Yields Reduce Production Costs 262 Higher Profit Crops Add to Total Farm Profits 264 Farms With Livestock Show Larger Earnings 270 Livestock Efficiently Handled Reduces Cost of Production 272 Large Volume of Business Necessary for Best Return 273 Good System of Farming Helps Use Labor to Advantage 275 Power Should Fit Farm Needs and Be Efficiently Handled 276 Equipment Costs Must Be Kept Under Control 281 Well-Arranged Fields and Farmsteads Save Time 284 Diversity of Production Helps Insure Long-Time Profits 285 Production Should Be Planned to Meet Market Demands 286 The Importance of These Principles 287 PART II. PLANNING A PROFITABLE SYSTEM OF FARMING 291 Value of Farm Accounting 291 Maintaining and Improving the Soil 292 Including the Higher Profit Crops in Rotations 293 Using Labor, Power, and Equipment to Best Advantage 296 Balancing Crop and Livestock Production 30S Planning a Large Volume of Business 313 Adjusting Production to Meet Changing Market Conditions 315 Fitting the Field System to the Cropping Plan 319 Planning the Farmstead 320 Planning for New Improvements and Equipment 324 Financial Considerations 325 THE TEST OF FARM PLANNING 327 Factors Affecting the Cost of Producing a Bushel of Corn 330 ORGANIZING THE CORN-BELT FARM FOR PROFITABLE PRODUCTION By H. C. M. Case, R. H. Wilcox, and H. A. Berg 1 The earnings of a farm depend upon the way in which it is or- ganized and operated as well as upon soil, climate, prices, and market conditions. This statement' doubtless will be accepted as a fact, since the personal factor in any business is recognized as a large one, and since observation as well as study reveals variations in earnings on farms in the same community where the natural and economic advantages are essentially the same. Some farms, year after year, are more successful than others. What causes these contrasts in farm incomes? Certain chance con- ditions will now and then affect the results on any farm, and there are conditions external to the farm that influence the general level of its earnings, but aside from these it is clear that there are important factors under the control of the farm operator which, in the long run, determine what the income on his farm will be as compared with that of other farms in the neighborhood. One of the best means of finding the influence of different factors on farm earnings is to study carefully the plans and practices that farmers are following, and compare the earnings that are being realized under different methods of organization and operation. Part I of the present bulletin gives the results of studies of successful and unsuccessful farms in east-central Illinois. Extending over a period of years, these studies bring out the long-time effect of different plans and practices and suggest certain definite principles of man- agement that can be profitably applied to Illinois corn-belt farms. Cost-of-production data gathered in this part of the state are also presented. Part II shows how a farmer in the Illinois corn belt may go about it to apply these principles to his own farm. The degree to which earnings among different farms may vary as a result of different methods of management is illustrated by a study of 51 farms in Woodford county, Illinois. Records were kept by the operators over a period of five years — from 1921 to 1925. The farm with the highest earnings made an average of 7.75 percent a year on an average investment of $60,674. This income was the result of years of definite effort by the operator to put the farm on an efficient production basis. The least profitable farm lacked over $300, or .56 percent, of making any return on the investment after operating expenses were paid. The difference in the returns of these two farms was then 8.31 percent annually. This would amount to 1 H. C. M. Case, Chief in Farm Organization and Management ; R. H. Wilcox, Associate Chief; and H. A. Berg, formerly Associate. 259 260 Bulletin No. 329 [June, $4,922 a year on an investment of $59,225, which was the average in- vestment for all the farms in the study. For the total five-year period the difference at this rate would be nearly $25,000 (Fig. 2). 1 A careful study of farms on which accounts have been kept shows that the most successful men are generally those who have spent many years in building up the soil, in developing efficient herds of livestock, in equipping their farms for economical operation, in select- ing good seed, in establishing a good cropping system, and in doing the many things connected with good management. MIXED LIVESTOCK BEEF & HOGS DAIRYING GRAIN FARMING GENERAL FARMINGS! (WHEAT & CORN) \^t WHEAT & DAIRYING /kj GENERAL FARMING (CORN) MIXED FARMING Fig. 1. — Location of Eight Farming-Type Areas in Illinois The principles discussed in this bulletin apply to all areas in the state, tho the data presented apply especially to Area 4, where grain farming predominates and livestock is of secondary interest. Furthermore, the men who keep accounts are the kind of men who are putting intelligent effort into the development of better systems of farming. This is demonstrated by a comparison of the *Some people believe that differences in farm earnings are due largely to opportune marketing. There are occasional j^ears when variations in prices re- ceived by different farmers for the same kind of products are responsible for considerable differences in income, but over a period of years this factor is not so important as are others relating directly to the organization and operation of the farm. In so far as opportune marketing is a factor in farm earnings, it is to be noted that it is because some farmers are better managers of their selling operations as well as of production. 19291 Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 261 earnings of these accounting-keeping farmers with other farms in the same area. The 51 farmers mentioned above earned about 3.2 percent on their investments in 1925. One hundred thirteen other farmers in a township in the same part of Illinois earned only 1.5 percent on their investments that year. 1 This difference of 1.7 percent, amounting to over $1,000 a farm, is characteristic of the differences found in the farm earnings of record keepers and the average of all farmers in the same community wherever similar studies have been made. 1921 \QZ2 1925 1924 1925 Average 14. 13. 12. II. IQ 9. a 7. ■O r s ^ •^ / • \ / '" ; 1 ' : N ^\ / *^ ■ / X *•© / /•:•• "*■ ^ •/ X ! * ' ^V ^ 9 12 V . / • ■■• / ^ ' i ' — *!*;■ -A // / '••'•' - X f - • • / r ^r.-^ •:'• / \ ,fr --as ^,_ \ '« //' ■ _-»-*• / \ "-■« s* ' ■■'■// \ S v V • Fig. 2. — Earnings Over Five Successive Years on the Same Group of Woodford County Farms The dots indicate the rate earned on each of the 51 Woodford county farms for each year from 1921 to 1925 and the average for all five years. The average rate earned by all farms each year is shown by the continuous black line in the middle of the graph. The broken lines show the standing of particular farms. It will be noted that some farms are consistently near the top in their earnings; others are just as consistently near the bottom. In the corn belt a number of successful systems of production may be found which differ in the kinds and proportions of products grown and sold. While this bulletin is based largely on information obtained in east-central Illinois, and will therefore prove of especial interest to farmers in that region, its aim is to bring to farmers in all parts of the state a better appreciation of the factors that affect their earnings. Tenant farmers as well as owner-farmers, it is believed will be interested in the matters discussed, for while there are many advantages which an owner has that a tenant does not have, there still are many things a tenant can do in organizing and operating his farm which will help to insure the success of his operations in spite of restrictions which a farm lease may impose upon him. a Farm business survey of Gridley township, McLean county, Illinois. 262 Bulletin No. 329 [June, PART I. PRINCIPLES OF GOOD FARM ORGANIZATION Farm management studies made in Illinois and elsewhere have shown that there are certain definite principles that need to be observed in the organization and operation of a farm if it is to be financially successful. The most important of these principles as they apply to Illinois may be stated as follows: 1. Good yields tend to reduce the unit cost of producing farm crops. 2. A large percentage of land in the higher profit crops means larger profits. 3. Livestock production as a means of marketing crops makes for larger farm income. 4. Efficient feeding and handling of livestock materially reduces cost of production. 5. A large volume of business is necessary for profitable farming. 6. A well-organized system of crop and livestock production helps use available man labor advantageously. 7. Costs are reduced when the supply of horse and mechanical power fits the farm needs and is economically handled. 8. Buildings, machinery, and other equipment expense must be kept under control if low production costs are to be obtained. 9. A good farm layout and a well-developed farmstead make for economical operation. 10. Diversity of crop production helps to insure long-time profits. 11. Production planned in accordance with market demands makes for a larger margin of profit. Each one of these principles will be analyzed in this part of the bulletin and illustrated with facts obtained from detailed records of farms in east-central Illinois. Good Crop Yields Reduce Production Costs It may be said as a general truth in respect to the groups of farms studied by this Station that as yields have increased, the cost per bushel of grain has tended to decrease. It is fully realized that if an attempt were made to increase yields indefinitely, a point would finally be reached where the increase in yield would no longer pay for the added cost. Occasionally a man may make expenditures on some part of his production that are not warranted by the returns they bring, but, as shown by the data in Fig. 3, farmers generally have not yet reached that point in the production of crops. The cost of producing corn from 1920 to 1926 on farms in Champaign and Piatt counties where detailed cost records were kept varied from 38 cents to 88 cents a bushel. In the same year the cost has varied from 38 to 78 cents a bushel. In other words, it has been more than twice as high on some farms as on others. 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 263 That yield has been one of the most important factors in causing this difference is illustrated by data obtained from three farms in 1925 (Table 1). The cost of growing an acre of corn was $28.84, $27.63, and $28.45 respectively on the three farms, while the yields were 62.8 bushels, 49.8 bushels, and 34 bushels respectively. 1 The ♦loo .90 .80 "3 ™ -C n i 50 8 40 -• <•* a ► >v 5 10 15 20 25 50 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 Yield per Acre (Bushels) Fig. 3. — Cost of Producing a Bushel of Corn as Affected by Yield per Acre As yield per acre increases, there is a marked decline in the cost per bushel. Graph is based on data obtained from certain Champaign and Piatt county farms. net cost of producing a bushel of corn was then 45 cents, 55 cents, and 81 cents respectively after allowing a conservative value for x While cost-of-production data are valuable mainly in learning the physical quantities of the various factors of production, they also illustrate some of the principles of farm organization and operation already mentioned in this bulletin. In comparing crop costs the use of a charge for land as a cost of production is frequently criticized because it is difficult to determine what the land value ac- tually is. The main reason for retaining a charge for use of land in determining cost figures is that any variation in the value of land from farm to farm repre- sents an actual difference in the productive value of the land in so far as it is possible to determine these differences. So far as other costs are concerned, it could be pointed out that there are difficulties in determining any item of cost in farming because of the many joint costs that exist. The main reason for using money values in comparing farm costs especially with regard to crops, is that more and more, labor, power, and various forms of capital are interchanged in growing the same product. In studying comparative results or the influence of different practices on the cost of production it is, therefore, highly desirable to reduce all costs to some common basis. Monetary costs appear to be the best basis we have for such comparisons. From a research point of view such comparisons may not be altogether necessary, but in the problem of interpreting results to cooperating farmers and others the research worker will find money costs highly useful in demonstrating the principles of farm management. 