^.earning anb |Tabor. 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 University of Illinois. 
 
 CLASS. BOOK. volume:. 
 
 b^OA Wl^to T«blO^ 
 
 Accession No. 
 
 
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Wis. Bull. No. 70. 
 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 70. 
 
 •CONSTRUCTION OF. CHEESE CURING ROOMS FOR 
 MAINTAINING TEMPERATURES OF 58° TO 68° F. 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN. J AN U ARY, 1899. 
 
 <.&e~The Bulletins and Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
 Democrat Printing Company, State Printer, Madison, Wis. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT .... EX officio 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY - - - - ex officio. 
 
 JOHN JOHNSTON, State at Large, - - - - - - President 
 
 B. J. STEVENS, (2d District), - - - Chairman Executive Committee 
 
 State at Large, - ... ... WM. F. VILAS 
 
 1st District, - OGDEN H. FETHERS 
 
 3d District, J. E. MORGAN 
 
 4th District, GEORGE H. NOYES 
 
 5th District, JOHN R. RIES& 
 
 6th District, - - FRANK CHALLONER 
 
 7th District, - - - - - - - - WM. P. BARTLETT 
 
 8tk District, ORLANDO E. CLARK 
 
 9te District J. A. VAN CLEVE 
 
 10th District, ........ j. h. STOUT 
 
 Secretary, E. F. RILEY, Madison. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, CHALLONER, FETHERS, RIESS, and MORGAN. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, 
 
 S. M. BABCOCK, .... 
 
 F. H. KING, - ... 
 
 E. S. GOFF, 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, .... 
 
 F. W. WOLL, .... 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, . 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON. 
 
 J. A. JEFFERY, - 
 
 J. W. DECKER, - 
 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, - 
 
 FRED CRANEFIELD 
 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, .... 
 
 IDAHERFURTH, 
 
 Director 
 Chief Chemist 
 Physicist 
 Horticulturist 
 
 - Animal Husbandry 
 
 Chemist 
 Bacteriologist 
 Dairy Husbandry 
 Assistant Physicist 
 Dairying 
 
 - Assistant Chemist 
 Assistant in Horticulture 
 
 Farm Superintendent 
 - Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint Horticultural-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. ] 
 
Co 3 6 .7 
 
 \AJ1S1 r 
 
 ~b a l 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF CHEESE CURING ROOMS FOR 
 MAINTAINING TEMPERATURES OF 58° TO 68° F. 
 
 F. H. KING. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 c 
 
 -c 
 
 
 It is the purpose of this bulletin to present methods for utilizing the 
 lower degree of heat possessed by the subsoil and the deeper ground- 
 water in maintaining temperatures for cheese curing rooms within 
 the range of 58° to 68 °F. It has not yet been established that this 
 range of temperatures is the most desirable one for the purposes of 
 our cheese industry, but it is agreed that within these limits a better 
 product can be secured than is possible during the summer season 
 under the temperatures which must prevail in the majority of facto- 
 ries as now constructed. 
 
 In the Fourteenth Annual Report, p. 195, Drs. Babcock and Russell 
 speak upon this point as follows: 
 
 “The effect of these high temperatures is very deleterious to the 
 quality of cheese. They are not only diminished in value by the melting 
 and leaking of the fat, but the texture and flavor are both impaired 
 by such abnormally high temperatures. 
 
 In the following thermograph record, actual temperature variations 
 as found in an imperfectly constructed curing room, are shown in 
 comparison with those taken from the Dairy School cheese cellars. 
 
 Fig. 1. — Showing recorded temperatures’ in an ordinary cheese curing room, 
 curve B; and the same in a cellar cheese curing room, curve A. 
 
 51276 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 Tko line B B shows the temperature fluctuations that are too often 
 found in our cheese curing* rooms. The more pronounced harmful 
 effect of these high temperatures is designated by the heavier shading. 
 It is noteworthy that the cheese under these conditions were in a 
 safe temperature for only a small fraction of the three days here 
 shown. The diagram represents the actual conditions as found in the 
 month of September of the present year (1897). No doubt if examples 
 had been taken from the usual midsummer season, the cheese at no 
 time would have been at temperatures that could be regarded' as safe. 
 
 As opposed to this, line A A represents the temperature conditions 
 that prevailed during the same period in our own cheese cellars. The 
 •effect of perfect insulation in preventing diurnal fluctuations is thus 
 graphically shown. 
 
 We may therefore divide the range in temperatures that is likely to 
 <o occur into three more or less well defined zones. 
 
 (1) A temperature range that is invariably detrimental, ranging 
 from the maximum limit that may be reached (approximating and 
 sometimes exceeding 100°F.) down to about 75°F., depending upon the 
 character of the cheese made. 
 
 (2) An intermediate zone ranging from above minimum limit to a 
 point below which no injurious effects are observed. This range, 
 which we may term a hazardous zone, varies from about 75° to 65*1?. 
 
 (3) A lower zone that is invariably consitent with favorable results. 
 This embraces a range in temperature from 65° downward. Of course 
 cheese cannot be cured successfully at or very near the freezing point, 
 but we have in our experiments obtained excellent results when cheese 
 was cured in the neighborhood of 40°F. The main objection to this 
 low temperature curing appears to be in the length of time required 
 to perfect the product.” 
 
 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL AND OF THE GROUND-WATER IN 
 
 WISCONSIN. 
 
 Since the degree of refrigeration in curing rooms which is secured 
 ■through the cooling power of ground temperatures cannot be quite as 
 low as the temperature of the soil and of the ground-water, it is impor- 
 tant to know what these are. 
 
 In northern Wisconsin the temperature of the deeper spring water 
 is as low as 45°F. in some cases in Douglas county after the middle of 
 August. At Marshfield the water in the well at the factory of Mr. 
 John Henseler, and also« at a livery stable in the city has a tem- 
 perature of 47 °F. the last of September. At Mr. Steinwahn’s fac- 
 tory near Colby, north of Marshfield, we observed a well water tem- 
 perature of 46° early in October. At Dale, west of Appleton and far- 
 ther south than the others mentioned, the temperature was found to 
 be 49°F., while in the southern counties of the state temperatures as 
 
Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 5 * 
 
 high as 50° and 52°F. are found in the latter part of summer. We 
 have therefore in the state available ground-water temperatures for 
 cooling purposes ranging from 45°F. in the extreme northern portion 
 of the state to 50° or 52° in the southern counties. 
 
 The temperature of the soil above the level of ground-water and 
 10 to 12 feet below the surface of the ground will usually range from 
 5° to 8°F. warmer than the deeper ground- water of the place which 
 makes the available cooling temperature from the subsoil itself range- 
 from 48° to 51°F. in the extreme nort to 55° to 60° in the south. 
 
 We have therefore at our command for cooling purposes ground- 
 water temperatures of 45° to 52°F. and subsoil temperatures from 
 48° to 60°F., and how nearly a curing room may be held to these temper- 
 atures will depend wholly upon the construction and management 
 of the room and upon the rate at which the air in the room is changed*. 
 
 AIR TEMPERATURES IN WISCONSIN. 
 
 The mean annual temperature of Wisconsin for 1896, as given by the- 
 Weather Bureau, is represented on the map, Fig. 2, where the heavy 
 lines drawn across its face show the mean annual te Tiperature at the 
 places crossed by them. It will be seen that the mean temperature 
 for the year ranges from 47° in the south to 40° in the northern por- 
 tion of the state. It will be seen therefore that the deeper ground- 
 water from levels of 30 to 80 feet, has a temperature about 3 warmer 
 than the mean annual temperature of the locality. 
 
 But the temperature of the air in the summer months is much 
 higher than the mean annual temperature, and as this is the degree 
 of heat which must be counteracted, it is important to 'know what 
 this is. In Fig. 3 the heavy curves show what the mean temperature 
 was during the month of July, 1898. It will be seen that the extreme 
 northwest and the extreme northeast parts of the state had a mean 
 temperature of 68°F., while the highest mean temperatur es were 74 in 
 the extreme southwestern portion. 
 
 For the month of August the same year the temperatures are 
 plotted on the map Fig. 4 and show the lowest mean to be 64° F. in 
 the northeast and the highest mean of 72°F. in the southwest. Again 
 the same features are shown for September in Fig. 5, where it will 
 be observed that the lowest mean temperature is 58°F. and again in 
 the northeast portion of the state; while the highest is again in the 
 southwest and 66°F. 
 
 It appears therefore that the northeastern portion of the state has 
 the most favorable temperatures for curing cheese, while in the south- 
 west the conditions are least favorable. 
 
 It must be remembered, however, in studying the maps that there 
 are always during the day time much higher temperatures than the 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 70, 
 
 Fig. 2.— Showing mean annual temperature in Wisconsin for 1896. Heavy lines 
 pass through the places having the temperature designated by the numbers. 
 
Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 * 6 ° 
 
 Fig. 4.— Showing the mean temperature in Wisconsin for August, 1898. Heavy 
 lines pass through places having the temperature designated by the numbers. 
 
 Fig. 5.— Showing the mean temperature in Wisconsin for September, 1898. Heavy 
 lines pass through places paving the temperature designated by the numbers. 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 70 , 
 
 maps show, because the lines on the map show the average between' 
 the night and the day conditions, and hence make it appear that there- 
 is less need of cooling the air of curing rooms than there is. 
 
 It must be further kept in mind that there are often several days 
 in succession when the air temperatures are much higher than the 
 average, even of the day temperatures, and if these are not counter- 
 acted great damage may be done to the cheese product of the state. 
 The report of the Weather Bureau for 1898 shows that the mean maxi- 
 mum and minimum temperature for Wisconsin was as follows: 
 
 Table showing mean maximum and ^minimum temperatures in 
 Wisconsin in 1898. 
 
 
 Northern Section. 
 
 Middle Section. 
 
 Southern Section. 
 
 Mean 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Mean 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Mean 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Mean 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Mean 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Mean 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Temp. 
 
 June 
 
 75.5 
 
 51.5 
 
 78.8 
 
 55.5 
 
 79.2 
 
 56.9 
 
 July 
 
 82.7 
 
 55.6 
 
 84.0 
 
 57.8 
 
 84.8 
 
 59.5 
 
 August 
 
 78.1 
 
 52.0 
 
 78.8 
 
 56.1 
 
 80.9 
 
 57.6 
 
 September 
 
 73.0 
 
 48.5 
 
 74.8 
 
 50.4 
 
 75.1 
 
 52.9 
 
 Mean 
 
 77.3 
 
 51.9 
 
 79.1 
 
 54.0 
 
 80.0 
 
 56. T 
 
 In this table the mean maximum temperatures show how high the 
 extreme heat is liable to run in this state and what the construction 
 and management of the curing room must counteract. On the other 
 hand, the columns of mean minimum temperatures show the lowest 
 point the thermometer is likely to reach during the night, and hence 
 wEat is the coldest air which could be used to cool curing rooms by 
 direct night ventilation. 
 
 WORK WHICH HAS BEEN DONE IN THE STATE. 
 
 In 1893 and again in 1897 in papers before the Wisconsin Cheese- 
 makers’ Association the writer pointed out different available methods 
 of cooling curing rooms, and called attention to the possibility of 
 utilizing the lower temperature of the subsoil and of the ground- 
 water for this purpose. Since the earlier date, stimulated by the 
 energy of Mr. E. L. Aderhold, traveling cheese instructor, two of the 
 methods suggested have been put to a practical test at a number of 
 factories, and some of the results which have been attained will be 
 here stated. 
 
 Quite a large number of sub-earth ducts of various lengths and 
 constructions have been placed at different depths below the surface. 
 
Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 9 
 
 The first one which we visited was in the factory of the Dale Cheese 
 and Butter Co., at Dale, and has a length of 100 feet placed 7 feet below 
 the surface of the ground. The duct is a single flue made of 
 cement tile, having an oval cross section of 12 by 18 inches and such 
 as are commonly used in the construction of road culverts. 
 
 The air was entering the curing room through a rectangular open- 
 ing 11.5 x 11 inches at the rate of 198.88 cubic feet per minute. The 
 curing room was a basement, having the dimensions of 72 x 28 x 8 feet, 
 and hence the air in the room was being changed at the rate of once 
 in 81 minutes. The temperature of the duct was 58°F.; that of the 
 air in thq curing room was 62°F. when the outside air was 69 °F. 
 There was therefore a cooling effect of 7°. The humidity of the air 
 in the curing room was 74 per cent, when that of the air outside was 
 39 per cent., and there was thus an increase of saturation amounting 
 to 35 per cent., and Mr. J. D. Cannon stated that at times the air 
 became too moist, causing the cheese to mould. He also states that 
 in very calm weather there is no draft, and that if the weather is 
 very warm and the draft strong the air is not sufficiently cooled, so 
 that it becomes necessary to close the flue. 
 
 At the factory of Mr. A. C. Werth, Neenah, there has been con- 
 structed this year a sub-earth duct 104 feet in length, placed 12 feet 
 below the surface of the ground, the flue being made of 13 lines of 
 6-inch unglazed drain tile laid in two tiers, one of 7 lines on the bot- 
 tom covered with about 2 inches of earth and then upon this 6 other 
 lines, thus forming a multiple flue having an aggregate cross-section 
 of 2.55 sq. ft. 
 
 The thermometer placed in the bottom of this duct at the factory 
 end registered 55.5°F. the last of September when the air outside was 
 68.5°F. at 4:20 p. m. At the same time the temperature of the curing 
 room was 63.5°, with a humidity of 60 per cent., when the air was 
 entering through the duct at the rate of 68 cubic feet per minute. 
 
 The wind velocity outside at a height of 4.5 feet above the surface 
 of the ground when the above observations were made was 242 feet per 
 minute. The actual wind velocity 80 feet above the ground at the 
 level of the intake of the duct was of course considerably greater 
 than this, so that had there been no reduction in the velocity of the 
 wind in passing to the curing room it should have entered it at the 
 rate of more than 189 cubic feet per minute. The wind velocity was 
 therefore reduced by the shaft and duct at least as much as 
 189 — 68 = 121 feet per minute. 
 
 or nearly two thirds. That is to say, the air was able to enter the 
 room less than one-third as rapidly as the wind was passing the 
 intake. 
 
 The next factory visited was that of Mr. P. H. Kasper, of Nicolson, 
 Waupaca Co., represented in Fig. 6. Here the sub-earth duct has a 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 length of 108 feet and is placed 10 feet below the surface of the ground, 
 it being covered with two feet of sawdust, above which is a foot of 
 earth. 
 
 This duct is constructed essentially as show in Fig. 7, with 6-inch 
 drain tile laid in three tiers separated by about two inches of earth, 
 and the intake rises 50 feet above the surface, with the mouth of the 
 funnel three feet in diameter and the neck one foot. At the time of the 
 visit the thermometer at the bottom of the shaft registered 56.5°F. 
 when the air outside was 67° at 9 a. m. The temperature of the room at 
 the same time was 60° F., with a relative humidity of 89 per cent. At 
 the mouth of the duct where the air entered the room it had a temper- 
 ature of 58.5°, or 1.5 below that of the room and 2° above that of the 
 bottom of the duct itself, when these relations of temperature ex- 
 isted the air was entering the room at the rate of 129 cubic feet per 
 minute, or at a rate which would change the air in the room once in 
 every 40 minutes, the dimensions being 34 x 18 x 8.5 feet. 
 
 At the factory of Mr. Pat Wallace, near Hortonville, the sub-earth 
 duct has a length, of 100 feet and is made of three tiers of tile placed 
 one above the other and having four lines of 6-inch tile in the upper 
 tier, four in the lower tier and five in the middle tier, but two of these 
 lines are 8-inch tile. The bottom of this duct is 10 feet below the sur- 
 face at the far end and 7 feet next to the factory, which stands partly 
 in a side hill. The intake, with its funnel 36 inches in diameter and 
 neck of 12 inches, rises 80 feet above the bottom of the duct, but, 
 through an accident in the raising, the vane was broken, and at the 
 time of my visit the funnel was not squarely facing the wind and the 
 duct was not doing service. 
 
 There was also a ventilating shaft rising 30 feet above the ceiling 
 of the curing room, through which there was a strong draft at the 
 time of the visit, but the construction of the curing room was suffi- 
 ciently open to supply all the air required for the draft without suck- 
 
Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 1L 
 
 Fig. 7. — Section of cheese curing room andhorizontal multiple sub-earth duct. 
 A, inlet to curing room; B, end of sub-earth duct in bricked entrance to fac- 
 tory; C, cross-section of the multiple ducts as placed in the factory of A. C. 
 Werth; D, E, bricked entrance under funnel at outer end of sub-earth duct; 
 F, funnel with mouth 36 inches across ; G, vane to hold funnel to the wind. 
 
 ing any in from the sub-earth duct. By closing up the mouth of the 
 duct so as to leave only a narrow opening it was noted that occasion- 
 ally a current of air strong enough to move the anemometer was set 
 up, but this was sometimes in and sometimes out. 
 
 Under these conditions the temperature of the curing room between 
 1 p. m. and 2 p. m. was 66°F. when the temperature outside was 70° 
 and the relative humidity inside was 68 per cent. The temperature 
 at the bottom of the duct next to the curing room was 61.5 J F. 
 
12 
 
 Bulletin No. 70 . 
 
 At the factory of *J : F. Steinwahn near Colby a well 64 feet deep is- 
 utilized as a sub-earth duct in the manner represented in Fig. 8. The 
 intake pipe ten inches in diameter, with its 36-inch funnel, rises just 
 barely above the roof of the factory starting two feet below the sur- 
 face of the ground, at which level it extends horizontally entering 
 the well and then descends to a distance of 8 feet, as shown at A A A 
 Another 10-inch galvanized iron pipe starts 40 feet below the surface 
 of the ground and rising to within 5 feet of it passes horizontally 26 
 feet until it is beneath the curing room and then enters it directly 
 as shown at B B B C. The top of the well is closed tightly, so that the 
 air forced into it through the funnel is obliged to escape through the 
 duct which leads to the curing room. 
 
 Under these conditions we found the temperature of the curing 
 room 60.5° when that of the air outside was 70°. The thermometer 
 at the bend of the duct below the entrance to the curing room was 
 at the same time 53.5° and that of the air as it left the duct 55.5°. 
 The air was entering the room at the rate of 61.45 cubic feet per 
 minute, and as the room had the dimensions of 25 x 28 x 11, 7,700 cubic 
 feet, the air was being changed at the rate of once in 125 minutes. 
 
 It should be stated that these obesrvations were made between 12 
 and 1 p. m. on a clear day, and further that the construction and sit- 
 uation of Mr. Steinwahn’s curing room are exceptionally good. It is 
 located on the north side in the shade, and is double boarded outside 
 and in, with paper between. His floor and ceiling are also double 
 boarded, with paper between, and there are double windows with 
 blinds outside. To this thorough construction must be ascribed a 
 large measure of the effectiveness of his sub-earth duct, which shows 
 the highest efficiency of any one we have examined. 
 
 Mr. John Henseler at Marshfield has a curing room situated in a 
 cellar having plastered stone wall sides 8 feet high extending 6 feet 
 below the surface and a cenment floor. At the time of my visit the 
 curing room had a temperature of 61°F., with a relative humidity of 
 63 per cent, where the thermometer showed a temperature, of 67°F. 
 outside and a humidity of 30 per cent. 
 
 It is stated that on hot, damp days the moisture condensed upon 
 the lower two feet of the walls and that if several such days occur 
 together the cheese is liable to mould. This same characteristic is 
 also said to develop at such times in the basement curing room at 
 Dale, already described, showing that better ventilation for such 
 rooms is required. There was a small ventilating shaft in this factory, 
 as also in the one at Dale, but these are evidently not sufficiently 
 effective. 
 
 If the observations cited above are brought together in the form of 
 a table they will appear as given below: 
 
Bulletin No. 70. 13 
 
 '.Fig. 8. — Showing vertical section of Mr. J. F. Steinwahn’s factory and sub-earth 
 duct in well. A, A, funnel taking air into well; B, B, B, duct leading air 
 from well to curing room, C; D, ventilator. * 
 
14 
 
 Bulletin No. 7 0. 
 
 Table showing the observed temperature of the air in curing rooms 
 compared with that of the air outside at the same time. 
 
 No. OF 
 Factory . 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Mean 
 
 Temperature of Air. 
 
 Outside. 
 
 F. 
 
 69.0 
 68.5 
 
 67.0 
 
 70.0 
 
 70.0 
 
 67.0 
 68.58 
 
 In the 
 curing 
 room. 
 
 F. 
 
 62.0 
 
 63.5 
 60.0 
 66.0 
 
 60.5 
 61.0 
 62.16 
 
 In bottom 
 of duct. 
 
 F. 
 
 58.0 
 
 55.5 
 
 56.5 
 
 61.5 
 53 5 
 
 57.0 
 
 Humidity of Air. 
 
 Outside. 
 
 In curing 
 room. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 39 
 
 74 
 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 89 
 
 
 68 
 
 36 
 
 78 
 
 30 
 
 63 
 
 Rate at 
 which air 
 entered curing 
 room. 
 
 Cu. ft. per min. 
 198.8 
 68.00 
 129.00 
 
 61.45 
 
 It will be seen from this table that with a mean outside tempera- 
 ture of 68.58°F. the curing rooms were found to have a mean tempera- 
 ture of 62.16°F., or 6.42° below the outside air. At the same time the 
 mean temperature of the sub-earth duct was 57F 0 ., or 5.16 lower than 
 that of the curing rooms, and 11.58 lower than that of the outside air. 
 It appears therefore from these limited data that with sub-earth 
 ducts the temperature of curing rooms may be held at least as much 
 as 7° to 10°F. lower than the temperature of the outside air during the 
 hottest portion of the day. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH AN AIR BLAST. 
 
 In order to test the efficacy of a strong current of air carried from 
 a well into a room in controlling its temperature several trials were 
 made, using a small blower to draw air from near the bottom of 
 the well at Agricultural Hall and force it into the lecture room of that 
 building. To do this 40 feet of 4-inch suction pipe were lowered into 
 the well and connected with the blower, and nearly as many more 
 feet of the same size of pipe, wrapped in white cotton batting, con- 
 veyed the air to the lecture room. 
 
 The lecture room is 44 by) 38 by 9.5, containing 15,884 cubic feet, and 
 occupies the central section of the ground floor of the building, and 
 in order to get a measure of the cooling effect of the air forced into 
 the room, self-recording thermometers were placed in the three rooms 
 of the ground floor and allowed to remain during the time the ex- 
 periment was in progress. It should be further stated that the build- 
 ing is a heavy stone structure, with walls 24 inches thick, and that 
 
Bulletin No. 70 . 
 
 15 
 
 the four inside hall doors leading to the lecture room were kept 
 closed, and the six windows darkened with opaque black curtains 
 on the inside. The windows in the other two rooms were not dark- 
 ened and the hall doors leading into them were open, as were also 
 some of the windows. 
 
 On August 21, when the outside air temperature in the shade was 
 69.9° at 7 a. m., 81.2° at 2 p. m. and 76.5° at 9 p. m., air was forced from 
 the bottom of the well into the lecture room at the mean rate of 1,081 
 cubic feet per minute from 10:05 a. m. to 11:59 a. m., and from 12:59 
 p. m. to 4:51 p. m., and the temperature of the air near the center of 
 the room and also that in the two adjacent rooms was recorded by 
 the registering thermometers. 
 
 At first, after starting, the temperature of the room was lowered 
 about one degree, but after 3 p. m. the temperature went up nearly 
 2 degrees, leaving the room at the close of the experiment 1.5°F. higher 
 at night than it was at 10 a. m. In the case of the other two rooms, 
 the south one sustained an increase of temperature of 11°F. and the 
 north one 9°F.; but it is probable that if these rooms had been closed 
 as closely as the one into which the air was forced their temperatures 
 would not have raised as much as the records show, and it is ques- 
 tionable whether the effect of the air from the well could have been 
 more than enoug'h to lower the temperature 7°F., or about the same 
 amount as was observed at the several curing rooms. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE WOODEN ABOVE-GROUND CURING ROOM. 
 
 Where a curing room is constructed entirely above ground it is quite 
 certain that a carefully built wooden structure may be kept cooler 
 than one built of any other available material of moderate cost. 
 
 The location of the room is an important consideration, for much may 
 be gained by placing the room where it is screened as much as possi- 
 ble from the direct rays of the sun. The north side of the building is 
 the best, place when that is available, and if a hallway, stairway or 
 other room or building screens the curing room on the east and west 
 this is still better, for then both the east and west sun will be cut off. 
 
 The windows of the curing room should be as few and as small as 
 are required for the requisite amount of light, and they should always 
 be double, for the reason that the same construction which excludes 
 the cold in winter will exclude the heat in the summer. Unless there is 
 some reason why the windows should be made with sash to 1 slide up, it 
 will be best to make them in a single section, and fitted permanently 
 and closely in place. In this way they will be much more nearly air 
 tight, and this is a matter of the highest importance, because if the 
 hot summer air can blow through cracks into the curing room nearly 
 the whole advantage of double windows may be lost. If windows 
 
■16 
 
 Bulletin No. 7 0. 
 
 must be placed on other than the north side of a curing' room they 
 should be provided with outside blinds. If the blinds are put on the 
 inside the heat comes through the glass, and the heated blinds then 
 warm the air of the curing room. If the blinds shut out too much 
 of the light, then window awnings may be used, but it is very im- 
 portant that direct sunshine be excluded. 
 
 The door to the curing room, like the window, should fit closely and 
 be built and closed on the refrigerator plan if practicable. 
 
 The construction of the walls should be on the principle of cold storage 
 and ice house buildings. The studding outside should be covered 
 with matched sheathing and drop siding, with a layer of 3-ply acid and 
 water-proof paper between. On the inside there should at least be 
 two layers of matched sheathing, with a layer of 3-ply acid and 
 water-proof paper between, as shown in Fig. 9. A sample of suitable 
 paper is enclosed in this bulletin, and is manufactured by the Standard 
 Paint Co. of New York and Chicago. 
 
 A better construction for the inside is first a layer of matched ' 
 sheathing nailed to the studding, then strips of inch furring 2 inches 
 wide, to which are nailed two thicknesses of matched sheathing, with 
 a layer of 3-ply acid and water-proof paper between, as shown in 
 Fig. 9. When the outer air space between the studding is filled with 
 sawdust or some similar material and the spaces left by the furring 
 are closed air tight at the ceiling and floor the wall is then like a 
 good cold storage wall. 
 
 The ceiling and floor should also consist of two thicknesses of matched 
 lumber, with the layer of 3-ply acid and water-proof paper between, 
 and great care should be exercised to see that tight joints are made at 
 the corners. This form of construction may appear to some to be un- 
 necessarily expensive, but it should be kept in mind that two impor- 
 tant points must he secured if anything like full effectiveness of the sub- 
 earth duct is desired; (1) the walls must be so tight that the pressure 
 and suction of the wind on the building does not drive out the cool 
 air and leave in its place the warm air of the outside, and (2) the walls 
 must be a sufficiently poor conductor to permit a relatively small 
 movement of air through the sub-earth duct to remove all of the heat 
 which penetrates the walls. The curing room is perfect in construc- 
 tion only when its walls are so tight that no air can enter the room 
 except through the sub-earth duct or at another specially provided 
 opening, which is used only when the air from the duct is too cool or 
 too damp. 
 
 It must be remembered that the pressure of the wind on the build- 
 ing tends to force air into it in just the same way that it tends to 
 force air in through the funnel, and if the walls are so open that they 
 offer less resistance to the air current than the funnel and duct do, 
 

 Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 17 
 
 Fig. 9. — Showing the construction of wooden curing room. 1, 1, 1, sill ; 2, 2, 2, a 
 two-by-ten spiked to ends of joist; 3, 3, 3, a two-by-four spiked down after 
 first layer of flexor is~laid to toe-nail studs to; 4, 4, 4, a two-by-four spiked to 
 upper ends of studding of first story; A, A, A, A, three-ply acid and water 
 proof paper. The drawing in the center shows space between studding filled 
 with saw dust and another dead-air space to be used when the best ducts 
 cannot be provided. 
 
 the air will enter the room direct rather than by the longer funnel 
 route. If the walls permit any air to pass through, then to that ex- 
 tent will the air coming through the duct be decreased. 
 
 At the time of our visit to the factory of the Dale Butter and Cheese 
 Company there was enough air being drawn out of the room through 
 openings not intended for this purpose to permit a strong down 
 draft into the curing room through the ventilator. This down draft 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 was intensified by the fact that the ventilator had been disconnected 
 in the upper story, where the wind pressure was strong enough to 
 force a down current against that coming from the funnel. -This case 
 is cited here to show how important it is to have all openings closed 
 except those through which it is intended that air should enter, and 
 also to show that it is important to have the ceiling of the curing 
 room tight as well as the sides. 
 
 MASONRY ABOVE-GROUND CURING ROOMS. 
 
 The great difficulty with heavy masonry walls like those made from 
 stone and mortar, is their tendency to warm up in the direct rays of 
 the sun and by contact with the warm air to a temperature somewhat 
 above the mean daily temperature of the place and to hold this degree 
 of heat quite uniformly day and night and from day to day, the tem- 
 perature rising as the heat of summer becomes more intense. 
 
 If it were desirable to have a curing room in which the temperatures 
 were quite uniform, only changing slightly from day to day and 
 ranging from 68° to 75°F., this could be secured by building with 
 thick walls of stone, taking care to have tightly set frames, with 
 double windows on the north side. If it were desired to hold the tem- 
 perature of such a room down to 58° to 65°F. by means of a sub-earth 
 duct it would only be possible to do so by lining it inside with wood 
 after the manner of the wood structure, leaving a dead air space be- 
 tween the lining and the walls. 
 
 If brick were used instead of stone for such a curing room it would 
 be necessary to plaster the brick wall inside with a hand-finish or 
 cement mortar in order to close up the pores of the brick and prevent 
 the wind from driving and drawing the warm outside air through the 
 walls. Ordinary rough plastering is too porous to use for this pur- 
 pose, and a hard-finish putty coat or cement finish must be resorted 
 to instead. 
 
 UNDER GROUND CURING ROOMS. 
 
 If the inconvenience of carrying cheese up and down stairs can be 
 endured, or if the factory is on a side hill and the curing room may 
 be located in the bank end of the basement story, it is possible to ar- 
 range such a room so as to maintain a temperature through the hot 
 season as low as 58° to 63°F. if desired, or the temperature may be per- 
 mitted to go higher if that is wished. 
 
 In order to utilize the ground temperature to the best advantage it 
 is necessary that the curing room end of the basement should have a 
 depth of not less than 9 feet below the level of the ground outside and 
 10 or 12 feet is, of course, better than 9 feet so far as the maintenance 
 of a low temperature is concerned. 
 
Bulletin No. 70 . 
 
 19 
 
 Construction of the Floor .— Various methods may be followed in the 
 construction of the floor of basement and underground curing rooms, 
 but there are certain fundamental conditions which should be ob- 
 served, however the details may be varied. Since the cooling effect of 
 the basement or bank curing room must be chiefly derived from the 
 floor, it should be made of some good conductor, so that it shall be 
 always cool. The most available material for this purpose, and, every- 
 thing considered, the best, is a solid concrete, with a good, smooth, 
 hard cement finish. This should be laid the last thing after other 
 work is completed, and should consist of 4 inches of concrete laid upon 
 an even, solid ground floor. If for any reason the earth of any por- 
 tion of the ground floor has been loosened this should be thoroughly 
 tamped before the concrete is laid, so that no future settling shall 
 occur to crack the cement. 
 
 The concrete should be made wfth good Portland cement, using one 
 part of cement with four to six parts of coarse, clean gravel and sand 
 free from clay, earth or loam. The finishing coat should be made with 
 fresh Portland cement and clean, sharp sand or crushed granite of one- 
 eighth to one-half inch pieces and free from the granite dust. These 
 should be in the proportion of 1 of cement to l 1 /^ to 2 of sand, and 
 should be one-half to three-fourths inches thick. 
 
 The concrete should be laid upon two inches of gravel and sand in 
 strips about 4 feet wide across the floor and thoroughly rammed, then 
 cut crosswise into blocks 4 feet square. As soon as one strip of the 
 concrete is laid, rammed and cut it should be given its finishing coat 
 of Portland cement, which should be thoroughly trowelled while set- 
 ting to avoid shrinkage checks. After trowelling the cement this must 
 be cut exactly above the joint in the concrete below and the edges of the 
 cut turned down and smoothed. If the jointing is not done irregular 
 cracks are quite certain to form, which will fret out with use and be 
 more difficult to clean than the smooth, shallow, straight grooves left 
 by blocking. After the blocks have been trowelled and checked they 
 should be wet with a brush and sprinkled with dry, pure Portland 
 cement and then trowelled smooth and hard so as to give a glossy 
 surface which will be water tight and easy to clean. Each strip of the 
 floor should be completely finished up before beginning the next, and 
 the concrete and cement should be made only as fast as needed for 
 use. A second batch of materials may be mixed together dry ready 
 for wetting while the finishing of a strip is in progress and thus save 
 time. 
 
 To avoid the danger of cracking the cement by settling it may be 
 best to dig holes 12 to 16 inches square and a foot deep where the sup- 
 ports for the cheese racks are to come, and fill these with concrete so 
 as to form piers to carry the weight. 
 
20 
 
 Bulletin JSo. 70. 
 
 Construction of the Walls . — These are best made of stone laid solid 
 with mortar to within five feet of the surface, so as to utilize the cool- 
 ing power of the lower portion of the walls- Above the level specified, 
 however, some form of construction should be adopted which will 
 lessen the amount of heat which may enter from the upper soil and 
 through the walls above ground. 
 
 Where the stones used are of such size and character as to admit of 
 doing so, the upper portion of the wall may be made hollow and tied 
 in as few places as safety requires. The thickness of the air space 
 need not be greater than an inch or it may be more, and the regularity 
 of the walls which bound it is unimportant. The important point to 
 attend to is to see that the space does not become filled with mortar 
 during the process of construction. In other cases a jog may be built 
 in the upper portion of the wall on the inside and an air space formed 
 by facing up with one tier of brick. Instead of brick hollow building 
 tile 4 inches thick may be used, and these may be set so as to form a 
 double dead air space instead of a single one. This inside finish should 
 be carried up between the joists so that when the ceiling is put on 
 no open joints will be left. 
 
 In case the curing room occupies the bank end of the basement of 
 the factory it will be necessary to build the partition between it and 
 the work room, with the same care to exclude heat as if it were an 
 outside wall wholly above ground. If the partition is of wood the side 
 next to the curing room should have two thicknesses of tongued and 
 grooved flooring with a layer of paper between, and the door should 
 be double and closed and fastened on the refrigerator plan. Windows 
 should also be double and very close fitting, and if light enough can 
 be secured from the north side, windows should only be placed here. 
 
 The - ceiling of the whole or part basement curing room should 
 be made of wood in the manner described under the all wood curing 
 room. 
 
 METHODS OP COOLING THE AIR IN CHEESE CURING ROOMS PLACED 
 
 ABOVE GROUND. 
 
 It is plain that no matter how perfectly a curing room above ground 
 has been constructed or how carefully it is kept closed during the 
 day, its temperature must rise steadily higher and higher as the sum- 
 mer advances and stand a little higher than the mean air temperature 
 of each succeeding day of the season. If, therefore, these tempera- 
 tures are to be held down to 58° to 68°, some cooling device must be 
 adopted. 
 
 There are various methods by which this cooling may be effected 
 as enumerated below: 
 
 1. Cooling by ventilating with night air. 
 
 2. Cooling by ventilating through horizontal sub-earth ducts. 
 
Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 21 
 
 3. Cooling by ventilating through deep vertical sub-earth ducts and 
 wells. 
 
 4. Cooling by means of cold water. 
 
 5. Cooling by ventilating over ice. 
 
 6. Cooling by evaporation of water. 
 
 7. Cooling by mechanical refrigerator. 
 
 COOLING BY VENTILATING WITH NIGHT AIR. 
 
 It is shown in table on page 8 that the lowest mean temperature 
 of the night air for the months of June, July, August and September is 
 51.9° in the northern section, 54° in the middle section and 56.7 in the 
 southern section, and all of these are lower than the temperatures 
 which guarantee good results in the curing room. These low tempera- 
 tures, however, will only be occasionally available, and hence the re- 
 sults in the curing room must be secured by the mean night temper- 
 atures as they occur from day to day. Sufficient data are not yet at 
 hand to show wTiat the mean night temperature of Wisconsin is in 
 different parts of the state during the summer months, but it is cer- 
 tain that on very many, if not the majority of nights, the temperature 
 of the air falls as low as 58° to 68°. 
 
 The well constructed curing room may therefore be kept carefully 
 closed during the day time so that there is as little change of air as 
 possible until night and then provision be made for the low temper- 
 ature air outside to be forced through in sufficient volume to bring 
 the temperature of the curing room down to that of the night air. 
 
 To do this it will not be sufficient to simply open windows at night. 
 There must be some means adopted for forcing the air into and out of 
 the rooms. 
 
 This may be done in the simplest manner by using the wind-funnel 
 to drive air down a 10-inch galvanized pipe into the curing room at 
 tlie ceiling in the same manner as the air is now carried through the 
 sub-earth ducts. The funnel should rise not less t) an 15 feet above 
 the ridge of the roof of the iactory, and may be carried down through 
 the roof to the curing room, or it may be carried down the north out- 
 side wall and be turned into the curing room when that level is 
 reached. The outside entrance is likely to be best because the room 
 under the roof remains hot well into the night and would tend to 
 warm the air on its way through. This bad effect may, however, be 
 reduced by having a large ventilator in the ridge of the attic so that 
 the hot air may quickly pass out and be replaced by the colder air 
 from the outside which is permitted to enter through an open window 
 or special opening provided for the purpose. 
 
 The regulation of the curing room by night ventilation is certain to 
 make a great improvement in the conditions over no effort at control. 
 
22 
 
 Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 It does not appear probable, however, that it can give the best results. 
 
 In the first place the night air will often remain too high during 
 three or four days in succession, and as four days is a large share of 
 the time the cheese may be held for curing, that particular lot is quite 
 sure not to be up to standard, and must therefore not only sell at 
 a lower figure, but, what is more serious, help to fix a lower price for 
 the next lot because of the reputation gained by the bad lot. 
 
 In the second place, the wind is usually least during the night, and 
 hence it will be more difficult to secure a sufficient movement of air 
 with the funnel than in the day time. Looking at the curves in Fig. 
 10 it will be seen how much stronger the wind velocities were during 
 the hours from 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. than from 6 p. m. to 6 a. m. This 
 difficulty may partly be overcome by having a door in the galvanized 
 iron outlet pipe leading from the curing room up through the roof, so 
 that on still nights a large lamp may be hung in it to create a suction. 
 The lamp should be hung in the pipe above the ceiling of the curing 
 room, preferably at the level of the room above. 
 
 COOLING CURING ROOMS BY AIR FORCED THROUGH HORIZONTAL 
 SUB-EARTH DUCT. 
 
 The horizontal sub-earth duct in order to be most effective should 
 not be less than 12 feet below the surface and should have a length of 
 at least 100 feet. Whether the duct should be single, as in the case of 
 that used at the Dale factory, or whether it should be multiple, as in 
 the case of Mr. Kasper’s factory and represented in Fig. 7, will depend 
 upon circumstances. 
 
 The multiple duct is built on the right principle in so far as it pre- 
 sents the largest cooling surface for the air to come in contact with, 
 but on the other hand it offers much more resistance to the flow of air 
 through the duct, and so on days when the wind is light it may not be 
 as effective as the sing’le duct of the same total cross section and 
 length. 
 
 Referring to the observations on the Dale factory and that of Mr. 
 Werth’s, it will be noted that although the wind was lighter and the 
 funnel lower at Dale than at Mr. Werth’s factory, the air was enter- 
 ing the Dale factory nearlly three times as fast as it was in the one 
 with the multiple duct, showing that the multiple duct was not as 
 effective in that way. 
 
 In the same way placing the funnel at a high elevation so as to take 
 advantage of the stronger wind currents which usually prevail there, 
 is in the right direction so far as wind velocity is concerned, but, on 
 the other hand, the high vertical shaft carrying the funnel, with the 
 sun shining on its walls, tends to act like a chimney and create a draft 
 in the opposite direction, and when the wind is light on a warm day 
 
Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 23 
 
 may actually reverse the draft, as we found to be the case part of the 
 time at Mr. Wallace’s factory, and as was nearly the case at Mr. Werth’s 
 factory. 
 
 Whenever the draft through the funnel is reversed warm air is being 
 sucked into the curing room and the funnel is then doing positive 
 injury, and it is very important that provision be made for closing 
 closely the duct at such times. 
 
 Another point must be kept in mind in constructing the horizontal 
 multiple duct. Only the lower lines of tile have the greatest cooling 
 effect, because these are in closest contact with the coldest soil. The 
 
 Fig. 10.— Showing the variation of wind velocity during the different hours in the 
 day. The upper curve shows the number of miles of wind, and the lower, 
 the work this wind did on a wind mill pumping water, and indicates how 
 little wind would be available for night ventilation. 
 
 lines of tile above the bottom are nearly cut off from the cold ground 
 below by the air spaces formed by the lower lines of tile, and the soil 
 above them is relatively warm both from the heat brought in by the 
 air and that coming down from above. 
 
 Instead, therefore, of using thirteen lines of 6-inch tile in two or 
 three tiers one above the other, a single row of larger tile is likely to 
 give as cool air and not to impede the flow of air so much. I should 
 recommend therefore for the horizontal sub-earth duct 12 feet below 
 the surface either three rows of 10-inch drain tile or five rows of 8-inch 
 tile 100 feet long. The relative cost of the three sizes would be about 
 
 as follows: 
 
 1,300 ft. 6-in. tile at 3c $39.00 
 
 500 ft. 8-in. tile at 5c 25.00 
 
 300 ft. 10-in. tile at 7.5c . 22.50 
 
24 
 
 Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 If the digging is done by hand and it is not desired to remove so< 
 much dirt, then the trench may be dug narrower and a foot or two* 
 deeper and the tile placed one above the other. As each line of tile ; 
 will be in direct contact with the cold earth on both sides, an even 
 better effect will be produced than where the tile lie side by side at 
 a higher level. 
 
 The shaft for carrying the funnel need not be larger than 12 inches 
 
 Fig. 11.— Showing how funnel' and vane may be mounted. A, funnel; B, shaft of 
 funnel; C, C, C, l-inch gas pipe; D, D, 1%-inch gas pipe; E, cap for support 
 of 1-inch gas pipe ; F, G, H, and M M and N N are stays of band Iron bolted 
 together and to the sides of the shaft to support the axis’ of the funnel; J, 
 weather collar to turn rain out of shaft. K, L, band-iron to stiffen vane and 
 attach it to funnel. 
 
 square inside if made from plank, or 12 inches in diameter if made 
 of galvanized iron. Fifty feet in height is likely to be as high as it is 
 best to carry it, unless there are obstructions to the wind which are 
 in the way. 
 
 It is very important that the shaft be perfectly tight, so as not to 
 leak air, and for this reason a shaft made from No. 16 or No. 18 iron, 
 with the joints riveted, is likely to give better service and be more 
 
Bulletin No. 70 . 
 
 25 
 
 durable than one made of plank, though it would cost more. The 
 construction and mounting of the funnel is represented and described 
 in Fig. 11. 
 
 COOLING CURING ROOM WITH AIR FORCED THROUGH DEEP VERTI- 
 CAL SUB-EARTH DUCTS. 
 
 In view of the fact that the lowest available temperature for cooling 
 air is not secured until the depths of 20 to 70 or 80 feet are reached, it 
 follows that vertical ducts of less length will do as much service as 
 longer ones placed nearer the surface. As less piping will be required, 
 the friction to be overcome will also be less, and hence a current 
 secured in lighter winds. 
 
 If water is far enough from the surface the vertical duct should 
 have a depth of not less than 25 to 30 feet, and should be made as rep- 
 resented and described under Fig. 12. 
 
 Thirteen lines of 6-inch drain tile or 5 inch galvanized iron con- 
 ductor pipe may be used and placed as represented in the cut. By this 
 arrangement it will be seen that each air duct has an equal advantage 
 and is placed against the coldest earth, while the air in passing down 
 the central duct will also be cooled some. 
 
 An ordinary open well would be dug large enough to receive the 
 duct, and then filled in, with the earth removed, when the duct was 
 in place. 
 
 The place for the duct would be close to the north end of the curing 
 room outside, or else directly beneath it, as represented in the draw- 
 ing. From the results which Mr. Steinwahn has secured with his well, 
 as described on page 12, I believe that this form of duct will be found 
 more serviceable than the open well and more effective than the much 
 longer horizontal ducts which have been built. 
 
 If drain tile are used for the duct below ground they would be 
 placed by a man working on a hanging platform just above the ends 
 of the tile, and these would be placed and the earth carefully packed 
 in around them one length at a time, care being taken to prevent earth 
 from falling in the tile. If conductor pipe were used for the small 
 air flues and galvanized iron for the central air shaft, then these could 
 be made in 10-foot lengths and put in place from a hanging platform 
 in the same way as described for the tile. 
 
 COOLING THE SOIL FOR SHORT DUCTS. 
 
 Where it is not practicable to go deeper than 15 to 20 feet without 
 striking water the same form of construction may be adopted as just 
 described, and then if the soil is not open and porous, sandy soil or 
 fine sand may be used to fill in the well around the air flues, and then 
 once a week, or oftener if needed, cold water from the well may be 
 pumped onto the sandy soil about the flues and allowed to percolate 
 
26 
 
 Bulletin No. 70 . 
 
 
 Fig. 12. — Showing vertical sub-earth duct. A, brick chamber 25 to 30 feet below 
 surface and 40 inches inside diameter; B, tile or conductor pipe of galvanized 
 iron ; C, main shaft of funnel ; D, brick chamber at upper end of duct. The 
 circle and section represent a cast iron plate to cover brick chamber A, and 
 can be had of King & Walker, Madison, Wis. 
 
 down through it to lower the temperature so as to give the cooling ef- 
 fect desired. 
 
 Under these conditions I would recommend the galvanized iron flues 
 instead of drain tile to avoid percolation of water into them. 
 
 The bottom of the duct should stop not less than four feet above 
 
Bulletin No. 70 . 
 
 27 
 
 standing water in the ground, so that there will be abundant drainage 
 at the lower end of the flues. 
 
 The application of three or four barrels of water once a week is 
 likely to be all that will be required to hold the temperature of the 
 surface soil down to an effective degree. This water can be carried by 
 hose directly from the well, or a pipe may be laid permanently leading 
 from the well to the duct. 
 
 ■COOLING AIR OF CURING ROOM BY FORCING IT THROUGH COLD 
 
 WATER. 
 
 Where the ground water is still closer to the surface, so that a ver- 
 tical duct could not be placed deeper than 12 to 15 feet, then it would 
 ISe practicable to build a well-shaped cistern about 5 or 6 feet in diam- 
 
 Fig. 13. Showing method of cooling air with cold water. A, curing room; B, 
 duct leading into curing room; C, L, galvanized iron drums, air and water 
 tight; F, thirteen or more 5-inch flues of galvanized iron, 10 ft. long, soldered 
 water-tight to drums to cool air; D, main air duct from funnel; G, water 
 pipe from pump; H, over-flow pipe; I, damper in main shaft; J, 4-inch pipe 
 leading from blower to use when there is no wind; K, smoke stack of boiler; 
 L, ventilator from curing room to smoke stack; N, boiler. 
 
28 
 
 Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 eter, plastering it with cement after the manner of ordinary cisterns- 
 In this could be placed an air duct made of galvanized iron, as repre- 
 sented and described under Fig. 13. The duct should be water tight, 
 and when the cistern was filled with cold water from the well the cold 
 water would be the best possible medium for keeping the walls of the 
 duct cold, and so of cooling the air. 
 
 At the same time the water in connection with the w&.lls of the 
 cistern provides the best possible means of utilizing the cooling power 
 of the ground itself at that depth. 
 
 By connecting the cistern with the well, as shown in the figure, 
 fresh water may be added and the Warmer water at the top allowed 
 to flow away from time to time, if it is found that the air is coming 
 into the curing room too warm. The best place to locate this system 
 would be under the curing room, or else close to the north end outside, 
 and I believe it is likely to prove quite efficient if the air-ducts do not 
 have a length under water less than 10 feet. 
 
 REGULATION OF THE VOLUME OF THE AIR ENTERING THE CURING 
 
 ROOM. 
 
 It is quite important to provide a means for diminishing the amount 
 of air entering the curing room through the cooling duct, whatever 
 form may be used, because it will often happen in strong winds that 
 the air may enter too rapidly so as to leave the temperature too high 
 or the humidity too low. The inlet into the curing room should 
 therefore be provided with some arrangement of valves which will 
 permit the air to be wholly or partly shut off at will, and the ordinary 
 house register with valves may be employed as one means. If it is 
 found that the air is coming too warm the current should be partly 
 shut off so that the air will come more slowly through the duct and 
 be more thoroughly cooled. 
 
 REGULATION OF THE MOISTURE IN THE CURING ROOM. 
 
 Where the curing room is in a cellar or well constructed basement - 
 it occasionally happens that the air outside will be sufficiently moist,, 
 so that when cooled by the low temperature of the curing room the 
 air will become completely saturated, and if several days of this sort 
 occur in succession cheese may mould. This, however, may be nearly 
 if not entirely counteracted by forcing in fresh air from outside in> 
 larger volumes. To do this it will only be necessary to provide a 
 funnel such as is used on the cold air ducts, but smaller and rising 
 perhaps 10 feet above the ridge of the factory. The pipe need not be 
 larger than 8 inches and should be provided with a close fitting cap 
 at the lower end so as to effectively close it when its service is not 
 desired. There must of course be a regular ventilator provided rising 
 above the roof through which the air may escape as the other air is 
 
Bulletin No. 70 . 
 
 29 
 
 forced in. This ventilator should also be provided with a damper, so 
 as to regulate the movement of air through it. The diameter of the 
 ventilator need not be greater than 8 inches. 
 
 In the above-ground curing rooms it will seldom happen that the 
 air will become fully saturated and remain so for any length of time. 
 The reason of this is to be found in the fact that if the air is nearly 
 saturated with water outside it cannot pass through the cooling duct 
 and have its temperature lowered without at the same time losing 
 some of its moisture by condensation on the walls of the duct, and then 
 when the air enters the curing room, if the temperature rises at all, 
 as it is almost certain to do, this rise will leave the air dryer than 
 complete saturation. The general tendency therefore is for the above- 
 ground curing rooms to be dryer than the underground ones, because 
 the cooling of the air in the underground room is effected in the room 
 itself, thus making it possible to bring in air from outside not 
 quite saturated and rendering it completely so by cooling a few de- 
 grees. What is required here is a large movement of air through the 
 room. 
 
 PROVISIONS FOR FORCING AIR CURRENTS INTO CURING ROOMS. 
 
 Where the factory is provided with an engine, and where the cold air 
 duct is close to the building, it is a simple matter, involving but a small 
 expense, to arrange a small blower so that air may be driven into the 
 intake of the cold air duct, as represented and-explained under Fig. 13. 
 A small 16-inch blower connected with a 4-inch pipe will supply an 
 abundance of air, and its use for a few hours on hot, sultry days when 
 the funnel will not work w r ould greatly improve conditions, and per- 
 haps effectually prevent a large amount of cheese from becoming seri- 
 ously injured. 
 
 DANGER FROM SUB-EARTH DUCTS FROM WINTER FREEZING. 
 
 Where sub-earth ducts are made of drain tile there will be great 
 danger of the ducts crumbling down by the action of frost if the cold 
 winter air is allowed to be driven through them. Frost tends to peel 
 off thin flakes from many tile until they are entirely destroyed, and 
 if the cold winter air is allowed to be forced through the tile con- 
 tinuously the walls would be certainly frozen at times. On this 
 account, it would be best to use sewer tile or metal flues if the extra 
 •cost could be borne. 
 
 If it were not for injury to the tile the right thing to do would be 
 to keep a strong current of air going through the sub-earth duct all 
 winter so as to freeze the soil and cool the ground deeply. This would 
 make the ducts much more effective during the summer. 
 
 Further than this if cheese were to be made during the winter the 
 sub-earth duct would become available for helping to warm the curing 
 iroom in that season. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 71. 
 
 SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS IN WISCONSIN 
 DURING 1898. 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN, FEBRUARY, 1899. 
 
 EW~The Bulletins and 'Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
 Democrat Printing Company, State Printer, Madison, Wis. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS; 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION ex officio. 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY - - - - ex officio. 
 
 JOHN JOHNSTON, State at Large, ...... President 
 
 B. J. STEVENS, (2d District), - - - Chairman Executive Committee 
 
 State at Large, 
 1st District, 
 
 3d District, 
 
 4th District, ■ 
 5th District, 
 6th District, 
 7th District, 
 Stk District, 
 
 9th District 
 10th District, 
 
 WM. F. VILAS 
 OGDEN H. FETHERS 
 J. E. MORGAN 
 
 - GEORGE H. NOYES 
 - JOHN R. RIESS 
 
 C. A. GALLOWAY 
 BYRON A. BUFFINGTON 
 - ORLANDO E. CLARK 
 
 - J. A. VAN CLEVE 
 
 J. H. STOUT 
 
 Secretary, E. F. RILEY, Madison. 
 
 GEORGE H NOYES, Vice President. STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasurer. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, 
 
 S. M. BABCOCK, 
 
 F. H. KING, - - ... - 
 
 E. S. GOFF, - 
 
 Director 
 Chief Chemist 
 Physicist 
 Horticulturist 
 
 W. L: CARLYLE, Animal Husbandry 
 
 F. W. WOLL, .......... Chemist 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, ........ Bacteriologist 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON. Dairy Husbandry 
 
 J. A. JEFFERY, - ..... Assistant Physicist 
 
 J. W. DECKER, - Dairying 
 
 ALFRED VIVIA.N, ........ Assistant Chemist 
 
 FRED CRANEFIELD - - - - - - Assistant in Horticulture 
 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, ------- Farm Superintendent 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, ....... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, ........ Librarian 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, - Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, - *- - - - . Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint Horticultural-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS IN WISCONSIN 
 DURING 1898. 
 
 F. W. WOLL. 
 
 The investigations of problems connected with the culture of the 
 sugar beet in Wisconsin which have been conducted by this Experiment 
 Station for a number of years past, were continued during the season 
 of 1898, according to a similar plan as in previous years. This bulle- 
 tin presents the results of the work done during the past year. In 
 describing this work we shall first give the results of analyses of 
 sugar beets grown in different parts of the state by Wisconsin farm- 
 ers, and shall then take up for consideration the investigations in 
 sugar beet culture conducted at our Experiment Station farm. 
 
 A. ANALYSES OF BEETS GROWN BY FARMERS IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE 
 
 STATE. 
 
 Farmers desirous of ascertaining whether their land is adapted to 
 sugar beet culture were, on application, supplied with seed for trial 
 purposes in the spring of 1898. An effort was made last year to 
 secure the co-operation of a limited number of interested farmers in 
 different counties, who were to grow about half an acre of beets 
 each, and keep an accurate account of the labor done and the yield 
 obtained from the plat; on account of the method of distribution fol- 
 lowed in previous years, seed necessarily fell into the hands of many 
 farmers who took no particular interest in the subject, and who there- 
 fore often failed to give the beets the care which they must receive in 
 order to reach the standard of sugar content and purity demanded 
 for manufacturing purposes. The amount of seed supplied to each 
 farmer was for this reason considerably larger than in previous 
 seasons, viz.: generally 10 pounds. To farmers who could not grow 
 more than a small patch of beets one-pound samples were sent for 
 trial purposes. Eighty-one farmers agreed to grow half an acre of 
 beets and to keep account of the labor of growing the crop and of 
 the yield obtained. Of these, seventy-one in the fall sent for analysis 
 one or more samples of the beets grown by them, forty-three of 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 71. 
 
 whom also furnished more or less complete detailed reports; ten par- 
 ties were prevented from doing the work planned for various reasons. 
 In addition, forty-seven farmers were supplied with pound samples 
 of seed, thirty-one of whom forwarded one or more samples of beets 
 each for analysis in the fall. 
 
 Character of the season — The season of 1898 was on the whole 
 very favorable in this state for all crops. The Department of Agri- 
 culture in its crop circular for November, 1898, gives the following 
 average data for crops in Wisconsin, November 1st, 1898: Corn, average 
 condition, 94; tobacco, 99; potatoes, 94; sorghum, 91; hay, 97; buckwheat; 
 92. The main characteristics of the weather conditions during the season 
 are given in the following summaries (condensed from Climate and Crops, 
 Wisconsin Section; W. M. Wilson, Section Director, Milwaukee, Wiscon- 
 sin): 
 
 May, precipitation somewhat below normal, but rains were well dis- 
 tributed over the whole state; temperature nearly normal; early 
 part of the month cold and frosts occurred frequently, especially in 
 western and northern counties; temperature during second half of 
 the month above normal. June, weather conditions during the whole 
 month very favorable; the rains were well distributed throughout the 
 month so that the soil was kept in constant moist condition; the pre- 
 cipitation for the month slightly below normal; temperature about 
 normal, with unusual freedom from marked or sudden changes. July, 
 there was a marked deficiency in rainfall in the western and north- 
 western counties, while in central and southern counties the rainfall 
 was slightly in excess of normal: Ihe early part of the month cool, 
 but the mean temperature for the month was but slightly below 
 normal. August, rainfall half an inch above normal; temperature 
 normal; distribution of rain very good, somewhat lighter in northern 
 section than in other portions of the state. September, precipitation 
 nearly an inch below normal; from 9-13th, 16-22d and 24-29th, there 
 was practically no rainfall over the entire state; temperature 1.4 
 degrees above normal; high temperature during first week and to- 
 ward the end of the month; frosts occurred in the northern section 
 during the first two weeks and light frosts in the middle and south 
 section. October, precipitation two inches in excess of October nor- 
 mal; the month was remarkable for the number of days on which 
 rain fell and the amount of cloudiness as well as excessive rainfall; 
 heavy and very general rains occurred on the 10th, 12th and 13th; 
 from the 16th to the end of the month frequent, and in some locali- 
 ties, heavy rains occurred. Temperature slightly below normal; the 
 month opened warm, but during the middle and latter half the tem- 
 perature conditions were very equable. 
 
 The following table gives the precipitation from May to October, 
 inclusive, for 37 weather stations in different parts of the state and 
 
Sugar Beet Investigations, 1898 , 
 
 5 
 
 a few stations near the state line; the total precipitation for these 
 stations and average data for the whole state are alos presented. It 
 will be seen that the precipitation for the state was somewhat above 
 normal and the mean temperature was practically normal; the pre- 
 cipitation was well distributed over the whole state; as far as known 
 the only counties of the portions from which beet samples were 
 received for analysis that did not get a good supply of rain during 
 the growing season were some of the central western and the north- 
 ern counties, notably Eau Claire and Forest counties. 
 
 Precipitation , May to October , 1898 , in inches. 
 
 Name of Station. 
 
 County. 
 
 Elevation, 
 
 feet. 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 % 
 
 Aug. 
 
 j Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 1,400 
 
 1.27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 115 
 
 4.40 
 
 2.27 
 
 1.90 
 
 2.51 
 
 .98 
 
 4.64 
 
 16.70 
 
 
 
 616 
 
 3 13 
 
 3 60 
 
 3.16 
 
 2.65 
 
 3.07 
 
 4 04 
 
 19 65 
 
 
 
 1, 100 
 
 4.85 
 
 6.00 
 
 1.59 
 
 2.67 
 
 1.90 
 
 5.30 
 
 22.31 
 
 Chilton 
 
 Calumet 
 
 926 
 
 3 50 
 
 ( 2.02 
 
 
 *j . 78 
 
 1.85 
 
 2.12 
 
 
 Neilsville 
 
 Clark 
 
 600 
 
 1.58 
 
 3.15 
 
 '2^84 
 
 3.33 
 
 1 .35 
 
 4.79 
 
 17.04 
 
 Portage 
 
 Columbia 
 
 809 
 
 2 70 
 
 2.72 
 
 2 18 
 
 4.53 
 
 1.79 
 
 3.27 
 
 17 19 
 
 Prairie du Chien. .. 
 
 Crawford 
 
 690 
 
 2.03 
 
 2.26 
 
 3.25 
 
 1 83 
 
 1.86 
 
 3.90 
 
 15.13 
 
 Madison 
 
 Dane 
 
 955 
 
 4.7k 
 
 | 4.4' 
 
 2.88 
 
 2.56 
 
 2.43 
 
 3.08 
 
 20 01 
 
 Duluth, Minn 
 
 Douglas 
 
 831 
 
 3 30 
 
 3.52 
 
 1.33 
 
 3.39 
 
 1.21 
 
 3.39 
 
 16.14 
 
 Knapo 
 
 Dunn 
 
 
 2.67 
 
 4.86 
 
 2.11 
 
 3.55 
 
 .69 
 
 4 45 
 
 18.33 
 
 Eau Claire 
 
 Eau Claire 
 
 600 
 
 1 96 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.27 
 
 .23 
 
 .37 
 
 5.13 
 
 10 46 
 
 North Crandon 
 
 Forest 
 
 1, 10J 
 
 1 40 
 
 1.55 
 
 2.65 
 
 .45 
 
 .96 
 
 1.34 
 
 8.35 
 
 Lancaster . 
 
 Grant 
 
 1,070 
 
 3.30 
 
 4 18 
 
 4.90 
 
 2.51 
 
 2.48 
 
 3.61 
 
 20 98 
 
 Dodgeville 
 
 Iowa 
 
 1,116 
 
 5.30 
 
 5 91 
 
 2.70 
 
 4.98 
 
 2.31 
 
 4.52 
 
 25.72 
 
 Watertown 
 
 Jefferson .-. . . 
 
 4.32 
 
 4.63 
 
 3.08 
 
 2 64 
 
 1 75 
 
 4.20 
 
 20.62 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Kewaunee 
 
 817i 
 
 3.28 
 
 3 78 
 
 3 03 
 
 2.94 
 
 3.35 
 
 4 02 
 
 20 45 
 
 La Crosse 
 
 La Crosse 
 
 714 
 
 1 10 
 
 2.13 
 
 1.75 
 
 3.25 
 
 1.64 
 
 4.53 
 
 14.40 
 
 Heafford Junction.. 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 
 1.91 
 
 5.28 
 
 2.76 
 
 1.44 
 
 2 75 
 
 3.12 
 
 17.26 
 
 Manitowoe 
 
 Manitowoc 
 
 616 
 
 2.86 
 
 2 15 
 
 2.63 
 
 2.46 
 
 2.81 
 
 4.61 
 
 17 52 
 
 Wausau 
 
 Marathon 
 
 1,212 
 
 2 55 
 
 2.07 
 
 4.04 
 
 3.91 
 
 2.19 
 
 5.64 
 
 20.43 
 
 Westfield 
 
 M a rqnette . . . , . 
 
 925 
 
 1.60 
 
 3.11 
 
 5 8!) 
 
 3.18 
 
 1.25 
 
 2.52 
 
 17.55 
 
 Milwaukee 
 
 Milwaukee 
 
 673 
 
 1.65 
 
 2 44 
 
 3.28 
 
 4.86 
 
 1 .98 
 
 4.38 
 
 18.59 
 
 Valley Junction .'. .. 
 
 Monroe 
 
 
 1 95 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.27 
 
 2.66 
 
 2 9s 
 
 4.74 
 
 19.48 
 
 Oconto 
 
 Oconto 
 
 590 
 
 4 . 37 
 
 2.79 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.39 
 
 2.35 
 
 4.12 
 
 19.83 
 
 New London 
 
 Outagamie 
 
 762 
 
 3 11 
 
 2.78 
 
 4.73 
 
 3.29 
 
 2 . 67 
 
 3.50 
 
 20 11 
 
 Port Washington . . . 
 
 Ozaukee 
 
 717 
 
 2 63 
 
 2.41 
 
 2 . 25 
 
 2.74 
 
 2.07 
 
 4.05 
 
 16.20 
 
 Prentice 
 
 Price 
 
 
 4.32 
 
 4.97 
 
 2.20 
 
 1.66 
 
 1.79 
 
 4.27 
 
 19.21 
 
 Racine 
 
 Racine 
 
 ' 633 
 
 1.81 
 
 2.44 
 
 3 24 
 
 3.20 
 
 2.90 
 
 3.13 
 
 16.72 
 
 Beloit . . 
 
 Rock , 
 
 750 
 
 3 45 
 
 9 70 
 
 4 79 
 
 5.13 
 
 2 31 
 
 2 44 
 
 27.82 
 
 St. Paul, Minn 
 
 St.Croix 
 
 831 
 
 3:loi 
 
 2.71 
 
 1.94 
 
 3.93 
 
 .90 
 
 5^81 
 
 18^69 
 
 White Mound 
 
 Sauk 
 
 
 3 . 85 1 
 
 
 3.10 
 
 6 02 
 
 1.02 
 
 
 
 Whitehall 
 
 Trempealeau .... 
 
 675 
 
 2.00 
 
 "2‘. 90 
 
 3.40 
 
 3.10 
 
 2.40 
 
 5.80 
 
 19.60 
 
 Delavan 
 
 W alworth 
 
 920 
 
 2.77 
 
 6.21 
 
 2.59 
 
 4.58 
 
 2.80 
 
 4.55 
 
 23.50 
 
 Hartford City 
 
 Washington 
 
 1,017 
 
 3.66 
 
 4.40 
 
 2.31 
 
 2 07 
 
 1.19 
 
 4.99 
 
 18.62 
 
 Waukesha .... 
 
 Waukesha 
 
 970 
 
 1.92 
 
 1.51 
 
 2.81 
 
 4.08 
 
 1.55 
 
 4 10, 
 
 16.00 
 
 Oshkosh 
 
 Winnebaer* 
 
 741 
 
 
 
 3 50 
 
 Averaee for state 
 
 
 2.84 
 
 3.88 
 
 2.87 
 
 3.20 
 
 2 . OOj 
 
 4 01! 
 
 18 80 
 
 Normal for state 
 
 
 3.69 
 
 3.99 
 
 2.66 
 
 2.62 
 
 2.951 
 
 2.19 
 
 18.10 
 
 No rainy days for state 
 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 10 | 
 
 
 Mean temperature for state 
 
 
 55.7 
 
 66 i 7 
 
 70.7 
 
 67.3 
 
 62.4 
 
 45.2 ! 
 
 61.3 
 
 Normal temperature for state 
 
 
 55.7 
 
 66.4 
 
 70.2 
 
 67.4 
 
 61.0 
 
 46.5 
 
 61.2 
 
 Results of Analyses . — The samples of beets analyzed under this head 
 
 p numbered 253, 102 of which were taken about a month prior to har- 
 vest, and 151 at harvesting time. The samples were furnished by 121 
 different farmers, located in 56 different counties. The results of the 
 analyses, arranged according to counties, are given on the following 
 pages. The Eoman figures given under Kind of seed refer to the num- 
 bers in the table on p. 16: 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 71, 
 
 Results of analyses 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 Name. 
 
 1 6 
 
 
 117-32* 
 
 Ashland Co. 
 Angustine, R. G. . 
 
 212 
 
 Sib 
 
 329 
 
 Barron Co. 
 
 Taylor, C. S 
 
 Skabo, T. G 
 
 Skabo, T. G- . 
 
 55-179 
 
 128 
 
 129 
 
 130 
 299 
 
 Brown Co 
 Langenberg, A... 
 Larson, Wm„ & O 
 Larson, Wm., & f> 
 Larson, Wm., & C< 
 Larson, Wm., & O 
 
 51 
 
 171 
 
 118-346 
 
 Radinz, Clias 
 
 Radlnz, (Jfias . 
 Van Beek, M 
 
 111-348 
 
 324 
 
 Burnett Co. 
 Cornelison, A ... 
 Hedlund, L. G. . 
 
 113 
 
 Calumet Co. 
 Storm, D. H . . . . 
 
 114 
 
 Storm, D. H 
 
 119-321 
 
 Chippewa Co. 
 Thomas, J. W 
 
 97-349 
 
 Brainerd, F. N. .. 
 
 162 
 
 163 
 
 161 
 
 176 
 
 74- 196 
 
 75- 195 
 310 
 
 99-222 
 
 100-221 
 
 101-220 
 
 Clark Co. 
 Bartchie, Jack . . . 
 
 Baxter, Chas 
 
 Heyndricks, Geo. 
 Sollberger, John . 
 
 Mabie, J. C 
 
 Mabie, J C 
 
 Riemer, L. J. . . ; . 
 
 Keppert, Jos 
 
 Keppert, Jos 
 
 Keppert, Jos 
 
 355 
 
 183 
 
 Columbia Co. 
 
 Montross, S 
 
 Richardson, R. D. 
 
 61 
 
 62-264 
 
 59 
 
 108 
 
 Crawford Co. 
 Fliicke, Joseph... 
 Fliicke, Joseph 
 Davidson, J. O. . . 
 Peterson, Ever... 
 
 98-265 
 
 121 
 
 199 
 
 69-308 
 
 7.0-309 
 
 Dane Co. 
 Cowles, S. E. . 
 
 Cowles, S. E 
 
 Story, J. E 
 
 Johnson, G. K. 
 Johnson, G. K 
 
 60-332 
 
 73-33 
 
 64-210 
 
 Dodge Co. 
 Elkinton, W H... 
 Elkinton, W. H... 
 Kube, Wm 
 
 
 
 
 First Sample. 
 
 
 
 Date 
 
 Character 
 
 
 
 
 
 Post office. 
 
 
 
 
 
 sown. 
 
 of soil. 
 
 Gr’w- 
 
 ing 
 
 pe 
 
 riod. 
 
 Wt. 
 
 Sug’r 
 
 Pur- 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 be’ts. 
 
 in 
 
 juice. 
 
 ity of 
 juice. 
 
 
 
 
 Days. 
 
 Lbs 
 
 Pr.ct 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 Glidden 
 
 June 2 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 113 
 
 .8 
 
 17.16 
 
 84.3 
 
 
 
 Barron ....... 
 
 May 20 
 May 17 
 May 17 
 
 Clay loam . . 
 Sandy loam. 
 Sandy loam 
 
 155 
 
 .8 
 
 13.94 
 
 \ 
 
 70.0 
 
 Chetek 
 
 Chetek 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Green Bay 
 
 May 17 
 
 Black loam. 
 
 123 
 
 1.7 
 
 15.63 
 
 84 0 
 
 Green Bay 
 
 May 10 
 
 Clay 
 
 
 2 1 
 
 12 99 
 
 76.8 
 
 Green Bay . . . 
 
 Green Bay 
 
 Green Bay . . 
 
 May 10 
 May 10 
 May 15 
 
 Clay 
 
 
 2.0 
 
 14.24 
 
 4 
 
 Clay ■ . . 
 
 
 3.3 
 
 12.22 
 
 7L9 
 
 Mixed clay 
 
 
 
 
 and sand . 
 
 
 2 0 
 
 15.29 
 
 77 6 
 
 Green Bay 
 
 Green Bay . . . 
 Green Bay 
 
 May 10 
 May 10 
 June 3 
 
 Black sand. . 
 Black sand . . 
 
 143 
 
 2.1 
 
 17.36 
 
 87.0 
 
 Black sand . . 
 
 11; 
 
 1.5 
 
 13.91 
 
 79.5 
 
 Aaron 
 
 May 10 
 May 15 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 Black loam. 
 
 130 
 
 1.3 
 
 14 29 
 
 77.3 
 
 Trade Lake. 
 
 
 * 
 
 - ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stockbridge .. 
 
 June 2 
 
 Clay loam 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cold) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stockbridge .. 
 
 June £ 
 
 Clay loam 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (new) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Anson 
 
 May 16 
 
 Sand and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 clay loam . 
 
 139 
 
 .8 
 
 17.1 > 
 
 78.2 
 
 Appolonia 
 
 May 25 
 
 Black loam. 
 