264 Bulletin No. 329 [June, Table 1. — Cost of Producing Corn on Three Selected Farms in Champaign and Piatt Counties, 1925 Farm No 1 2 Q Items of cost Man labor $ 5.93 5.51 ".67 .27 1.88 2.66 .04 $16.96 $ 1.88 10.00 $28.84 $ .77 (62.8) $ .45 $ 4.50 4.61 1.30 1.49 .26 .60 2.51 $ 3.83 7 12 Horse labor Tractor labor Machinery 1 04 Seed 32 Manure 99 General farm expense 2 25 Miscellaneous 06 Operating cost $15.27 $ 2.36 10.00 $27.63 $ .16 (49.8) $ .55 $15 61 Taxes on land $ 3 09 Interest on land at 5 percent . . . Total cost 9.75 $28 45 Credit for pasture $ 94 Yield per acre, bushels (34.0) % 81 Net cost per bushel the pasture provided by the cornstalks. Of course back of the higher yields are differences in the productivity of the soil, in kind of seed used, and other factors making for better production. Higher Profit Crops Add to Total Farm Profits The kind of crops which a farm grows is an important factor in determining its earnings. Rotations which give the best satisfac- tion in different parts of the country usually have three character- istics: they include a cultivated crop, a small grain crop, and a hay or pasture crop. In east-central Illinois corn is the most profitable cultivated crop, winter wheat the most profitable small grain, alfalfa the most profitable hay crop, and sweet clover the most profitable pasture crop. While it is not possible to grow the entire farm to the higher profit crops, it is important that a large part of the acre- age be devoted to them. The selection of a good crop rotation must take into account a number of factors. In the first place the relative profit from the various crops included in each of three groups mentioned above must be taken into consideration. In the second place the proportion of various crops needed to maintain the fertility of the land, to provide for the best use and distribution of labor, to use available power and equipment to advantage, to supply the amount and kinds of feed for livestock, to protect against crop failure, and to meet other require- ments of good farm organization and operation must be considered. While the main discussion of the points to take into account in select- ing a cropping plan is left to Part II. pages 293 to 305, some of the 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 265 practical considerations in regard to particular crops may well be taken up here. Cultivated Crops. Corn is the only important cultivated crop that is grown thruout the corn belt. It shows a better profit than any of the small-grain crops. On 10 to 16 typical Champaign and Piatt county farms during the years 1920 to 1926 it gave an average profit of $5.55 an acre when valued at 67 cents a bushel (Table 2) . Table 2. — Cost of Producing Grain Crops on 10 to 16 Champaign and Piatt County Farms, 1921-1926 Corn Winter wheat Oats Soybeans Expenses per acre Man labor $ 4.80 5.29 .80 .37 .86 3.26 $15.38 $ 1.97 11.00 $28.35 $32.98 .92 $ 2.77 3.34 .87 2.10 .94 .31 .14 1.12 2.05 $13.64 $ 1.94 11.00 $26.58 $26.76 2.32 $29.08 $ 2.50 $ 1.12 $ 1.24 21.58 10.95 21.45 .51 2 456.60 $ 1.75 1.93 .29 1.35 .51 .29 .10 .99 1.15 $ 8.36 $ 1.98 11.00 $21.34 $14.11 3.05 $17.16 $-4.18 $ .48 $ .37 38.14 6.84 12.10 .27 4 715.91 $ 2.76 Horse labor 3.95 Tractor Seed Machinery Twine 1.02 2.69 1.14 .26 Fuel Threshing .14 1.66 Other operating expenses. . . . Total operating expenses. . Taxes Interest on land 2.23 $15.85 $ 1.95 11 00 Total cost $28 80 Income per acre Grain Pasture or roughage $20.93 4.77 Total income $33.90 $ 5.55 $ .56 $ .67 49.22 14.04 32.89 .70 9 185.46 $25 70 Net profit or loss per acre Efficiency factors Net cost per bushel Farm price at harvest 1924-26 1 $-3.10 $ 1.54 $ 1.34 Yield in bushels . . . 15 62 Man labor per acre, hours . . . Horse labor per acre, hours . . Tractor use per acre, hours . . Total number of acres 12.14 26.39 1.05 1 001.17 ^ost of production data were secured for the six-year period 1921-1926. Farm prices of crops were taken for the three-year period 1924 to 1926 because of abnormal price conditions in the earlier years. Corn is primarily a feed crop. It therefore may be marketed thru livestock when to do so is more favorable than marketing it direct. Being a cultivated crop its inclusion in the rotation results in the killing of weeds. While from this latter standpoint sweet corn and broom corn might fill a similar place in the rotation, there is no reason to grow them extensively in Illinois. 266 Bulletin No. 329 [June, With the above advantages, it is clear that corn must be given the central place in crop rotations in this section of Illinois, other crops being chosen that will fit in with it in meeting the requirements of a good rotation. 1 Small Grain Crops. Wheat. — Wheat stands above the other small grain crops of the corn belt and next to corn as a higher profit grain crop. In the study referred to above it gave a profit of $2.50 an acre when valued at $1.24 a bushel, while oats gave a loss of $4.18 at 37 cents a bushel, and soybeans a loss of $3.10 at $1.34 a bushel (Table 2). Wheat fits in especially well from the standpoint of eco- nomical farm operation (see page 298). One disadvantage in wheat production is that it is difficult to have it follow a crop of corn directly unless the corn is shocked or removed for silage. Occasionally wheat can be seeded in standing corn, but one cannot depend on such practice where heavy crops of corn are grown. Oats. — While, as shown above, oats are the least profitable of the small grain crops, they still occupy a place which is hard to fill with any other small grain. It is difficult, for example, to grow wheat after corn in east-central Illinois, but oats fit in well between corn and wheat and so provide a workable succession of crops. The labor and power required in growing oats do not interfere seriously with the demands of corn and wheat. Oats are an especially good nurse crop for the seeding of clover or alfalfa. One reason that oats are less profitable than other crops is that they are usually planted on land which has grown two or more cereal crops since it was in a legume. Consequently the oats do not have the same opportunity to return a profit. Oats are not grown on the most fertile land because of the danger of their lodging. When grown the third year following a legume, they give a net return comparable to that secured from corn grown the third year in succession. Recently oats have suffered from a weak market demand resulting from the replacement of horses by motor power. In so far as a man can use oats in livestock production, the crop may yet fill as im- portant a place in the farming plan as it did in the past. Barley. — Barley is not commonly grown in east-central Illinois, but experience with it, while not conclusive, indicates that it is about J Data obtained in Hancock county, Illinois, over the ten-year period 1913- 1922, as given in Bulletin 277 of this Station, show similar results. Over this period, which includes the period of high prices prevailing during the years of the World War, the net profits for an acre of the principal crops grown were : corn, $8.59; wheat, $5.44; rye, $4.88; oats, $2.68; red clover, including some seed crops, $9.32; alfalfa, $12.20; timonthy hay, $3.21; and mixed hay, $.18. Over the same period the prices of rye, oats, and timonthy hay were relatively- higher than at present. A smaller demand for rye as a cash crop and the less- ready market for either oats or timothy hay as horse feed in cities are factors partially accounting for this situation. 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 267 as profitable as oats. From the standpoint of their places in a rota- tion, barley and oats have many similarities. Improvements in vari- eties may justify growing barley more extensively in east-central Illinois, at least when it can be fed on the farm. Cost studies made in northern Illinois place barley among the higher profit crops in that region. Hence in planning systems of farm- ing for that part of the state, barley may well be considered. Similar studies on a small acreage of barley and spring wheat made in Cham- paign county over a seven-year period indicate that these crops were no more profitable than oats during the same period, and that they fill a similar place in the crop rotation. Soybeans. — While soybeans show a low return when compared with corn and winter wheat, this is doubtless due partially to the fact that they are a relatively new crop in this area and are without as settled a market as the more staple grains. The price placed upon soybeans in the study referred to represents the market value of the crop at the time of harvest. Some producers have been fortunate in selling the crop for seed at much better prices. In so far as a grower is assured of a market for soybeans as a seed crop, he may find them one of his most profitable crops. Soybeans frequently are put in hurriedly after the corn is planted, without killing all the weeds. Many instances can be cited where yields have been greatly reduced by the interference of weeds. In other cases poor inoculation and poor seed undoubtedly have been factors partially responsible for unsatisfactory results. Some of these difficulties should disappear when more standardized methods of pro- ducing the crop are adopted. As better methods of production are more generally adopted, further study of their influence on the cost of production will be needed in order to show the place the crop may fill in corn-belt rotations. Soybeans have an advantage over oats in giving a larger total value per acre but the cost of production is correspondingly higher. When soybeans are used to displace a part of the oat acreage rather than a part of the corn, the work involved is apt to interfere seriously with corn planting and cultivating unless the farm work is well planned or unless an abundant supply of labor and power is available. Improvements in varieties of soybeans, better cultural methods, and better inoculation, as well as better knowledge of how to handle the crop, should result in larger yields and so give soybeans a more important place on the farms of east-central Illinois. This is par- ticularly true in so far as a good market can be found for a larger crop or in so far as they may be used to advantage in livestock pro- duction. Hay and Pasture Crops. Probably no phase of crop production receives so little attention as the production of hay, especially in east- 268 Bulletin No. 329 [June, central Illinois. Less than 8 percent of the land on the farms keeping cost records was grown to hay. Imperfect stands both of hay and of pasture crops frequently are allowed to "stand over" in the hope that they will provide the necessary feed for the livestock kept on the farm. Very little limestone has been used, considering the total area of land on which applications would prove profitable. Timothy, clover, and soybean hay, on the farms studied in Cham- paign and Piatt counties, showed losses of 39 cents, $5.66, and $11.19 respectively. However, 15 to 18 farms in Knox and Warren counties showed a profit of $16.11 an acre from alfalfa, $1.91 from clover, from mixed hay a loss of $4.01, from timothy a loss of 56 cents, and from soybean hay a loss of $10.71 an acre, as an average of the three years 1923 to 1925 (Table 3). These last figures more nearly Table 3. — Cost of Producing Hay Crops on 15 to 18 Knox and Warren County Farms, 1923-1925 Clover Timothy Mixed Soybean Alfalfa Expenses per acre Man labor $ 2.47 1.99 .04 1.73 1.01 2.34 $ 9.58 1.28 10.31 $21.17 $21.71 1.37 $23.08 $ 1.91 $11.86 $13.00 1.67 8.71 12.33 361.66 $ 1.49 .86 .33 ".95 1.50 $ 5.13 1.14 8.78 $15.05 $13.16 1.33 $14.49 $-.56 $14.60 $14.00 .94 5.60 5.64 .45 167.03 $ 2.09 1.32 .12 1.96 .81 2.02 $ 8.32 1.18 9.61 $19.11 $13.52 1.58 $15.10 $-4.01 $16.86 $13.00 1.04 7.63 9.29 .15 199.19 $ 4.12 3.96 2.50 3.81 3.21 3.22 $20.82 1.25 9.74 $31.81 $20.40 .70 $21.10 $-10.71 $19.44 $12.00 1.70 14.93 23.18 2.61 76.87 $ 4.61 Horse labor 3.00 Tractor .07 Seed 3.75 Machinery 1.52 Other operating expense 5.55 Total operating expenses Taxes $18.50 1.25 Interest on land. .... Total cost 9.91 $29.66 Income per acre 1 Hav $44.64 Pasture 1.13 Total income Net profit or loss per acre Efficiency factors Net cost per ton .... Farm price Yield in tons Man labor per acre, hours Horse labor per acre, hours. . $45.77 $16.11 $10.22 $16.00 2.79 16.69 22.89 Tractor used per acre, hours. . .08 Total number of acres. . 469.03 J Crops valued at $16 a ton for alfalfa, $13 for clover and for mixed hay, $14 for timothy, and $12 for soybeans. These values represent comparable farm prices for the different hay crops during this period. 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 269 represent results which should be obtained, and they are in line with studies made in other sections of central Illinois. 1 Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is an outstandingly profitable crop. Cost-of- production studies conducted from 1913 to date show that it is the most profitable hay crop in central Illinois. It also shows a larger profit over these years than corn, wheat, or any other grain crop. In these studies all crops were valued at farm prices. The average price for alfalfa thruout the period was about $16 a ton. This is a conservative price compared with that paid for hay when it is pur- chased, as is commonly done in many parts of Illinois. Alfalfa has a distinct advantage in its large yield per acre. When taxes and interest on land amount to $10 an acre or more, the matter of a high yield is of great importance. Since these are costs that do not increase as yield increases, one of the best ways of reducing the unit cost of production is thru high production. In this respect alfalfa has a distinct advantage over other hay crops. Sweet Clover. — While in the study in Champaign and Piatt counties wide variations were found in the amount of pasturage se- cured from the different pasture crops, depending both on the year and on the condition of the pasture, sweet clover over a period of years gave the largest production per acre on land included in the rotation. In comparing sweet clover with other crops, the pasture secured the first fall after a small grain has been removed should be included in the comparison since it sometimes amounts to one-third as much as that secured the following year. Red Clover. — Red clover does not appear to be one of the higher profit crops (Table 3) . It has, however, the distinct advantage of working into the rotation better than alfalfa, which cannot be readily rotated each year, and the return from clover grown on good soil is materially higher than from any other hay crop except alfalfa. When the hay crop is included in the regular rotation partly as a means of furnishing green manure, clover has a distinct advantage. Farmers, however, are not dependent upon a hay crop in the rotation as a means of improving the soil. Many farmers use sweet clover or a mixed legume pasture in the regular rotation, growing alfalfa hay in a separate field outside the main rotation. Red clover or clover and timothy mixed usually gave a larger amount of pasture than the straight blue-grass. The average yield per acre was not high during the three years of study in Knox and Warren counties due to the fact that 1924 was an especially un- favorable year. However, for pasture sweet clover showed a definite advantage over other crops and it is also a good soil improver. The superiority of sweet clover as a pasture crop observed in these studies, agrees with the results from the Illinois experiment fields. J See footnote on page 266. 