 122 
 
 .6 
 
 15.98 
 
 82.0 
 
 Columbia 
 
 VTay 27 
 May 28 
 May 27 
 May 22 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 Sandy loam. 
 Sandy loam. 
 Light clay . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Columbia. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Columbia 
 
 
 
 
 
 Columbia 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gieenwood . . . 
 
 May 23 
 
 Clay loam. . . 
 
 119 
 
 "Li 
 
 isieo 
 
 82^8 
 
 Greenwood . . . 
 
 May 2-s 
 
 Clay loam . 
 
 119 
 
 1.0 
 
 15.44 
 
 80.1 
 
 Greenwood . . . 
 
 May 12 
 May 4 
 
 Dark loam. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spencer 
 
 Clay loam. . . 
 
 143 
 
 .9 
 
 16.59 
 
 77.3 
 
 Spencer 
 
 May 4 
 May 4 
 
 Clay loam. . . 
 Clay loam. . . 
 
 143 
 
 
 16.90 
 
 79.5 
 
 Spencer 
 
 143 
 
 1 4 
 
 14 09 
 
 73.0 
 
 
 Fa rr’s Corners 
 
 June 10 
 
 Prairie loam 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lodi . . 
 
 May 16 
 
 Clay 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pr. du Chien . . 
 
 May 23 
 
 Prairie sand. 
 
 121 
 
 .6 
 
 13 92 
 
 85.9 
 
 Pr. du Chien 
 
 May 23 
 
 Prairie sand. 
 
 121 
 
 1.0 
 
 13.68 
 
 81.3 
 
 Soldiers’Grove 
 
 May 5 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 137 
 
 1.9 
 
 10.68 
 
 77.3 
 
 Soldiers’Grove 
 
 June 12 
 
 Black loam 
 
 108 
 
 2.4 
 
 11.26 
 
 74 1 
 
 Dnn 
 
 May 10 
 May 10 
 
 Prairie loam. 
 Prairie loam 
 
 13 
 
 2 1 
 
 13.86 
 
 13.61 
 
 75.2 
 
 Dane 
 
 2.4 
 
 77.1 
 
 Oregon 
 
 May 14 
 
 Clav 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stoughton . . . 
 Stoughton . . . 
 
 May U 
 May 12 
 
 Black 
 
 Black 
 
 132 
 
 13. 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 12.’ 20 
 14.56 
 
 73 9 
 82.1 
 
 
 Brownsville. . . 
 
 May 23 
 
 Clay loam. . . 
 
 120 
 
 .6 
 
 12.35 
 
 72.7 
 
 Brownsvi le. . . 
 
 May 23 
 
 Clay loam. . . 
 
 120 
 
 .5 
 
 13.48 
 
 72.5 
 
 Richwo-d — 
 
 May 9 
 
 Clay loam . . 
 
 135 
 
 7 
 
 14.84 
 
 81.6 
 
 * 117, first sample ; 323, second sample. 
 
7 
 
 Sugar Beet Investigations, 1898. 
 
 of sugar beets , 1898. 
 
 Se 
 
 Gr’w 
 
 ing 
 
 pe- 
 
 riod. 
 
 COND 
 
 Wt. 
 
 or 
 
 be'ts. 
 
 Sampl 
 
 Sug’T" 
 
 in 
 
 juice. 
 
 e. 
 
 Pur- 
 ity of 
 juice. 
 
 Es- 
 
 tim. 
 
 yield 
 
 per 
 
 acre. 
 
 Manure, 
 if any . 
 
 Kind of 
 seed. 
 
 Character of 
 season. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Station 
 
 No. 
 
 Days. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 l.( 
 
 15. 6£ 
 
 77.4 
 
 
 None .... 
 
 V 
 
 Very unfav. . . 
 
 
 117-323 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Very unfav 
 
 
 212 
 
 156 
 
 1.4 
 
 14.00 
 
 77.5 
 
 5.0 
 
 None 
 
 XIII 
 
 
 Only half stand 
 
 328 
 
 lt/J 
 
 1.2 
 
 14 21 
 
 87.2 
 
 
 None 
 
 XIII 
 
 
 Only half stand 
 
 329 
 
 158 
 
 ■ 
 
 2.0 
 
 16.28 
 
 88.3 
 
 16.5 
 
 In ’96 
 
 V 
 
 Dry 
 
 
 55-179 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Favorable ... 
 
 
 128 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Favorable. . . . 
 
 
 129 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Favorable 
 
 
 130 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Favorable. . 
 
 
 9QQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In ’96 ... 
 
 X 
 
 Dry.. 
 
 
 *1 
 
 171 
 
 2.2 
 
 15.97 
 
 83.5 
 
 15.2 
 
 In ’96 
 
 X 
 
 Dry 
 
 
 Ol 
 
 171 
 
 146 
 
 1.6 
 
 14 69 
 
 '79.5 
 
 15.3 
 
 In ’96 
 
 IX 
 
 Very fav 
 
 
 118-346 
 
 164 
 
 1.2 
 
 15.82 
 
 76.4 
 
 7.9 
 
 
 VI 
 
 Unfavorable. . 
 
 
 111-348 
 
 148 
 
 1.0 
 
 10.83 
 
 69.2 
 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 Fairly fav 
 
 
 324 
 
 113 
 
 .5 
 
 21 57 
 
 82.8 
 
 7.4 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 
 Unfavorable . . 
 
 Wilted. 
 
 113 
 
 112 
 
 .7 
 
 21.06 
 
 84.3 
 
 10.9 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 
 Unfavorable.. 
 
 
 114 
 
 163 
 
 .9 
 
 16.85 
 
 82.1 
 
 11.4 
 
 None 
 
 I 
 
 Unfavorable. . 
 
 
 119-321 
 
 163 
 
 1.5 
 
 15.32 
 
 73.5 
 
 6 5 
 
 Barnyard . 
 
 V 
 
 Very unfav. . . 
 
 
 97-349 
 
 135 
 
 .8 
 
 14.65 
 
 76 5 
 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 162 
 
 143 
 
 1.5 
 
 13.79 
 
 72.4 
 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 163 
 
 120 
 
 1.3 
 
 17.66 
 
 82 5 
 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 161 
 
 150 
 
 1.1 
 
 14 52 
 
 83.7 
 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 176 
 
 157 
 
 1.0 
 
 15.12 
 
 76.3 
 
 13 7 
 
 Stable. 
 
 VI 
 
 Very wet 
 
 Not limed 
 
 74-196 
 
 157 
 
 , 7 
 
 18.08 
 
 84.4 
 
 
 Stable 
 
 VI 
 
 Very wet 
 
 Limed . 
 
 75-195 
 
 155 
 
 1.5 
 
 19.77 
 
 83.1 
 
 13-.6 
 
 None 
 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 310 
 
 1?7 
 
 1.5 
 
 15. 8 
 
 77.8 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Unfavorable 
 
 Not limed 
 
 99 -222 
 
 177 
 
 1.2 
 
 16.13 
 
 81 8 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Unfavorable. . 
 
 Limed 
 
 100-221 
 
 177 
 
 1 0 
 
 13.44 
 
 66.4 
 
 *24 0 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 101-220 
 
 138 
 
 1.1 
 
 11 50 
 
 65.0 
 
 
 None 
 
 I 
 
 Raioy 
 
 
 355 
 
 159 
 
 2.3 
 
 17.66 
 
 82.2 
 
 
 
 VI 
 
 Unfavorable 
 
 
 183 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stable 
 
 v 
 
 Very unfav 
 
 
 fii 
 
 157 
 
 1.3 
 
 18.61 
 
 82 5 
 
 ’ 8.0 
 
 Stable. . . 
 
 V 
 
 Very unfav. . . 
 
 
 Oi 
 
 62-264 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 None. . 
 
 I 
 
 Very fa,v 
 
 
 RQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Favorable 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 108 
 
 175 
 
 2.6 
 
 11.97. 
 
 73.8 
 
 14.5 
 
 Stable 
 
 IX 
 
 Unfavorable 
 
 
 98-265 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x 
 
 TJ * 1 1 avorable 
 
 
 191 
 
 167 
 
 1 .5 
 
 14 2i 
 
 82.6 
 
 20.0 
 
 None 
 
 
 Rainy. . . 
 
 
 l«il 
 
 199 
 
 177 
 
 2.1 
 
 11.15 
 
 65.2 
 
 10.5 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 
 Good 
 
 
 69-308 
 
 177 
 
 1.7 
 
 12.97 
 
 70 5 
 
 
 None 
 
 I 
 
 Good 
 
 
 70-309 
 
 148 
 
 1.0 
 
 15.54 
 
 76.2 
 
 15.5 
 
 None 
 
 IX 
 
 Unfavorable 
 
 
 60-332 
 
 1 149 
 
 .8 
 
 13 85 
 
 75 3 
 
 
 None 
 
 X 
 
 Unfavorable. 
 
 
 73-311 
 
 175 
 
 1.6 
 
 18.18 
 
 83.9 
 
 ’ 19*8 
 
 Stable 
 
 IX 
 
 Favorable 
 
 
 64-210 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 71. 
 
 Results of analyses 
 
 
 
 ‘ 
 
 Date 
 
 Character 
 
 First Sample. 
 
 
 
 Post office. 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 Name. 
 
 sown. 
 
 of soil. 
 
 Gr’w- 
 
 Wt. 
 
 Sug’r 
 
 Pur- 
 
 +3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing 
 
 pe- 
 
 riod. 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 ity of 
 
 SJz; 
 
 
 
 
 
 be’ts. 
 
 juice. 
 
 juice. 
 
 
 Door Co. 
 
 
 
 
 Days. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 148-226 
 
 96-345 
 
 Eickelberg, Wm. .. 
 
 
 May 15 
 May 15 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 149 
 
 1.6 
 
 13.88 
 
 71.8 
 
 75.8 
 
 Tornado 
 
 121 
 
 1.8 
 
 15.13 
 
 
 
 
 166 
 
 68-300 
 
 Douglas Co. 
 
 Fox boro . . 
 
 June 5 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 Clay loam. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nelsjn, 0. M 
 
 So. Superior.. 
 
 May 3 
 
 140 
 
 .8 
 
 16.86 
 
 88.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dunn Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 103-180 
 
 205 
 
 Wang F, C 
 
 
 May 23 
 May 10 
 June 15 
 
 Light clay . . 
 Light loam. 
 Sandy loam. 
 Loam 
 
 119 
 
 1.0 
 
 16.82 
 
 82 3 
 
 Colburn. J. 0 
 
 Knapp 
 
 138 
 
 1.2 
 
 14.90 
 
 79.8 
 
 Menomonie „ . 
 
 82-193 
 
 
 Menomonie . . . 
 
 May 6 
 
 137 
 
 ' "i.'8 
 
 14.93 
 
 73.8 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forest Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 131 
 * * 
 
 Shaw, S 
 
 Crandon 
 
 June 3 
 
 Clay loam.. . 
 
 118 
 
 .8 
 
 14.16 
 
 79.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.3 
 
 11.18 
 
 69.8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 283 
 
 Green Lake Co. 
 
 Berlin 
 
 May 10 
 
 Black prai’ie 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Iowa Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 188 
 
 Woolrich, G. W.. . . 
 
 Mineral Point. 
 
 June 4 
 
 Clay loam. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 132-354 
 
 Jackson Co. 
 Gansel C T. . 
 
 Alma Center. . 
 
 June 18 
 
 Black lo’am. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 Merrill, N. H 
 
 Alma Cenier. . 
 
 June 9 
 
 Clay loam . . . 
 
 119 
 
 1.3 
 
 17.57 
 
 83.2 
 
 204 
 
 155 
 
 149 
 
 150 
 164 
 225 
 
 Anrtprson Dip 
 
 Merrillan. . 
 
 May 30 
 June 14 
 
 Black loam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Anderson S A 
 
 Merrillan. . . . 
 
 Sandy. . 
 
 Clay loam. . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rnwpn IT 1 . T, 
 
 Merrillan. . . . 
 
 May 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dahl Andrew 
 
 Merrillan 
 
 May 28 
 
 Clay loam. . l 
 
 
 
 
 
 Anderson, S. Nels.. 
 Nelson J N 
 
 North Branch . 
 
 May 25 
 
 Sand & clay 
 Sandy clay . . | 
 
 
 
 
 
 North Branch . 
 
 May 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ; 
 
 
 
 Jefferson Co. 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 \ Mansfield, Fred. C. 
 
 Johns’n’s Cr’k 
 
 Apr. 20 
 
 Prairie loam 
 
 153 
 
 2 7 
 
 6.14 
 
 52.5 
 
 170-231 
 
 194 
 
 216 
 
 217 
 
 218 
 219 
 242 
 
 306 
 
 307 
 322 
 
 157 
 
 158 
 
 159 
 
 160 
 
 Mansfield Fred. C. 
 Man- field, Fred. C. 
 Mansfield, Fred. C. 
 Mansfield, Fred. C. 
 Mansfield, Fred. C 
 Mansfield, Fred. C. 
 Mansfield, Fred U. 
 Mansfield, Fred. C. 
 Mansfield, Fred. C 
 Mansfield, Fred. C 
 Schoechert, Julius. 
 Sr-hoechert, Julius. 
 Schoechert, Julius. 
 Schoechert, Julius. 
 
 Johns’n's Cr’k 
 Johns’n’s Cr’k 
 Johns’n’s Cr’k 
 
 May 10 
 May 8 
 May 11 
 May 20 
 May 1 
 May 15 
 May 10 
 May 10 
 May 5 
 May U 
 May 6 
 May 6 
 May 6 
 May 6- 1 
 
 Prairie loam 
 Prairie* loam 
 
 160 
 
 2.0 
 
 15.08 
 
 82.6 
 
 Black 
 
 
 
 
 
 Johns’n’s Cr’k 
 Johns’n’s Cr’k 
 Johns’n’s Cr’k 
 
 Black 
 
 
 
 
 
 Black 
 
 
 
 
 
 Black loam . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Johns’n’s Cr’k 
 Johns’n’s Cr’k 
 Johns’n’s Cr’k 
 Johns’n’s Cr’k 
 Watertown.. 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 Very black . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 Sandy loam. 
 Black loam . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Watertown. . 
 
 Black loam . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Watertown 
 
 Watertown 
 
 Black loam 
 
 
 
 
 
 Black loam 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Juneau Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 78 0 
 
 71-211 
 
 Miller, P. M. 
 
 Wonewoc 
 
 May 30 
 
 Clay loam. . . 
 
 115 
 
 1.5 
 
 14 18 
 
 
 Kenosha Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 325 
 
 Beyner, H. G 
 
 Salem 
 
 May 16 
 
 Light sandy. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kewaun ee Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 76.2 
 
 142-234 
 
 Blahnick, John 
 
 Algoma. . 
 
 May 14 
 
 Black 
 
 147 
 
 1.3 
 
 11 73 
 
 143-235 
 
 333 
 
 140 
 
 Blahnick, John 
 Riilinkp R 
 
 Algoma 
 
 May 14 
 May 22 
 May 15 
 
 Clay 
 
 147 
 
 .8 
 
 14 84 
 
 79.0 
 
 A Ip-nma. 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 Clay ... 
 
 
 
 Scbraeder, Wm . 
 Wiese, Henry . .. . 
 TT n known 
 
 Algoma 
 
 Algoma. . . 
 
 148 
 
 1.6 
 
 13 06 
 
 76.9 
 
 185 
 
 357 
 
 358 
 ■ 191 
 
 May 10 
 
 Clay 
 
 A Ipnmfl, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Got, stein H 
 
 F.nren. ... 
 
 May 25 
 
 Brown clay.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rp.lp.in John 
 
 Rnsiere. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Sugar Beet Investigations , 1898 , 
 
 9 
 
 of sugar beets , 1898— Continued. 
 
 Second Sample. 
 
 Es- 
 
 tim 
 
 yield 
 
 per 
 
 acre. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grav- 
 
 ing 
 
 pe- 
 
 riod. 
 
 Wt. 
 
 or 
 
 be’ts 
 
 S^’r 
 
 in 
 
 juice. 
 
 Pur- 
 ity of 
 juice. 
 
 Manure, 
 if any. 
 
 Kind of 
 seed. 
 
 Character of 
 season. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Station 
 
 No. 
 
 Days 
 
 165 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 2.1 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 13 22 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No 
 
 IX 
 
 Favorable. . . . 
 
 
 148-226 
 
 177 
 
 2.5 
 
 15.94 
 
 80 2 
 
 6 4 
 
 Yes 
 
 VI 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 96-345 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 132 
 
 1.5 
 
 15.53 
 
 * 80.6 
 
 11.5 
 
 
 II 
 
 Favorable 
 
 
 166 
 
 68-300 
 
 181 
 
 
 18.10 
 
 86. 7 
 
 19.2 
 
 Stable — 
 
 V 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Unfavorable 
 
 
 54 
 
 103-180 
 
 205 
 
 82-193 
 
 166 
 
 1.5 
 
 16.53 
 
 81.9 
 
 10.9 
 
 Yes 
 
 v 
 
 Unfavorable . . 
 
 
 127 
 
 1.5 
 
 12.38 
 
 68.2 
 
 15.0 
 
 
 x 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 172 
 
 1.0 
 
 16.25 
 
 80.1 
 
 16.5 
 
 
 IX 
 
 Very dry 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Rather wet. . 
 
 
 131 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 176 
 
 2.1 
 
 15 54 
 
 80.5 
 
 16 0 
 
 
 IX 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 283 
 
 
 
 
 
 143 
 
 1.8 
 
 14 54 
 
 72 1 
 
 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 188 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 141 
 
 1.1 
 
 17.20 
 
 76.11 
 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 320 
 
 132-354 
 
 204 
 
 155 
 
 149 
 
 150 
 164 
 225 
 
 134 
 
 141 
 
 1.1 
 
 .8 
 
 15 99 
 13.5? 
 
 88.1 
 
 77.8 
 
 6.0 
 
 In ’96 . . . 
 
 V 
 
 XIII 
 
 Very unfa’ble 
 Favorable. . . . 
 
 
 123 
 
 tj- 
 
 18.63 
 
 86.2 
 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 Unfavorable . . 
 
 
 153 
 
 1.0 
 
 16 56 
 
 81.2 
 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 133 
 
 1.1 
 
 18 8; 
 
 78.3 
 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 XIII 
 
 Favorable. . . 
 
 
 146 
 
 .8 
 
 17.60 
 
 84.6 
 
 
 
 Favorabie 
 
 
 141 
 
 1.2 
 
 16 56 
 
 83.6 
 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 Favorable 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 Favorable . . . 
 
 
 56 
 
 170-231 
 
 194 
 
 216 
 
 217 
 
 218 
 219 
 242 
 306 
 
 176 
 
 1 9 
 
 14.96 
 
 75.0 
 
 j ... . 
 
 
 I 
 
 Favorable. . . . 
 
 Zeidler sample. 
 
 176 
 
 1.7 
 
 13 77 
 
 75.9 
 
 1 ::::: 
 
 
 I 
 
 Favorable 
 
 172 
 
 1.2 
 
 15.18 
 
 78.7 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Favorable. . . . 
 
 
 163 
 
 1.1 
 
 14 44 
 
 79.8 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Favorable 
 
 
 184 
 
 2.2 
 
 15 09 
 
 77.9 
 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 Favorable. . . . 
 
 Mosher sample 
 Bauker sample 
 Ambrose samp. 
 Gr’nw’d samp. 
 Klaush sample. 
 Bartel sample. 
 Not limed. 
 
 170 
 
 1.4 
 
 11.09 
 
 64 8 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Favorable 
 
 175 
 
 1.7 
 
 11.64 
 
 76 9 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Favorable. .. 
 
 180 
 
 2.5 
 
 12.07 
 
 75.4 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Favorab'e. 
 
 173 
 
 1.9 
 
 13.72 
 
 70.4 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Favorable 
 
 307 
 
 322 
 
 157 
 
 158 
 
 159 
 
 160 
 
 173 
 
 1.6 
 
 14.(6 
 
 76.6 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Favorable 
 
 165 
 
 1.7 
 
 14.40 
 
 78 3 
 
 k'.o 
 
 None .... 
 
 I 
 
 Fair 
 
 165 
 
 1.3 
 
 14.34 
 
 76.8 
 
 None . . . 
 
 I 
 
 Fair 
 
 Limed. 
 
 165 
 
 1.6 
 
 15.23 
 
 80.4 
 
 
 None 
 
 X 
 
 Fair 
 
 Not limed. 
 
 165 
 
 1.8 
 
 14.44 
 
 79.6 
 
 
 None 
 
 X 
 
 Fair 
 
 Limed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 153 
 
 1.7 
 
 15 88 
 
 82 0 
 
 16.0 
 
 None 
 
 IX 
 
 Unfavorable.. 
 
 
 71-241 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 171 
 
 2 4 
 
 15 88 
 
 73.9 
 
 1 
 
 14.6 
 
 Pasture. . . . 
 
 II 
 
 Fair 
 
 \ 
 
 325 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 172 
 
 1.9 
 
 1 3 . 66 
 
 76 7 
 
 
 
 IX 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 142- 234 
 
 143- 235 
 333 
 140 
 185 
 375 
 358 
 191 
 
 172 
 
 1.8 
 
 13.39 
 
 75.6 
 
 
 
 IX 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 171 
 
 .7 
 
 20.22 
 
 76.2 
 
 10.5 
 
 Barnyard . 
 
 I 
 
 
 Wilted. 
 
 
 v 
 
 Fa.vora.ble. 
 
 153 
 
 1.8 
 
 18.59 
 
 82.3 
 
 
 Cow. 
 
 X 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 
 .8 
 
 16 11 
 
 70.3 
 
 
 
 
 ” 153 
 
 3 6 
 
 11.80 
 
 66 7 
 
 
 Cattle 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 4 9 
 
 15.27 
 
 81 1 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 7 1, 
 
 Results of analyses 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [ 
 
 First Sample. 
 
 a 
 
 Name. 
 
 Post office. 
 
 Date 
 
 Character 
 
 P , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sown. 
 
 of soil. 
 
 . w " 
 
 Wt. 
 
 Sug’r 
 
 Pur- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing 
 
 Pe- 
 
 riod. 
 
 of/ 
 
 in 
 
 ity of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b’ets . 
 
 juice 
 
 juice. 
 
 
 La Crosse Co. 
 
 West Salem . . 
 
 May 10 
 
 
 Days. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Pr ct. 
 
 Pr. ct 
 
 112 2:3 
 
 McEidowney, .fas. . 
 McEldowney, Jas. 
 
 Black loam. 
 
 140 
 
 2.00 
 
 13.35 
 
 77.5 
 
 182-214 
 
 West Salem .. 
 
 May 15 
 
 Clay loam . . 
 
 148 
 
 2.1 
 
 10.84 
 
 69.8 
 
 66-266 
 
 
 
 May 13 
 
 Clay loam.. 
 
 132 
 
 .5 
 
 13.03 
 
 75.1 
 
 
 
 
 La Fayette Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 145-181 
 
 Baiubridge. M 
 
 Bianchardville 
 
 May 21 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.4 
 
 17 32 
 
 77.2 
 
 116 
 
 174 
 
 175 
 
 Lincoln Co. 
 
 Merrill 
 
 May 20 
 May 20 
 
 Sandy 
 
 1.29 
 
 .6 
 
 18.24 
 
 86.4 
 
 
 Merrill 
 
 Sandy 
 
 Boyce, L. C..r — 
 Brand, M. W 
 
 Merrill 
 
 May 20 
 
 Sandy 
 
 
 
 
 
 72-197 
 
 Merrill 
 
 May 10 
 
 Sandy 
 
 133 
 
 7 
 
 16.94 
 
 84.0! 
 
 Merrill 
 
 1*5 
 
 94-172 
 
 Stejniger, Geo.. .. 
 
 May 23 
 
 Clay loam . . . 
 
 1.4 
 
 1 .29 
 
 82.9 
 
 _____ 
 
 
 
 Manitowoc Co. 
 
 
 
 
 ==_ 
 
 
 
 
 122 
 
 196 
 
 90-326 
 
 78-327 
 
 Brennan, James. . . 
 Brennan, James... 
 Gilbertson, H. 
 Schned, F 
 
 Clark’s Mills... 
 
 May 25 
 
 Black loam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Clark’s Mills... 
 
 May 14 
 
 Sandy 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rube 
 
 May 26 
 
 Red clay . . . 
 Black loam. 
 
 117 
 
 121 
 
 9 
 
 14.73 
 
 15.26 
 
 72.2 
 
 79.4 
 
 Rube 
 
 May 24 
 
 L3 
 
 
 178 
 
 259 
 
 Marathon Co. 
 Cater, J. A 
 
 Knowlton 
 
 May 17 
 May 1 ? 
 
 Loam . ‘ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cater, J. A. ..... . 
 
 Ivnowlton. 
 
 Loam . ..... 
 
 
 
 
 
 151 
 
 Dietman, Chas . . . 
 
 Spencer 
 
 May 20 
 
 Black clay . . 
 
 145 
 
 1.4 
 
 14.61 
 
 76.7 
 
 208 
 
 Oelreich, Gust . . - . 
 
 Spencer 
 
 May 20 
 
 Black clay. . 
 
 
 1.3 
 
 11.13 
 
 55.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marinette Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 230 
 
 53-147 
 
 91-351 
 
 92 
 
 King, James H. . . . 
 Lais ire Goo . ... 
 
 Peshtigo 
 
 May 20 
 May 6 
 May 31 
 May 3i 
 
 Upland clay 
 Ciay loam.. 
 Bl. s'ndyl’m 
 Lt. s’ndy I’m 
 
 
 
 
 
 Peshtigo 
 
 137 
 1 15 
 
 1.2 
 
 17.09 
 15 7 ft 
 15.63 
 
 88.7 
 
 79.9 
 
 79.3 
 
 Lepinsky, Ernst .. 
 Lepinsky, Ernst .. 
 
 Peshtigo ...... 
 
 Peshtigo 
 
 123 
 
 12 
 
 106-156 
 
 Marquette Co. 
 Ambler, C. E 
 
 Oxford 
 
 May 26 
 
 Black sandy 
 loam 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 123 
 
 1.3 
 
 15.99 
 
 82.8 
 
 229 
 
 Cramer, W. E 
 
 Packwaukee. . 
 
 May 20 
 
 Sandy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Milwaukee Co. 
 
 
 June 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 141-353 
 
 Fisber, C. T 
 
 Wauwatosa. . . 
 
 Black loam . 
 
 124 
 
 2.8 
 
 11.92 
 
 77.4 
 
 
 Monroe Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 125-347 
 
 Tramblie, P 
 
 Valley Junct’n 
 
 May 26 
 
 Black sandy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 loam . . 
 
 132 
 
 .4 
 
 14 20 
 
 78.0 
 
 126 
 
 Tramblie, P 
 
 Valley Junct’n 
 
 May 26 
 
 Black sandy 
 loam 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 132 
 
 .5 
 
 13.06 
 
 74.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oconto Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 107-302 
 
 352 
 
 Schwartz, F. 
 
 Chase 
 
 May 27 
 May 15 
 Junel 2 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 Sandy 
 
 152 
 
 .8 
 
 20.74 
 
 86.2 
 
 McLean, Gertie — 
 Wickenberg, F. J. 
 
 Lena 
 
 203 
 
 Lena. 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oneida Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 115-209 
 
 360 
 
 Boehm, F 
 
 Rhinelander . . 
 
 May 15 
 May 25 
 
 Sandy 
 
 134 
 
 1,5 
 
 16.44 
 
 82.9 
 
 Lassig, Julius 
 
 Rhinelander . 
 
 Yellow loam 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outagamie Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 85.2 
 
 133-311 
 
 Hyde, Welcome. . 
 
 Appleton . ... 
 
 May 21 
 
 Light marl . . 
 
 137 
 
 1 0 
 
 14.87 
 
 134-312 
 
 Hyde, Welcome. . . 
 
 Appleton . ... 
 
 May 21 
 
 Sand & clay. 
 
 137 
 
 1.9 
 
 13 40 
 
 82.7 
 
 135-313 
 
 B yde, W eleome . . . 
 
 Appleton 
 
 May 21 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 137 
 
 1.5 
 
 10.19 
 
 70.3 
 
 136-314 
 
 Hyde, Welcome . . 
 
 Appleton . ... 
 
 May 21 
 
 Dark alluv’i. 
 
 137 
 
 1.3 
 
 11.12 
 
 75.0 
 
 137-315 
 
 Hyde, Welcome. . . 
 
 Appleton 
 
 May 21 
 
 Burroak bot- 
 
 
 
 
 82.2 
 
 
 
 tom 
 
 137 
 
 1.3 
 
 14.55 
 
 138-316 
 
 Hyde, Welcome. . . 
 
 Appleton 
 
 May 21 
 
 Heavy clay.. 
 
 137 
 
 1.5 
 
 13.32 
 
 83.2 
 
 139-317 
 
 Hyde, Welcome... 
 
 Appleton 
 
 May 21 
 
 Yellow clay. 
 
 137 
 
 2.2 
 
 10.91 
 
 75.1 
 
 318 
 
 Hyde, Welcome... 
 
 Appleton 
 
 May 21 
 
 Burroak bot- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tom 
 
 
 
 
 
Sugar Beet Investigations , 1898 
 
 11 
 
 of sugar beets , Continued . 
 
 Second 
 
 Sample. 
 
 Es- 
 
 tim. 
 
 yield 
 
 per 
 
 acre. 
 
 
 Kind of 
 seed. 
 
 Character of 
 season. 
 
 
 
 Grav- 
 
 ing 
 
 Pe- 
 
 riod. 
 
 Wt. 
 
 of 
 
 be’ ts. 
 
 Sug’r 
 
 in 
 
 juice. 
 
 Pur- 
 ity or 
 juice. 
 
 Manure, 
 if any. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 a 
 
 0 
 
 1 o 
 Xfl'A 
 
 Days. 
 
 175 
 
 170 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.0 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 11.39 
 13 88 
 13.37 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Plaster . . 
 Plaster . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 IX 
 
 I 
 
 Favorable ... 
 F avorable .... 
 
 
 IIO 01 Q 
 
 
 
 
 1 14— 410 
 
 1 CO 0 1 A 
 
 74.0 
 
 
 
 1 04—4 1 4 
 
 
 .5 
 
 
 ^ olie 
 
 Very unfav. . . 
 
 
 00— *00 
 
 147 
 
 1.9 
 
 12 51 
 
 73.8 
 
 9.0 
 
 None 
 
 VI 
 
 Unfavorable. . 
 
 1st samp.wilted 
 
 145-181 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Very unfav . . . 
 
 
 116 
 
 147 
 
 145 
 
 ’ * * r- 
 
 19.80 
 
 20.72 
 
 83.6 
 
 86.6 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Very unfav . . . 
 
 
 174 
 
 *1 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Very unfav . . 
 Very unfav. . . 
 Very unfav. .. 
 
 
 175 
 
 72-197 
 
 94-172 
 
 * * 
 
 10.1 
 
 Barnyard. 
 
 V 
 
 
 152 
 
 1.1 
 
 16.98 
 
 76.4 
 
 VI 
 
 1st sample, V. . 
 
 
 
 
 12? 
 
 163 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.8 
 
 15 23 
 11.69 
 
 81.3 
 67 0 
 
 
 
 v 
 
 Favorable . . . 
 
 
 122 
 
 
 
 x 
 
 Favorable .... 
 
 
 198 
 
 4.3 
 
 12.8 
 
 None . > . . 
 
 IX 
 
 IX 
 
 Average 
 
 
 90-326 
 
 78-327 
 
 158 
 
 13 53 
 
 71.6 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 156 
 
 156 
 
 2 1 
 1.5 
 
 16 69 
 
 84 4 
 82.1 
 
 12.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 Nnnft 
 
 X 
 
 x 
 
 Favorable 
 
 
 178 
 
 359 
 
 151 
 
 
 Favorable 
 
 
 Stable .... 
 
 x 
 
 Favorable . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Short 
 
 IX 
 
 Unfavorable. . 
 
 Wilted 
 
 208 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 162 
 
 162 
 
 136 
 
 1 2 
 
 13.78 
 18.31 
 14 76 
 
 71.7 
 
 87.8 
 80.1 
 
 20.0 
 12.2 
 12 0 
 
 Barnyard 
 
 IX 
 
 [ 
 
 v 1 
 
 Too wet 
 
 
 230 
 
 53-147 
 
 9i-351 
 
 92 
 
 1*4 
 
 1.2 
 
 None . ... 
 None .... 
 None 
 
 Cold and wet . 
 Good 
 
 
 v 
 
 Good 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 142 
 
 122 
 
 1.2 
 
 16.57 
 
 14.96 
 
 81 3 
 73.9 
 
 15.9 
 
 None 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 Favorable 
 
 
 106-156 
 
 229 
 
 Worse 
 
 
 
 %XJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 155 
 
 2 5 
 
 12 9; 
 
 78.4 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Very favor 
 
 
 141-353 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 142 
 
 .6 
 
 20.45 
 
 78.4 
 
 11.0 
 
 Horse 
 
 V 
 
 Not favorable. 
 
 2 d samp, wilt’d 
 
 125-347 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Horse 
 
 x 
 
 Not favorable. 
 
 
 126 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 161 
 
 123 
 
 1 0 
 .8 
 
 13 21 
 17 56 
 
 73.8 
 
 79.7 
 
 13.3 
 
 30 loads . . 
 None . . 
 
 VI 
 
 x 
 
 Unfavorable 
 
 
 107-302 
 
 352 
 
 A vera.ge 
 
 
 134 
 
 1 5 
 
 12.62 
 
 74.6 
 
 4.8 
 
 None . 
 
 1 
 
 Favorable 
 
 
 203 
 
 
 
 
 
 155 
 
 .8 
 
 20 66 
 
 79.2 
 
 4 1 
 
 None 
 
 IX 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 115-209 
 
 145 
 
 1 1 
 
 17.70 
 
 76.4 
 
 8.0 
 
 Horse 
 
 VI 
 
 
 
 360 
 
 
 
 
 
 160 
 
 1.0 
 
 12 87 
 
 74.0 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 Sod ground 
 
 133-311 
 
 160 
 
 1 7 
 
 12.08 
 
 72 6 
 
 
 None . 
 
 V 
 
 
 134-312 
 
 160 
 
 2.2 
 
 11.53 
 
 70.8 
 
 
 None . .. 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 135-313 
 
 160 
 
 1.7 
 
 12.10 
 
 68 7 
 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 136-314 
 
 160 
 
 1 9 
 
 12 34 
 
 
 21.4 
 
 None ... . 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 137-315 
 
 160 
 
 1.8 
 
 11.31 
 
 69^4 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 138-316 
 
 160 
 
 .9 
 
 12.27 
 
 70.9 
 
 
 None . ... 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 139-317 
 
 160 
 
 4.3 
 
 10.17 
 
 71.1 
 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 318 
 
12 
 
 Bulletin No. 71, 
 
 Results of analyses 
 
 First Sample. 
 
 a 
 
 Name. 
 
 Post office. 
 
 Date 
 
 Character 
 
 Gr’w- 
 
 1 wt. 
 of 
 
 be’ts. 
 
 Sug’r 
 
 in 
 
 juice. 
 
 
 33 _ 
 3 O 
 cctz* 
 
 i sown. 
 
 ot soil. 
 
 ing 
 
 pe- 
 
 riod. 
 
 Pur- 
 ify of 
 juice. 
 
 
 Outagamie — Coni,. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 101-202 
 
 Culbertson, H. M. . 
 
 Medina 
 
 May 24 
 
 Light clay 
 
 Days. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Pr.ct 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 
 
 
 
 loam . . 
 
 123 
 
 8 
 
 13.79 
 
 79.2 
 
 249 
 
 Culbertson, H. M . . 
 
 Medina 
 
 May 23 
 
 Light clay 
 loam 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ozaukee Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 123-186 
 
 
 Mequon 
 
 May 10 
 May 16 
 
 Clay 
 
 Clay 
 
 146 
 
 2.6 
 
 15.15 
 
 79.5 
 
 82.5 
 
 124-187 
 
 Selle, A 
 
 140 
 
 1 4 
 
 15 62 
 
 
 
 
 Pepin Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 189 
 
 Pittman, Fred 
 
 Arkansaw . . . 
 
 May 12 
 May 12 
 
 Clay 
 
 
 
 
 
 211 
 
 Pittman, Fred . ... 
 
 Arkansaw . . . 
 
 Clay 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pierce Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 184 
 
 Mihleis, Henry. .. 
 Mihleis, Henry 
 
 Ellsworth . . . 
 
 May 16 
 May 20 
 
 Loam 
 
 
 
 
 
 215 
 
 Ellsworta 
 
 Rich loam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Polk Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 89 
 
 Erickson, E. J. . 
 
 No Valley.... 
 
 May 12 
 
 Sandy loam 
 
 134 
 
 1 ? 
 
 12 68 
 
 73.6 
 
 177 
 
 Erickson, E. J 
 
 No. Valley 
 
 ,une 5 
 
 Blaoa sandy 
 
 137 
 
 1.6 
 
 12.87 
 
 76 2 
 
 
 Price Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'V 
 
 144-168 
 
 Riedel, H 
 
 Prentice 
 
 May 14 
 
 Sandy c’av. 
 Sandy clay. 
 
 132 
 
 .8 
 
 17.31 
 
 79.7 
 
 169 
 
 Riedel, H 
 
 Prentice . . . 
 
 June 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 16? 
 
 Riedel, H 
 
 Prentice 
 
 
 Sandy clay. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Raeine Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 95-330 
 
 Apple, Adam 
 
 North Cape. . . 
 
 May 1 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 142 
 
 1!7 
 
 16.54 
 
 81.6 
 
 
 Richland Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 105-356 
 
 Cook, John 
 
 Millcreek 
 
 May 28 
 
 Sandy loam 
 
 122 
 
 1.2 
 
 13.24 
 
 74.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rock Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 173 
 
 Neisou, H. G. . . . . . . 
 
 Beloit.. 
 
 May 11 
 
 May 25 
 
 Sandy loam 
 
 Clay 
 
 
 
 
 
 284 
 
 Ransom, E. H 
 
 EmeraldGrove 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Croix Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 109-153 
 
 Wheeler, T. D 
 
 New Richm’nd 
 
 May 4 
 
 Clay 
 
 145 
 
 1.5 
 
 15.17 
 
 79.2 
 
 110-15- 
 
 Wheeler, T. D 
 
 New Richm’nd 
 
 May 4 
 
 C ay 
 
 14 
 
 2.5 
 
 10 82 i 
 
 68.3 
 
 80-22:-. 
 
 H assel, P. A 
 
 Wilson 
 
 May 10 
 
 ( Hay loam . 
 
 135 
 
 1 0 
 
 17.0 
 
 76 1 
 
 81-224 
 
 Hassel, P. A 
 
 Wilson 
 
 May 18 
 May 19 
 
 Clay loam . 
 Sandy loam 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 18 111 
 
 81.7 
 
 6, 
 
 Lawrence, Geo. A. 
 
 Wilson 
 
 125 
 
 1.3 
 
 16.241 
 
 84.0 
 
 102-182 
 
 Peterson, Louis 
 
 Wilson . ... 
 
 May 20 
 
 (Jlay loam . 
 
 12 
 
 1 0 
 
 1L6 
 
 79.9 
 
 
 Sauk Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 Dunlap, R. M 
 
 Dunlap, R. M 
 
 Darrow, N 
 
 Baraboo ... 
 Baraboo 
 
 May 22 
 May 22 
 
 Sa.ndy, ..... 
 
 120 
 
 .5 
 
 15.40 
 
 83 5 
 84.1 
 
 58" 
 
 52-315 
 
 Sandy... . 
 
 1.0 
 
 1 0 
 
 16.06 
 
 Reedsburg. . 
 
 June 23 
 
 Sandy. 
 
 8-' 
 
 .4 
 
 15 41 
 
 82 9 
 
 
 Shawano Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 Pinske, F. A 
 
 Wittenberg. . . 
 
 May 26 
 
 Red sand. . . 
 
 117 
 
 1.4 
 
 13.7? 
 
 77.8 
 
 
 Sheboygan Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 65-23-? 
 
 Vater, Robt., Sr. 
 
 Plymouth ... 
 
 May 11 
 
 Clay loam. 
 
 133 
 
 .6 
 
 16.31 
 
 85.1 
 
 233-301 
 
 Vater, Robt., Sr.. 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 May li 
 
 Clay loam. 
 
 133 
 
 
 18.35 
 
 81 1 
 
 
 Taylor Co. 
 
 
 
 Sandy loam 
 
 
 
 
 
 19C 
 
 Campbell, E. E. . . 
 
 Westboro 
 
 May 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trempealeau Co. 
 Mattison, M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 04 
 
 80.0 
 
 63-201 
 
 Blair 
 
 June 4 
 
 Clay loam 
 
 108 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vilas Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 146 
 
 Stein, Frank 
 
 Eagle River. . 
 
 May 18| 
 
 Sandy loam 
 
 146 
 
 1 5 
 
 19 00 
 
 84.4 
 
Sugar Beet Investigations , 1898 
 
 13 
 
 of sugar beets , — Continued. 
 
 Second Sample. 
 
 Es- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■Gr’w- 
 
 ing 
 
 pe- 
 
 riod. 
 
 Wt. 
 
 of 
 
 be’ts. 
 
 Sug’r 
 
 in 
 
 juice. 
 
 Pur- 
 ity of 
 juice. 
 
 tim. 
 
 yield 
 
 per 
 
 acre. 
 
 Manure, 
 if any. 
 
 Kinds 
 of seed. 
 
 Character of 
 season. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 fl 
 
 3f o 
 
 CO 
 
 Days. 
 
 153 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 .8 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 16 92 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 79.5 
 
 Tons. 
 12 7 
 
 
 y 
 
 Medium 
 
 
 101-202 
 
 161 
 
 .9 
 
 17 14 
 
 80.1 
 
 None .... 
 
 X 
 
 Medium 
 
 
 249 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 168 
 
 I6v 
 
 2.5 
 1 4 
 
 12.72 
 13 7. 
 
 71.9 
 79 3 
 
 11.4 
 
 None . . 
 
 V 
 
 X 
 
 Favorable . . . 
 Favorable . . . 
 
 
 123- 186 
 
 124- 187 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 138 
 
 l.i 
 
 20 08 
 
 80.9 
 
 
 
 x 
 
 Dry 
 
 Wilted 
 
 189 
 
 138 
 
 1 3 
 
 16 40 
 
 82 2 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Dry 
 
 211 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 151 
 
 .8 
 
 18 81 
 
 79 0 
 
 *3.0 
 
 Stable . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 Average 
 
 
 184 
 
 154 
 
 1.4 
 
 13 09 
 
 67.9 
 
 IX 
 
 Average 
 
 
 215 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Dry 
 
 
 89 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Dry 
 
 
 177 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 154 
 
 .8 
 
 17.34 
 
 85.6 
 
 6.2 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 
 Unfavorable . . 
 
 Prev. crop, pot. 
 Prev. crop, lett. 
 
 144-168 
 
 131 
 
 1.1 
 
 14 54 
 
 72 1 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 
 Unfavorable. . 
 
 169 
 
 152 
 
 5 
 
 18.59 
 
 83.7 
 
 
 None 
 
 I 
 
 Unfavorable. . 
 
 167 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17? 
 
 2., 
 
 17 50 
 
 8,3.7 
 
 20.0 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 95-330 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.8 
 
 13.88 
 
 75.2 
 
 
 
 IX 
 
 
 
 105-356 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 161 
 
 1 5 
 
 13.58 
 
 74. f 
 
 25 0 
 
 Hen and 
 ashes . . 
 
 
 Favorable .... 
 
 
 173 
 
 159 
 
 2 1 
 
 14.90 
 
 83.4 
 
 5.6 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 
 Wet 
 
 
 284 
 
 
 
 
 
 163 
 
 163 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.5 
 
 19 87 
 14 27 
 
 81.S 
 74 3 
 
 5.5 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 ' V 
 
 Unfavorable. 
 Unlavorable. . 
 
 Not irrigated . . 
 Irrigated 
 
 109- 153 
 
 110- 152 
 
 170 
 
 162 
 
 .8 
 
 .8 
 
 17.38 
 
 14.67 
 
 84.4 
 
 80.7 
 
 10.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 Unfavorab e. . 
 
 1 nfavorable . . 
 
 Not limed 
 
 Limed 
 
 80- 223 
 
 81- 224 
 
 
 
 
 v 
 
 Too dry . 
 
 
 67 
 
 168 
 
 1.0 
 
 16 85 
 
 82.1 
 
 11.0 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 
 Fair 
 
 
 102-182 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 None 
 
 I 
 
 Unfavorable. . 
 
 Not limed 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 None ... 
 
 II 
 
 Unfavorable . . 
 
 Limed 
 
 58 
 
 137 
 
 .3 
 
 19.71 
 
 84.1 
 
 6.0 
 
 None 
 
 V 
 
 Unfavorable. . 
 
 Sown br’adcast 
 
 52-315 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 None . 
 
 V 
 
 Very wet .... 
 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 .9 
 
 17.67 
 
 81.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 
 V 
 
 Very unfav. . 
 
 
 65-232 
 
 175 
 
 1.3 
 
 17.84 
 
 86 6 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Very unfav. . . 
 
 
 233 301 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 139 
 
 1.0 
 
 19.93 
 
 80 4 
 
 10 0 
 
 None . ... 
 
 X 
 
 .Fair 
 
 
 190 
 
 
 
 
 145 
 
 .9 
 
 13.23 
 
 72.9 
 
 9 5 
 
 None 
 
 IX 
 
 Unfavorab'e. 
 
 
 63-201 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nore . . . 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 146 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
14 
 
 Bulletin No. 71, 
 
 Results of analyse 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 First Sample. 
 
 a 
 
 Name. 
 
 - Post office. 
 
 Date 
 
 Character 
 
 Gr'w- 
 
 ing 
 
 pe- 
 
 riod. 
 
 Wt. 
 
 Sug’r 
 
 1 
 
 Pur- 
 
 
 sown. 
 
 of soil. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 be’ts. 
 
 in 
 
 juice. 
 
 ity of 
 juice. 
 
 
 Walworth Cd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Days. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 344 
 
 
 Millard 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 31 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 
 
 
 84-334 
 
 Morrison, S. L. 
 
 Millard 
 
 28 
 
 ' iis 
 
 .7 
 
 17.82 
 
 ’ 78.0 
 
 121-335 
 
 
 Millard . . 
 
 May 
 
 28 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 128 
 
 LI 
 
 17.80 
 
 83.8 
 
 236 
 
 Dymond, R 
 
 Whitewater. . . 
 
 May 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Washington Co- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 76-350 
 
 Van Rhienen, Fred 
 
 So. Germ’nt'n. 
 
 May 
 
 16 
 
 Black sandy 
 
 129 
 
 1.0 
 
 15.44 
 
 80.1 
 
 83 
 
 Van Rhienen, Fred 
 
 So. Germ’nt’n. 
 
 May 
 
 16 
 
 Black sandy 
 
 129 
 
 1.4 
 
 16.76 
 
 81.1 
 
 
 Waukesha Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 281 
 
 Raascb, Chas 
 
 Fussville 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 28 
 
 Light clay.. 
 White clay. . 
 White clay . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 85-310 
 
 Watson, J. R 
 
 Sussex 
 
 14 
 
 132 
 
 1.4 
 
 15.77 
 
 82.2 
 
 86 
 
 Watson, J. R. 
 
 Sussex 
 
 14 
 
 132 
 
 1.1 
 
 15.66 
 
 81.2 
 
 i : 
 
 
 
 
 Waupaca Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 | 
 
 237 
 
 Bodah, J. W 
 
 New London. . 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 18 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 Sandy. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 239 
 
 Pribnow, Aug 
 
 New London . . 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 238 
 
 Pribnow, F. A 
 
 New London. . 
 
 18 
 
 Sandy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Waushara Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 192 
 
 Muller, Stephan... 
 Noak, Julius 
 
 W. Bloomfield 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 18 
 
 Low, black. 
 
 
 
 
 
 154 
 
 W. Bloomfield 
 
 15 
 
 ^andv 
 
 
 
 
 
 303 
 
 Paass, A 
 
 W. Bloomfield 
 
 22 
 
 Black sand. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 87-206 
 
 Pomrenke, J. G. . 
 Pomrenke, J. G . . . 
 
 W. Bloomfield 
 
 17 
 
 Sandy 
 
 ' *126 
 
 12 
 
 i(L69 
 
 ’ 82 9 
 
 88-207 
 
 W. Bloomfield 
 
 18 
 
 Sandy 
 
 125 
 
 .8 
 
 17.02 
 
 85.6 
 
 
 Winnebago Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 127 
 
 Streeter, Chas C.. 
 
 Oshkosh 
 
 May 
 
 121 
 
 Black loam . 
 
 145) 
 
 2.2 
 
 14.77 
 
 79.8 
 
 
 
 Wood Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 93-165 
 
 Hanson, M. . . . 
 
 Bakerville. 
 
 May 
 
 18 
 
 Clay 
 
 128 
 
 .9 
 
 16.99 
 
 83.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Samples not iden- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 227 
 
 tified. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 228 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 303 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Sugar Beet Investigations , 1898 
 
 15 
 
 of sugar beets , 1898. 
 
 Second 
 
 Sample . 
 
 Es- 
 
 tim. 
 
 yield 
 
 per 
 
 acre. 
 
 Manure, 
 if any . 
 
 Gr’w- 
 
 ing 
 
 pe- 
 
 riod. 
 
 Wt. 
 
 of 
 
 be’ts. 
 
 Sug’r 
 
 in 
 
 juice. 
 
 Pur- 
 ity of 
 juice. 
 
 Days. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 154 
 
 1.7 
 
 15.23 
 
 75.9 
 
 8.7 
 
 None 
 
 171 
 
 1.1 
 
 17 84 
 
 81.3 
 
 16.8 
 
 None 
 
 171 
 
 .9 
 
 19.95 
 
 82.2 
 
 
 None . 
 
 155 
 
 2.3 
 
 10.77 
 
 67.3 
 
 18.0 
 
 Barnyard . 
 
 176 
 
 1.4 
 
 15 87 
 
 85.5 
 
 16 5 
 
 1 
 
 None 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 None . ... 
 
 157 
 
 1.2 
 
 15.05 
 
 78.6 
 
 7.5 
 
 Barnyard . 
 
 170 
 
 1 .8 
 
 16.42 
 
 79.7 
 
 22.7 
 
 None 
 
 
 
 
 
 16.6 
 
 None 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 163 
 
 2.3 
 
 12.27 
 
 71.5 
 
 9.9 
 
 
 159 
 
 1.8 
 
 11.83 
 
 69 6 
 
 *35 
 
 Stable. ... 
 
 159 
 
 1.4 
 
 14.12 
 
 J77A 
 
 
 Stable 
 
 159 
 
 1 8 
 
 14.86 
 
 83.5 
 
 
 
 153 
 
 1.5 
 
 13.22 
 
 81 2 
 
 18 0 
 
 Hog. ..... 
 
 157 
 
 .8 
 
 18.09 
 
 86 5 
 
 12. C 
 
 None 
 
 150 
 
 1.2 
 
 16.52 
 
 87.4 
 
 19 5 
 
 Barnyard . 
 
 149 
 
 .8 
 
 16 50 
 
 82.7 
 
 
 Barnyard . 
 
 ISO 
 
 2.7 
 
 16.90 
 
 79.9 
 
 10 7 
 
 None . ... 
 
 155 
 
 . 7 
 
 17.67 
 
 83.5 
 
 10 8 
 
 Pastured . . 
 
 
 1.7 
 
 9 84 
 
 67 8 
 
 
 
 
 1 5 
 
 19 681 83 5 
 
 
 
 
 1.6 
 
 14.26 
 
 | 75.8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kinds 
 of seed 
 
 Character of 
 season . 
 
 Favorable. 
 
 Favorable. 
 
 Favorable. 
 
 Favorable. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 X Average 
 
 V Fair 
 
 X | Fair 
 
 Too dry . . 
 Favorable 
 Favorable 
 
 Favorable 
 Very fair . 
 Very dry 
 Very fair . 
 Very fair . 
 
 Unfavorable. 
 Favorable . . . 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Not limed. 
 Limed 
 
 Wilted 
 
 Tag m’ked U. S. 
 
 16-350 
 
 83 
 
 ' 282 
 85-319 
 
 237 
 239 
 
 238 
 
 192 
 
 154 
 
 303 
 
 87- 206 
 
 88- 207 
 
 127 
 
 93-165 
 
 227 
 
 228 
 303 
 
16 
 
 Bulletin No. 71, 
 
 Kinds of Seed. — The sugar beet seed distributed during 1898 was 
 partly donated to the Station by the U. S. Dept, of Agriculture or by 
 private seed growers, and partly bought in the open market. The fol- 
 lowing statement gives the names and germination of the best seed 
 distributed for trial purposes or planted in our experiment station 
 beet field (see under B). The germination tests were made by Mr. 
 F. Cranefield, assistant in horticulture. 
 
 Germination tests of beet seed, 1898. 
 
 Name of variety. 
 
 No. of 
 germina- 
 tions 
 from 100 
 balls. 
 
 No. of 
 balls 
 that 
 
 failed to 
 sprout 
 at all 
 (in 100). 
 
 Wt. of 
 1,000 
 balls of 
 each 
 variety. 
 
 Per 
 
 cent. 
 
 pure. 
 
 Nature of impurities. 
 
 No. I, Yilmorin’s Improved* 
 
 128 
 
 20 
 
 Grams. 
 
 17.0 
 
 99.2 
 
 Portions of seed- 
 
 No. Ila, Vilmorin (French, 
 very rich.*) 
 
 116 
 
 27 
 
 16.1 
 
 98.1 
 
 stalks, small leaves 
 and dust. 
 
 Seed-stalks, leaves, 
 
 No. lib, Vilmorin (French, 
 very rich).* 
 
 84 
 
 31 
 
 19.5 
 
 99.1 
 
 gravel. 
 
 Seed stalks, leaves. 
 
 No. Ill, Vilmorin Improved 
 Russian seed.* 
 
 87 
 
 30 
 
 17.6 
 
 99.1 
 
 Leaves, dust, barley .’ 
 
 No. IV, Vilmorin Improved, 
 Schlitte & Co.* 
 
 115 
 
 27 
 
 16.0 
 
 96.1 
 
 Leaves, dust, weed 
 
 No. V, Improved Elite 
 Kleinwanzleben* 
 
 159 
 
 22 
 
 23.2 
 
 98.5 
 
 seeds, very much 
 earth. 
 
 Leaves, some earth. 
 
 No. VI, Kleinwanzleben R. I., 
 Dippe Bros., Rolker seed. 
 
 88 
 
 42 
 
 21.5 
 
 98.7 
 
 Weed seeds, earth, 
 
 No VII, Kleinwanzleben, 
 grown by Vilmorin, 
 France * 
 
 117 
 
 21 
 
 18.0 
 
 92.3 
 
 leaves, dust, seed- 
 stalks. 
 
 Leaves, dust, wheat. 
 
 No. VIII, Kleinwanzleben, 
 Schlitte & Co.* 
 
 82 
 
 34 
 
 16.3 
 
 93.3 
 
 Seed-stalks, leaves, 
 
 No. IX, Kleinwanzleben 
 (Neb.), see Bull. 64, p.12, II 
 
 69 
 
 41 
 
 26.3 
 
 94.8 
 
 dust, earth, lime. 
 
 Sticks, seed-stalks, 
 
 No. X, Zeringen seed, grown 
 by Strandes . * 
 
 187 
 
 12 
 
 18.6 
 
 99.7 
 
 leaves, earth. 
 
 Dust, practically 
 
 No. XI, Schreiber’s Elite... 
 
 151 
 
 11 
 
 25.6 
 
 99.1 
 
 pure. 
 
 Seed-stalks, dust. 
 
 No. XII, Pitzschke’s Elite * 
 
 127 
 
 9 
 
 23.2 
 
 97.7 
 
 Leaves, dust, straw. 
 
 No. XIII, Vilmorin’s Im- 
 proved.* 
 
 194 
 
 21 
 
 18.5 
 
 96.6 
 
 Leaves, dust, wheat. 
 
 No. XIV, Vilmorin’s Im- 
 proved.* 
 
 73 
 
 21 
 
 18 0 
 
 98.9 
 
 Leaves, sticks, wheat 
 
 * Furnished by U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Discussion of analytical results . — The analyses given in the tables on pp. 
 6-15 show a great difference in the samples of beets forwarded for examina- 
 tion, as to sugar content and purity. It is evident that in many cases 
 the beets did not receive anything like the attention they must be given 
 in order to keep up in quality; the fact that the future of the beet sugar 
 industry in this country is rendered more uncertain on account of our re- 
 cent accessions of sugar-producing countries, no doubt caused some 
 
Sugar Beet Investigations, 1898 
 
 17 
 
 farmers to lose interest in their beet work, but in case of others a change 
 in working methods would only be brought about through experience in 
 growing the crop for factory purposes, with the incentive of higher com- 
 pensation for rich, well-cared-for beets. On the whole, the results are, 
 however, very gratifying. The following table presents the average data 
 of last year’s analyses for each county. In many cases no information 
 
 Results of analyses of sugar beets , 1898 — Averages by counties. 
 
 First Samples. 
 
 Samples Taken at Harvest. 
 
 Counties . 
 
 No. 
 
 of 
 
 Av. wt. 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Purity 
 
 No. 
 
 of 
 
 Av. wt. 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Purity 
 
 Yield 
 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 of 
 
 per 
 
 
 pies. 
 
 beets. 
 
 juice. 
 
 juice. 
 
 sam- 
 
 ples. 
 
 beets . 
 
 juice. 
 
 juice. 
 
 acre. 
 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Per 
 
 cent. 
 
 Per 
 
 cent. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Per 
 
 cent. 
 
 Per 
 
 cent. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 17.16 
 
 84.3 
 
 l 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 15.63 
 14. H 
 
 77.4 
 8.'. 4 
 
 
 Barron 
 
 1 
 
 .8 
 
 13.94 
 
 70.0 
 
 2 
 
 5.0 C )’ 
 
 Brown 
 
 >y 
 
 2.1 
 
 14.52 
 
 78 9 
 
 3 
 
 1.9 
 
 15.65 
 
 83.8 
 72 8 
 
 15.70 
 
 Burnett 
 
 i 
 
 1.3 
 
 14.29 
 
 77.3 
 
 2 
 
 1.1 
 
 13.33 
 
 7.9(«) 
 
 9.2(») 
 
 9.00 
 
 
 2 
 
 .6 
 
 21 32 
 
 83.6 
 77.8 
 78.5 
 73 6 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 16.55 
 
 80.1 
 
 2 
 
 1.2 
 
 1 .2 
 
 16.09 
 15 90 
 14.58 
 18.61 
 
 Clark 
 
 5 
 
 1.0 
 
 15.92 
 
 78.5 
 
 10 
 
 13.70 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1.7 
 
 Crawford 
 
 4 
 
 1.5 
 
 12.39 
 
 " 79 7 
 
 1 
 
 1.3 
 
 82 5 
 73 0 
 
 ' s ’ o ( i )' 
 
 Dane 
 
 4 
 
 2.0 
 
 13.56 
 
 77.1 
 
 4 
 
 2.0 
 
 12.58 
 
 15.86 
 
 15. 0( 3 ) 
 
 Dodge 
 
 2 
 
 .6 
 
 13.56 
 
 75.6 
 
 3 
 
 1.1 
 
 78.5 
 
 17.70 
 
 Door 
 
 1 
 
 1.7 
 
 14.51 
 
 73.8 
 
 1 
 
 2.3 
 
 14.58 
 
 79 4 
 
 6.40 
 
 Douglas 
 
 1 
 
 .8 
 
 16.86 
 
 88.9 
 
 2 
 
 1.1 
 
 16 82 
 
 83.7 
 
 15. 4( 2 ) 
 
 Dunn 
 
 3 
 
 1.3 
 
 15 55 
 
 78.6 
 
 3 
 
 1.8 
 
 15 05 
 
 76.7 
 
 14.1(3) 
 
 Forest 
 
 2 
 
 1.1 
 
 12.67 
 
 74.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Green Lake 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ] 
 
 2 1 
 
 15 54 
 
 80 5 
 
 16 0(1) 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.2 
 
 14.54 
 16 87 
 13 89 
 
 72.1 
 82.0 
 76 1 
 
 Jackson 
 
 1 
 
 1.3 
 
 17.57 
 
 " 83.2 
 
 8 
 
 6.0(1) 
 26 0(1) 
 16 . 0 ( 1 ) 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 2 
 
 2.4 
 
 10.61 
 
 67.6 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 1 .7 
 
 Juneau 
 
 1 
 
 1.5 
 
 14 18 
 
 78.0 
 
 1.7 
 
 15.88 
 
 82.0 
 
 Kenosha 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 4 
 
 15.88 
 
 15.59 
 
 73.9 
 
 75.6 
 
 14 6(1) 
 10.5(1) 
 13.5(1) 
 
 Kewaunee 
 
 " 3 
 
 1.2 
 
 13.21 
 
 77.4 
 
 
 2.2 
 
 r a Crosse 
 
 3 
 
 1.5 
 
 12 41 
 
 74.1 
 
 3 
 
 1.6 
 
 12.88 
 
 74.3 
 
 Lafayette 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 - 1.4 
 
 17.32 
 
 77.2 
 
 1 
 
 1.9 
 
 .8 
 
 12 54 
 
 73.8 
 
 81.3 
 
 9.0(1) 
 
 10.1(1) 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 .9 
 
 17.49 
 
 84 4 
 
 4 
 
 19 11 
 
 Manitowoc 
 
 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 15.00 
 
 75.8 
 
 4 
 
 1.4 
 
 14 20 
 
 73.7 
 
 8.60 
 
 Marathon 
 
 2 
 
 1.4 
 
 12.87 
 
 66.2 
 
 2 
 
 1.8 
 
 16.80 
 
 83.3 
 
 12.0( a ) 
 
 14.7( 3 ) 
 
 15.9(1) 
 
 Marinette. 
 
 3 
 
 1 0 
 
 16.16 
 
 82 6 
 
 3 
 
 1.3 
 
 15.62 
 
 79.9 
 
 Marquette 
 
 1 
 
 1.8 
 
 15 99 
 
 82 8 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 .8 
 
 15 77 
 
 77 6 
 
 Milwaukee 
 
 1 
 
 2.8 
 
 11 92 
 
 77.4 
 
 2.5 
 
 12.9: 
 
 78.4 
 
 Monroe » . . . 
 
 2 
 
 .5 
 
 13 64 
 
 76.1 
 
 1 
 
 .6 
 
 20.45 
 
 78.4 
 
 110(1) 
 
 9. K 2 ) 
 
 Oconto 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 20 74 
 
 86.2 
 
 3 
 
 1.1 
 
 14 46 
 
 76.0 
 
 Oneida 
 
 1 
 
 1.5 
 
 16.44 
 
 82.9 
 
 2 
 
 1.0 
 
 19.18 
 
 77.8 
 
 6.10 
 
 Outagamie 
 
 8 
 
 1.4 
 
 12.77 
 
 79.1 
 
 10 
 
 1.7 
 
 12.87 
 
 72.7 
 75 6 
 
 17.1(3) 
 
 11.4(1) 
 
 Ozaukee 
 
 2 
 
 2.0 
 
 15.39 
 
 81.0 
 
 2 
 
 2.0 
 
 13.24 
 
 Pepin . . . . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 .3 
 
 18.24. 
 
 81.6 
 73 5 
 
 Pierce 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 15.95 
 
 
 Polk 
 
 2 
 
 1.7 
 
 12 78 
 
 74.9 
 
 
 
 Price 
 
 1 
 
 .8 
 
 17.31 
 
 79.7 
 
 3 
 
 .8 
 
 16.82 
 
 80.5 
 
 6 2(1) 
 20.0(1) 
 
 Racine 
 
 1 
 
 1 7 
 
 16.54 
 
 81.6 
 
 1 
 
 2.1 
 
 17.50 
 
 83 7 
 
 Richland 
 
 1 
 
 1.2 
 
 13.24 
 
 74-1 
 
 ! i 
 
 1.3 
 
 13.88 
 
 75.2 
 
 Rock 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1.8 
 
 14.24 
 
 16.61 
 
 79.0 
 
 81.2 
 
 15*6(2)* 
 
 9.6(4) 
 
 St. Croix 
 
 6 
 
 1.4 
 
 . 15 84 
 
 78.2 
 
 5 
 
 1.1 
 
 Sauk 
 
 3 
 
 1.0 
 
 15.62 
 
 83.5 
 
 1 
 
 .3 
 
 19.71 
 
 84.1 
 
 6.0(1) 
 
 Shawano 
 
 1 
 
 1 .4 
 
 13.77 
 
 77.8 
 
 Sheboygan 
 
 2 
 
 .7 
 
 17.35 
 
 83 6 
 
 2 
 
 1.1 
 
 12 76 
 
 84 1 
 
 12.6(1) 
 
 Taylor . . 
 
 Trempealeau 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 0 
 
 19.93 
 
 80 4 
 72.9 
 
 10.0(1) 
 
 9.5(0 
 
 ”"l 
 
 .7 
 
 16.04 
 
 80 0 
 
 1 
 
 .9 
 
 13.23 
 
 Vilas 
 
 1 
 
 1.5 
 
 19 00 
 
 84 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Walworth 
 
 2 
 
 .9 
 
 17.81 
 
 80.9 
 
 4 
 
 1.5 
 
 15 95 
 
 76.7 
 
 14.5( 2 ) 
 
 16.5(1) 
 
 Washington 
 
 2 
 
 1.4 
 
 16 10 
 
 80.6 
 
 1 
 
 1 .4 
 
 15.87 
 
 85 5 
 
 Waukesha 
 
 2 
 
 1.8 
 
 15.72 
 
 81.7 
 
 2 
 
 1 5 
 
 15.74 
 
 79.2 
 
 15.6( 9 ) 
 
 Waupaca . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 l.g 
 
 12.7 l 
 
 iy.) <y 
 
 9 9(1) 
 16.5( s ) 
 
 Waushara 
 
 2 
 
 1.5 
 
 16*86 
 
 84.3 
 
 5 
 
 1.2 
 
 15.84 
 
 84 3 
 
 Winnebago 
 
 1 
 
 2.2 
 
 14 77 
 
 79.8 
 
 1 
 
 2.7 
 
 16.90 
 
 79 . 9 
 
 10.7(1) 
 
 Wood 
 
 1 
 
 .9 
 
 16 99 
 
 83.3 
 
 1 
 
 .7 
 
 17.67 
 
 83.5 
 
 I 0.8( i ) 
 
 Not identified . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1.6 
 
 14 59 
 
 r 5 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Averages 
 
 102 
 
 1.35 
 
 14.84 
 
 78.8 
 
 151 
 
 1.44 
 
 15.36 
 
 78.0 
 
 12.6(73) 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No. 71. 
 
 could be obtained concerning the yield of beets harvested from the plats, 
 and the data given in the table as to yield of beets refer to the number of 
 reports indicated in parenthesis under each county. The yield of beets 
 was in the majority of cases calculated from the number of bushels or 
 loads harvested from half-acre plats, the weight of a bushel or load being 
 given, so that the figures doubtless closely approximate the actual yields 
 obtained under average growing conditions in our state when small plats 
 of beets are grown by farmers having had a very limited experience in the 
 culture of sugar beets. 
 
 It will be seen on examination of the results given in the preceding table 
 that the beets in many cases grew during the interval between the first 
 and the second sampling, and as a result the sugar content and the purity 
 were often lower at harvest time than a month before. As an average for 
 46 and 53 counties, respectively, there was an increase of .09 lb. in the weight 
 of the beets as analyzed, an increase in the sugar content of the juice of .52 
 per cent., and a decrease in the purity of the juice of .8 per cent. The 
 following table presents a summary of all analyses made during the season 
 of 1898, arranged according to counties. 
 
 Summary of analyses of sugar beets , 1898 — Averages by counties. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 of 
 
 Set ID- 
 
 Aver- 
 
 age 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Purity 
 
 
 No. 
 
 of 
 
 sam- 
 
 Aver- 
 
 age 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Puity 
 
 County. 
 
 weight 
 
 in 
 
 of 
 
 County. 
 
 weight 
 
 in 
 
 of 
 
 
 pies. 
 
 of 
 
 beets. 
 
 juice 
 
 juice. 
 
 
 ples. 
 
 of 
 
 beets. 
 
 juice. 
 
 juice. 
 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Pr. ct 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 Ashland 
 
 2 
 
 .9 
 
 16.40 
 
 80 9 
 
 Monroe 
 
 3 
 
 .5 
 
 15 91 
 
 76.8 
 78 6 
 
 Ra.rron . . . 
 
 
 1.1 
 
 14.05 
 
 78.2 
 
 Oconto 
 
 4 
 
 1 0 
 
 16 03 
 
 Brown 
 
 Burnett 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 2.1 
 
 14 86 
 
 80.4 
 
 Oneida 
 
 3 
 
 1.1 
 
 18.27 
 
 79.5 
 
 75.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 13.65 
 
 74 3 
 
 Outagamie . . 
 
 18 
 
 1 6 
 
 12.83 
 
 Calumet. . .. 
 
 2 
 
 .6 
 
 21 32 
 
 83.6 
 
 Ozaukee 
 
 4 
 
 2.0 
 
 14.31 
 
 78.3 
 
 Chippewa 
 
 Clark 
 
 4 
 
 1.0 
 
 16.32 
 
 79 0 
 
 P6pin 
 
 2 
 
 1.3 
 
 18 24 
 
 81 6 
 
 15 
 
 1. 1 
 
 15 91 
 
 78.5 ! 
 
 Fierce 
 
 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 15 95 
 
 73 5 
 
 rinliimhia. . 
 
 2 
 
 1.7 
 
 14 58 
 
 76 6 
 
 Polk. 
 
 2 
 
 1.7 
 
 12.78 
 
 74.9 
 
 80.3 
 
 Crawford. . . . 
 
 5 
 
 1 4 
 
 13 63 
 
 80.2 
 
 Price 
 
 4 
 
 .8 
 
 16.95 
 
 "Dane 
 
 8 
 
 2.0 
 
 13.07 
 
 75 1 
 
 Racine 
 
 2 . 
 
 1.9 
 
 17.02 
 
 82.7 
 74 7 
 
 Dodge 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 14.71 
 
 77.0 
 
 Richland 
 
 2 
 
 1.3 
 
 13.56 
 
 Door 
 
 4 
 
 2.0 
 
 14.54 
 
 76.6 
 
 Rock 
 
 2 
 
 1.8 
 
 14.24 
 
 79.® 
 
 79.® 
 
 83.7 
 
 Douglas 
 
 3 
 
 1.0 
 
 16 83 
 
 85 4 
 
 St. Croix .... 
 
 11 
 
 1.2 
 
 16.19 
 
 Dunn 
 
 6 
 
 1 3 
 
 15.30 
 
 
 Sauk 
 
 4 
 
 .8 
 
 16.65 
 
 F< 'rest 
 
 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 12.67 
 
 744 
 
 Shawano . . . 
 
 1 
 
 1.4 
 
 13.77 
 
 77.8 
 
 Green Lake . . 
 
 1 
 
 2 1 
 
 15 54 
 
 80.5 
 
 Sheboygan . . 
 
 4 
 
 .9 
 
 15.05 
 
 83 8 
 
 Iowa 
 
 1 
 
 1.3 
 
 14 54 
 
 72.1 
 
 Taylor 
 
 1 
 
 1 0 
 
 19.93 
 
 80 4 
 
 Jac 1 son ... 
 
 9 
 
 1.0 
 
 16 95 
 
 82.1 
 
 Trempealeau 
 
 2 
 
 .8 
 
 14 64 
 
 76.5 
 
 Jefferson. 
 
 16 
 
 1.8 
 
 13 48 
 
 75 0 
 
 Vilas 
 
 1 
 
 1.5 
 
 19.00 
 
 84 4 
 
 Juneau 
 
 2 
 
 1.6 
 
 15. OH 
 
 80 0 
 
 Walworth . . . 
 
 6 
 
 1.3 
 
 16.57 
 
 78.1 
 
 Kenosha 
 
 1 
 
 2.4 
 
 15.88 
 
 74 9 
 
 Washington. 
 
 3 
 
 1 3 
 
 16 02 
 
 82 2 
 
 Kewaunee. .. 
 
 10 
 
 1 9 
 
 14.87 
 
 76.1 
 
 Waukesha. . . 
 
 4 
 
 1.4 
 
 15 73 
 
 80.4 
 
 La C osse . . 
 
 6 
 
 1 6 
 
 12.66 
 
 74.2 
 
 Waupaca 
 
 3 
 
 1.8 
 
 12 71 
 
 72.7 
 
 La Fayette. 
 
 2 
 
 1 7 
 
 14 9 > 
 
 75.5 
 
 Waushara... 
 
 7 
 
 1.3 
 
 16 13 
 
 84.3 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 18.42 
 
 82.0 
 
 Winnebago 
 
 2 
 
 2.5 
 
 15 84 
 
 79.9 
 
 Manitowoc . . 
 
 6 
 
 1.3 
 
 14. i? 
 
 74 4 
 
 Wood. . . . 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 17 33 
 
 83 4 
 
 Marathon 
 
 4 
 
 1.6 
 
 14 84 
 
 74 7 
 
 ISot identified 
 
 3 
 
 1.6 
 
 . 14.59 
 
 75.7 
 
 Marine te 
 
 Marquette 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 1 .2 
 
 9 
 
 15 89 
 In. 84 
 
 81.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Avei age of 253 
 
 
 
 
 
 Milw ulcee.. 
 
 2 
 
 2.7 
 
 12.4. 
 
 77 9 
 
 samples . . . 
 
 253 
 
 1.40 
 
 15.15 
 
 78.8 
 
19 
 
 Sugar Beet Investigations , 1898. 
 
 General summary of results. — The past season was the fifth year 
 during which sugar beet experiments have been conducted at this 
 Station, the work having been begun in 1890 and continued until 
 1892, and resumed in 1897 and 1898. The following compilation of 
 analyses made during these different years as to the quality and 
 yield of beets grown by Wisconsin farmers will be of interest in this 
 connection. The analyses were all made in the chemical laboratory 
 of this Experiment Station by the writer. No analyses of beets 
 grown at the University Farm has been included in this compilation. 
 
 General summary of results of sugar beet analyses , 1890-1898. 
 
 
 No. of 
 samples. 
 
 Sugar in 
 juice. 
 
 Purity of 
 juice. 
 
 Yield of 
 bee^s per 
 acre 
 
 References. 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 1?>92 
 
 1397 
 
 1897 (sub stations) . . 
 
 1898 
 
 Arithmetical mean 
 of 2,537 samples. . 
 
 93 
 
 373 
 
 62 
 
 1,663 
 
 93 
 
 253 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 12 46 
 12.56 
 
 14.34 
 12.67 
 
 14.35 
 15.15 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 77.0 
 
 76 3 
 
 80.0 
 
 74.1 
 
 80.4 
 
 78.3 
 
 Tons. 
 
 15.4 
 
 19.3 
 
 12.8 
 
 14 9 
 
 12.6 
 
 Bulletin 26. 
 Bulletin 30. 
 Report VIII. 
 Bulletin 64. 
 Bulletin 64. 
 
 
 13.59 
 
 77.7 
 
 15.0 
 
 It is not believed that the lower average yield of beets per acre 
 reported for 1898 was caused by an actual decrease in acreage as 
 compared with previous years, but rather that It more closely than here- 
 tofore represents the true yield obtained, on account of the more detailed 
 directions given for ascertaining the weight of crop harvested. 
 
 Adaptability of the different parts of the state to sugar beet cul- 
 ture. — The results of the large number of analyses of sugar beets from 
 different parts of the state which were made during the season of 1897 and 
 presented in bulletin 64 of this Station, gave evidence that there is a dis- 
 tinct difference as regards the adaptability of different portions of our state 
 to the culture of sugar beets. The richest beets were, broadly speaking, 
 obtained from the eastern and northwestern portions of the state, and the 
 poorest from the central-western and southwestern portions of the state. As 
 pointed out in the report of last year’s work, the geological features of our 
 state seem to bear a different relation to the quality of the beets grown in the 
 various regions, in so far as the rich-beet belt lies in the glacial-drift area, 
 where the limestone rock is covered by glacial drift, or in the Kewenawan 
 (copper-bearing) region in the northwest. The counties where beets of 
 low sugar content were grown lie in the driftless area, or in the sandstone 
 region directly north of this area. The soil in the latter belt seems, in gen- 
 eral, deficient in lime while the former is amply supplied with this fertiliz- 
 ing component. The counties which have furnished the richest beets 
 
20 
 
 Bulletin No. 71. 
 
 during each year are found in either of the divisions of the rich-beet belt. 
 If the average results per county be compared with the general average 
 for each year and an arbitrary standard be chosen for rich beets (1890, 
 above 13 per cent.; 1891 and ’97, above 14 percent.; 1892 and ’98, above 15.15 
 per cent.) we find, by comparing the results of the five seasons’ work in 
 this line, that the counties given below have furnished rich beets the fol- 
 lowing number of times: 
 
 Washington — four times. 
 
 Calumet, Lincoln, Oconto, Pepin, Walworth — three times. 
 
 Chippewa, Clark, Door, Dunn, Kenosha, Racine, Sauk, Taylor, Wauke- 
 sha, Winnebago, Wood — twice. 
 
 Douglas, Green, Green Lake, Jackson, Jefferson, Kewaunee, Manitowoc, 
 Marinette, Marquette, Milwaukee, Monroe, Oneida, Ozaukee, Pierce, Por- 
 tage, Price, St. Croix, Shawano, Trempealeau, Vilas — once. 
 
 In five years’ work Washington county has furnished beets of excep- 
 tionally high quality during four seasons; Calumet, Lincoln, Oconto, 
 Pepin and Walworth counties have furnished such beets during three sea- 
 sons, and the other counties mentioned have furnished rich beets twice 
 and once, respectively. A study of the geographical position of these 
 counties will bear out the statement that the eastern and northwestern 
 portion of our state have, par excellence, soil adapted to sugar beet cul- 
 ture, or else have a population who are able to grow beets of high quality. 
 Washington county has been found to stand at the front in this respect 
 It is in this county where the Menomonee Falls Sugar Factory is located, 
 and no better cultural conditions than here can, as it seems, be found in 
 our state. It is to be hoped that the enterprise which fell through two 
 years ago on account of financial difficulties, may soon be given another 
 trial. 
 
 It will be noticed on examination of the results of the analyses of beets 
 grown during the past season that some very high analyses are recorded 
 for the part of the state which heretofore have generally given low re- 
 sults, notably the counties of Monroe, Jackson, Clark, Wood and Taylor. 
 The analyses made this season are not sufficiently numerous to show that 
 the soil in this region is in any large measure adapted to the culture of su- 
 gar beets. It seems plain, however, that there are but few counties in 
 the state where rich beets cannot be grown in some places when the beets 
 are given a fair chance and the necessary attention is given to the crop. 
 But unless the soil is generally adapted to beets in a given locality, the 
 number of farmers who could supply rich beets to a factory would be too 
 small to warrant the establishment of a factory there. 
 
 Influence of experience in sugar beet culture. -Fifty-seven farmers 
 who forwarded beets for analysis during the fall of 1898, stated that they 
 had had previous experience in growing sugar beets, and twenty that they 
 had not grown beets before. Of the fifty-seven farmers, thirty-one grew 
 beets on trial for the second time during the past season, and a compila- 
 
Sugar Beet Investigations , 1898 . 
 
 21 
 
 tion of the results of the aualyses of these and previous years’ samples 
 gave the following results: 
 
 
 Average 
 
 weight. 
 
 Sugar in 
 juice. 
 
 Purity of 
 juice. 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 First trial, 1897 
 
 1 7 
 
 14.56 
 
 79.0 
 
 Second trial, 1898 
 
 1.4 
 
 15 98 
 
 79.0 
 
 An average increase of 1.4 per cent. ‘was thus found in the sugar content 
 of the juice in the second trial; the improvement is perhaps largely due to 
 the experience gained in caring for the beets during the first season. The 
 analyses came higher in 1896 than in 1897 in twenty-two cases, and lower 
 in nine cases. The beets furnished by these thirty-one farmers during 
 1897 analyzed considerably higher, however, than the average of all analyses 
 made during this year, and there was therefore less room for improvement 
 than in the case of the majority of farmers furnishing beets for analysis. 
 
 Effect of liming . — It was suggested in discussing the results of the 
 analyses made during the season of 1897, that the counties of the middle- 
 and south-western portion of our state might produce rich beets by appli- 
 cations of lime fertilizers. During the past season an effort was made to 
 have a number of farmers grow beets on a part of their land that had been 
 limed and on some that had not been limed, and to send samples of both 
 lots for analysis; only eleven comparative samples were however, received, 
 two of which came from Jefferson county, in the southern part of the 
 state where there is a sufficiency of lime in the soil. The average results 
 of the eleven sets of analyses came as given below: 
 
 Effect of liming on Wisconsin-grown beets. 
 
 
 Av. weight 
 of beets. 
 
 Sugar in 
 juice. 
 
 Purity of 
 juice. 
 
 Ground not limed 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1.1 
 
 1 0 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 16 08 
 16.15 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 80.7 
 
 81.5 
 
 Ground limed 
 
 Excepting, the two Jefferson-county samples there was an increase in 
 sugar content of the limed beets in six cases and a decrease in two cases, 
 no difference being obtained in one set of samples. What has been stated 
 in the preceding paragraph concerning the average results obtained, ap- 
 plies with still greater force to these results. 
 
 Cost of raising beets . — Of the number of farmers who received ten 
 pounds of high-grade sugar beet seed for planting half an acre of beets, 
 forty three furnished more or less complete information concerning the 
 work done in raising and harvesting the crop and of the yields obtained 
 from the plats. These data have been compiled in the following table. 
 As heretofore, the cost of labor has been figured at ten cents per hour for 
 one man, fifteen cents for man and horse, and twenty-five cents for man 
 and team. 
 
u 
 
 <D 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Z 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 Bulletin No. 71. 
 
 Labor done and yield t 
 
 Name. 
 
 Chas. Radinz 
 
 A. Langenberg 
 
 F. N. Brainerd 
 
 J W. Thomas 
 
 J. C. Mabie 
 
 Joseph Flu eke. ... 
 S. G. Cowles 
 
 G. K. Johnson 
 
 W. H. Elkinton 
 
 Wm. Kube 
 
 H. Guehlstorf 
 
 O. M. Nelson 
 
 J. J. Myrick 
 
 N. H. Merrill 
 
 Paul H. Miller.. .. 
 
 H. G. Beimer 
 
 W. I. Smith 
 
 M. Bainbridge 
 
 M. W. Brand 
 
 H. Gilbertson 
 
 Fritz Schnell 
 
 E. Lepinsky 
 
 Geo. Lai sure 
 
 C. E. Ambler 
 
 Fred Schwartz 
 
 F. Boehm 
 
 H. M. Culbertson . . . 
 
 A. Selle 
 
 H. Riedel 
 
 E. H. Ransom 
 
 P. A. Hassel 
 
 Louis Paterson 
 
 R. M. Dunlap . ... 
 
 N. D arrow 
 
 F. A Pinske 
 
 Robt. Vater, Sr 
 
 M. Mattison . .. ... 
 
 S. L. Morrison 
 
 F. Van Rhienen. ... 
 J. R. Watson . . .. 
 
 J G. Pomrenke.... 
 
 C C. Streeter 
 
 M. Hanson 
 
 1 
 
 Post office. 
 
 Dat 
 
 Plant- 
 
 ing. 
 
 E OF 
 
 Har- 
 
 vest- 
 
 ing. 
 
 Green Bay . . . 
 
 May 10 
 
 Oct. 28| 
 
 Green Bay . . . 
 
 May 17 
 
 Oct. 23-1 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 Appolonia 
 
 May 25 
 
 Nov. 4-5 
 
 Anson 
 
 May 16 
 
 Oct. 2 
 
 Greenwood,... 
 
 May 23 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 Pr. du Chien . . 
 
 May 23 
 
 Oct. 27 
 
 Dane 
 
 May 10 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Stoughton . . . 
 
 May 12 
 
 Nov.1-9 
 
 Brownsville . . 
 
 May 20 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Richwood . . . 
 
 May 9 
 
 Oct. 31 
 
 Tornado 
 
 May 25 
 
 Nov. 18 
 
 So. Superior.. 
 
 May 3 
 
 Nov. 7 
 
 Menominee . . . 
 
 May 6 
 
 Oct. 19- 
 
 
 
 28 1 
 
 Alma Center. 
 
 June 9 
 
 Oct. 21 
 
 Wonewoc. ... 
 
 May 30 1 
 
 Oct. 28 
 
 Salem 
 
 May 16 
 
 Nov 1-5 
 
 V 7 est Salem. . . 
 
 May 13 
 
 ■ ov. 7 
 
 Blanchard ville 
 
 May 21 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Merrill 
 
 May 10 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Rube 
 
 June 2 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 Rube .' . 
 
 May 24 
 
 Oct. 29 
 
 Peshtigo 
 
 May 31 
 
 Oct. 24 
 
 Peshtigo 
 
 May 6 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Oxford 
 
 May 26 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Chase 
 
 May 27 
 
 Nov. 2-4 
 
 Rhinelander . . 
 
 May 19 
 
 Sept. 24 
 
 Medina 
 
 May 23 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 Mequon 
 
 May 8 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 Prentice 
 
 May 14- 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Emerald Gr’ve 
 
 May 25 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Wilson .. .... 
 
 May 10 
 
 Oct. 27 
 
 Wilson 
 
 May 20 
 
 Oct. 28 
 
 Baraboo 
 
 May 20- 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 Nov.l 5 
 
 Reedsburg. . . 
 
 June 23 
 
 Nov. 7 
 
 Wittenberg. . . 
 
 Ma y 27 
 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 May 11 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Blair 
 
 J une 4 
 
 Oct 22 
 
 Millard 
 
 June 28 j 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 So. Germ’nt’n 
 
 June 10 
 
 Nov. 8 
 
 Sussex 
 
 June 14 
 
 Oct. 31 
 
 W. Bloomfield 
 
 May 17- 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Oshkosh 
 
 May 12 
 
 
 Bakerville . . . 
 
 May 18 
 
 Oct.' 20 
 
 
 
 
 Charactk 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Black sand 
 
 Bla-k 
 
 Black loam 
 Sand & cl’y I’m 
 Sand and clay.. 
 
 Prairie sand 
 
 Prairie loam . . . 
 
 Biack 
 
 Clay loam 
 
 Gay loam 
 
 Sandy loam 
 Clay 
 
 Loam 
 
 Clay loam 
 
 Clay 
 
 Sandy 
 
 Black loam 
 
 B!ac< loam 
 
 Sandy 
 
 Heavy clav 
 Black loam . . . 
 
 Sandy loam 
 
 Clay loam . . 
 
 Sandy loam 
 
 Sandy loam . . . 
 
 Sandy 
 
 Loam 
 
 Clay 
 
 Sandy clay 
 
 Black loam... 
 Clay loam . . . 
 e lay loam 
 
 Sandy 
 
 Sindy 
 
 Sandy loam . . 
 
 Clay loam 
 
 Black loam 
 
 Prairie ... . 
 
 Black sandy... 
 White clay 
 
 Sandy 
 
 Muck 
 
 Black loam . 
 
23 
 
 Sugar Beet Investigations , 1898. 
 
 on half-acre plats , 1898. 
 
 
 
 
 Time Expended in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Growing Crop. 
 
 
 
 Previous 
 
 
 
 Size 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 
 
 Labor ex- 
 
 Yield 
 
 exper- 
 
 5 
 
 Previous crop. 
 
 of 
 
 times 
 
 
 
 
 penses 
 
 per 
 
 ience in 
 
 *8 
 
 
 plat. 
 
 ,culti- 
 
 
 Man 
 
 Man 
 
 per acre. 
 
 acre. 
 
 beet 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 vated. 
 
 Man. 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 
 
 culture. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 horse. 
 
 team. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sq. ft. 
 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Hours. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 21, 780 
 
 3 
 
 108 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 $27 60 
 
 15.2 
 
 Yes 
 
 1 
 
 Corn 
 
 22,050 
 
 3 
 
 86J4 
 
 9 
 
 614 
 
 23 36 
 
 16.5 
 
 Yes 
 
 2 
 
 Corn 
 
 13,340 
 
 4 
 
 62 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 30 15 
 
 6 5 
 
 None.. . . 
 
 3 
 
 Oats 
 
 22, 870 
 
 2 
 
 73 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 18 50 
 
 11.4 
 
 Yes 
 
 4 
 
 Peas 
 
 21 ; 780 
 
 6 
 
 234 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 58 00 
 
 13.7 
 
 Yes 
 
 5 
 
 Clover 
 
 21,780 
 
 
 116J4 
 
 3 
 
 i y 3 
 
 24 96 
 
 8 0 
 
 Yes... 
 
 6 
 
 Corn & potatoes 
 
 8,170 
 
 4 
 
 ' 54 
 
 3 
 
 H4 
 
 33 49 
 
 14 5 
 
 Yes 
 
 7 
 
 Corn 
 
 13,07u 
 
 8 
 
 156 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 ( 0 33 
 
 10.5 
 
 None.. .. 
 
 8 
 
 Oats and peas . . 
 
 21.780 
 
 
 166 
 
 
 5 
 
 35 70 
 
 15.5 
 
 Yes. ... 
 
 9 
 
 Clover 
 
 22,190 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 70 
 
 4J4 
 
 32 65 
 
 19.8 
 
 Yes 
 
 10 
 
 
 41,390 
 
 2 
 
 45 
 
 19J4 
 
 15 
 
 1 1 67 
 
 6.4 
 
 Yes 
 
 11 
 
 Garden truck . . . 
 
 21,580 
 
 4 
 
 320 
 
 9 y 2 
 
 4 
 
 68 86 
 
 19.2 
 
 Yes 
 
 12 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 22,500 
 
 3. 
 
 142 
 
 95 
 
 4 
 
 58 90 
 
 16.5 
 
 Yes 
 
 13 
 
 Oats 
 
 30. 360 
 
 
 46 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 15 57 
 
 6.0 
 
 Yes. . . 
 
 14 
 
 Pasture 
 
 21,780 
 
 6 
 
 52% 
 
 10 
 
 634 
 
 15 76 
 
 16.0 
 
 Yes 
 
 15 
 
 Corn - 
 
 21,780 
 
 3 
 
 52 
 
 m 
 
 10 
 
 16 64 
 
 14 6 
 
 Yes... . 
 
 16 
 
 Beets 
 
 9,800 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 9 y 2 
 
 2 
 
 21 47 
 
 13.5 
 
 Yes .... 
 
 17 
 
 Potatoes . . . 
 
 36, 450 
 
 
 200 
 
 20 “ 
 
 714 
 
 29 75 
 
 9 0 
 
 Yes 
 
 18 
 
 Sugar beets. .. 
 
 8,910 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 
 5% 
 
 23 92 
 
 10.1 
 
 None 
 
 19 
 
 Beans 
 
 60,995 
 
 3 
 
 62 
 
 31 
 
 16 
 
 10 60 
 
 4.3 
 
 Yes... . 
 
 20 
 
 Pasture 
 
 60,995 
 
 3 
 
 62 
 
 31 
 
 16 
 
 10 60 
 
 12.8 
 
 Yes. ... 
 
 21 
 
 Corn 
 
 21,780 
 
 
 122 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 30 80 
 
 12 0 
 
 None.. . . 
 
 22 
 
 Corn 
 
 21,780 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 12.2 
 
 None. . . . 
 
 23 
 
 Millet 
 
 21,920 
 
 4 
 
 83^ 
 
 5 
 
 434 
 
 20 46 
 
 15 9 
 
 None.. . . 
 
 24 
 
 Corn 
 
 36, 1 80 
 
 5 
 
 154 
 
 60 
 
 5 
 
 35 10 
 
 13 3 
 
 None 
 
 25 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 14,400 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 16 50 
 
 4.1 
 
 Yes. ... 
 
 26 
 
 Corn 
 
 21,780 
 
 2 
 
 115 
 
 62 
 
 334 
 
 43 36 
 
 12.7 
 
 Yes 
 
 27 
 
 Barley 
 
 22, 880 
 
 4 
 
 70 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 20 95 
 
 11.4 
 
 Yes. ... 
 
 28 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 20,500 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 2 
 
 Yes 
 
 29 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 76,2-30 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 0 
 
 Yes 
 
 30 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 43, 560 
 
 2 
 
 •’iaa* 
 
 ”"io“ 
 
 9" 
 
 "i6 35" 
 
 10.0 
 
 Yes 
 
 31 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 21, 840 
 
 4 
 
 102 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 25 83 
 
 11.0 
 
 None.... 
 
 32 
 
 Sugar cane. 
 
 21,945 
 
 
 130 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 31 27 
 
 
 IS one .... 
 
 33 
 
 New land 
 
 21,78° 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 Yes. . 
 
 34 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 19, 080 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 None . 
 
 35 
 
 Corn 
 
 21,780 
 
 2 
 
 90 
 
 12 
 
 534 
 
 21 36 
 
 12.0 
 
 Yes 
 
 36 
 
 Clover 
 
 21,780 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 9.5 
 
 Yes 
 
 37 
 
 Corn 
 
 24, 060 
 
 7 
 
 119 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 28 80 
 
 16.8 
 
 None.... 
 
 38 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 21,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16.5 
 
 Yes. 
 
 39 
 
 Corn 
 
 21,780 
 
 4 
 
 66 
 
 16 
 
 7 M 
 
 21 76 
 
 22.7 
 
 Yes. .. 
 
 40 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 21,78) 
 
 2 
 
 120 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 32 70 
 
 19 5 
 
 Yes 
 
 41 
 
 Beets 
 
 24. 500 
 
 8 
 
 134 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 36 18 
 
 10.7 
 
 Yes 
 
 42 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 21,780 
 
 3 
 
 96 
 
 11 
 
 
 25 00 
 
 10.8 
 
 Yes.. .. 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *28 80 
 
 12.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
24 
 
 Bulletin No. 71. 
 
 The average cost per acre of beets is seen to be $23.80 (average of 36 re- 
 ports), and the average yields of beets 12.2 tons (average of 41 reports). The 
 report does not include cost of seed, rent of land, or wear and tear of 
 machinery, but all other items from plowing and preparing the ground 
 to placing the crop in the cellar or silo. It will be noticed that the ex- 
 pense per acre varies considerably according to local conditions, character 
 of land, work of keeping the land free from weeds, working methods of 
 the various farmers or their help, etc.; in the majority of cases the cost is 
 from about twenty to forty dollars per acre. Last year the cost of growing 
 and harvesting an acre of beets was found to be $28.73, or practically the 
 same figure as the average for this year. It is evident that when grown on 
 a larger scale than was the case in these experiments, the expense may be 
 considerably reduced, since more labor can then be done by machinery and 
 the work can, in general, be done more economically. According to the 
 experience of practical beet growers, the total cost of growing a ton of 
 beets when a good yield, say about 12 tons per acre, is obtained, will not 
 usually exceed $2.50 and may, under favorable conditions, be reduced to 
 $1.50 per ton. 
 
 B. EXPERIMENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY FARM, SEASON 1898. 
 
 The experiments in sugar beet culture conducted at our Experiment 
 Station farm during the past season will be described in the following 
 under two heads: 1, Variety tests with different kinds of sugar beet seed; 
 2, Fertilizer experiments with sugar beets on marshy land. 
 
 I. Variety tests were conducted on a one-acre field of the University 
 farm; twelve different kind of sugar beet seed were planted on May 24; 
 for names, origin and germination of the seed planted, see table II (p. 16) of 
 this bulletin . One to 26 rows ( 187 feet long) were planted of each kind of 
 seed, according to the amount of seed on hand; in most cases six rows 
 were planted, equivalent to about one-twentieth of an acre. The rows 
 were run north and south, two feet apart, and an effort was made at the 
 time of thinning (June 20-23) to have a strong beet-plant every six inches 
 in the row. 
 
 The soil on the field is a clay loam; it has a tendency to bake and be- 
 come very compact after rains, as was shown in the early part of the sum- 
 mer after the seed was put in. The young beet plants were, however, in 
 all cases sufficiently strong to break through the crust and an excellent 
 stand was obtained except in the case of plat 10 (Kleinwanzleben, Neb.)* 
 where the age of the seed had impaired its viability. The top soil 
 changes to a red clay at a depth of eight inches, and this again gradually 
 to sand about three feet down. There is a gentle rise (about 1:100) in the 
 ground from north to south. The surface soil on the southern half is 
 therefore more open and its water-holding capacity somewhat smaller 
 
 * See 15th Report Wisconsin Experiment Station, page 170, II. 
 
Sugar Beet Investigations , 1898 . 
 
 25 
 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Precipitation in inches 
 
 4.71 
 
 4.40 
 
 2.83 
 
 2.56 
 
 2 43 
 
 3.08 
 
 20.01 
 
 Departure from normal 
 
 +1.00 
 
 + .13 
 
 ' + .23 
 
 + .47 
 
 -.33 
 
 +1.70 
 
 +3.20 
 
 Average temperature, deg. C . . . 
 
 57.5 
 
 69.2 
 
 73.1 
 
 69 1 
 
 64.4 
 
 47.5 
 
 
 Departure from normal 
 
 0 
 
 + .3 
 
 0 
 
 —1.0 
 
 + .9 
 
 —2.0 
 
 
 than that of the northern half; the sand very likely also comes nearer 
 the surface at the south half of the field, and the state of fertility of this 
 portion would therefore a priori be lower than that of the northern half. 
 The field has, however, always received the same treatment, and the same 
 crops have been taken off both halves any one season . 
 
 The south half received an application of artificial fertilizers at the fol- 
 lowing rate per acre: 360 pounds K 2 S0 4 , 360 pounds dissolved bone and 
 400 pounds of Na N0 3 . The sulfate was sown broadcast on May 7, the su- 
 perphosphate and half of the nitrate on May 24 (date of planting), and the 
 other half of the nitrate on June 30, after the beets had been thinned. 
 
 Fig. 1. — View of sugar-beet field, looking north-west. From a photograph taken 
 
 August 11, 1898. 
 
 The field was plowed and subsoiled on May 5; the beets were hoed or * 
 cultivated on June 9 and 16, thinned June 20 to 23, again hoed or culti- 
 vated June 28, July 1, 11, 29 and August 10, and harvested November 2 to 7. 
 
 The growing season was characterized by an abundance of rain in the 
 early summer months and during the month of October, with about nor- 
 mal temperature in May to July, and a cold October. 
 
 Meteorological data for Madison , Wis., season 1898. 
 
26 
 
 Bulletin No. 71. 
 
 The harvesting of the beets was postponed time and again on account of 
 rain (see p. 4) and was finally begun Nov. 2, and continued without inter- 
 ruption until finished. The beets were sampled and analyzed on Septem- 
 ter 20, and again after harvest; the results of the analyses are given in the 
 following table: 
 
 Beets grown on main field , 1898 . 
 
 Plat 
 
 No. 
 
 Name of variety. 
 
 NORTHERN HALF. 
 
 Samples taken Sept. 20. 
 
 Samples taken at 
 harvest . 
 
 Distance 
 
 between 
 
 beets. 
 
 Pr ct. root 
 of whole 
 plant. 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 
 Sugar in 
 
 juice. 
 
 Purity of 
 
 juice. 
 
 YVt. of 
 
 topped 
 
 beets. 
 
 a 
 
 h. ® 
 a o 
 bra 
 
 Purity of 
 juice. 
 
 
 ' 
 
 In. 
 
 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Pr ct 
 
 Pr ct 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Pr ct 
 
 Pr ct 
 
 1 .. .. 
 
 Vilmorin Improved 
 
 6 9 
 
 69 
 
 .68 
 
 14.22 
 
 80.2 
 
 1.22 
 
 13.12 
 
 76.2 
 
 2 .. .. 
 
 French, very rich— a 
 
 8 9 
 
 60 
 
 .87 
 
 15.03 
 
 81.4 
 
 1.15 
 
 16. C3 
 
 89.4 
 
 3.... 
 
 French, very rich — b 
 
 6.9 
 
 74 
 
 .87 
 
 16.44 
 
 82.4 
 
 1.28 
 
 15.03 
 
 84 9 
 
 4.. .. 
 
 Vilmorin Russian 
 
 7.4 
 
 55 
 
 .75 
 
 16.12 
 
 81.0 
 
 1.10 
 
 14.54 
 
 78 0 
 
 5.. . 
 
 Vilmorin Sclitte 
 
 7.4 
 
 70 
 
 .78 
 
 16. *2 
 
 84 4 
 
 1 15 
 
 15 32 
 
 85.7 
 
 6 .... 
 
 Kleinwanzleben Improved 
 
 6.9 
 
 71 
 
 ,C0 
 
 17 22 
 
 87.1 
 
 1.26 
 
 16.81 
 
 86.3 
 
 7. .. 
 
 Kleinwauzleben Elite, R I 
 
 8 7 
 
 70 
 
 .82 
 
 16.17 
 
 88.0 
 
 1.06 
 
 17.32 
 
 88.3 
 
 8... 
 
 Kleinwanzleben, Vilmorin 
 
 6.9 
 
 66 
 
 .90 
 
 13.87 
 
 83.8 
 
 1.68 
 
 13.44 
 
 79.1 
 
 9.. . 
 
 Kleinwanzleben, Schlitte 
 
 9.6 
 
 68 
 
 1.00 
 
 17 12 
 
 87.8 
 
 1.18 
 
 15.15 
 
 83.2 
 
 10... 
 
 Kleinwanzleben, Nebraska .. .. 
 
 9.6 
 
 74 
 
 .67 
 
 17.37 
 
 8S.2 
 
 1.28 
 
 15.13 
 
 85.5 
 
 11.. .. 
 
 Zeringen 
 
 6 0 
 
 70 
 
 .67 
 
 17.20 
 
 89.8 
 
 1.16 
 
 14.16 
 
 91.9 
 
 12 ... 
 
 Schreiber’s Elite 
 
 6.4 
 
 66 
 
 .73 
 
 17.62 
 
 86.7 
 
 1.15 
 
 14.85 
 
 77.1 
 
 13.. .. 
 
 Pitzschke’s Elite 
 
 5.6 
 
 61 
 
 1.20 
 
 13.25 
 
 78.4 
 
 1.06 
 
 15.43 
 
 78.7 
 
 14.. .. 
 
 Vilmorin Improved 
 
 6 0 
 
 65 
 
 .75; 
 
 15.71 
 
 82.0 
 
 1.15 
 
 14 89 
 
 77.2 
 
 15.... 
 
 Vilmorin Improved 
 
 7.4 
 
 72 
 
 70 
 
 15.56 
 
 84 2 
 
 1.01 
 
 17.21 
 
 82.6 
 
 
 Averages 
 
 7.3 
 
 67 
 
 .80 
 
 15 94 
 
 84.4 
 
 1.19 
 
 15 23 
 
 82.9 
 
 
 
 SOUTHERN HALF. 
 
 1 .... 
 
 Vilmorin Improved 
 
 6.0 
 
 71 
 
 .60 
 
 18.81 
 
 84 7 
 
 1.03 
 
 13.29 
 
 73.5 
 
 2 ... 
 
 French, very rich — a . . . 
 
 7.4 
 
 71 
 
 1.02 
 
 16.44 
 
 86.5 
 
 1.18 
 
 15.98 
 
 84.6 
 
 3.. .. 
 
 French, very rich — b 
 
 8.0 
 
 76 
 
 .67 
 
 14.48 
 
 78.6 
 
 1.20 
 
 14.10 
 
 80 4 
 
 4.. .. 
 
 Vilmorin Russian 
 
 8.7 
 
 75 
 
 .78 
 
 16.60 
 
 86.7 
 
 1.11 
 
 15.30 
 
 82.2 
 
 5.... 
 
 Vilmorin Schlitte 
 
 8.7 
 
 74 
 
 .60 
 
 18.98 
 
 90.6 
 
 1.03 
 
 13.29 
 
 78.2 
 
 6 .. .. 
 
 Kleinwanzleben Improved 
 
 8.0 
 
 75 
 
 .63 
 
 18.07 
 
 92.2 
 
 1.13 
 
 15.89 
 
 86.3 
 
 
 Kleinwanzleben Elite, R. I . 
 
 6 . 4 ( 
 
 77 
 
 .75 
 
 19.14 
 
 88 1 
 
 1 2? 
 
 16.69 
 
 84.8 
 
 s:::: 
 
 Kleinwanzleben, Vilmorin 
 
 6 4 
 
 73 
 
 .73 
 
 15.91 
 
 87.7 
 
 1.36 
 
 14.69 
 
 82.1 
 
 9.. .. 
 
 Kleinwanzleben, Schlitte 
 
 6.4 
 
 75 
 
 .53 
 
 18.81 
 
 94.9 
 
 .91 
 
 14.03 
 
 83.1 
 
 10.. .. 
 
 Kleinwanz eben, Nebraska 
 
 8.7 
 
 
 .82 
 
 16.67 
 
 82.6 
 
 1.30 
 
 15.68 
 
 81.2 
 
 11.. .. 
 
 Zeringen 
 
 5.6 
 
 72 
 
 .60 
 
 18.89 
 
 94.7 
 
 1.18 
 
 15.32 
 
 84.5 
 
 12.... 
 
 Schreiber's Elite 
 
 6.91 
 
 69 
 
 .80 
 
 17.44 
 
 81.1 
 
 1.18 
 
 13.66 
 
 84 5 
 
 13.. 
 
 Pitzschke’s Elite 
 
 7.4 
 
 65 1 
 
 .87 
 
 16.08 
 
 81.5 
 
 1.27 
 
 14.69 
 
 75.3 
 
 14... 
 
 Vilmorin Improved. . . 
 
 6.4 
 
 65 
 
 .87 
 
 13.32 
 
 74.9 
 
 1.27 
 
 13.33 
 
 71.7 
 
 15. . . . 
 
 Vilmorin Improved 
 
 6 9 
 
 64 
 
 .80 
 
 17.16 
 
 83.5 
 
 1 08 
 
 13.90 
 
 73.1 
 
 
 Averages. 
 
 7.2 
 
 72 
 
 .74 
 
 17.12 
 
 85.9 
 
 1.17 
 
 14.66 
 
 79,7 
 
 An inspection of the preceding table shows that there was a decided de- 
 terioration in the beets between the first and second sampling as regards 
 their percentage sugar content. The beets were very high in sugar con- 
 tent and purity on the day of the fi^st sampling, averaging 16.94 per cent, 
 sugar in the juice, with 84.4 per cent, purity, on the north half of the plat, 
 and 17. 12 percent, sugar in the juice with 85.9 per cent, purity, on the 
 
Sugar Beet Investigations , 1898 . 
 
 27 
 
 the southern half. The beets on the southern half were at that time, as 
 a rule, smaller and richer in sugar than those on the northern half. After 
 the heavy rains in October the beets again grew, and a resultant loss in 
 sugar content occurred as well as a decrease in the purity of the juice. 
 This change was more pronounced in case of the southern than the north- 
 ern half, showing that the beets on this portion of the field did not have 
 time to fully mature after growth had been resumed. 
 
 Fig. 1 gives a view of the beet field looking northwest, reproduced from 
 a photograph taken Aug. 11, 1898. 
 
 The yields of beets and of sugar from each half of the field in case of the 
 different varieties are shown in the following table: 
 
 Yield of beets from main field , 1898. 
 
 Plat 
 
 No. 
 
 Name of Variety. 
 
 Northern Half. 
 
 Southern Half. 
 
 Yield of 
 beets- 
 
 <D 
 
 a 
 
 brj 
 
 XII 
 
 u 
 
 ft 
 
 Yield of 
 beets. 
 
 Sugar in the 
 
 beet. 
 
 Sugar per 
 
 acre. 
 
 From 
 
 plat. 
 
 Per 
 
 acre 
 
 From 
 
 plat. 
 
 Per 
 
 acre. 
 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Pr.ct. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1 
 
 Vilmorin Improved 
 
 4,526 
 
 42, 170 
 
 12.5 
 
 5,271 
 
 4,128 
 
 38, 460 
 
 12.6 
 
 4,846 
 
 2 
 
 French, very rich— a 
 
 538 
 
 41,780 
 
 15 8 
 
 6,601 
 
 532 
 
 41,300 
 
 15 2 
 
 6,277 
 
 3 
 
 French ? ve y rich— b 
 
 1,178 
 
 45,740 
 
 14.3 
 
 6 , 5 40 
 
 1,094- 
 
 42,480 
 
 13.4 
 
 5,693 
 
 4 
 
 Vilmorin, Russian 
 
 1,036 
 
 42, 560 
 
 13.8 
 
 5,873 
 
 962 
 
 37, 360 
 
 14.5 
 
 5,417 
 
 5 
 
 Vilmorin. Schlitre 
 
 1,160 
 
 45,040 
 
 14 5 
 
 6, 531 
 
 876 
 
 34,010 
 
 12.6 
 
 4.285 
 
 6 
 
 Kleinwanzleben Improved 
 
 1.076 
 
 41,780 
 
 15.5 
 
 6,476 
 
 824 
 
 32, 060 
 
 15 1 
 
 4,831 
 
 7 
 
 Kleinwanzleben Elite, R I . . .. 
 
 96 
 
 37,550 
 
 16 5 
 
 6, 195 
 
 85H 
 
 33,000 
 
 15.8 
 
 5,214 
 
 8 
 
 Kleinwanzleben, Vilmorin . . 
 
 986 
 
 38,380 
 
 12 8 
 
 4,900 
 
 ! 808 
 
 31,370 
 
 14.0 
 
 4,391 
 
 9 
 
 Kleinwanzleben, Schlitte 
 
 906 
 
 35,180 
 
 14.4 
 
 5, 065 
 
 726 
 
 28, 180 
 
 13.3 
 
 3,749 
 
 10 
 
 Kle nwanzleben, Nebraska. . . . 
 
 752 
 
 29,190 
 
 14 4 
 
 4, 205 
 
 708 
 
 27, 490 
 
 14.9 
 
 4,096 
 
 11 
 
 Zeringen 
 
 1,194 
 
 42, 850 
 
 13.5 
 
 5,785 
 
 870 
 
 33,790 
 
 14.5 
 
 4,900 
 
 li 
 
 Schreiber’s Elite 
 
 i 54 
 
 35, 880 
 
 14.1 
 
 5,058 
 
 102 
 
 23,760 
 
 13.0 
 
 3,089 
 
 13 
 
 Pitzschke’s Elite 
 
 646 
 
 50,160 
 
 14.7 
 
 7,372 
 
 500 
 
 38, 830 
 
 14.0 
 
 5,436 
 
 14 
 
 Vilmorin Improved 
 
 1,186 
 
 46,060 
 
 11.1 
 
 6. 494 
 
 1,130 
 
 43, 870 
 
 12.7 
 
 5,572 
 
 15 
 
 Vilmorin Improved 
 
 3,500 
 
 31,660 
 
 16.3 
 
 5,111 
 
 3,436 
 
 30,790 
 
 13.2 
 
 4,064 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 19,774 
 
 
 
 
 17,546 
 
 
 
 
 
 Averages 
 
 40,399 
 
 14.43 
 
 5,832 
 
 
 
 13.92 
 
 4,791 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The yields of beets were very satisfactory indeed, and especially those on 
 the northern half were exceptionally high, the extreme yields being on the 
 northern half 25.1 tons (Pitzschke’s Elite) and 11.6 tons (Kleinwanzleben, 
 Neb.), with a total yield at the rate of 19.8 tons per acre. The southern 
 half yielded at the rate of 17.5 tons per acre, the different varieties rang- 
 ing from 11.9 tons (Schreiber’s Elite) to 21.9 tons (Vilmorin’s Improved). 
 In all cases this half which had received a liberal application of commer- 
 cial fertilizers yielded less than the corresponding varieties on the north 
 half, and the sugar contents of the beets were in the majority of cases 
 lower. This is a most unexpected result for which no satisfactory explan- 
 ation can be given, at least at the present time. It suggests that the 
 southern half of the field was in much poorer heart than the northern 
 half, but, on the other hand, the favorable season with the abundant sup- 
 
Bulletin No. 71. 
 
 28 
 
 ply of moisture in the fore part should, it would seem, have made condi. 
 tions favorable for the fertilizers to produce full effect. It would by no 
 means be safe to conclude from the results of this year's sugar beet experi- 
 ments that artificial fertilizers do not produce any results on Wisconsin 
 clay loams; still the experiments suggest that the farmers will do well 
 to exercise care in applying artificial fertilizers on their land, and make 
 trials on a small scale before they go into it heavily, so as to find out for 
 themselves in how far their land responds to applications of artificial fer- 
 tilizers, and what kinds give best results for their particular crops. It is 
 hoped that our Station in the near future may be placed in position to ren- 
 der assistance in this line and be able to give definite information as to the 
 fertilizer requirements of Wisconsin soils. 
 
 Comparative results with different kinds of beets.— The relative 
 yields of the different varieties of beets grown on our one -acre field as to 
 tonnage, per cent, sugar and yield of sugar will be seen from the following 
 statement. 
 
 Comparative results obtained with different varieties of sugar beets. 
 
 
 As to Yield of Beets. 
 
 As to Per Cent, of Sugar 
 
 As to Yield of Sugar. 
 
 
 No. haTf. 
 
 So. half. 
 
 No. half. 
 
 So. half. 
 
 No. half. 
 
 So. half. 
 
 First 
 
 Pitzschke. 
 
 French very 
 
 Kleinw. Elite 
 
 Kleinw. Elite 
 
 Pi zschke. 
 
 French, 
 
 
 
 rich X • 
 
 
 
 
 very richt 
 
 Second .. 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 Pitzscke. 
 
 Kleinw. Im- 
 
 Kleinw. Im- 
 
 French, very 
 
 Pi zschke. 
 
 
 Schlitte. 
 
 
 proved. 
 
 proved. 
 
 rich X • 
 
 
 Third ... 
 
 French very 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 French, very 
 
 Kleinw. Neb. 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 
 rich:}:. 
 
 Improved. 
 
 rich %. 
 
 
 Schlitte . 
 
 Russia . 
 
 Fourth . . 
 
 Zeringen . 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 Pitzschke. 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 |Kleinw. Im- 
 
 Kleinw. 
 
 
 
 Russia. 
 
 
 Russia. 
 
 proved. 
 
 Elite. 
 
 Fifth ... 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 Zeringen . 
 
 Kleinw . Elite 
 
 Zeringen. 
 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Schlitte 
 
 Schlitte. 
 
 
 
 
 Sixth 
 
 Klein w. 
 
 Zeringen. 
 
 }Kleinw. 
 
 French, very 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 Kleinw. 
 
 
 Improved . 
 
 
 Schlitte. 
 
 rich X . 
 
 Russian. 
 
 Improved. 
 
 Seventh . 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 Kleinw. Elite 
 
 Kleinw. Neb. 
 
 Kleinw. Vil- 
 
 Zeringen. 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 
 Improved*. 
 
 
 
 morin. 
 
 
 Improved* 
 
 Eighth . 
 
 Kleinw. 
 
 Kleinw. Im- 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 Pitzschke. 
 
 Vilmorin Im- 
 
 Kleinw. 
 
 
 Vilmorin. 
 
 proved. 
 
 Improved*. 
 
 
 proved*. 
 
 Vilmorin. 
 
 Ninth 
 
 Kleiuw.Elite. 
 
 .Kleinw. Vil- 
 
 Schreiber. 
 
 Kleinw. 
 
 Kleinw. 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 
 
 morin. 
 
 
 Schlitte . 
 
 Schlitte. 
 
 Schlitte. 
 
 Tenth.. .. 
 
 Kleinw. 
 
 Kleinw. 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 Schreiber. 
 
 Schreiber. 
 
 Kleinw. 
 
 
 Schlitte. 
 
 Schlitte . 
 
 Russia. 
 
 
 
 Neb. 
 
 Eleventh 
 
 Kleinw. Neb. 
 
 Kleinw. Neb. 
 
 Zeringen. 
 
 Vilmorin Im- 
 
 Kleinw. Vil 
 
 Kleinw. 
 
 
 
 
 
 proved* . 
 
 morin . 
 
 Schlitte. 
 
 Twelfth. . 
 
 Schreiber. 
 
 Schreiber. 
 
 'Kleinw. Vil- 
 
 Vilmorin 
 
 Kleinw. Neb. 
 
 Schreiber. 
 
 
 
 
 morin . 
 
 Schlitte. 
 
 
 
 * Average for three plats. % Average for two plats. 
 
 The honor of first rank is seen to lie between French Very Rich and 
 Pitzschke Elite, while Schreiber’s Elite and Kleinwanzleb^n Neb., did 
 poorest as regards yields of beets and of sugar per acre; the poor showing 
 for the latter variety was due to the age of the seed and consequently poor 
 stand of beets obtained on this plat. This variety yielded highest, or 
 conside rably above average, in variety tests during 1897. 
 
Sugar Beet Investigations , 1898 . 
 
 29 
 
 The analyses of beets grown by outside parties, reported on pages 6-15 
 have been summarized as shown in the following table: 
 
 Summary of analyses of beets grown from different kinds of seed . 
 
 (No. 
 
 
 No. of 
 samples. 
 
 Weight of 
 beets. | 
 
 Sugar in 
 juire. 
 
 Purity of 
 juice. 
 
 I 
 
 Vilmorin Improved(U.S.Dept.Agr.) 
 
 41 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1.81 
 
 Per cent. 
 14.91 
 
 Per cent. 
 78.3 
 
 II 
 
 French Very Rich ^.S.Dept. Agr.) 
 Kleinwanzleben (U. S. Dept. Agr.). 
 
 4 
 
 1.48 
 
 15.40 
 
 75.1 
 
 V 
 
 83 
 
 1.34 
 
 15.30 
 
 79 0 
 
 VI 
 
 Kleinwanzleben Elite (Rolker) 
 
 520 
 
 1.29 
 
 16.33 
 
 80.0 
 
 IX 
 
 Kleinwanzleben (Neb.) 
 
 37 
 
 1.46 
 
 14 36 
 
 75.9 
 
 X 
 
 Zeringen (Strandes) 
 
 37 
 
 1.51 
 
 15.52 
 
 78.9 
 
 We notice that the average sugar content of the beets decreased in 
 this order; Kleinwanzleben Elite, Zeringen, French Very Rich, Klein- 
 wanzleben Improved, Vilmorin Improved and Kleinwanzleben Neb., show- 
 ing that also in the co-operative experiments the Kleinwanzleben Elite 
 produced beets of the highest sugar content and purity. 
 
 II. Fertilizer experiments on marshy soil. — These experiments were 
 a continuation of last year’s work with beets on marshy soil, the field being 
 directly adjoining and south of last year’s beet field. The beets on this 
 field were planted, thinned and harvested directly preceding the dates 
 given for these operations on the one-acre field already stated The size of 
 the field was 17,472 square feet, and it was divided into 20 plats, each plat 
 consisting of seven rows, 84 feet long and 18 inches apart. At harvesting 
 time the beets in the two outside rows of each plat were not considered, and 
 the figures given in the table are based on the yield of the five center rows 
 only. The kinds and quantities of fertilizers applied in case of the different 
 plats were at the following rate per acre: 130 pounds of potash, 65 pounds 
 phosphoric acid, 56 pounds nitrogen and one ton of lime, or in the fertilizers 
 applied, 260 pounds of sulfate or muriate of potash, 680 pounds of silicate of 
 potash, or double carbonate of magnesia and potash, 360 pounds of super- 
 phosphate, and 360 pounds of nitrate. Every fifth plat was left unfertilized 
 to serve as control plats. The stand of beets toward the sourthern end of 
 the plat was very poor, and the data as to yields of beets and sugar obtained, 
 especially in case of the last two plats, are therefore of very little value. 
 
 The data obtained in sampling and analyzing the beets from the various 
 plats are given in the following table (see p. 30.) As in case of the beets from 
 one-acre field described under I, the samples taken on September 20th 
 were obtained by digging the beets in eight feet of one of the center rows 
 of the plat where there was a full stand. The beet roots were weighed, 
 topped and again weighed, and three beets of average size taken to the 
 laboratory to be analyzed. 
 
 The decrease in the sugar content of the beets from September 20 to 
 harvest is very marked, amounting in some instances to over 6 per cent, of 
 
30 
 
 Bulletin No. 71. 
 
 Analyses of beets grown on marsh field , 1898. 
 
 
 
 
 Samples Taken Sept. 20. 
 
 1 
 
 Samples Taken at 
 Harvest. 
 
 • 
 
 j Plat No. 
 
 Fertilizers 
 
 Applied. 
 
 Dis- 
 
 tance 
 
 of 
 
 beets. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 root of 
 whole 
 plant. 
 
 Wt. of 
 topped 
 beets. 
 
 1 Sugar 
 
 • in 
 juice. 
 
 Ip , 
 
 Purity 
 of | 
 juice. | 
 
 Wt. of 
 topped 
 beets. 
 
 Sugar 
 
 in 
 
 juice. 
 
 Purity 
 
 of 
 
 juice. 
 
 1 
 
 None 
 
 In. 
 
 7.4 
 
 73 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 .50 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 19 69 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 84.7 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 .90 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 15.63 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 78 0 
 
 2 
 
 Nitrate 
 
 7.4 
 
 73 
 
 55 
 
 20.84 
 
 83.8 1 
 
 .83 
 
 16.35 
 
 82.7 
 
 3 
 
 Nitrate, sulfate .... 
 
 9 6 
 
 75 
 
 .53 
 
 19 87 
 
 83.1 
 
 70 
 
 16.29 
 
 83.1 
 
 4 
 
 Nitrate, sulphate, 
 phosphate 
 
 7.4 
 
 74 
 
 .42 
 
 21.44 
 
 86 5 
 
 .70 
 
 16.10 
 
 86.9 
 
 5 
 
 None 
 
 8.0 
 
 78 
 
 .55 
 
 20.97 
 
 90.2 
 
 .60 
 
 14.92 
 
 81.6 
 
 6 
 
 Sulfate 
 
 8.0 
 
 79 
 
 .47 
 
 20.32 
 
 85 9 
 
 .57 
 
 14 89 
 
 84.4 
 
 7 
 
 Sulfate, phosphate. 
 
 8.0 
 
 to 
 
 .55 
 
 21.24 
 
 84.9 
 
 18 
 
 16.14 
 
 84.1 
 
 8 
 
 Nitrate, phosphate. 
 
 7.4 
 
 80 
 
 .52 
 
 20 6 4 
 
 86.0 
 
 72 
 
 14.53 
 
 80.2 
 
 9 
 
 None 
 
 6 9 
 
 84 
 
 .53 
 
 20.68 
 
 88.5 
 
 ! 63 
 
 16 65 
 
 81.2 
 
 10 
 
 Phosphate 
 
 10.7 
 
 76 
 
 .47 
 
 21.23 
 
 88 8 
 
 .65 
 
 15 19 
 
 82.8 
 
 11 
 
 Phosphate, muriate 
 
 6.4 
 
 75 
 
 .40 
 
 21.42 
 
 89.6 
 
 .73 
 
 16.82 
 
 82.5 
 
 12 
 
 Nitrate, muriate . . . 
 
 8.0 
 
 74 
 
 • .50 
 
 18 74 
 
 82.1 
 
 .08 
 
 15.30 
 
 80.8 
 
 13 
 
 None • 
 
 8.7 
 
 79 
 
 .70 | 
 
 17.50 
 
 80 7 
 
 85 
 
 14 74 
 
 80.8 
 
 14 
 
 Muriate 
 
 10.7 
 
 76 
 
 .48 
 
 16.81 
 
 80 6 
 
 .78 
 
 16.56 
 
 84.2 
 
 15 
 
 Muriate, nitrate, 
 phosphate 
 
 6 9 
 
 73 
 
 .60 
 
 19 06 
 
 82 0 
 
 .85 
 
 16.15 
 
 81.8 
 
 16 
 
 Carbonate, nitrate, 
 phosphate 
 
 10.7 
 
 73 
 
 .43 
 
 19.58 
 
 84 9 
 
 77 
 
 14 98 
 
 83.6 
 
 17 
 
 None 
 
 8.0 
 
 75 
 
 .57 
 
 18.01 
 
 84.2 
 
 ' 9T 
 
 14 72 
 
 78.2 
 
 18 
 
 Silicate, nitrate, 
 phosphate 
 
 8.7 
 
 80 
 
 .57 
 
 15.70 
 
 17.0 
 
 i o; 
 
 15.03 
 
 82.4 
 
 19 
 
 Lime 
 
 8.7 
 
 83 
 
 .60 
 
 15.85 
 
 80 0 
 
 1 00 
 
 13 57 
 
 75.9 
 
 20 
 
 None ... 
 
 12 0 
 
 80 
 
 .85 
 
 15 67 
 
 77.9 
 
 1.28 
 
 16.06 
 
 78. b 
 
 1 
 
 Averages 
 
 8.5 
 
 N 
 
 .54 
 
 19.26 
 
 84 1 
 
 .81 
 
 15. f 6 
 
 81.8 
 
 sugar in the juice, with a decrease in the purity of the juice of 6 to 9 per 
 cent, in extreme cases. The average decrease in sugar content of the juice 
 was 3.70 per cent, and in purity, 2.3 per cent. The increased weight of the 
 beets at harvest as shown in the tables, explains ttie change in the quality 
 of the beets. Owing to the drouth during a part of A.ugust and September 
 the beets as sampled on September 20 were of exceptionally rich quality, 
 the maximum figures reached being for plat 1L (phosphate, muriate) 21.42 
 per cent, sugar in the juice, and for plat 5 (control plat), 90.2 per cent, purity. 
 The average purity of the juice for the whole plat on September 20 was 
 84.1 per cent., only one plat, No. 18 (silicate, nitrate, phosphate), coming 
 below 80 per cent. Of the analyses made at harvesting time the only 
 samples having a purity below 80 per cent, were the control plats and No. 
 19 where lime only was applied. The beets on all the fertilized plats ex- 
 cept No. 19 were of superior quality as regards purity, and sugar content 
 and the averages for all the different plats were even higher than the cor- 
 responding data for the clay loam soil (one-acre field, see page 26), except- 
 ing the average purity of the northern half of this field which came 1.1 
 per cent, higher than the average for the marsh beets. The figures given 
 in the preceding table ought, however, to dispel any doubt there might be 
 as to whether or not rich beets can be grown on marsh land. With good 
 
Sugar Beet Investigations , 1898 . 
 
 31 
 
 culture, beets of a sugar content of at least two per cent, above factory 
 standard can be obtained on soils containing toward 20 per cent, organic 
 matter, and by proper fertilization this can be raised to over 4 per cent. 
 
 The yields obtained from the various plats at harvest, and the effect of 
 the different applications of fertilizers are shown in the following table: 
 
 Sugar beets on marsh field , 1898. 
 
 Plat No. 
 
 Yield of Beets. 
 
 Sugar 
 in beet. 
 
 Sugar 
 per acre. 
 
 Increase or Decrease Over Con- 
 trol Plats. 
 
 From 
 
 plat. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Beets 
 per acre. 
 
 Sugar 
 in beet. 
 
 Purity. 
 
 Sugar 
 per acre. 
 
 
 Lbs 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Lbs . 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1 B1 
 
 467.5 
 
 32 250 
 
 14 8 
 
 4,772 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 N 
 
 485.0 * 
 
 33,460 
 
 15.5 
 
 5, 186 
 
 5,040 
 
 1.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 1,554 
 
 3 NK 
 
 373 0 
 
 25,730 
 
 15.5 
 
 3,988 
 
 —2,690 
 
 1.0 
 
 3.3 
 
 356 
 
 4 NKs P . 
 
 429 5 
 
 29, 670 
 
 15.9 
 
 4,718 
 
 1,250 
 
 1.4 
 
 7.1 
 
 1,086 
 
 5 B1 
 
 356.5 
 
 24 590 
 
 14.2 
 
 3, 492 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 Ks 
 
 446.0 
 
 30,770 
 
 14.1 
 
 4, 338 
 
 5,435 
 
 — .9 
 
 3.0 
 
 531 
 
 7 KsP. . .. 
 
 443.5 
 
 30,610 
 
 15.3 
 
 4,683 
 
 5,275 
 
 .3 
 
 2.7 
 
 876 
 
 8 N P 
 
 409.5 
 
 28,260 
 
 13.8 
 
 3, 900 
 
 2,925 
 
 —1.2 
 
 —1.2 
 
 93 
 
 9 B1 
 
 378.0 
 
 26, 080 
 
 15.8 
 
 4,121 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 P 
 
 395.0 
 
 27, 250 
 
 14.4 
 
 3,922 
 
 480 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.8 
 
 —61 
 
 11 PKm 
 
 410 0 
 
 28,290 
 
 16 0 
 
 4,526 
 
 1,590 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.5 
 
 543 
 
 12 NKm . . . 
 
 414.0 
 
 28,560 
 
 14.5 
 
 4,141 
 
 1,790 
 
 — .4 
 
 1.2 
 
 158 
 
 13 B1 
 
 398.0 
 
 27, 460 
 
 14.0 
 
 3, 844 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 Km . 
 
 419.5 
 
 28,970 
 
 15.6 
 
 4.518 
 
 2,890 
 
 1.6 
 
 4 7 
 
 867 
 
 15 KmNP . . 
 
 412.5 
 
 28,460 
 
 15.3 
 
 4,356 
 
 2,380 
 
 1.3 
 
 2.2 
 
 705 
 
 16 KeNP... 
 
 354.0 
 
 •4,430 
 
 14 2 
 
 3,469 
 
 1,650 
 
 .2 
 
 4.1 
 
 —182 
 
 17 Bl 
 
 :-<58.0 
 
 24,700 
 
 14 0 
 
 3,458 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 KscNF .. 
 
 448 5 
 
 30, 950 
 
 14.3 
 
 4,426 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 L* 
 
 269 0 
 
 is. 560 
 
 12.9 
 
 2, 394 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 B1 * .... 
 
 245 5 
 
 16,940 
 
 15.3 
 
 2,592 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Averages 
 
 27,300 
 
 14.77 
 
 4,042 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Not included in average. — Decrease. 
 
 The yield from the whole plat, although lower than that from the one- 
 acre field, was satisfactory, viz.: at the rate per acre of 13.65 tons of beets 
 and slightly over two tons of sugar. The richest beets, containing 16.0 
 per cent, sugar, were obtained on the plat fertilized with bone phosphate 
 and muriate of potash, the plat receiving a complete fertilizer of nitrate 
 of soda, sulfate of potash and bone phosphate coming but slightly lower 
 (15.9 per cent.). 
 
 In studying the effects of the various fertilizers and combinations of 
 such applied, we have, as in case of last year, compared each plat with the 
 averages of the two nearest control plats, e. g., plat 2 (nitrate), plat 3 
 (nitrate, sulfate), and plat 4 (nitrate, sulfate and phosphate), with the 
 averages for plats 1 and 5. The increase or decrease in yield, sugar con- 
 tent or purity thus found will be seen from the table. The uneven stand 
 obtained in the southern half of the field (plats 13-20) renders rather un- 
 certain any conclusions that might be drawn from the results for these 
 plats. The yield of beets was apparently increased at the rate of over 2)4 
 tons by the application of nit-rate of soda alone, and as this increase was 
 
Bulletin No. 71. 
 
 3 2 
 
 accompanied by a higher sugar content than was found in the beets on the 
 control plats, the yield of sugar per ac re was increased by 1,554 pounds. 
 Next to the application of nitrate alone the complete fertilizer of nitrate, 
 sulfate and phosphate gave the largest increase of sugar per acre above 
 the yield of the corresponding control plats. The results obtained in case 
 of the different plats are, however, by no means concordant, and a detailed 
 discussion of them would therefore be of but slight value. The table pre- 
 sents abundant evidence that the applications of artificial fertilizers pro- 
 duced marked effect on the beets grown on our marshy soil, and a little 
 calculation will show that the increase in tonnage and sugar in the major- 
 ity of cases was obtained at an extra cost below that of the fertilizer ap- 
 plied. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 The investigational work in sugar beet culture conducted by or under 
 the auspices of this Experiment Station since 1890 has shown beyond a 
 doubt that the cultural side of the question presents no difficulties which 
 would stand in the way of the successful operation of sugar factories in 
 our state. We have found that yields of beets of a high quality may be 
 obtained in our state during good, poor or indifferent seasons, when proper 
 attention is given to the crop; the yields obtained here as elsewhere, where 
 irrigation is not practiced, will of course vary with the season, but with 
 our fairly even rainfall there is no chance of absolute failure of the crop, 
 and beets may always be depended upon to give at least a fair yield. 
 The chances for a crop of sugar beets are in this respect exactly similar 
 to those for corn or potatoes. 
 
 The general subjects of home production of sugar in this state, and the 
 adaptability of our soil and climate to the culture of the sugar beet, have 
 already been discussed at some length by Director Henry in bulletin No. 
 55 of our Experiment Station: Beet Sugar Production; Possibilities for 
 a New Industry in Wisconsin. Nearly the whole of Wisconsin lies in the 
 American sugar beet belt, as determined by climatic conditions. A very 
 large proportion of our population comes from countries where sugar beets 
 are grown and manufactured into sugar, and have either personal experi- 
 ence in growing the crop or are accustomed to the growing of other root 
 crops which call for similar methods of culture. 
 
 As regards the possible length of the campaign of a sugar factory in our 
 state it has been found that the harvesting of beets can ordinarily begin 
 during the latter part of September, and may be continued without spe- 
 cial precautions until the middle of November, or about fifty-five* days. 
 By storing the beets in pits or silos, as is done in Russia and in some factories 
 in this country, beets may be held for the factory at least a month or a 
 month and a half longer, and the working season for a beet factory in this 
 state may therefore be counted on to last at least eighty days. In the 
 small run made by the Menomonee Falls Sugar Factory in April, 1897, the 
 
Sugar Beet Investigations , 1898 . 
 
 33 
 
 beets had been kept stored in pits in the factory yards for nearly six 
 months, but it is not to be expected that sugar can be economically manu- 
 factured from beets that have been kept for so long a time. It may be stated, 
 however, that our winter climate does not present any difficulties for the 
 operation of sugar factories for a period of about eighty days, and this is 
 a longer campaign than most American beet sugar factories have had so 
 far, the general average being about seventy days. 
 
 The sugar beet industry in the United States is now about a generation 
 old; the oldest sugar factory in existence is that of the Alameda Sugar 
 Company, at Alvarado, Cal., which began operations in 1870. Since the 
 latter part of the eighties the number of factories manufacturing sugar 
 from the beet root has increased with great rapidity; the Western Beet 
 Sugar Co. started their factory at Watsonville, Cal., in 1888; the Oxnard 
 Beet Sugar Co. started their Grand Island, Neb., factory in 1890, and since 
 then factories were built and have been in successful operation at the 
 places given below: 
 
 Chino, Cal., Norfolk, Neb., Lehi, Utah (all started in 1891); Eddy, 
 N. M. (1896); Los Alamitos, Cal , and Rome, N. Y. (1897); La Grande, Ore., 
 Ogden, Utah, St. Louis Park, Minn., Bay City, Mich., and Binghampton, 
 N. Y. (1898). 
 
 During the past season fourteen factories therefore manufactured beet 
 sugar in this country, producing in the aggregate about one hundred and 
 twenty million pounds of sugar. A large number of factories are in pro- 
 cess of construction in various states at the present time, and barring ad- 
 verse legislation, will be ready for the 1899 crop. California alone has 
 now in operation, or in the process of construction factories that will con- 
 sume annually nine hundred thousand tons of beets; this means a mini- 
 mum annual income to the California farmer of nearly four million dollars. 
 The nine hundred thousand tons of beets will make about eighty-six 
 thousand tons of sugar., or not quite one-thirtieth of the total consumption 
 of sugar in the United States. As nearly one-seventh of the sugar con 
 sumed in this country is supplied by the domestic cane product, the pres- 
 ent California factories and those now being built there will furnish about 
 one-twenty fourth of the sugar needed by our people, provided the indus- 
 try is allowed to develop without inimical legislation or competition of 
 foreign low-priced labor. Beside the state mentioned, Oregon, Utah, Ne- 
 braska, New Mexico, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York and a 
 number of other states are eminently adapted to the culture of the sugar 
 beet, and are supplying their share of beet sugar, or stand ready to do so. 
 
 The domestic beet sugar product has increased during the past ten years 
 from four millions to one hundred and twenty million pounds, and, unless 
 there are disturbing influences, will in all probability increase at an 
 equally rapid rate in the future. Wisconsin is by soil and climate well 
 adapted to the culture of the sugar beet, and when capitalists have a rea- 
 sonable assurance as to the policy of our government in regard to sugar 
 
Bulletin No. 71. 
 
 34 
 
 tariffs, our state will doubtless, if the industry is left to develop along nat- 
 ural lines, enter among the sugar-producing states of the union. 
 
 The work done by our Experiment Station in studying the cultural con- 
 ditions in our state for the beet root, and the adaptability of various re- 
 gions of the state for the culture of sugar beets may be said to be funda- 
 mental and has paved the way for the establishment of factories in our 
 midst. Whether the work in this line is continued in the future or not, 
 much light has been thrown on the question of sugar beet culture in Wis- 
 consin, and private enterprise may now step in with considerable assur- 
 ance of success if the results of our work are carefully studied and the 
 conclusions to which these lead are given the consideration they may 
 rightly claim. 
 
y ,? v£R$? rv of l’- 1 -' 1 
 
 Wis. Bull. No. 72. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 72. 
 
 SMALL FRUITS IN 1898. 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN , APRIL, 1899. 
 
 <&gr-The Bulletins and Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request . 
 
 Democrat Printing Company, State Printer, Madison, Wis. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION ex officio. 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY - -ex officio. 
 
 JOHN JOHNSTON, 3tate at Large, ------ President 
 
 B. J. STEVENS, (2d District), - - - Chairman Executive Committee 
 
 8tate at Large, - - - - - WM. F. VILAS 
 
 1st District, - - OGDEN H. FETHERS 
 
 3d District, - - J. E. MORGAN 
 
 4th District, --------- GEORGE H. NOYES 
 
 6th District, -------- JOHN R. RIESS 
 
 6th District, --------- C. A. GALLOWAY 
 
 ?th District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON 
 
 8th District, ORLA.NDO E. CLARK 
 
 9th District - - - - J. A. VAN CLEVE 
 
 10th District, ------ J. H. STOUT 
 
 Secretary, E. F. RILEY, Madison 
 
 GEORGE H NOYES, Vice President. STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasurer. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK. STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS. MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, -------- Director 
 
 S M. BABCOCK, ...... - Chief Chemist 
 
 F. H. KING, - - ... .... Physicist 
 
 E. S. GOFF, Horticulturist 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, animal Husbandry 
 
 F. W. WOLL, - - - - - - - - - - Chemist 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, ........ Bacteriologist 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON. ....... Dairy Husbandry 
 
 J. A. JEFFERY, - ..... Assistant Physicist 
 
 J. W. DECKER, .......... Dairying 
 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, -------- Assistant Chemist 
 
 FRED CRANEFIELD ------ Assistant in Horticulture 
 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, ------- Farm Superintendent 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, ------- Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, ........ Librarian 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint Horticultural-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
SMALL FRUITS IN 1898. 
 
 E. S. GOFF. 
 
 One office of the horticultural department of an experiment station as 
 generally understood is to keep the people informed as to the merits 
 and demerits of the newer fruits. While tests made in one locality are not 
 always a safe guide for other localities, accurate data with reference to 
 varieties of fruit in which fruit growers are interested are always instruc- 
 tive and suggestive. 
 
 The tests of fruit at our Station are not intended to be exhaustive. As 
 a rule, a variety is not tested unless reasons appear for believing that it 
 may have especial value for our state. The tests made are usually on a 
 small scale, it being taken for granted that a test at best cannot be more 
 than suggestive for other localities, and a small test is as likely to be sug- 
 gestive as a larger one. 
 
 The varieties reported upon in this bulletin all fruited the past season, 
 and the notes were mainly made from the riast season’s crop. As the fruit 
 of the different kinds ripened, good samples of most of them were selected 
 for drawing, and the drawings are here reproduced. The illustrations 
 are natural size, except as otherwise noted. 
 
 THE STRAWBERRY. 
 
 Our test of strawberries consisted of a single row of each variety 50 feet 
 long. The soil was a light clay loam, in good condition, and was well 
 manured before plowing. The plants were originally set 2 feet apart, in rows 
 3% feet apart, and were permitted to form young plants the first season after 
 setting without other restriction than the free use of the cultivator be- 
 tween the rows. In beds fruited more than one season, we mow the ground 
 over after fruiting and burn the cut off material between the rows. We 
 then narrow the matted rows to 8 inches wide, and thin the remaining 
 plants freely, after which the runners are permitted to grow, as in the first 
 season. We irrigate our strawberry beds as they seem to require it, but 
 the past season no irrigation was needed until after the fruiting period. 
 The rows planted in the spring of 1896 received a top dressing of unleached 
 ashes after fruiting in 1897. 
 
 Annie Laurie (Per.). From Jas. Lippincott, Jr., Mount Holly, N. J. 
 Planted spring of 1896. Plant dwarf, moderately vigorous and productive; 
 fruit medium to very small, roundish-conical, sometimes flattened, light 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 72. 
 
 color, rather soft, of fair or good quality; season medium or rather early. 
 
 The small size of the fruit and the meager productiveness of the plant 
 render this variety undesirable as compared with many others. 
 
 Arrow (Imp.). From H. R. Cotta, Freeport, 111. Planted spring of 
 1897. Plant vigorous, with rather pale, small leaflets; fruit small, short- 
 conical, bright-scarlet, firm, quality inferior; season very early; moderately 
 productive. Not promising. 
 
 Belle La Crosse (Per.). Fig. 1. From Jas. Lippincott, Jr., Mount 
 Holly, N. J. Planted spring of 189C. This variety did much better in the 
 season of 1897 than during the past season, but it was not sufficiently pro- 
 ductive either season to make it desirable. Plant vigorous, with many 
 
 leaf stalks appearing flat, as if two had grown together; fruit large or very 
 large, irregular-conical, bright-scarlet, but often with a green tip; moder- 
 ately firm, of medium quality. The past season the berries were almost 
 worthless owing to their irregular shape and uneven ripening; season late. 
 Not worth cultivating here. 
 
 Berlin (Imp.). From J. H. Hale, South Glastonbury, Conn. Planted 
 spring 1897. Plant dwarf, foliage deep-green, not very healthy; fruit 
 small, deep-scarlet, firm but poor in quality; season early. Not produc- 
 tive. 
 
 Bisel (Imp.). Fig. 2. From Storrs, Harrison Co., Painesville, O. 
 Planted spring 1896. Plant vigorous, foliage deep-green with rather small 
 leaflets, inclined to blight; fruit medium to small, short, truncate-conical, 
 often a little flattened, bright-scarlet, rather firm, of medium quality, very 
 productive. Season late. The small size and ordinary quality of the fruit 
 are the chief drawbacks of this variety. 
 
Small Fruits in 1898. 
 
 5 
 
 FIG. 2.— Bisel strawberry, natural size. 
 
 Bouncer (Per.). From Thompson’s Sons, Rio Vista, Va. Planted 
 spring 1897. Plant not vigorous or healthy; leaves wrinkled; fruit medium 
 to small, roundish, very deep-scarlet, moderately firm, of good quality; 
 unproductive; season medium. 
 
 Brandywine (Per.). Fig. 3. From W. C. Babcock, Bridgeman, Mich. 
 Planted spring 1896. Plant extremely vigorous, with large, deep-green, 
 healthy foliage; fruit large, conical vrith numerous seeds, bright-scarlet, 
 calyx “ double”; quality medium or rather poor; plant only moderately 
 productive. 
 