270 Bulletin No. 329 [June, Timothy. — With the exception of alfalfa, timothy commands a little better price per ton in this part of the state than do other hay crops. It is less profitable per acre, however, than clover and alfalfa and it produces a lower yield per acre. Timothy also reduces the fertility of the soil while legumes have the advantage of building it up. Mixed Hay. — Considerable loss per acre is charged to this crop (Table 3). The cost of growing it is practically as high as the cost of growing a crop of clover, but the yield per acre is low. A poor stand is more frequently allowed to stand over than is a seeding Fig. 4. — A Scene on a Good Livestock Farm Livestock production, including beef cattle growing and feeding, dairy- ing, hog raising, and sheep production, fits into Illinois farm conditions. It provides a use for legumes needed for crop rotation, roughage produced as a by-product of grain production, and grain that is low grade. It makes the farm a more economical operating unit and provides a means of marketing crops to advantage. of a single legume or timothy; because it contains both clover and timothy it is often thought that it will give a large enough yield to supply the hay needs of the farm. Mixed legume hay will prove more profitable than it is at present if soil conditions are made more favorable thru the correction of acidity and better provision for drainage. Farms With Livestock Show Larger Earnings Farms on which considerable livestock is kept usually make larger earnings than farms obtaining most of their income from the sale of crops. Records kept on 51 Woodford county farms for five years show that each of the 17 farms that received the largest acre income from livestock earned $1,160 more each year than the 17 farms having the lowest income from this source (Table 4). Two-thirds of their gross receipts were from livestock. In the low earning group only about one- fourth of the gross receipts came from livestock. Reducing these figures to an acre basis, we find that the farms with the most 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 271 Table 4. — Summary of 51 Illinois Farm Records Showing Results for Certain Efficiency Factors (The farms are grouped according to their total livestock income per acre. The figures are averages for the five years 1921-1925.) Rate earned on investment Labor and management wage .... Size of farm, acres Total investment per acre Livestock investment per acre. . . . Cattle Hogs Poultry Livestock income per acre Corn yield, bushels Percentage of land in higher profit crops Man labor index Power and machinery index Expense per $100 gross income. . . Gross receipts per acre Total expense per acre Net farm income per acre 17 highest farms as to livestock income 4.63% $ 421 222.6 $ 289 $ 13.78 5.64 7.34 .80 19.70 57.3 67.7 17 medium farms as to livestock income 3.26% $-280 • 191.5 $ 273 $ 11.03 5.71 4.48 .84 9.75 54.8 63.2 17 lowest farms as to livestock income 2.71% 5-740 229.3 S 260 S 99 98 103 96 103 101 54 $ 61 $ 64 29.19 22.75 19.38 15.80 13.80 12.31 13.39 8.95 7.07 5.29 3.05 1.54 .70 4.95 49.3 60.0 livestock received $19.70 an acre from this source while the low earn- ing group received only $4.95 an acre. The net income of the high group from all sources was $13.39 an acre; of the low group, only $7.07 an acre. Of course not all the differences in the earnings of these two groups of farms can be at- tributed, directly to differences in income from livestock. The high income group, for instance, made a yield of 8 bushels more corn than the low group and higher yields for other crops. Since, how- ever, livestock usually has the effect of increasing farm earnings indirectly by making the soil more productive, this difference in yield may be attributed in a measure to the larger amount of live- stock kept. Furthermore good livestock well handled will, over a number of years, give a larger return for crops fed than can be ob- tained by selling the crops on the market. The 17 farms with the most livestock also had 7.7 percent more of the land in the higher profit crops, including alfalfa and sweet clover, which the livestock farmer has an opportunity to use as feed. Regrouping these same farms according to their income from cat- tle, we find that the 17 farms getting the largest return per acre from 272 Bulletin No. 329 [June, this source average $265 larger net incomes a year than the group receiving the smallest income from this source. Also, the 17 farms receiving the largest income per acre from hogs had a larger net in- come by $860 a year than the group receiving the smallest. Since the farms in the different groups were approximately of the same size, these differences in income may be attributed largely to the raising of livestock. It is of interest to note, moreover, that such differences occurred in spite of the fact that Illinois farm prices during this five-year period from 1921 to 1925 were more favorable to the sale of grain than to the sale of livestock. Some of the advantages that farms gain by continuing in livestock production are: (1) a larger return for feed crops than when they are sold on the market; (2) help in maintaining the fertility of the land; (3) a more profitable use of labor, power, and equipment during the winter; (4) reduction in the amount of labor and power required both in tilling land and in harvesting if some of the crops are fed off; (5) the profitable use of unsalable and low-grade feed; and (6) the spreading of overhead expenses over a larger volume of business. 1 Lack of experience with livestock, risk from disease, or lack of equip- ment may be handicaps to increased livestock production, as brought out in Part II of this bulletin. Livestock Efficiently Handled Reduces Cost of Production A special study of the cost of producing hogs was made on 35 to 45 Woodford and McLean county farms for the three-year period 1924 to 1926. The average cost of producing 100 pounds of pork on the five farms having the lowest cost each year for a three-year period was $6.88. On the five farms in the same community having the highest cost it was $13.14. This difference of $6.26 was due to differences in efficiency of production. On all of these farms hog production was one of the most important sources of income. Wide variations in the ability of men to select and handle the same kind of livestock are revealed in this study. No excessive losses of hogs due to death occurred on any of the farms, but there were many factors over which a manager has a large measure of control that account for the differences in cost. The selection of the best feed and pasture crops and the best type of hog to breed, the adoption of practices that mean a large number of pigs raised per litter, the control of disease, selling the hogs at the best age and weight, economy in the use of labor, buildings, and other equipment, all have their in- fluence in keeping the unit cost low. Similar variations in the cost of producing other kinds of live- stock and livestock products have been found in other studies. On 37 farms in north-central Illinois in 1926, for example, the cost of ^ee Illinois Bulletin 261, "Cattle Feeding in Relation to Farm Management." 1929] Organizing the Cokx-Belt Farm 273 producing 100 pounds of milk varied from $1.56 to $3.18. Differences in farm practice and in the efficiency with which the livestock was handled account for a large part of such variations as this. In bulletins 261 and 301 of this Station the reader will find variations in the cost of feeding cattle and of producing hogs for market discussed at length. Large Volume of Business Necessary for Best Return A large volume of business is necessary for the most profitable farming. Volume may be obtained either by a better selection and proportioning of enterprises so as to increase the income per acre, or by having a farm of larger acreage. Of these two methods it is more important, in the main part of the corn belt, to increase the income per acre, for most farms in this area are already large enough to yield a good income if the organization of the farm is properly ad- justed to its acreage. Land is high-priced in east-central Illinois, and interest on the investment in the land and taxes are a heavy fixed expense regardless of income. The annual cost of buildings, machinery, and equipment, and of labor and power result in high acre expenses which cannot be reduced below a certain minimum in growing the crops that are commonly produced in this section. A study of many farm accounts in this part of Illinois shows that expenses do not vary nearly so widely on the acre basis as do incomes. Among the 49 farms in Woodford county, following the same general type of farming, the 10 most profitable incurred an operating cost of $14.51 an acre and the 10 least profitable a cost of $14.80 an acre 1 — practically no difference. These figures cover the five-year period 1921 to 1925 and include all items except an interest charge for the use of land, buildings, and equipment (Fig. 5). The income from the two groups of farms was $31.71 and $16.94 an acre respectively. Thus while there was a difference of only 29 cents an acre in operating costs, there was a difference of $14.77 an acre in total income, or a difference in net income of $15.06 an acre. The larger incomes from the 10 most profitable farms were secured mainly thru attention to the first four principles of management listed as necessary for profitable farming; namely, the securing of large crop yields, the growing of a large percentage of high-profit crops, the inclusion of livestock in the farm scheme, and the efficient hand- ling of livestock. A study of crop costs shows that as the income per acre increases, as a result of higher yields, costs of operation do not increase in proportion; that is to say, they do not unless far more effort is made to secure larger yields than was done on the farms ^oney values are used as a measure of volume in this section because they provide the best basis for comparison where different products are involved and the data extend over several vears. 274 Bulletin No. 329 [June, studied. Neither do labor, power, and equipment costs increase great- ly as yields increase; nor does the efficient handling of livestock require a much larger expense than indifferent care. To variations in receipts rather than to differences in expenses must be laid most Gross receipts per acre Dollars T40 35 30 25 20 15 10 [Tot' I expen. per acre (except int) 40.79 35.97 257 8 33.0 I 33.10 2424 3 5.9 5 29.9 7 26.41 32.02 26.61 25.27 23.47 23.65 2339 2S87 2 8.4 J 23.70 2696 28.87 2638 20.7J 29.21 24.33 2346 23.18 19.15 20.75 204 5 19.15 21.79 29.94 21 51 23.88 22.06 20 60 20.73 2376 1966 16.33 1681 2444 1940 1622 I 919 t 1.16 22.70 13.78 941 5 5/ 10 I Dollars S 20 25 30 35 40 4 1678 17.15 8.41 I 50 5 16.02 9.17 16.91 I 395 14.08 / 7.5? 13.47 I 1.77 I 1.71 I 1.50 I 1.38 13.23 16.80 I 279 1499 I 793 I 5.75 I 176 I 765 1421 1420 1402 I 221 12.37 I 2.48 1208 13.89 2112 I 302 I 5SI 1429 » 307 I 397 I 713 1374 10.82 l 1.50 1846 14.62 1506 17.56 I 1-73 2402 15-25 10.95 Fig. 5. — Average Annual Income and Expense per Acre on 49 Woodford County Farms Following the Same Type of Farming The farms are arranged from top to bottom of the graph according to their net income per acre, those having the high- est net income being placed at the top. The expenses per acre, it will be noted, are practically the same for an}' group near the top as for any group near the bottom. Thus the farms with the largest volume of business, as indicated by total gross income per acre, are in general the most profitable farms. of the differences that occur in farm incomes. Frequently, of course, farms are found that are not financially successful because of high expenses, but low receipts are a more common defect. 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 275 In some instances securing a larger volume of business by increas- ing the size of the farm is desirable. The question of increasing the size above that of the average of the community depends more on the ability of the manager than upon any other factor. Some men will handle a farm of 400 acres as efficiently as others will handle one of 200 acres. It is necessary, however, to have a certain minimum acreage for the type of farming followed if the farm is to be operated economically. Whether it is wise to enlarge it beyond that point, either by renting land or buying, depends upon the ability of the operator as a manager. Except near towns, where some form of specialized production may be found, there are few farms in east-central Illinois under 100 acres in size and most of them are over 150 acres. While larger farms are best adapted to some types of farming, it is possible in this part of Illinois to develop a profitable system on 150 acres or even less. This is due in part to the fact that natural conditions and good market outlets make it possible to grow many different products profitably. Good System of Farming Helps Use Labor to Advantage Most farms in east-central Illinois cling to the old two-crop system of corn and oats with little livestock. This plan makes a very uneven demand for man labor, and farmers are frequently put to the necessity of hiring extra labor for short periods. Furthermore these periods come when wages are high. Since in Illinois most farm families supply a large part of the necessary farm labor and this labor is on the farm the year around, the plan of farming should be such as to use it to advantage. This can be done by carefully planning the kinds of crops and livestock to be grown and the relative amounts of each that can be advantage- ously handled. This point is well illustrated by studies which the Experiment Station has made of actual farms. In Fig. 6 is shown the labor distribution on a Champaign county farm. The crops con- sist of corn, wheat, oats, soybeans, and mixed hay. The livestock are cattle and hogs. This combination, it will be noted, gives an even demand for labor thruout the year if miscellaneous farm jobs are shifted to slack periods. There usually are advantages in providing regular employment for hired labor. This can be done by working in with maximum-profit crops such other crops and livestock as will make the best use of the available labor when it is not busy on the maximum-profit crops and at the same time will add most to the farm income. Experience shows that desirable hired labor can be secured most easily if all-year em- ployment is provided. This is another reason for following a crop and livestock program that will use labor to advantage thruout the year. 276 Bulletin No. 329 [June, Power Should Fit Farm Needs and Be Efficiently Handled The