 Brunette (Imp.). Fig 4. From Fred E. Young, Rochester, N. Y. 
 Planted spring 1897. Plant not vigorous; leaves somewhat wrinkled; fruit 
 short-conical, bright-scarlet, moderately firm, of fair to good quality; sea- 
 son medium: plant not productive. 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 72. 
 
 Fig. 5.— Champion of England strawberry, natural size. 
 
 FIG. 6. — Clyde strawberry, natural size. 
 
Small Fruits in 1898. 
 
 7 
 
 Champion of England (Per.),. Fig 5. From E. W. Ried, Bridge- 
 port, O. Planted spring 1897. Plant not vigorous; foliage rather light- 
 green, leaflets smooth, glossy; fruit rather long-conical, tapering a little to 
 the neck, deep scarlet, moderately firm; quality and season medium. Plant 
 not productive. 
 
 Clyde (Per.). Fig. 6. From J. H. Hale, South Glastonbury, Conn. 
 Planted spring 1897. Plant vigorous; fruit short-conical with a very 
 large calyx, mostly regular, firm, of fair to good quality; season medium. 
 This was decidedly the most productive and the most promising of the 
 varieties fruiting for the first time the past summer, but several varieties 
 planted a year earlier surpassed it in yield. 
 
 FIG. 7. — Editli strawberry, natural size. 
 
 Columbian (Per.). From W. C. Babcock, Bridgeman, Mich. Planted 
 spring 1896. Plant moderately vigorous; leaflets medium or small, smooth; 
 fruit medium to small with numerous and prominent seeds, bright scarlet 
 rather firm; quality fair to good; season, very early; plant quite product- 
 ive. The small size of the fruit is perhaps the chief drawback with this 
 sort. 
 
 Edith (Imp.). Fig. 7. From Thompson’s Sons, Rio Vista, Va. Planted 
 spring 1897. Plant moderately vigorous; foliage deep-green, leaflet, 
 wrinkled; fruit very large and irregular, much flattened, deep-scarlet with 
 seeds purple where exposed to sun, rather soft, very poor in quality; mod- 
 erately productive; season rather late. The very large and irregular fruit 
 render this variety interesting, but its poor quality and small yield render 
 it unpromising. 
 
 Enormous (Imp.). Fig. 8. From Jas. Lippincott, Jr., Mount Holly, 
 N. J. Planted spring 1897. Plant very vigorous; leaflets mostly small 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 72. 
 
Small Fruits in 1808 . 
 
 S 
 
 and wrinkled as if unhealthy; flower stalks short; fruit rather irregular, 
 conical, deep scarlet, moderately firm; quality very good; season late. The 
 first fruits to ripen were very large, but the later ones were below medium; 
 one of the best. 
 
 Epping (Imp.). Fig. 9. From H. R. Cotta, Freeport, 111. Planted 
 spring 1897. Plant very vigorous with deep-green, wrinkled leaves; fruit 
 short- often truncate-conical, rather light in color with seeds purple where 
 exposed to sun; moderately firm, rich but not very sweet; season rather 
 early; plants moderately productive. 
 
 Fountain (Per.). From E. J. Hull, Oliphant, Pa. Planted spring 
 1896. Plant moderately vigorous, leaflets rather small, deep-green; fruit 
 large, short-conical, often flattened, deep-scarlet, with numerous and 
 
 FIG. 11.— Howell’s Seedling strawberry, natural size. 
 
 prominent seeds, very firm, of fair quality; season early; plants produc-. 
 tive, and the fruit maintained its size well; promising for market. 
 
 Holland (Imp.). Fig. 10. From W. C. Babcock, Bridgeman, Mich. 
 Planted spring 1896. Plant very vigorous, tall, with large, deep-green leaves 
 that almost completely hide the fruit, which is roundish-conical, regular, 
 bright-scarlet, rather soft and has a large calyx; quality rather poor; size 
 holds out well; season rather late; plants quite productive. The fruit of 
 this variety is not firm enough for market, and not sufficiently high in 
 quality for home use. 
 
 Howell's Seedling (Per.). Fig. 11. From Thompson’s Sons, Rio Vista, 
 Va. Planted spring 1897. Plant not vigorous; leaflets large, deep-green, 
 wrinkled; fruit conical, tapering to the neck, deep-scarlet, with red seeds, 
 rather soft, quality fair to good; yield very small; season rather late. 
 
 Hunn (Imp.). From Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. 
 Planted spring 1897. Foliage very deep-green, glossy, more affected with 
 
10 , 
 
 Bulletin No. ?#. 
 
 FIG. 12.— Ideal strawberry, natural size. 
 
Small Fruits in 1898. 
 
 11 
 
 blight than that of any other variety grown; the fruit did not mature 
 well; season very late. 
 
 Ideal (Imp.). Pig. 12. From W. C. Babcock, Bridgeman, Mich. Planted 
 spring 1896. Plant. moderately vigorous; fruit medium to small, flattened, 
 truncate-conical, deep-scarlet, firm, quality fair or poor; plants moder- 
 ately productive; season early. 
 
 Iowa Beauty (Per.). Fig 13. From W. C. Babcock. Bridgeman, Mich. 
 Planted spring 1896. Plant very vigorous; foliage deep-green, wrinkled; 
 fruit medium to large, very short-conical, deep-scarlet, seeds purple where; 
 exposed to sun; quality excellent; season early. The fruit colored per- 
 fectly and the plants were much more productive the past season than the* 
 preceding one; rather promising as an early variety. 
 
 Ivanhoe (Per.). Fig. 14. From Fred E. Young, Rochester, N. Y. 
 Planted spring 1897. Plant dwarf with scanty, deep-green foliage; leaf- 
 lets small; fruit short*conical, often truncate, very deep-scarlet and very 
 soft; quality good; plants not productive; season early. 
 
 FIG. 15.— Kyle No. 1 strawberry, natural size. 
 
 Kyle No. 1 (Imp.). Fig. 15. From W. C. Babcock, Bridgeman, Mich. 
 Planted spring 1896. Plant vigorous; foliage deep green; fruit medium to 
 small, roundish or slightly flattened, very deep-scarlet, moderately firm, 
 quality fair or poor; season late; yield rather large. 
 
 Lady Thompson (Per.). Fig. 16. From Jas. Lippincott, Jr., Mount 
 Holly, N. J. Planted spring 1896. Plant moderately vigorous; foliage 
 rather light-green, wrinkled, not healthy; fruit rather small, short eonical, 
 truncate, regular, rather light in color with dark seeds, soft and rather in- 
 sipid; season early; quite productive. The small, insipid and soft fruit 
 condemn this variety. 
 
 Lincoln (Imp.). From W. C. Babcock, Bridgeman, Mich. Planted 
 spring 1896. Plant extremely vigorous with deep-green foliage; fruit of 
 medium size; short-conical, regular, often flattend, bright-scarlet, coloring 
 perfectly to the tip, firm, of fair or good quality; season early; productive. 
 The fruit-stalks were short and inclined to lie down. One of the most 
 promising varieties reported. 
 
12 
 
 Bulletin No. 72 . 
 
 Maida (Per.). From Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 
 who secured it from Maj. Wm. M. Carlins of Virginia. Planted spring 
 1896. Plant moderately vigorous, tall; foliage deep-green; flower-stalks 
 remarkably long, rising above the tall foliage, giving the plant a distinct 
 
 FIG. 16. — Lady Thompson strawberry, natural size. 
 
 appearance; fruit medium to large, oblong-conical, tapering a little to the 
 small calyx, bright-scarlet, not ripening well to the tip, moderately firm, 
 quality fair or good; season late, not very productive. The flowers of this 
 variety, growing as they do above the foliage, would doubtless be very sus- 
 ceptible to injury from frost. 
 
 FIG. 17.— Margaret strawberry, natural size. 
 
 Margaret (Per.). Fig. 17. From Matthew Crawford, Cuyahoga Falls, O. 
 Planted spring 1895. Plant moderately vigorous; leaflets large, glossy; 
 flower-stalks short; fruit large, short-conical or slightly flattened, larger 
 samples usually more or less furrowed longitudinally, very deep-scarlet, 
 
Small Fruits in 1898. 
 
 13 
 
 seeds numerous, prominent, purple on sunny side of fruit, which is mod- 
 erately firm and of good quality; season medium; plant only moderately 
 productive. 
 
 FIG. 18. — Mary strawberry, natural size. 
 
 Mary (Imp.). Pig. 18. From Storrs, Harrison Co., Painesville, O. 
 Planted spring 1896. Plant moderately vigorous; foliage dark, dull-green; 
 flower-stalks short; fruit large, short truncate-conical, deep scarlet, colors 
 well to the tip, moderately firm, quality ordinary; season late; fairly pro- 
 ductive. 
 
 FIG. 19.— Marshall strawberry, natural size. 
 
 Marshall (Per.). Fig. 19. From Jas. Lippincott, Jr., .Mount Holly, 
 N. J. Planted 1896. Plant moderately vigorous; foliage light-green, does 
 not appear healthy, leaflets wrinkled; flower-stalks short; fruit medium to 
 
14 
 
 Bulletin No. 72 . 
 
 very large, the larger samples often irregular, roundish-conical, very deep- 
 scarlet like the Warfield, very firm, seeds slightly prominent, quality fair 
 to very good; fruit keeps very well; season medium. This variety disap- 
 pointed us in the meagreness of its yield, and in the small size of the later 
 berries. 
 
 Mayflower (Per.). Prom W. C. Babcook, Bridgeman, Mich. Planted 
 spring 1896. Plant extremely vigorous; foliage deep-green; flowers very 
 small; flower-stalks short; fruit very small, of fair or good quality; yield 
 very small; season very early; not worth growing as compared with our 
 better early sorts. 
 
 Michigan (Per.). From E. J. Hull, Olyphant, Pa. Planted spring 1896. 
 Plant very vigorous but rather dwarf; leaflets wrinkled; fruit medium to 
 very large, roundish-conical, regular, bright-scarlet, moderately firm, of 
 good quality; season very late; productive. The light color of the fruit in- 
 jures this sort for market. 
 
Small Fruits in 1808 . 
 
 J 5 
 
 Oriole (Per.). Pig. 20. Prom W. C. Babcock, Bridgeman, Mich. 
 'Planted spring 1896. Plant moderately vigorous; foliage dark-green, leaf- 
 lets much wrinkled; fruit short-conical, regular, very deep-scarlet, firm, 
 rather acid, quality poor; not productive; season late. 
 
 Premium. Fig. 21. Prom Fred E. Young, Rochester, N. Y. Planted 
 spring 1897. Plant vigorous; foliige deep-gre^n, smooth, glossy, leaflets 
 rather small; fruit short, truncate conical, deep scarlet, ripened well at tip, 
 moderately firm, fair or good in quality; productive; season rather early. 
 
 Pride of Cumberland (Per.). Fig. 22. Prom Thompson’s Sons, Rio 
 Vista, Va. Planted spring 1897. Plant not vigorous; foliage deep green, 
 -dull, wrinkled; fruit short-conical, regular, deep-scarlet with purple seeds, 
 rather soft, quality poor; season rather early; not productive. 
 
 Star (Per.). Prom E. W. Reid, Bridgeport, O. Planted spring 1897. 
 Plant vigorous; foliage deep-green, wrinkled; fruit conical, tapering to the 
 neck, often flattened and furrowed, bright-scarlet, rather soft, quality 
 good; moderately productive; season rather late. 
 
 Splendid (Per.). From Storrs, Harrison Co . , Painesville, O. Planted 
 spring 1896. Plant extremely vigorous, with remarkably deep-green 
 smooth, and apparently healthy foliage; flower-stalks short; fruit medium, 
 roundish-conical, light-scarlet, seeds numerous, prominent, flesh rather 
 firm, quality superior; plant very productive; season rather late. This 
 is one of the most promising varieties recently tested on our grounds. 
 
 Staples (Per.). Fig. 23. From Jas. Lippincott, Jr., Mt. Holly, N. J. 
 Planted spring 1896. Plant very dwarf but not feeble, a good plant maker; 
 fruit pretty well covered by the leaves, quite small in size, deep-red, 
 
 ; short, irregular-conical, calyx large, partly double, not reflexed, detach- 
 ing very easily from the fruit, seeds very numerous and prominent, flesh 
 firm, flavor poor, acid; ripens fairly well to the tip; not productive; season 
 very early. The first two pickings of this sort were rather abundant, but 
 it failed with these. On the whole we regarded it inferior to Michel’s 
 JEarly. 
 
16 
 
 Bulletin No. 72. 
 
 Tennyson (Per.). Fig. 21. From Matthew Crawford, Cuyahoga Falls, 
 O. Planted spring 1897. Plant not vigorous, dwarf; foliage deep-green 
 but apparently not very healthy; fruit roundish-conical, bright-scarlet, 
 seeds purple on sunny side; calyx very large, the lobes usually three- 
 parted on the larger fruits, flesh rather soft; quality excellent; only mod- 
 erately productive; season medium. 
 
 FIG. 23. — Staples strawberry, natural size. 
 
 Vories. From T. H. Vories, Wathena, Doniphan Co., Kan. Planted 
 spring 1897. Plant extremely vigorous, with deep-green healthy foliage; 
 fruit short, usually flattened, often irregular, bright-scarlet, moderately 
 firm, quality fair; moderately productive; season rather late. 
 
 Weston (Per.). Fig. 25. From W. C. Babcock, Bridgeman, Mich. 
 Planted spring 1896. Plant extremely vigorous, deep-green, healthy; fruit 
 
 medium to large, very light in color, roundish, regular-conical, tip a little 
 late in coloring, moderately firm, fair in quality; season late; plant very 
 productive. The light color would doubtless injure this variety for mar- 
 ket. 
 
 William Belt (Per.) ; Fig. 26. From Fred E. Young, Rochester, N. Y. 
 Planted spring 1896. Plant vigorous, with large, wrinkled leaves; fruit 
 
Small Fruits in 1898. 
 
 17 
 
 medium to very large, the larger specimens often extremely irregular; the 
 medium ones short, somewhat irregular-conical, bright-scarlet, moder- 
 ately firm, quality excellent; season late; plants extremely productive. 
 
 After the crop of 1897 we regarded this variety as more promising than 
 any other under trial at that time. The past season, however, its pro- 
 ductiveness was disappointing, it being surpassed in yield by several other 
 varieties. 
 
 FIG. 26.— Wm. Belt strawberry, natural size. 
 
 The three most promising strawberries in the foregoing list, are 
 perhaps, all things considered, William Belt, Clyde and Splendid. 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No. 72. 
 
 RASPBERRY. 
 
 The following-named varieties of the raspberry and blackberry are here 
 reported for the first time, though a part of them have been grown in a 
 small way for several seasons. One fifty-feet row of each has been grown, 
 and the plants have received winter protection in every case. The soil is 
 the same as described for the strawberry. 
 
 Allsmeyer. A seedling red raspberry sent by Mr. E. C. Allsmeyer of 
 DeForest, Wis., in the spring of 1897. The plants made a vigorous growth 
 
 FIG. 27. — Columbian raspberry, natural size. 
 
 and bore well the past season considering that it w T as the first crop. The 
 fruit was medium to small, hemispherical, dull red, of good quality. This 
 is undoubtedly above the average of wild varieties in vigor and product- 
 iveness, but does not compare well in size with Cuthbert or Loudon; sea- 
 son medium. 
 
 Champlain. From Ellwanger & Barry, Rochester, N. Y. Pl anted 
 spring'1893. This is a yellow-fruited variety, reminding one of the old Yel- 
 low Antwerp. It has not been productive with us, and the fruit is too 
 soft to have value unless for home use. In quality it is very good, but 
 not better than the old Caroline; season medium. 
 
 Columbian. Fig. 27. (Rubus negleotus.) From Coe & Converse, Fort 
 Atkinson, Wis. Planted spring 1893. Plant more vigorous than that of 
 any other variety grown and unsurpassed by any other in productiveness 
 
Small Fruits in 1898. 
 
 19 
 
 except the Loudon. The fruit is large, hemispherical or obscurely pointed, 
 dull purplish-red, slightly acid, rich and pleasant, much resembling 
 Schaffer in color and flavor, but is more firm and less rich than that vari- 
 ety; commenced ripening about July 9 and continued in season until most 
 other varieties had passed. The canes creep] rather extensively on the 
 
 ground late in the season, but do not root freely unless the tips are covered. 
 The large growth of the canes is an objection where winter protection is 
 practiced. The principal value of this variety is doubtless for canning. It 
 is inferior to the Schaffer for table use. 
 
 Eureka. From Fred. E. Young, Rochester, N. Y. Planted spring 1896. 
 This is a first-early black-cap, ripening with Spry’s Early and Conrath’s 
 Early. The first ripe berries of all these were picked July 2. In product- 
 iveness it was not equal to Conrath’s Early. The fruit was fine and of 
 good quality. 
 
 Gault. From Storrs, Harrison Co., Painesville, O. Planted spring 
 1896. This, as grown by us, was an early black cap that developed no 
 specially valuable qualities. The plants may not be genuine, as the true 
 
20 
 
 Bulletin No. 72. 
 
 Gault is said to mature very late, and to yield an autumn crop, which 
 ours failed to show. 
 
 Harris. Fig. 28. From A. L. Wood, Rochester, N. Y. Planted spring 
 1897. Judging from its first crop, this variety is promising. The plant is 
 evidently dwarf and productive; the fruit is large and of good quality, but 
 its dark-red color will probably injure it for market; season late. 
 
 Loudon. Fig. 29. From Storrs, Harrison Co., Painesville, O. Planted 
 spring 1896. Our first planting of the Loudon was not satisfactory, owing 
 to proximity to trees that evidently affected the growth and yield of the 
 plants during several dry seasons following the planting, hence this is the 
 first report we have made of it. 
 
 By common consent the Loudon was rated finest of the red varieties. 
 The Cuthbert was its nearest rival, but the Loudon surpassed this well- 
 known sort in the yield and quality of the fruit. It commenced to ripen a 
 little earlier than Cuthbert and continued in season a little later. 
 The fruit was excellent in size, color and quality, though in the latter re- 
 spect it was 'perhaps not quite equal to Cuthbert. 
 
 Miller's Bed. Fig. 30. From Fred. E. Young, Rochester, N. Y. Planted 
 spring 1896. This variety proved only moderately productive, and the 
 
Small Fruits in 1898. 
 
 21 
 
 quality was poorest of all the red sorts tested. In season it was about the 
 same as Loudon. 
 
 Royal Church (Red). From Green’s Nursery Co., Rochester, N. Y . 
 Planted spring 1893. The plants of this variety have lacked vigor and 
 productiveness on our grounds. The fruit is large, hemispherical, bright- 
 red and good in quality. Ripens with Cuthbert, but does not continue so 
 long in bearing. 
 
 Superlative (Red). From Ellwanger & Barry, Rochester, N. Y. Planted 
 spring 1893. This variety has produced some very handsome fruit of 
 choice'quality, but the plants have been neither vigorous nor productive. 
 It is of the European species — Rubus Idceus. 
 
 Sweet's Golden. From C. A. Sherwood, Whitehall, Wis. Planted 
 spring 1893. This is a yellow-fruited variety of the black- cap species — 
 Rubus occidentalis. Several ^similar varieties have appeared at differ- 
 ent times, but none of them have become popular. The fruit is mild and 
 
22 
 
 Bulletin No. 72. 
 
 agreeable in flavor, but has a dull and unattractive color when fully ripe. 
 The fruit of this variety has not averaged larger than that of the ordinary 
 wild black-cap. 
 
 BLACKBERRY. 
 
 We have tested several varieties of the blackberry during recent years 
 in the hope of securing a sort that should be superior to the Ancient Briton 
 in quality and that should ripen earlier and be as productive as that vari- 
 ety. Thus far, we have not found it. The El Dorado comes nearest to our 
 ideal, but it has not proved equal to the Ancient Briton in productiveness. 
 
Small Fruits in 1898. 
 
 23 
 
 Bonanza. From John Tuckerman, Bridgewater, Wis. Planted spring 
 1897. Bush rather dwarf and spreading, productive; fruit medium or 
 rather small, nearly round, very uniform in size; quality fair, with a 
 v slightly bitter flavor; season medium. Found wild by. Mr. Tuckerman 
 near his home in Bridgewater, N. Y. While the fruit is small in size, the 
 productiveness of the plant may render this variety valuable. 
 
 El Dorado. Fig. 31. From Storrs, Harrison Co., Painesville, O. 
 Planted spring 1896. Plant vigorous, with stronger canes and healthier 
 foliage than the Ancient Briton; fruit medium to large, very uniform, 
 slightly elongated, jet black and of best quality; season very early. This 
 variety began to ripen fully ten days before Ancient Briton, and it contin- 
 ued in fruit a long time though not so long as the later varieties. Its 
 earliness, superior quality and long fruiting render it an ideal sort for the 
 family garden. Whether or not it will prove sufficiently firm for long car- 
 riage remains to be seen. By planting this variety with the Ancient 
 Briton the blackberry season may be prolonged at least ten days. 
 
 Minnewaski. From Green’s Nursery Co., Rochester, N. Y. Planted 
 spring 1894. With us, this variety has proved only moderatively produc- 
 tive. The fruit is large, and of fair quality and the plant is a strong 
 grower. 
 
 Truman's Thornless. From Geo. P. Peffer, Pewaukee, Wis. Planted 
 spring 1894. The canes of this variety have fewer thorns than those of 
 most others, but they are not entirely thornless; plant rather dwarf, only 
 moderately productive: fruit of good size and quality; season rather early. 
 
 Dorchester. From Ellwanger & Barry, Rochester, N. Y. Planted 
 spring 1894. This old variety was pronounced best in quality of a number 
 of varieties tested by the writer several years ago at the Geneva Experi- 
 ment Station (New York), and it was planted here with the view of using 
 it as a standard by which to judge other varieties. But its high quality 
 was not maintained here. Compared with El Dorado, it was decidely in- 
 ferior, and the plants have proved only moderately productive. 
 
 Maxwell's Early. From. Wm. Parry, Parry, N. J. Planted spring 
 1894. This variety commenced to ripen several days before Ancient 
 Briton. Plant only moderatively productive. Fruit irregular in form and 
 size with a peculiar, somewhat unpleasant flavor. 
 
 Rathlmn. From A. F. Rathbun, Smith’s Mills, N. Y. Planted spring 
 1894. This is^supposed to be a hybrid between the blackberry and dew- 
 berry. The plant is dwarf and roots at the tips like the dewberry. Fruit 
 large to very large, of fair quality; plant only fairly productive; season 
 medium. The chief value of this variety will probably be for the family 
 garden. 
 
 Sanford. From C. W. Graham, Afton, N. Y. Planted spring 1894. 
 This variety was moderately productive and the fruit was of good quality, 
 ripening in medium season. 
 
24 
 
 Bulletin No. 72 . 
 
 The Loganberry . Figs. 32, 33. From Storrs, Harrison Co., Paines- 
 ville, O. Planted spring 1896. This plant is a hybrid between the west- 
 ern dewberry Rubus vitrfolius , and a red raspberry, probably of the 
 European class liubus Idceus. The plant resembles the dewberry, 
 but is less procumbent and its canes are more vigorous. The fruit has 
 the color, and a trace of the flavor of the red raspberry, but in form it re- 
 sembles the dewberry. In quality it is inferior to either of its parents, 
 though when fully ripe it is quite palatable and reminds one of the red 
 raspberry. It remains rather firm for a time after assuming its red color, 
 and would doubtless carry as well as the blackberry if picked at this 
 stage, but it should not be eaten until it assumes a purplish tint. The 
 plant is only moderately productive, and the fruits ripen so slowly that they 
 would be expensive to pick. The season is about the same as that of the 
 red raspberry. The plant propagates from the tip, like the dewberry, 
 and the receptacle comes off with the fruit. 
 
 After examining this plant with care throughout the fruiting season, 
 my impressions were that it will not prove a permanent addition to our 
 list of market fruits, but is of interest chiefly as a hybrid, and as a novelty. 
 Some have taken a different view regarding it. It is not sufficiently pro- 
 ductive to be profitable to grow, and the fruit is too poor in quality to be- 
 come popular. 
 
 The Golden Mayberry , and the so called Strawberry -raspberry 
 {Rubies sorbifolius), were both tested, but they were found so far wanting 
 in value that the plants have been grubbed out. The first was so tender 
 that the canes were killed to the ground every winter in spite of protec- 
 tion, and the second was so unproductive as to be valueless, even if the 
 fruit possessed any desirable qualities. 
 
 The so-called Japan Wineberry, Rubus phcenicolasius, was tested and 
 discarded several years ago. The fruit was of no value, and the canes 
 winterkilled badly, even when well covered with earth. 
 
 THE CURRANT. 
 
 Our currants were planted four feet apart in rows seven feet apart. Tho 
 land is in a good condition of fertility, but since the planting of the cur- 
 rants has not been manured, except in the case of the North Star. 
 
 Vigor of Growth. — In size of bush the different varieties ranged as fol- 
 lows, Raby Castle was largest, followed in order by Red Dutch, President 
 Wilder, Victoria, White Grape, Cherry, White Imperial and Fay’s Prolific,, 
 the last being smallest. 
 
 In strengh of cane, Raby Castle also ranked first, followed in order by 
 Victoria, White Grape, Red Dutch, President Wilder, White Imperial,. 
 Fay’s Prolific and Cherry. 
 
 In susceptibility to injury from aphis, Fay’s Prolific, Raby Castle and 
 Victoria were free; President Wilder, Red Dutch, Cherry, White Imperial,. 
 
Small Fruits in 1898. 
 
 25 
 
 FIG. 38. — Loganberry, natural size. 
 
Bui item No. 72 . 
 
 20 
 
 and White Grape were injured in the order named, the last being the most 
 injured. 
 
 The other data as to the currants can best be presented in tabular form. 
 The fruit was picked when at the proper stage of ripeness for jelly and 
 weighed. As the chief value of the currant is for jelly, a computation was 
 made for most of the varieties of the percentage of waste in the fruit as 
 gathered from the bush, of the amount of juice per hundred grammes of 
 the fruit, and of the specific gravity of the juice. The data appear in the 
 following table: 
 
 Table showing comparative yield , size of berry , per cent, of waste, 
 and amount and specific gravity of the juice of different varieties 
 of currants. 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Number of 
 bushes. 
 
 Yield of 
 fruit 
 (pounds). 
 
 Weight of 
 100 cur- 
 rants 
 
 (grammes) 
 
 | 
 
 Per cent, 
 of waste. 
 
 Juice per 
 100 
 
 grammes 
 of fruit 
 cubic cen- 
 timeters). 
 
 Specific 
 gravity 
 of juice. 
 
 Cherry 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 85-2 
 
 1.8 
 
 49.2 
 
 1.032 
 
 Fay’s Prolific 
 
 11 
 
 3(4 
 
 90.8 
 
 1.8 
 
 54.0 
 
 1 035 
 
 North Starj: 
 
 
 
 44.3 
 
 2.1 
 
 51.9 
 
 1 035 
 
 Pomonaf 
 
 
 
 
 3.2 
 
 55.4 
 
 1.042 
 
 President Wilder. 
 
 11 
 
 25 
 
 66.3 
 
 3.2 
 
 50 6 
 
 1.041 
 
 Raby Castle 
 
 8 
 
 51(4* 
 
 46.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 51.8 
 
 1.045 
 
 Red Crossf 
 
 
 
 
 2 4 
 
 52 . 5 
 
 1.041 
 
 Red Dutch 
 
 11 
 
 23M 
 
 39 4 
 
 2.8 
 
 51.06 
 
 1.010 
 
 Rubyf 
 
 
 
 
 2.9 
 
 48.6 
 
 
 Victoria 
 
 11 
 
 33 
 
 43.7 
 
 2.8 
 
 51.5 
 
 1.043 
 
 White Dutch 
 
 5 
 
 13(4* . 
 
 
 
 
 
 White Grape 
 
 11 
 
 38 
 
 50.6 
 
 3. 
 
 51.5 
 
 1.036 
 
 White Imperial .. 
 
 7 
 
 20 iV 
 
 
 2.9 
 
 38.6 
 
 1.040 
 
 * Calculated to 11 bushes. f Planted spring of 1897. $ Planted spring of 1892. 
 
 Productiveness of the Different Varieties. — From the above table, 
 it appears that the Raby Castle was much more productive than any 
 other variety of which the yield was noted. The order of productiveness 
 was — Raby Castle, White Grape iFig. 31), Victoria (Fig. 35), President 
 Wilder (Fig. 36), Red Dutch (Fig. 37), White Imperial (Fig. 38), Cherry 
 (Fig. 39), White Dutch, Fay’s Prolific. 
 
 The Raby Castle has been pronounced a synonym of Victoria. In our 
 trial it was not only more productive than the latter variety, but the fruit 
 was perceptibly larger. In other respects the resemblance between t he 
 two was very close. 
 
Small Fruits in 1898. 
 
 2 7 
 
 The plants of Pomona, Red Cross (Fig. 40) and Ruby (Fig. 41) were not 
 set until the spring of 1897, and hence bore but a few fruits. Their pro- 
 ductiveness was therefore not noted. Those of the North Star (Fig. 42) 
 were set in the spring of 1892, and in a different part of the grounds from 
 the others, hence the yield of this is omitted, as it is not comparable with 
 the others. The North Star has proved very vigorous and productive with 
 
 FIG. 34 (left).— White Grape currant, natural size. 
 
 FIG. 35. — Victoria currant, natural size. 
 
 FIG. 36 (right).— President Wilder currant, natural size. 
 
 us, but the berries have always been small. As appears from the table, it 
 was smallest in berry of all except the Red Dutch and Victoria. 
 
 Size of Fruit . — Of the varieties in which this was determined, Fay’s 
 Prolific showed the largest berries, followed in order by Cherry, President 
 Wilder, White Grape, Raby Castle, North Star, Victoria and Red Dutch. 
 
 Percentage of Waste . — This was computed by weighing a quart of the 
 fruit as it was picked, then picking the berries from the bunches and 
 weighing the clean fruit a second time. The difference in the weight was 
 then divided by the original weight. It appears that It varied from 1.8 per 
 cent, in Cherry and Fay’s Prolific to 3.2 per cent, in Pomona and President 
 Wilder. 
 
28 
 
 Bulletin No. 72. 
 
 Amount of Juice .— This was determined by mashing a quantity of the 
 fruit of each variety {usually one quart), placing the pulp in a muslin sack 
 and then pressing out the juice in a small jelly press. The mass of pulp 
 was broken up and turned in the sack once or twice during the process, 
 and the pulp was left under the press until the juice ceased to drip. As 
 appears from the table, the amount of juice yielded by 100 grammes of the 
 fruit varied from 38.6 cubic centimetres in the White Imperial to 55.4 cu- 
 bic centimetres in the Pomona. 
 
 FIG. 37 (left).— Red Dutch currant, natural size. 
 FIG. 38.— White Imperial currant, natural size. 
 FIG. 39 (right).— Cherry currant, natural size. 
 
 Specific Gravity of the Juice . — This was determined by the hydro- 
 meter. As the valtte of a given variety of currant for jelly depends muck 
 upon the percentage of solids in its juice, the specific gravity of the juice- 
 may be expected to indicate nearly the comparative value of a given 
 variety for jelly making. It appears that the juice of the Cherry was 
 lowest in specific gravity and that of the Raby Castle was highest. Since 
 the Raby Castle was also most productive, it appears that this variety 
 should be especially valuable for jelly making. 
 
 Black Currants . — Of these we have tested only the Black Victoria, the 
 Crandall and the Russian Black. The first belongs to the European class 
 Ribes nigrum , and resembles Lee’s Black Prolific, though it seemed less 
 productive than that variety. The attempt was made to compare the 
 
Small Fruits in 1898. 
 
 29 
 
 juiciness of the Bltick Victoria with, that of the red vaiieties, hut it W3,s 
 found impossible to compress the juice from the berries without first cook- 
 ing them. The Crandall is a very prolific and large-fruited variety of the 
 well known yellow flowering currant, Ribes aureum. The fruit is quite 
 different in character from that of the European black currant, having a 
 
 FIG. 40 (left).— Red Cross' currant, natural size. 
 
 FIG. 41.— Ruby currant, natural size. 
 
 FIG. 42 (right).— North Star currant, natural size. 
 
 more glossy and thinner skin, and a more bluish color, and the flavor while 
 perhaps being not less acid is less harsh. The currants ripen singly on the 
 cluster, and hence must commonly be picked one by one. 
 
 We have grown many seedlings of the Crandall currant, and the fruit 
 from these shows considerable variation in size, season, productiveness 
 and flavor. There seems, however, to be little popular demand for the 
 black currant in this country, and unless our present forms of these fruits 
 
30 
 
 Bulletin No. 72. 
 
 can be changed more in character by culture than most other fruits have 
 been changed, it is doubtful if they will ever become generally popular. 
 
 The Russian black currant seems to be no improvement over the com- 
 mon European varieties except that its foliage lacks the pungent odor 
 peculiar to those sorts. 
 
 An Experiment in S praying the Currant . — The early dropping of the 
 foliage of the currant is very well known. At Madison the leaves often 
 begin to drop in July, and sometimes a large part of them have fallen by the 
 middle of August. This early dropping is mainly due to a disease caused 
 by the attack of a fungus — Septoria ribis. Experiments have shown 
 that early spraying with the Bordeaux mixture tends to prevent the un- 
 
 FIG. 43.— Results of one spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 ^timely dropping of the leaves, but spraying while the fruit is still on the 
 bushes is objectionable ^because the fruit is thereby smeared with the 
 spraying compound. 
 
 The past season the experiment was made of postponing the spraying 
 until the fruit was harvested, with very satisfactory results. A single 
 thorough spraying of our currant bushes with Bordeaux mixture (formula, 
 f 6 lbs. copper sulfate, 4 lbs. fresh lime, 45 gals, water) was made the first 
 week in July, leaving a few bushes unsprayed, as checks. The accom- 
 panying illustration (Fig. 43) is from a photograph taken early in October. 
 The left bush received the spraying in July, while the right one did not. 
 
 The currant appears to endure early defoliation remarkably well, for it 
 often continues to be productive for many years in spite of it. There is 
 every reason to expect, however, that treatment which enables the bushes 
 -to retain their foliage four to six weeks longer than usual will be rewarded 
 fby an increase in quantity or quality of fruit. 
 
Small Fruits in 1898. 
 
 m 
 
 , GOOSEBERRIES. 
 
 The gooseberries here reported were all planted in the spring of 1896. 
 The number of bushes, the planting and the cultivation given were identi- 
 cal with that of the currants. 
 
 Vigor of Growth — In vigor, as indicated by the size of the bushes, Red 
 . Jacket, Houghton and Downing led, these three being practically on a 
 
 tpar. Transparent was next, followed by Industry, and then by Cham- 
 pion, Chantauqua, Columbus and Triumph; the last four being about 
 equal. 
 
 Damage from Septoria.— On June 30, the foliage of Columbus was 
 already suffering badly from spot disease ( Septoria ), and the leaves were 
 already falling. That of Downing was also suffering considerably at this 
 time, while that of Industry and Triumph showed traces of the disease. 
 At this time, Champion, Red Jacket, Houghton and Transparent ap- 
 peared free from it. Later all were more or less attacked, but Houghton 
 remained frae longest. 
 
32 
 
 Bulletin No. 72 . 
 
 Mildew on the Fruit.— The bushes were not sprayed to prevent mildew 
 on the fruit, as it was desired |o note how many of the varieties would be 
 able to withstand this disease ( Spcerotheca mors-uvce). On June 30, 
 only the fruit of Columbus was much affected; while that of Industry and 
 Triumph showed traces of the disease. As the fruit was gathered for 
 market about this time the damage from mildew was slight. Fruit left 
 longer on the bushes was more affected and only that of Houghton re- 
 mained entirely uninjured. It would appear that where the fruit is gath- 
 ered immature, little damage may be feared from mildew up to the time 
 
 FIG. 45. — Champion gooseberry, natural size. 
 
 of harvest. After harvest both the mildew and Septoria may be held in 
 check by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 In yield, Downing far outstripped all other varieties, producing 105 
 quarts from 11 bushes, or on the average about 934 quarts per bush. Red 
 Jacket was second, yielding 5 quarts per bush; Houghton was third, 
 yielding 4 1-5 quarts per bush; Champion yielded a trifle less than 4 
 quarts per bush. Transparent, Chautauqua, Industry, Triumph and Col- 
 umbus followed in the order named, the last yielding only 234 quarts from 
 10 bushes. 
 
 ADDITIONAL NOTES ON VARIETIES. 
 
 Downing. Fig. 44. Plant very vigorous, thorns few and rather small, 
 fruit greenish-translucent, with whitish veins. 
 
 Champion. Fig. 45. Fruits mostly 2 in a place, greenish- translucent 
 with whitish veins, surface downy. 
 
Small Fruits in 1898, 
 
 33 
 
34 
 
 Bulletin No. 72. 
 
 Chautauqua. Fig. 46. Plant boars strong thorns; fruits usually one 
 in a place, roundish-oblong, greenish-translucent, sprinkled with purple 
 in sun, quality excellent. 
 
 Columbus. Fruit oblong or roundish, yellowish-green, of best quality, 
 Houghton. Fig. 47. Fruit small, dark-red with some bloom, skin thin, 
 flavor sweet and good. 
 
 FIG. 48.— Industry, gooseberry, natural size. 
 
 Industry. Fig. 48. Fruits deep, dull-purple with numerous small and 
 weak prickles on surface, commonly one in a place, veins obscure except 
 on shaded side. 
 
 Red Jacket. Fig. 49. Spines on plant strong and numerous. Fruits 
 translucent with whitish veins, reddish purple in the sun; commonly two 
 in a place. 
 
 Transparent. Fig. 50 Plant very spiny. Fruits greenish, decidedly 
 translucent, showing the seeds when held up towards the light; 2 to 3 in 
 a cluster, quality excellent. 
 
 Triumph. Fig. 51. Plant rather spiny. Fruit translucent with white- 
 ish green veins, and purple dots toward sun. 
 
Small bruits in 1898 . 
 
 35 
 
 Four varieties of so-called “spineless” gooseberries were imported from 
 France in the spring of 1896, but the plants have been so much affected 
 with mildew that they have made very little growth and have borne no 
 fruit. They have been but partially spineless. 
 
 FIG. 49.— Red Jacket gooseberry, natural six#. 
 
36 
 
 Bui lei in No. n. 
 
Small Fy'uits in 1898. 
 
 3 ? 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Of the strawberries reported in this bulletin, Win. Belt, Clyde and 
 ! Splendid appear, on the whole, most promising. 
 
 Of the raspberries, Loudon (red) was found most satisfactory. Colum- 
 bian is especially recommended for canning. 
 
 Of blackberries, El Dorado is very promising. 
 
 Of currants, Raby Castle seems to possess especial value for jelly. 
 
 Of gooseberries, no variety appeared to surpass Downing for general 
 utility. 
 
 The Loganberry does not seem likely to become a market fruit. 
 
 Note — The drawings for this bulletin were made with the expectation 
 that they would be reduced one half. But it was thought better later to 
 reproduce them natural size. This fact explains the heaviness of the 
 •lines. 
 

Wis. Bull. No. 73, 
 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 73. 
 
 ANALYSES OF LICENSED COMMERCIAL FERTIL- 
 IZERS, 1899. 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN , APRIL, 1899. 
 
 The ' Bulletins and ■ Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
 Democrat Printing Company, State Printer, Madison, Wis. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, ex-officio. 
 PRESIDENT of tlie UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 State-at-large, JOHN JOHNSTON, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, J. A. VAN CLEVE, Marinette. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 JOHN JOHNSTON, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasurer. 
 
 GEORGE H NOYES, Vice-President. | E. F. RILEY, Madison, Secretary. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS. MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, - 
 S. M BABCOCK, - 
 F. H. KING, 
 
 E. S. GOFF, - 
 W. L. CARLYLE, 
 
 F. W. WOLL, 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON. 
 J. A. JEFFERY, - 
 J. W. DECKER, 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, 
 FRED CRANEFIELD 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, 
 IDA HERFURTH, 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, 
 
 Director 
 Chief Chemist 
 Physicist 
 Horticulturist 
 
 - Animal Husbandry 
 
 Chemist 
 Bacteriologist 
 Dairy Husbandry 
 Assistant Physicist 
 Dairying 
 
 - Assistant Chemist 
 - Assistant in Horticulture 
 
 Farm Superintendent 
 - Clerk and Stenographer 
 Librarian 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, -------- Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint Horticultural-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Exjjeriment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
ANALYSES OF LICENSED COMMERCIAL FERTIL- 
 IZERS, 1899. 
 
 F. W. WOLL and ALFRED VIVIAN. 
 
 The present bulletin is published in accordance with laws of Wisconsin, * 
 1895, Chap. 87, Sec. 3, and gives the results of the analyses of fertilizers 
 licensed to be sold in this state during the current calendar year. The 
 subject of commercial fertilizers was discussed in some detail by the 
 writer (W.) in bulletin No. 49, of our Station: The Maintenance of Soil 
 Fertility ; Commercial Fertilizers , which bulletin was largely reprinted 
 in our Thirteenth Annual Report. Persons desiring information in this 
 line who have not received and preserved the report referred to, may ob- 
 tain copies of bulletin No. 49 upon request, as long as the supply on hand 
 lasts. 
 
 The explanations as to fertilizer analyses and technical terms, given in 
 the bulletin, will doubtless be of service to those unfamiliar with this sub- 
 ject. It has been thought well to repeat in this place a few explanatory 
 remarks concerning the fertilizing elements contained in materials used 
 for the purpose of maintaining or restoring the fertility of our land. 
 
 The main fertilizing ingredients which it may be essential to supply in 
 crop growing, are nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. 
 
 Nitrogen may be present in fertilizers in three different forms, as ni- 
 trates , ammonia , or organic compounds. The first two forms of nitro- 
 gen are of most immediate value to crops, since they are easily soluble 
 and may be readily assimilated by plants. Organic nitrogen is the form of 
 nitrogen found in fertilizers of vegetable and animal origin. Some of these, 
 like leather or woolen scrap s, hoofs, horn shavings, etc , possess very little 
 value as fertilizers, being insoluble and but slowly decomposed in the soil. 
 The fertilizer laws of many states do not recognize nitrogen contained in 
 materials of this kind as of any value. Available nitrogen means nitrogen 
 supplied in nitrates, ammonia salts and organic compounds of easily de- 
 composable character, like dried blood, tankage, cotton seed meal, etc. 
 
 The nitrogenous fertilizers met with in this state are nitrate of soda, 
 tankage, and dried blood. The first mentioned fertilizer is mostly used by 
 market gardeners and florists and is of great value in stimulating plant 
 growth. Nitrogen is the most costly ingredient of artificial fertilizers. 
 Certain kinds of plants, like the clovers, alfalfa, vetches and other species 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 73. 
 
 of the legume family, are able through the agency of microscopic organisms 
 to transform the free nitrogen of the air to organic nitrogenous compounds, 
 ’which may be used for the nutrition of farm animals and thus indirectly, 
 or indeed directly, for enlarging the supply of nitrogenous plant food in 
 the soil. The farmer adopting a system of crop rotation in which some 
 clover or other legumes are included may therefore avoid a cash outlay for 
 nitrogenous fertilizers, and need only see to it that the potash and phos- 
 phoric acid contents of his land are not unduly reduced through con- 
 tinuous cropping. 
 
 Phosphoric acid (P 2 0 5 ) may be found in commercial fertilizers in one 
 or more of four different forms, viz.: in mono di-, tri-, nn&tetra-calcium 
 phosphate ; it is determined as total , or as soluble , reverted and total 
 phosphoric acid. The mono-calcium phosphate is soluble in water, the 
 di-calcium phosphate is insoluble in water but soluble in a strong, hot 
 solution of ammonium citrate, while the tri calcium phosphate is insoluble 
 in either of these liquids. The phosphoric acid contained in animal bones, 
 or bone meal, is in the form of tri-calcium phosphate. When applied to 
 the soil in a fine-ground condition, it is gradually dissolved by the juices 
 of the plant roots and thus rendered available to plants. Coarse ground 
 bone, on the other hand, is but slowly decomposed in the soil. Superphos- 
 phate contains both water soluble and ammonium-citrate-soluble phos- 
 phoric acid. Broadly speaking, the water-soluble and the ammonium- 
 citrate-soluble phosphoric acid are of about equal value to plants. The 
 phosphoric acid in tetr a- calcium phosphate (basic slag, odorless phos- 
 phate) is largely soluble in ammonium-citrate solution ( reverted phos- 
 phoric acid). A vailable phosphoric acid means the sum of the water- 
 soluble and the reverted phosphoric acid, and represents the phosphoric 
 acid of immediate value to plants. The results of the analyses are calcu- 
 lated on a basis of the content of phosphoric anhydrid (P 2 0 5 ). 
 
 Potash is freely soluble in water in the compounds used as potassic fer- 
 tilizers. There are several kinds of potash fertilizers, as potassium sul- 
 fate, muriate, silicate, and potassium-magnesium carbonate and sul- 
 fate, etc. Since muriates (chlorids) have an injurious effect on the quality 
 of certain crops, notably tobacco and potatoes, the use of potash salts free 
 from muriate is in some cases desirable or even essential. The results of 
 the analyses are figured on basis of the content of potassium oxid (K 2 0). 
 
 The methods of analysis followed in the chemical work of our Station 
 are those adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists; the 
 methods are revised from year to year at the annual conventions of this As- 
 sociation. 
 
 VALUATION OF FERTILIZERS. 
 
 The cost of commercial fertilizers in the market is governed by the laws 
 of supply and demand, as is that of all other commodities. Raw materials 
 and chemicals containing one or two fertilizing ingredients furnish data 
 
Licensed Commercial Fertilizers. 
 
 5 
 
 for the calculation of the average cost of these ingredients in commercial 
 fertilizers. Since the prices of the different fertilizing materials vary 
 somewhat from time to time according to the condition of the market, the 
 calculations must be revised at intervals. The average retail prices of raw 
 materials and chemicals in the large eastern fertilizer markets for the six 
 months preceding March each year are calculated by a number of eastern 
 experiment stations, and the cost of the different fertilizing ingredients 
 which commercial fertilizers on the market contain, is obtained on basis 
 of these figures; these values will nearly correspond with the prices of 
 fertilizing materials in our main fertilizer markets, and may be used for 
 the purpose of comparing approximately the value of the various fertilizers 
 offered for sale in this state. 
 
 The trade values of fertilizing ingredients in raw materials and chemi- 
 cals adopted for the current year are given in the following schedule: 
 
 Nitrogen— Cents per lb. 
 
 in ammonia salts 15 
 
 in nitrates 12*4 
 
 Organic Nitrogen— 
 
 in dry and fine-ground fish, meat, blood, and in high-grade mixed fertilizers.. 14 
 
 in cottonseed meal, linseed meal and castor pomace 12 
 
 in fine bone and tankage 14 
 
 in coarse bone and tankage 10 
 
 Phosphoric Acid— 
 
 soluble in water 4)4 
 
 soluble in ammonium-citrate solution 4 
 
 in dry fine-ground fish, bone and tankage 4 
 
 in coarse bone and tankage 2 
 
 in cottonseed meal, linseed meal, castor pomace and wood ashes 4 
 
 insoluble (in ammonium-citrate solution), in mixed fertilizers 2 
 
 Potash— 
 
 as high grade sulfate, and in forms free from muriate 5 
 
 as muriate 4*4 
 
 In order to obtain the valuation prices of the fertilizers licensed to be 
 sold in our state, the percentages of valuable fertilizing components are in 
 each case multiplied by the prices given in the preceding schedule; 
 to this actual cost of the fertilizing ingredients contained in each fertil- 
 izer should be added the expense of placing the fertilizers on the market; 
 
 this expense will vary considerably according to local and other condi- 
 tions; the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture estimates the expense 
 as follows: 
 
 Mixing $1.00 per ton. 
 
 Bagging 1.00 per ton. 
 
 Agent’s commission 20 per cent, of retail cash value 
 
 of ingredients. 
 
 $2.00 per ton. 
 
 Freight 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 73. 
 
 The approximate value of the various licensed fertilizers may be ascer- 
 tained by the method of calculation explained in the preceding, and the 
 purchaser may thus learn whether or not the price asked for a certain 
 fertilizer is about what it is worth. 
 
 It must be remembered, however, that the valuation placed on the vari- 
 ous fertilizers by this method is a commercial , and not an agricultural 
 one. It shows the average retail cash price of the different fertilizing in- 
 gredients plus the cost of placing the fertilizer on the market; the agricul- 
 tural value of a fertilizer depends on a number of conditions beyond the 
 control of the seller, such as the need of the soil or the crop of the particu- 
 lar fertilizing ingredient or ingredients in question: the judgment used in 
 applying the same, as to methods, time and quantities; conditions of 
 weather, etc ; the agricultural value of a fertilizer, in other words, will 
 vary according to the season and according to the intelligent application 
 of the fertilizer; one farmer may derive full benefit from the use of a fertil- 
 izer, while to another it may be money thrown away. It is therefore evi- 
 dent that only a commercial valuation of fertilizers is ever possible; this 
 will enable persons to compare the different fertilizers offered for sale, and 
 will assist them in deciding which are the most economical ones for their 
 special purpose. 
 
 ANALYSES OF LICENSED FERTILIZERS IN WISCONSIN DURING 1899. 
 
 The following manufacturers have taken out a license for the sale of the 
 brands of fertilizers given, in this state during the current year, accord- 
 ing to the laws of Wisconsin of 1893, chap. 87. 
 
 Sta- 
 
 tion 
 
 No. 
 
 Name of Manufacturer. 
 
 Name of Brand. 
 
 29 
 
 Darling & Co , Chicago, 111 
 
 Darling’s Pure Ground Bone. 
 
 30 
 
 Darling & Co., Chicago, 111 
 
 Darling’s Vegetable and Lawn 
 Grower. 
 
 31 
 
 Hofland & Tilleson, Menomonie, Wis 
 
 “Best of All” Fertilizer. 
 
 32 
 
 Currie Bros., Milwaukee, Wis 
 
 Currie’s Complete Fertilizer for 
 Lawns, Hay and Pasture. 
 
 33 
 
 Armour Fertilizer Works, Chicago, 111 
 
 Ammoniated Bone with Potash. 
 
 The Station analyses of the brands given are shown in the following 
 table. According to section 1 or our Fertilizer Law, each manufacturer 
 “ shall affix to every package of fertilizer sold . . . a statement of the 
 
 following fertilizing constituents, namely: the percentage of nitrogen in 
 an available form, the percentage of potash soluble in water, and the per' 
 centage of available phosphoric acid, soluble and reverted, as well as total 
 phosphoric acid.” The guaranteed composition of the licensed fertilizers 
 is given in the table in connection with the results of our analyses of the 
 samples furnished by the manufacturers in compliance with the state 
 fertilizer law\ 
 
Analysis of licensed commercial fertilizers in Wisconsin, 1899, 
 
 Licensed Commercial Fertilizers. 
 
 §8 S 
 
 ts 
 
 o 3 
 
 pS 
 
 Z 8 
 
 00 05 
 
 pa oa 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Guar- 
 
 anteed. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 2.4 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.3 
 
 4.9 
 
 2.4 
 
 Found. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.48 
 
 3.35 
 
 5.13 
 
 2.10 
 
 Mois- 
 
 ture. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 3.24 
 
 9.30 
 
 4.90 
 
 2.00 
 
 7.84 
 
 -S 
 
 ctf CQ 
 Q 5 
 
 u a 
 O 
 
 8 53 8 8 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 73. 
 
 The mechanical analysis of the sample of bone meal included among the 
 licensed brands of fertilizers gave the following results: 
 
 Mechanical analysis of bone m°,al. 
 
 Sta- 
 
 tion 
 
 No. 
 
 Brand. 
 
 Fine 
 
 ground 
 
 Fine 
 
 me- 
 
 dium 
 
 Me- 
 
 dium. 
 
 hoarse 
 
 29 
 
 Darling’s Pure Ground Bone 
 
 Per ct 
 
 ' 80.6 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 13 6 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 5.4 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 .4 
 
 
 
 Fertilizer inspection. It is impossible to tell from the appearance or 
 odor of a commercial fertilizer whether it contains a large amount of val- 
 uable fertilizing ingredients or only a very small amount. There is there- 
 fore a strong temptation for irresponsible parties to make and sell inferior 
 or even valueless goods as standard fertilizing articles; so much so, that 
 it has been found necessary in all states where the fertilizer business has 
 grown to be of any importance, that the state should in some way supervise 
 their sale. Laws regulating the sale of commercial fertilizers are at the 
 present time in force in a large majority of the states in the Union. The 
 Wisconsin fertilizer law which was passed by the legislature in 1895 is 
 given in full in the following. According to the provisions of the law, 
 all commercial fertilizers sold in this state at a cost exceeding $10.00 per 
 ton are to be licensed. They must be sold on a guarantee of certain 
 amounts of valuable fertilizing ingredients contained therein, and the 
 director of the experiment station, on whom is laid the duty of seeing to it 
 that the law is enforced, is authorized, in person or by deputy, to take 
 samples of all commercial fertilizers sold in this state which come within 
 the scope of the law. In case of licensed fertilizers it may thus be ascer- 
 tained whether these come up to the guaranteed composition, and when 
 it is found that parties are selling fertilizers without complying with the 
 provisions of the law, the offenders may be brought before the proper legal 
 authorities and convicted according to section 5 of the law. This section 
 imposes a fine of $100.00 for the first offense and $200.00 for each subse- 
 quent offense. 
 
 It is hoped that all dealers in commercial fertilizers in the state will 
 comply with the law in all particulars, and that they as well as purchasers 
 of such fertilizers, will assist in the enforcement of the law by giving 
 notice of violations of the same. A strict compliance with the law is for 
 the best interests of all honest dealers and consumers alike. Only firms 
 that live up to the requirements of the law and have taken out licenses for 
 their brands of fertilizers should be patronized; the law does not offer 
 purchasers any protection against dealers in other states who sell inferior or 
 fraudulent goods. 
 
Licensed Commercial Fertilizers. 
 
 9 
 
 THE WISCONSIN FERTILIZER LAW. 
 
 An Act to regulate the sale of commercial fertilizers. 
 
 [Laws of Wisconsin 1895, Chapter 87.] 
 
 The people of the State of Wisconsin, represented in senate ^and 
 assembly , do enact as follows : 
 
 Section 1 . Every manufacturer, company or person who shall sell, 
 offer or expose for sab in this state any commercial fertilizer, or any ma- 
 terial used for fertilizing purposes, the price of which exceeds ten dollars 
 per ton, shall affix to every package of such fertilizer, in a conspicuous 
 place on the outside thereof, a plainly printed statement clearly and truly 
 certifying the number of net pounds in the package sold, or offered for 
 sale, name or trade mark under which the article is sold, the name of the 
 manufacturer or shipper, the place of manufacture, the place of business 
 and a statement of the following fertilizing constituents namely: the per- 
 centage of nitrogen in an available form, the percentage of potash soluble 
 in water, and the percentage of available phosphoric acid, soluble and 
 reverted, as well as total phosphoric acid. 
 
 Section 2. Every manufacturer, company or person who shall offer or 
 expose for sale in this state any commercial fertilizer or material used for 
 fertilizing purposes, the price of which exceeds ten dollars per ton, shall 
 for each and every fertilizer bearing a distinguishing name or trade mark, 
 file annually with the director of the agricultural experiment station of 
 the University of Wisconsin, between the first and last days of December, 
 a certified copy of the statement named in section 1 of this act, said certi- 
 fied copy to be accompanied, when required, by a sealed glass jar or bottle 
 containing at least one pound of the fertilizer to be sold or offered for sale, 
 and the company or person filing said certified copy with its accompany- 
 ing sample of fertilizer, shall thereupon make affidavit that the said sam- 
 ple corresponds within reasonable limits to the fertilizer which it repre- 
 sents, in the percentage of nitrogen in an available form, total and avail- 
 able phosphoric acid, and potash soluble in water, which it contains, said 
 affidavit to apply to the entire calendar year next succeeding the date upon 
 which it is made. Additional brands may be offered for sale during the 
 year, provided samples and affidavits a-e filed as above directed at least 
 one month before such brands of fertilizers are offered for sale, in which 
 case an analysis fee of double the usual amount must be paid. The de- 
 posit of the sa«pleof fertilizer as herein provided shall be required by said 
 director, unless the company, manufacturer or persons selling or offering 
 for sale a fertilizer coming within the provisions of this act, shall certify 
 that its composition for the succeeding year is to be the same as given in 
 the last previously certified statement, in which case the requiring of the 
 said sample shall be at the discretion of said director. 
 
 Section 3. The director of the agricultural experiment station shall 
 analyze or cause to be analyzed all the samples of fertilizers which come 
 into his possession under the provision of section 2 of this act, and shall 
 publish the results thereof in a bulletin or report on or before the first day 
 of April next succeeding. 
 
 Section 4. Any manufacturer, importer, agent or seller of any com- 
 mercial fertilizer coming within the provisions of this act, shall pay annually 
 to the director of the Wisconsin agricultural experiment station, for each 
 brand of fertilizers sold within the state a fee of twenty-five dollars, and 
 upon fulfilling the requirements laid upon him by this act, shall for each 
 brand receive from the director a certificate of compliance with this act, 
 which certificate shall be a license permitting a sale of the same within 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 73. 
 
 the state for the calendar year for which the fee is paid. All fees received 
 by said director shall be paid by him into the treasury of said experiment 
 station. ^ 
 
 Section 5. Any manufacturer, importer or person who sha'l sell, offer 
 or expose for sale in this state any commercial fertilizer without comply- 
 ing with the requirements of sections one, two and four of this act, or any 
 fertilizer which contains substantially a smaller percentage of constituents 
 than are certified to be contained, shall, on conviction in a court of com- 
 petent jurisdiction, be fined one hundred dollars for the first offense, and 
 two hundred dollars for each subsequent offense. 
 
 Section 6. The director of the Wisconsin experiment station shall an- 
 nually analyze, or cause to be analyzed, at least one sample of every fer- 
 tilizer sold or offered for sale under the provisions of this act. Said direc- 
 tor is, hereby authorized in person or by deputy to take a sample, not ex- 
 ceeding two pounds in weight, for said analyses, from any lot or package 
 of fertilizer or any material used for manurial purposes which may be in 
 the possession of any manufacturer, importer, agent or dealer in this 
 state: but said sample shall be drawn in the presence of said party or 
 parties in interest, or their representatives, and taken from a parcel or a 
 number of packages which shall not be less than ten per cent, of the whole 
 lot sampled, and shall be thoroughly mixed and then divided into equal 
 samples and placed in glass vessels and carefully sealed and a label placed 
 on each, stating the name or brand of the fertilizer or material sampled, 
 the name of the party from whose stock the sample was drawn and the 
 time and place of drawing, and said label shall als ) be signed by the direc- 
 tor or his deputy and by the party or parties in interest, or their representa- 
 tive, at the drawing and sealing of said samples; one of said duplicate sam- 
 ples shall be retained by the director and the other by the party whose 
 stock was sampled; and the sample or samp'es retained by the director 
 shall be for comparison with the certified statement named in section two 
 of this act. The result of analysis of the sample or samples so procured 
 shall be reported to the person or persons requesting the analysis and shall 
 also be published in a report or bulletin within a reasonable time. 
 
 Section 7 It shall be the duty of the direct )r of the Wisconsin agri- 
 cultural experiment station to enforce the provisions of this act, and to 
 prosecute or cause to be prosecuted any party or parties violating the 
 same. 
 
 Section 8. This act shall take effect from and after December 1st, 1895. 
 
 Approved March 23, 1895. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 74. 
 
 A STUDY OF DAIRY SALT. 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN, MAY, 1899. 
 
 $&-The Bulletins and Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request . 
 
 Democrat Printing Company, State Printer, Madison, Wis. 
 
UNIVE RSIY OK WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, ex-officio. 
 PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 State-at-large, JOHN JOHNSTON, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, J. A. VAN CLEVE, Marinette. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the B iard of Regents. 
 
 JOHN JOHNSTON, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasurer. 
 
 GEORGE H NOYES, Vice-President. | E. F. RILEY, Madison, Secretary. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS. MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, Director 
 
 S M BABCOCK, - - - - - - - - Chief Chemist 
 
 F. H. KING, - ... .... Physicist 
 
 E. S. GOFF, ---------- Horticulturist 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, -------- Animal Husbandry 
 
 F. W. WOLL, Chemist 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, Bacteriologist 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON. ------- Dairy Husbandry 
 
 J. A. JEFFERY, - - Assistant Physicist 
 
 J. W. DECKER, - - . - - - - - . - Dairying 
 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, Assistant Chemist 
 
 FRED CRANEFIELD ------ Assistant in Horticulture 
 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, ------- Farm Superintendent 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, ------- Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, Librarian 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, -------- Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ------ Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint ^orticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
A STUDY OF DAIRY SALT. 
 
 F. W. WOLL. 
 
 Common salt is known to chemists as sodium chlorid, or chlorid of 
 sodium (symbol, NaCl). It is one of the necessities of human life. 
 With the advance of civilization and the coincident gradual change in 
 diet, the need of salt to man has steadily increased. Primitive races 
 live largely on a meat diet and crave little or no salt beyond what is 
 already present in their food, but to civilized man, living on a mixed 
 and generally highly varied diet, the supply of salt to the food is as 
 essential as is water or the food itself. Salt performs important phys- 
 iological functions in the processes of digestion and assimilation of 
 food; it also acts as a condiment and as a preservative, giving taste 
 to the food eaten and preserving- animal and vegetable materials from 
 decay. 
 
 The herbivora, at least the domesticated ones among them, require 
 a supply of salt in their food, as is the case with man, and salt is there- 
 fore generally added to the food of farm animals or is placed where 
 they will have free access to it. 
 
 Aside from its use in human and animal nutrition, salt is an essen- 
 tial in the manufacture of a thousand and one articles, like chemical 
 products, glass, china ware, leather, dye-stuffs, refined oils, paper, 
 cellulose, freezing mixtures, and agricultural produces like canned 
 meats, pickles, butter, cheese, etc. 
 
 According to Mulhall, the annual per-capita consumption of salt in 
 different countries in the beginning of this decade was:* Great 
 Britain, 62 pounds; United States, 48 pounds; Canada, 45 pounds; 
 Scandinavian countries, 44 pounds; France, 36 pounds; Germany, 35 
 pounds; Russia, 33 pounds; Italy, 25 pounds; Austria, 18 pounds; 
 Spain and Portugal, 19 pounds; India, 12 pounds. The same eminent 
 English authority states that whenever the consumption of salt falls 
 below 20 pounds per inhabitant it is bad for public health. During 
 the Paraguayan war, 1864-70, it was observed that the men who had 
 been without salt for three months when wounded, however slightly, 
 died, as their wounds would not heal. “A reduced death rate and 
 
 *The Dictionary of Statistics, 1892, page 518. 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 7 ^. 
 
 higher efficiency of workmen are results of the greater consumption 
 of salt.”* 
 
 Importance of the American salt industry. — Since salt is used in every 
 household in the land, and furthermore enters into the manufacture of 
 all the products mentioned and others, it is but natural that the salt 
 industry of the United States is one of considerable magnitude. The 
 value of the annual output amounts to about five million dollars at the 
 factory. Salt is found in a large number of places in this country, 
 and in many cases in immense deposits. The United States ranks 
 second among the salt-producing countries of the world, being led only 
 by Great Britain, with Russia and Germany coming third and fourth, 
 respectively. In 1897 there was manufactured in this country 13,153,524 
 barrels of salt (of 280 pounds). Adding to this quantity the excess 
 importation above what was exported, we reach the immense figure of 
 nearly fifteen million barrels or over four thousand million pounds, 
 which represents the present annual consumption of salt in this 
 country. 
 
 The statistical government reports do not furnish definite informa- 
 tion concerning the production of the various grades of domestic salt; 
 the following table, taken from the 11th annual report of the United 
 States Geological Survey! will, however, show the quantities of dairy 
 and table salt produced in this country, with total product and the 
 value of the latter. It will be noticed that thirteen states of the Un- 
 ion manufactured salt during 1896, the state of New York producing 
 the largest quantities, both of all grades of salt and of table and dairy 
 salt, with Michigan, Ohio and Kansas following in the order given. In 
 the manufacture of table and dairy salt, Ohio comes second, Michigan 
 third, and Kansas fourth. In 1897 (the last year for which statistics 
 are at hand) the production of salt in Kansas was greater than that 
 of Ohio, and Michigan’s output was greater than that of New York. 
 
 Production of salt in 1896 , by states and grades . 
 
 State. 
 
 Table and 
 dairy. 
 
 Total 
 
 product. 
 
 Total 
 
 value 
 
 (at 
 
 factory). 
 
 California 
 
 Barrels. 
 41,714 
 93, 174 
 152, 3 -*8 
 1,348,998 
 400, 263 
 715 
 70, 886 
 5,000 
 117,271 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 430,121 
 1,408,607 
 3,164,238 
 6,069,040 
 1,662,358 
 198, 596 
 279,800 
 176,921 
 461,045 
 
 $198,963 
 397,296 
 718,408 
 1,896,681 
 432, 877 
 
 56. 717 
 96, 550 
 
 50.717 
 192,630 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Michigan 
 
 New York 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Utah 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Illinois, Nevada, Texas, Louisiana and Virginia . 
 
 Total 
 
 2,230, 409 
 
 13,850, 726 
 
 $4,040,839 
 
 
 ^'Dictionary of Statistics, 1886, page 398. 
 JNo. Y, page 1274. 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 5 
 
 Production of dairy salt . — We notice that about one-sixth, or 16 per 
 cent., of the total output of salt is table and dairy salt, the retail value 
 of which would come at nearly five million dollars. About four-fifths 
 of this quantity again is sold as dairy salt. The expression dairy salt 
 is, however, very loosely applied by salt manufacturers and is under- 
 stood to be synonymous with the term factory-filled. The great bulk 
 of salt g*raded as factory-filled is not used in dairying, but for table 
 purposes and in the preparation of ham, bacon, olives, or in the manu- 
 facture of canned goods, pickles and many other articles.* 
 
 The amount of dairy salt used In this country may be estimated ap- 
 proximately from the statistics of the butter- and cheese production of 
 the United States, as given by the United States Census. If we assume 
 that the butter made in this country is salted at the rate of one ounce 
 to the pound, which is the general rule, and that cheese is salted two 
 and one-half pounds per one hundred pounds, the domestic butter- and 
 cheese production called for the quantities given below. The figures 
 relate to the year ending December 31, 1889. 
 
 Total production of butter on farms in the U. S. in 1889 
 (not including farm less than 3 acres, except where 
 $500 worth of the produce of the farm had been ac- 
 
 tually sold during the year) . . . . 1,021, 223,468 lbs. 
 
 One-sixteenth thereof 
 
 Total production of cheese on farms in the U. S in 1889 18,726,818 lbs. 
 
 Two and one-lxalf per cent, thereof 
 
 Total factory production of butter 181,284,916 lbs. 
 
 One-sixteenth thereof 
 
 Total factory production of cheese 238,035,065 lbs. 
 
 Two and one-half per cent thereof 
 
 64,013,967 lbs. 
 
 468,170 lbs. 
 11,430,307 lbs. 
 5,950,877 lbs. 
 
 * 81,863,321 lbs. 
 
 The retail value of this quantity of dairy salt wovdd approximate 
 eight hundred thousand dollars. The requirements of purity and high 
 quality in dairy salt used for other purposes than for butter- and 
 cheese making are, however, generally the same as those of dairy 
 salts proper, and other interests are therefore affected by the quality 
 of this salt to a similar extent, as is dairying. 
 
 Methods of manufacture . — Salt is obtained by three distinct methods: 
 one, by evaporation of the water of the ocean, which contains about 
 2.5 per cent, salt; two, from brine by evaporating the water by means 
 of solar or artificial heat, and three, by mining rock salt. Of these 
 methods, the second one only is of importance in our discussion. 
 About 90 per cent, of the domestic salt product is manufactured 
 from brine, there being only four companies that mine rock salt, 
 viz., one in Louisiana, two in Kansas and one in New York; the 
 New York company owns a number of different mines, only two of 
 which were operated in 1896. Salt was manufactured in 154 establish- 
 
 *Private communication from Dr. H. G. Piffard, president Genesee 
 Salt Co. 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 7Jf. 
 
 merits in this country in 1896, exclusive of rock salt mines. More 
 than one-third of this number of establishments (viz., fifty-four) were 
 in Michigan, 39 in New York, 24 in California, 10 in Kansas, and the 
 others scattered as shown in the table. 
 
 The processes by which salt is manufactured from brine differ ac- 
 cording to the kind of heat applied for evaporating the water of the 
 brine, this taking place either by means of solar heat in shallow pans, 
 or by artificial heat; by the latter method, either direct heat or steam 
 heat is used, the brine being evaporated in large open pans, ini vacuum 
 pans, kettles, or in so-called grainers. The details of the methods of 
 manufacture of dairy salts will be further explained below." 
 
 According to the eleventh annual report of the United States Geolog- 
 ical Survey, 49 establishments used solar heat in the manufacture of 
 salt in 1896; 26 used open pans, 18 vacuum pans, 6 kettles, and 82 
 grainers; some establishments employed more than one process of 
 manufacture. Direct heat was applied in 31 establishments, and steam 
 heat in 91. 
 
 Properties of salt . — Common salt is not found in nature as absolutely 
 pure sodium chlorid, but always in combination with small amounts 
 of impurities from which it cannot be entirely separated except by 
 painstaking chemical work. Even so-called C. P. (chemically pure) 
 sodium chlorid, as manufactured for the use of chemists, may contain 
 appreciable quantities of various impurities (see below, analysis of 
 sample No. 66). The common impurities in dairy salt are calcium sul- 
 fate (gypsum), calcium and magnesium chlorids; sometimes sodium 
 sulfate, or perhaps magnesium sulfate; furthermore, moisture and me- 
 chanical impurities, like dirt, pan scale, pieces of wood, etc. The im- 
 purities mentioned are generally present in only small quantities in 
 good dairy salt, but nearly all are always found present therein, as 
 we shall see later. 
 
 Salt has a specific gravity of about 2.2; its hardness is 2. It crystal- 
 lizes in, what mineralogists call, the isometric system, generally in 
 cubes or related forms. When a salt solution is evaporated slowly, the 
 cubes aggregate in the form of thin, concave, hopper-shaped crystals 
 like those shown in figure 1. Rapidly evaporated brines give fine, hard 
 crystals of a reg’ular cubical form. Salt manufactured by the vacuum- 
 pan process assumes this form of crystallization. (See plates showing 
 salt crystals.) 
 
 *See Chatard, Salt-Making* Processes in the United States, U. S. Geo- 
 logical Survey, 7th An. Report, 1885-86, pp. 497-535. For an historical 
 sketch of the salt industry in the United States, see the lltli An. Re- 
 port of the Survey, pp. 1288-1313, and Piffard, The Salt Industry, in 
 Depew, One Hundred Years of American Commerce, Yol. II., pp. 
 442-445. 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 7 
 
 Fig. 1.— French Dairy Salt (No. 42), showing hopper-shaped crystals.; (Photomi- 
 crograph, magnified two times.) 
 
 AN INVESTIGATION OF AMERICAN AND FOREIGN DAIRY SALTS. 
 
 Object of the investigation . — An inquiry received from a Wisconsin firm 
 during- the spring of 1898 in regard to the value of a well-known brand 
 of salt in comparison with other brands, led to the present study. 
 The keen competition between the different salt manufacturers is 
 shown, among other ways, by glowing and often misleading advertise- 
 ments by which patronage of the various brands is sought. One 
 brand is widely advertised as “the salt that’s all salt;” another, as “the 
 best salt in the world;” another ag-uin takes all premiums at fairs and 
 conventions, etc. It was believed that the dairy public has a right to 
 expect correct information from the experiment stations as to the 
 comparative value of the different kinds of salt, so that these may be 
 sold on their respective merits rather than on the word of the particu- 
 lar manufacturer or agent. The study was considered so much the\ 
 
 ( more opportune as no systematic investigation of this subject has 
 ever been made in this country or abroad;* even the number of chem- 
 ical analyses made of the various brands is very small, and the avail - 1 
 able data therefore unsatisfactory. 
 
 The writer aimed to obtain samples of the leading brands of dairy 
 
 *Alex. Muller, in 1863, published a paper on “Butter-Salting and the ) 
 Salt to be Used for It” (Landw. Vers. Sta., V, pp. 184-188), which is the 
 only discussion bearing directly on this subject. 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 74. 
 
 salt for analysis from creameries and cheese factories so as to show 
 the chemical composition of the various kinds as found in the market* 
 and also to secure samples direct from the different manufacturers for 
 comparison with the former. The samples received under these heads 
 were obtained partly through correspondence with managers of 
 creameries and cheese factories or the various manufacturers, and 
 partly through the assistance of Mr. John W. Decker, cheese instruc- 
 tor in the Wisconsin Dairy School, on his tours of inspection of fac- 
 tories operated by candidates for dairy certificates in the Dairy School. 
 As it was considered of interest to be able to compare the quality of 
 our domestic dairy salts with those used in foreign dairy countries* 
 an effort was made to obtain samples of the leading brands in the 
 main European countries where dairying is an important industry. 
 Thanks to the kind assistance of a number of dairy scientists in the 
 various European countries, a considerable number of samples of the 
 leading foreign dairy salts were received and have been analyzed. In 
 all eighty-one samples were subjected to chemical and mechanical 
 analysis, of which number fifty-five were domestic dairy salts or such 
 as are used in this country, and tw T enty-five foreign dairy salts. The 
 number includes thirty-seven different brands of salt, of which nine- 
 teen are sold on the American and Canada market, and sixteen in the 
 United States. 
 
 The largest amount of work done on this investigation was expended 
 in a chemical analysis of the samples received; the effort was also- 
 made to examine critically the different brands as to other factors- 
 which influence their value for butter or cheese making, as the rate of 
 solubility, specific gravity, form of crystallization, etc. A number of 
 churning experiments were also made with a fine- and a coarse- 
 grained salt, to determine the effect of each on the butter and on the 
 weight of butter obtained in each case. The investigation was begun 
 during the early spring of 1898, but was not completed until the pres- 
 ent time owing to interruption of work in other lines which demanded 
 immediate attention. 
 
 The following list gives information concerning the origin of 
 the salt samples analyzed, with the names of the parties forwarding 
 the samples for analysis: 
 
Sta- 
 
 tion 
 
 No. 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 52 
 
 61 
 
 1 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 51 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 4 
 
 59 
 
 67 
 
 69&8J 
 
 75 
 
 56 
 
 35 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 
 73 
 
 12 
 
 34 
 
 68 
 
 5 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 54 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 60 
 
 74 
 
 32 
 
 53 
 
 57 
 
 58* 
 
 2 
 
 58 
 
 * 
 
 A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 O' 
 
 Description of samples of dairy salt. 
 
 Name of brand. 
 
 Used for 
 
 Name of sender. 
 
 A . Domestic Brands. 
 
 Acme dairy salt 
 
 Anchor dairy and table salt 
 
 Anchor dairy and table salt 
 Anchor dairy and table salt. 
 Ashton factory-filled dairy 
 
 salt 
 
 Ashton factory-filled dairy 
 salt 
 
 Ashton factory-filled dairy 
 
 salt 
 
 Bradley salt 
 
 Canfield & Wheeler salt 
 
 Canfield & Wheeler salt. — 
 Canfield & Wheeler salt r 32) 
 Canfield & Wheeler salt(32F) 
 Diamond Crystal salt. .. . 
 
 Diamond Crystal salt. 
 
 Diamond Crystal salt. 
 Diamond Crystal salt. 
 
 Brick cheese 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Butter 
 
 Butter 
 
 Butter 
 
 Butter 
 
 Diamond Crystal salt Butter 
 
 Empire dairy salt Brick cheese 
 
 Genesee salt j Butter. 
 
 Genesee salt Butter 
 
 Genesee salt Butter 
 
 Genesee salt i Butter 
 
 Genesee salt 
 
 Genesee salt 
 
 Genesee salt 
 
 Butter 
 
 Butter 
 
 Brick cheese. 
 
 Genesee F. F Butter 
 
 Genesee F. F. 
 
 Higgins’ Eureka dairy salt. 
 
 Kansas salt (“Perfection”). 
 Kansas (No. 2, butter salt). 
 
 Kansas 
 
 LeRoy cheese salt (“Snow 
 
 Flake”) 
 
 LeRoy butter salt 
 
 LeRoy cheese salt 
 
 Lone Star dairy salt 
 
 Vacuum Pan dairy salt. 
 Vacuum Pan dairy salt.. 
 Vacuum Pan dairy salt. 
 Vacuum Pan dairy salt. 
 Vacuum Pan dairy salt. 
 Vacuum Pan dairy salt. 
 
 Warsaw salt. 
 Warsaw salt. 
 Warsaw salt. 
 
 Windsor salt 
 
 Worcester dairy salt.. 
 
 Worcester dairy salt.. 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Butter.. 
 Butter. , 
 Butter . 
 
 Cheese 
 Butter 
 Cheese , 
 
 Butter. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Butter 
 
 Brick cheese. 
 Brick cheese. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 Butter 
 
 A H. Reid, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 The Percy Salt Works, Ludington,. 
 Mich. 
 
 J. A. Emison, Rogersville, Wis. 
 
 Wm. J. Emison, Eldorado, Wis. 
 
 University Creamery, Madison, Wis. 
 
 Francis D. Moulton & Co., New 
 York City. 
 
 J. A. Woll. Seattle, Wash. 
 
 Brunswick Cheese Factory, Clia- 
 tonville, Wis. 
 
 A. Henseler, Bakerville, Wis. 
 
 Jas. McPherson, Veefkind, Wis. 
 
 The Canfield & Wheeler Co., Man- 
 istee, Mich. 
 
 University Creamery, Madison, Wis. 
 
 ( Sample taken March 24, 1898.) 
 
 University Creamery, Madison, Wis. 
 (Sample taken Aug. 7, 1898.) 
 
 Diamond Crystal Salt Co., St. Clair, 
 Mich. 
 
 Mazomanie Creamery, Mazomanie, 
 Wis. 
 
 Wernick & Hammer, Hillsboro, Wis. 
 
 Anton Miller, Neeuah, Wis. 
 
 •J. O. Gibson. Urne, Wis. 
 
 H. W. Comely, Clinton Jet., Wis. 
 
 Elkhorn Creamery, Elkliorn, Wis. 
 
 Tibbitts’ Creamery, Tibbitts, Wis. 
 
 Volga Creamery, Volga, Wis. 
 
 T. W. Harville, Millville, Wis. 
 
 Perrin’s Cheese Factory, Eggers- 
 ville, Wis. 
 
 The Genesee Salt Co., New York, 
 N. Y. 
 
 The Genesee Salt Co., New York, 
 N. Y. 
 
 Francis D. Moulton & Co., New^ 
 York. N. Y. 
 
 Union Creamery Co., Madison, Neb. 
 
 C. B. Merry, Nortonville, Kan. 
 
 Prof. H. M. Cottrell, Manhattan, 
 Kan. 
 
 A. Grimm, Manawa, Wis. 
 
 The LeRoy Salt Co , LeRoy, N. Y. 
 
 The LeRoy Salt Co., LeRoy, N. Y. 
 
 R. A. Pearson, Asst. Chief Dairjr 
 Div., Washington, D. C. 
 
 University Creamery, Madison, Wis. 
 
 Chas. Lambert, Pickett, W T is. 
 
 Tlios. E. Bolchen, Mt. Ida, Wis. 
 
 F. D. Teel, Baraboo, Wis. 
 
 J. O. Batchelder, Fond du Lac, Wis. 
 
 The Butters & Peters Salt and Lum- 
 ber Co , Ludington, Mich. 
 
 Rusk Co-operative Cr’y, Rusk, Wis. 
 
 J. F. Leitzke, Hustisford, Wis. 
 
 Union Cheese Factory, Hustisford^ 
 Wis. 
 
 L. E, Scott, Neenah, Wis. 
 
 University Creamery, Madison, Wis- 
 (Sample taken Mch. 24, 1898.) 
 
 University Creamery, Madison, Wis r 
 (Sample taken Aug. 17, 1898.) 
 
 ame of manufacturer unknown ; very likely of Canadian manufacture. 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 74- 
 
 Description of samples of dairy salt.— Continued. 
 
 Sta- 
 
 tion 
 
 No. 
 
 Name of brand. 
 
 Used for 
 
 Name of sender. 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 J. M Hod son. Montpelier, Ohio. 
 
 E. W. Feak, Rockland, Wis. 
 Ellenboro Cr’y, Ellen boro, Wis. 
 Worcester Salt Co., New York, N.Y. 
 John G. Klossner, Eggersville, Wis. 
 
 Wm. Strupp, Coon Valley, Wis. 
 Genesee Salt Co , New York, N. Y. 
 
 45 
 
 
 Butter .... 
 
 50 
 
 Worcester dairy salt 
 
 Butter 
 
 70&71 
 
 Worcester (A & B; 
 
 
 27 
 
 “ New York ” salt 
 
 Cheese 
 
 31 
 
 Cheese salt (“second qual- 
 ity” > 
 
 
 66 
 
 Merck’s NaCl, C. P 
 
 
 
 B. Canadian Brands. 
 
 
 36 
 
 Coleman’s butter and cheese 
 salt 
 
 
 Prof. H. H. Dean, Guelph, Ont. 
 
 Prof. H. H. Dean, Guelph, Ont. 
 
 Prof. H. H. Dean, Guelph, Ont. 
 
 Prof. H. H. Dean, Guelph, Ont. 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 
 C. European Brands. 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Dr. B. Martiny, Berlin, Germany. 
 
 Dr. B. Martiny, Berlin, Germany. 
 
 Dr. P. Vieth, Hameln, Germany 
 
 Director Johs. Siedel, Giistrow, 
 Germany. 
 
 Director Johs. Siedel, Giistrow, 
 Germany. 
 
 Director F. H. Wereaskiold, Chris- 
 tiania, Norway. 
 
 Director F. H. Werenskiold, Chris- 
 tiania, Norway. 
 
 Director F. H. Werenskiold, Chris- 
 tiania, Norway. 
 
 Dairy Counselor B. Boggild, Co- 
 penhagen, Denmark. 
 
 Prof. J. P. Sheldon, Sheen, Ash- 
 bourne, England. 
 
 Prof. James Long, Burleigh, Ches- 
 hunt, England. 
 
 Prof. R. Lez6, Buc, pres Versailles, 
 France. 
 
 Prof. R. Leze, Buc, pres Versailles, 
 France. 
 
 Prof. R. Leze, Buc, pres Versailles, 
 France. 
 
 Insp.-Adj. Paul de Vuyst, Gand, 
 Belgium . 
 
 Insp. -Adj. Paul de Vuyst, Gand, 
 Belgium. 
 
 Insp.-Adj. Paul de Vuyst, Gand, 
 Belgium. 
 
 Dr. Ed. von Freudenreich, Berne, 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Di. C. Besana, Lodi, Italy. 
 
 Dr. F. Gabriel, Friedland, Bohemia. 
 
 Dr. F. Gabriel, Friedmnd, Bohemia. 
 
 9 
 
 Stade salt 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 Schonebecker salt 
 
 
 14 
 
 Norwegian dairy salt 
 
 (Lueneberg, M.) 
 
 
 15 
 
 Norwegian dairy salt 
 
 (Lueneberg, S.) 
 
 
 16 
 
 Norwegian dairy salt 
 
 (Lueneberg, O.) 
 
 
 19 
 
 Danish Krone-salt ” 
 
 
 17 
 
 Higgins’ Eureka dairy salt 
 
 
 18 
 
 D. S. C. L. dairy salt... 
 
 
 42 
 
 French dairy salt (“ Sel 
 ordinaire, Daguin mines”) 
 
 French i“ Sel de cuisine”) 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 44 
 
 French (“ Sel de cuisine, sel 
 de mer”) 
 
 . 
 
 20 
 
 Belgian dairy salt (“ Sel 
 Anglais” 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 Belgian dairy salt (“Sel 
 fin fin Beige ”) 
 
 
 28 
 
 Belgian dairy salt (Dairy of 
 Borsheke ) 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Swiss cheese salt (from 
 Schweizerhalle on the 
 Rhine ) 
 
 
 23 
 
 Italian cheese salt 
 
 
 29 I 
 
 Bohemian salt (“Sud salz”) . 
 Rock salt (from Wieliczka). 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 11 
 
 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF DAIRY SALT. 
 
 Methods of analysis . — The methods of chemical analysis followed are 
 given in outline below. The analyses were made in duplicate, or in 
 quadruplicate, when the first set of analyses were not considered sat' 
 isfactory. Two lots of ten grams of salt each were weighed out, dis- 
 solved in 200 cc. of water, and the time required to effect perfect solu- 
 tion was noted. The solution was then filtered through a tared plati- 
 num gooch and the insoluble residue in the gooch determined on dry- 
 ing in air-bath for about four hours at 110 to 120 degrees C. The fil- 
 tered solution was made up to 500 cc. with distilled water, 200 cc. of 
 which was taken for the determination of lime and magnesia, and 150 
 cc. for the determination of sulfuric acid. The water content of the 
 salt was determined by drying two grams of the substance in a steam 
 oven at 100 degrees C. for five hours. The sodium chlorid was ob- 
 tained by difference. 
 
 The combinations in which bases and acids are found in a complex 
 chemical compound often cannot be given with absolute certainty, 
 but the rate of solubility of the various combinations of bases and 
 acids that might be found therein, will in all probability determine 
 which ones are actually present. Soda, lime and magnesia are the 
 bases found in all common salt, and sulfuric and hydrochloric 
 acids, the acid radicals. The lime must be combined with sulfuric 
 acid because the calcium sulfate is more insoluble than either sulfate 
 of magnesia or sulfate of soda; if more sulfuric acid is present than is 
 required for the formation of calcium sulfate from the lime present, 
 the excess is combined with soda as sodium sulfate. If lime is found 
 in excess of what is required to form the combination calcium sulfate 
 from the sulfuric acid present, the excess must be combined with 
 chlorin as calcium chlorid. The magnesia found in salt is present in 
 combination with chlorin as magnesium chlorid. 
 
 Chemical analysis of dairy salts— The results of the analyses 'of do- 
 mestic and foreign dairy salts are given in the following tables, the 
 different brands having been grouped in the same manner as in the 
 preceding list, and the average results of the analyses calculated. 
 
 v 
 
12 
 
 Bulletin No. 7 If, 
 
 Chemical composition of dairy salts. 
 
 No. 
 
 Name of brand. 
 
 So- 
 
 dium 
 
 chlo- 
 
 rid. 
 
 Cal- 
 
 cium 
 
 sul- 
 
 fate. 
 
 Cal- 
 
 cium 
 
 chlo- 
 
 rid. 
 
 Magne- 
 
 sium 
 
 chlo- 
 
 rid. 
 
 Insol- 
 
 uble 
 
 matter. 
 
 Moist- 
 
 ure. 
 
 
 A. Domestic Brands. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 40 
 
 Acme salt 
 
 98.39 
 
 1.22 
 
 12 
 
 .07 
 
 .03 
 
 .17 
 
 41 
 
 Anchor dairy and table salt 
 
 97.82 
 
 1.41 
 
 ,32 
 
 .03 
 
 .14 
 
 .28 
 
 52 
 
 Anchor dairy and table salt... 
 
 97.95 
 
 1.29 
 
 .32 
 
 .09 
 
 .01 
 
 .34 
 
 61 
 
 Anchor dairy and table salt 
 
 97.61 
 
 1.73 
 
 .20 
 
 .12 
 
 .03 
 
 .31 
 
 
 Average 
 
 97.79 
 
 1.48 
 
 .28 
 
 .08 
 
 .06 
 
 .31 
 
 1 
 
 Ashton F. F. dairy salt 
 
 97.95 
 
 1.50 
 
 .12 
 
 TT 
 
 .03 
 
 
 72 
 
 Ashton F. F. dairy salt 
 
 98.11 
 
 1.41 
 
 .12 
 
 .15 
 
 .02 
 
 .19 
 
 80 
 
 Ashton F. F. dairy salt 
 
 97.97 
 
 1.34 
 
 .36 
 
 .14 
 
 .03 
 
 .16 
 
 
 Average 
 
 98.01 
 
 1.42 
 
 .20 
 
 .16 
 
 .03 
 
 .18 
 
 51 
 
 Bradley cheese salt 
 
 TTT 
 
 TT 
 
 "io 
 
 .(T~ 
 
 7)2 
 
 734 
 
 22 
 
 Canfield & Wheeler salt 
 
 ~ 98J2 
 
 1.29 
 
 .02 
 
 TT 
 
 !04 _ 
 
 ~40 
 
 33 
 
 Canfield & Wheeler salt 
 
 98.44 
 
 1.04 
 
 .20 
 
 .11 
 
 .04 
 
 .17 
 
 76 
 
 Canfield & Wheeler salt (32) 
 
 98 19 
 
 1.19 
 
 .30 
 
 .11 
 
 .02 
 
 .19 
 
 77 
 
 ■ Canfield & Wheeler salt (32 F.) — 
 
 97.99 
 
 1.33 
 
 .36 
 
 .11 
 
 .05 
 
 .16 
 
 
 Average 
 
 98.18 
 
 1.21 
 
 .22 
 
 .12 
 
 .04 
 
 .23 
 
 4 
 
 Diamond Crystal salt 
 
 99.29 
 
 .39 
 
 " ~ . 16 
 
 .10 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 59 
 
 Diamond Crystal salt 
 
 99.41 
 
 .31 
 
 .24 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .00 
 
 67 
 
 Diamond Crystal salt 
 
 99.22 
 
 .46 
 
 22 
 
 .06 
 
 .04 
 
 .00 
 
 69*j 
 
 Diamond Crystal salt .. 
 
 98.68 
 
 1.09 
 
 '.ll 
 
 .06 
 
 .03 
 
 .00 
 
 75 
 
 Diamond Crystal salt 
 
 99.30 
 
 .44 
 
 .20 
 
 .03 
 
 .03 
 
 .00 
 
 
 Average 
 
 99.18 
 
 .54 
 
 .19 
 
 .05 
 
 .03 
 
 .01 
 
 56 
 
 Empire dairy salt 
 
 98.58 
 
 .66 
 
 .54 
 
 7io~ 
 
 .02 
 
 To 
 
 35f 
 
 Genesee salt 
 
 97.38 
 
 .85 
 
 32 
 
 .06 
 
 .04 
 
 1.35 
 
 46 
 
 Genesee salt 
 
 98 48 
 
 1.07 
 
 .12 
 
 .08 
 
 .04 
 
 .21 
 
 47 
 
 Genesee salt 
 
 98.51 
 
 1.12 
 
 .14 
 
 .06 
 
 .02 
 
 .15 
 
 48 
 
 Genesee salt 
 
 98.15 ! 
 
 1.19 
 
 .38 
 
 .06 
 
 .02 
 
 .20 
 
 49 
 
 Genesee salt 
 
 98.08 
 
 1.17 
 
 .44 
 
 .07 
 
 .04 
 
 .20 
 
 62 
 
 Genesee salt 
 
 98.53 
 
 1.05 
 
 .20 
 
 .06 
 
 .04 
 
 .12 
 
 63 
 
 Genesee salt 
 
 98.35 
 
 1.22 
 
 .14 
 
 .09 
 
 .07 
 
 .13 
 
 64 
 
 Genesee salt. 
 
 98 60 
 
 .92 
 
 .28 
 
 .06 
 
 .02 
 
 .12 
 
 65 
 
 Genesee salt 
 
 98.32 
 
 1.17 
 
 .24 
 
 .07 
 
 .03 
 
 .17 
 
 
 Average 
 
 98.27 
 
 1.11 
 
 .24 
 
 .07 
 
 .04 
 
 .16 
 
 73 
 
 Higgins’ Eureka salt 
 
 98.19 
 
 1.44 
 
 .14 
 
 .10 
 
 .02 
 
 ~~n 
 
 12 
 
 Kansas salt 
 
 98.60 
 
 1.03 
 
 .20 
 
 .09 
 
 .01 
 
 .07 
 
 34 
 
 Kansas salt 
 
 97 44 
 
 1.60 
 
 .52 
 
 .03 
 
 .09 
 
 .32 
 
 68 
 
 Kansas salt 
 
 97.57 
 
 1.87 
 
 .22 
 
 .09 
 
 .05 
 
 .20 
 
 
 Average 
 
 97.87 
 
 1.50 
 
 .31 
 
 .07 
 
 .05 
 
 .20 
 
 5f 
 
 Le Roy salt 
 
 96.41 
 
 1 31 
 
 .16 
 
 .07 
 
 .03 
 
 2.02 
 
 78 
 
 Le Roy salt 
 
 98.29 
 
 1.26 
 
 .•-8 
 
 .08 
 
 .01 
 
 .08 
 
 79 
 
 Le Roy salt 
 
 98.01 
 
 1.36 
 
 .50 
 
 .09 
 
 .01 
 
 .03 
 
 
 Average 
 
 98.15 
 
 1.31 
 
 .39 
 
 .08 
 
 .01 
 
 .06 
 
 54 
 
 Lone Star salt 
 
 TsTTr 
 
 ~L46~ 
 
 *06 
 
 _ ~0S ’ 
 
 *06 
 
 Tio 
 
 * Another sample from the same source (No. 81) had the following compositition : So- 
 dium chlorid, 98 75 per ct., calcium sulfate, .95 per ct., calcium chlorid, .18 per ct., 
 magnesium chlorid, .05 per ct., insoluble matter, .03 per ct., moisture, .04 per ct. 
 t Not included in average. 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 13 
 
 Chemical composition of dairy salt . — Continued. 
 
 No. 
 
 Name of brand. 
 
 So- 
 
 dium 
 
 chlo- 
 
 rid. 
 
 Cal- 
 
 cium 
 
 sulfate. 
 
 Cal- 
 
 cium 
 
 chlo- 
 
 rid. 
 
 Magne- 
 
 sium 
 
 chlo- 
 
 rid. 
 
 Insol- 
 
 uble 
 
 matter. 
 
 Moist- 
 
 ure. 
 
 
 A.. Domestic Brands— Continued. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Per ct 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 3 
 
 Vacuum Pan salt 
 
 97.96 
 
 1.21 
 
 .32 
 
 .17 
 
 .02 
 
 .32 
 
 6 
 
 Vacuum Pan salt 
 
 98.15 
 
 1.24 
 
 .14 
 
 .12 
 
 .03 
 
 .32 
 
 7 
 
 Vacuum Pan salt 
 
 98.20 
 
 1.12 
 
 .28 
 
 .12 
 
 .02 
 
 .26 
 
 11 
 
 Vacuum Pan salt 
 
 97.73 
 
 1 29 
 
 .48 
 
 .14 
 
 .06 
 
 .30 
 
 60 
 
 Vacuum Pan salt 
 
 98.04 
 
 1.14 
 
 .28 
 
 .17 
 
 .02 
 
 .35 
 
 74 
 
 Vacuum Pan salt 
 
 97.90 
 
 .92 
 
 .65 
 
 .19 
 
 .02 
 
 .32 
 
 
 Average 
 
 98.00 
 
 1.15 
 
 36 
 
 .15 
 
 .03 
 
 .31 
 
 32 
 
 Warsaw salt ... 
 
 98.50 
 
 1.16 
 
 .14 
 
 .04 
 
 .02 
 
 .14 
 
 53 
 
 Warsaw salt 
 
 98.39 
 
 90 
 
 .50 
 
 .05 
 
 .03 
 
 .13 
 
 57 
 
 Warsaw salt 
 
 98.40 
 
 .82 
 
 .57 
 
 .10 
 
 .03 
 
 .08 
 
 
 Average 
 
 98.43 
 
 .96 
 
 .40 
 
 .06 
 
 .03 
 
 .12 
 
 :55 
 
 Windsor salt 
 
 98.44 
 
 1.21 
 
 .12 
 
 .08 
 
 .01 
 
 .14 
 
 2 
 
 Worcester salt 
 
 ~ 98^28" 
 
 1.17 
 
 "20 - 
 
 "l2 
 
 .01 
 
 ^22 
 
 13 
 
 Worcester salt 
 
 99.07 
 
 .41 
 
 .22 
 
 .15 
 
 .01 
 
 .14 
 
 45 
 
 Worcester sa.'t 
 
 98.62 
 
 .83 
 
 .29 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .20 
 
 -50 
 
 Worcester salt 
 
 98.53 
 
 .92 
 
 .30 
 
 .04 
 
 .02 
 
 .19 
 
 58 
 
 Worcester salt 
 
 98.34 
 
 1.29 
 
 .24 
 
 .03 
 
 .00 
 
 .10 
 
 '70* 
 
 Worcester salt 
 
 99.36 
 
 .34 
 
 .20 
 
 .03 
 
 .01 
 
 .03 
 
 71* 
 
 Worcester salt 
 
 99.53 
 
 .29 
 
 .14 
 
 .02 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 
 Average 
 
 98.57 
 
 .92 
 
 .25 
 
 .07 
 
 .02 
 
 .17 
 
 27 
 
 “New York salt” 
 
 98 09 
 
 1.11 
 
 .18 
 
 .06 
 
 "04 
 
 "52 
 
 31 
 
 “Cheese salt” 
 
 97.29 
 
 1.45 
 
 .04 
 
 .07 
 
 .99 
 
 .16 
 
 66 
 
 Merck’s NaCl,,C. P 
 
 d. C SaaA. £ 5. S 
 
 B. Canadian Brands. 
 
 99.70 
 
 .03 
 
 .24 
 
 .02 
 
 .01 
 
 .00 
 
 gpy? 
 
 .oS- 
 
 .06 
 
 
 
 „ - a 3 
 
 36 
 
 Coleman’s salt 
 
 98.21 
 
 1.48 
 
 .10 
 
 .04 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 37 
 
 Rice’s salt 
 
 97.57 
 
 1.85 
 
 1 2 
 
 .09 
 
 .07 
 
 .30 
 
 ■ 38 
 
 Windsor salt (butter) 
 
 98.29 
 
 .73 
 
 .83 
 
 .03 
 
 .02 
 
 .10 
 
 39 
 
 Windsor salt (cheese) 
 
 98.55 
 
 .75 
 
 .59 
 
 .00 
 
 .03 
 
 .08 
 
 
 C. European Brands. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Liineburg salt 
 
 97.93 
 
 1.19 
 
 • 21f 
 
 .39 
 
 .03 
 
 .25 
 
 9 
 
 Stade salt 
 
 98.07 
 
 1.39 
 
 .08 
 
 .29 
 
 .03 
 
 .14 
 
 24 
 
 Egestorff salt 
 
 98.36 
 
 .92 
 
 .25t 
 
 .26 
 
 .04 
 
 .17 
 
 25 
 
 Lindener salt 
 
 98.46 
 
 .90 
 
 .30f 
 
 .21 
 
 .04 
 
 .09 
 
 26 
 
 Schonebecker salt 
 
 98 55 
 
 1.09 
 
 • 04t 
 
 .08 
 
 .03 
 
 .21 
 
 14 
 
 Liineburg salt (from Norway) 
 
 97.31 
 
 1.19 
 
 .55f 
 
 .53 
 
 .09 
 
 .33 
 
 15 
 
 Liineburg salt (from Norway) 
 
 97.76 
 
 1.26 
 
 .30f 
 
 .40 
 
 .04 
 
 .24 
 
 16 
 
 Liineburg salt (from Norway) 
 
 Danish “Krone-salt” 
 
 97.81 
 
 1.19 
 
 .37f 
 
 .36 
 
 .08 
 
 .19 
 
 19 
 
 98.53 
 
 1.02 
 
 .00 
 
 .17 
 
 .06 
 
 .22 
 
 17 
 
 Higgins’ salt 
 
 98 06 
 
 1.63 
 
 .14 
 
 .05 
 
 .08 
 
 .04 
 
 18 
 
 D. S. C. L. salt (from England) 
 
 98.15 
 
 1.48 
 
 .22 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .08 
 
 42 
 
 French dairy salt 
 
 97.69 
 
 1.34 
 
 .25 f 
 .22 
 
 .26 
 
 .26 
 
 .20 
 
 43 
 
 French dairy salt 
 
 98.82 
 
 .46 
 
 .17 
 
 .04 
 
 .29 
 
 44 
 
 French dairy salt 
 
 96.88 
 
 1.69 
 
 .02 
 
 .26 
 
 .11 
 
 1.04 
 
 20 
 
 Belgian dairy salt 
 
 96.54 
 
 1.51 
 
 .05 f 
 
 .03 
 
 .05 
 
 1.82 
 
 21 
 
 Belgian dairy salt 
 
 98.15 
 
 .51 
 
 .18 
 
 .15 
 
 .05 
 
 .96 
 
 '-28 
 
 Belgian dairy salt 
 
 91.20 
 
 .87 
 
 .12 
 
 .08 
 
 .03 
 
 7.70 
 
 10 
 
 Swiss cheese salt 
 
 95 02 
 
 .86 
 
 .59 
 
 .12 
 
 .05 
 
 3.36 
 
 23 
 
 Italian cheese salt 
 
 98 29 
 
 .71 
 
 .16 
 
 .19 
 
 .24 
 
 .41 
 
 29 
 
 Bohemian dairy salt 
 
 96.71 
 
 .83 
 
 1.50 f 
 
 .23 
 
 .07 
 
 .66 
 
 30 
 
 Bohemian rock salt 
 
 94.94 
 
 .37 
 
 .16 
 
 .03 
 
 4.40 
 
 .10 
 
 O’ 
 
 * Not included in average, 
 t Sodium sulfate. 
 
 C®-) 
 
 -oJat Sio. f R*jjJi 
 
 
 
 
14 
 
 Bulletin No. 7 4 . 
 
 The average composition of the main domestic brands of dairy salt 
 analyzed is summarized in the following table: 
 
 Average composition of American dairy salts , in per cent. 
 
 Name of brand. 
 
 No. 
 
 of 
 
 sam- 
 
 ples. 
 
 Sodium 
 
 chlorid. 
 
 Calcium 
 
 sulfate. 
 
 Calcium 
 
 chlorid. 
 
 Magne- 
 
 sium 
 
 chlorid. 
 
 Insolu- 
 
 ble 
 
 matter. 
 
 Moist- 
 
 ure. 
 
 Anchor 
 
 3 
 
 97.79 
 
 1.48 
 
 .28 
 
 .08 
 
 .06 
 
 .31 
 
 Ashton 
 
 3 
 
 98.01 
 
 1 42 
 
 .20 
 
 .16 
 
 .03 
 
 .18 
 
 Canfield & Wheeler 
 
 4 
 
 98.18 
 
 1.21 
 
 .22 
 
 .12 
 
 .04 
 
 .23 
 
 Diamond Crystal 
 
 5 
 
 99.18 
 
 .54 
 
 .19 
 
 .05 
 
 .03 
 
 .01 
 
 Genesee 
 
 8 
 
 98.27 
 
 1.11 
 
 .24 
 
 .07 
 
 .04 
 
 .16 
 
 Kansas 
 
 3 
 
 97.87 
 
 1.50 
 
 .31 
 
 .07 
 
 .05 
 
 .20 
 
 LeRoy 
 
 2 
 
 98.15 
 
 1.31 
 
 .39 
 
 .08 
 
 .01 
 
 .06 
 
 Vacuum Pan 
 
 6 
 
 93.00 
 
 1.15 
 
 .36 
 
 .15 
 
 .03 
 
 .31 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 3 
 
 98.43 
 
 .96 
 
 .40 
 
 .06 
 
 .03 
 
 .12 
 
 Worcester 
 
 5 
 
 98.57 
 
 .92 
 
 .25 
 
 .07 
 
 .02 
 
 .17 
 
 Discussion of results . — We notice from the preceding tables that the 
 leading brands of dairy salt in general contain 98 to over 99 per cent, 
 of pure sodium chlorid, .5 to 1.5 per cent, calcium sulfate, .1 to .5 per 
 cent, calcium chlorid, a trace to .2 per cent, magnesium chlorid, none 
 to .3 per cent, moisture, and none to below .1 per cent, of insoluble im- 
 purities. A high content of calcium- and magnesium chlorids will 
 most likely be accompanied by a high water-content, and the salt will 
 be apt to be damp and to cake, on account of the water-absorbing 
 power of these compounds. A salt with a normal content of calcium 
 and magnesium chlorids will, however, be found to contain an abnor- 
 mal percentage of water, if placed where it is exposed to steam or 
 much dampness; this was evidently the case with sample No. 35. (See 
 below, p. 18.) 
 
 The purity of the Diamond Crystal salt is very striking, as shown by 
 the high per cent, of the sodium chlorid which it contains, and its low 
 contents of calcium sulfate, calcium- and magnesium chlorids, and 
 moisture. As regards the calcium-sulfate content, Worcester salt 
 comes next to the Diamond Crystal, and Genesee salt, third. Either of 
 these salts contain, however, nearly one-half per cent, more sulfate 
 than does the Diamond Crystal. 
 
 Comparison of domestic and foreign dairy salts . — If we compare the 
 analyses of domestic and foreign dairy salts we are at once struck by 
 the great variations in the composition of the latter salts, and also 
 by the fact that the leading brands of our American dairy salts are 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 15 
 
 equally pure, and in some cases, purer than any brands which rank 
 highest in foreign dairy countries. It will be noticed that but thir- 
 teen of the twenty-five analyses given of foreig’n salts show a content 
 of pure sodium chlorid above 98 per cent., while all but fourteen out 
 of fifty-five analyses of the dairy salts found on our market which are 
 represented in these analyses, come above this limit. The dairy salts 
 in use on the continent and in Europe generally contain a high per- 
 centage of magnesium chlorid, a matter which has been recognized by 
 German authorities. The agricultural department of the province of 
 Posen, Germany, has called attention to the fact that salt containing 
 .6 per cent, of magnesium sulfate is found on the German market, 
 which component when present in this quantity gives a bitter taste to 
 the butter,* and that an ideal butter salt should contain only .025 per 
 cent, of magnesium sulfate (equivalent to .02 per cent, magnesium 
 chlorid). The analyses given on pp. 12-13 show that nearly all of our 
 leading’ American brands of dairy salt will approach this minimum 
 limit. 
 
 The best foreign dairy salts, as far as can be determined by chemical 
 analysis alone, are: among the German salts, Egestorff, Lindener, and 
 Schonebecker, and among- other foreign salts, the Danish Krone-salt, 
 and French salt No. 43. None of these dairy salts, however, come up 
 to our best American brands in purity. 
 
 MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF DAIRY SALT. 
 
 The fineness or coarseness of the grain of dairy salt is of consid- 
 erable importance both in butter- and cheese making, since the rate 
 of solubility of a salt and its mechanical effect on the butter- or cheese 
 product depends to a large extent on the size and the shape of the 
 salt crystals. The different brands of salt which were obtained in this 
 investigation were therefore subjected to a mechanical examination, 
 including size of grain, apparent specific gravity, and relative rate of 
 solubility. 
 
 I. Size of grain . — The size of the salt crystals was determined by 
 means of two sieves; one, 20 and the other, 40 meshes to the inch. The 
 salt was separated into three portions, viz.: salt remaining on the 
 20-mesh sieve {coarse), salt passing through the 20-mesh sieve, but re- 
 maining on the 40-mesh sieve {medium), and salt passing through the 
 40-mesh sieve {fine). 
 
 II. The apparent specific gravity was determined by weighing a tared 
 100 cc. cylinder filled with salt. The salt was allowed to pack lightly 
 in the cylinder, all lumps being previously crushed with a rubber 
 pestle. 
 
 *Molkerei-Ztg., Berlin, 1898, page 429. 
 
16 
 
 Bulletin No. 7 
 
 III. Relative rate of solubility . — : An attempt was made to determine 
 the rate of solubility of the various brands of dairy salt. For this 
 purpose the time in seconds was noted which it took to dissolve 10 
 grams of salt in 200 cc. of water, and 2 grams of salt in 10 cc. of water 
 (see p. 11). The means of the results thus obtained are given in the 
 following table. These quantities of salt were weighed out for the 
 determination of the chemical composition of the various brands, and 
 the data as to rate of solubility were therefore obtained with com- 
 paratively little extra labor. The following table presents the results 
 obtained in regard to the three points mentioned: 
 
 
 
 Mechanical Analysis 
 
 Appar- 
 ent spe- 
 ] cific 
 gravity 
 
 Rela- 
 
 tive 
 
 No. 
 
 Name of Brands. 
 
 Coarse. 
 
 Medi- 
 
 um. 
 
 1 
 
 Fine. 
 
 rate of 
 solu- 
 bility. 
 
 40 
 
 A. Domestic Brands. 
 
 
 7.8 
 
 92.2 
 
 .944 
 
 Sec. 
 
 24 
 
 41 
 
 Anchor 
 
 .1 
 
 37.1 
 
 62 8 
 
 1.125 
 
 31 3 * 
 
 1 & 72 
 
 Ashton 
 
 8.7 
 
 36.3 
 
 55 0 
 
 .703 
 
 39 3 
 
 51 
 
 Bradley 
 
 52.6 
 
 38.5 
 
 8.9 
 
 .876 
 
 63 
 
 76 
 
 Canfield & Wheeler 
 
 .1 
 
 31.2 
 
 68.7 
 
 1.010 
 
 27 4 
 
 77 
 
 Canfield & Wheeler 
 
 
 16.7 
 
 83 3 
 
 1.114 
 
 25 
 
 4 & 67 
 
 Diamond Crystal 
 
 .9 
 
 75.0 
 
 24.1 
 
 .880 
 
 33 5 
 
 56 
 
 Empire 
 
 .3 
 
 39.7 
 
 60.0 
 
 .933 
 
 32 
 
 64 
 
 Genesee (butter) 
 
 1.2 
 
 48.7 
 
 50.1 
 
 .875 
 
 31 8 
 
 65 
 
 Genesee (cheese) 
 
 27.9 
 
 65.0 
 
 7.1 
 
 .671 
 
 34 
 
 17& 73 
 
 Higgins’ Eureka 
 
 
 20.5 
 
 79.5 
 
 .907 
 
 28 2 
 
 12 
 
 Kansas (Perfection butter) 
 
 
 6.5 
 
 93 5 
 
 1.090 
 
 28 
 
 68 
 
 Kansas 
 
 
 42.4 
 
 57.6 
 
 .96) 
 
 32 3 
 
 78 
 
 Le Roy (butter) 
 
 
 20.8 
 
 79.2 
 
 1.094 
 
 25 
 
 5 & 79 
 
 Le Roy (cheese) .. 
 
 10.3 
 
 64 4 
 
 25.3 
 
 .944 
 
 37 2 
 
 54 
 
 Lone Star 
 
 .2 
 
 18.5 
 
 81.3 
 
 1.072 
 
 28 
 
 3 & 74 
 
 Vacuum Pan 
 
 .1 
 
 16 1 
 
 83.8 
 
 1.075 
 
 30 6 
 
 53 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 14.0 
 
 51.2 
 
 34.8 
 
 .962 
 
 39 3 
 
 55 
 
 Windsor 
 
 
 18 9 
 
 81.1 
 
 1.104 
 
 28 
 
 :2 & 70 
 
 Worcester (A) 
 
 
 3.1 
 
 96.9 
 
 | 1.149 
 
 29 5 
 
 71 
 
 Worcester (B) 
 
 
 48.5 
 
 51.5 
 
 : 1.140 
 
 29 
 
 36 
 
 B. Canadian Brands. 
 
 Coleman . . . 
 
 .1 
 
 70.2 
 
 29.7 
 
 .865 
 
 28 
 
 37 
 
 Rice 
 
 9.8 
 
 78.4 
 
 11.8 
 
 >28 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 Windsor (butter) 
 
 
 10.1 
 
 89.9 
 
 1.109 
 
 23 
 
 39 
 
 Windsor (cheese) 
 
 6.2 
 
 55.5 
 
 • 38.3 
 
 .891 
 
 .32 
 
 8 
 
 C. European Brands. 
 
 Lueneburg 
 
 1 17.2 
 
 48.5 
 
 34.3 
 
 .781 
 
 34 
 
 15 
 
 Lueneburg (from Norway) 
 
 8 5 
 
 37.6 
 
 53.9 
 
 .725 
 
 31 
 
 14 
 
 Lueneburg (from Norway) 
 
 10 3 
 
 41.2 
 
 48.5 
 
 .741 
 
 37 
 
 16 
 
 Lueneburg (from Norway) 
 
 18.3 
 
 41.9 
 
 39.8 
 
 .822 
 
 .35 
 
 9 
 
 Stade 
 
 11.5 
 
 39.7 
 
 48.8 
 
 .746 
 
 .33 
 
 24 
 
 Egestorff 
 
 20.7 
 
 37.7 
 
 41 6 
 
 .764 
 
 39 
 
 25 
 
 Lindener 
 
 10.5 
 
 38.6 
 
 50.9 
 
 .787 
 
 35 
 
 26 
 
 Schonebecker 
 
 81.7 
 
 14 1 
 
 4.2 
 
 .834 
 
 66 
 
 19 
 
 Danish “ Krone-salt ” 
 
 13.9 
 
 40.7 
 
 45.4 
 
 .811 
 
 36 
 
 18 
 
 English D. S. C. L. salt 
 
 7 
 
 16.0 
 
 83.3 
 
 1.023 
 
 32 
 
 74 
 
 42 
 
 French No. I 
 
 81.4 
 
 14.8 
 
 3.8 
 
 .790 
 
 43 
 
 French No. II 
 
 91.1 
 
 7.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 .744 
 
 63 
 
 44 
 
 French No. Ill 
 
 11.8 
 
 27 0 
 
 61.2 
 
 .974 
 
 51 
 
 20 
 
 Belgian No. I 
 
 6.9 
 
 55.1 
 
 38.0 
 
 .944 
 
 37 
 
 21 
 
 Belgian No. II 
 
 .3 
 
 20.0 
 
 79.7 
 
 .894 
 
 35 
 
 10 
 
 Swiss t 
 
 75.8 
 
 20.8 
 
 3.4 
 
 .861 
 
 73 
 
 23 
 
 Italian 
 
 90.8 
 
 6.8 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.078 
 
 114 
 
 29 
 
 Bohemian 
 
 36.8 
 
 43.5 
 
 19.7 
 
 .866 
 
 58 
 
 Average for 3 samples, t D ry salt. 
 

 
 
 
centimeters (see page 17). 
 
centimeters (see page 17). 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 17 
 
 The data presented in this table cannot, for lack of space, be fully 
 discussed here. We may call attention to the fact, however, that 
 there is a decided difference as to the results of the mechanical analy- 
 ses between the various butter- and cheese salts, the former contain- 
 ing' no coarse salt or but a very small proportion thereof, and more 
 than half of it, in some cases even nine-tenths, is fine salt. The cheese 
 salts, on the other hand, contain an appreciable quantity of coarse 
 salt, and the greater portion consists of salt of medium grain. 
 
 In strict correlation to the proportionate parts of coarse, medium 
 and fine salt stands the apparent specific gravity of the various brands 
 of salt. While the absolute specific gravity of salt varies but little 
 and is always very near 2.2, the apparent specific gravity is subject 
 to great fluctuations according to the size of the salt crystals. Coarse- 
 grained flakey salt packs but lightly, and a certain volume of such salt 
 will therefore weigh less than the same volume of fine-grained salt. 
 A high apparent specific gravity in dairy salt is, as a rule, a sign of 
 thin-walled, flakey crystals; while a 1ow t apparent specific gravity 
 shows a fine-grained salt having small crystals that pack well. Gen- 
 erally speaking, the more medium and coarse salt in a brand, the lower 
 its apparent specific gravity. The data obtained for the various 
 brands given range between .671 (Genesee cheese salt) to 1.149 (Wor- 
 cester, brand A). The average for the apparent specific gravity for 
 flakey butter salt will come considerably below 1, while cubical 
 (vacuum-pan) salts will have an average apparent specific gravity 
 above 1. 
 
 The figures shown in the last but one column of the preceding table 
 are represented graphically in another manner in Fig. 2. Six 500 cc. 
 glass cylinders were partly filled with salt of the various brands, 
 the same weight of salt being taken in all cases, viz., 385 grams, which 
 was the weig'ht obtained for 500 cc. of Genesee salt. The points to 
 which the different brands filled the respective cylinders are seen in 
 the illustration. The difference in the volume of the same weight 
 of our leading dairy salts is strikingly shown, varying from about 540 
 cc. (in case of Ashton salt) to 340 cc. (Worcester salt). These figures 
 stand in nearly the same relation as the data given in the table for 
 the apparent specific gravity of the two salts: 
 
 540 : 340 :: X : .703 
 X=1.117 
 
 Viz,. 1.117 instead of 1.149. Identical figures could not be expected 
 because the data in the table are averages of several determinations in 
 different samples. There is, however, in general, a very satisfac- 
 tory agreement between the twm methods of presentation. The dif- 
 ference in the weight of the same bulk of the different brands of 
 dairy salts on our market is much greater than suspected by even 
 ’well-informed dairymen. 
 
 2 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No. 7Jf. 
 
 The effect of the size of grain on the apparent specific gravity of 
 the salt is further illustrated by the following data. A quantity of 
 Ashton salt (No. 72) was separated into three different portions by 
 means of the 20- and 40-mesh sieves used in the mechanical analysis; 
 the apparent specific gravity was then determined as before, with re- 
 sults as follow: 
 
 Apparent 
 sp. gr. 
 
 Coarse salt (grains larger than holes in 20- mesh sieve) 504 
 
 Medium salt (grains larger than holes in 40-mesh sieve, bat smaller than those of 
 
 20-mesh sieve) . . . 593 
 
 Fine salt (grains smaller than holes in 40-mesh sieve) 824 
 
 The relative rate of solubility of the different brands of dairy salt 
 is shown in the last column of the table. In the main the finer the 
 salt, the shorter time it takes to dissolve. The extreme figures are 23 
 seconds (Windsor butter salt), and 114 seconds (Italian cheese salt). 
 The figures for butter salts generally come at about 30 seconds, and 
 those for cheese salts somewhat higher. 
 
 The rapidity with which salt of different sized grains comes into 
 solution is illustrated by the data obtained from the three portions of 
 salt No. 72, mentioned above. The solubility-figure for the coarse salt 
 was 45 seconds, for the medium salt 30 seconds, and for the fine salt 
 25 seconds. In the same way salt of the same origin, but of different 
 grain, will give the following average results when the data shown in 
 the table on page 16 are summarized: 
 
 Relative rate of 
 solubility. 
 
 Coarse-grained salt (average for 7 brands) 32 seconds. 
 
 Fine-grained salt (average for 7 brands) 27 seconds. 
 
 The form of crystallization has doubtless considerable influence on 
 the rapidity with which salt goes into solution. Thin, flakey crystals 
 offer a larger surface for the action of the w T ater than cubical crystals, 
 and will therefore, under otherwise similar conditions, dissolve more 
 rapidly; but a fine cubical salt like the Worcester (96.9 per cent, fine) 
 dissolves in a shorter time than a flakey, comparatively fine salt like 
 Genesee (50.1 per cent, fine), or the somewhat coarser Diamond Crystal 
 salt (24.1 per cent. fine). 
 
 Comparing the foreign dairy salts with those found on the Amer- 
 ican market we note that the former are uniformly somewhat coarser 
 than our butter salts. The apparent specific gravity is fairly uniform 
 at about .8, and the rate of solubility for the butter salts generally 
 lies between 30 and 40 seconds. 
 
 Water-absorbing power of dairy sail. — It has been stated that, other 
 things being equal, a high content of calcium- and magesium chlorids 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 19 
 
 in a salt will generally be accompanied by a high water-content. This 
 has been proved experimentally by exposing salts containing different 
 amounts of these chlorids in a damp atmosphere or one saturated with 
 moisture. Of the large number of data accumulated on this point by 
 the writer, the following results are here presented: 10 grams of the 
 dairy salts given in the table were weighed out on watch glasses, 
 either direct, or after having been dried at 120° C. ; they were left 
 standing in the laboratory weighing-room for 24 hours, and after- 
 wards placed under a bell jar on a crystallizing dish half tilled with 
 water. A piece of linen cloth dipping into the water was placed un- 
 der the jar so as to keep the air saturated with water vapor. By 
 weighing the watch glasses at the intervals stated, the results shown 
 below were obtained: 
 
 Water-absorbing power of dairy salts. 
 
 
 Salt No 75. 
 
 ( 23 per cent, 
 chlorids.*; 
 
 Salt No. 48. 
 
 ( 44 per cent, 
 chlorids.*) 
 
 Salt No 74. 
 (.84 percent, 
 chlorids.*) 
 
 Weighed 
 ' ut 
 direct. 
 
 Dried 
 
 before 
 
 weighed 
 
 out. 
 
 Weighed 
 
 out 
 
 direct. 
 
 Dried 
 
 before 
 
 weighed 
 
 out. 
 
 Weighed 
 
 out 
 
 direct. 
 
 Dried 
 
 before 
 
 weighed 
 
 out. 
 
 
 
 
 / er cen '. wa'er absorbed. 
 
 
 Kept in damp atmosphere. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 hours 
 
 
 .020 
 
 .036 
 
 .080 
 
 .187 
 
 .495 
 
 .712 
 
 Kept in saturated 
 
 atmos- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 phere, 1 hour . . 
 
 
 .411 
 
 .251 
 
 .527 
 
 .504 
 
 .954 
 
 1.058 
 
 Kept in saturated 
 
 atmos 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 phere, 2 hours 
 
 
 .632 
 
 .499 
 
 .773 
 
 .712 
 
 1.221 
 
 1.300 
 
 Kept in saturated 
 
 atmos 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 phere, 6 hours 
 
 1 
 
 1.370 
 
 .884 
 
 1.489 
 
 1.263 
 
 1.982 
 
 1.924 
 
 Kept in saturated 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 phere, 24 hours 
 
 atuiuo- J 
 
 4.111 
 
 3.081 
 
 4.732 
 
 4 016 
 
 4 865 
 
 4.571 
 
 * Exclusive of sodium chlorid. 
 
 By exposure for twenty-four hours in a damp atmosphere (raining 
 or cloudy out-doors, with the window in the room open a little), an 
 amount of water corresponding to from .02 to .50 per cent, was ab- 
 sorbed by the three salts, and when these were dried before being 
 weighed out, the increase was from .04 to .71 per cent., the water- 
 absorption of the salts in' all cases increasing with their contents of 
 CaCl 2 and MgCl a . If salt is kept in a saturated atmosphere, the ab- 
 sorption of water is remarkable; after 12 days an increase of 43 to 63 
 per cent, was thus obtained with 10 grams of the salts mentioned, 
 and all of these finally deliquesced. The latter experiments may not 
 be practical, as dairy salt would not be kept under such conditions, but 
 they show that even salt lowest in calcium- and magnesium chlorids 
 may be spoiled by exposure to a moisture-laden atmosphere for only 
 a short time. Salt must be kept in a dry place, preferably in a special 
 box, covered so as to avoid its becoming damp and caking. 
 
20 
 
 Bulletin No. 7J>. 
 
 THE LEADING BRANDS OF DAIRY SALTS ON THE AMERICAN MARKET. 
 
 A large number of brands of dairy salt are at the present time on 
 the market in this country; while it is not claimed that the analyses 
 given in the preceding tables represent even a majority of these, there 
 is no doubt but that they do include those brands which during late 
 years have taken the lead among our dairy salts, and the merits of 
 which are generally put before the dairy public through more or less 
 catchy advertisements and circulars. The following five brands may 
 be considered the main competing dairy salts in this country at the 
 present time, at least for butter making, viz., Ashton, Diamond Crys- 
 tal, Genesee, Vacuum pan, and Worcester. As the interests of dairy- 
 and factory men center around these salts we shall briefly outline the 
 methods of manufacture of each of these brands and give such dis- 
 cussions of their comparative value as the data at hand will warrant. 
 The descriptions of the manufacturing processes are taken from 
 the circulars of the different salt companies, or from private communi- 
 cations from the manufacturers, and may therefore be considered au- 
 thoritative. 
 
 Ashton salt. — This is an imported salt, manufactured in England. 
 Prior to 1882, when but little refined salt was made in this country, 
 la-rge quantities of English table and dairy salt were imported. The 
 maximum import of salt in bags, barrels and other packages took 
 place in 1881, when 412,442,291 pounds were imported, while the im- 
 ports of salt in bulk, and such used for curing fish, amounted to 
 nearly 700,000 pounds; since that time the imports from abroad have 
 decreased almost every year up to the present time. There is still, 
 however, large quantities of Ashton and Higgins’ Eureka dairy salt 
 used in this country, particularly in the East and on the Pacific coast. 
 The agents of this salt in this country write that they “are not fami- 
 liar with the process of manufacture from which this salt is made. 
 We claim that the brine from which this salt is made is purer than 
 any brine found in the United States.” 
 
 The analyses show that the Ashton salt is high in calcium sulfate 
 and in magnesium chlorid, but low in calcium chlorid; the content of 
 pure sodium chlorid is, however, satisfactory, being 98 per cent. 
 
 Diamond Crystal salt. — This salt comes from St. Clair, Mich. The 
 supply of salt is obtained from a strata of salt rock 1,635 feet below the 
 surface. The rock is dissolved by water, which is forced down the 
 well through one pipe, the same pressure bringing back the saturated 
 brine through another pipe. The brine is heated in a succession of 
 closed heaters, in the first of which it is heated to a temperature of 
 165 degrees Fahr., in the second to 185 degrees Fahr., and so on rising 
 to the sixth heater in which a temperature of 280 degrees Fahr. is 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 21 
 
 reached. After this it goes through a large circular grainer. On be- 
 ing exposed to the air the crystals at once begin to form here and are 
 sent to the bottom of the grainer by an agitation of the brine caused 
 by a small piece of metal moved rapidly over the surface by a revolv- 
 ing shaft. In connection with the fifth heater there is a “gravel pit,” 
 and the brine which is here heated to 260 degrees Fahr., deposits 
 nearly all the lime on the gravel so that it is exceedingly pure when 
 coming into the sixth heater. 
 
 The claims of this company for exceptional purity and dryness in. 
 their salt are fully substantiated by the analytical results obtained by 
 the writer. The sample No. 81 is from the same lot as No. 69, and has 
 therefore not been included in the calculated average composition of 
 Diamond Crystal salt. This sample was secured as it was deemed 
 important to decide whether the relatively high calcium-sulfate con- 
 tent of the first sample, No. 69, was due to errors in sampling or 
 analysis. The analysis shows that this brand of salt may also vary 
 considerably in chemical composition and perhaps more than the 
 manufacturers are aware. 
 
 Genesee salt. — This salt is manufactured at Piffard, Livingston Co., 
 New York, and is obtained from clarified brine evaporated in open 
 pans at a uniform temperature of 226 degrees Fahr. The salt 
 crystallized out is raked onto wooden drips and after a few hours is 
 removed to bins where it is left for several weeks. It is then passed 
 to wooden driers and comes from these to sieves separating it accord- 
 ing to fineness of grain, into table-, butter- and cheese salt, with a 
 small amount of “tailings” going toward coarser grades. 
 
 The analyses made of Genesee salt show great uniformity in com- 
 position, with a medium content of calcium sulfate, calcium chlorid 
 and magnesium chlorid. The figures given do not justify any serious 
 criticism of the salt as regards its chemical composition. 
 
 Vacuum pan salt. — This salt is manufactured at Ludington, Mich., 
 from brine which is pumped from wells 2,240 feet deep, filtered and 
 ripened prior to evaporation in a vacuum pan or steel tank; the latter 
 is lined inside with hard wood and cemented, and the evaporation is 
 effected by the steam passing through copper flues in the vacuum pan, 
 so that neither brine nor salt comes in contact with iron or steel in 
 the process of manufacture. . 
 
 Vacuum pan salt is somewhat higher in calcium sulfate, in calcium- 
 and magnesium chlorids, and in water, than the two salts just men- 
 tioned. The percentages of calcium- and magnesium chlorids contained 
 in the samples analyzed are greater than those of the samples exam- 
 ined of the leading dairy salts on the market, and as a result we find 
 the average per cent, of water in the salt higher than in case of the 
 other brands. 
 
22 
 
 Bulletin No. 7£. 
 
 Worcester salt. — The factory where this salt is made is located at 
 Silver Spring’s, New York. The brine is obtained from wells 2,200 to 
 2,600 feet deep. It is held in tanks to ripen and is treated to precipi- 
 tate the common impurities found in the salt bed. The manufacturers 
 state that both open and closed pans are used in evaporating- the 
 brine; no sample of this brand has, however, been received which was 
 made by the open-pan process. The Worcester salt comes next to Dia- 
 mond Crystal in purity, judging from the analyses made. The aver- 
 age content of calcium sulfate is below one per cent., with a medium 
 content of moisture and calcium chlorid, and very low in magnesium 
 chlorid and insoluble impurities. Under the microscope the Worcester 
 salt shows perfect cubes of remarkably uniform size. 
 
 The accompanying plates show photo-micrographs of salt crystals 
 of the various brands of dairy salt on the American market at the pres- 
 ent time, and also a number of typical foreign dairy salts. The salt 
 was in all cases magnified 11 times. These, as well as other photo- 
 graphs reproduced in this bulletin, were taken by Mr. Decker of this 
 experiment station. 
 
 The effect of salt on butter . — The effect of salt of different brands and 
 degree of purity on the quality of butter is a subject that has occa- 
 sioned a great deal of controversy, and concerning which we unfor- 
 tunately are much in the dark. It may be stated at the outset that 
 there are doubtless several brands of salt on the market which may 
 be considered of nearly equal value in the making of butter for imme- 
 diate consumption; any differences that may be found in the effect of 
 these salts on the flavor of the butter will not be likely to become 
 noticeable until the butter has been kept in cold-storage for at least 
 three or four months. Furthermore, the fact that a butter-maker is 
 used to one particular brand places at a disadvantage any new brand 
 that he may want to try, since the working of the butter cannot be 
 performed in the same manner in case of different brands and it will 
 take same time before he learns how to use a new brand of salt. Then 
 again, the different markets demand butter salted in a different man- 
 ner, hence one special brand may be preferred in one market, and an- 
 other in another market. There is evidently no single brand of dairy 
 salt which is best adapted for all kinds of makers and in all markets. 
 These remarks apply only to the few Reading brands of dairy salt; 
 they do not imply that any dairy salt on the market may prove satis- 
 factory for butter making. 
 
 The difficulty in obtaining definite information instead of opinions 
 as to the effect of salt on butter is, however, great. The testimony of 
 butter makers and creamery men presented by the manufacturers and 
 agents of the various brands cannot be considered conclusive evidence; 
 while without doubt the testimony in most cases gives the honest con- 
 viction of the different parties, their experience with different kinds 
 
IMate I. 
 
 TPor 'ces ter f7J) sJn cTior tJJ) 
 
 Brands of American Dairy Salt. (Photomicrographs, magnified 11 times.) 
 

 
Plate II. 
 
 ^Empire fS6) JJs tsrZ/cf/ ZT/) 
 
 Vole man (36) ZUcr (G7J ] 
 
 Brands of American Dairy Salt. (Photomicrographs, magnified 11 times."* 
 

 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Plate III. 
 
 Dicrmonc/ C/'^stalft) 
 
 T^crenn/nJPan f 3 ) 
 
 yJ s/i / o/i ft J 
 
 Tf/n ft, s o/- (3 1 
 
 Brands of American Dairy Salt. (Photomicrographs, magnified 11 times.) 
 
Plate IV. 
 
 Brands of Foreign Dairy Salt. (Photomicrographs, magnified 11 times.) 
 
 Z ii neZtri'ff ( J(5) Sc/? o/i e/sec/terf*? 6) 
 
 Stctclc f* r J) 
 
 J/cznisZ? C/O) 
 
 /Uftf/f/xf? (jfij 
 
 y* . \ Ws “ 
 
 Uc{.(/ff/r/ fJZO) 
 

 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 23 
 
 •of salt is apt to be limited, and there is generally but a small amount 
 of careful observation back of the opinions rendered. It is also diffi- 
 cult to supply direct experimental evidence on this point with the 
 facilities at hand in any American experiment station since experi- 
 ments in this line must be conducted on a large scale and for a consid- 
 erable length of time to be of any value, and the scoring of the butter 
 must be done by several judges independently, so as to overcome in- 
 dividual preferences and other personal factors. 
 
 Appreciating these difficulties, the writer made an effort to secure 
 evidence on the point under discussion, from men who have had spe- 
 cial facilities for giving this subject much thought and study, viz.: But- 
 ter judges, commission men and large creamery companies. A letter 
 was therefore addressed to a number of the most prominent repre- 
 sentatives in these branches in the country asking for their opinion as 
 to the value of different brands of salt on the market for butter- and 
 cheese making, also as to the effect of the size of grain of the salt and 
 the effect of the degree of purity as found in the leading dairy salts. It 
 was stated that the opinions given would be considered confidential, 
 if desired, and we are therefore not at liberty to publish the names 
 of the different parties who kindly replied to the letter of inquiry. 
 It may be stated, however, that the gentlemen from whose replies 
 extracts are presented in the following experts’ testimony are all well- 
 known to the dairy public, and are prominently identified with the 
 butter industry in different parts of the country. 
 
 Opinions of Butter Judges. 
 
 I. “I made tests for seven years in succession, salting two sixty-pound tubs 
 each year with different kinds of salt. I commenced by using Ashton in two, 
 Genesee in two and Diamond Crystal in two. This butter was stored and kept 
 in the store house for four months. It was taken from the store house, and 
 I selected experts to pick out the two best tubs out of the six, and they always 
 selected the two tubs salted with Diamond Crystal, as being worth one cent a 
 pound more, and sometimes some of the judges would say, one and a half cents 
 a pound more than the other. 
 
 Then I tried it with several other kinds of salt and among them Worcester, 
 and we always found the same results. I also requested people in Chicago to 
 make this same test, and it was done at . . . ., and the butter was stored 
 
 in Chicago, and they had the same results. ... In regard to fresh butter, I 
 do not think any man can tell any difference in any of the so-called dairy salts. 
 . . . . My judgment is that the flakey salt will cut the grain of the butter 
 
 less than the cube-grained salt.” 
 
 II. ‘‘We prefer fine-grained salt for our trade, something that dissolves 
 quickly and that has no ‘gritty’ taste. Our trade demands strictly new butter, 
 therefore do not care for butter salted for cold storage. We have given prefer- 
 ence to the Worcester salt on account of its flue grain, but have no doubt the 
 Diamond Crystal is equally as good if it could be of the same grain. Have made 
 many tests of butter salted witn different kinds of salt, and in freshly made 
 have almost invariably found the Worcester first, Diamond second, and Genesee 
 third. Ashton about second. There is a flavor in freshly made butter salted with 
 Genesee that is not liked by our patrons, but have decided in several salt contests 
 of cold-storage butter in favor of Genesee. I am of the opinion that the lime 
 content is detrimental to flavor, and the high degree of purity is of great ad- 
 vantage.” 
 
24 
 
 Bulltein No. 7 4 . 
 
 III. “About thirty years ago I bought the first car of Ashton salt that ever 
 
 came to ... . Up to that time all the dairies were using common 
 
 Michigan barrel salt. Then Higgins’ came in, and I bought a car of that, as it 
 was so much finer grain, but I soon became convinced that the coarse grain was- 
 the best, as the butter would retain more of the salt and give best results. I 
 then went back to Ashton, until the last fifteen years, when I have had more 
 
 experience with the Genesee, Diamond Crystal and Worcester In 
 
 butters held four to nine months there is less of the fishy taste in the Genesee 
 salt. I should prefer the coarse grain like Genesee or Diamond Crystal salt. 
 I should not reject butter with the Diamond Crystal salt, for it is a good salt, 
 but would prefer the Genesee for cold-storage 
 
 I think the less lime and pan scales the better. I am of the opinion that a 
 high degree of purity in the salt is preferable.” 
 
 IV. “For uniform results, either for immediate use or for cold storage, by 
 
 long odds my experience has been- the best with Genesee, although I am candid 
 to say that my experience with Ashton’s has been rather limited 
 
 My experience with factories which are using Diamond Crystal salt and ship- 
 ping to this market, has been that the butter if otherwise perfect, gave much 
 the best results in the Boston or other New England markets where they are 
 used to handling sharp-salted New York state and Northern butters. These 
 same factories, however, do not prove satisfactory when shipped either to New 
 York or Philadelphia, or the markets between here (Chicago) and those cities. 
 
 My experience with Worcester salt has been that nearly every factory using 
 it which is shipping to us, sends their butter in too light salted for either the 
 New England or New York markets, but inasmuch as Philadelphia and the ad- 
 jacent markets desire mild salted butter, I can usually fill orders for that sec- 
 tion of the country with these butters to very good advantage. I observe this, 
 however, that it is practically useless for me to urge butter makers to change 
 the salting of their butter, when using either Diamond Crystal or Worcester, 
 as they seem to be unable to control the salting when they vary from their 
 usual custom, and I find it necessary to take the butter as I find it and ship it 
 where it will give the best satisfaction. 
 
 My experience with factories using Genesee salt is that the butter, if salted 
 to the right degree, will give satisfaction in any market of the United States, 
 and if I have been shipping the butter to the New England states and have 
 been having it highly salted, I simply have to notify the butter makers to use 
 less salt and I am then able to get butter that is perfectly satisfactory in the 
 Philadelphia market. I do not know why it is, but it seems that the butter 
 makers can control saltings of their butter better with Genesee salt than with 
 any other brand with which we have come in contact. 
 
 My experience with Genesee salt in cold storage has been excellent. While 
 a great many lots of butter stored with Worcester salt, although they were 
 mildly salted and nice when they went in, have afterwards come out with a 
 fishy taste, which one does not expect to find in mildly salted butter; conse- 
 quently, when I can control it, I always stipulate in my contracts that Genesee 
 salt is to be used, as I know that I can get right results from whatever market 
 I may desire to send the goods.” 
 
 V. “I have come to the conclusion that where coarser-grain salt is used, the 
 
 butter is usually salted more evenly, and less liable to be light in salt than where 
 they use the finer-grained salt. I think the reason is that with fine salt, when 
 the butter is left standing a short time, it dissolves, there being considerable 
 moisture in the butter, and is more apt to run off in the brine than when coarser 
 salt is used 
 
 My opinion is that salt that has a large percentage of lime in it is not as good 
 for keeping qualities of the butter.” 
 
 Opinions of Commission Dealers. 
 
 VI. “Twenty-five or thirty years ago we never recommended anything to but- 
 ter makers but the Ashton salt. We had become of the opinion that nothing 
 would compete with that as a salt for butter; but since the Genesee people 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 25 
 
 sent their active and aggressive agent through the West and have made the 
 name of Genesee a familiar word among all dairymen, we have been obliged to 
 concede that there were other salts fully as good as the Ashton, and if we were 
 to be honest with ourselves, we would probably say better. 
 
 In Europe, where dairying has been raised to so high a degree of perfection, 
 we have been taught that they prefer the salt which is not absolutely pure, and 
 this has led all thinking butter men to examine deeply into this feature of the 
 case, and we are of the opinion that they are right. We are aware that in many 
 cases imperfections in butter are easily and perhaps wrongfully laid to the 
 quality of the salt used, when the real difficulty is in the carelessness of the 
 manufacturer. 
 
 We do not believe that the coarseness of the grain of any of the leading dairy 
 salts is to the disadvantage of the butter maker or to the value of the goods. 
 
 It is sometimes difficult, where many fine goods are offered, to give an opinion, 
 that is entirely unprejudiced by association or possibly friendship, yet we often 
 find it our duty to recommend some one as to the purchase of these goods, and in 
 doing so have endeavored to be guided by our best judgment and then have recom- 
 mended Genesee.” 
 
 VII. “We are receiving many makes wherein the coarse grade is used and 
 part of the trade will take this in preference to the grade which has the finer 
 salt and does not show grittiness. We ourselves much prefer the make of but- 
 ter which contains salt of a finer texture.” 
 
 VIII. “My preference so far as my experience goes is for a fine-grain salt that 
 
 will dissolve and become assimilated completely with the butter 
 
 I have seen some butters coming out of storage that had kept well made of both 
 fine and coarse salt, so I am at a loss to say which is the best to use for storage 
 purposes.” 
 
 Opinions of Creamery and Cheese Factory Companies. 
 
 IX. “We have been using Worcester salt for the past three or four years 
 and we find it very satisfactory. We think it has good keeping qualities. What 
 butter we have stored in cold storage has turned out quite satisfactory for us.” 
 
 X. “We take from the same churning for several days in succession and pack 
 butter with the different makes of salt, ship it to the freezer in Chicago and 
 carry it for five to eight months in the freezer, and have the butter graded from 
 
 time to time by our and others, none of whom are aware of what we 
 
 are trying to get at, and from the butter which holds the best we determine the 
 salt we should use, and in an experiment as above, all the conditions of the but- 
 ter are practically identically the same, except the salt which is used, and from 
 that experiment we have settled upon the Genesee salt as preferable to use in our 
 business. 
 
 We do believe, from our years of experience in the use of different salts, 
 that there is a finer flavor when the butter is close to the churn, say not more 
 than a month, obtained by the use of Genesee, Ashton and the German salt, than 
 we obtain with any of the other salts, a more delicate flavor. 
 
 We made a test this past season, and after five months, our pro- 
 
 nounced the Genesee-salted butter worth 2 cents per pound more on its merits; 
 than that salted with the other salt.” 
 
 XI. “We have for some time been satisfied that there are several brands of 
 salt between which there is no decided preference, and we have as between these 
 brands usually taken the cheaper. We are at present using the Diamond Crystal, 
 but there are two or three other brands that so far as we know, from our own 
 observation, have about the same value.” 
 
 XII. “We prefer a salt that will dissolve readily. We have used many brands 
 or grades. We are now using Worcester and are fairly well satisfied. Taking 
 everything into consideration, we consider the Ashton as good as any we have 
 used.” 
 
26 
 
 Bulletin No. 7 If. 
 
 XIII. “The stress put upon the- various brands of salt by the manufacturers 
 (for cheese making) is not borne out by my observation. . . . My mind is 
 that there are so many factors entering into the manufacture of butter and 
 cheese that the use of many of the best brands of salt, coarse or fine, will be 
 secondary in their effect upon the product. . . . For the pasi three years 
 we have used the Worcester, and like it. About 500 boxes June cheese were 
 carried in storage until winter, and all came out fine. ... A comparison of 
 Le Roy and Worcester was made in one of our factories a year ago, without our 
 being able to observe any difference in the quality.” 
 
 An ideal butter salt . — It may be well at this point to give the opinion 
 of a few dairy authorities as to what is considered an ideal butter salt. 
 Prof. Wing - , in his “Milk and Its Products”* states that the salt should 
 be dry, of uniform grain, and should readily and completely dissolve 
 to a clear solution. Those brands of salt which are made from the 
 natural crystal give the best results so far as remaining dry and 
 freedom from caking are concerned. 
 
 The Danish State Dairy Counselor B. Bdggild, in his book on Danish 
 Dairy ing,{ states: “Butter salt must consist of thin flakes that offer 
 a large surface for the action of butter' and rapidly dissolve to large 
 brine drops. By closer examination good butter salt will therefore be 
 found to consist of small, flat, thin-walled, hollow, four-cornered 
 pyramids, and by rubbing between the fingers it is a light, soft mass 
 which falls together by gentle pressure to a powder consisting of 
 small flakes.” 
 