cost of power is one of the largest items of expense in operat- ing farms, frequently amounting to 25 percent of all operating costs. A careful study of the power needs of a farm with a view to selecting JAN. FEB 1 Mm: DPR 'IWY'JUNtJUL ' RUG 1 SEP? OCT ^NoFdEC Fig. 6. — Monthly Distribution of Man Labor on a 200-Acre Champaign County Farm This graph shows an unusually even distribution of man labor thru the year, made possible by a well-balanced farm business. The shaded area indi- cates the hours of man labor spent directly in the production of crops and livestock. The upper ends of the bars, shown in white, indicate the hours of labor spent in the upkeep of the farm and in gen- eral work, much of which can be shifted from one part of the year to another. the kind and amount that will best lend itself to the efficient opera- tion of the farm becomes, therefore, a matter of large importance. The problem is to keep the cost as low as possible in proportion to income and at the same time provide adequate power at all seasons. Variations in Cost of Horse Labor. During the past seven years the cost of horse labor on farms keeping cost records in Champaign and Piatt counties has averaged 15^ cents an hour. A three-horse team in the field 10 hours represents on the average farm a cost of about $4.50. Since a large part of the cost of horse labor is repre- sented by feed grown on the farm, the cost of horse power is not 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 277 usually appreciated. Feeds, however, represent a real cost in terms of the value they would have had on the market had they not been fed, and this item must therefore be figured in the cost as truly as if a cash outlay had been required. Fig. 7. — Plowing Under a Heavy Growth of Sweet Clover with the Aid of a Tractor One of the big problems of Illinois farmers is to ad- just their farm power supply to the needs of the farm. Farm power, including both horse and mechanical types, exacts one of the largest costs in 'operating a farm. Fig. 8. — Larger Teams Are Being Used Generally in Illinois One way of economizing on man labor is to make it possible for one man to do more field work and do it more thoroly thru the use of larger power units. The cost of horse labor per hour varies widely on different farms. It is not unusual to find it practically three times as high on some farms as on others. On 15 farms in Champaign and Piatt counties 278 Bulletin No. 329 [June, in 1926 it varied from 9.6 cents to 17 cents between farms (Table 5). The net cost of keeping a horse was $68.06 on one farm while on an adjoining farm it was $179.71. One farmer worked his horses an average of 583 hours a year while a neighbor was able to get 1,008 hours a year. It is evident that the wide differences that exist be- tween farms in the cost of horse labor may be due either to wide vari- ations in the cost of keeping the horses or to the fact that some farmers get a larger number of hours of work from their horses in a year's time than do others. The hours of labor that can be got from a horse are very largely dependent upon the system of farming which is fol- lowed and the number of horses kept. A system that provides for as even a distribution of horse labor as possible thruout the year will enable a farmer to get along with fewer horses Tractor Costs. Similar differences in costs occur in the use of tractors. On cost-accounting farms in Champaign and Piatt counties in 1926 an hour of tractor labor varied in cost from 72 cents to $1.71 for tractors of the same size. Interest on the money invested in a tractor and depreciation, the two items which are incurred regardless of the number of hours a tractor is used, make up the biggest part of the cost of operation. The hour cost is therefore markedly in- fluenced by the number of hours of work the, tractor is made to per- form. Another item that influences the hour cost of tractor labor is the ability of the operator to operate it efficiently. Planning Power Distribution. While it is not always possible to plan a system of farming that calls for uniform power thruout the year and at the same time provides maximum returns from the farm as a whole, some farmers are working out a relatively uniform de- mand for horse power by using a tractor to take care of the peak of power demands. It is careful planning of this kind that helps keep production costs low. The successful distribution of power on a farm in central Illinois is shown in Fig. 9. There were 11 two-week periods during the year when horses were used over 600 hours. In no two-week period, how- ever, did the amount of horse labor exceed 800 hours. In April there was a total power demand equivalent to more than 1,200 hours of horse labor (counting 1 hour of tractor use as equivalent to 5 hours of horse labor). If horses had been depended on to meet this maxi- mum demand for power, and the work had been performed at the same time, one-half again as many horses would have had to be kept than were kept on this particular farm. Of course if a tractor had not been available, this work could have been spread over a longer period in most years without adversely affecting yields, but it still would have required the keeping of more horses. 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Additional evidence of lowering productivity on farms in east- central Illinois is furnished by the bureau of Crop Estimates of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Accepting the estimates of farmers for average yields of corn in Champaign, Piatt, Macon, and De- Witt counties each year from 1896 to 1925, a decline from 42.4 bushels for the first five years of the period to 38.5 bushels for the last five years is to be noted (Table 9). This decline has occurred in spite of the fact that marked improvement has been made in farm practice. Better yielding varieties of corn, improved machinery for the preparation of the soil and the cultivation of the crop, and ^or further information on these points, see Bulletin 300 of this Station, "Lessons from the Morrow Plots." 290 Bulletin No. 329 [June, Table 9. — Average Yield of Corn by Years and by Five-Year Periods in Champaign, DeWitt, Ford, and Piatt Counties, Illinois 1 Year Yield Year Yield Year Yield per acre per acre per acre bu. bu. bu. 1896 48.0 1906 39.5 1916 31.6 1897 43.8 1907 37.0 1917 45.4 1898 31.5 1908 33.3 1918 41.9 1899 42.3 1909 40.5 1919 37.5 1900 46.5 1910 46.5 1920 34.7 42.4 Average 39.4 Average 38.2 1901 25.3 1911 38.1 1921 33.0 1902 45.5 39.8 1912 1913 42.6 28.4 1922 37.9 1903 1923 42.0 1904 38.3 46.3 1914 36.7 47.0 1924 1925 38.4 1905 1915 41.2 39.0 Average 38.5 Average 38.5 ^rop-estimate figures secured by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U. S. Department of Agriculture. better methods of testing and handling seed corn have doubtless re- tarded the rate of decline but they have not prevented it. The need of more carefully worked out plans of farming which have regard for long-time results is clearly indicated by the fore- going facts. 1 a There are certain conditions peculiar to agriculture that should be re- cognized before attempting to make definite plans for the operation of any farm. While many other businesses are affected by rainfall, temperature and other natural factors, farming is peculiarly dependent upon such conditions. Other businesses also have the difficulty of using labor, power, and equipment to advantage thruout the year, but in very few other industries do the seasons and other climatic conditions govern labor utilization so rigidly as they do in agriculture. In order to use labor to full capacity, employment other than that needed in the fields must be found. A variety of farm enterprises must be associated together to distribute labor. Most labor is not equally efficient in handling all farm enterprises. This variety of enterprises and diversity of effort is an insurance also against changing weather and market conditions. Weather unfavorable to one crop will often be best for another. Adverse weather will, during some years, result in crops of poor quality that had best be fed on the farm. Changing market prices will likewise make it advisable to feed more livestock at some times than at others. The maintenance of the soil requires a variety of crop production; also every farm produces large quantities of roughages as by- products in the production of grain, which together with the clovers, that should be used in maintain soil fertility, make it necessary to include livestock in the farm plan in order to make the best use of all crops. With meat-producing livestock there is little opportunity of holding fin- ished animals for a period of time in order to take advantage of market move- ments; since finished animals must be marketed irrespective of the current market conditions. Thus while farming has some characteristics in common with other lines of industry, there are some conditions quite peculiar to agri- culture that influence the organization and operation of farms. 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 291 PART II. PLANNING A PROFITABLE SYSTEM OF FARMING Successful farming requires the fitting together of different kinds of crops and livestock in the proportions that will make a good net income. Each enterprise should add to the net returns from the farm as a whole either by increasing the income or by reducing the costs. Most farms have strong points as well as points of weakness. It is the weak points that need first attention, for farm profits can usually be increased more effectively by correcting weaknesses than by putting additional emphasis on the strong points. Too frequently the tendency is for a man to devote time and effort to developing further those parts of the business that are already efficiently de- veloped, when the same time and effort devoted to the less profitable enterprises would bring better returns. The result is that losses in one part of the farm business overshadow the success in the effi- cient enterprise. To overcome such a mistake a definite plan for the organization and operation of the farm should be prepared which will take into account the various principles discussed in Part I of this bulletin. The most successful farmers are those who have a well-balanced plan of production and are doing fairly well in every phase of their business, rather than those who are especially successful at one point while neglecting others. Value of Farm Accounting The first step in developing a good farm plan is to keep an ade- quate system of records to use as a basis for analyzing the business. Farm accounting experience in Illinois over the past fifteen years shows that a man who has not had much experience in keeping records had best begin with a rather simple system. Such a system should include an inventory of the farm business both at the beginning and end of the year, a record of all farm receipts and expenses, and a record of the production of crops and livestock. Additional records may be added as their need is recognized, but until a farmer has made full use of the type of record suggested above, there will be little reason for him to go into greater detail. The "Illinois Farm Account Book," developed out of the experi- ence of many hundreds of farmers thruout Illinois is available to any farmer in Illinois who desires it. A farmer who uses this book has the distinct advantage of being able to compare his results with many hundreds of other farmers over the state thru a system of analyti- cal reports prepared from these accounts by the Department of Farm Organization and Management of the University of Illinois. Also, the better farms of the community may be used as a standard with which a man can compare his own operations and correct defects in his organization or planning, for while the more profitable farms frequently do not follow the same type of production they almost 292 Bulletin No. 329 [June, always will be found to be practicing most of the principles of good farm management set forth in Part I of this bulletin. While no one farm may be expected to excel at every point, different farms will serve as standards with reference to some particular enterprise or part of their business. The "Illinois Farm Account Book" provides also for keeping a record of feeds fed to different classes of livestock and of the farm- grown produce used in the home. Farmers who are raising consider- able livestock may profit from keeping a record of the feed that goes to each class of livestock. This applies generally thruout east-central Illinois. A man who specializes in some one product, for example, may wish to develop his record keeping still further by keeping a cost-of-production record on that product. When a man reaches this point, however, the need of additional records on the farm business may be so varied, depending upon the type of farming followed and the information desired that it is difficult to make definite recommen- dations without knowing the particular problem on the farm. The system of accounts referred to, however, seems to offer the best simple basis on which to develop a system of accounting for practical pur- poses. The following discussion attempts to show how a man who has kept a record of his farm business may proceed to make the princi- ples of farm management apply to his farm. Maintaining and Improving the Soil The reduced productivity of the soil of most farms in Illinois calls for a better system of soil management than has been practiced in the past. In fact, a definite plan for handling the soil is basic to de- veloping a good system of farming. There are two sources of information that will be of especial help to Illinois farmers in deciding upon the best soil treatments for their farms: one is the recorded yields of the experiment fields maintained by the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Illinois on different types of soil thruout the state; and the other is the information obtained thru the Illinois Soil Survey. The yields from the experiment fields under different systems of treatment offer stand- ards with which farmers may compare their own yields; and the facts determined bv the detailed Soil Survev and discussed in a series of County Soil Reports make it possible for every Illinois farmer to know the essential characteristics of the soil of his farm. For prac- tically every county in the state colored soil maps based on the de- tailed Soil Survey and showing the types of soil on every farm in the county are now available. In these County Soil Reports recom- mendations for treatment of different soil types are given, and the fact that many farmers, when following the recommended practices, 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 293 have obtained yields approaching those on the soil experiment fields, indicates that the standards set up are within the scope of practical farming. The best suggestion to Illinois farmers, therefore, in working out a careful plan for the maintenance or improvement of their soil, is to make use of the sources of information described above. 