 According to Fleichmann, the eminent German authority on dairy 
 science, “butter salt should be of a pure, white color and free from 
 mechanical impurities, and when dried, should contain from 98 to 99 
 per cent, of sodium chlorid. Salt with a musty smell or mixed with 
 sand, or containing several per cent, of gypsum or sodium sulfate, 
 calcium chlorid, and magnesium chlorid, and which in consequence 
 absorbs moisture rapidly from the air, is not suited for salting butter. 
 The salt best suited for salting butter is that which consists of not 
 too small, but very thin and delicate crystals. • Such salt is largely 
 composed of little pieces, which remain behind on the coarsest sieve, 
 exhibit a relatively small specific gravity and dissolve rapidly in 
 water.Ӥ 
 
 It is not the purpose of the writer to pronounce judgment as to the 
 merits of the main American dairy salts on the basis of the results of 
 the chemical or mechanical examinations reported in the preceding. 
 The reader who studies the data presented will be in a position to 
 
 *New York, 1897, page 150. 
 
 $Malkeribruget i Danmark, 2nd ed., 1896, page 155. 
 
 §The Book of the Dairy, London, 1896, page 178. See also Ivirchner, 
 Handbuch d. Milchwurtschaft, 3rd ed., p. 325; Buschman, Das In- 
 dustrie-Salz, Wien, 1892, p. 150, and Mass. State Exp. Sta., bull. 26. 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 27 
 
 decide which ones of the salts analyzed come up to a fair standard of 
 purity, solubility, grain, etc. A careful perusal of the opinions of ex- 
 pert butter- and cheese judges and others given above will satisfy any 
 one that no special brand stands first in all respects, but that there is 
 in general a fair choice between several of our leading dairy salts. 
 
 USE OF SALT IN BUTTER- AND CHEESE MAKING. 
 
 A. — The Use of Salt in Butter Making. — Nearly all butter sold in this 
 country is salted, the quantity of salt added varying according to the 
 different markets; the salt is added in the process of manufacture 
 after the granular butter has been washed and drained, and before 
 it is worked. The general practice in this country as to the quantity 
 •of salt to be used is to add one ounce of salt for each pound of but- 
 ter as it is placed on the worker. As the butter will contain varying 
 amounts of water at this stage, according to the temperature of 
 churning, the size of the butter granules, thoroughness of draining, 
 •etc., the salting, if done according to this rule is apt to be uneven, 
 more or less of the salt being lost through the working, according 
 to the water content of the butter, unless the churning conditions 
 are carefully controlled so that but small variations occur. When 
 the combined churn and worker is used, in which case the weight of 
 granular butter in the churn cannot be readily ascertained, the 
 rate of salting is based on the quantity of cream churned, since this 
 will vary but slightly in quality from day to day, or on the amount 
 of butter fat in the butter as calculated from the per cent, of fat in the 
 milk or in the cream; in this case the usual practice is to allow eight 
 pounds of salt per 100 pounds of butter fat. 
 
 Salt serves a three-fold purpose in butter making: first, it causes the 
 minute buttermilk drops to run together, thus making it possible to 
 work considerable water out of the butter. Second, it preserves the 
 butter from early decay by checking germ growth therein for a time; 
 and, third, it gives a distinct flavor to the butter which in the markets 
 of this and many other countries is considered desirable. It may be 
 well to discuss these points a little more in detail, and we shall con- 
 sider first: 
 
 I. The effect of salt on the water content of butter . — Water is present in 
 butter in the shape of an immense number of microscopic water- or 
 buttermilk drops. The diameter of the vast majority of these drops, 
 according to Storch, is less than .01 millimeter. Storch* determined 
 the number of these drops at 3 to over 13 millions per cubic milli- 
 meter, a quantity of about the size of a pin-head. The number varies 
 considerably in different kinds of butter, and at least two distinct 
 
 *36th Report Copenhagen Experiment Station, 1897. 
 
28 
 
 Bulletin No. 7Jf. 
 
 types of butter may be traced; such having 1 comparatively few and 
 large drops, and such having a large number of comparatively small- 
 sized drops. Butter of the former kind may not contain as much 
 water percentagely as the latter kind, but on standing, brine 
 will leak out and there will be a loss in weight. Such butter will, 
 give the impression of containing a great deal of water when cut 
 or tried, while butter in which the water is found in an immense 
 number of relatively small drops, will appear very dry. The difference 
 in the appearance of salted and unsalted butter in this respect is 
 generally very marked. When salt is added to the butter it is in a 
 short time dissolved in the water and forms brine drops; owing to the 
 osmotic action of salt there will be a movement of liquid toward 
 the strong brine drops, and the drops of larger size thus formed can 
 be readily worked out of the butter, and its water content thereby 
 decreased. By the addition of salt the object sought in the work- 
 ing of the butter can therefore be carried further than would other- 
 wise be the case. 
 
 Composition of salted and unsalted butter . — A number of experiments, 
 have been made which show that a direct diminution of the water 
 content of butter will take place through the addition of salt; the 
 best proof, however, is presented by a compilation of all analyses made 
 of salted and unsalted butter. The following summary of analyses 
 has been calculated by the writer from the data presented in Dr. 
 Martiny’s recently published comprehensive investigation “On the 
 Water Content of Butter.”* The samples of butter included in this 
 summary came from dairy countries both in the old and the new 
 W’orld. The salted butters came from eleven, and the unsalted from 
 six different countries; two-thirds of the latter samples being made- 
 in France and Italy. 
 
 Average composition of salted and unsalted butter, in per cent. 
 
 
 Salted. 
 
 Unsalted. 
 
 Water 
 
 11.95 
 
 84.27 
 
 1.26 
 
 2.52 
 
 100 00 
 
 1,676 
 
 13.07' 
 
 85.24 
 
 1.57 
 
 .12 
 
 loo. oa- 
 
 242: 
 
 Fat 
 
 Casein, milk sugar, lactic acid, etc.... 
 
 Ash 
 
 No. of samples included 
 
 
 According to the average results obtained in this compilation, un- 
 salted butter contains over one per cent, more water, .3 per cent- 
 
 *Landw. Jahrb. 27, (1898), pages 773-963. 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 2S 
 
 more casein, milk sugar, etc., and one per cent, more fat than salted 
 butter* while the latter contains about 2 1-2 per cent, more ash (salt) 
 than is found in the unsalted butter. The ash in the unsalted but- 
 ter conies from the buttermilk-remnants in the water drops. Un- 
 salted butter also contains a larger proportion of non-fatty organic 
 substances than salted butter, which tends to make it keep for 
 a briefer period than salted butter. If the average analyses given in 
 both cases be referred to a uniform water content, say 12 per cent., 
 we find that the unsalted butter contains 1.44 per cent casein, milk 
 sugar, etc., against 1.26 per cent, in the salted butter, showing that 
 these components are appreciably reduced as a result of the addi- 
 tion of salt to the butter. The buttermilk-brine liquid worked out 
 of butter after this has been salted, has been analyzed in two in- 
 stances, by Miiller* and Eichloff.J The results of the analyses are 
 shown below. 
 
 Composition of liquid worked out of butter. 
 
 
 Muller. 
 
 Eichloff. 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Water 
 
 77.38 
 
 79.92 
 
 Sodium chlorid ) 
 
 
 17.01 
 
 
 19.17 
 
 
 
 
 .14 
 
 Albuminoids 
 
 32 
 
 .20 
 
 Milk sugar 
 
 3.13 
 
 2.53 
 
 Lactic acid 
 
 
 .18 
 
 Fat 
 
 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 99.98 
 
 The analyses show the liquid in both cases to be a strong brine- 
 solution mixed with soluble components of the buttermilk, mainly 
 milk sugar. In Muller’s experiment the butter was salted with 3.4 
 per cent, salt, and about 23 per cent, of the salt was lost in the work- 
 ing. In Eichloff’s experiment, two per cent, salt was added, of which 
 28 per cent, was lost in the working. American market butter as 
 sampled and analyzed contains on the average about three per cent, 
 of salt (see below); it follows therefore that at least half the amount 
 of salt added is lost in the brine worked out prior to packing, against 
 about 25 per cent, in the two cases cited above, where 2-3 per cent, of 
 salt had been added. 
 
 *Landw. Vers. Sta., 9, page 365. 
 $Milch-Ztg., 1897, page 83. 
 
30 
 
 Bulletin No. 7J+. 
 
 According- to Kirchner,* one-fifth to one-half of the salt added is lost 
 through the subsequent working; the heavier the butter is salted, the 
 smaller proportion of the salt will in general be incorporated in the 
 butter.J 
 
 It is, however, possible to incorporate large quantities of salt in 
 butter beyond what will dissolve in the water of the butter. In such 
 cases- the butter will contain salt in crystals and be gritty. One hun- 
 dred parts of water dissolves about 36 parts of salt at ordinary tem- 
 perature. As the butter is taken out of the churn after having been 
 washed and drained, it will contain at least fifteen, and ordinarily 
 about twenty per cent, of water; 100 pounds of butter will there- 
 fore contain 20 pounds of water, which could take up 36x20-rT00=7.2 
 pounds of salt, before the solution becomes saturated. If more salt is. 
 added than about 7 per cent., or if the granular butter contains less, 
 water than normal, or sufficient time is not given to allow the salt 
 to dissolve in the water present in the butter, a part of the salt 
 added will remain in the butter in crystalline form, and the result 
 will be a gritty butter. The solution of salt in the water of butter 
 is effected by working the butter twice or by a single thorough work- 
 ing, thus bringing the salt in contact with .new portions of butter un- 
 til all is dissolved. Analyses have been published showing contents of 
 8 per cent, to 13.5, 15.08 and 1£.93 per cent, of salt in the butter, § but- 
 such heavy salted butter must have been exceedingly gritty since the 
 water contents of the samples in no case appear to have been exces- 
 sive, but rather below normal. 
 
 In southern Europe and in France, as well as to a limited extent in 
 select trade in the large cities of this country, no salt is added to- 
 the butter, this being consumed within a short time after it is made.. 
 In north-European countries the rate of salting is about two per cent, 
 for butter intended for immediate consumption, and two to five per 
 cent, for storage butter.fi 
 
 Composition of foreign butters . — As it was considered of interest for 
 the sake of illustrating different methods of salting butter in this 
 country and abroad, the writer secured and analyzed samples of for- 
 eign butter and American premium butter exhibited at the Conven- 
 
 *Handb. d. Milchwirtschaft, 3d ed., page 327. 
 
 $See also Sweetser and Weld, Agr. Science, 7, 546. 
 
 §Fischer, Jahresb. Chem. Unters-Amt. Breslau, 1895-6, page 25; Mac- 
 Farlane, Lab. Ini. Bev. Dept., Bui. 16; Bell, Jour. Royal Agrl. Soc. Eng., 
 1877, pag-e 181; see Landw. Jahrb., 1898, page 827. 
 
 fiMartiny, loc. cit, ; Kirchner, Handb. d. Milch w., p. 325. Fleischmann, 
 Book of the Dairy, 1 to 3 per cent, (immediate consumption), 4 to 5 
 per cent, (export); Boggild, Malkeribruget, 3 to 6 per cent.; Sheldon, 
 Dairy Farming, one-half ounce to nearly or quite one ounce per pound; 
 Pouriau, La Laiterie, 3 to> 6 per cent.; Leze, Les Ind. du Lait, 2 to 6 per 
 cent. 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt . 
 
 31 
 
 tion of the National Buttermakers’ Convention in Sioux Falls, S. D., 
 in January, 1899. The foreign-butter exhibit was made by the Dairy 
 Division of the United States Department of Agriculture, and rep- 
 resented the main countries supplying butter to the English market. 
 The samples were obtained through the kind permission of the Chief 
 of the Dairy Division, Maj. Henry E. Alvord, and were taken by Mr. 
 R, A. Pearson, Assistant Chief of the Dairy Division, and Prof. Far- 
 rington of this Experiment Station. All samples were examined for 
 boracic-acid preservatives, with results as shown in the table. For the 
 sake of comparison, a compilation of all available analyses of butter 
 from the various countries has been added. The monograph by Dr. 
 Martiny previously referred to furnished the data required for this 
 compilation. The methods of analysis followed were those of the 
 Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.* 
 
 Percentage composition of foreign butters. 
 
 Sam- 
 
 ple 
 
 No. 
 
 Origin of 
 samples. 
 
 Style of package. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Curd. 
 
 Ash 
 
 (salt.) 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1 
 
 Denmark 
 
 122 lb Kiel cask . . 
 
 13.02 
 
 84.02 
 
 1.58 
 
 1.38 
 
 
 2 
 
 do 
 
 131V6 lb Kiel cask 
 
 15. 04 
 
 82.27 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.36 
 
 
 7 
 
 do 
 
 68 lb keg 
 
 15 32 
 
 81.18 
 
 1.48 
 
 2.02 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 14.46 
 
 82.49 
 
 1.46 
 
 1 59 
 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses t55 samples) . 
 
 12.86 
 
 83.78 
 
 1.21 
 
 2.15 
 
 
 3 
 
 Sweden 
 
 120 lb Kiel cask.. 
 
 13.64 
 
 83.45 
 
 1.65 
 
 1.26 
 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (139 samples). 
 
 14.13 
 
 82.57 
 
 .98 
 
 2.32 
 
 
 4 
 
 Finland 
 
 122*4 5) Kiel cask 
 
 
 ~ 83797" 
 
 1.68 
 
 iTTTT 
 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (1 sample). .. 
 
 13.01 
 
 84.26 
 
 1.47 
 
 1.26 
 
 
 5 
 
 Holland 
 
 112 lb Kiel cask . . 
 
 13.49 
 
 82.63 
 
 1.46 
 
 2.42 
 
 
 6 
 
 do 
 
 56 lb keg . . 
 
 12.36 
 
 84 51 
 
 1 21 
 
 1 92 
 
 
 29 
 
 do 
 
 28 lb keg 
 
 12.34 
 
 85.06 
 
 1.65 
 
 .95 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 12.73 
 
 84.07 
 
 1 44 
 
 1 76 
 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (1 sample). .. 
 
 13.68 
 
 84.30 
 
 1.25 
 
 .77 
 
 
 13 
 
 France 
 
 28 lb basket. - - 
 
 15.10 
 
 82. 9U 
 
 1.52 
 
 7u 
 
 Contained pre* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 servative. 
 
 28 
 
 do 
 
 24 lb box 
 
 14.99 
 
 83.19 
 
 .68 
 
 1.14 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 15 04 
 
 83.06 
 
 1.10 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (235 samples). 
 
 13.32 
 
 84.48 
 
 1.43 
 
 .77 
 
 Salted. 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (58 samples; . 
 
 13.73 
 
 85 . 80 
 
 1.39 
 
 .08 
 
 Unsalted. 
 
 8 
 
 Ireland 
 
 79 1b firkin .... 
 
 11.54 
 
 84 . 58 
 
 U23 
 
 2 65 
 
 
 9 
 
 ....do 
 
 70 lb firkin .... 
 
 15.02 
 
 80 95 
 
 1.68 
 
 2.35 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 72 lb firkin ... 
 
 18 . 42 
 
 71.26 
 
 1.99 
 
 8333 
 
 
 11 
 
 . . . .do 
 
 56 lb kitt. 
 
 14 10 
 
 84 . 33 
 
 1 06 
 
 . 51 
 
 
 12 
 
 ... .do 
 
 56 lb half Kiel 
 
 13.11 
 
 83.59 
 
 1.08 
 
 2.22 
 
 
 25 
 
 do 
 
 56 lb box .... 
 
 12.73 
 
 84. (.0 
 
 1.38 
 
 1 . S9 
 
 Contained pre* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 servative. 
 
 26 
 
 do 
 
 28 lb box 
 
 12.50 
 
 84.22 
 
 1.21 
 
 2.07 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 13 92 
 
 81.85 
 
 1.38 
 
 2.86 
 
 
 *Bul. 46, Chemical Division, U. fc». Dept, of Agrl., Washington, 1895, 
 page 25. 
 
32 
 
 Bulletin No. 74, 
 
 Percentage composition of foreign butters — Continued. 
 
 Sam- 
 I pie 
 No. 
 
 Origin of 
 samples. 
 
 Style of package. 
 
 27 
 
 
 24 lb box 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (322 samples) 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (24 samples). 
 
 28a 
 
 Italy 
 
 24 11) box] 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (6 samples) .. 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (53 samples) . 
 
 14 
 
 Australia 
 
 56 5) box 
 
 .15 
 
 
 56 lb box 
 
 17 
 
 do 
 
 56 ft) box * 
 
 18 
 
 
 56 ft) box f 
 
 22 
 
 do 
 
 56 ft) box 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (59 samples) . 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (2 samples) . . 
 
 19 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 56 ft) box 
 
 16 
 
 j Argentine 
 
 56 lb box 
 
 20 
 
 j Canada 
 
 57 ft) box 
 
 21 
 
 do 
 
 56 lb box 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (207 samples) 
 
 23 
 
 United States 
 
 56 ft) box 
 
 23a 
 
 do 
 
 56 ft) box 
 
 24 
 
 do 
 
 56 lb box 
 
 24a 
 
 do 
 
 56 lb box 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 30 
 
 Am Premium 
 
 
 
 Butter 
 
 1st prize 
 
 31 
 
 do 
 
 2d prize 
 
 32 
 
 do 
 
 3d prize 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 Av. of all anal 
 
 yses (473 samples) 
 
 Water. 
 
 Fat 
 
 Curd. 
 
 Ash 
 
 (salt) 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 13.54 
 
 85.44 
 
 .34 
 
 .68 
 
 
 12.09 
 
 84 66 
 
 1.14 
 
 2.11 
 
 Salted. 
 
 13.43 
 
 85.64 
 
 .80 
 
 .13 
 
 Unsalted. 
 
 ~ hTssT 
 
 83.57” 
 
 5l3(T 
 
 IT 
 
 Contained 
 
 preservative. 
 
 11.52 
 
 85.56 
 
 1.07 
 
 1.86 
 
 Salted. 
 
 13.67 
 
 85.08 
 
 1.11 
 
 .15 
 
 Unsalted. 
 
 10.06” 
 
 86. 15 - 
 
 1.24 j 
 
 2^T 
 
 Contained 
 
 preservative. 
 
 10.83 
 
 85.89 
 
 1.10 
 
 2.18 
 
 do. 
 
 11.60 
 
 84.55 
 
 1.41 
 
 2.44 
 
 do. 
 
 12.28 
 
 82.93 
 
 1.13 
 
 3.66 
 
 do. 
 
 11.92 
 
 84.86 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.97 
 
 do. 
 
 11.34 
 
 84.88 
 
 1.23 
 
 2.56 
 
 
 11.16 
 
 85 32 
 
 96 
 
 2 56 
 
 Salted. 
 
 10.63 
 
 87.71 
 
 1.38 
 
 .28 
 
 Unsalted. 
 
 1 1 . 48~ 
 
 86.08 
 
 7si 
 
 163 
 
 Contained 
 
 preservative. 
 
 12.15 
 
 84.89 
 
 1.01 
 
 1.95 
 
 Contained 
 
 preservative. 
 
 10.35 
 
 86.79 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.66 
 
 11.50 
 
 85.07 
 
 1.28 
 
 2.15 
 
 
 10.93 
 
 85.93 
 
 1.24 
 
 1 91 
 
 
 8.97 
 
 84.29 
 
 1.44 
 
 5 17 
 
 
 12.96 
 
 ~ 83T95~ 
 
 r&r 
 
 U7(T 
 
 
 13.24 
 
 82.47 
 
 1.09 
 
 3.20 
 
 
 13.55 
 
 84.22 
 
 .87 
 
 1 36 
 
 
 13 17 
 
 84.59 
 
 1.05 
 
 1 19 
 
 
 13.23 
 
 83.81 
 
 1 08 
 
 1.88 
 
 
 12.46 
 
 83.31 
 
 1.55 
 
 2.68 
 
 
 10.49 
 
 85.68 
 
 1.38 
 
 2.45 
 
 
 10.66 
 
 85.82 
 
 1.28 
 
 2.24 
 
 
 11.20 
 
 84.94 
 
 1.40 
 
 2.46 
 
 
 11.44 
 
 84.64 
 
 1.02 
 
 2.90 
 
 
 * “2 per cent, salt.” f ‘‘1 per cent, salt.” 
 
 It is not within the scope of this bulletin to enter upon a discussion 
 of the suggestive data presented in the preceding- table; keeping strict- 
 ly to the subject-matter proper of this bulletin, we may, however, call 
 attention to the fact that the average salt content of butters manu- 
 factured in foreign countries, as analyzed by the writer, is found to 
 range from .72 per cent. (French) to 2.86 per cent. (Ireland), ex- 
 cluding the sample of Italian butter, containing .24 per cent, salt, 
 which is practically unsalted butter. The highest per cent, salt in 
 the samples analyzed was found in No. 10, a 72-pound firkin of Irish 
 butter, which also contained an abnormally high content of water 
 ;and of curd (18.42 per cent, and 1.99 per cent., respectively), and a 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 33 
 
 corresponding- low fat content (71.26 per cent.). When analyzed the 
 butter was at least a month old and was exceedingly repulsive. The 
 compilation of analyses g-iven show a range in average salt content of 
 from .77 per cent. (France and Holland) to 5.17 per cent. (Ireland). 
 
 II. — Salt as a butter preservative . — It is a matter of common experi- 
 ence that salted butter will keep longer than unsalted butter; the latter 
 kind will become rancid in a short time after it is made. Salt there- 
 fore preserves butter from decomposition. Salt is a preservative in so 
 far as it checks the growth of germ life. This action is dependent on 
 the water-absorbing power of salt, by which the protoplasm of plant 
 cells are “plasmolyzed,’’ or, in a measure, desiccated, so that their 
 faculties of growth and reproduction are destroyed, at least for the 
 time being. Salt is not a germ-killer (germicide), but can only arrest 
 plant or germ growth. For this reason its antiseptic power is but 
 limited, and when salted butter is eaten, any bacteria present therein 
 are again able to resume growth and reproduce of their kind. If 
 disease-producing bacteria therefore get into the butter through the 
 milk supply or otherwise, they will be able to resume growth if 
 favorable conditions arise, even if subjected to the action of concen- 
 trated brine solutions for a considerable length of time.* Indirectly, 
 however, the addition of salt to the butter is of great benefit as 
 regards its keeping qualities. As we have seen, salt tends to unite 
 the small drops of water in the butter to larger ones, which may be 
 easily expelled by working-. Less favorable conditions are thereby 
 created for the bacteria, the supply of moisture necessary for their 
 development being reduced, and as a result, also the centers of germ 
 growth. 
 
 III. — Salt as a flavor producer . — The flavor which salt yields to but- 
 ter is considered desirable in markets which call for salted butter. In 
 order to produce a clean, fine flavor in the butter, the salt must have 
 a pure taste and odor, and must not have been in contact with any 
 contaminating material which might give to it its own peculiar flavor, 
 like fishy, oily flavors, etc. 
 
 For butter intended for immediate consumption, a dairy salt rela- 
 tively high in calcium- and magnesium chlorids may not, as before 
 stated, be especially objectionable as regards the flavor produced in 
 the butter, unless the contents of chlorids be excessive. The tendency 
 to become damp and to cake which the salt will have when these 
 impurities are present in appreciable amounts, of course, renders such 
 salt undesirable, whether the butter is intended for quick consump- 
 tion or for storage. In the latter case an additional requirement for 
 a high degree of purity in the salt is essential; butter judges often 
 
 *Grotenfelt-Woll, Modern Dairy Practice, 2d ed., page 242; Lafar, 
 Technical Mycology, vol. 1, page 214. 
 
 3 
 
34 
 
 Bulletin No. 7J+. 
 
 complain of a fishy flavor jDroduced i'n butter after it has been kept 
 in storage for a number of months, and generally consider it due to 
 the salt used. This is in all probability attributable to the action on 
 the butter fat of the chlorids of the alkaline earths in the salt; the 
 glycerides of the volatile fatty acids are very likely decomposed 
 through their agency, and free butyric acid or other volatile organic 
 products are thus formed which would yield the flavor mentioned. 
 
 Brine-salting of butter. — By the use of concentrated brine solutions 
 it is possible to incorporate a considerable amount of salt in the but- 
 . ter, as is shown by experiments conducted at the Minnesota experi- 
 ment station.* Well-drained granular butter was salted by immersion 
 in saturated brine solutions, and after having been worked in the 
 usual manner, was found to contain 4.15 per cent, and 2.63 per cent, 
 salt. The water contents of the samples were 12.20 and 8.81 per cent., 
 respectively, showing that the water in the butter contained in one 
 case 34 per cent., and in the other 30 per cent of salt, and was there- 
 fore very nearly saturated solutions. 
 
 Brine-salting of butter is practiced to a limited extent by some but- 
 ter makers, especially in fancy dairies, where a mild-salted butter 
 is wanted. It has the advantage of removing the danger of grittiness 
 in the butter, but it is difficult to reach uniformity of salting by this 
 method; the method also gives more work than dry-salting and causes 
 a waste of salt.$ It is, therefore, not likely that the practice of brine- 
 salting will ever become verj^ widespread. 
 
 Weight of butter before and after salting and working. — The weight of 
 butter before and after salting 1 and working has been a subject of 
 considerable discussion and experimentation during late years, from 
 the fact that the manufacturers of a coarse salt claim . peculiar ad- 
 vantages for their special brand in this respect, viz.: that the 
 weight of butter after salting and working will invariably be in- 
 creased by the use of their salt beyond that obtained with competing 
 salts. A large number of comparative experiments by practical but- 
 ter makers have been published by the manufacturers that would seem 
 to substantiate this claim. 
 
 It was considered desirable in connection with the investigation of 
 the comparative value of the various brands of dairy salts to ascertain 
 in how far the claim suggested is warranted, and a dozen churning 
 experiments were accordingly made at the University creamery in the 
 fall of 1898. The writer was assisted by Prof. Farrington in the 
 conduct of these experiments. The chemical analyses of the samples 
 of butter were made by myself. The general plan of the experi- 
 ments was to divide the granular butter obtained in the regular 
 
 *Hayes and Harper, Minnesota Experiment Station, Bui. 7. 
 
 $See Sweetser and Weld, Experiments in Salting Butter. Agricultural 
 Science, 7, page 547. 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 35 
 
 churning’ into two lots, one of which was salted with a coarse-grained, 
 and the other with a fine-grained salt (Diamond Crystal and Worcester 
 salt, respectively). Careful and detailed records were kept of all 
 conditions which would affect the weight and the composition of the 
 butter obtained. For lack of space only a few of these can, how- 
 ever, be given in this place. The churnings were made in a Victor 
 combined churn and worker, No. 5, or in a 150-gallon box churn, 
 the butter being worked either in the combined churn and worker or 
 on a Mason butter worker. In trials I to III, and XII, the Mason 
 table worker was used, and the combined churn and worker in the 
 other trials. Salt was added at the rate of one ounce per pound; if 
 the working was done in the combined churn and worker the quantity 
 of salt required was added in two portions, about one-half at a time, 
 to allow a more even distribution;, the butter was generally worked 
 only once, until no taste of grittiness could be discovered. The but- 
 ter was taken out of the churn after having been washed and allowed 
 to drain thoroughly; it was then weighed and one-half salted and 
 worked at once, while the other was placed in the refrigerator room; 
 the latter was salted and worked immediately after the first lot was 
 packed and weighed. 
 
 In the following table, which presents the main results of the ex- 
 periments and of the analyses made, A refers to the fine-grained salt 
 and B to the coarse-grained salt. The lots salted with the former 
 kind were worked first in trials I-V, VIII and IX, and those salted 
 with the latter kind were worked first in the other trials. The 
 weights of granular butter given do not include that of the salt added 
 (6.25 per cent.). 
 
 Experiments in salting butter. 
 
 
 Trial I. 
 
 Trial II. 
 
 Trial III. 
 
 Tru l IV. 
 
 n 
 
 ft 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aciditv of cream, pr. ct 
 
 .65 
 
 .65 
 
 .57 
 
 .50 
 
 Buttermilk, pr. ct. fat 
 
 
 
 .40 
 
 .38 
 
 .50 
 
 Churning temperature, F 
 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 58 
 
 Churning time, min 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 Number of revolutions 
 
 28 
 
 34 
 
 26 
 
 39 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 Weierlitof butter, in lbs: 
 
 Granular 
 
 46.5 
 
 48.0 
 
 90.5 
 
 115.25 
 
 129.5 
 
 124.0 
 
 77.7 
 
 81 5 
 
 Packed 
 
 42.25 
 
 44.0 
 
 87.5 
 
 115.75 
 
 130.0 
 
 129.5 
 
 1 78.4 
 
 82. C 
 
 
 
 
 Loss ( — ) or gain (+) 
 
 -4.25 
 
 -4.0 
 
 —3 0 
 
 +.5 
 
 + .5 
 
 1 +- 4 
 
 +5.5 
 
 + ■7 
 
 + .5 
 + .6 
 
 In pr. ct 
 
 —9.1 
 
 -8.3 
 
 —3.2 
 
 + .4 
 
 +4.7 
 
 + .9 
 
 
 
 Chemical composition of butter: 
 Moisture 
 
 13.55 
 
 13.60 
 
 13.14 
 
 13.35 
 
 12.22 
 
 12.75 
 
 13 99 
 
 14.12 
 
 Fat 
 
 81.96 
 
 81.59 
 
 81.26 
 
 80 47 
 
 82.24 
 
 81.07 
 
 82 52 
 
 81.95 
 
 Curd 
 
 1 21 
 
 1.15 
 
 1 .23 
 
 1 l: 
 
 .9! 
 
 .85 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.20 
 
 Ash ( salC 
 
 3.28 
 
 3.66 
 
 4 37 
 
 5.05 
 
 4 63 
 
 5 33 
 
 2.34 
 
 2.73 
 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 1 
 
 100.00 
 
 ,100.00 
 
 100.00 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 1 1 
 
 100 00 
 
36 
 
 Bulletin Ao. 7Jf, 
 
 Experiments in salting butter — Continued. 
 
 
 Trial V . 
 
 Trial VI.* 
 
 Trial VII. 
 
 Trial VIII 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 
 v , 
 
 v ^ / 
 
 v ‘ 
 
 
 j 
 
 Acidity of cream, pr. ct 
 
 Ts6 
 
 ^52 
 
 .50 
 
 .60 
 
 Buttermilk, pr. ct. fat 
 
 .12 
 
 .13 
 
 .31 
 
 .13 
 
 Churning temperature, F 
 
 59 
 
 55 
 
 59 
 
 ( 
 
 >0 
 
 Churning time, min 
 
 28 
 
 67 
 
 42 
 
 29 
 
 Number of revolutions 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 Weight of butte r, in lbs. : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Granular 
 
 113.5 
 
 114.0 
 
 91.75 
 
 101.0 
 
 97.75 
 
 94.5 
 
 77.0 
 
 96.25 
 
 Packed 
 
 110.0 
 
 111.0 
 
 86.5 
 
 93.5 
 
 98.00 
 
 94.5 
 
 74.5 
 
 96.50 
 
 Loss (— ) or gain (+) 
 
 - 3.5 
 
 -3 0 
 
 -5 25 
 
 - 7.5 
 
 + .25 
 
 0.0 
 
 -2 5 
 
 ++25 
 
 In pr. ct 
 
 — 3.1 
 
 — 2.6 
 
 - 5.7 
 
 — 7.4 
 
 + •3 
 
 0 
 
 - 3.4 
 
 + .3 
 
 Chemical composition of butter: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Moisture 
 
 13 97 
 
 14.06 
 
 14.57 
 
 14.05 
 
 13.30 
 
 13 91 i 
 
 13.94 
 
 14.43 
 
 Fat 
 
 82.47 
 
 82 96 
 
 80.17 
 
 82.64 
 
 82.60 
 
 82. Ill 
 
 82.60 
 
 81.47 
 
 .Curd 
 
 .98 
 
 .98 
 
 1.14 
 
 1 26 
 
 .82 
 
 .88 
 
 1.02 
 
 1.00 
 
 Ash (salt) 
 
 2.58 
 
 2.00 
 
 4.12 
 
 2.05 
 
 i 
 
 3.28 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.44 
 
 3.10 
 
 
 100. Ot 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100 00 
 
 Experiments in salting butter — Continued. 
 
 
 Trial IX.* 
 
 Trial X. 
 
 Irial XI. 
 
 Trial XII. 
 
 A * 
 
 B. 
 
 ! A - 
 
 B. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Acidity of cream, pr. ct 
 
 53 
 
 I To 
 
 .51 
 
 .56 
 
 Buttermilk, pr. ct. fat 
 
 .45 
 
 .35 
 
 .30 
 
 .15 
 
 Churning temperature, F 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 57 
 
 Churning time, min 
 
 47 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 N umber revolutions 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 Weight of butter, in lbs. : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Granular 
 
 136 25 
 
 125 25 
 
 98.5 
 
 106 5 
 
 93 5 
 
 86.0 
 
 79.75 
 
 75.75 
 
 Packed 
 
 104.75 
 
 100 00 
 
 , 95.8 
 
 107 5 
 
 91 8 
 
 85.7 
 
 81 7 
 
 75.4 
 
 Loss ( — ') or gain (+) . . . 
 
 —31 5 
 
 — 25.25 
 
 —2 7 
 
 +1 0 
 
 —1 7 
 
 — .3 
 
 +1 95 
 
 — .35 
 
 In pr. ct 
 
 - 23.1 
 
 -20.2 
 
 —2 7 
 
 + -9 
 
 — 1.8 
 
 -.3 
 
 1 + 2.4 
 
 — .4 
 
 Chemical composition of butter: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Moisture 
 
 14.19 
 
 14.98 
 
 13.05 
 
 13.70 
 
 13.44 
 
 13 93 
 
 12.94 
 
 13.60 
 
 Fat 
 
 82.42 
 
 81 57 
 
 81.62 
 
 81.67 
 
 82.63 
 
 82 . 0 :- 
 
 1 80 80 
 
 80.02 
 
 Curd 
 
 1.46 
 
 1.60 
 
 .85 
 
 .84 
 
 .80 
 
 .77 
 
 .95 
 
 .99 
 
 Ash (salt; 
 
 1.9 
 
 1 85 
 
 4.48 
 
 3 79 
 
 3 13 
 
 3 . 2 ; 
 
 5.31 
 
 5.39 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100 . 0J 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 * Pasteurized cream. 
 
4 Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 37 
 
 The results ot these experiments as regards the weight of butter 
 before and after salting and working show that the coarse-grained salt 
 will, in the majority of cases, make more weight than the fine-grained 
 salt; if there is a decrease in weight of the packed butter compared 
 with that of the granular butter, there will be a smaller loss in 
 weight. There is a greater gain or a smaller loss with the coarse- 
 grained salt in all cases but three, when the fine-grained salt came 
 out slightly ahead. A summary of the twelve comparative experi- 
 ments is shown below: 
 
 Summary of churning experiments. 
 
 
 Total Weight of 
 Butter. 
 
 Loss in 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 Granular. 
 
 Packed. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Coarse-grained salt 
 
 1,168.0 
 
 1,135 35 
 
 32.65 
 
 2.8 
 
 Fine-grained salt 
 
 1,132.2 
 
 1.081.2 
 
 51.00 
 
 f 4.5 
 
 Difference in favor of coarse salt. . . . 
 
 
 
 18.35 
 
 1.8 
 
 There was a total loss in weight in the butter during’ working 
 amounting to 32.65 pounds on 1,168 pounds of granular butter in case of 
 the coarse salt, and of 51.0 pounds on 1,132.2 pounds of butter in 
 case of the fine salt, a difference of 18.35 pounds, or 1.8 per cent., in 
 favor of the coarse salt. This difference may not be very large, but 
 if the result obtained is corroborated by further trials conducted 
 under a variety of conditions it is a point in favor of the coarse salt, 
 provided the quality of the butter is not at the same time appreciably 
 lowered. The butter made on the experiments was judged by Mr. 
 Woolverton, of Chicago, but the score for flavor or salt did not disclose 
 any marked difference in favor of either salt.* 
 
 One factor of great importance as regards the weight of butter ob- 
 tained and, the water- and salt contents of the same, is the time inter- 
 val which elapses between draining, and the salting' and final work- 
 ing. As the experiments were conducted, one-half of the butter had 
 to be worked first, and the second half after the first lot was packed 
 in the tubs. In most cases the lot which was salted and worked first 
 lost the most or gained less in weight irrespective of the kind of salt 
 used, and it is possible that the summary given above may have been 
 slightly influenced by the fact that the coarse salt was used for the 
 first lot of butter in five trials, and the fine salt for the first lot in 
 seven trials. 
 
 *See reference on next page. 
 
38 
 
 Bulletin No. 7J+. 
 
 It is easy to manipulate experiments on this point in such a way 
 that any desired result may be obtained; numerous conditions affect 
 the final result one way or another so as to make it difficult to feel 
 certain that data obtained really show what they seem to, unless 
 extreme care is taken to eliminate, so far as possible, all factors that 
 might influence the result obtained, aside from the differences in the 
 salt used, and unless averages of a large number of trials are con- 
 sidered. For this reason, single practical experiments made in the 
 rush of every-day creamery conditions are of but doubtful value. 
 
 The only experiments conducted in this line elsewhere were made 
 at the Iowa experiment station in 1895,* where a lot of freshly-churned 
 butter was separated into six portions, each portion being salted with 
 a different brand of salt. Otherwise the samples were treated ex- 
 actly alike. The butter was kept in a refrigerator, and, five weeks 
 after it was made, samples were sent to two butter experts in Chi- 
 cago for scoring. Each of the tubs had begun to show the effects 
 of keeping* somewhat, although not at all rancid, and the judges found 
 practically no difference between the different lots. Later the lots 
 were scored again, but no noticeable difference was found. 
 
 Effect of salt on composition of batter . — The churning experiments 
 described on pp. 34-36 offer some evidence as to the effect of salt on 
 the chemical composition of butter and as to the composition of but- 
 ter worked in a combined churn and worker and on a Mason worker. 
 Averaging the percentage composition of the twelve samples of but- 
 ter salted with the fine salt, and of the twelve samples salted with 
 coarse salt, we have: 
 
 Average chemical composition of butter. 
 
 
 Fine-errained 
 salt (Worcester). 
 Av. of 12 trials. 
 
 Coarse-grained 
 salt (Diamond 
 Crystal). 
 
 Av. of 12 trials. 
 
 Water 
 
 13.53 per cent. 
 
 81.94 per cent. 
 
 l.Ot per cent. 
 
 3.49 per cent 
 
 13.87 per cent. 
 
 81.69 per cent 
 
 1.05 per cent. 
 
 3.39 per cent. 
 
 Fat 
 
 Curd 
 
 Salt and ash 
 
 
 100.00 per cent. 
 
 100.00 per cent. 
 
 Contrary to what might be expected, the butter salted with fine- 
 grained salt contained less water and more salt than that salted with 
 coarse-grained salt. In all cases but one, the coarse-salt but- 
 ter contained more water than the fine-salt butter, and in seven out 
 
 *Bull. 28; Expt. Station Record, 7, 626. 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 39 
 
 of the twelve trials, more salt was found in the former butter. The 
 lots of butter salted and worked first (in seven cases salted with fine- 
 grained salt and in five cases with coarse-grained salt) contained on the 
 average 13.67 per cent, water, with 3.21 per cent, salt, against 13.72 per 
 cent, water and 3.77 per cent, salt for the lots salted and worked 
 last. In eight out of twelve trials the lots worked first contained least 
 water; in six out of these 'eight, and in two other cases, less salt was 
 found in these lots than in the corresponding lots salted and worked 
 last. It is not apparent how these results can be reconciled with the 
 average data obtained for the two kinds of salt. The number of 
 experiments made is very likely not sufficiently large in either case 
 to show definitely the relation between the chemical composition of 
 the butter and the size of grain of salt used, or the interval between 
 washing and working. 
 
 Combined churn and worker vs. table worker . — In four trials of the ex- 
 periments referred to on pp. 34-36, the butter was worked on a Mason 
 table worker, and in eight in a Victor combined churn and worker. 
 The data obtained as regards the chemical pomposition of the butter 
 thus made are summarized below. The two trials in which pasteurized 
 cream was churned are excluded from this summary, since no cor- 
 responding trials were made with the table worker. 
 
 Composition of butter worked in combined churn and worker and on 
 
 table worker. 
 
 
 Mason table 
 worker. 
 
 Victor combined 
 churn and 
 worker . 
 
 No. of samples 
 
 8 
 
 13.14 per ct. 
 
 81.18 per ct. 
 
 1.05 per ct. 
 
 4.63 per ct. 
 
 12 
 
 13.82 per ct. 
 
 82.27 per ct. 
 
 .94 per ct. 
 
 2.97 per ct. 
 
 Water 
 
 Fat 
 
 Curd 
 
 Salt 
 
 
 100.00 per ct. 
 
 100.00 per ct. 
 
 The trials with the two kinds of butter workers were made on differ- 
 ent days, under varying conditions of acidity, thickness and tem- 
 perature of cream, time of churning, and point at which the churn- 
 ing was stopped, etc., conditions which were made as uniform as 
 possible, but nevertheless on no two days exactly the same; for this 
 reason it may not be safe to generalize from the data presented in 
 the last table, which show a greater water- and fat content in the 
 butter worked in the combined churn and worker, and a decided 
 
Bulletin No. 7Jf. 
 
 4 0 
 
 drop in the salt content in this butter, as compared with that worked 
 on the Mason table worker. So far as the results go, they are in 
 favor of the combined churn and worker. The yield of butter was 
 slightly in favor of the table worker, there being an average loss in 
 weight of 4 per cent, in case of the table worker (8 trials), against 
 1.8 per cent, with the combined churn and worker (12 trials).* 
 
 Salt and mottles . — The subject of mottles in butter has been discussed 
 frequently in dairy papers and at dairy conventions during late years. 
 Prof. Wing in his. “Milk and Its Products, ”$ states that “salt has a 
 deepening effect upon the color of the butter, and if some undissolved 
 portions of the salt remain, these afterwards dissolving in the water 
 content in the butter will make a strong brine at that particular 
 point, and consequently a deeper color, and mottled and streaked 
 butter is the result.” The correctness of this view can be easily 
 proved experimentally, as has also been done repeatedh*. Butter 
 from the same churning’ may be separated into three portions, one 
 being worked without the addition of any salt and the other two 
 after having been salted; one portion of the latter lot is worked 
 thoroughly so as to evenly distribute the salt in the butter, and the 
 other insufficiently worked. Mottles will then be very apt to appear 
 in the latter portion and not in the unsalted portion or in the salted 
 butter, which has been worked enough so as to mix and dissolve the 
 salt uniformly throughout the mass of butter. This shows that the 
 appearance of mottles proper is caused by uneven distribution of salt 
 in the butter; where salt is allowed to accumulate, a deeper yellow 
 color will appear than where none or but little salt is found, and a 
 mottled appearance of the butter is the result. There Is a g’reater 
 danger in this respect in case of a coarse-grained salt than with a 
 brand having a fine grain, since it takes less working to have the 
 latter evenly dissolved and distributed in the butter. In case of the 
 former kind of salt there is, however, no danger in this respect 
 when the butter is always worked until all grittiness disappears, when 
 the salt has been brought into solution. It follows from what has 
 been said that mottles do not occur when brine salting is practiced. 
 
 The appearance of mottles may be brought about by other causes 
 than through an uneven distribution of salt in the butter, like the 
 presence of fine butter-g’ranules or particles of curd in the cream, 
 etc. (white specks, streaks in butter). Careful straining of the cream 
 will remove these causes of difficulty. § 
 
 It has been suggested!! that a mottled appearance of the butter 
 
 *See bull. 27, Yt. Experiment Station. 
 JPage 150. 
 
 §Chieago Dairy Produce, 1898, July 23. 
 ({Hoard’s Dairyman, 1898, page 517. 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 41 
 
 may be caused by white colloidal casein which has not been dis- 
 solved by salt in the working of the butter. Casein and albumen 
 are soluble in dilute salt solutions, and it is therefore argued that 
 where this solution has not been effected, on account of insufficient 
 working, mottles will appear. While albuminoids are soluble in dilute 
 salt solutions, most of them are insoluble in concentrated solutions; 
 in fact, salt precipitates casein completely from its solutions, and we 
 have seen that the solution of the salt in the water present in but- 
 ter must be saturated, or very nearly so, and no such solvent effect 
 could therefore take place, at least as regards the casein. The ex- 
 planation in, reality comes back to the absence of, or relative freedom 
 from salt in the mottles of the butter, as in case of the deepening of 
 the color of the butter through the agency of the salt. The only 
 remedy for mottles is an even distribution of salt in the butter; if 
 the working cannot be continued until the salt is all dissolved, for 
 fear of injuring the grain of the butter, it should be set aside in 
 the refrigerator to give the salt time to dissolve, and a second working 
 after several hours is then given. 
 
 In American creameries, the butter is in general worked only once, 
 and after working’, it is immediately packed and ready for shipment. 
 Owing to the high rate of salting practiced in this country, the water 
 content of the butter thus made will not be excessive; if the demands 
 of the market should change so as to require a milder-salted butter, it 
 may prove necessary to work the butter twice, to avoid a too high 
 water content therein. The second working should in such case take 
 place after the butter has been kept in the refrigerator for at least 
 six hours. The advantage gained by working the butter twice is not 
 only in an even distribution and perfect solution of salt in the butter, 
 thereby doing away with the liability to grittiness and mottles, but 
 the working of the butter may then be continued till all buttermilk 
 remnants are expelled, without any danger of injuring the grain of 
 the butter, and in warm weather the consistency of the butter is im- 
 proved through the effect of the low temperature in the refrigerator 
 room. 
 
 All Danish export butter is worked twice or three times; the method 
 of working the butter twice is generally recommended by foreign 
 dairy writers, and also by some of our own best dairy authorities, e. g., 
 the Dairy Commissioner of Canada, Prof. J. W. Robertson.* 
 
 B. — The Use of Salt in Cheese Making. — The method of salting 
 cheese varies according to the kind of cheese to be manufactured. 
 Three methods are practiced: First, salt may be added direct to the 
 
 *The Dairy World, Dec. 25, 1898. For influence of double working* 
 on the water-content of butter, see 28 Rep. Copenhagen Exp. Sta.; 
 Exp. Sta. Record 5, p. 723. 
 
42 
 
 Bulletin No. 7Jf. 
 
 milled curd before it is put in press, as in case of cheddar cheese; or, 
 second, the cheese, after having been pressed, is immersed in saturated 
 brine solutions, as in the manufacture of Swiss, and sometimes 
 Edam cheese; or, third, as the cheese are taken from the press and 
 placed on shelves, salt is spread and rubbed on the outside, as, 
 for instance, in case of brick, Limburger and Swiss cheese. The object 
 in view in any case is two-fold, viz.: First, to extract a certain propor- 
 tion of moisture from the cheese, thereby controlling the fermentation 
 (ripening) processes essential in cheese making, and at the same time 
 giving the cheese the consistency desired; and, second, to give the 
 cheese a pleasant flavor and taste. 
 
 The remarks made in regard to the effect of salt on butter apply 
 essentially to the salting of cheese as well, but the effects of salt on 
 cheese are farther-reaching than in case of butter, from the fact that 
 the cheese when taken from the press is only half made. The ripening 
 of the cheese is perhaps the most important part in the process of 
 cheese manufacture, and salt has a marked effect on the progress of the 
 cheese ripening, both directly, by checking to some extent the growth 
 of bacteria and enzymes in the cheese, and, indirectly, by creating 
 less favorable conditions for germ life, through decreasing the water 
 content of the cheese, upon which the activity of the bacteria is largely 
 dependent. 
 
 I . — Salting the curd . — In the process of cheddar-cheese making, dry and 
 fine salt is added to the curd after it has been matted and run through 
 the curd mill. The amount of water in the curd at this stage is evi- 
 dently of considerable importance; when the curd contains much 
 water, more salt will be lost in the drippings than when the curd is 
 dry, and a larger amount of salt is therefore required to reach the end 
 sought in salting the cheese; as a result the progress of the later 
 ripening is greatly dependent upon the amount of water in the 
 curd, and on the amount of salt added. The salt hardens the curd 
 and causes water to be expelled from it; it retards the growth of 
 bacteria and enzymes, and the rate of salting therefore is one of the 
 factors which decide whether a cheese will cure slowly or rapidly. 
 The amount of rennet used, time of cooking the curd, temperature 
 of the curing room, etc., are other factors of importance in this con- 
 nection. 
 
 The amount of salt ordinarily added in the manufacture of Ameri- 
 can cheddar cheese is 2 1-2 pounds per 100 pounds of curd. In ex- 
 periments on the effect of salt upon cheese conducted in 1894, Mr. 
 Decker of this experiment station, found* that the amount of moisture 
 in the cheese is in inverse proportion to the amount of salt added; 
 the more salt added, the less water in the cheese, and therefore the 
 
 *llth Report, page 220. 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 43 
 
 smaller the yield of cheese. In experiments where no salt, 1 1-2 pounds, 
 and 3 pounds of salt were added to different portions of the same 
 curd (weighing 10 1-2 pounds each), the yield of green cheese ob- 
 tained was 10.0, 9.75 and 9.5 pounds, in the order given. The analyses 
 made show that 2.33 to 2.68 per cent, of ash not salt was found in the 
 different cheeses, the content of salt in the cheese being directly pro- 
 portional to the amount of salt added, viz.: 
 
 l l A pounds of salt added per 103 pounds of curd 65 per cent, salt . 
 
 2 pounds of salt added per 103 pounds of curd 98 per cent. salt. 
 
 3 pounds of salt added per 100 pounds of curd 1.17 and 1.03 per cent. salt. 
 
 It is seen then that the amount of salt retained in the cheese is less 
 than 30 per cent, of that added to the curd. The figures in the 
 trials given range from 34 to 49 per cent. The amount of salt present 
 in American cheddar cheese has not been determined in any experi- 
 ments aside from those just cited, so far as known to the writer. 
 The per cent, of total ash present has been found to range from 
 3 to 5 per cent.* Of this amount we may consider one-half to two- 
 thirds as belonging to the ash of the curd, principally calcium phos- 
 phate. 
 
 By the methods of salting practiced in cheddar-cheese making the 
 salt is thoroughly incorporated in the mass of the cheese, and all por- 
 tions thereof will be subjected to the same conditions as regards the 
 development of bacteria and enzymes, and the work of decomposition 
 of the curd constituents which is attained through their agency. 
 
 II. — Brine-salting of cheese . — In the second method of salting men- 
 tioned, the curd is placed in the molds without being salted, and after 
 having been pressed, is dropped into a concentrated brine solution, and 
 salt spread on the portion of the cheese rising above the brine. The 
 cheese are' left in this position for several days, being turned once 
 or twice every day, and salt strewn on the portion above the solution. 
 By this method osmotic currents are set up in the cheese; whey, with 
 its solid components: milk sugar, albumen, and ash materials in solu- 
 tion, flowing out and brine penetrating slowly to the interior. As 
 less salt enters the cheese than water and soluble whey solids 
 taken out, the cheese loses in weight by being immersed in brine. 
 According to Fleischmann4 cheese weighing 15 to 30 pounds will lose 
 5 to 6 per cent, in weight after four days’ immersion. An outside 
 layer of about one-half inch thickness becomes saturated with brine 
 by this method of salting, and the salt gradually penetrates toward 
 the interior of the cheese. It is evident, however, that the condi- 
 tions affecting fermentative changes in the cheese will vary consider- 
 
 *Woll, Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen, page 260; Mass. Exp. 
 Sta., Rep. XII, p. 456; Conn. Exp. Sta., Rep. 1892, p. 156. 
 
 JBook of the Dairy, page 229; Kirchner, Handb., page 437. 
 
44 
 
 Bulletin No. 7J+. 
 
 ably in different portions of cheese salted in this manner. After hav- 
 ing been kept in brine, the cheese is generally placed on shelves, and 
 the process of salting is continued by rubbing the cheese with dry salt. 
 
 III. — Dry-salting of clicese . — In the third method of salting cheese 
 mentioned, the cheese are not salted until placed on the shelves in the 
 curing room, when they are rubbed and covered with a layer of dry 
 salt. The cheese are turned daily in the beginning and new por- 
 tions of salt applied every time. As the cheese is getting older, new 
 portions of salt are added less frequently. This method requires 
 considerable hand labor and personal attention on the part of the 
 maker, and can therefore only be practiced in case of the more ex- 
 pensive cheeses. The salt in this way slowly penetrates the whole 
 mass of the cheese. The maker has it in his power to hasten or retard 
 the drying-out of the cheese, and thereby also the fermentative 
 changes occurring’ in the same, by applications of small or large 
 amounts of salt. The moisture and temperature conditions of the 
 curing room will largely determine the amount and rate of salting 
 required to bring forth the desired curing of the cheese. 
 
 More salt is required when this method of salting is practiced than 
 by the two preceding methods, viz.: at least 6 per cent, of the weight 
 of green cheese. Brine-salting is somewhat more economical as re- 
 gards the consumption of salt, while dry-salting of the curd takes 
 less salt than either of these methods.* 
 
 Value of different salts in cheese making . — The importance of purity in 
 cheese salt has long’ been recognized, although the principle is not 
 always observed in practice. In general a cheese salt must fill the 
 same requirements as a butter salt, the main difference being that a 
 rather coarse salt is often preferable for the salting of cheese. In 
 the manufacture of brick and Swiss cheese, coarse salt is used in 
 preference to the fine-grained salt, since the latter makes a slimy, 
 slippery cheese, or, as it is called, “burns” the cheese (Decker). By 
 referring to the tables on pag’e 13, we notice that salt No. 31 con- 
 tained very nearly one pound of insoluble impurities, dirt, pieces of 
 wood, etc., in every 100 pounds of salt. This salt is a fair representa- 
 tive of the -kind formerly used extensively in small cheese factories in 
 this and other states. The idea that any kind of salt will do for 
 cheese-making is now, however, less frequently met with than form- 
 erly, and the leading' brands of dairy salt are more and more forcing 
 second-quality barrel salt out of our cheese factories. 
 
 Impurities of calcium- and magnesium chlorids in the salt will give 
 rise to a bitter, sharp taste in the cheese, as in butter, and are equally 
 objectionable in cheese- as in butter making on account of the ten- 
 dency of salt of this kind to become damp and to cake. Only clean, 
 
 *Fleischmann, Book of the Dairy, page 228. 
 
A Study of Dairy Salt. 
 
 45 
 
 dry salt of pure smell and flavor should be used for salting- the curd, 
 or dry-salting- of cheese. No information is at hand relative to the 
 comparative value of the various brands of dairy salt on the market for 
 cheese making-, but it is safe to conclude that none but those among 
 them that come up to the requirements of a g-ood butter salt can be 
 trusted to produce cheese of clean, fine taste and flavor. The salting 
 is only one factor in the production of such cheese, but it is as im- 
 portant as right cooking or curing. The manufacture of a high-grade 
 cheese calls for salt of standard quality, both on account of the salt 
 being incorporated in an article intended for human consumption, and 
 from its effect on the production of the desirable fermentative changes 
 and a pure flavor in the cheese.' 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 75. 
 
 TESTING COWS AT THE FARM. 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN, JUNE. 1899. 
 
 The Bulletins and A-nnual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
 No, 74, entitled “A Study of Dairy Salt,” was not sent to the 
 He supply & on hand' LaSi hlS bulIetm Wl11 be sent ll P° n request, so long us 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, ex-officio. 
 PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 State-at-large, JOHN JOHNSTON, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, J. A. VAN CLEVE, Marinette. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 JOHN JOHNSTON, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasurer. 
 GEORGE H NOYES, Vice-President. | E. F. RILEY, Madison, Secretary. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, 
 
 S M BABCOCK, 
 
 F. H. KING, ... - 
 
 E. S. GOFF, 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, 
 
 F. W. WOLL, 
 
 Director 
 Chief Chemist 
 Physicist 
 Horticulturist 
 Animal Husbandry 
 Chemist 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON. 
 J. A. JEFFERY, - 
 J. W. DECKER, 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, 
 FRED CRANEFIELD 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, 
 IDA HERFURTH, 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, 
 
 Bacteriologist 
 Dairy Husbandry 
 Assistant Physicist 
 Dairying 
 - Assistant Chemist 
 - Assistant in Horticulture 
 Farm Superintendent 
 - Clerk and Stenographer 
 Librarian 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, -------- Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint .Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
TESTING COWS AT THE FARM. 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON. 
 
 The milk supply of a Wisconsin creamery or cheese factory is com- 
 monly obtained from the neighboring farmers who keep from four to 
 forty cows. These cows produce the material which supports both the 
 farmer and the factory. The production of each cow is therefore of 
 importance not only to the manufacturer and the producer, but should* 
 be to the cow herself, for her life should depend on the amount and 
 economy of her production, provided she is rationally fed and cared 
 for. 
 
 A method for determining the milk value of each cow is now 
 within the reach of all farmers. They have learned to demand that 
 the Babcock test shall be used to determine how much butter fat there 
 is in the milk they send to the factory in order that they may be justly 
 paid for it. This same desire for fair play should be extended to the 
 cow’s. Each one of them should be given an equal chance to demon- 
 strate her butter-producing capacity and to have it measured by the 
 same method of weighing and testing her milk that the farmer re- 
 quires of the factory. 
 
 There are a few dairymen in the state who own and use a pair of 
 scales and a Babcock tester. They weigh and test the milk a suf- 
 ficient number of times to keep themselves informed of the actual per- 
 formance of every cow they own. These records show the relative 
 value of the cows as milk-producers and aid in determining the actual 
 profit or loss which should be charged to each cow annnually. Such 
 dairymen have become convinced that the time and money spent in 
 these operations is a profitable investment for them, and they could 
 not be persuaded to abandon the practice of keeping records of the 
 quantity and quality of each cow’s milk. It would be more difficult 
 to convince them that they can not afford this extra trouble of weigh- 
 ing and testing, than it is to persuade the vast majority of creamery 
 and cheese-factory patrons that they can afford it. 
 
 The farmer who washes to keep cows that will support him and 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 75 . 
 
 does not intend to work for the purpose of supporting his cows needs 
 to understand that: 
 
 First — if 150 pounds of butter only pays for the yearly feed and 
 care of a cow, then one producing only this amount or less, is not 
 paying a profit. 
 
 Second — one cow is often worth twice as much as another, or more 
 than two cows, although there may not be a very marked difference 
 between the total annual production of two cows. This may be illus- 
 trated by comparing the record of a cow that produces 152 pounds 
 of butter with one producing 151 pounds. The former yields twice as 
 much profit as the latter, provided 150 pounds represents the amount 
 necessary to pay for feed and care, and a 250-pound cow makes twice 
 as much above expenses as one with an annual production of 200 
 pounds of butter. 
 
 Since 1894 our Dairy School Creamery has been supplied with milk 
 from about 400 cows on nearly 50 farms within eight miles of the Uni- 
 versity. The five years’ record of this milk supply furnishes data 
 for studying many questions that are of interest to both the patron 
 and the factory. During the past year a series of tests have been 
 made of the herds of six patrons who never before kept any record of 
 the yield or quality of the milk of their cows. This was done under 
 the direction of the writer to obtain some information regarding the 
 economy of production of the common dairy cows of this region of the 
 state. There is nothing abnormally above or below the average cream- 
 ery or cheese factory patron’s outfit on these farms, and the fifty cows 
 which have been tested are undoubtedly a fair sample of those that 
 supply milk to a majority of the factories in Wisconsin. These pat- 
 rons may be considered average representatives of the farmers who 
 feed the 840,000 cows furnishing milk to the 951 creameries and 1,571 
 cheese. factories in this state.* 
 
 METHOD OF MAKING THE FARM TEST. 
 
 The tests made on the different farms were all conducted on the 
 same general plan. The milk of each cow was weighed and sampled 
 at the morning and night milking one day in each week. This testing 
 day was seclected by the patron. Each dairy was supplied with a 
 pair of scales for weighing the milk of each cow at milking time, a 
 box of bottles for milk samples, a small, 1-ounce tin sampling dipper 
 and a record book. Each cow was given a number, which was also 
 placed on the label of a 2-ounce sample botttle, the cow being known 
 by this number throughout the test. About one-half g’ram of potas- 
 
 *Report Wisconsin Dairy and Food Commissioner for 1896. 
 
Testing Coivs at the Farm. 
 
 5 
 
 sium bichromate was added to each sample bottle to keep the milk 
 sweet until tested. The box of samples and the record book con- 
 taining’ the weights of both the morning 1 and night milk of each cow 
 were sent every week to the university creamery, where the samples 
 were tested; the tests were recorded in the patrons’ book as well as 
 
 Milk weighing and sampling outfit. 
 
 A, Box of sample bottles; 2 and 4, milk sample bottles; 3 tin sampling 
 dipper; 5, record book. 
 
 in the permanent record at the creamery, after which the book and 
 box of sample bottles were returned to the farm. This weekly sam- 
 pling, testing and weighing was continued throughout the year. The 
 records thus obtained furnish data for determining the value of the 
 milk produced by the different cows. 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin JSo. 75. 
 
 The following' instructions were plainly written on the first few 
 pages of the record book sent with each box of sampling bottles to the 
 farms: 
 
 DIRECTIONS. 
 
 1. Give each cow a permanent name or number. 
 
 2. Provide a piace for using the scales at milking time. 
 
 3. Select a milk-weighing pail or bucket. 
 
 4. Record the weight of this empty pail or provide some sure way 
 of deducting its weight from each lot of milk. 
 
 5. After milking a cow dry, pour all her milk into the weighing pail. 
 
 6. Record the weight of this milk in the proper place in the book. 
 
 7. Pour milk from weighing-pail into milking bucket and im- 
 mediately dip a sample from it into a bottle having the number of this 
 cow. 
 
 8. The sample from the first milking should only fill the bottle one- 
 half full. 
 
 9. At the next milking repeat the weighing and sampling and pour 
 the second sample into the same bottle that was previously half 
 filled. 
 
 10. Each sample bottle should contain a mixture of the milk from 
 two successive milkings of one cow. 
 
 11. Cork the sample bottles to prevent evaporation. 
 
 12. Weigh and sample the milk of each cow once, twice or four times 
 per month. (See page 21.) 
 
 13. Note time of each milking. 
 
 14. Record date each cow calves. 
 
 15. State how many days each calf was fed its mother’s milk. 
 
 16. How did you dispose of each calf. 
 
 17. Weekly statement of cows’ feed. Including the weight, price and 
 kind of grain, if any, with the amount and kind of hay, cornstalks or 
 other coarse fodder. 
 
 18. Health of cows. 
 
 19. Note any change of milkers. 
 
 20. Record date when cow was dry. 
 
 The record book sent with each box of sample bottles to the 
 farm was a small, leather-covered, 4x6 inch book that ordinarily costs 
 five cents. After copying the directions for making a test in the first 
 part of the book the remaining pages were ruled as shown below. Two 
 opposite pages were taken for the record of the weights of milk of one 
 cow. Other pages were reserved for recording the observations in- 
 cluded in directions 15 to 20. 
 
Testing Cows at the Farm. 
 
 7 
 
 Method of arranging records. 
 
 Cow No. 1. Age Fresh, Date.. 
 
 Milk Record. Breed Sold calf, date 
 
 Date. 
 
 Time. 
 
 Night. 
 
 Morn 
 
 Total 
 
 Test. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Time. 1 
 
 Night. 
 
 Morn 
 
 Total 
 
 Test. 
 
 P. M. 
 
 A.M. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 P. M. 
 
 A M. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The weighing and testing of the milk of these cows for one day in 
 each week was begun August 1, 1897, and continued for one year. The 
 scales used by the patrons were tested with standard weights, and 
 all samples of milk, about 2,000 in number, were tested at the Dairy 
 School Creamery. A great part of this testing and the necessary 
 routine record work was done by Mr. Frank Dewhirst, who, with the 
 writer visited each farm at milking time twice during the year to ob- 
 tain data in regard to the time required by the dairyman for weighing 
 and sampling the milk and to note the accuracy of the work done. 
 
 One farmer with twelve cows estimated that fifteen minutes’ extra 
 time was required to weigh, sample and record the milk of his twelve 
 cows on testing days. At another place the records were taken by a 
 boy who was too young to milk, but capable of doing the extra work 
 required at milking time on testing day. At one farm this work was 
 done by the women, who strongly objected to it, especially when it 
 was necessary to use a lantern at the barn in winter. 
 
 ACCURACY OF THE RECORDS. 
 
 The accuracy of such records as these is necessarily influenced by 
 conditions common to nearly all farms. Milking is usually done with 
 more or less haste, especially at the planting, haying or harvesting 
 seasons. The milkers as a rule are not accustomed to the use of 
 scales and often consider a weight within one pound of the true figure 
 to be “near enough.” They do not understand the necessity of prompt- 
 ness in sampling milk after it has been poured from one pail to 
 another before the cream has begun to separate. In spite of these and 
 other disturbing factors, our results show that tests of dairy cows can 
 be made by the farmers themselves with sufficient accuracy to give 
 a very satisfactory knowledge of the performance of each cow. 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 75. 
 
 As these same farmers sent their milk to the creamery daily, the 
 creamery weights and tests of the milk can be compared with the 
 farm figures on testing days. Although this is a comparison of one 
 weight at the creamery with the sum of twelve to twenty-four weights 
 taken at the farm, according to the number of cows in the herd, the 
 following illustration shows how close results can be obtained by such 
 a comparison: 
 
 Table 1. Comparison of farm and creamery weights and tests. 
 
 Cow No. 
 
 Wei< 
 
 Night. 
 
 3ht of Milk, 
 
 Morn. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Test. 
 
 Butter fat, 
 lbs. 
 
 1 
 
 10.0 
 
 8.5 
 
 18.5 
 
 5.6 
 
 1.03 
 
 2. 
 
 6.5 
 
 5.0 
 
 11.5 
 
 4.8 
 
 .55 
 
 3 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 4.8 
 
 .C9 
 
 4 
 
 18.0 
 
 14.5 
 
 32.5 
 
 4.7 
 
 1.52 
 
 5 
 
 8.7 
 
 8.0 
 
 16.7 
 
 4.7 
 
 .78 
 
 6 
 
 8.8 
 
 5.5 
 
 14.3 
 
 4.5 
 
 .64 
 
 7 
 
 12.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 21 5 
 
 4.7 
 
 1 01 
 
 8 
 
 11.5 
 
 9.5 
 
 21.0 
 
 4.2 
 
 .88. 
 
 9 
 
 9.5 
 
 8.0 
 
 17.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 .70 f 
 
 10 
 
 9.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 .64 
 
 11 
 
 6.5 
 
 3.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 5.6 
 
 .53 
 
 12 
 
 11.5 
 
 7.5 
 
 19.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 1.04 
 
 Total 
 
 114.0 
 
 86.0 
 
 200.0 
 
 4.7 
 
 9.41 
 
 Creamery weight and test 
 
 190.0 
 
 4.6 
 
 8.74 
 
 The sum of the twelve weights at the night milking is 114 pounds^ 
 and at the morning milking 86 pounds. This difference in the weight 
 of the two milkings is accounted for by the unequal time between 
 milkings, which was thirteen hours at the night and eleven hours at the 
 morning milking. The sum of the twenty-four weights is 200 pounds 
 and the average test of the milk is 4.7 per cent. fat. This is found 
 from the weights and tests of each lot of milk as shown in the table. 
 
 The creamer weight of the milk brought to the factory on this day 
 was 190 pounds, and its test 4.6 per cent. fat. A part of this difference 
 of ten pounds between the farm and creamery weights is accounted for 
 by the milk kept for family use (three quarts, or about six founds) 
 and the twenty-four ounces (about one and one-half pounds) taken 
 for the testing samples. The remaining two and one-half pounds still' 
 
Testing Cows at the Farm. 
 
 9 * 
 
 unaccounted for may be charged to the lack of exactness in making 
 the twenty-four farm weights and the unavoidable loss in handling so 
 many lots of milk. 
 
 These tests show a satisfactory agreement as a difference of 0.1 per 
 cent, fat is not an unusual variation for duplicate tests of one sample- 
 of milk. 
 
 A one-day trial similar to that just described was made at four of the 
 farms. A representative of the Dairy School visited the farms at both 
 milkings in one day and saw the milk of each cow weighed and 
 sampled. 
 
 The sum of these weights and the average tests were obtained in the 
 same way as described in Table I, and comparisons made with the 
 weights and tests of the milk delivered at the creamery that day. A 
 summary of these results is given in the following table: 
 
 Table II. — Comparison of farm and dreamery weights and tests 
 
 at four farms. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 No. of 
 cows. 
 
 Milk of One Day. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Creamery. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Farm 
 
 test. 
 
 Creamery 
 
 test. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 A 
 
 8 
 
 130 
 
 115 
 
 15 
 
 4.56 
 
 4.5 
 
 ,0J 
 
 C 
 
 11 
 
 231 
 
 211 
 
 20 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.3 
 
 
 D 
 
 6 
 
 118 
 
 113 
 
 5 
 
 3.8 
 
 4.0 
 
 .2 
 
 E 
 
 4 
 
 79 
 
 73 
 
 6 
 
 4.5 
 
 4.4 
 
 .1 
 
 With the exception of these single comparisons, which were made 
 by us, the milk was not tested at the creamery each day the cows were 
 tested at the farm, but the weekly tests of the creamery composite 
 samples may be compared with the farm tests for one day of each 
 week. Such a comparison was made of the farm and creamery records 
 of each patron for the entire year, and a summary of these results is 
 given for one of the patrons. It is to be expected that the farm weight 
 should be greater than the creamery weight on any given day, because 
 a certain amount of milk is always kept at home for family use, and 
 even if this is not the case, small errors in making twelve to twenty- 
 four weights are unavoidable in handling the milk at the farm. 
 
 In some cases it will be noticed that the creamery weight was more 
 than the farm weight. This must have been due to carelessness at 
 the farm or by emptying the milk of some cow into the creamery cans 
 without weighing it. 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 75. 
 
 Table 3. — Comparison of the farm and creamery weights and 
 tests from farm C for the entire year. 
 
 
 
 No. OF 
 
 Weight of Milk, Lbs. 
 
 Test of Milk. 
 
 Monthly Av. Test 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Milked. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 Cream- 
 
 ery. 
 
 Farm 
 
 excess. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 1 
 
 Cream- 
 
 ery.* 
 
 Farm. | 
 
 Cream- 
 
 ery. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 234 
 
 231 
 
 O 
 
 4 5 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 215.5 
 
 214 
 
 1.5 
 
 4 2 
 
 4.2 
 
 
 4.3 
 
 
 4.05 
 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 240 
 
 236 
 
 4 
 
 4 4 
 
 4.2 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 244.5 
 
 224 
 
 20 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 J 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 Sept. 
 
 ! 
 
 12 
 
 192 
 
 177 
 
 15 
 
 4.1 
 
 3.9 
 
 1 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 183 
 
 171 
 
 12 
 
 4.4 
 
 4.3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 169 
 
 162 
 
 7 
 
 4.4 
 
 4.4 
 
 V 
 
 4.46 
 
 Y 
 
 4.35 
 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 139 
 
 139 
 
 0 
 
 4.9 
 
 4.2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 162 
 
 150 
 
 u 
 
 4 6 
 
 4 6 
 
 J 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 Oct. 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 151 
 
 126 
 
 25 5 
 
 4 7 
 
 4 5 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 
 
 ] 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 125 
 
 130 
 
 —5 
 
 4.7 
 
 4.4 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 111.5 
 
 109 
 
 2.5 
 
 5.2 
 
 4 9 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 4.88 
 
 y 
 
 i 
 
 4.75 
 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 90 
 
 96 
 
 —6 
 
 5.4 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 104 
 
 99 
 
 5 
 
 4.5 
 
 5 
 
 J 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 Nov. 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 87 
 
 90 
 
 —3 
 
 4.9 
 
 4 9 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 153 
 
 139.5 
 
 147 
 
 147 
 
 6 
 
 -8.5 | 
 
 4.6 
 
 5.2 
 
 4.7 
 
 4.8 
 
 [ 
 
 5.05 
 
 j- 
 
 4.8 
 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 130.5 
 
 123 
 
 7.5 
 
 5.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 J 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 Dec. 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 137.5 
 
 145 
 
 -7.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 5 
 
 ] 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 163.5 
 
 161 
 
 2.5 
 
 4 6 
 
 4.8 
 
 
 4.55 
 
 [ 
 
 4.75 
 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 166.5 
 
 161 
 
 5.5 
 
 4 3 
 
 4.7 
 
 r 
 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 203.5 
 
 188 
 
 15 5 
 
 4.7 
 
 4 5 
 
 i 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 Jany. 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 200 
 
 195 
 
 5 
 
 4.7 
 
 4.3 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 200 
 
 198 
 
 2 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 209 
 
 230 
 
 —21 
 
 4.1 
 
 4.4 
 
 
 4.46 
 
 y 
 
 4.3 
 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 234 
 
 235 
 
 —1 
 
 4.4 
 
 4 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 11 
 
 258.5 
 
 262 
 
 —4.5 
 
 4 6 
 
 4.3 
 
 J 
 
 
 ] 
 
 
 Feby. 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 247 
 
 240 
 
 7 
 
 4.3 
 
 4 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 275 
 
 273 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4.1 
 
 
 4.3 
 
 j- 
 
 4.2 
 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 294 
 
 270 
 
 24 
 
 4.2 
 
 4 1 
 
 y 
 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 263 
 
 260 
 
 3 
 
 4.7 
 
 4 2 
 
 j 
 
 
 i 
 
 ) 
 
 
 March 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 272.5 
 
 273 
 
 0 0 
 
 4.4 
 
 4.2 
 
 ) 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 273.5 
 
 265 
 
 8.5 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.0 
 
 c 
 
 5 
 
 4.4 
 
 [ 
 
 4.05 
 
 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 259.5 
 
 254 
 
 5.5 
 
 4.3 
 
 4 1 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 April 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 249 
 
 242 
 
 7 
 
 4.5 
 
 4.2 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 230 
 
 230 
 
 0.0 
 
 4.4 
 
 4 0 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 223 
 
 224 
 
 —1 
 
 4.6 
 
 4.1 
 
 y 
 
 i 
 
 4.5 
 
 [ 
 
 4.1 
 
 
 23 
 
 11 
 
 221 
 
 214 
 
 7 
 
 4 4 
 
 4.4 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 11 
 
 207.5 
 
 203 
 
 4 5 
 
 4.4 
 
 4.3 
 
 j 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 May 
 
 'l 
 
 11 
 
 231 
 
 226 
 
 5 
 
 4.4 
 
 4.4 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 232.5 
 
 228 
 
 4 5 
 
 4.1 
 
 4.4 
 
 
 4.3 
 
 i 
 
 4.35 
 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 229.5 
 
 220 
 
 9.5 
 
 4 4 
 
 4.3 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 28 
 
 11 
 
 205.5 
 
 210 
 
 —4.5 
 
 4 3 
 
 4.4 
 
 j 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 June 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 213 
 
 198 
 
 15 
 
 4 4 
 
 4.3 
 
 ] 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 209 
 
 195 
 
 14 
 
 4.5 
 
 4.1 
 
 y 
 
 4.3 
 
 i 
 
 4.2 
 
 
 20 
 
 It 
 
 242.5 
 
 229 
 
 13.5 
 
 4.8 
 
 4.3 
 
 \ 
 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 196 
 
 200 
 
 —4 
 
 4 
 
 4.2 
 
 J 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 July 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 231.5 
 
 213 
 
 18.5 
 
 4 3 
 
 4 3 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 198 
 
 190 
 
 8 
 
 4.7 
 
 4.4 
 
 i 
 
 4.5 
 
 l 
 
 4.4 
 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 158 
 
 142 
 
 16 
 
 4.6 
 
 4.4 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 
 28 
 
 11 
 
 153.5 
 
 140 
 
 13.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 4.6 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 * Composite sample for the week. 
 
Testing Cows at the Farm 
 
 11 
 
 The table shows that the agreement between the farm and creamery 
 figures is quite satisfactory in this case, and it will be noticed that the 
 tests of the milk at the two places agree very closely, showing that 
 milk sampling may be done at the farm with considerable accuracy. 
 Comparisons of the farm and creamery records were made at four 
 of the farms, but from lack of general interest the others are not 
 here given. 
 
 A comparison of the total record of the four herds as obtained at the 
 farm with the creamery record for the year is, however, given. The 
 farm figures in this table, it should be remembered, are not found by 
 weighing each cow’s milk at every milking during her entire period of 
 lactation, but' they are calculated from the weights taken each week, as 
 •described on page 12. 
 
 Table No. 4. — Annual farm and creamery records. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 No. of 
 cows 
 milked. 
 
 Weight of Milk 
 
 , Lbs. 
 
 W’eight of Butter Fat, Lbs. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 Creamery 
 
 Farm 
 
 excess. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 Creamery. 
 
 Farm 
 
 excess. 
 
 A 
 
 12 
 
 57,813 
 
 56,053 
 
 1,760 
 
 2,355 
 
 2,270 
 
 85 
 
 € 
 
 12 
 
 72,675 
 
 71, 0C9 
 
 1,666 
 
 3.246 
 
 3,056 
 
 190 
 
 D 
 
 6 
 
 31, 558 
 
 31,290 
 
 3,268 
 
 1,422 
 
 1,275 
 
 119 
 
 :e 
 
 5 
 
 33, 122 
 
 27,174 
 
 5,948 
 
 1,595 
 
 1,205 
 
 350 
 
 Excepting at farm E, each cow’s record began after her calf was sold 
 or when her milk was sent to the creamery. At farm E, the owner 
 milked each cow as soon as fresh on testing days, weighed and sampled 
 the milk, but fed it to the calf for about four weeks, until the calf was 
 sold. This accounts for a part of the large difference between the 
 farm and creamery records of this herd. The variation is, however, 
 so much larger than any of the others that it was decided to continue 
 the test of this herd for another year, and not to use the record of this 
 year, except as here given. 
 
 The records of the cows on farm F are also omitted in this bulletin 
 on account of their incompleteness. No samples were received from 
 this patron for several months during the winter. 
 
 The milk from farm B was not sent to the creamery, but sold to 
 private families. The records of each cow in this herd are only given 
 in the summary table on page 16 as additioral evidence on the sub- 
 ject of cow testing. 
 
Bulletin No. 75 . 
 
 1 °, 
 
 AN EXAMPLE OF THE RECORDS. 
 
 In order to further illustrate the method used for calculating the 
 total milk and butter fat produced by each cow the complete details 
 of one cow’s record are given below. The weights and samples were 
 taken by the milkers at the farms, but the samples were tested at the 
 creamery. 
 
 The total annual production of a cow is found by multiplying the 
 average of the four or five daily weights of milk and of butter fat 
 taken each month by the number of days in the month, and adding the 
 products together. 
 
 The money value of the milk of each cow is found by multiplying 
 the monthly weight of butter fat by a certain figure which is one-half 
 cent, less than the average Elgin market price of butter for that month 
 and adding the products together.* 
 
 VARIATIONS IN THE TEST OF MILK. 
 
 The daily tests of the milk show to what extremes the milk of one 
 cow will vary from day to day, a difference of one-half of one per 
 cent., and occasionally even more than one per cent, being noticed on 
 some days. This is shown by these records for August, „ November, 
 December and June. Such variations, however, tend to equalize each 
 other from day to day, and milk of unusual richness is generally fol- 
 lowed by exceptionally thin milk, so that the average richness of the 
 two lots comes near to the normal quality that the cow produces. This 
 daily variation in milk is much more striking in some cows than in 
 others, even' in a herd having the same feed and care; it seems to de- 
 pend largely on the health and more or less excitable temperament of 
 a cow, nervous cows showing a much greater tendency to unevenness 
 in the quality of their milk than cows of a quiet disposition. 
 
 *This is the price which the creamery pays all its patrons for milk. 
 
Testing Lou; a at the Farm , 
 
 13 
 
 Cow No. 34. — 8 years old; fresh in June; milked 350 days; 7,654 lbs. milk; average 
 test, 4.0# fat; 360 lbs. bulter; creamery value of milk, $57.56. 
 
 Cow No. 38.-8 years old; fresh in January; milked 249 days; 5,440 lbs. milk 
 average test, 4.1# fatj 260 lbs. butter; creamery value of milk, $37.96. 
 
14 
 
 Bulletin No. 75, 
 
 Cow No. 32.— 11 years old: fresh in October; milked 304 days; 8,132 lbs. milk; 
 average test, 4.0# fat;' 378 lbs. butter; creamery value of milk, $59.81. 
 
 , 
 
 Cow No. 25.-6 years old; fresh July, ’97; milked 365 days; 7,887 lbs. milk; average- 
 test, 3.95# fat; 364 lbs. butter; creamery vajue of milk, $58.21. 
 
Testing Cows at the Farm , 
 
 15 
 
 Table 5. — Details of one cow's milk record. 
 
 cow no. 32. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Weight op Milk, 
 
 1 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Test, fat, 
 
 Butter fat, 
 lbs. 
 
 Morniag. 
 
 Night. 
 
 Total. 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 8 
 
 15 .. 
 
 3. 
 
 2.5 
 
 2 5 
 
 3 5 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 6.5 
 
 5.0 
 
 5 0 
 
 5.2 
 
 4.5 
 
 4 2 
 
 .34 
 
 .22 
 
 .21 
 
 .19 
 
 22 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 5.0 
 
 3.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5.37 
 
 4 5 
 
 .24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dry. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oct. 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nov. 7 
 
 6.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 11. 
 
 3.6 
 
 .39 
 
 14 
 
 18. 
 
 16. 
 
 34. 
 
 4.5 
 
 1.53 
 
 1.48 
 
 1 52 
 
 21 
 
 18.5 
 
 16. 
 
 34.5 
 
 4 3 
 
 28 
 
 16.5 
 
 14. 
 
 30.5 
 
 5.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 27.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 1.23 
 
 
 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 19. 
 
 15.5 
 
 34.5 
 
 3.1 
 
 1.07 
 
 13 
 
 19. 
 
 21. 
 
 17. 
 
 18.5 
 
 36. 
 
 39.5 
 
 4.3 
 
 3.7 
 
 1 55 
 
 20 
 
 1 46 
 
 26 
 
 20.5 
 
 18. 
 
 38.5 
 
 4.1 
 
 1.58 
 
 1.41 
 
 
 37.1 
 
 3 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21. 
 
 19. 
 
 40. 
 
 4.3 
 
 1 72 
 
 10 
 
 2C.5 
 
 16.5 
 
 37 . 
 
 4 0 
 
 1.48 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.48 
 
 16 
 
 18.5 
 
 
 34. 
 
 3 4 
 
 23 
 
 21. 
 
 18.5 
 
 39 5 
 
 3.8 
 
 3.8 
 
 31 
 
 20. 
 
 17. 
 
 37. 
 
 
 Average. 
 
 
 
 37.5 
 
 3.9 
 
 1.46 
 
 
 
 
 
 Feb. 6 
 
 17. 
 
 16. 
 
 33. 
 
 3.7 
 
 3.4 
 
 3.4 
 
 4.1 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.17 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.31 
 
 14 
 
 16. 
 
 18.5 
 
 17. 
 
 34.5 
 
 22 
 
 19. 
 
 36. 
 
 28 
 
 15. 
 
 17. 
 
 32. 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 33.8 
 
 3 . 6 
 
 1.23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mar. 8 
 
 17. 
 
 17 
 
 34 
 
 4 2 
 
 1.43 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.24 
 
 1.33 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 17.5 
 
 19. 
 
 16.5 
 
 15.5 
 
 34. 
 
 34.5 
 
 3.6 
 
 3.6 
 
 3.9 
 
 Average 
 
 34 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 April 2 
 
 19.5 
 
 16 
 
 35.5 
 
 3.8 
 
 4.2 
 
 3.8 
 
 4.4 
 
 3 8 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.41 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.43 
 
 1.08 
 
 9 
 
 19. 
 
 14.5 
 
 33.5 
 
 16 
 
 19. 
 
 15 5 
 
 34.5 
 
 23 
 
 15. 
 
 17 5 
 
 32 5 
 
 30 
 
 17. 
 
 11.5 
 
 28.5 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 32 9 
 
 4.0 
 
 1.31 
 
 
 
 
 May 7 
 
 19. 
 
 14.5 
 
 14. 
 
 12.5 
 
 9. 
 
 3375 
 
 33.5 
 
 31. 
 
 24.5 
 
 3.8 
 
 3.8 
 • 3.8 
 
 3.7,- 
 
 1.27 
 
 1.27 
 
 1.17 
 
 .90 
 
 14 
 
 19 5 
 
 21 
 
 18.5 
 
 28 
 
 15.5 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 30.6 
 
 3.7 
 
 1.15 
 
 
 
 
 June 6 
 
 13. 
 
 10 
 
 - 8.5 
 
 9. 
 
 7.5 
 
 23" 
 
 20.5 
 
 21. 
 
 15. 
 
 4~0 
 
 4.6 
 
 5 1 
 
 ' ~92 
 
 .94 
 
 1.07 
 
 .63 
 
 11 
 
 12. 
 
 20 
 
 12. 
 
 27 
 
 7.5 
 
 42 
 
 
 . Average 
 
 
 
 19.9 
 
 4.5 
 
 .89 
 
 
 
 
 J uly 6 
 
 12 
 
 7. 
 
 6.5 
 
 7.5 
 
 5. 
 
 14 ~5 
 
 11.5 
 
 7 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.8 
 
 4.4 
 
 4.4 
 
 .60 
 
 .55 
 
 .30 
 
 .20 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 3! 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 3. 
 
 5. 
 
 
 ’ 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 9.5 
 
 4.4 
 
 .41 
 
 
 
 
16 
 
 Bulletin No. 75. 
 
 Table 6. — Monthly summary of table 5. 
 cow no. 32. 
 
 Months. 
 
 Average Per Day. 
 
 Multi- 
 
 plied 
 
 by 
 
 days. 
 
 Monthly Total 
 
 * Price 
 per lb. 
 fat. 
 
 Value 
 of fat. 
 
 Milk. 
 
 Test. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Milk. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 
 Aug 
 
 5.37 
 
 4.5 
 
 .24 
 
 31 
 
 166 
 
 7.44 
 
 16. 
 
 $1.19 
 
 .Sppt 
 
 Dry . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18.6 
 
 
 Oct 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21.75 
 
 
 Nov 
 
 27.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 1.23 
 
 30 
 
 825 
 
 36.90 
 
 22.0 
 
 8 11 
 
 Dec 
 
 37.1 
 
 3.8 
 
 1.41 
 
 31 
 
 1,150 
 
 43.71 
 
 21.1 
 
 9 22 
 
 Jan 
 
 37.5 
 
 3.9 
 
 1.46 
 
 31 
 
 1,162 
 
 45.26 
 
 19.1 
 
 8 64 
 
 .Feb 
 
 33.8 
 
 3.6 
 
 1.23 
 
 28 
 
 946 
 
 34 44 
 
 18.9 
 
 6 51 
 
 March .. 
 
 34.1 
 
 3.9 
 
 1.33 
 
 31 
 
 1,057 
 
 41.23 
 
 18.25 
 
 7 52 
 
 April 
 
 32.9 
 
 4.0 
 
 1 31 
 
 30 
 
 987 
 
 39.30 
 
 17.9 
 
 7 03 
 
 May 
 
 30.6 
 
 3.7 
 
 1.15 
 
 31 
 
 948 
 
 35.65 
 
 15.3 
 
 5 45 
 
 June 
 
 19.9 
 
 4.5 
 
 .89 
 
 30 
 
 594 
 
 26.70 
 
 15 4 
 
 4 11 
 
 •July 
 
 9.5 
 
 4.4 
 
 .41 
 
 31 
 
 294 
 
 12.71 
 
 16.0 
 
 2 03 
 
 Aver . 
 
 26.75 
 
 3.97 
 
 1.06 
 
 
 
 
 18.4 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 304 
 
 8,131 
 
 323. 
 
 
 $59 81 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Creamery price which was one half cent under the average Elgin market price for 
 *the month. 
 
 A record similar to this one was kept with each cow that was tested 
 through her entire milking period, and the annual amount of butter 
 'fat, as well as its value, was calculated as in the above illustration. 
 
 FEED AND CAEE OF THE HERDS. 
 
 The cows at each farm were fed and cared for during the entire 
 year according to the usual practice of their owners. As far as we 
 could ascertain, all the cows at one farm were fed in the same way. 
 No attempt was made to vary the amount of feed which each cow 
 ^should have, excepting that where grain-feeding was practiced it was 
 usually stopped while a cow was giving little or no milk. 
 
 At farm C the owner kept a careful record of all grain bought and 
 led to his cows during the year. His estimates of this feed is given 
 helow : 
 
 Farm C. — Estimated feed cost and receipts from twelve coivs. 
 
 EXPENSES. 
 
 * Grain bought during year $180 00 
 
 ■30 acres corn stalks $2.00 per acre 60 00 
 
 10 tons clover hay $5.00 50 00 
 
 10 acres good pasture and 15 acres woodland 65 00 
 
 Total cost of feed $355 00 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 Received for milk at creamery $572 00 
 
 Sold 12 calves at $5.50 66 00 
 
 $638 00 
 
 60,000 lbs. skim milk 10 cts per 100 lbs 60 00 
 
 Receipts exceed feed cost 343 00 
 
 $698 00 $698 00 
 
 *The grain feed consists of corn and oais ground together, corn meal and bran, or 
 about 15 tons of grain at $12.00 per ton. 
 
Testing Cows at the Farm. 
 
 17 
 
 This shows that the estimated cost of feed at farm C was nearly $30 
 per cow, and the total receipts, $698, divided by twelve, the number 
 -of cows in this herd, gives a little over $58 as the average receipts per 
 cow. Assuming that the manure will pay for the care of a cow, the 
 -owner of this herd received an average profit of $28 per cow. 
 
 Each cow was fed about the same amount of grain and hay during 
 the period of stable feeding — November 1 to May 1. The grain was 
 fed dry just before milking, 10 to 14 pounds per head being fed per day, 
 •excepting’ the dry cows, which received very little grain. Hay was 
 fed the last thing at night after milking. During day time the cows 
 were turned out into a sheltered yard, where they were fed corn- 
 stalks that had been stacked near the barn at husking time. The 
 •cornstalks were well eaten, and it is probable that the cows satis- 
 fied their differences in appetite on the cornstalks, if, as stated, each 
 one was given the same amount of hay and grain. The cows had 
 access to well-water during the entire year, and were in pasture 
 from May to November. When cows were fresh the calf was allowed 
 to have its mother’s milk for about three weeks, when it was sold for 
 veal. 
 
 No exact feeding records could be obtained, except at farm C. At 
 the other farms corn, bran or shorts, ground oats, pasture grass and 
 a verj r little hay were fed in uncertain amounts, and apparently with 
 no definite plan. At farm A no money was spent for feed during the 
 year, but the corn and oats raised at home supplied all the grain the 
 cows received, except that some oats were exchanged for oran to give 
 the cows a variety of feed. 
 
 Although there was quite a contrast in the feeding and manage- 
 ment at the different farms, the method of weighing and testing the 
 milk of each cow was the same in each case. A summary of the re- 
 sults from each cow which was tested through one entire period of 
 lactation is given in the following table: 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No. 75 , 
 
 Table 7. — Annual production and creamery value of the milk of 
 each cow tested through one period of lactation. 
 
 Farm A. 
 
 Cow No. 
 
 Age 
 
 yr’s. 
 
 Fresh. 
 
 Milked 
 
 days. 
 
 Total Production, 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Fac- 
 
 tory 
 
 value 
 
 of 
 
 milk. 
 
 Val- 
 ue of 
 fat 
 per 
 lb. 
 
 1897. 
 
 1898. 
 
 Milk. 
 
 Test. 
 
 Butter 
 
 Fat. 
 
 *Butt’r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cts. 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 April.. . 
 
 March. . 
 
 303 
 
 6, 182 
 
 4.8 
 
 296. 
 
 345 
 
 $53 35 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 Nov 
 
 Oct 
 
 273 
 
 5, 5 j6 
 
 4.1 
 
 225. 
 
 262 
 
 43 40 
 
 19 3 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 March . . 
 
 March . . 
 
 282 
 
 6,203 
 
 3.9 
 
 244. 
 
 285 
 
 42.74 
 
 17.5 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 Aug .... 
 
 March.. 
 
 303 
 
 4,912 
 
 4.1 
 
 204. 
 
 238 
 
 39.36 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Jan 
 
 Jan 
 
 310 
 
 5, 290 
 
 3.8 
 
 203. 
 
 237 
 
 37.24 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 Sept. . . . 
 
 
 301 
 
 4,483 
 
 3 9 
 
 178. 
 
 208 
 
 33.39 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 j Nov 
 
 Sept . . . 
 
 304 
 
 4.248 
 
 4.1 
 
 176. 
 
 205 
 
 33.78 
 
 19 2 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 July — 
 
 Nov 
 
 301 
 
 4,528 
 
 4 1 
 
 185. 
 
 216 
 
 33.26 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 Oct 
 
 Sept . . . 
 
 209 
 
 4,061 
 
 3.9 
 
 160. 
 
 187 
 
 32.13 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 March.. 
 
 March . . 
 
 262 
 
 4, 546 
 
 3.6 
 
 164. 
 
 191 
 
 29.04 
 
 17.7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 Dec . . . 
 
 Dec . . . 
 
 256 
 
 4,063 
 
 4.2 
 
 173. 
 
 202 
 
 28.90 
 
 16. 9 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 Oct . .. 
 
 Sept . . . 
 
 273 
 
 3,792 
 
 3.9 
 
 147. 
 
 171 
 
 28.72 
 
 19.5 
 
 Total . 
 
 
 
 
 
 57,814 
 
 
 2,355. 
 
 2,747 
 
 $435.31 
 
 
 Average. 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 282 
 
 4,820 
 
 4.0 
 
 196. 
 
 229 
 
 36.30 
 
 
 Cr’m’y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 paid 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 421.36 
 
 
 Average. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35.11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Farm B. 
 
 25... 
 
 6 
 
 July .... 
 
 
 365 
 
 7,887 
 
 3.95 
 
 312. 
 
 364 
 
 58.21 
 
 18. & 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 May .... 
 
 April . . . 
 
 274 
 
 6,718 
 
 4.3 
 
 279. 
 
 325 
 
 49.55 
 
 17.7 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 July .... 
 
 
 304 
 
 5,583 
 
 4.75 
 
 265. 
 
 309 
 
 49.53 
 
 18.7 
 
 ?i 9 
 
 4 
 
 April . . . 
 
 March.. 
 
 316 
 
 5,193 
 
 5.15 
 
 267. 
 
 311 
 
 47.89 
 
 17 9 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 June . . . 
 
 May 
 
 322 
 
 6,534 
 
 3.75 
 
 245. 
 
 286 
 
 44.83 
 
 18.2 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 31,915 
 
 
 1,368. 
 
 1,595 
 
 $250.01 
 
 
 Average. 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 316 
 
 6,383 
 
 4.3 
 
 274. 
 
 319 
 
 50.00 
 
 
 * Calculated by adding one-six4h to the weight of butter fat. 
 
Testing Cows at the Farm. 
 
 19 
 
 k- 
 
 Cow No. 23— 4 years old; fresh in April; milked 274 days; 6,718 lbs. milk; average 
 test, 4 . 3 # fat; butter, 325 lbs.; creamery value of milk, $ 49 . 55 . 
 
20 
 
 Bulletin No. 75. 
 
 Cow No. 1. — 7 years old: fresh in March; milked 303 days: 6,182 lbs. milk; average 
 test, 4.8$ fat; 345 lbs. butter; creamery value of milk, $53.35. 
 
 Cow No. 8. — 5 years old; fresh in October; milked 273 days; 5,506 lbs. milk; average 
 test, 4.1$ fat; 262 lbs. buffer; creamery value of milk, $43.40. 
 
Testing Coivs at the Farm , 
 
 21 
 
 Cow No. 55.-9 years old; fresh in September; milked 318 days; 6,570 lbs', milk; 
 average test, 4.5 # fat; 350 lbs. butter; creamery value of milk, $55.49. 
 
Bulletin No. 75. 
 
 O ■) 
 
 Cow No. 56. — 8 years old: fresh in December: milked 321 days; 4,847 lbs. milk; 
 average test, 4.3# fat; butter, 260 lbs.; creamery value of milk, $39.60. 
 
Testing Cows at the Farm, 
 
 23 
 
 Annual production and creamery value of the milk of each cow 
 tested through one period of lactation. 
 
 Farm C. 
 
 Cow No. 
 
 Age, 
 
 yrs. 
 
 Fresh. 
 
 1897. 
 
 1898. 
 
 Total Production, Lbs. 
 
 Milked 
 
 days. 
 
 Milk. 
 
 Test. 
 
 Butter 
 
 fat. 
 
 *But- 
 
 ter. 
 
 Fac- 
 
 tory- 
 
 value 
 
 of 
 
 milk. 
 
 37. 
 32. 
 
 34. 
 42. 
 31. 
 41. 
 40. 
 
 38. 
 
 39. 
 36. 
 
 35. 
 38. 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 April.. .. 
 
 Oct 
 
 June .. . 
 March.. 
 April.. .. 
 
 Dec 
 
 Dec 
 
 April.. . . 
 
 Dec 
 
 Feb 
 
 June.. .. 
 Feb 
 
 Jan. . 
 Oct.. 
 June. 
 Jan. . 
 Feb.. 
 Oct. . 
 Dec. . 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 May, 
 
 Jan. 
 
 344 
 
 6,779 
 
 304 
 
 8,132 
 
 350 
 
 7,654 
 
 334 
 
 6,200 
 
 344 
 
 5, 161 
 
 311 
 
 5,870 
 
 278 
 
 6,109 
 
 304 
 
 5,018 
 
 291 
 
 6,561 
 
 312 
 
 5,340 
 
 302 
 
 4,411 
 
 249 
 
 5,440 
 
 Total . 
 
 72,675 
 
 4.95 
 
 336 
 
 4.0 
 
 324 
 
 4 0 
 
 309 
 
 5.0 
 
 315 
 
 5.45 
 
 282 
 
 4.60 
 
 264 
 
 4.1 
 
 256 
 
 4.5 
 
 227 
 
 3.8 
 
 248 
 
 4.5 
 
 240 
 
 5.5 
 
 222 
 
 4.1 
 
 223 
 
 3,246 
 
 392 
 
 $60,72 
 
 378 
 
 59.81 
 
 360 
 
 57.56 
 
 367 
 
 55.45 
 
 329 
 
 50.00 
 
 308 
 
 49.76 
 
 298 
 
 44.71 
 
 264 
 
 43.52 
 
 289 
 
 42.52 
 
 280 
 
 42.45 
 
 259 
 
 41.96 
 
 260 
 
 37.96 
 
 3,784 
 
 $586.42 
 
 Average 
 
 Creamer 
 
 Average 
 
 8/ 2 
 
 y pa 
 
 id. 
 
 310 
 
 6.056 
 
 4.4 
 
 270 
 
 315 
 
 $48.83 
 
 572.64 
 
 47.70 
 
 Val- 
 ue of 
 fat 
 
 Cts. 
 
 18 
 
 18.4 
 18.6 
 
 17.5 
 
 17.7 
 
 18.8 
 17.4 
 19 1 
 17.1 
 
 17.6 
 18.9 
 17 
 
 Farm D. 
 
 55 
 
 51 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Sept 
 
 Mav 
 
 Sept — 
 March.. 
 
 .Tan . . 
 
 318 
 
 295 
 
 334 
 
 321 
 
 6,570 
 
 5,462 
 
 6,274 
 
 4,847 
 
 4.5 
 
 4.3 
 
 3.95 
 
 4 3 
 
 200 
 
 235 
 
 245 
 
 223 
 
 350 
 
 274 
 
 286 
 
 260 
 
 55.49 
 
 41.04 
 
 40.37 
 
 3y.60 
 
 18 5 
 
 17.4 
 
 16.5 
 17.7 
 
 52 
 
 Maich.. 
 Jan 
 
 56 
 
 Dec 
 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 
 
 
 
 23, 153 
 
 
 1,003 
 
 1,170 
 
 $176.50 
 
 
 Average. 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 317 
 
 5,788 
 
 4.3 
 
 251 
 
 292 
 
 44.12 
 
 
 * Calculated by adding one-sixtli to the weight of butter fat. 
 
24 
 
 Bulletin No. 75. 
 
 These figures furnish evidence for discussing many questions on 
 which the great majority of creamery and cheese-factory patrons have 
 more or less positive opinions. Probably very few farmers realize 
 that there is so great a difference in the production of the different 
 cows in one herd as is shown by these records, but they are un- 
 doubtedly a fair representation of the 840,000 cows that produce the 
 butter and cheese of this state. As already explained, these cows 
 were all measured by the same standard, the weight and test of their 
 milk for a year. About $10 should be added to the factory value 
 of the milk of each cow as given in the table. This represents about 
 the average value of the skim milk, 5,000 pounds at 10 cents per 100- 
 pounds, and a veal calf three weeks old. 
 
 The extreme variation in the butter value of the cows on the 
 different farms is shown in the following table: 
 
 Range in value of annual products. 
 
 .Received for milk of 
 
 Farm A. 
 
 Farm B. 
 
 Farm C. 
 
 Earm D. 
 
 Best cow 
 
 $53 35 
 
 $58 20 
 
 $60 72 
 
 $55 49 
 
 Poorest cow 
 
 28 72 
 
 44 83 
 
 37 96 
 
 39 60 
 
 Average cow 
 
 36 30 
 
 50 00 
 
 48 83 
 
 44 12 
 
 No. of cows in the herd 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 Since each farmer fed all his cows in the same way there is no 
 evidence to show that it costs farmer A any more to feed the cow that 
 paid $53.35 than the one that paid $28.72. But these figures , do not 
 mean that cow No. 1 is worth $53.00 and No. 9 $28.00, because if the 
 feed of a cow for a year costs $30.00, as shown on page -14, cow 
 No. 1 earned an annual profit of $23.00, but the farmer lost $2.00 by 
 keeping No. 9. In five years No. 1 would pay $115.00 into the owner’s 
 pocket, but if he kept No. 9 during this time a loss of $10.00 must be 
 made up from some other source. 
 
 An inspection of the receipts from the twelve cows on each of the 
 two farms A and C, shows that at farm A there were three cows which 
 did not produce milk enough to pay for their feed. The entire herd 
 only paid a profit of $75.00, and three of the twelve cows paid $50.00 of 
 this amount, while the combined profit of the other nine cows was 
 only $25.00. In this case three cows earned 100 per cent, more money 
 in a year than was earned by nine other cows on the same farm. 
 
 On farm C the twelve cows earned a total profit of $228.00, instead of 
 $75.00, as on farm A, but even at farm C there is considerable differ- 
 ence in the cows. No. 38 earned only about $8.00 profit, No. 37 earned 
 nearly $31.00, a difference of about 400 per cent, in the annual but- 
 
Testing Coivs at the Farm. 
 
 25 * 
 
 ter value of these two cows to their owner. The record further shows 
 that six of these cows paid 60 per cent, of the total profit for the 
 year and the other six paid only 40 per cent, of' it. 
 
 Other equally striking illustrations of the differences in value of 
 cows can be cited from these records, but it is hoped that enough 
 has been said on this point to convince any cow-owner that the 
 purchase of scales for weighing milk and a Babcock tester is a 
 profitable investment. 
 
 Previous to making the tests the owners of these cows had very 
 little, if any, accurate idea of the relative value of the cows, but the 
 records show that the information is worth many times the cost of a 
 Babcock milk test and the time necessary to use it. 
 
 QUALITY OF THE MILK. 
 
 Since the Babcock test has been used at butter and cheese factories 
 as the means of determining the value of different lots of milk, 
 patrons keep a close watch on their test. Some of them seem to 
 think that the highest-testing milk is the most profitable, and that 
 cows producing’ rich milk are the ones to be sought for and kept. This 
 impression is erroneous, and the error of such a conclusion is well 
 illustrated by these records. The milk of cow No. 35 tested 5.5 per 
 cent, fat, and although she gave milk 302 days during the year the 
 total quantity, 4,411 pounds, was so small that her total product only 
 amounts to $41.96, while the milk of cow No. 32, which tested only 
 4 per cent, fat, brought $59.81, although she gave milk only two days 
 more during the year than No. 35. The difference was in the amount 
 of product for the year. The 8,132 pounds of 4 per cent, milk made 
 378 pounds of butter, while the 4,411 pounds of 5.5 per cent, milk pro- 
 duced only 259 pounds, making the total receipts for the year $18 more 
 for the 4 per cent, milk than was received for that testing 5.5 per 
 per cent, butter fat. 
 
 TOTAL WEIGHT OF MILK. 
 
 The records show that weighing the milk during the year is not 
 the only thing necessary for determining the value of a cow’s milk. 
 It may be noticed that cow No. 4 gave about 100 pounds more milk 
 during the year than did No. 31, but it was worth at the factory 
 $13.00 less than that of No. 31, because it tested so much lower. The 
 5,290 pounds of milk testing 3.8 per cent, fat produced by No. 4 
 brought $37.24, while the 5,161 pounds testing 5.45 of No. 31 was 
 worth $50.00. Neither the weight nor the test of a cow’s milk sepa- 
 rately is sufficient evidence for forming an opinion of her annual 
 production; both must be taken to determine the value of her product 
 at creameries or at cheese factories. 
 
Bulletin No. 75. 
 
 26 
 
 LENGTH OF MILKING PERIOD. 
 
 A few of the cows tested were such persistent milkers that their 
 owners had some difficulty in drying them off. This was especially 
 true of Nos. 6, 31, 34, and 37. These cows were all among the greatest 
 producers. The cows that were dry the longest time were generally 
 the smallest producers. This is shown by the records at farm A, 
 where several of the cows were dry for three or four months in the 
 year. No. 23 is a notable exception, however, as she was dry about 
 three months, and the value of her milk was nearly $50 for the year. 
 
 MOST PROFITABLE MONTH FOR FRESH COWS. 
 
 The market price of butter and cheese goes through approximately 
 the same range of variations each year. During the past two years 
 — 1897 and 1898 — the lowest prices for butter were in May, June 
 and July, and the highest in September, October and November. This 
 fact convinces many farmers of the profitableness of winter dairying. 
 
 The records here given furnish some interesting evidence on this 
 subject, as they include cows which were fresh in every month of 
 the year. Comparing cows Nos. 8 and 51, we see that No. 8 was fresh in 
 October, and her 262 pounds of butter brought $43.40, while No. 51, 
 fresh in March, produced more butter, 274 pounds, but it brought less 
 money — $41.04. The average price paid by the creamery for the but- 
 ter fat produced by No. 8 was 19.3 cents, while that of No. 51 was 17.4 
 cents, a difference of nearly 2 cents per pound, due to the season of the 
 year when the cows were fresh. 
 
 The average value per pound of butter fat is given for each cow* 
 in the last column of table 7. The method of calculating the factory 
 value of each cow’s milk is described on page 12, and the average 
 value per pound of fat for each cow* is obtained by dividing the total 
 value of her milk by the total butter fat which she produced in a year. 
 This figure is naturally raised or lowered by the market price of but- 
 ter when each cow was producing her maximum yield. As a rule the 
 cows gave the most milk during the first two or three months after 
 calving. There was one notable exception to this rule, however — 
 No. 36, although fresh in April, gave more milk in September and 
 October than she did in June and July, and this raised the average 
 price per pound received for her butter fat abnormally high for a 
 spring cow. The dther cows show considerable uniformity in the 
 average value per pound of fat according to the month in which they 
 were fresh. 
 
 If we group together the prices received per pound of butter fat 
 for all cows fresh in the various months we obtain the following table: 
 
Testing Cows at the Farm . 
 
 27 
 
 Table 8. — Average price per pound fat received for the total butter 
 fat produced by cows fresh in the different months. 
 
 December. 
 
 January. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Septemb’r. 
 
 October. 
 
 cents. 
 
 cents. 
 
 cents. 
 
 cents. 
 
 cents. 
 
 cents. 
 
 cents. 
 
 cents. 
 
 17.4 
 
 18. 
 
 17.7 
 
 18. 
 
 18.2 
 
 IS. 6 
 
 19. 
 
 18.4 
 
 17.1 
 
 17.5 
 
 17.5 
 
 17.7 
 
 18.6 
 
 18.7 
 
 18.5 
 
 18.8 
 
 17.6 
 
 17. 
 
 17.4 
 
 
 18.9 
 
 
 19.2 
 
 19.3 
 
 17.7 
 
 16.5 
 
 17 7 
 
 
 
 
 19.5 
 
 18. 
 
 16.7 
 
 18. 
 
 17.9 
 
 
 
 
 20. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 v 
 
 Av. 17.3 
 
 17.6 
 
 17.6 
 
 1 7.8 
 
 18.6 
 
 18.7 
 
 19.2 
 
 18.6 
 
 Although there is some variation in the figures for the cows that 
 were fresh in any given month, the agreement is sufficiently close to 
 show that the highest price per pound was received by the cows fresh 
 in September and the lowest by the cows fresh in December. 
 
 HOW OFTEN MUST MILK BE WEIGHED AND TESTED 
 
 The number of tests necessarj" for obtaining the total production of a 
 cow depends largely on the uniformity of her milk in quality from 
 day to day. The milk flow of all cows gradually decreases with the 
 prog’ress of the period of lactation, but the richness of some cows’ 
 milk varies more than others from day to day, hence the number of 
 tests necessary to show her average production will vary with the 
 peculiarity of the cow in this respect. 
 
 The five records given in table 9 were selected from those of cows 
 whose milk varied most- from day to day, and it can safely be assumed 
 that all the others would show, a closer agreement than these be- 
 tween the total production as calculated from one, two or four tests 
 per month. 
 
 Table 9.— Total pounds butter fat as computed from weekly , semi- 
 monthly and monthly weights and tests. 
 
 
 Weekly. 
 
 Semi- 
 
 monthly. 
 
 Monthly. 
 
 Cow No. 62 
 
 321 
 
 333 
 
 322 
 
 Cow No. 34 
 
 309 
 
 308 
 
 324 
 
 Cow No. 35 
 
 222 
 
 227 
 
 217 
 
 Cow No 52 
 
 245 
 
 249 
 
 305 
 
 Cow No. 53 
 
 2;6 
 
 238 
 
 243 
 
 Cow No. 9 
 
 147 
 
 147 
 
 151 
 
Bulletin No. 75 . 
 
 28 
 
 This table shows that weighing and testing a cow’s milk at each 
 milking for one day once every two weeks will give very satisfactory 
 information in regard to her total production, but when made only 
 once a month too wide a variation from the actual production may be 
 obtained with some cows, the amount of this variation depending 
 largely on the uniformity in weight and test of a cow’s milk from 
 day to day. Evidence on this same point has previously been pub- 
 lished by the writer in Bulletin No. 24 of the Illinois Agricultural 
 Experiment Station, and a summary of the results is here given: 
 
 Calculations of total weights of milk and butter fat compared with 
 daily weights and tests. 
 
 Cow 
 
 No. 1. ; 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 No. 16. 
 
 1 
 
 No. 18. 
 
 Aver- I Deviation- 
 age. from 100. 
 
 Weighing daily 
 
 Once in 7 days 
 
 Once in 10 days 
 
 Once in 15 days 
 
 Once in 30 days 
 
 Weights of milk, percentages. 
 
 ICO 
 
 98.6 
 
 101 
 
 9S.5 
 
 97.2 
 
 100 
 
 9^.8 
 
 100 
 
 98 1 
 97 2 
 
 100 
 99.5 
 97.2 
 97 8 
 100.7 
 
 100 
 
 98 
 
 99.6 
 
 101 
 
 102 
 
 100 
 
 97.2 
 
 95.1 
 
 96.8 
 
 90.8 
 
 100 
 
 96 1 
 94 4 
 93.4 
 90.3 
 
 100 
 
 98 
 
 98 
 
 97.6 
 
 96.4 
 
 _2 
 
 —2.4 
 
 -3.6 
 
 Testing daily 
 
 Once in 7 days 
 
 Once in 10 days . . 
 
 Once in 15 days 
 
 Once in 30 days 
 
 Weights of butter fat. percentages. 
 
 100 
 
 96.9 
 
 100.8 
 
 96.9 
 
 94.5 
 
 100 
 
 102.6 
 
 100.4 
 
 97.8 
 
 98.3 
 
 ICO 
 
 | 15.4 
 
 95 4 
 15.4 
 1C 2 
 
 100 
 
 99 6 
 100.8 
 101 5 
 104 
 
 100 
 
 99.3 
 
 104 
 
 1 98.2 
 
 i 93.2 
 
 1 ' 
 
 100 
 
 94.8 
 
 94.8 
 
 98.2 
 
 89.6 
 
 100 
 
 98 
 
 99.4 
 
 98.5 
 97 
 
 2 
 
 —".6 
 
 —1.5 
 
 -3 
 
 The average of these results shows that weighing and testing the 
 milk of a cow: 
 
 Once a week, gave 98 per cent, of the total milk and 98 per cent, 
 of the total butter fat. 
 
 Once in ten days, gave 98 per cent, of the total milk and 99.4 per 
 cent, of the total butter fat. 
 
 Once in two weeks, g’ave 97.6 per cent, of the total milk and 98.5 per 
 cent, of the total butter fat. 
 
 Once a month, gave 96.4 per cent, of the total milk and 97 per cent, 
 of the total butter fat. 
 
 This shows that there is a probable error of about two per cent, 
 in the calculation of a cow’s annual production of milk and of butter 
 fat when such calculations are based on weights and tests made for one 
 day either once a week, once in ten days or once in two weeks, and that 
 a probable error of about four per cent, exists in records based on 
 weights and tests made for only one day in every month. 
 
Testing Coivs at the Farm, 
 
 29 
 
 Cow No. 10.— 9 years old; fresli in September; milked 209 days; 4,061 lbs. milk; 
 average test, 3.9$ fat; 187 lbs. butter; creamery value of milk, $32.13. 
 
 Cow No. 13.— 4 years cld; fresh in March; milked 303 days; 4,912 lbs. milk; average 
 test, 4.1$ fat; 238 lbs. butter; creamery value of milk, $39.36. 
 
Bulletin No. 75. 
 
 Dairy Herd and Buildings of a Creamery Patron. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 76. 
 
 NOXIOUS WEEDS OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN, JULY, 1899. 
 
 |B tT'The Bulletins and Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request . 
 
 Democrat Printing Company, State Printer, Madison Wis. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, EX-OFFICIO. 
 PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 State-at-large, JOHN JOHNSTON, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN* Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, J. A. VAN CLEVE, Marinette. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 JOHN JOHNSTON, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasurer. 
 GEORGE H NOYES, Vice-President. | E. F. RILEY, Madison, Secretary. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Resents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, - 
 S M BABCOCK, - 
 F H. KING, 
 
 E. S. GOFF, - 
 W. L. CARLYLE, 
 
 F. W. WOLL, 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON. 
 J. A. JEFFERY, - 
 J. W. DECKER, 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, 
 FRED CRANEFIELD 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, 
 IDA HERFURTH, 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, 
 
 Director 
 Chief Chemist 
 Physicist 
 Horticulturist 
 
 - Animal Husbandry 
 
 Chemist 
 Bacteriologist 
 Dairy Husbandry 
 Assistant Physicist 
 Dairying 
 
 - Assistant Chemist 
 - Assistant in Horticulture 
 
 Farm Superintendent 
 - Clerk and Stenographer 
 Librarian. 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
NOXIOUS WEEDS OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 E. S. GOFF. 
 
 It is one of the self-evident truths that the grounds of neat and 
 painstaking farmers and gardeners should not be permitted to become 
 annually seeded with weeds from the lands of their more slovenly neigh- 
 bors. Every farmer of Wisconsin should know that the statute books of 
 our state contain a law intended to prevent this injustice, and which 
 needs only to be enforced to accomplish much good. This law does not, 
 it is true, demand the destruction of all pernicious weeds, but it is 
 aimed at some of the principal offenders, and if these can be kept under 
 subjection by its means, the damages from weeds on the farm will be 
 materially reduced. 
 
 The text of the original Wisconsin weed law has been modified in 
 some important respects. It seems pertinent, therefore, to publish it in. 
 its amended form, in order that the farmers of our state may have it 
 in a convenient shape for reference. Experience has shown that there 
 is liable to be misunderstanding as to just what weeds are intended 
 by the names used in the law, the common names by which these 
 plants are known being sometimes differently applied in different 
 localities. In order to answer, so far as possible, any questions of this 
 sort, illustrations of the plants specified in the law are here given, 
 with brief descriptions of some of their principal distinguishing char- 
 acters. And, finally, in order to assist, so far as possible, in destroying 
 these and other noxious weeds, hints as to the most economical and 
 satisfactory methods of treatment are given. 
 
 The weed law, as amended from time to time, now reads substan- 
 tially as follows: 
 
 Section 1 . Every person and corporation shall destroy, upon all: 
 lands which he or they shall own, occupy or control, all weeds known 
 as Canada thistles ( Cirsium arvense), burdock ( Lappa officinalis ), 
 white or ox-eye daisy ( Leucanthemum vulgare) , snapdragon or toad- 
 flax ( Linaria vulgaris), cocklebur ( Xanthium strumarium) , sow thistle 
 ( Sonchus arvensis) , sour dock and yellow dock ( Rumex crispus), mus- 
 tard ( Sinapis arvensis), wild parsnip ( Thapsium barbinode) , and Rus- 
 sian thistle ( Salsola Kali), at such time and in such manner as shall 
 prevent their bearing seed. In like manner shall he or they destroy 
 any of the above mentioned weeds and all other weeds standing or 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 7<i 
 
 growing as far as the center of the highways, lanes or alleys adjoining 
 the lands owned or controlled by him or them. 
 
 Section 2. If the occupant of any such land shall fail to destroy such 
 weeds as so required, after having six days’ notice in writing by any 
 commissioner of noxious weeds, such occupant shall be fined five dol- 
 lars for the first offense and ten dollars for each offense thereafter. 
 
 Section 3. Whenever it shall become necessary to serve notice, as 
 provided in section 2 of this act, upon any railroad or other corpora- 
 tion owning or controlling any lands in any town, such notice, if served 
 upon any agent of such corporation residing or being in such town shall 
 be deemed good and sufficient notice, and if no such agent shall reside 
 or be in such town, then such notice may be served upon any agent ot' 
 such corporation who shall reside or be in any adjoining town. 
 
 Section 4. It shall be the duty of the cha'rman of the board of su- 
 pervisors of each town, the president of the village board of any village, 
 and the mayor of any city, to appoint some competent person or per- 
 sons, in their town, village or city, to be styled commissioner of noxious 
 weeds, who shall be required to take the same oath as town officers, and 
 shall hold his or their office for one year, and until his or their suc- 
 cessors are appointed and qualified. Where more than one commis- 
 sioner is appointed in any town, city or village, they shall be assigned 
 separate and distinct districts or territories. 
 
 Section 5. The commissioner shall carefully inquire concerning the 
 existence of noxious weeds in his township or precinct, and in case any 
 person, persons or corporations occupying or controlling any lands 
 within the state shall neglect to destroy any Canada thistle, burdock, 
 snap-dragon, white or ox-eye daisy, cocklebur, sow thistle, sour dock 
 and yellow dock, mustard, wild parsnip and Russian thistle, growing 
 on any lands owned or controlled by him or them, or any highway, lane 
 or alley adjoining such lands, it shall be the duty of the commissioner 
 to destroy, or cause to be destroyed, all such weeds. He shall spend 
 as many days as the chairman of the town board, president of the vil- 
 lage or mayor of the city may deem necessary, and for each day so 
 spent shall receive two dollars, upon presentation of his account there- 
 for, verified by his oath and specifying by separate items against each 
 piece of land, describing the same, and the several amounts shall be 
 placed in the next tax roll in a separate column, headed “for destruction 
 of weeds,” as a tax against the lands upon which such weeds were de- 
 stroyed and be collected as other taxes. 
 
 Section 6. When any commissioner shall destroy any noxious weeds, 
 under the provisions of this act, upon any lands owned or controlled by 
 any railroad corporation, the said commissioner shall certify to the 
 amount of money he is entitled to, under the provisions of this act, to 
 the board of supervisors of his town, who shall transmit a certified 
 copy of the said certificate to the state treasurer, who shall include the 
 amount of money in said certificate in the amount to be paid for license 
 by said corporation, as provided in section 1213 of the revised statutes 
 of 1878, and the state treasurer shall collect the same from the said 
 corporation, as provided in sections 1212 and 1213 of the revised stat- 
 utes, and return the said money to the town from which such certificate 
 was transmitted. 
 
 Section 6a. Any chairman of a town board, or any president of a 
 village board, or any mayor of any city, who shall refuse or neglect to 
 appoint one or more weed commissioners, as provided in section 4 of 
 said chapter, within thirty days next following his election, shall be 
 fined not less than fifty dollars, nor more than one hundred dollars and 
 costs, on complaint made in writing by any resident of the county to a 
 justice of the peace, or magistrate in such county. Any weed commis- 
 sioner, after taking his oath of office who shall refuse or neglect to per- 
 form the duties, as prescribed in this chapter, shall be fined not less 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 5 
 
 than ten nor more than twenty-five dollars and costs, on complaint 
 stated as above, for each and every such offense. 
 
 Section 7. It shall be the duty of the clerk of every town board, at 
 the annual meeting of each year, to read aloud to said beard the whole 
 of this act, after which the chairman of each town, or the officer pre- 
 siding at such town meeting, shall put to the qualified voters present 
 at such meeting tne following proposition for their decision, to-wit: 
 “Shall the superintendent or superintendents of highways be ex-officio 
 commissioners of noxious weeds in their respective read districts?” If 
 answered by the majority of the voters present in the affirmative, the 
 chairman of such town shall appoint such superintendent or superin- 
 tendents as commissioners of noxious weeds, and no others; but if a 
 majority of the voters present shall reject the proposition, then the 
 chairman of such town shall proceed as prescribed in section 4. Such 
 superintendent or superintendents of highways duly appointed, shall 
 be ex-officio commissioners of noxious weeds in their respective road 
 districts, and after taking the oath of office shall be clothed with all 
 the powers, perform all the duties, receive all the immunities, and be 
 subject to the same penalties provided for in this act. 
 
 It is to be regretted that the weed law has not been more generally 
 enforced. Its enforcement seems to have been very commonly neg- 
 lected in cities as well as in many country districts. Some time ago, 
 the writer observed while walking the distance of a few blocks In a 
 suburb of Milwaukee, all but one of the weeds condemned in the weed 
 law in a seeding condition. New pests often get their first foothold in 
 cities, where they are introduced in the bedding of stock cars or in 
 packing material and are permitted to multiply on neglected vacant 
 lots without restraint. It should be noted in section €a of the weed law 
 that any resident may enter a comp'a'nt in writing to any justice of the 
 peace or magistrate in his county against any weed commissioner 
 who has been remiss in his duty, and thus compel him, under penalty, 
 to enforce the law. 
 
 It will be observed that after the English name of each weed named 
 in section 1 of the weed law is another name consisting of two words, 
 and printed in italics. This is the botanical or scientific rame of this 
 particular plant. It is necessarily used in this case, because it is under 
 this name that the species is described in works of botany, and if any 
 doubt should arise as to whether a 1 y given weed is or is not condemned 
 by the law, the question could at once be settled by referring to a 
 standard work on botany. The botanical rame, being printed in 
 Latin, is the same in all languages, whereas the common name alone 
 would mean nothing definite outside of our own country, and is liable 
 to cause confusion even in different localities within the same county. 
 
 It is a matter of interest that all the weeds condemned in the lave 
 were introduced into this country from Europe. There are, it is true, 
 native species of the cocklebur, but Dr. Gray believes that the one that 
 has become a troublesome weed, and has very justly been included in 
 our weed law, is not native, but has been naturalized here. The fact 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 76 . 
 
 that these troublesome weeds have invaded our country from other 
 continents, and, despite the efforts that have been put forth for their 
 destruction, have spread themselves over so many of our farms, illus- 
 trates how great is their power to cope with conditions, and empha- 
 sizes the importance of vigorous concerted action to keep them under 
 subjection. 
 
 GENERAL HINTS ON THE SUPPRESSION OF NOXIOUS WEEDS. 
 
 With reference to their term of life, weeds are readily divisible into 
 three classes, viz.: annual, those that live but one season; biennial, those 
 that live only two seasons: and perennial, those that live an indefinite 
 number of seasons. Annual weeds usually seed most abundantly and 
 hence are most widely distributed and appear in cultivated grounds 
 in the greatest numbers; perennial weeds are usually most tenacious 
 of life, and hence are often most difficult to control. 
 
 Annual and biennial weeds, since they have a definite life period 
 and multiply almost exclusively by seed, are effectually controlled by 
 preventing seedage. In order to surely accomplish this, the plants 
 should be destroyed before bloom, as many kinds possess enough re- 
 serve food within themselves to mature their seeds sufficiently for 
 germination, if cut while in flower. 
 
 Perennial weeds often multiply from underground buds, as well as 
 by seeds. Since the roots or underground stems whence these buds 
 grow are hidden beneath the soil — sometimes below the plow line — and 
 are often very tenacious of life, weeds of this class are frequently very 
 difficult to control. Persistent prevention of leafage, by starving the 
 roots, always accomplishes the end, but this is sometimes extremely 
 , difficult to apply in practice, since the buds often grow with great 
 rapidity. Yet, as a whole, no better method is known. Frequent 
 plowing or thorough cultivation of the infested ground is usually the 
 most effectual means of preventing leafage. Small patches may be cov- 
 ered deeply with straw or other litter. Persistently salting the weeds 
 in perennial patches is also sometimes effectual. 
 
 Certain very tenacious perennial weeds, as the Canada thistle and 
 sow thistle, when growing on deep, rich, moist soils, in which the 
 roots extend below the plow' line, may often be smothered out by seed- 
 ing down the land to grass at less cost than they can be subdued w'ith 
 the plow. 
 
 To destroy perennial weeds, seed production must be prevented and 
 the underground portion must be killed. Seed production may be pre- 
 vented by mowing when the first flow'er buds appear, the same as with 
 annuals or biennials. The best methods for killing- the rootstocks 
 vary considerably according to the soil, climate, character of the differ- 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 7 
 
 exit, weeds, and the size of the patch or the quantity to be killed. In 
 general, however, the following principles apply: 
 
 The rootstocks may be dug up and removed, a remedy that can be 
 practically applied only in small areas. 
 
 Salt, coal oil, or strong acid applied so as to come in contact with 
 the freshly-cut roots or rootstocks destroys them for some distance from 
 the point of contact. Crude sulphuric acid is probably the most ef- 
 fective of comparatively inexpensive materials that can be used for this 
 purpose, but its strong corrosive properties render it dangerous to 
 handle. 
 
 Most rootstocks are readily destroyed by exposing them to the direct 
 action of the sun during the summer drought, or to the direct action of 
 the frost in winter. In this way plowing becomes effective. 
 
 Any cultivation which merely breaks up the rootstocks and leaves 
 them in the ground, especially during wet weather, aids in their dis- 
 tribution and multiplication, and is worse than useless, unless the culti- 
 vation is continued so as to prevent any growth above ground. Plow- 
 ing and fitting corn ground in April and May, and cultivating at inter- 
 vals until the last of June, then leaving the land uncultivated during 
 the remainder of the season, is one of the best methods to encourage 
 the growth of quack-grass, and many other perennial weeds. 
 
 The Canada Thistle — Cnicus arvensis, Tournefort. 
 
 Other names: Cursed thistle, Cirsium arvense. 
 
 The Canada thistle is certainly one of the most aggressive and tena- 
 cious of weeds. It has attracted more attention and been the subject 
 of more discussion than any other weed that has ever invaded our 
 country, w r ith the possible exception of quack-grass. Swamps and 
 forests are almost the only grounds under vegetation that are not liable 
 to' intrusion by it, ard when once it secures a foothold it is usually 
 extremely difficult of eradication. 
 
 Description . — This plant differs in its more slender habit, its nar- 
 rower, thinrer, paler, more ^curled and deeper-cut leaves, less rigid 
 prickles and smaller flower heads, from the common or bull thistle, 
 Cnicus lanceolatus. No ore who has ever seen the two would have 
 the least trouble in distinguishing them. It is much more to be dreaded 
 than the latter species, as it is fa 7 * more difficult of extermination. Its 
 rather slender stem grows one to three feet tall, and bears numerous 
 purple flower heads, each of which contains many individual flowers. 
 Its seeds are provided with a very light, downy pappus, by means of 
 which they are very readily disseminated by the wind. The upper 
 part of a plant of the Canada thistle is shown in Fig. 1, also a portion of 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No, 76. 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 
 the underground stem with its rootlets, and at the left hand corner is 
 shown a single flower with its seed* and pappus. 
 
 Fig. 2, B shows the seed natural size, and A as it appears under a 
 good hand lens. 
 
 K 
 
 Fig. 2.— Seeds of Canada thistle, natural size and enlarged. (After Hillman.) 
 
 The root of the Canada thistle is perennial, that is, it lives in the 
 ground from year to year, and it sends out in all directions vigorous 
 underground stems or rootstocks. It is owing to this latter quality 
 that it is enabled to spread so rapidly and is so difficult of extermina- 
 tion. These underground stems develop buds at their joints, which 
 grow upward, forming new plants. Thus a single plant, if undisturbed 
 for two or three years, is capable of spreading over a square rod or 
 more of ground by means of its rootstocks alone. It is also propagated 
 to a considerable extent by its seeds, as is attested by the rapidity with 
 which it spreads down the valleys of streams, and the frequency with 
 which patches of it appear about old haystacks and places where hay 
 that contained its seeds has been foddered out during winter. In New 
 York it has been often known to come up thickly where forests have 
 been cleared off. Prof. Bailey has observed that many of the flowers of 
 the Canada thistle are imperfect, and but a small percentage of them 
 produce fertile seeds. It may be that fewer fertile seeds are produced 
 in the western than in the eastern states. It is probable, at all events, 
 that the seeds actually play a less important part in the dissemination 
 of this plant than their apparent great number and the extreme facility 
 with which they appear to be carried about by the wind would indi- 
 cate. It is not likely that the downy pappus of this plant that we 
 so often see floating about in the air in August, sometimes at a great 
 height, often bears with it a fertile seed. 
 
 How best destroyed . — In the year 1846, Mr. Ambrose Stevens of New 
 York, presented an essay before the Agricultural Society of that state 
 on “The Extirpation of the Canada Thistle.” In this essay Mr. Stevens 
 
 *What is commonly called the seed of the Canada thistle is in botanical 
 terminology an akenc, i. e., a single seed inclosed in a dry pericarp that does not 
 open at maturity. In this bulletin it is not thought necessary to distinguish be- 
 tween akene and seed in describing the plants. 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 76. 
 
 gives the results of careful experiments conducted during the years 1841 
 to 1845 in the destruction of this plant, and also an abstract of nearly 
 every article on the subject that had appeared in the agricultural 
 journals and published transactions of the state up to 1846, summing up 
 his evidence in carefully drawn conclusions. Believing that the problem 
 of keeping this pest in subjection will not differ materially in Wisconsin 
 and New York, the deductions drawn by Mr. Stevens are here given, as 
 it has seemed to the writer the best available testimony on the subject. 
 
 ABSTRACT OF MB. STEVENS’ EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 The thistles experimented on occupied three kinds of soil, viz.: 1. A 
 strong clay loam with some slate intermixed; 2. “A reclaimed swamp 
 with a shallow upper soil of vegetable mould, alluvial deposit and clay 
 resting on hardpan” (the timber before clearing chiefly black ash) ; and 
 3. “A rich, alluvial creek bottom.” 
 
 The first soil named was plowed nine inches deep in April, and the 
 plowing repeated monthly until September, when wheat was sown. The 
 thistles did not appear after the third plowing. The season was very 
 dry. 
 
 On the second soil, three plans were tried: 1. “A plat was burned 
 over by firing logs upon it until the upper soil was heated through to the 
 hardpan.” 2. “Another plat was burned over like the first, and in ad- 
 dition thoroughly salted.” 3. “A plat was soaked down to the hardpan 
 three times with strong brine.” The thistles were completely de- 
 stroyed in all cases. 
 
 On the third soil, the roots of the thistle penetrated to the depth of 
 three feet, which was down to ground water. A plat was plowed 
 deeply six times during the five months from April to August. But 
 in September the thistles were more vigorous than ever. The next 
 year this plat was planted with corn about May 20. The corn was 
 plowed and hoed in June, July and August, and hoed in September, but 
 in October the thistles were more vigorous than at any previous time. 
 A second plat was burned all over with log heaps. In a month the 
 thistles were up through the burned ground as vigorous as ever. A 
 third plat was burned over like the second, and in addition salted 
 thoroughly three times, but in a month the thistles flourished as if they 
 had not been molested. 
 
 The next year the three plats mentioned above were sown with red- 
 top grass seed, and wherever the grass became established the thistles 
 were choked out. 
 
 The red-top sward was tried on upland, but failed to destroy the 
 thistles. Timothy and clover were also tried on the bottom lands, but 
 they likewise 'failed. 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 11 
 
 The above detailed experiments were repeated until 1845 with simi- 
 lar results. In experiments made on poor, sandy loams, the thisties 
 were readily killed by plowing. On rich, sandy loams they were choked 
 out by sowing the land in clover. 
 
 From a careful study of his own and other experiments, Mr. Stevens 
 deduced the following conclusions: 
 
 “Whatever will effectually exclude the plant from the light and 
 air will destroy it. This may be done by plowing, in some soils, ana 
 in others by a close grass sod. Plowing, if repeated frequently, in soils 
 where the root does not descend beyond the reach of the plowing, will, 
 in dry seasons, always destroy the thistle, and often in moist ones. In 
 soils which are light, deep, rich, friable, and of course permeable to the 
 air, and are in some measure always moist, plowing will always fail. 
 
 “Wherever a dense sod can be formed, the thistle may be destroyed 
 by seeding. The grasses, wherever they are adapted to the purpose, 
 will be found the easiest, means of destruction; although not so rapid 
 as plowing, hoeing, salting or burning, where these latter are available. 
 
 “In all uplands, where the soil is of a depth admitting the root to be 
 reached and affected in its whole extent by the plow, hoe, fire or salt, 
 the thistle may be destroyed by these means, and they will be found the 
 most rapid ones. 
 
 “In all bottom lands where the root descends deep and the soil per- 
 mits access of air, neither the plow, hoe, fire nor salt will destroy the 
 thistle; here the grasses should be applied, and will be found the best 
 destroyers. 
 
 “Mowing will destroy those parts of the thistle which have thrown out 
 flowering stalks, and will not in the least affect those which nave non 
 Mowing should take place when the plant is in bloom. 
 
 “Whatever limits the thorough application of the means of destruc- 
 tion will proportionately diminish success. Hence it will be found diffi- 
 cult, in very stony grounds, ever to eradicate the thistle; the plow 
 can not effectually reach its roots, and such ground is rarely a good 
 grass bearer. Salt and sheep, with the scythe, will be found best for 
 stony grounds. In grounds filled with stumps, where the soil is rich and 
 will grow a dense sod, the grasses will be best, and in such the plow 
 should not be used, as it will not effectually reach all the roots. Fences 
 that obstruct the application of the plow or hoe should be removed. 
 
 “If it be desirable to destroy the thistles by the grasses, it will be 
 found best to make the land rich by manure. This will force the grass, 
 and enable it more readily, by vigorous growth, to Kill the plant. And 
 in the application of all remedies, care should be taken to reduce the 
 soil, by proper cultivation, to a fine tilth, that all the seeds of the thistle 
 in the ground may germinate and not lie dormant. The seed is very 
 hardy, and escapes all the ordinary means of reaching the plant, ex- 
 cept fire.” 
 
Bulletin No. 76. 
 
 1 1 
 
 An extract from a newspaper article, (Wisconsin Farmer, August 18, 
 1893, p. 5), written by Mr. J. S. Woodward, a successful farmer of 
 Lockport, N. if., is also given here: 
 
 “ Ridding Land of Canada Thistle . — Get the land well set in clover, 
 and the richer the better. Let it stand until just as the thistles begin 
 to show bloom, then mow it, being sure to cut all thistles. It is well 
 then to apply some plaster to start a quick growth of clover. When tlie 
 clover is up a good growth, say at the middle or last of July or first of 
 August, plow the field, and be sure that it is all plowed. Don’t cut the 
 clover, but plow the whole ground, having a chain on plow, if necessary,, 
 to put all the grass under. Roll at once, and harrow so as to cover all 
 the thistles. Keep the field well cultivated all the following fall. Every 
 time a thistle shows go over it with some broad-toothed cultivator, hav- 
 ing the teeth *sharp, and in two days after follow with hoe, cutting off 
 the head of every last thistle. Follow up till late fall, then in the 
 spring plow the field and you will have the best of all fitted fields for 
 barley or oats, and if the work is thorough I will give a dollar apiece for 
 every thistle that ever shows again, unless it comes from the seed.” 
 
 The Burdock, Arctium Lappa, Linnaeus. 
 
 Other names: Burdock, Great lappa, Gobo, Lappa officinalis , 
 
 L. major L. edulis, etc. 
 
 Description . — This coarse, mammoth-leaved, offensive weed, with its 
 large brown burs that have such a propensity for clinging to the 
 clothing and to the coats of animals, is already too familiar to the far- 
 mer. In the dimensions of its leaves, and the rapidity of its growth, it 
 rivals the garden rhubarb and the largest varieties of tobacco. The 
 seedling plant makes a considerable development the first season, stor- 
 ing up at the same time a large quantity of nutriment in its fleshy root,, 
 preparatory to flowering and producing seed the next year. Early the 
 following spring, it sends up a long, branching stem which bears in 
 cluster of individual flowers. It is these flower-heads that form, after 
 July, or later, a multitude of globular flower-heads, each of which is a 
 they have matured their seeds, the annoying, adhesive burs, that so 
 readily attach themselves to the clothing and the hair and wool of 
 animals, thus promoting their own dissemination. Under favorable 
 conditions the stem sometimes attains the height of six feet. Having 
 matured its seed the whole plant perishes at the end of the second 
 year. 
 
 In Fig. 3 is shown an illustration of a portion of the stem of two 
 varieties of this plant in flower. At 1 is a branch of the small variety 
 (Minor), and at 3 one of the more common varieties (Major). At 2 
 an individual flower is shown magnified. Fig 4, A and B show mag- 
 nified views of the seed, and C shows the seed natural size. 
 
3 
 
 Fig. 
 
 3 .— 
 
 Portion of flower-stalk of burdock. (Cut from 
 Agriculture.) 
 
 Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 U. S. Dep’t of 
 
14 
 
 Bulletin No. 76 '. 
 
 Though not particularly troublesome in cultivated ground, the bur- 
 dock intrudes itself into almost every waste place where the ground is> 
 rich and where the negligence of the owner permits it to exist. The; 
 seeds germinate freely the fall or spring following their maturity, and 
 the young plants manifest a surprising ability to cope with their sur- 
 roundings. Its injury to crops is far less than that of the Canada 
 thistle, but it should not be tolerated, as it is most unsightly and of- 
 fensive, and its clinging burs, besides being a source of annoyance 
 to man, are often a damage to domestic animals. 
 
 Fig. 4.— Seeds (akenes) of burdock, enlarged and natural size. (After Hillman. > 
 
 The burdock is used to some extent in medicine as a purifier of the 
 blood, and for rheumatism. The young shoots, stripped of their outer 
 rind, have sometimes been used as a substitute for asparagus. In 
 Japan, the root of a cultivated variety of the burdock is extensively 
 used for food under the name ‘Gobo,” ranking third in importance 
 among their vegetables. Under favorable conditions, it is said to at- 
 tain a foot in circumference and three feet in length, and a single 
 specimen is sometimes sold for twenty-five cents.* The root is gener- 
 ally used, however, when but two and one-half to three months old 
 from the seed, in which condition, “although it can not be termed de- 
 licious, it is certainly not a bad vegetable.”!! 
 
 How best destroyed . — Being a biennial plant, the burdock is not diffi- 
 cult of destruction. It does if left to itself at the end of the second sea- 
 son. The important thing is to prevent it seeding, and thus keep it 
 from propagating its kind. During the first year of growth, the plant 
 is readily destroyed by pulling it up by the roots when the ground is 
 very wet. The second season it may require repeated cutting a short 
 distance below the surface of the ground. But whatever method is- 
 adopted, the plant should never be permitted to bloom. 
 
 ♦Vegetable Gardening in Japan, K. Tamari, Rep. Mich. Hort. Soe. 1886, 136. 
 HThe Vegetable Garden, 235. 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 15 
 
 The White ok Ox-Eye Daisy, C nrysanthemum Leucanthemum, Linnaeus. 
 
 Other names: Daisy, White weed, Leucanthemum vulgarc. 
 
 It seems almost a pity that we are compelled to condemn this at- 
 tractive plant as a pernicious weed. But such is the case. Where tol- 
 erated, it often intrudes itself into pastures and meadow lands to so 
 great an extent as to crowd out more useful plants, and thus becomes a 
 source of damage. 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 6.— Seeds (akenes) of ox-eye daisy, 
 Fig. 5. — Oxeye Daisy. enlarged and natural size. (After 
 
 Hillman.) 
 
 The ox-eye daisy has sometimes, and very appropriately, been culti- 
 vated in the flower garden. It is a near relative to the garden chrysan- 
 themum, and, with the care that has been bestowed upon the latter, 
 might possibly have equaled it in attractiveness. It has also been 
 introduced into some localities as a forage plant for sheep, for which it 
 seems poorly adapted, as it is said that the close grazing of sheep de- 
 stroys it. It is rarely troublesome, except in meadows or pasture lands, 
 and is most prevalent in rather poor soils. 
 
 Description . — The ox-eye daisy is a perennial plant. Its stems, of 
 which several often grow from one rootstock, are one to two feet 
 
Bulletin No. 76 . 
 
 10 
 
 long, are little branched and are rather sparsely clothed with narrow, 
 coarsely-toothed or gashed leaves which are broadest near their upper 
 end. The upper leaves are attached directly to the stem with a clasping 
 fringed base; the lower ones have a more or less clearly-defined petiole 
 or leaf stalk. The stems are slightly downy, and are distinctly angular. 
 Each stem and branch terminates in what commonly passes for a 
 flower, but which is really a multitude of small individual flowers, 
 closely compacted together, forming the yellow, convex, cushion-like 
 center of the flower head. The outer row of these little flowers, or 
 florets, as they are called, are different from the others, being white, and 
 each one is spread out flat so that it appears like a petal to the whole 
 flower-head. A plant of the ox-eye daisy is shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 6, A 
 shows the seed enlarged and B the same natural size. Near the top, 
 at the right, is shown one of the individual florets, and at the left 
 one of the outside or ray florets. The ox-eye daisy propagates itself by 
 its seeds, of which it produces immense numbers, and also by its creep- 
 ing underground stems or rootstocks. 
 
 Hoio best destroyed . — It is hardly practicable to exterminate the ox- 
 eye daisy from grass land in which it has secured a hold without break- 
 ing up the sod and summer-fallowing the ground, or devoting it for a 
 time to some hoed crop. Cutting- the stems before the flowers open 
 will prevent the seeding, but does not destroy the plant nor stop the 
 spreading of its rootstocks. 
 
 ✓ 
 
 Snap Dragon or Toadflax, Linaria vulgaris, Miller. 
 
 Other names: Butter and eggs, Ransted. 
 
 Mr. Watson in his annals of Philadelphia states that this plant was 
 introduced into that city as a garden flower from Wales by a Welsh 
 resident named Ransted. (American Weeds and Useful Plants, Darling- 
 ton, p. 125.) It is also said to have been first introduced in Wisconsin 
 as a flower garden plant. But for its aggressive qualities, its profusion 
 of showy flowers would have maintained for it a popular place in the 
 perennial border, but its disposition to monopolize the soil has caused it 
 to be catalogued with the noxious weeds. It has long been common in 
 the East and is extending westward, having already invaded Wisconsin 
 in many localities. 
 