1 The next step is to test the soil for acidity so that its need for limestone may be determined. This has become a common practice in most parts of the state thru the work of the farm advisers. It is a neces- sary part of the procedure for each individual farm since soil acidity may vary greatly even from one part of a field to another. Aside from the individual study needed for each farm, three or four general facts concerning the needs of east-central Illinois farms may be suggested. Because of continuous grain farming thru this section, most soils are especially deficient in organic matter. This deficiency can be overcome by growing legumes and returning therm to the soil either directly or in the form of farm manure, but in order to grow legumes limestone must be applied to much of this land., for the soil has grown sour under long-continued cropping. In any long-time plan for the development of most corn-belt soils consid- eration should be given to bringing as much as possible of the land now in pasture into the rotation scheme. While some farms have land that it is recognized must be kept in pasture, there are many others that have fields continuously in pasture that would be much more profitable if included in the rotation. Including the Higher Profit Crops in Rotations Certain crops have proved distinctly more profitable over long periods of time than have other crops grown in the same region (Tables 2 and 3) . The second step in planning a good system of farming is therefore to select a rotation that includes a large pro- portion of these higher profit crops. Of course only a portion of the farm can be devoted to such crops, since considerations of soil fertili- ty, the economical use of man labor and of farm power and equip- ment, the production of feeds for livestock, and the control of dis- eases and insects make it necessary to grow a variety of crops. Rotations that appear to be giving the best results in all sections of the country, as pointed out in Part I of this bulletin, usually have three characteristics: they include a cultivated crop, which is needed to provide for the killing of weeds and for the maintenance of tilth; they include one small grain crop in order to provide for the seeding of grass or legume crops; and they include a grass or legume *For further information on this subject, see Circular 302 of this Station,. "What the Illinois Farmer Can Do to Learn About His Soils." 294 Bulletin No. 329 [June, crop to rest or improve the soil. Since a rotation may vary in length from three to several years, emphasis may be placed on any one of these three kinds of crops. On rolling land a grass or legume crop is apt to be grown for two or three years. This is typical of New England, where land is left in a hay or pasture crop much of the time and usually only one year of small grain and one year of cultivated crop are grown in the rotation. In the northwestern wheat belt two or three years of the rotation are given to small-grain crops and generally only a year each to legumes and a cultivated crop. In east-central Illinois corn is the highest profit grain crop, and it is practically the only cultivated crop grown extensively (Table 2). In planning the rotation for this section, provision should there- fore be made for as large a proportion of land in this crop as can be handled economically. At least one small-grain crop is necessary to provide for seeding the land to a legume crop. Wheat is the high-profit crop for this purpose, according to cost records obtained in east-central Illinois. While it is possible to follow corn with an annual legume such as soybeans, a deeper rooting legume than soybeans is desirable some time in the rotation in order to maintain tilth and add organic matter more rapidly. Sweet clover as a pasture crop and alfalfa as a hay crop are the two common legumes that have the deepest root systems and they are usually also the highest profit legume crops. In east-central Illinois a legume should be grown at least one year in four or five as a means of maintaining nitrogen and organic matter in the soil. While cost-of-production studies show that alfalfa is the most profitable of the hay crops, it does not fit in well if grown but a single year in the rotation, for it is a perennial and the seed is relatively expensive. A more satisfactory practice is to grow sweet clover in the rotation as a pasture crop, plowing it under as a means of improving the soil, and then growing alfalfa for hay on a field that is not included in the main rotation. Red clover, while not having the deep rooting qualities of alfalfa and sweet clover, adds materially to the improvement of the soil if it is kept on the farm as feed for livestock or is plowed under and it fits well into the rotation. This legume may be considered an intermediate-profit crop. The above discussion leads to the conclusion that a rotation in this area made up largely of corn, wheat, sweet clover, and alfalfa is de- sirable from the standpoint both of profit and of good general farm- ing. In some areas canning crops and soybeans sold for seed may bring a return that would place them among the higher profit crops. Also, as varieties of soybeans are improved, better cultural prac- tices and methods of harvesting worked out, and better prices ob- tained, this crop may prove more profitable, as suggested on page 267. Proportion of Higher Profit Crops to Include. Some difficulties in planning a rotation to include only the higher profit crops will be 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 295 experienced, for it is almost impossible to follow corn with wheat unless the corn is removed for silage or cut and shocked in time to permit sowing the wheat crop. Also, it is practically impossible over a long period to depend on seeding wheat in the standing corn. From the standpoint of the practical means of following one crop with an- other, it is almost necessary for some crop to be grown between corn and wheat. Oats, barley, and soybeans are probably the best crops adapted to this purpose. In east-central Illinois at present less than 60 percent of the land is grown to the higher profit crops, when corn, wheat, alfalfa and sweet clover are so considered. Corn makes up a large proportion of this total. From the standpoint of economical production of crops and the maintenance of the soil, certainly not more than 50 percent of the land can be profitably grown to corn over a long period. As the proportion of the land in corn goes above 50 percent the cost of production increases rapidly, owing to the high seasonal and short- time use of labor, power, and equipment. Furthermore, from a soil fertility standpoint not over 50 percent of the land should be grown to any one crop even when careful attention is given to the treatment of the soils. This is a principle which may well be kept in mind in planning a rotation in this area. A combination of corn, wheat, sweet clover, and alfalfa, however, may easily make up 70 to 85 percent of the crops grown on many farms even tho it is necessary to use oats, barley, or soybeans after corn and before wheat. The livestock producer can readily plan his feeding operations so as to use up to 20 percent of his land in oats, barley, and soybeans. As feed, these crops can be included in prof- itable systems of farming. On some farms because of soil conditions it may be necessary to put less of the land in the higher profit crops than would otherwise be desirable. The proportion of a farm that is untillable, the need of drainage, and other soil conditions will directly influence the selec- tion of a crop rotation. Labor and power requirements of different crops and the way in which different crops fit in with the system of livestock production are also to be considered. Winterkilling of wheat and legume crops will sometimes interrupt the cropping plan. When one crop fails, another should be substituted that will interfere with the regular ro- tation as little as possible. Future Crop Plans. Cost of production and market demand seem to have determined quite definitely the relative profitableness of the different crops that are commonly grown at the present time. Changes in these relations, however, may occur in the future as the result of changes in production costs, the introduction of new crops, or the development of serious plant diseases or insect ravages, and if they 296 Bulletin No. 329 [June, do, crop plans will need to be adjusted accordingly. While the type of agriculture in a region shows little change over a period of years, certain changes in farm practice may take place even during a brief period. Alfalfa, sweet clover, and soybeans, for example, have been introduced into the systems of farming in east-central Illinois within the past fifteen years. Only an occasional farm was growing these crops prior to that time. It hardly seems probable that a like number of new crops will be introduced to the same extent in the immediate future, but experience suggests that the advantage of a new crop should be carefully considered. A rotation that has proved suc- cessful should not, however, be changed markedly until the ad- vantages of a change are pretty definitely established. Providing Good Seed. The acre yield of a crop is a large factor in determining its profitableness; hence special attention should be given to securing seed from high-yielding varieties that are adapted to local conditions. For a section such as east-central Illinois, the yielding qualities of the different varieties of the leading crops have been pretty well established both by farm tests and by controlled ex- perimentation. Information on this point is available in a number of publications of this Station. 1 While the cost of seed for different crops varies from only a few cents to three or four dollars an acre, it is not unusual to find on many farms that the cost of purchased seed will run to two or three hundred dollars in a year. Many farmers are reducing their pur- chases of seed to a minimum by selecting their own seed, and by pre- serving, testing, and treating it for disease. For the amount of labor expended, the home preparation of seed offers one of the best means of reducing farm expenses, for most of the work can be done at seasons of the year when there is not a rush demand for labor. Cooperative effort of farmers in providing adequate storage and other facilities for handling seed is an indication of more general recognition of this fact. The seed of some crops commonly grown in this section, especially alfalfa, cannot be produced locally to advantage, but when good varieties of grain are once secured, it is not difficult to maintain them at a relatively small cost, as suggested above. Using Labor, Power, and Equipment to Best Advantage In addition to the factors already discussed that are to be con- sidered in planning a crop rotation, variations in the demands for labor, power, and equipment make it important to consider carefully *See "Productiveness of Varieties of Winter Wheat in Illinois," (Bui. 276) ; "Spring Wheat Production in Illinois," (Bui. 267) ; "Varieties of Barley for Illinois," (Bui. 297); "Productiveness of Certain Varieties of Corn in Illinois" (Bui. 294). 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 297 the ways in which crops may be fitted together in the rotation scheme (Table 10 and Figs. 15 and 16). In planning a rotation with attention to labor requirements, it is a good idea first to list the operations which are normally required in growing a combination of crops under average weather conditions. Then assuming that one is able to accomplish a normal day's work at each operation, the total labor requirements may be estimated. Tables 11 and 12 will be found useful in this connection. By listing the operations according to time of year they will have to be per- formed, it is an easy matter to approximate the distribution of labor and power necessary in growing a given acreage of each crop. Demands of Higher Profit Crops Well Distributed. Corn and wheat fit together admirably from the standpoint of labor and equip- ment. The oat crop also fits in well before corn and after wheat is cut. The same is true of barley. While barley was not grown on the farms in east-central Illinois which were studied, records in northern Illinois show that it has about the same production requirements as oats. Soybeans, more than any other crop commonly grown in Illinois, conflict with the planting and cultivation of the corn crop. Careful planning of the field work, however, will help to overcome this dis- advantage. Some of the more successful soybean growers plow the soybean land ahead of that spring-plowed for corn, thus spreading the labor on soybeans over a longer period and in this way overcoming in part the conflict between corn and soybeans. Alfalfa, which must be cut three times usually during the year, interferes with labor needed for most of the other crops (Fig. 15). It has the advantage, however, of using labor at several times during the year and the cutting of the first crop follows the heaviest spring demand for labor and power. Usually the second and third cuttings can be handled with other farm work if the farm work is planned with some forethought. Pasturing of sweet clover tends to reduce labor and equipment demands. If, for instance, 15 to 20 percent of the land is grown to this crop, no labor will be needed on that much of the land that year. Even tho the returns from sweet-clover pasture are low in compari- son with those from other crops, the fact that operating costs are low makes the crop relatively profitable. Thus the high-profit crops in this region — corn, wheat, alfalfa, and sweet clover — fit in well with a good labor and power distribution. In fairly normal years, a farmer can tell in advance approximately what operations will be needed for growing the different crops, and whether the combination he is considering will reduce them. The 298 Bulletin No. 329 [June, practice of growing corn, corn, and oats, for example, with sweet clover seeded iri the oats and plowed down the next spring for corn, Fig. 15. — Hours of Man Labor Required to Grow and Harvest Ten Acres of Each Crop Indicated The bars show the hours devoted to each crop by two-week periods thru the year. The graph suggests the possibilities of com- bining crops in the right proportions to use labor to advantage, which is one of the essentials in keeping the cost of production low. will require the plowing of two-thirds of the land in the spring of each year. A rotation of corn, corn, oats, wheat, and sweet clover grown for pasture requires that only 60 percent of the land be plowed each year, two-thirds of which may be plowed in the fall, leaving only one-third of it or 20 percent of all the crop land to be plowed in the 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 299 02 ft* o a O 02 P o >-l H «! > O 03 H « cs i— i O — - - a H 02 S <; H 22 £ H O £ O H a « DQ M fife < > BS O < £* o « < ■J <5 - 02 ^. 6 s >> C O J3 O a. 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CO t— CO o 1—1 OS e© ■*** 1-1 CM CD CO !/"> CO **> ■»f t^. i—l ^H : : CO ■**< t^o MO Oi CO CO CO ^H i-H CO co -*O0 r-t» 00 CM ^H 1-H 1-* 1-H i-l CM ■^*> -H lO OS CO T* "U« 00 o o i-c CM CM CO CM •*<* ION COO OS CO CM OO •f OS OS CM CicM i-h CM OS •*■ CO O CO CO -H Oi CO ■* CO i-c U0 ■f CO Hi Hi CM CM o *# CO CO CO Hi O5C0 t-» cm i-i CM CO i»< « CM CM t>. 1— » 1— < CM Tf CO ■*»< oooo ~* CM O CO Hi 00 CM CM ©■•»« CO t~ 1— ( 1— ( • : *0Q CM OS t^oo CM CO : : _3 s CO £35 t- -- 5 « S i- ~ o *< * 5 5P >_ be bB o vg 55.2.H.S £ S < * fc* f > nj — O O !- — ^- I_ i_ CO m rtOO » 02 M CO 5 s ° b o *^*j O bO M-^_ X> B B co o o i- m u u (Q gOOM o M * a> -^^ • bO bfi B .s- •4J> CO S > r*" 1 C9J3 M c o •<£> c« fc.es—* bD bll B 9*3 35 > i- eS -^ - •- CC cS — a - " k 3sa bO be e B-5 s > »- cS «l* t- o W-o cs _ cS— • tx >* t. eS L. O >* 2-^ w =s — O S £ ~ eS o o o .S3 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 301 o > o -a o O -* •<*> CO CN1 OMOtO Tf* © © *"*• 35 00 © ~ © ■^ © *Mt»f UO — i — 03 © Tf CM o CN HO ONI") 1 CNJ — . >* OO hi 3 © s "7* a a u uo 3 CM CM be • 3 . OO -©• '-Mi CJ © - 05 < co a 3 >-5 ia CM - ' tO oo o © © ■* co CO . co • L-5 © © t^ N © CM 00 CO co • t- © © f~ CO »n •o cm • CM • GO ■* 00 CO CO © © CM • cs> • ■«* lC t^ lONN CO 00 CM CO CO CO • oo so cm r^ "0 uo © CM © 24.1 1.6 23.3 m oo t^- © -^ -cf co (M CO IN® -00 -*> CO CO CO © t- © oo OO • © oo t-- CM OO CM 00 CO -co _© 'J" >o CO © OO OO CM • © © U0 . . 00 hi a "* © © i-O ■ CO "5 © •q. ; 00 CO U0 35 '• »o UO CO CM " ■*!< Tfi CO r- ■ CO 1— t © i— 1 © • © iO oo •CM t^ CM • t» © CM *— * • CO CO CM 00 CO • -"J* © CO © CN ■ 00 CO © t~- © CO •■*• oo UO C ■ n CM CM 03 s 6 ■-d s •ts -3 • c a • -t • a - ; c« 09 tractor. . lut tracto ictor .... tractor . . ; o3 a CQ T. CU CU S CO CO cu cu cv> CO rses hors hors O rses hors hors ith ho with with — is ithout withe ith tra with ^5 ith ho with with — '5 * M fe Sf *- 6* be C* bO -« ■f- be £ bO fe b£ . a .5 a - *- „.*- 41 hi .a . c u> . a i_ btr.3 be - "5 C o bC'^3 tC'43 o bH'43 M hi br.3 be o ;3 o 3 co a 02 3 CS — Cm CO 3 CQ ts C - rr i; s 1- c3 ■H CU-r" CJ .3 aj _2 •r" CU •-> «- a> r_ OS & > S^ f*- o >■ o > +9 & > & > o & > fei-^ > L el) Q Im O Ui o ■- O 3 O 3 a O 03 3-a «3-a S tiS si h, . a . a o bc:5 bevs •O c co a co O O H O *2 x i- -- i- •- feaaoa a cu s £ S o ! - S ' a « 5 & > *J O 3 O C 03 goa © -a o hi 03 o c o a o cu a o -r — Eh 302 Bulletin No. 329 [June, spring. The effects which certain crop combinations have on labor demands during the course of a year are illustrated in Figs. 15 and 16. A criticism that applies to corn-belt farming in general is that Fig. 16. — Hours of Horse Labor Required to Grow and Harvest Ten Acres of Each Crop Indicated As in the case of man labor, this graph shows the possibilities of choosing crops that will advantageously distribute the power demands thruout the growing season. The figure is based on farms using horses as the exclusive source of power. not enough attention has been given to the selection of crop rotations that utilize labor and power to good advantage. 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 303 Adapting Crop Plan to Labor Supply. The supply and experience of labor available at different seasons of the year is also to be con- sidered when planning crop systems. Family labor, for example, may be available during only a portion of the year, but if the crops are well arranged it frequently is possible to make good use of it. If boys Table 11. — Standards for Farm Operations Based on Labor Records on Farms in Central Illinois I Operation Width of imple- ment Num- ber of men Num- ber of horses Acres per 10-hour day (once over) Hours per acre (once over) Man Horse With horses Plowing 16" 28" 9' 20' 8' 35' 8' 40" 1-row 2-row 8' 5' 10' 8' 2 1 2 1 3 3 1 1 3 5 5 4 4 2 4 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 3 5 20 40 20 50 16 16 7.5 12.5 18 10 20 12.5 8 8 5 16 10 3.3 2 .5 .3 .5 .2 .6 .6 1.3 .8 .6 1 .5 1.8 2.8 3.7 6 .6 1 3 1.4 10 Plowing 10 Disking, single Harrowing 2.5 1 Rolling 2 Seeding, endgate .... Drilling .4 2.5 Cultivating 1.3 2.7 Cultivating 2.4 Cultivating, rotary hoe 1.1 Cutting hay Raking hay 2 1 Putting up hay, with loader 134-ton vield 2-ton yield Putting up hay, by hand 1^4-ton vield 2-ton yield Cutting grain, with binder 1.5 2.5 2.5 4 2.5 Shocking grain Threshing 4 Silo filling, per ton. . . 2 x In addition, a boy would be used for driving the team for loader and hay fork. of school age capable of doing field work are at home during the summer, they can be counted on for wheat harvest and the prepara- tion of ground for the seeding of the new crop. Under such circum- stances wheat may well have a larger place in the rotation than it has on farms where such labor is not available. Soybeans raised for hay might also absorb extra labor of this kind, since the work of preparing the ground and seeding the crop may be done after school 304 Bulletin No. 329 [June, closes in the spring. Corn cultivation can also be done by such help. Where a large acreage of both corn and soybeans is grown, this kind of labor may materially help in handling the peak load of labor. Table 11. — Concluded Operation Width of imple- ment Num- ber of men Num- ber of horses Acres per 10-hour day (once over) Hours per acre (once over) Man Horse Hand husking 40 bushels 50 bushels 60 bushels With 2-ylow tractor Plowing 28" 7' 2-row 10' 10' 42" 10' 12' 1-row 2-row 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1.7 1.5 6.7 18 20 25 22 9 25 25 8 12 5 6 6.7 1.5 .6 .5 .8 .9 1.1 .4 .8 1.3 .8 10 12 13.4 Disking (tandem) Cultivating Cutting grain, with binder Cutting grain, with combine (Hauling grain not included) With 8-plow tractor Plowing Disking, tandem. . . . Cutting grain, with combine Corn picker Corn picker (Hauling corn not included) Not infrequently a crop that does not bring a direct profit has an important place in a rotation. If it does not require labor at the same time as some other more profitable crops, such a crop can be made to furnish some return for labor that would otherwise be idle or not used to best advantage. Oats, for example, are not usually a profitable crop, but the oat crop may be sown before the land is pre- pared for corn and harvested after the corn crop is laid by and the cutting of wheat has been completed. Thus it usually will return some- thing for labor and equipment that otherwise would not be fully used. The overhead cost of keeping horses is especially to be considered, for it must be met whether the horses work or not. By including oats in the crop system, the demand for horse labor is better distributed, less being required during the peak load and more being utilized in 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 305 slack seasons. Fewer horses are then required to do the work on the same acreage, and thus the total cost of farm power is reduced. Livestock Necessary for Good Labor Distribution. On most farms man and horse labor would not be fully employed thruout the year unless some livestock were kept. If the winter employment of men and horses were not provided for, it would mean on many farms that the entire labor and power bill for the year would have to be charged to fewer hours of work. This would mean a heavier labor charge carried by field crops, for which labor and power are needed only during a portion of the year. Table 12. — Beginning and Finishing Dates for Certain Important Operations on Farms of Cost-Accounting Cooperators, 1923-1925, Champaign and Piatt Counties, Illinois Date of beginning Date of ending Farm operation Earliest date Average date Latest date Earliest date Average date Ending date Oats Seeding Mar. 26 July 6 July 17 Mar. 21 July 6 July 23 Sept. 26 June 29 July 17 May 2 May 17 Sept. 15 June 1 July 8 Aug. 15 June 18 April 1 July 8 Aug. 1 April 2 July 14 July 28 Sept. 29 July 4 July 28 May 5 May 28 Oct. 12 June 8 July 14 Aug. 23 June 20 April 14 July 14 Aug. 4 April 3 July 21 Aug. 12 Sept. 29 July 10 Aug. 5 May 9 Mav 30 Oct. 17 June 22 Julv 16 Aug. 25 June 21 April 2 Julv 20 Aug. 11 Mar. 21 July 14 July 27 Oct. 6 July 16 July 28 May 23 July 9 Dec. 12 June 17 Julv 23 Sept. 7 July 16 April 11 July 25 Aug. 15 April 4 July 23 Aug. 8 Oct. 12 July 20 Aug. 10 May 26 July 12 Dec. 16 June 20 Julv 28 Sept. 12 July 20 April 17 Cutting Aug. 11 Threshing Sept. 21 Spring wheat Seeding April 5 Cutting Aug. 11 Threshing Aug. 14 Winter wheat Seeding Oct. 23 Cutting Julv 31 Threshing Sept. 14 Corn Planting June 13 Husking Aug. 2 Jan. 28 Alfalfa harvesting Second crop Third crop June 30 Aug. 11 Sept. 25 Clover and mixed hay harvesting July 29 Note. — This table gives the extreme dates for beginning and finishing the different farm oper- ations, while the average date given is the modal date for all farms included in the results of each year. Since the different livestock enterprises vary in the amount of labor they require and in the season when they require it, the feeding of livestock may be so arranged as to use available labor and power to advantage. Beef-cattle feeding, sheep feeding, the growing of beef cattle, and winter dairying utilize labor during the winter season. (Table 13 and Fig. 17). Even tho such an enterprise may give only a small return above the value of the feed used, it may mean adding much to the total farm income in the future thru increased yields as 306 Bulletin No. 329 [June, well as adding something to the present income. The direct benefit comes thru livestock paying something for the man and horse labor that would otherwise not be fully used. The amount of available labor on the farm will influence the kind and amount of livestock that can fit into the labor program. Fig. 17. — Hours of Man Labor Required Monthly in Caring for Livestock Some kinds of livestock, such as feeder steers or sheep fed during winter months, require little labor during the growing season and do not interfere seriously with the growing and harvesting of crops. Thus they help to make possible an eco- nomical labor program. Dairying has been included in the organization of some farms because there were boys available to help with chores mornings and evenings during school months, as well as full time during the summer. This subject will be treated more in detail in the section on balancing crop and livestock production. 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 307 02 i— i o i— c »-J P u CO S O a I-H « o o « Em O o p— I H P PQ I-H « 02 CO 1—1 H H a & o xi in o o to > 03 o -d o «- '3 c o In (- O 13 CO -1-3 o H CO CM OS CO CO CO CM T* 1—1 1—1 1—1 d co 03 A CN CO CO iO 1— 1 1—1 i-H > CO o fc CM CO CM Tl< i— i i—t 1—1 -+j CO o o CM COO 1—1 T— 1 1— 1 1— 1 -t-3 a co co CM ooo o Ul 1— 1 1— 1 fab t^ CM C5GO Ci co C 1-5 03 Cu co Jh o3 43 CD o3 o CM CO i-H GO Oi CO CO i-H GO OS t> CO CM CM © CO COCO CO co b- co TjH © iO CM CO CO CO "tf co CO o © o • ~H »H a> a faC a 73 OJ 03 faC c 2 g '5b CO 43 ■+3 o3 C •X) 1> CO " e^ CO 03 co t3 P *■> •P Oh O o Sh — faC c >> S-l 03 43 el o Si 03 Ch CO Sh P" O 43 *0 co us (M CM CO oo CO lO CM CM »o CM t-h CM iO CM GO CM i-h CM © i-H CM iO rt< i-H CM iO GO i-H IO IO IO o CM ia CO iO CM »o *0 CO CO o CO CO iO © co iO i-H iO © co CO CM o co co CM CD CO S- O 43 M s-, o CD P. o (h O CD O +3 Sh >^^ a O o o o co co co h tn h hg 'd CU CD CU CN i-^ rd r^ i-M nj C C C QHHI— (HH o o CM CD CO J-, CD CD faC o CD CD C3^ CO PI o3 O o CD CM CD' CD CD o oo CO O c3 T-l fH H 2 ? r/f Ph'-S faC o 03 o Oh h o CD o - " tn T3 S G «TOho3 O w faD d rt - ^^ O Ch (h C3 CO CO -C O O i— i (h CO *\ co CO o • t-H o o3 co o3 faC C3 • ^H Ph CO 73 CO CQ • -* 03 «H CO faC C o3 c3 CO o s o3 43 i CO a o fl o3 CO c o CO CO CO ■~ 03 H 308 Bulletin No. 329 [June, Shifting Odd Jobs to Seasons of Low Labor Demand. The crops and livestock for any farm having been determined and the time when they will demand labor pretty well fixed, attention should be given to the miscellaneous jobs about the farm which can be shifted to the seasons of low labor demands. Rainy days and other periods of slack employment can be filled with labor on repair work, preparing seed for sale or for planting, hauling of manure, cutting weeds, and vari- ous other odd jobs on the farm that can be shifted about (Fig. 18). A schedule for fitting in this miscellaneous farm labor can be worked out if a small notebook is carried to write down odd jobs that need attention but can best be done when labor is not needed on more im- portant jobs. Scheduling work will avoid taking labor from crops or livestock during the rush periods. Balancing Crop and Livestock Production The kinds and numbers of livestock that can be advantageously produced on a farm will depend on many circumstances. If a man has had little or no experience with stock, it may be a mistake for him to go into the enterprise on too large a scale. If he is not inter- ested and does not like to give the continuous care which most live- stock require, he would do well to confine his farming operations largely to crop production. He cannot expect, however, to obtain as large earnings as a man who produces livestock with average effi- ciency and is equally efficient in crop production. In choosing the kinds of livestock to produce, local demands for certain livestock products should be considered, as well as marketing facilities, includ- ing transportation to central markets. The amount of rough and untillable land which a farm con- tains may go far in determining the kind and amount of livestock that will be profitable, since the different kinds of stock vary in their ability to utilize different kinds of feed to advantage. Horses, for ex- ample, utilize a larger amount of roughage than of grain. The same is true of dairy cattle, sheep, and stocker or feeder cattle under some conditions. Hogs, on the other hand, while one of the most profitable livestock enterprises, use large amounts of salable grain and small amounts of roughage compared with beef breeding herds and horses. The same is true of poultry (Table 14). While east-central Illinois is primarily a grain-selling region, a considerable part of the grain shipped out of this region eventually finds a market as feed for livestock produced in some other section. The thoughtful farmer who recognizes that the productivity of his land is on the decline may well consider whether he might feed more of his crops on his own land. While it is possible to maintain soil fertility without livestock by using mineral fertilizers and by growing a sufficient acreage of legumes and plowing them under, it is poor LABOR CALENDAR FOR THE CORN BELT JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE . JULY AUSUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER a o o Boy necessary- se eoW Test see4 corn(M) Clean 8 test all other- seeM Break corn s talks (M) Haul manure (M) Disk for cormIF. Disk corn — stalks (S) Plow for corn (S) DlSk FOR OATS (F) (Plant potatoes^) Treat 4 son oats IF) Sow clover — (F) SOW BARLZYtf) 5(W RAPE if) Sow WHEAT (R Sow GRASS SEEu(F 5o\N ALFALFA (F Sow forage crops for/n/estod '- O cc H CO CO <: o o M a a fa O CO P. 2: W CO Eh P O < o S Days fed O O 0?a Oi iO to CO tOO (N iO 'T3 T2 60 . . Tj CO c3 CO • ooo OOrflTtH • • m i • • ** . o to »o CO CO Oi rH . CC to (M CO rH rH rH CM 1 o M5-2 5 ooo ooo "HH 01 O (N rH IO T*< Tf SO OiOC ooo CM rt< <■* CC tO COCO (M o 3 co — • o a .2 C 00 to to to o i— 1 rH rH rH (M (N rH rH o oo s hay or equiva- lent bfl o3 ooc: o o o O o HOCCN O CO CM O =3 ^* CO OiOC . o i> o oo co 00-*N bl '3d -o Orti O J 1 I °° r-t rHlNC^IN 0) H-3 3 O (N i O CO •—1 -»J rH(N COO e<« co oco P. C CO • • A- O -o • . t> IO COI> COt^ CO o ^2 '*- i • • rH OC| r- i—i rH rH . oo o OOO >>,rr-9 2 g>o>zdc<: O CO o o "3 CO ooc rt.-OO cO(Ml>o: rH CO CS CD Si o oooc CM Ni- § rt a; '- 1 CO Tj< IO CC O O 00 00 OS i CO 03 CM OS _c OS 1— 1 T-H CO 'fl "3 bfi co" C3 o T— 1 bO c 72 . ryj c • "■+3 bfl _ CO iO c C co >o o 4*1 o o co > d p o « +3 -^ co" G P a c + WF c C e '2 c3 CD Fh ng 100 pounds 550 pound to 750 oc O^ •+J r- o c IO ■*- or 100 pou 550 pound to 750 it, 750 to 9 950 to 1,10 c CO cc o Work horses Champaign and 1024 11 XT 2 ■ P ^ I H-3 ! O ^ « gC PQ ■5 c . O . P b. c C ■P2 0! > CT* £ cattle, fattcni ith silage (for Calves, 400 to Yearlings, 550 Medium weigl Hpn.vv st.pp.rs. ithout silage, f Calves, 400 to Yearlings, 550 Medium weigl Heavy steers, «>■ >c > pq £ 310 Bulletin No. 329 [June, co c3 cp =0 o3 c3 Q w cp PL, lO iC iO CMM o c 50 t^. t^. b- i-H CO CO rO 1— 1 I— 1 1— 1 OO O OOO OO O l> GO O o o CO o CP bfi fe o3 > 3^3 "S3 3 t— i - < o3 bfi bfi.j3 « 3 m - H O §1 =0 OOO OOO OOO c cp b£ 3 >/3 S'S, cp 2 a" -1 ^ j^ S o 03 OOO OOO OiOiO CM CM CM o o o »o CO i-i o O co —- 1 -(-J cc CO G. O ►o £ s OOO o o o o o o 10 CM CM o3 O so OOO OOO ^ 00 »o 1— 1 1— 1 CM O O iO 10 Tfl Tt< *o o CM *C o O o o 10 o o o o 00 CM i-H CM o o co cp > o c 3 000 • i-H — — -^» -4-3 -M Cp Cp CP 3 3 3 "3 ^3 T3 OOO h h ^ 0-1 Oh Oh co co co "3 T3 'C ^ c c c ^ 35 3J =3 -m O O O -£0,0,0* OOOO .OOO C 0,00^ Q T3 u cp -3 bC '-' O ~ o co £; W . bfi • \'B •d* *- i-H cp o /lo.9A 31.7 A 17.7 A 11.2 A A 20 A 9JA ■ 22 A 23A J ^ ID A 12 A 20 A 4.1 AY s2A 17.8 A 4.6A ■ 20 A C Field Plan for First D. field Plan for Third Year of Revision Year of Revision 22 A 23 A J 9.7 A 2IA ^ — — n s 22 A 6.3 A 22 A A ■ E. Field Plan for Fifth Year of Revision F. Field Plan for Eighth Year of Revision Fig. 20. — Actual Revision of a Field System on a 160-Acre Farm in Central Illinois From a well-developed field plan a conveniently arranged farm may gradually be worked out. Several years may be necessary before the plan is realized and all fences are rebuilt. Such a plan is the basis also for building up a satisfactory crop rotation and economizing in the use of labor and power in field work. 322 Bulletin No 329 [June, southwest. It is equally important that the natural surface and subsur- face drainage be away from the house toward the other buildings on the farmstead. This not only helps the appearance but often insures a /. PwELLinq 3. Poultry House 4. Shop 5.mjgh//1e shep G.lV/fTER T/U1K 7. Stock Bjrh e. Silo z.Hoq Mouse io. Cone ret l FEED/nq Floor U.P0U3LE CoRnCfflP IZ.SCJLES a. Pump h p/jui- ir HQAD Fig. 21. — A Good Layout for a Farmstead on a 160-Acre Corn-Belt Farm The farmstead layout shown in this figure has the following advan- tages: (1) The house is some distance from the road, but an open view is made possible by placing the house in front of other buildings. (2) The garden and orchard are adjacent to the house. (3) The poultry house is adjacent to the orchard, which provides runway for the poultry when it is needed. (4) The garage can be reached from the house without having to pass thru the barn lot. (5) Shop, garage, and machine shed are grouped to facilitate repair work. (6) The barns are to the east and north of the house, away from the prevailing winds. (7) The ma- chine shed is on the way from the house and barn to the fields. (8) The water tank is accessible from three lots. (9) The feeding floor for the hogs is adjacent to the corncribs. (10) The buildings are as compactly grouped as fire hazard will permit, thus economizing on time spent in work about the buildings. water supply that is not contaminated by seepage from barns and lots. Many farm houses appear small in comparison with the other buildings. More prominence can be given the house by placing it on elevated land and surrounding it with good landscaping. Arrangement of Other Buildings and Lots. The important points to consider in arranging barns, sheds, and lots are: 1. Their accessibility to the rest of the farm. 2. The placing of the buildings as close together as fire safety will permit. 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 323 3. Grouping together buildings used for the same kinds of livestock or for the same purpose. 4. Storage of feed close to or in buildings used for livestock in order to save time in doing daily chores. 5. Arrangement of the water system to permit watering livestock without moving them from one lot to another. 6. Arrangement of horse barn, machine shed, and watering tank for horses in such a way as to cause the least travel to and from the barn and fields. This will not only save time but machinery can be left at the machine shed when the field work is finished. 7. Locating buildings and lots giving rise to the most offensive odors farthest from the house. 8. Placing near the house the buildings and lots that are used most by the family or that are connected with interests that the women in the home help care for. Certain of these buildings may well be placed near the main path to the larger barns and lots. Poultry, for instance, is apt to be given more regular attention with such an arrangement than if located in an out-of-the-way place. Many steps will be saved in picking up and returning milk utensils, tools, and the like, if the buildings housing these lie between the house and the barns. Locating the Farmstead. In addition to the actual arrangement of buildings and lots on the farmstead, there is the question of the general location of the farmstead itself in relation to the farm land. On most farms in Illinois the farmstead is already located, and farm buildings are usually of too permanent a nature to justify moving them. The unfavorable location of the farmstead may, however, in some cases justify moving the buildings if many of them are in such condition that they will soon need to be rebuilt. Another possibility, where it can be done to advantage, is to rent or buy land lying near the farmstead and sell the more distant land. When completely new sets of buildings are needed, opportunity is given to put into effect a good plan of field and building arrangement. A well located farmstead means much saving of time. Carefully kept records have shown that where crop fields are located some dis- tance from the farmstead, as much as one-fourth of the time devoted to crop work is spent in going to and from the fields. The poor loca- tion of a farmstead may be partially overcome by carefully rearrang- ing the fields so as to bring some point of the field close to the farm- stead. A situation about midway along the side of the farm which is on the highway is the most desirable one for the farmstead. While a farmstead so situated may not be so easily accessible to the various fields as one located in the center of the farm land, the home is not so isolated. If the road is not too heavily travelled, there will be ad- vantages in having the farm land located on both sides of a road. The farmstead can then be both near the center of the farm land and near the road. 324 Bulletin No. 329 [June, Planning for New Improvements and Equipment While working out plans for fields and farmstead, careful estimates should be made of the expenditures that are likely to be necessary for new buildings, fences, machinery, and other equipment. One should be sure, too, of the benefits that will be gained thru each ex- penditure. Finally in purchasing building materials, machinery, fenc- ing, and other supplies care needs to be exercised to keep expenditures in reasonable proportion to the total farm investment. Buildings. Plans for buildings should take into account the pos- sible future uses of such buildings. There is a distinct advantage in so arranging them that they may be used for more than one purpose. A shed type of building, for example, may be built to house machinery but in emergencies it can be used for livestock. Also a well-built open- shed type of building may, without much expenditure of capital, be converted into either a cattle-feeding shed or a dairy barn as occasion arises. Where buildings are especially constructed for one particular purpose, it is very difficult to change the organization of the farm busi- ness without either having completely to remodel buildings or to use them only partially. It would be practically impossible, for example, to use a dairy barn equipped with steel stalls and stanchions as a cattle- feeding shed if the time were" to come when cattle feeding was followed on the farm instead of dairying. On farms without large-sized machinery it may be advisable when building a new machine shed to provide wide enough sections so that larger machines can be accommodated when it is possible or necessary to buy them. Proper sanitation for livestock makes it desirable that as many buildings as possible be of a movable type, or of less permanent con- struction, so that they can be moved from field to field. Whenever possible, buildings should be located so that they are readily accessible from more than one field. Machinery. With machinery, also, one should anticipate the future farm needs and, in so far as possible, future changes that may take place in the size and type of machines. If, for example, the farm does not have a tractor, but the plan is to have one some day, then any machinery bought should be of a size and type adapted to tractor use. Of course no machinery should be purchased until a careful esti- mate has been made of the amount of use that can be made of it. On the average farm many machines are used for a very short time each year. In considering the purchase of the largest machines, such as threshing machines, silage cutters, combines, and other expensive types, one may well consider the desirability of cooperative ownership, so that a lower cost of service may be secured by increasing the yearly use of the machine. Income from custom work will often carry the overhead costs on these more expensive machines. 1939] Organizing the Corn -Belt Farm 325 Fencing. As the need for legumes in the rotations of east-central Illinois increases, more livestock will undoubtedly be pastured and this will require more fencing than at present. Depreciation, the cost of repairs, and interest on the capital invested in them are already items of heavy expense on many farms. Greater use is continually being made of temporary fences. This means that only those fields which are being pastured need to be fenced. If stock is used to pick up waste in the grain fields, a permanent fence around the farm can be supplemented with temporary fences where they are needed. Tem- porary fences can be moved when the ground is too wet to work at regular field work, or during days when field work is not demanding attention. Temporary fences not only require less capital investment than permanent fences, but the labor of cutting weeds that always grow along old fences is eliminated. Fencing costs may be kept down by avoiding the use of lanes and by placing fencing around as large units as possible. Laneways are not only expensive to fence but they make it difficult to carry out plans of livestock sanitation which require stock to be moved to fresh land each year. Financial Considerations The preceding discussion of farm planning has been approached from the standpoint of the man occupying a farm and seeking to im- prove its organization. Before leaving the discussion some points relative to financing farming may be made both from the standpoint of the man who is contemplating purchase of a farm and from the point of view of the present landowner. The availability of capital and credit to the individual farmer will have an important bearing on the farm plans that can be put into operation. Unless one has sufficient capital and credit at hand to pur- chase and operate a farm large enough to permit economical produc- tion, it is better to become a tenant and use available capital to equip the farm properly. On the whole, there is less risk involved in being a tenant than in being an owner. It may be best, therefore, for one to start as a tenant and continue on that basis until his ability is proven. Selecting a Farm. Good judgment in the selection of a farm, either to rent or to buy, often has more influence on the income of the operator than good judgment in the organization and operation of the farm. Overpaying for a farm may handicap the owner for a life-time, and especially is this true when a large debt is incurred. Every effort should be made to learn the productive capacity of land before it is either purchased or rented. Local conditions with respect to shipping facilities, local tax levies and proposed public im- provements, local school and church facilities, together with the type of neighbors in the community, should also receive careful attention. 326 Bulletin No. 329 [June, In estimating the value of the land, probable prices of farm prod- ucts over a long period in the future, and not present prices, should be taken into consideration. At the close of the World War high prices for farm products raised the price of land to a level higher than earnings over a ten- to fifteen-year period would justify. While the experience of this period will be remembered a long time by many people, there will be a tendency for the younger generation to forget it too soon. When buying land particular note should be taken of the improve- ments necessary for immediate operation. The points needing atten- tion are: (1) whether the buildings and other improvements are such as could be used to advantage in the type of farming that will be followed; (2) whether the farm is under-improved and consequently will require a large outlay for new improvements in the near future; and (3) whether the price asked includes the value of improvements which are not essential, or at least would not need to be made until more capital was at hand. Purchase Price. A considerable part of the purchase price of a farm should be in the hands of the buyer. He cannot count on making more than average returns from farming unless he has fully proved his ability as a superior operator in the community where the farm is located. By keeping careful farm records over a number of years before buying land and by comparing one's success with others in the community, one can get definite information as to his ability. Even if a man were confident that he could make a 5-percent return on the land after meeting all expenses including labor, he would have to count on using a part of the income to meet family expenses. If, for example, he had to use two-fifths of the 5-percent income to meet such expenses, he would be able to pay 5 percent interest on but three-fifths of the value of the land and nothing would be left to make payments on the principal. If it is necessary to use this propor- tion of the net income for family expenses, it is clear that one should have capital for half of the proposed investment before purchasing. An advance in price of land does not help a man to pay off an in- debtedness unless he disposes of his farm. The amount of capital represented in the farm business in east- central Illinois is well illustrated by the inventories shown in Table 17. The data on which this table is based were taken from the records of representative farmers in the areas noted. The estimates were made by the farmers themselves working together in groups in appraising their property at present-day farm values. Here we have an average investment of $45,000 to $60,000 per farm. The farms in the different groups include an average of 190 to 230 acres. About $200 an acre is the estimated value of the land ex- clusive of improvements and other farm property. Buildings and 19291 Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 327 other fixed equipment exclusive of the residence of the operator repre- sent an investment of about $3,300 to $5,500. If they were new, they would of course represent a much larger amount. The same is true of the machinery and other movable equipment. However, since men even when beginning farming usually secure some of their machinery Table 17. -Distribution of Capital in the Farm Business on Typical Farms in East-Central Illinois as Shown by Records Kept by Farmers in 1926 Item Land Farm improvements except house Machinery and equipment . Feed, grain, and supplies. . . Livestock, total Horses Cattle Hogs Sheep Poultry Total farm investment , Size of farms, acres Investment per acre, land only Total investment per acre. . Percentage of land tillable . Number of farms Ford La Wood- and Cham- Salle ford Iro- paign county county quois counties county $44 181 $38 088 $45 985 $45 675 5 476 3 437 4 086 3 310 2 004 1 400 1 547 1 583 3 152 2 628 2 932 2 826 (2 836) (2 234) (2 181) (1 949) 670 663 672 748 1 335 730 778 656 469 639 484 318 241 55 63 24 121 147 184 203 $57 649 $47 787 $56 731 $55 343 203.8 191.0 231.2 225.0 $217 $200 $199 $203 283 250 245 246 91 85 94.9 95.5 40 55 31 30 Logan, Macon, and Piatt counties $43 069 4 243 1 594 3 521 (2 885) 744 1 012 885 90 154 $55 312 226.8 $190 244 95.1 28 and equipment second-hand from public sales, the data in Table 17 may be taken as quite representative of the investments found on good east-central Illinois farms. THE TEST OF FARM PLANNING The value of farm planning is indicated by the success attained by men who have given intelligent effort to the problem. During the past fourteen years many men in Illinois have used the "Illinois Farm Account Book" in which to record facts concerning their farm business, and many have continued these records every year or nearly every year of the period. An analysis of these records yearly by the University of Illinois shows that some of the men have progressed more rapidly than their neighbors in developing good systems of farming. On all the farms where improvement in income has occurred, however, the cause can be traced to the gradual elimination of one weakness and then another that has been revealed by the farm records. 328 Bulletin No. 329 [June, Not all the more successful men in a community have followed the same type of farming. The products sold have varied widely in number and in the proportion which they have made up of the total farm income. The point to be emphasized is that while the sources of income may vary, the operators that are succeeding are putting into practice many of the principles of good management outlined on page 262. The extent to which farms may vary in their organization and still be comparable in respect to earnings is illus- trated by five farms in east-central Illinois (Table 18) . Farm 1 de- rives most of its income from the sales of feed and grain crops, with hogs as a secondary source of income. Farm 2, in contrast with No. 1, receives no income from the sale of feed and grain; nearly three-fourths of the income is from hogs, and a large part of the remainder is from cattle and dairy products. Farm 3 derives its largest income from the sale of feed and grain; cattle and dairy products rank second; and a considerable income is derived from the sale of hogs. On Farm 4 hogs account for a large part of the income, tho feed and grain crops also provide a considerable amount. Farm 5 receives over 40 percent of its income from the sale of feed and grain and almost 60 percent from livestock and livestock products, the income from hogs and the combined income from cattle and dairy products being about equal. The more common changes which these and other account-keep- ing farmers have made in order to improve their businesses are the following: more attention to soil improvement; better rotations of crops; larger proportions of higher profit crops; more effort to obtain better seed of high-yielding varieties; better field arrangement; more livestock and better types of livestock; livestock sanitation; balanced feeding of livestock and greater economy in feeding ; better marketing practices; and the adjustment of power, buildings and equipment to the needs of the farm. An operator whose farm is not giving the results which he might reasonably expect has many points to which to look for the cause. The factors that influence the cost of growing and harvesting a bushel of corn are analyzed in the accompanying outline. A similar chart might be made for each of the staple farm products. By check- ing an outline such as this, a farmer may note at what points he needs to make adjustments in order to increase the efficiency of his production. Sometimes a single factor is of enough importance to make considerable difference between profit and loss. Sometimes a few factors, seemingly of minor importance when taken sepa- rately, especially when considered from the standpoint of a single unit of product such as a bushel of grain or 100 pounds of livestock, may represent a total of no small importance when applied to an en- tire crop or livestock enterprise. 19291 Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 329 Table 18. — Earnings, Organization, and Distribution of Capital on Five Successful East-Central Illinois Farms, 1927 Farm No. Rate earned Labor and management wage. Size of farm, acres Land area tillable Percent income, sources Feed and grain Miscellaneous Horses Cattle Hogs Sheep Poultry and egg sales Dairy sales Acres in harvested crops Corn Oats Wheat Barley Red clover Sweet clover Alfalfa Soybeans Mixed clover Miscellaneous crops. . . Total Crop yields (bushels) Corn Oats Winter wheat Barley Spring wheat Number of — Work horses. Cows Other cattle. Brood sows . . Ewes Chickens. . . . Tractor. Investment per acre in pro- ductive livestock. . . Receipts per acre from ductive livestock. . . Feeds purchased Man labor cost per acre. pro- Gross receipts per acre. Total expenses per acre. Net receipts per acre . Capital invested, total Land Farm improvements Machinery and equipment. Feed and supplies. Livestock Total receipts Cash expenses and deprecia- tion Unpaid operator and family labor Net income from investment and management 8.46% 374 220 95% 75 5 2 12 i 5 95 25 30 5 10 25 190 50 30 20 7 4 2 4 60 Yes $ 3.39 $ 5.68 4.65 28.27 9.90 18.37 $47 765 37 400 8.12% 369 197 94% 2 1 12 73 2 4 6 776 225 939 1 425 $ 6 219 $ 1 359 818 $ 4 042 78 31 \2 12 42 12 187 48 31 32 6 7 5 32 12 117 Yes $ 34 . 53 $ 46.18 2 766.96 7.09 47.58 25.82 21.76 $52 780 37 430 4 659 1 635 2 209 6 847 $ 9 374 $ 4 336 751 $ 4 287 8% $1 642 162 87% 59 9 13 *6 13 62 26 33 10 6 137 41 38 23 20 6 7 4 5 105 Yes $ 7.71 $ 11.65 68.00 6.62 28.32 13.16 15.16 $30 684 23 887 694 291 223 589 $ 4 589 $ 1 207 925 $ 2 457 7.81% 528 320 95% 21 1 i 71 154 56 9 30 12 269 63 46 23 11 3 36 40 Yes $ 16.70 $ 31.82 772.00 6.04 40.45 16.07 24.38 $99 865 72 000 14 950 454 116 345 $12 944 $ 4 423 720 $ 7 801 7.11% 404 143 78% 43 4 25 3 7 18 44 24 20 is 2 6 111 49 47 21 6 8 7 3 isi Yes $ 12.26 $ 17.99 199.00 6.76 31.00 14.89 16.11 $32 407 24 000 2 540 1 749 1 888 2 230 $ 4 433 $ 1 234 895 $ 2 304 330 Bulletin No. 329 [June, FACTORS AFFECTING THE COST OF PRODUCING A BUSHEL OF CORN I. FACTORS AFFECTING OPERATING COSTS A. Horse Labor Costs 1. Cost of keeping horses a. Feed costs b. Depreciation c. Labor d. Interest on Investment e. Shelter 2. Credit to horses for — a. Work done off of farm b. Production of good colts c. Value of manure 3. Hours of productive work obtained per horse, as influenced by: a. Size of farm b. Size and shape of fields c. Crop rotation d. Productive winter work for horses B. Tractor Costs 1. Operating tractor a. Depreciation b. Interest c. Repairs d. Fuel and other operating expenses 2. Effective use of tractor a. Relieving peak load of labor in rush seasons b. Reducing number of horses c. Using tractor for belt and custom work C. Man Labor Costs 1. Wages paid 2. Effectiveness of labor, as influenced by: a. Layout of fields b. Rotation of crops c. Methods of handling livestock d. Arrangement of work with reference to slack seasons e. Methods of harvesting crops, whether directly or with livestock D. Machinery Costs 1. Interest on investment 2. Depreciation as affected by care while in use and protection from weather 3. Repairs 4. Other expenses E. Other Operating Costs 1. Amount of overhead labor and other expenditures devoted to repairing buildings and fences, cutting weeds, caring for farmstead, etc. 2. Cost of seed, limestone, phosphate, and other items of soil improvement 3. Taxes and interest on investment 1929] Organizing the Corn-Belt Farm 331 II. FACTORS AFFECTING CROP YIELDS A. Soil Conditions 1. Natural fertility of soil 2. Use of manure, limestone, and other fertilizers 3. Use of legumes in rotation 4. Drainage 5. Physical condition of soil B. Rotation of Crops 1. Proportion of land in legumes 2. Succession of deep and shallow rooted crops 3. Succession of light and heavy feeding crops C. Seed 1. Variety 2. Vitality 3. Freedom from disease 4. Rate of seeding D. Culture Practices 1. Preparation of seed bed 2. Cultivation 3. Control of weeds 4. Time of operations E. Insect and Disease 1. Control by succession of crops 2. Seed treatment 3. Resistant varieties 4. Time of seeding F. Seasonal Conditions 1. Rainfall 2. Temperature 3. Length of growing season 4. Hail, wind, or flood damage One of the important points about successful production that is not brought out directly by such an outline is this — that much of the success in farming depends upon doing the many different things that should be done at the time when they should be done. A busi- ness that is so much dependent upon "natural" factors — season, weather, rainfall — and upon the control of disease and insects as is farming, is especially affected by any failure to do the right thing at the right time. As the agriculture of a region grows older, farmers are brought face to face with problems of increasing importance. The once naturally fertile soil requires attention if its productivity is to be maintained or improved. Insect and disease hazards which formerly 332 Bulletin No. 329 were few in number become more and more numerous. Improved machinery offers more variation in the methods of growing and harvesting crops. Continued investigation provides more facts re- garding the feeding and care of livestock. The improvement of trans- portation, storage, and other market facilities which bring farmers of one area into closer competition with those in other areas make marketing a more important problem. With all these developments careful study and planning of the organization and operation of the farm becomes continually more essential.