 The toadflax is perennial, and is propagated both by its seeds and by 
 its creeping rootstocks. It inclines to form a large patch, and so far as 
 it extends, takes almost exclusive possession of the soil, and is rather 
 difficult of extirpation. 
 
 Description . — The plant grows to the height of one to two, rarely 
 three feet. The leaves somewhat resemble those of flax, being narrow 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 Fig. 7.— Toadflax. (Cut from U. S. Dep’t of Agriculture.) 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No. 76 . 
 
 rather sharp-pointed, irregularly scattered on the stem, and very 
 numerous. The showy, yellow flowers grow in a dense oblong cluster 
 at the top of the stem. These are irregular in form having two lips 
 which are pressed closely together, of which the lower is bright orange, 
 with a slender awl-shaped protrusion at the base, called a spur. They 
 are followed by pods which are divided into two cavities by a partition 
 across the center, each of which is filled with small seeds, that escape 
 through holes near the top of the pods. A plant with its head of 
 flowers is shown in Fig. 7; 1 shows a single flower; 2, a magnified 
 longitudinal section of the same, and 3, a matured seed pod. Fig. 8, A 
 shows the seed .much enlarged; B the same natural size, and C an 
 enlarged section through the center of a seed. 
 
 Fig 8. — Seeds of toadflax, enlarged and natural size. (After Hillman.) 
 
 How best destroyed . — A milder treatment than that recommended 
 for the ex-eye daisy will hardly avail with this plant. Grubbing out the 
 roots may be practicable for small areas, but where the patches are 
 numerous and large, the summer fallow is the only treatment likely to 
 be effectual. Young plants could doubtless be rooted out by hand at 
 a time when the ground is very wet. 
 
 Cocklebur or Clotbur, Xantliium strumarium, Linnaeus. 
 
 Description . — The cocklebur is a rapidly growing, coarse weed with 
 an irregularly branching stem that grows to the height of one to two 
 feet. The leaves, which are borne on long leaf stalks, are broadly 
 triangular in general outline and more or less toothed and lobed oi\ 
 the borders. There are two kinds of flowers borne on separate heads 
 or clusters on the same plant. The male or staminate flowers are pro- 
 duced in roundish heads at the top of the stem. After shedding their 
 pollen, these drop off, and the female or pistillate flowers, which are 
 in clusters of two or three at the base of the male spike, enlarge and 
 form thick, hard, oblong burs beset with stiff hooked prickles, and 
 bearing two strong beaks at the upper end. These burs, like those 
 of the burdock, adhere to clothing and to the coat of animals. The 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 19 
 
 upper portion of a plant of cocklebur is shown in Fig. 9. At the top 
 of the stem the heads of male, or staminate flowers are seen, and at the 
 base of the leaves, those of the female or pistillate flowers. 
 
 Fig. 9.— Cocklebur. Fig. 10.— Bur of the cocklebur, with 
 
 section of same. (After Hill- 
 man.) 
 
 At the right, near the top of the figure, is a staminate flower en- 
 larged; at the left of the base of the main stem is a head of pistillate 
 flowers, showing the bur-like covering with its hooked prickles, and at 
 the top, the protruding styles; at the left is shown the same when older, 
 and at the right the same cut through lengthwise. Fig. 10, A shows 
 another view of a bur, and B a section of the same showing the two 
 embryos. Both A and B are natural size. Each bur, when mature, 
 incloses two seeds, one of which may germinate the first year, and the 
 other may lie dormant until a later time. 
 
 It has been said that the plant is poisonous to cattle but this is 
 probably a mistake. It is at least known that cattle sometimes eat 
 sparingly of it without serious results. 
 
 The cocklebur is common in barnyards, along roadsides, in waste 
 places and cultivated grounds. There are several other species, all of 
 which are less troublesome to the farmer than the X. strumarium. 
 
 How best destroyed . — As the root of the cocklebur is not creeping, 
 and does not live in the ground over winter, clean culture with some 
 hoed crop, or seeding to clover or meadow grass, with frequent mow- 
 ing, will keep it under subjection. It should be carefully prevented 
 
20 
 
 Bulletin No. 76. 
 
 from seeding, not only in cultivated grounds, but in waste places as 
 well, and this is the only means that will prevent its becoming trouble- 
 some. It is often necessary to go through corn and stubble fields in 
 Aug-ust or September for this purpose. Fortunately, nature helps us 
 to curb this noxious weed by making it the host plant for several para- 
 sitic fungi. 
 
 The Sow Thistle, Sonchus arvensis, Linnaeus. 
 
 Other names: Field sow thistle, Perennial sow thistle. 
 
 This plant must be considered the successful rival of the Canada 
 thistle in its power of multiplication, and in the tenacity of its hold 
 upon the soil. Indeed some farmers who have contended with both of 
 these enemies have pronounced the sow thistle the more unmanageable 
 of the two. 
 
 The sow thistle is less widely introduced in our state as yet, than 
 the Canada thistle; but it has gained entrance into several of the 
 eastern and a few of the central counties, and it is doubtless present 
 in some districts where it has not yet been identified, for it appears 
 to be less generally known among the farmers than the Canada thistle. 
 On this account, especial pains are here taken to illustrate the plant 
 so well that all who have this Bulletin may be able to settle any doubts 
 in regard to it. 
 
 Description . — The plant of the sow thistle is softer and less rigid than 
 that of either the Canada thistle or bull thistle. The leaves are thinner 
 and smoother, and while having prickles on their borders, are so soft 
 and flabby that they may be handled with impunity, the prickles, offer- 
 ing no resistance. They are deeply cut and gashed, and considerably 
 curled, but less so than those of the Canada thistle. The stem, which 
 is free from prickles, grows one to two feet tall, is hollow*, rather dis- 
 tinctly angular, and emits a milky juice when cut. The flowers, which 
 are produced in large heads at the top of the stem, are bright yellow. 
 The plant is perennial, and like the Canada thistle, propagates from 
 underground buds, as well as by seed. Two other plants have been 
 frequently mistaken for the sow thistle specified in the weed law. 
 One of these is a species of wild lettuce, Lactuca scariola, Linnseus, of 
 which a specimen is shown in Fig*. 36, p. 51. The other is an annual 
 species of sow thistle, Sonchus oleraceus, which is illustrated in Fig. 11. 
 The latter is rather common in certain localities in our state, but is by 
 no means a troublesome w*eed, since it does not propagate from its 
 roots. At Fig. 12 is shown an herbarium specimen of the perennial 
 sow thistle, — the one specified in the weed law. Fig. 13, A shows the 
 seed of the perennial sow thistle, enlarged; B shows the same, natural 
 size. 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin , 
 
 21 
 
 fi&IPt VJU.L.BEI-. 
 
 Fig. 11.— Annual sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceous)— not the one meant ii^ the 
 weed law, but much like it in appearance. (Cut from U. S. Dep t ot 
 Agriculture.) 
 
22 
 
 Bulletin No. 76 . 
 
 Fig. 12. Perennial sow thistle — the one meant in the weed law. (From an her- 
 barium specimen.) 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 13.— Seeds (akenes) of sow thistle, enlarged and natural size. (After Hill- 
 man. 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 23 
 
 Fig. 14.— Slioyving liow young plants of the sow thistle multiply from under- 
 ground stems. 
 
 Fig. 15.— Showing how young piants of the sow thistle appear on the surface of 
 the ground in fall and spring. 
 
24 
 
 Bulletin No. 76. 
 
 By comparing the wild lettuce with either of the other plants, a con* 
 spicuous difference appears in the size of the flower heads, those of the 
 wild lettuce being decidedly smaller than in the others. The leaves 
 of the wild lettuce are also less notched and prickly on the edges. The 
 two species of sow thistle resemble each other more, but any doubts re- 
 garding any one of the three plants may readily be settled by carefully 
 digging up or washing out the roots and observing if the plant multi- 
 plies by sending up suckers, as shown in Fig. 14. If it does, it is the 
 sow thistle intended in the weed law, otherwise it is not. 
 
 A young plant of the sow thistle, as it appears on the surface of 
 the ground in spring or autumn, is illustrated in Fig. 15. 
 
 How best destroyed . — A milder treatment than that recommended for 
 the Canada thistle would certainly not suffice for this plant. I am not 
 informed if it may be smothered out on rich, moist soil, by close seed- 
 ing, but I do know that a summer fallow intended to subdue it must 
 be made extremely thorough, and then it does not always avail. 
 
 Sour Dock, Rumex crispus, Linnaeus. 
 
 Other names: Yellow dock, Curled dock, Narrow dock, Curled rumex. 
 
 Like the burdock, this plant is a coarse and homely intruder into- 
 waste grounds. Its roots have some reputed medicinal virtues, and its- 
 young leaves are said to make excellent greens; but its room is tar 
 preferable to its company, and it should be persistently hunted out and 
 destroyed. 
 
 Description . — The sour dock is a rank, coarse; deep-rooting perennial 
 weed. The rather slender, somewhat grooved, branching stem grows 
 to the height of three or four feet, and in common with the branches 
 terminates in a long, somewhat plume-like, compound raceme of green- 
 ish flowers, which are followed by numerous angular brown seeds, 
 shaped somewhat like a kernel of buckwheat. The rather long and nar- 
 row, sharp pointed leaves have distinct vein markings, and are strongly 
 wavy-curled on the borders. They are borne on rather long leaf-stalks, 
 and where each of these clasps the stem a branch starts out. The plant 
 has a long, spindle-shaped, yellow tap root. A specimen is shown in 
 Fig. 16, and a portion of the flower-head drawn to a larger scale is 
 shown at Fig. 17. Fig. 18, A shows a seed (akene) enlarged; B shows 
 the same and two matured flowers, natural sizp. The latter have a 
 peculiar seed-like excrescense, shown enlarged at D. C shows a cross 
 section of A. 
 
 Another species of dock resembling this has blunt-pointed and less 
 curled leaves, and still another has thickish, paler green leaves which 
 are scarcely curled at all on the borders. All of these species are useless 
 weeds and should be destroyed. 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 25 
 
 Fig. 16.— Yellow dock. 
 
Bulletin No. 76 . 
 
 26 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 27 
 
 How best destroyed . — Perhaps the most effectual method of destroy- 
 ing the yellow dock is to root it out by hand at times when the soil is 
 very wet. By clasping the stem just at the surface of the ground and 
 .giving it a slight twist and a vigorous pull at the same time, the root 
 will usually come out almost entire. As the plants are not often very 
 numerous, this method of destruction will seldom prove expensive. The 
 more common method of cutting off the stems with the scythe or hoe 
 •does not destroy the root, and even the cultivator and plow are seldom 
 wholly effectual unless supplemented by the hand. 
 
 Fig. 18.— Seeds (akenes) of yellow dock, enlarged and natural size. (After Hill- 
 man.) 
 
 Wild Mustard, Brassica Sinapistrum, Boissier. 
 
 Other names: Charlock, English charlock, Kerlock, Kellock, Sinapis 
 
 arvensis. 
 
 This plant is very properly included in the weed law, because its 
 seeds diminish the market value of grain, and because it is readily 
 kept in subjection by the exercise of a little care. Some localities in 
 •our state are badly infested with it, while others are free, but how- 
 ever much it may prevail in any tocality its extirpation from grain 
 fields should be rigidly insisted upon. It is usually most troublesome 
 on lands bordering streams that frequently overflow their banks, and 
 thus promote the scattering of the seed. 
 
 Description . — The wild mustard is a coarse, rough, annual plant, 
 resembling in general appearance the garden radish, with the exception 
 that it has a more irregular and branching root. The stem and branches, 
 which are sparsely clothed with leaves, terminate in clusters of 
 yellow flowers, of which the lower ones are first to open, the stem in 
 the meanwhile continuing to lengthen, forming a long, leafless raceme, 
 with knotted pods towards the base, open flowers toward the summit, 
 and a cluster of unopened flower buds at the apex. The seeds resemble 
 those of the cabbage, and have a harsh, biting taste. A portion of a 
 plant of the wild mustard is shown in Pig. 19, and another portion of a 
 plant, drawn to a larger scale, is shown in Fig. 20. 
 
28 
 
 Bulletin No. 76. 
 
 L 4Vva<il"i? 
 
 Gah4 -9 14^ 
 
 Fig. 19.— The wild mustard. An individual flower and a seed-pod about natural 
 size appear at the left, and at the lower left-hand corner is shown a 
 flower slightly enlarged. 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin , 
 
 iT^owdl ad. 
 
 Fig. 20.— Flower and seed-pods of the wild mustard, slightly enlarged. (Cut 
 from U. S. Dep’t of Agriculture./ 
 
30 
 
 Bulletin No. 76. 
 
 How best destroyed . — Go through grain fields and other areas in- 
 fested with wild mustard, and pull out the plants while they are 
 in bloom, and hence easily seen. Not one should be permitted to 
 remain. The labor this involves is not so great as one might infer who 
 has not tried it. No grain should be sown that contains the seeds of 
 wild mustard when this can be avoided. 
 
 The Wild Parsnip, Pastinaea sativa* Linnaeus. 
 
 The wild parsnip is the wild form of the common garden parsnip,, 
 and is hence readily recognized by all who are familiar with the latter. 
 The accompanying illustration, Fig. 21, is from a plant taken from a 
 meadow, and of which the root leaves had perished. Fig. 22, A shows- 
 an outer-side view, and B an inner-side view of a seed or carpel, en- 
 larged; C, the same, natural size. The wild parsnip is chiefly trouble* 
 some in rich, moist meadows and pastures, in which it is often ex- 
 tremely difficult to eradicate by the hoe or scythe, though it readily 
 succumbs to proper treatment. 
 
 How best destroyed . — The plant is biennial, forming its root leaves; 
 the first season and its flower stalk the second, and is chiefly propagated 
 by its seed. Perhaps the best method of destroying the young plants; 
 is to pull them out at a time when the soil is saturated with water 
 and the roots may hence be drawn out nearly entire. Cutting off the- 
 young plants with the hoe tends rather to multiply than to kill them,, 
 as the roots usually send up several shoots where the one was de- 
 stroyed. If the root is cut off three or four inches below the surface, 
 however, the plant will generally perish. Cutting the flower stalk of 
 the second year plants before the seed is old enough to mature will pre- 
 vent multiplication by the seed, and as the parent plant has run its; 
 course it will soon perish. 
 
 ♦This' is unquestionably the plant intended in the state weed law, though a; 
 different botanical name is there given to it. 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin, 
 
 31 
 
 Fig. 21.— Plant of wild parsnip from meadow, about one-fifth natural size. 
 
 Fig. 22.— Seeds (carpels) of wild parsnip, enlarged and natural size. (After Hill- 
 man.) 
 
32 
 
 Bulletin No. 76. 
 
 The Russian Thistle, Salsola kali, variety tragus, De Candolle. 
 
 Other names: Russian cactus, Saltwort, Tartar weed, Hector weed. 
 
 This weed formed .the subject of our Station Bulletin No. 37, hence 
 many of our farmers have already learned of its arrival within our 
 borders. Because it is generally believed that this weed is especially 
 to be dreaded, the cuts of it, with a description and the best means of 
 preventing it gaining a hold among us are here republished. 
 
 The half-tone picture of a plant of the Russian thistle (Fig. 23), was 
 taken from a specimen found by Mr. L. S. Cheney, instructor In botany 
 in the University of Wisconsin, about one mile from the city of Madi- 
 son on the right-of-way of one of our railroads. It is along railroads 
 and highways that this weed is most likely to advance, hence these 
 places should be most carefully watched for its appearance. To what 
 extent it already exists among us cannot be definitely stated, but it is 
 known to have been introduced some years since, and is certainly pres- 
 ent in several counties of our state. 
 
 Description and characteristics .* — The Russian thistle is an annual 
 plant, coming each year from the seed. It grows from a single, small, 
 light-colored root less than half an inch in diameter and 6 to 12 inches 
 long to a height of 6 inches to 3 feet, branching profusely, and when 
 not crowded often forms a dense, brush-like plant 2 to 6 feet in diame- 
 ter and one-half to two-thirds as high. When young it is a very inno- 
 cent looking plant, tender and juicy throughout, with small, narrow, 
 downy, green leaves. When the dry weather comes in August this Inno- 
 cent disguise disappears, the tender, downy leaves wither and fall, and 
 the plant increases rapidly in size, sending out hard, stiff branches. 
 Instead of leaves these branches bear at intervals of half an inch or 
 less three sharp spines, which harden, but do not grow dull as the 
 plant increases in age and ugliness. The spines are one-fourth to one- 
 half inch long. At the base of each cluster of spines is a papery flower 
 about one-eighth of an inch In diameter. If this be taken out and 
 carefully pulled to pieces a small, pulpy, green body, coiled up and 
 appearing like a minute, green snail-shell will be found. This is the 
 seed. As the seed ripens it becomes hard and of a rather dull-gray color. 
 At the earliest frost the plants change in color from dark green to crim- 
 son or almost magenta, especially on the most exposed parts. When the 
 ground becomes frozen and the November winds blow across the prairie 
 the small root is broken or loosened and pulled out. The dense, yet 
 light growth and circular or hemispherical form of the plant fit it most 
 perfectly to be carried by the wind. It goes rolling across the country 
 at racing speed, scattering seeds at every bound. 
 
 ♦This article is abridged from our Bulletin No. 37, which is mainly a reprint 
 of Farmers’ Bulletin No. 10, issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and 
 written by Mr. L. S. Dewey, assistant botanist. 
 
Fig. 23.— Russian thistle. The above plant, which was fully three feet in diameter, was found near Madison, Wis. 
 
34 
 
 Bulletin No. 76 . 
 
 Fig. 24.— Branch from Russian thistle, showing appearance of plant when seeds 
 are mature; a, branch from a young plant, showing the appearance 
 before the dry season; b. mature seed enlarged five times. (Cut trom 
 U. S. Dep’t of Agriculture.) 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 35 
 
 The saltwort or Russian thistle appears more like the common 
 “tumbleweed” ( Amarantus albus L.) than any other plant in the North- 
 west. It may be readily distinguished from the tumbleweed by the 
 sharp spines in clusters of three each, the absence of flat leaves, denser 
 growth, darker color, and by the red color in the fall. 
 
 Russian thistles grow best on high and dry land, where they are not 
 too much crowded by other plants. They are seldom seen in sloughs or 
 low land and make no progress in the native prairie nor in meadows 
 or pastures, except where the sod has been broken by cattle. They are 
 less numerous and robust in wet seasons than in dry ones. 
 
 How best destroyed . — Plow in August or early September, before the 
 Russian thistles have grown large and stiff, and before they have gone 
 to seed, using care that all weeds are well turned under. If the season 
 be long and weeds come through the furrow it may be necessary to 
 harrow the land before winter. Burn over stubble fields as soon as 
 possible after harvest. Cut the stubble with a mowing machine if the 
 fire does not burn everything clean without cutting. 
 
 Cutting the stubble and thistles before the latter have gone to seed 
 will help, but it is not thoroughly effective without fire, as the thistles 
 will send out branches below where the mowing machine cuts them. 
 
 If the weeds have been neglected and have grown large and rigid, as 
 they do by the middle of September, especially on neglected barren fal- 
 low or spring plowed breaking, they may be raked into windrows and 
 burned. The old-fashioned revolving hay rake or any rake made strong 
 so as to pull the weeds, and especially good at clearing itself in dump- 
 ing, will answer the purpose. An ordinary wheel hay rake with a 
 set of strong teeth has been used successfully. This method Is to be 
 re'commended only as a last resort, for by the last of September some 
 of the seeds will be ripe enough to shell out and will escape being 
 burned with the plants. If left until October, when many of the plants 
 are certain to be fully ripe and dry, the land where they are growing 
 will be well seedeu any way; but raking together and burning the weeds 
 will prevent their being blown across neighboring fields during the 
 winter. Of course care should be taken to do this work when there is 
 little wind, for a burning- Russian thistle before the wind may jump 
 any fire-break and carry both seeds and fire. 
 
 Barren fallowing does very well if kept barren by thorough cultiva- 
 tion. It gives little benefit to the land, however. A much better method 
 is to sow clover, millet or rye, pasture it and plow it under green. 
 This will be beneficial to the land, especially if a comparatively large 
 portion of clover is used, and the weeds will be choked out. Millet and 
 oats combined may be grown and cut for hay. This crop will choke out 
 nearly all the weeds, and the few that do grow will be too slender to 
 form tumbleweeds. 
 
F. MULLER 
 
 Fig. 25. — Branch of Russian thistle, showing appearance before flowering and be- 
 fore the spiny branchlets have elongated; a, spines enlarged; 6, young 
 grain with the covering removed, enlarged about seven times; c, 
 blossom removed from the axil and viewed from below, enlarged 
 about four times; d , section of fruiting calyx, side view; e, same, 
 seen from above. (Cut from U. S. Dep’t of Agriculture.) 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 37 
 
 Corn, potatoes, beets, or any cultivated crop, well taken care of, will 
 in two years rid the land of not only Russian thistles, but nearly all 
 other weeds. 
 
 Sheep are very fond of the Russian thistle until it becomes too coarse 
 and woody. By pasturing sheep on the young plants they may be 
 kept down and the only valuable quality the plant has may be utilized. 
 
 In the fields where the weeds are thick, drag with an iron harrow, 
 hitching the team on by a long chain. As soon as the harrow is full 
 of weeds set fire to them and keep dragging and burning. This scheme, 
 although apparently somewhat chimerical, has actually been tried with 
 success. 
 
 If the Russian thistle is to be kept out of the cultivated fields it must 
 be exterminated along roadsides, railroad grades, fire breaks, waste 
 land where the sod has been broken, and, in fact, in all accidental places 
 where it may have obtained a foothold. 
 
 The ordinary road machines may be used to advantage along the 
 roadsides, the scraper being set so as to take as thin a layer of earth as 
 possible and throw weeds and all in the middle of the track. A single 
 trip each way with the road machine would be sufficient in nearly all 
 places to take the weeds between the beaten track and the prairie grass, 
 so that 15 to 20 miles a day could be easily cleaned. If this work be 
 done in August, before the Russian thistles become too large and stiff, 
 the work of the road scraper will be sufficient. Going over with a 
 heavy roller, however, would not only improve the road, but would 
 crush the weeds so that no occasional mature plant would be blown 
 away. If the work is put off until September the weeds should be 
 raked together and burned. 
 
 On fire breaks, railroad grades, and odd places, these and other 
 noxious weeds may be killed by a judicious use of the mowing machine, 
 scythe, hoe, rake and fire. 
 
 Special Recommendations. 
 
 Place a Russian thistle in each school house, so that the pupils may 
 become familiar with it, and teach them to kill it wherever they find it. 
 
 Permit no Russian thistle to go to seed. The plant is an annual; the 
 seeds are evidently short-lived; hence if no plants are permitted to 
 go to seed for two years, the weed will in all probability be extermi- 
 nated. 
 
 Let each farmer first keep down all the weeds on his own farm and 
 then insist that his neighbors do likewise. 
 
 Be careful that all seed sown be as pure and clean as the modern 
 fanning-mill can make it. Use especial care in regard to flaxseed and 
 millet, or any of the smaller and lighter seeds. 
 
 Fig. 26, A shows a top view of a matured seed; B, a dried flower as 
 
38 
 
 Bulletin No. 76. 
 
 viewed edgewise; C shows A and B natural size; D and E show the 
 embryo (interior of A) enlarged — D the lower and E the upper side. 
 (After Hillman.) 
 
 Fig. 26. — Seeds and dried flower of Russian thistle, enlarged and natural size. 
 
 (After Hillman.) 
 
 Noxious Weeds not Mentioned in the Weed Law. 
 
 The foregoing includes all of the weeds mentioned in our state weed 
 law. There are, however, several plants that are becoming sufficiently 
 troublesome in different parts of the state to render concerted efforts 
 for their destruction extremely desirable. The weed law attempts to 
 give protection only by preventing seedage. But many of our most seri- 
 ous weeds multiply far more from roots or underground stems than 
 from seeds. While the weed commissioners have no power to enforce 
 the destruction of the weeds mentioned hereafter, it seems desirable 
 to call attention to them here, and to earnestly recommend that the 
 same care be taken to prevent the dissemination of their seeds as is 
 required for those enumerated in the law. 
 
 Quack Grass, Agropyrum repens, Beauvois. 
 
 Other names: Couch grass, Quitch grass, Quick grass, Wheat grass, Dog 
 grass, Tommy grass, Triticum repens. 
 
 Not because it is new in Wisconsin, but because its destruction de- 
 mands eternal vigilance, we begin our second division with this well 
 known intruder. Quack grass has some excellent qualities as a fodder 
 plant, and is said to surpass timothy in nutritive value, but its disposi- 
 tion to monopolize and retain possession of the soil render it a most 
 malignant enemy to rotative cropping. The peculiarity that renders 
 quack grass so difficult to destroy is its method of propagation. It puts 
 out vigorous underground stems, which root and send up new stems at 
 their joints. These underground stems often display their aggressive 
 power by growing through potatoes or bits of wood that chance to lie in 
 their path. By interveaving, they form a stiff sod that often severely 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 39 
 
40 
 
 Bulletin No. 76. 
 
 tries the muscles of the plowman’s team. Usually branches do not come 
 from every joint, but if the stems are broken or cut in pieces, as with a 
 plow, hoe or harrow, each piece sends |up a stem and leaves from any 
 joint it may have, and becomes a distinct plant. A large amount or 
 nourishment is stored up in the form of starch, which makes the under- 
 ground stems very nutritive and furnishes food for growth. The new 
 plants formed by cutting up the old ones grow with great vigor, and so 
 form many weeds in the place of one. The subterranean portions are 
 eaten by stock when accessible to them. Horses and cows are fond of 
 them; hogs root industriously for them and give efficient help in their 
 extermination. 
 
 Fig. 28.— Young plant of quack grass showing manner of growth of underground, 
 
 stems — A. A. 
 
 The excellent illustration of quack grass shown at Fig. 27 renders 
 further description unnecessary. Fig. 28 shows the manner of growth 
 of the underground stems at AA. 
 
 How best destroyed . — The summer fallow is probably the most satis- 
 factory method of destroying quack grass on any large scale. Turn the 
 sod under in spring and plow again as often as any amount of grass 
 appears above ground, until September, when rye or wheat may be 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 41 
 
 sown if desired. It is best to remove fences and other obstructions to- 
 the plow, that make a harboring place for the tenacious underground 
 stems. 
 
 Small patches may be destroyed by covering the ground deeply with 
 straw or other litter, or by devoting the ground to some crop that re- 
 quires clean culture, as cabbage, cauliflower or celery, provided the 
 required clean culture is faithfully given. Patches of quack grass 
 should never be cross plowed or cross cultivated in tilling the field that 
 contains them, as this is one of the most effective means of spreading 
 the underground stems to new locations. 
 
 Fig. 29.— Wild carrot plant. (Dewey, Farmers’ Bull. 28, Div. of Bot., U. S. Dep’t 
 
 of Agriculture.) 
 
 The Wild Carrot, Daucus carota, Linnaeus. 
 
 The wild carrot is one of the most aggressive weeds in the eastern 
 states, and is rapidly spreading westward. How far it has become 
 disseminated in Wisconsin, I do not know, but it is certainly present in 
 our state, and farmers should be informed as to its pernicious tenclen- 
 
42 
 
 Bulletin No. 76. 
 
 cies. It thrives in nearly all soils and is disseminated rapidly by its 
 numerous seeds. 
 
 Description . — This is the garden carrot run wild, and hence it needs 
 little description. The leaves are, however, much smaller and fewer 
 in number than in the cultivated carrot and the root is small and 
 branching. Fig. 29 shows the wild carrot plant with the seed magni- 
 fied at c, and natural size at d. See also Fig. 30. The wild carrot is 
 commonly biennial, though it sometimes matures its seed the first sea- 
 son. It flowers from June to September, and the seeds enclosed in their 
 hard, spiny coat are readily attached to the coats of animals and are 
 often widely scattered in this way, or they often remain on the plant 
 until winter and are then blown about on the surface of the snow. 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 30.— Seeds (carpels) of wild carrot, enlarged and natural size. (After Hill- 
 man.) 
 
 How best destroyed . — Mowing the plants as often as the flower-stalk 
 appears will eventually destroy them, and will also prevent their seed- 
 ing. The first mowing often seems to increase the number of plants, 
 but as the root is biennial it cannot long survive. If cut off with the 
 spud some distance below the surface of the ground the plant usually 
 dies at once. Pulling the plants by hand, while the ground is wet, is 
 one of the surest methods of destruction. Sheep aid in keeping them 
 in subjection. The plant cannot endure thorough cultivation and 
 hence is rarely troublesome in well tilled land. 
 
 Chicory, Cichorium intybus, Linnaeus. 
 
 The chicory is a native of Europe, but has become naturalized in 
 this country and is classed as a weed in some sections of our state. It 
 is extensively cultivated in certain parts of Europe, and to a less ex- 
 tent in our country, and the various parts of the plant serve a variety 
 of economic uses. 
 
 Description . — The chicory belongs to the same botanical family as the 
 hawkweeds, the wild and cultivated lettuces and the dandelion. It is a 
 perennial plant and resembles the dandelion in having its lower leaves 
 deeply cut, with pointed lobes, and in its bitter, milky juice. The 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin . 
 
 43 
 
 stem grows from 1 to 6 feet tall and bears brilliant, blue (sometimes 
 pink or. almost white) flowers, which are crowded together in little 
 groups of 2, 3 or more, and which stud the straggling, nearly leafless 
 branches to wnich they are attached by very short stalks. The leaves 
 of the upper stem and branches are less cut and much smaller than 
 those lower down. The flowers are open chiefly in the early morning, 
 
 SFIig. Sl.-^Plant of chicory, about one-tenth natural size. (Kains, Bull. 19, Div. 
 of Bot., U. S. Dep’t of Agr.) 
 
 abut in cloudy weather they may continue open for several hours. As 
 in all plants of this family, what we commonly call the flowers are 
 Teally a combination of many small flowers (florets) upon a common 
 Teceptacle. Each floret bears one of the showy petal-like parts, which 
 in flowera of this class are called rays. Fig. 31 shows a chicory plant 
 
44 
 
 Bulletin No. 76 '. 
 
 about one-tenth natural size. Fig. 32 shows chicory flowers and seed. 
 A shows heads of flowers, front view, with buds on twig; b, head of 
 flowers, side view; c, single flower; d, seed (akene) ; e, section of same. 
 
 The long, spindle-shaped tap-root, with its single or double head, is 
 of a whitish-yellow or grayish-yellow color, and but for its white juice 
 might easily be mistaken for the root of a parsnip. 
 
 Fig. 32.— Chicory flowers and seed; a, heads of flowers, front view; b, head of 
 flowers, side view; c, single flower; d, seed (akene); e, section of 
 same. (Kains, Bull. No. 19, Div. of Bot., U. S. Dep’t of Agr.) 
 
 How best destroyed . — The chicory plant is not likely to become a 
 serious pest except in grass land that cannot conveniently be broken 
 up. It does not endure much cultivation, but makes its way success- 
 fully in sod grounds where it is difficult to eradicate. The roots put 
 out adventitious buds to the depth of two or three inches and cutting 
 off the crown at a less depth than this serves to multiply the plant 
 rather than to exterminate it. In permanent grass land, the young 
 plants may be pulled by hand, or the older roots may be cut off three 
 or four inches below the surface with the weeding spud. 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 45 
 
 B A 
 
 Fig. 32A.— Seeds (akenes) of chicory, enlarged and natural size. (After Hillman.) 
 
 Bindweed, Convolvulus arvensis, Linnseus. 
 
 Other names: Field bindweed, Morning glory (incorrectly). 
 
 Description . — This is a twining or creeping plant with a perennial 
 root and an annual stem. The leaves are oblong, arrow-shaped, with 
 pointed lobes at the base. 
 
 The white or reddish-tinted, funnel-shaped flowers are about an inch 
 long and open mostly in the morning, like those of the morning glory 
 (Ipomoea ) , with which this plant is often confused. They are borne 
 one in a place, the flower stem growing out at the axil of a leaf. The 
 plant is a rapid grower, and propagates chiefly by means of its fleshy 
 underground stems like the Canada thistle. The wonderful adaptabil- 
 ity of this plant to multiply independently of its seeds appears from 
 the accompanying illustration (Fig. 33). This clearly shows that the 
 underground stems put forth vigorous buds from w'hich shoots grow 
 upward to the surface, and that some of the main underground stems 
 extend horizontally several inches below the plow line, which easily 
 explains the failure of the plow to subdue this plant. 
 
 How oest destroyed . — This is a most troublesome weed where it be- 
 comes established. It does not spread rapidly when left to itself, but 
 it is extremely difficult to destroy, and small patches of it in cultivated 
 ground are liable to be extensively scattered by the cultivating tools. 
 Perhaps the best treatment for small patches is to cover the infested 
 ground a foot or more deep with straw, marsh hay or other litter, leav- 
 ing the same on until it decays. Pasturing the ground largely keeps 
 the plant from spreading, but rarely kills it. Where it is established 
 in ground that must be .cultivated, nothing but the most thorough til- 
 lage will suffice to keep it in bounds or destroy it. 
 
 A law-suit recently occurred in Columbia county, Wis., in which the 
 plaintiff recovered heavy damages because a farm which he had pur- 
 chased under the claim that it was free from noxious weeds was found 
 badly infested with this plant. 
 
Bulletin No. 76. 
 
 40 
 
 Another species of bindweed, Convolvulus cepium (Hedge bindweed), 
 has more extensively twining stfems, and larger flowers, of which the 
 calyx is enclosed in two rather conspicuous leafy bracts. This species 
 is also troublesome, especially by twining about the stalks of corn and 
 other crops. It is more commonly found on rather low ground, and 
 while perhaps less tenacious than the preceding, is quite difficult to 
 subdue where it has gained a foothold. 
 
 Fig. 33.— Plant of bindweed showing underground stems at AA. One seventh 
 
 natural size. 
 
 Horse Nettle, Solanum carolinense, Linnaeus. 
 
 This plant is native to the southeastern states, but has found its way 
 to most of the states east of the Missouri river, though it does not 
 spread very rapidly. Samples of it have several times been sent to our 
 Station for name, which shows it to be present in our state. Where 
 it has once obtained a foothold, it is one of the most difficult weeds to 
 get rid of. The plant is botanically related to the potato, and its flowers 
 resemble those of the potato in their form and colors. They are fol- 
 lowed by small, yellow fruits which are also suggestive of potato fruits. 
 The plant is not eaten by any kind of farm stock. It is 6 to 20 inches 
 high, loosely branched and rough, with short, stiff hairs which appear 
 star-shaped under the lens, and it is armed with conspicuous yellow 
 prickles. The obiong leaves are irregularly lobed and suggest those of 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin , 
 
 47 
 
 Fig. 34— Branch of horse nettle showing leaf, flower and fruit. (After Pammel.) 
 
48 
 
 Bulletin No. 76 . 
 
 the white oak. The plant is reproduced from seeds and also by slen- 
 der perennial rootstocks. Fig. 34 shows a branch of the horse nettle, 
 with its flowers and fruit. 
 
 How best destroyed . — Ordinary cultivation has little effect in de- 
 stroying this plant and often tends to spread rather than to subdue it. 
 It is more or less troublesome in nearly all crops and soils, but is worse 
 on loose or sandy lands that are easily penetrated by its long root- 
 stocks. 
 
 Seed production is easily prevented by mowing the plants early. But 
 the rootstocks, from which the multiplication mostly proceeds, are far 
 more difficult to subdue. The methods already recommended for the 
 Canada thistle are applicable here. Oats, barley or millet sown thickly 
 on well-tilled soil will weaken the rootstocks, preventing much growth 
 •above ground. Immediately after these crops are harvested, the land 
 may be plowed and then harrowed frequently until time for sowing 
 winter wheat or rye. This will induce the germination of weed seeds 
 and expose some rootstocks of the horse nettle to be killed by the sun. 
 The rye may be plowed under in spring as a green manure and fol- 
 lowed with a hoed crop, which, if well cultivated, will clear out most 
 of the remaining weeds. The plowshare used in these operations should 
 be kept sharp, so as to cut a clean furrow, otherwise the rootstocks are 
 likely to be dragged out and scattered about the field. 
 
 Buffalo Bur, Solarium, rostratum, Dunal. 
 
 This plant resembles in several respects the horse nettle, but it is 
 •annual, and hence rather less to be feared as a weed. It is native of 
 the western plains but has found its way eastward across the Missis- 
 sippi and has been several times sent in to our Station from our own 
 state. 
 
 The spines of the buffalo bur are stouter and more numerous than 
 those of the horse nettle and its flowers are yellow. Instead of the 
 yellow berries of the horse nettle we have here spiny burs, somewhat 
 resembling those of the burdock at first, but developing at maturity 
 into nearly spherical, prickly balls, filled with black, irregular seeds. 
 Fig. 35 shows the plant in bloom; b is a flower, natural size; c is the 
 seed magnified, and d the same, natural size. These burs are readily 
 scattered by passing animals. The plant has a lighter, more bushy 
 form than the horse nettle, and is often blown about as a tumbleweed 
 in the prairie region. 
 
 The buffalo bur is easily held in check by preventing seedage. The 
 seeds are not produced very freely and ripen after the hurry of the 
 harvest season is over. 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 49 
 
 Fig. 35.— Plant of buffalo bur, reduced. (Dewey, Farmers’ Bull. 28, Div. of Bot., 
 
 U. S. Dep’t of Agr.) 
 
 Prickly Lettuce, Lactuca Scariola, Linnaeus. 
 
 Other names: Wild lettuce. Milk thistle, English thistle, Compass plant. 
 
 This plant is intruding itself into waste grounds all over Southern 
 Wisconsin, and it is sometimes troublesome in meadows and perma- 
 nent pastures. It is an annual, and multiplies only by seed, but it 
 
 seeds very freely and the young plants are so robust that it spreads 
 very rapidly where permitted to do so. It has often been mistaken for 
 the sow thistle and sometimes for the Russian thistle. 
 
 The prickly lettuce is closely related to the common garden lettuce, 
 which it resembles in the seed bearing stage. (Fig. 36a.) The stem 
 is smooth with the exception of a few scattered prickles, grows 2 to 5 
 
 is smooth with the exception of a few scattered prickles, grows 2 to 5 
 
 feet high, bearing a few lateral branches and a large open panicle of 
 
Bulletin No. 7 ti. 
 
 50 
 
 few are commonly open at a time. The plant begins to bloom in July 
 and produces a few blossoms each morning thereafter until killed by 
 frost. As the seeds mature, the fine white hairs attached to them 
 spread out, forming a white, gauzy ball of down like that of the dande- 
 lion, but smaller and less dense. An average plant has been estimated 
 to bear more tnan 8,000 seeds. Fig. 36 shows a plant of the prickly 
 lettuce, and Fig. 37 shows the same, with a leaf drawn separately at b„ 
 and a seed (akene) magnified at c. 
 
 Fig. 36.— Plant of prickly lettuce. 
 
 How lest destroyed . — Repeatedly mowing the plants as they come' 
 into bloom, or earlier, will eventually subdue them. Thorough culti- 
 vation with a hoed crop, by means of which the seed in the soil may be ; 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 51 
 
 induced to germinate, will be found most effective. The first plowing 
 should be shallow, so as not to bury the seeds too deep. Under no cir- 
 cumstances should the mature seed-bearing plants be plowed under, as 
 that would infest the soil with seeds buried at different depths to be 
 brought under conditions favorable for germination at intervals for 
 several years. Mature plants should be mowed and burned before 
 plowing. The seed appears as an impurity in clover-, millet-, and the 
 heavier grass seeds, and the plant is doubtless most frequently intro- 
 duced by this means. As the seed may be carried a long distance by 
 the wind, the plants must be cleared out of fence rows, waste land and 
 roadsides. 
 
 Fig. 37.— Plant of prickly lettuce. (Dewey, Farmers’ Bull. 28, Div. of Bot., U. S. 
 
 Dep’t of Agr.) 
 
 Sheep and sometimes cattle will eat the young prickly lettuce and in 
 some localities their services have been found very effective m keeping 
 it down, especially in recently cleared land where thorough cultivation 
 is impossible. 
 
52 
 
 Bullet in No. 76. 
 
 Long-Leaved Plantain, Plantago lanceolata, Linnaeus. 
 
 Other names: Rib grass, Ripple grass, English plantain, Buckhorn 
 plantain, Lanceolate plantago. 
 
 This plant bears considerable resemblance to the common plaintain, 
 from which it differs in its much longer and narrower, slightly hairy 
 leaves, and shorter and thicker seed spikes. It is perennial and is in- 
 
 clined to be particularly abundant in upland meadows, clover fields 
 and poorly kept lawns. It is especially objectionable in red-clover 
 fields intended to be cut for seed, since the seeds mature with those of 
 the clover and are of so nearly the same size and specific gravity with 
 
 them that the two cannot be readily separated, hence the market value 
 of the red-clover seed is greatly diminished. Fig. 38 shows a vigorous 
 plant of the long-leaved plantain, and Fig. 39 shows seeds of the same, 
 enlarged at a, showing both sides; natural size at b, and in cross sec- 
 tion at c. 
 
Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin. 
 
 53 
 
 How best destroyed . — The plants can doubtless be destroyed by cut- 
 ting the root off several inches below the surface of the ground and 
 pulling out the part cut off. They cannot endure good cultivation and 
 on rich soils they can probably be smothered out by a close June grass 
 sod. 
 
 Note. — The cuts for the illustrations marked “After Hillman” are 
 from Bulletin No. 38 of the Nevada Experiment Station, and are from 
 original drawings from Prof. F. H. Hillman, botanist. 
 
 Farmers’ Bulletin No. 28, by L. H. Dewey, has been freely used in 
 preparing the text for a part of this bulletin. 
 
 INDEX OF WEEDS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Canada Thistle 7 
 
 Burdock 12 
 
 White or Ox-Ej'-e Daisy 15 
 
 Snap Dragon or Toadflax 16 
 
 Cocklebur or Clotbur 18 
 
 Sow Thistle 20 
 
 Sour Dock 24 
 
 Wild Mustard 27 
 
 Wild Parsnip 30 
 
 Russian Thistle 32 
 
 Quack Grass 38 
 
 Wild Carrot 41 
 
 Chicory 42 
 
 Bindweed or Morning Glory 45 
 
 Horse Nettle 46 
 
 Buffalo Bur 48 
 
 Prickly Lettuce 49 
 
Wla. Bull. No. 77. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 77. 
 
 EFFECTS OF THE FEBRUARY FREEZE OF 1899 UPON 
 NURSERIES AND FRUIT PLANTATIONS IN THE 
 NORTHWEST. 
 
 MADISON , WISCONSIN, AUGUST, 18 99. 
 
 0T‘TA« Bulletins and Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
 Democrat Printing Company, State Printer, Madison Wis. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS; 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, EX-OFFICIO. 
 PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 State-at-large, JOHN JOHNSTON, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, J. A. VAN CLEVE, Marinette. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. ' 
 
 JOHN JOHNSTON, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasure*. 
 GEORGE H. NOYES, Vice-President. | E. F. RILEY, Madison, Secretary. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION* 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, ---------- Director 
 
 S M. BABCOCK, --------- Chief Chemist 
 
 F. H. KING, - - ... .... Physicist 
 
 E. S. GOFF, - 
 W. L. CARLYLE, 
 
 F. W. WOLL, 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON. 
 J. A. JEFFERY, - 
 J. W. DECKER, 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, 
 FRED CRANEFIELD 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, 
 IDA HERFURTH, 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, 
 
 ► - - Horticulturist 
 
 - - Animal Husbandry 
 
 Chemist 
 Bacteriologist 
 Dairy Husbandry 
 Assistant Physicist 
 - Dairying 
 - Assistant Chemist 
 - Assistant in Horticulture 
 Farm Superintendent 
 
 - Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 Librarian 
 
 FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, -------- Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
EFFECTS OF THE FEBRUARY FREEZE OF 1899 UPON 
 NURSERIES AND FRUIT PLANTATIONS IN 
 THE NORTHWEST. 
 
 E. S. GOFF. 
 
 The early days of February, 1899, will be memorable in the part or 
 the’ United States lying east of the Rocky mountains from the severe 
 and protracted cold wave that swept over our country from north to 
 south. 
 
 At the time of this cold wave a large part of the section commonly 
 known as “the northwest” was without the usual winter snow cover- 
 ing, in consequence of which the ground froze to a depth never before 
 experienced in many localities. The effects of the severe cold upon 
 fruit trees in this snowless section were less apparent than might have 
 been expected up to the time when the frost left the ground in April. 
 But when nurserymen commenced their spring operations, many liv- 
 ing in the section that was without snow during February were sorely 
 disappointed to discover that the roots of their trees had been dam- 
 aged to a degree nearly or quite unprecedented. In some nurseries 
 and young orchards scarcely a fruit tree could be found that had living 
 roots, and hundreds of acres of land that a year ago were covered with 
 promising nursery stock have been cleared off and planted with other 
 crops. 
 
 Of course the effects of the cold were not limited to nurseries or 
 young orchards. Individual trees of almost all species, and of nearly 
 all ages have perished, and some bearing orchards have been severely 
 damaged. The effects of the cold upon different trees have been vari- 
 ous and interesting. In many cases the damage seemed confined to 
 the roots. Such trees opened their buds and often bloomed nearly in 
 the normal manner. But with the first drying weather the leaves 
 drooped and began to shrivel, and soon only a few leaves at the top 
 of the branches remained intact, and these too were starved in due 
 time. Fig. 1 shows such an apple tree as it appeared the first week in 
 July in our Station orchard. In other . cases the buds were evidently 
 injured by the cold, while the roots had suffered to a less degree. Such 
 trees appeared dead, while others of the same species were putting 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 77. 
 
 forth leaves, but one to three weeks later their buds opened, and at pres- 
 ent (July 15) many such trees seem to have nearly recovered their 
 vigor, though some were so late in starting that their leaves have 
 scarcely yet attained their normal size. Still other trees seem to have 
 been injured in both roots and buds, as was indicated by a very tardy 
 opening of the buds, and the failure to open of many of the buds in all 
 parts of the tree. Such a tree appears in Fig. 2. From observations 
 made in our Station orchard, it seems probable that the period of sum- 
 mer growth in fruit trees has been considerably shorter than usual 
 this season, owing to the enfeebled condition of the roots. 
 
 i wM 
 
 Fig. 1. Root-killed apple tree in orchard of Wisconsin Experiment Station. 
 This tree had been planted five years. Note the leaves still alive at the top of 
 the shoots, showing that the terminal buds were uninjured. Photograph taken 
 early in July. 
 
Effects of the February Freeze of 1809. 
 
 5 
 
 In order to gather as much information as possible regarding the ef- 
 fects of the past winter upon fruit trees and nursery stock in various 
 parts of the northwest, a circular letter asking a number of questions 
 was mailed to a large number of fruit growers and nurserymen in Wis- 
 consin, Minnesota, Iowa, the Dakotas and Manitoba. This circular let- 
 ter elicited something over a hundred replies, from which the facts 
 given in the following pages were collated. It is of course remembered 
 that data of temperature contributed by non-professional observers,’ 
 and taken from thermometers of varying reliability, or sometimes from 
 hearsay cannot be regarded as strictly accurate, but the inaccuracies 
 will not, on the average, be sufficient to destroy their value for the pres- 
 ent purpose. 
 
 Fig. 2. Soft maple tree facer dasycarpum ) of which the buds (and perhaps the 
 roots also) were injured by the winter. This tree was very late in putting 
 out leaves. Photograph taken about Aug. 1st. 
 
 The effects of extreme temperatures upon fruit trees and plants. 
 The lowest temperature reported by any correspondent was -52°. Un- 
 fortunately, the writer of this report forgot to sign his name, but it is 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 77. 
 
 supposed to have come from Mr. Patmore, a nurseryman of Brandon, 
 Manitoba. The ground in the vicinity where the letter was written 
 was well protected by snow (though the snow was less than usual), 
 and the damage to the fruit grown there, in consideration of the ex- 
 treme cold, was remarkably slight, ifuchess apple and Pride of Min- 
 neapolis, Martha, Transcendent and Siberian crabs escaped with very 
 little injury; also Aitkin and several other improved native plums. 
 Forest Garden, De Soto and Wyant plums opened their usual number 
 of blossoms. 
 
 The author of the letter writes regarding the reason for the little 
 damage to trees and shrubs, “I am of the opinion that the reason stock 
 wintered so well this year, with the lowest temperature and least snow 
 for many years, is owing to the heavy rainfall of last fall which enabled 
 trees and plants to enter the winter well nourished.” 
 
 Minus fifty degrees was reported by Mr. John Coldwell of Yirden, 
 Manitoba. The ground in this section was protected by six inches of 
 snow. Transcendent crab was unhurt; Duchess apple had last year’s 
 growth killed back three-fourths. Flower-buds of native plums were 
 uninjured. 
 
 Minus fifty degrees was also reported by Mr. A. P. Stevenson of Nel- 
 son, Manitoba. The soil in that vicinity is clay loam, nearly level and 
 was protected by two to twelve inches of snow. Russian apples are re- 
 ported wnolly uninjured; Patten, Okabena and Peerless lost two inches 
 of terminal growth. Roots were uninjured. Wyant, Rockford, Lued- 
 loff’s Long Red, Rollingstone and Newton Egg plum were uninjured, 
 and bloomed freely as usual. Cheney plum did not bloom. Turner, 
 Sarah, Kenyon and Loudon raspberries, though unprotected, escaped 
 harm; black raspberries escaped where protected. 
 
 At Sparta, Wisconsin, the lowest temperature was variously reported 
 at from -50° to -60°, but no systematic record seems to have been kept. 
 The ground was protected with snow all winter. The young wood of 
 nursery trees was considerably injured, the terminal buds being gen- 
 erally killed, and the wood much stained for some distance back. Roots 
 were uninjured. Small fruits, where protected, were little injured; un- 
 protected raspberries and blackberries were badly damaged. 
 
 Minus forty-five degrees was reported by Mr. A. D. Barnes, of Wau- 
 paca, Wisconsin, and Mr. O. L. Gregg, of Austin, Minnesota. Both 
 these localities were protected by snow. Mr. Barnes reports nursery 
 stock badly injured in top, but not at all in root. Early Richmond 
 and English Morello cherry and Wolf, Weaver and Forest Garden 
 plums blossomed freely as usual the past spring. Raspberries and 
 blackberries were damaged about 75 per cent. Mr. Gregg reports but 
 little injury to orchards and nurseries, or to raspberries and black- 
 
Effects of the February Freeze of 1899. 
 
 7 
 
 berries, and that De Soto and Wolf plums and Early Richmond and 
 Wragg cherries opened their usual number of blossoms. 
 
 It is remarkable that none of the correspondents that have reported 
 damage from root-killing note a lower temperature than -36°, while 
 several report serious damage from this cause with a temperature not 
 lower than -30°. Mr. M. J. Wragg, of Waukee, Iowa, reports nursery 
 trees badly root-killed and orchard trees bursted badly in trunk, with 
 the lowest temperature only -24°. Mr. C. R. Powell, of Sterling, 111., 
 reports 4 year old apple trees root-killed, with a minimum tempera- 
 ture of -23°, and the Midland Nursery Co., of Des Moines, Iowa, with 
 the same minimum temperature report nursery trees badly root-killed. 
 These facts are doubtless explained by the covering of snow that pre- 
 vailed in all the sections that reported more than 36° below zero. 
 
 Thirty-four correspondents stated distinctly that the ground in their 
 vicinity was covered to a greater or less depth with snow during the 
 severe weather of February. Of these, 20 reported that the injury w r as 
 chiefly in the tops, 6 stating expressly that there was no root injury. 
 Three reported injury in both roots and tops. One reported that ap- 
 ples were more injured in the roots, but that cherries and plums were 
 injured more in the top. 
 
 The following are extracts from the correspondence: 
 
 (Minimum temperature -45°; six inches to two feet of snow.) Not 
 a particle of injury in the root but very bad in top.” A. D. B., Wau- 
 paca, Wis. 
 
 (Minimum temperature -35°; ground just covered w r ith snow where 
 not drifted.) “One-year apples were root-killed, others not injured.” 
 S. D. R., Winnebago City, Minn. 
 
 (Minimum temperature -38°. ) “Well protected with snow most of 
 winter and very heavy in February. Have not seen an injured root, 
 even in yearlings.” A. J. P., W. Salem, Wis. 
 
 (Reported -60°. ) “Snow came in November and did not leave till 
 April 10. Damage all in the top — failed to find any injury in root.” 
 Z. K. J., Sparta, Wis. 
 
 Fifty-seven correspondents stated distinctly that the ground in their 
 vicinity was destitute of snow during the severe February weather. 
 Of these 43 stated that the principal damage to nursery and orchard 
 trees was in the root, while only 3 thought the damage greater in the 
 tops than in the roots. One thought it about equal in roots and tops. 
 
 We may infer from the above statements, that the extensive damage 
 to the roots of nursery trees the past winter was largely due to a lack 
 of the snow blanket. That it was not due to the cold alone, is shown 
 by the fact reported by several correspondents that the top appeared 
 to be in perfect condition while the roots were wholly dead. Dryness 
 of the soil doubtless aggravated the damage in many cases. 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 77. 
 
 The injury to nurseries. One of the questions asked in our circu- 
 lar letter was “What varieties in the nursery seemed least affected, and 
 what ones seemed most affected?” 
 
 The answers to these questions were tabulated and varieties named 
 by more than one correspondent are given in the table below, with the 
 number of correspondents that rated each variety “least” or “most” af- 
 fected. For example, the Oldenburgh was placed among those least af- 
 fected by 21 correspondents, and among those most affected by two 
 other correspondents. The net number of ratings given each variety 
 is printed in bold face type in the right hand columns. The list is 
 limited to the apple and crab. Of course all the correspondents did not 
 report upon the same varieties, and the separating of many different 
 groups into two classes by as many different men makes the compari- 
 son somewhat arbitrary, but as in the composite photograph the most 
 striking features are brought out, while the others are eliminated, so 
 in this comparison, the varieties that were most emphatically hardy or 
 tender will distinctly appear. The hardiness of the different varieties 
 in the nursery as judged by the reports is therefore} somewhat in the 
 order in which the names are arranged in the table. The number of 
 votes cast, however, is an indication, not so much of the comparative 
 hardiness, as 'of the comparative extent of planting of the different 
 varieties. 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Times 
 reported 
 among the 
 “ Least in- 
 jured.” 
 
 Times 
 reported 
 among the 
 “ Most in- 
 jured.” 
 
 Oldenburgh (Duchess) 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 Hibernal 
 
 14 
 
 
 Wealthy 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 Virginia Crab 
 
 7 
 
 
 Whitney No . 20 
 
 9 
 
 
 Charlamoff 
 
 4 
 
 
 Longfield 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 Wolf River 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 (rid eon 
 
 3 
 
 
 Tetofslci 
 
 3 
 
 
 Pleven ne 
 
 2 
 
 
 TTyslop 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Martha 
 
 2 
 
 
 Ppfftr 
 
 2 
 
 
 Repla Kislaja 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Salome 
 
 2 
 
 
 Transcendent 
 
 1 2 
 
 
 Net Verdict. 
 
 Least 
 
 injured. 
 
 Most 
 
 injured. 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 3 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
Effects of the February Freeze of 1899. 
 
 9 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Times 
 reported 
 among the 
 “ Least in- 
 jux-ed.” 
 
 Times 
 reported 
 among the 
 “ Most in- 
 jured.” 
 
 Net V 
 
 Least 
 
 injured." 
 
 ERDICT. 
 
 Most 
 
 injured. 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 Yellow Transparent 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 Willow Twig 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 Northwestern Greening 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 Tallman’s Sweet 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 Ben Davis 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 2 
 
 Kaump 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 2 
 
 Melinda 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 % 
 
 McMahan 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 Peerless 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 Pewaukee 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Okaberm 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 Wal bridge 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 Haas 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 Grimes Golden 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 U tter 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 5 
 
 Johnathan 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Note. — “Patten’s Greening ” was reported by 3 correspondents as among the least 
 injured, and “ Patten ” was reported by 2 as among the most injured. As it was not 
 known whether or not these are synonymous these could not bo classified with the list. 
 
 Beside the varieties tabulated above, the following were reported by 
 one correspondent each as among the least injured: Alexander, 
 Beecher’s Sweet, Bellflower, Benoni, Berlin, Bismark, Blackwood, 
 Blushed Calville, Bryan, English Pippin, Fall Orange, Gano, Gipsy 
 Girl, Holt, Iowa Blush, Juicy Burr, Kluviskoe, Lily, Mammoth Black 
 Twig, Missouri Pippin, No. 252, Aport, Ostrakoff 4 M, Oxford Orange, 
 Pigeon, Quaker Beauty, Red Astrachan, Romna, Romna 4 M, Rose, 
 Russian Gravenstein, Silken Leaf, Tonka, Winesap, Winsted Pippin, 
 Winter Banana, Yellow Arcade, Yellow Siberian Crab, Yellow Sweet. 
 
 Ostrakoff was reported by one correspondent among the least injured, 
 and by one other as among the most injured. 
 
 The following were reported by one correspondent each as among 
 the most injured: Anisim, Benoni, Breskovka, Fall Orange, “Janet,” 
 Minkler, Plumb’s Cider, Rambo, Rawle’s Janet, Red Bietigheimer, 
 Maiden Blush, “Repka,” Rome Beauty, Smith’s Cider, Smokehouse, 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 77. 
 
 Striped Winter, Twenty Ounce, White Pippin, Willow, Wisconsin Rus- 
 set. 
 
 Comparative injury suffered by varieties in the orchard. “What va- 
 rieties in the orchard seemed least affected and what ones seemed most 
 affected?” The answers to these questions appear in the following ta- 
 ble, tabulated as for the preceding question: 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Times re- 
 ported 
 “Least 
 injured.” 
 
 Times re- 
 ported 
 “Most 
 injured.” 
 
 Net Result. 
 
 Least 
 
 injured. 
 
 Most 
 
 injured. 
 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 
 Oldenburgh (Duchess) 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 Kaump 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 Patten’s Greening 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Gidnon 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Ppt.pr 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Virginia Grab 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Martha Crab 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 lVi n. Malian 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 Northwestern Greening .. . 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 
 Maiden Blush 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 Roman Stem' 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 Fameuse 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Janet 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 Grimes Golden . . 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Cole’s Quince . . . 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 Lowell 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Salome 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 Scott’s Winter .... 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 TJ tter 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 Jonathan’ 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 Haas 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 
 5 
 
 Walbridge . . . 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 5 
 
 Ben Davis 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Effects of the February Freeze of 1899. 
 
 11 
 
 In addition to the above, the following were named by one corres- 
 pondent as among the “least affected:” Anisette, Antonovka, Avista, 
 Beecher’s Sweet, Benoni, Berlin, Bismark, Blue Pearmain, Blush Cal- 
 ville, Christmas, Colvert, Early Strawberry, Eureka, Fall Orange, Gen- 
 netan, Gilbert, Golden Russet, Iowa Beauty, Juicy Bur, Limber Twig, 
 Mallet, Milwaukee, Minnesota, Orange, Oxford Orange, Peck’s Pleasant, 
 Peerless, Pride of Minneapolis, Pigeon, Recumbent, Red Astrachan, 
 Russian Green, Saint Lawrence, Silken Leaf, Striped Anis, Sweet Rus- 
 set, Switzer, Tallman’s Sweet, Tonka, Willow Leaf, Winesap, Yellow 
 Sweet. 
 
 The following were placed in the “least affected” list by one corre- 
 spondent, and in the “most affected” list by another: Allen’s Choice, 
 Black Anette, Okabena, Red June, Tetofski, Windsor Chief. 
 
 The following were placed in the “most affected” list by a single cor- 
 respondent: Alexander, Autumn Strawberry, Early Harvest, Fall 
 
 Sweet, Fall Winesap, Minkler, No. 361, “Patten’s,” Perry Russett, Pe- 
 waukee, Rawle’s Janet, Repka Malenka, Sheriff, Summer Sweet, Sweet 
 June, Transcendent, Twenty Ounce. 
 
 Several correspondents expressed the opinion that variety counted 
 for little when the damage from the winter was through root-killing. 
 But the tabulated reports indicate otherwise. It is interesting to ob- 
 serve that in the main the varieties that have come to be generally rec- 
 ognized as especially hardy, almost without exception appear near the 
 head of both of the preceding lists. 
 
 It appears that the varieties that are hardiest in the nursery are not 
 necessarily hardiest in the orchard, but as a rule, the coincidence Is 
 quite close. 
 
 The superior hardiness of oral ') roots. Eight correspondents that re- 
 ported serious damage from root-killing stated that the crabs were less 
 injured than the common apple. This clearly indicates that the roots 
 of the crab are hardier than those of the apple, and at once raises the 
 question if crab seedlings would not be preferable to those of the com- 
 mon apple for root-and crown- grafting and for budding in the North- 
 west. The experiment does not seem to have been extensively tried, 
 though top-grafting on crab stocks has long been advocated by several 
 of the leading northwestern fruit growers. Of course only the more 
 rapid-growing crab seedlings should be used, as the weaker-growing 
 ones would probably tend to dwarf the apple trees worked upon them. 
 It is probable that seedlings of rapid-growing crab varieties like the 
 Virginia would average as vigorous as do seedlings of the ordinary ap- 
 ple, as the seeds of the latter are commonly saved. The crabs are very 
 prolific, and the nurseryman could easily grow and save his own seed. 
 The subject is commended to the attention of nurserymen in the 
 Northwest. 
 
12 
 
 Bulletin No. 77. 
 
 The plum ancl cherry. The past winter gave further opportunity to 
 observe something of the amount of cold the flower-buds of these fruits 
 are able to endure, from which it is clear that the opinions that some 
 have had on this subject are erroneous. Besides the facts already 
 given in our reports from Manitoba, the following data are of interest: 
 
 The flower-buds of the Wragg, “Richmond” and “Morello” cherries 
 were reported killed at Le Mars, la., with a minimum of -38°. The 
 Early Richmond cherry bloomed full at Ripon, Wis., with the same 
 minimum temperature. As per another report, Sklanka, Early Rich- 
 mond, Early Morello and King’s Morello bloomed at Ripon, Wis., with 
 a temperature of -35° to -40°. Dye House, Early Richmond, Montmor- 
 ency, English Morello, Wragg, Belle de Choisey and Red Muscatel 
 bloomed well and promised a good crop at Adel, la., with a minimum 
 temperature of -36°, and with no snow. The Wragg cherry bloomed 
 well at Fostoria, la., with a minimum temperature of -38°. 
 
 The Early Richmond and English Morello cherries are reported to 
 have bloomed as full as usual at Waupaca, Wis., with a minimum tem- 
 perature of -45°. Early Richmond and Wragg cherries bloomed full 
 at Austin, Minn., with a minimum temperature of -45°. 
 
 At our Experiment Station, with a minimum temperature of -27^°, 
 the blossom buds of most of our cherries were found to have suffered 
 material injury, the amount of injury differing- greatly in different 
 varieties, as appears from the following table. In this investigation, 
 which was made early in April, one hundred flower-buds of each va- 
 riety were dissected transversely with a razor, .and examined under a 
 simple microscope. The number of live and of dead embryo flowers in 
 each flower-bud was then noted separately, and from the aggregate 
 numbers the per cent, of live buds was computed. 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 live flower 
 buds. 
 
 ! 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Per cent of 
 live flower 
 buds. 
 
 Baender 
 
 60.24- 
 
 Large Morello 
 
 98.5+ 
 
 Bessarabian 
 
 5.7+ 
 
 Late Morello 
 
 98.3+ 
 
 Brussels Braune 
 
 42.2+ 
 
 Lutovka 
 
 27.6+ 
 
 Double Natte 
 
 53. + 
 
 Orel No. 23 
 
 87.6+ 
 
 Dye TTonsn 
 
 97.3+ 
 
 Orel No. 27 
 
 ■ 27.6+ 
 
 Karly (-rriotte 
 
 79.2+ 
 
 Ostheim 
 
 94.9+ 
 
 Oeorge (rl ass 
 
 56 . 5+ 
 
 Shadow Amarelle 
 
 97 5+ 
 
 (rriotte dn Nord 
 
 45.4+ 
 
 Sklanka 
 
 70.5+ 
 
 King’s Amarelle 
 
 'SS 6+ 
 
 Strause Weischell 
 
 41.4+ 
 
 
 
 
Effects of the February Freeze of 1899. 
 
 13 
 
 One each of our two trees of Baender, Bessarabian, Brussels Braune 
 and Sklanka have since perished from root-killing, showing clearly 
 that, under certain conditions, the flower-buds may endure more than 
 the roots. During the winter of 1896-7,' with a minimum temperature 
 of only -23°, the flower-buds of many of the above cherries were de- 
 stroyed. The summer previous the trees were in sod, and the weather 
 a portion of the time w;as very dry. 
 
 Regarding the European plum, it is reported that the Shipper’s Pride, 
 Egg, Prince of Wales, German Prune and Italian Prune bloomed well 
 after having passed through a temperature of -38° at Le Mars, la., and 
 “Green Gage” plum and a “large purple seedling” having endured -30° 
 to -35° at Columbus City, la., was reported “perfect in tree and fruit 
 crop.” Very few of the European plum trees at our Experiment Sta- 
 tion bloomed well the past spring, and some of the trees were root- 
 killed, though our minimum temperature was only -27^°, and practi- 
 cally all of the flower-buds on these plums were killed in the winter 
 of 1896-7 with a minimum temperature of -23° 
 
 The Japanese plums appear to have suffered more as a rule than the 
 European. The Chicasaw plums appear to have suffered nearly as 
 much as the European, but the Americana class have vindicated their 
 claims to perfect hardiness, so far as their flower-buds are concerned. 
 The young trees, however, while they have perhaps endured better than 
 those of any other fruit, have not been wholly exempt from root-killing. 
 
 From the data furnished in this bulletin, it seems probable that the 
 condition of the tree has very much to do with the degree of cold the 
 flower-buds of the plum and cherry can endure, and that any at- 
 tempt to prescribe a definite degree of cold as the limit of their endur- 
 ance is futile. 
 
 Several nurserymen have reported that the cherry worked on Ma- 
 haleb stock has withstood the winter better than when worked on Maz- 
 zard, — an important fact since the latter has by some been considered 
 the hardier of the two. 
 
 T he raspberry and blackberry. Our correspondence elicited some 
 data regarding the amount of cold the canes of the raspberry and 
 blackberry are able to epdure, and how far protection is capable of re- 
 ducing damage from winter-killing; also as to the comparative hardi- 
 ness of different varieties. 
 
 Among the red raspberries, Loudon, Marlboro and Golden Queen en- 
 dured without protection a temperature of -30° to -35° at Bay Settle- 
 ment, Wis.; Marlboro endured -35° at Sturgeon Bay, Wis.; Loudon and 
 Turner were reported uninjured at Janesville with -35°, with a belt of 
 trees 80 rods to the nortlrwest; Loudon was reported unhurt by two 
 persons at West Salem with -38° to -45°, also at Rose Creek, Minn., 
 with -39° -43°, partly sheltered by grove on north and west; Turner 
 
14 
 
 Bulletin No. 77. 
 
 escaped harm with -38°, with no snow in the coldest weather, at Sar- 
 geant Bluffs, la. All of these were unprotected except by snow in some 
 oases, and by groves as stated. The Loudon seems to have endured the 
 conditions better than most other red varieties. The report from Mr. 
 Nelson of Manitoba that several red raspberries endured -50° without 
 protection is highly interesting. , 
 
 Of blackcaps, the Older was reported by several correspondents as 
 having endured better than other varieties. A few of these statements 
 are quoted: 
 
 “Raspberries complete loss, except Older.” (-32°) R. R. & Son, Car- 
 roll, la. 
 
 “Older and Gregg, side by side; the first escaped while the Gregg suf- 
 fered so much I dug them out.” (-22 -30°, with no snow. Soil black 
 prairie over clay) F. L. P., Kussuth, la. 
 
 “Older raspberry came through nearly all right; Gregg, Palmer and’ 
 Kansas injured, Cuthbert killed to ground; Miller Red, Loudon and 
 Thompson’s Prolific all right.” (-23°, with no snow.) C. R. P., Ster- 
 ling, 111. 
 
 “Gregg seriously hurt, Older not much” (-28°) M. K., Carroll, la. 
 
 “We have on our ground five different plats of the Older raspberry, 
 perfectly unprotected, and all came through in fine shape.” (-30°, with 
 no snow during the coldest weather.) S. S. G. & Sons, Sac City., Ia. 
 
 “I have two acres of Older raspberry that look well, and promise a 
 full crop; four acres of Gregg will give about one-third of a crop.” 
 (-26°, ground nearly bare in February.) G. G. R., Council Bluffs, Ia. 
 
 The Older unprotected except by snow was reported uninjured at 
 Lake Park, Minn., with -42°. 
 
 The blackberry suffered extremely in sections where the ground was 
 bare during the severe weather, and twenty-five correspondents reported 
 it a total loss. Protection with earth did not always save it under 
 these conditions. In parts of southern Wisconsin the. loss of blackber- 
 ries was almost complete. Mr. Henry Tarrant of Janesville wrote: “I 
 know of no plantation of blackberries, either protected or unprotected, 
 but what was killed.” At Ripon, however, where the ground was cov- 
 ered with a little snow all winter, some blackberries were reported all 
 right, despite a temperature of -43°. At West Salem, on the other 
 hand, with more snow than was present at Ripon, and with no colder 
 weather, they were reported destroyed. The Snyder blackberry demon- 
 strated its superior hardiness in many cases. 
 
 It will be very unwise to conclude that because many unprotected 
 plantations of the raspberry escaped serious harm the past winter, that 
 protection is therefore unprofitable in Wisconsin in the ordinary season. 
 The damage from winter-killing of this fruit the past winter may have 
 been reduced by the fact that there were no “breakups” during the 
 winter, and that the weather continued cold until April. 
 
Effects of the February Freeze of 1899. 
 
 15 
 
 Four correspondents from the snowless area reported that the roots 
 of peach trees were less injured than the tops, which indicates that the 
 roots of the peach may be relatively more hardy than those of the apple. 
 
 The grape has suffered very seriously from root-killing throughout 
 the snowless region, and, unlike the raspberry, no individual varieties 
 seem to have endured the conditions better than others. Many vine- 
 yards appear to have been nearly ruined. 
 
 Some statements incidentally made by correspondents are worthy of 
 quotation, as they suggest important truths. 
 
 “The only place in my nursery that the trees came through all sound 
 in root is where large drifts of snow lay on through the warm weather 
 in January. * * * I have lately found that_the trees that root deep, 
 
 and that have been set deep, are the ones that have come through the 
 winter in the best shape; and that nursery stock in the nursery rows 
 has suffered the most because, not having been reset, the roots are nearer 
 the surface. I am now quite sure when it has been thoroughly investi- 
 gated that the conclusion will be that the tree that sends its roots down 
 has come through in better shape than the one that roots near the sur- 
 face.” C. W. C., Sac City, la. 
 
 “Nearly all nurseries that I know of here lost nearly all apple trees 
 in one, two and three years stock; even seven foot trees of the Duchess 
 and Hibernal are killed. A neighbor nursery had four-year Wealthy In 
 neglected rows grown to weeds and grass that are nearly all well leaved 
 out, while near by, the three-year trees, well cultivated and ground bare, 
 were all killed. Many of the crabs in the nursery are uninjured.” 
 (Minimum temperature -37°. ) H. L. F., Washta, la. 
 
 “Trees suffered the worst where the ground was bare; where covered 
 with mulch, trees are all right.” S. S. G. & Sons, Sac City, la. 
 
 “The plum on native stocks suffered less than that on Marianna or 
 Myrabolan. Cherry on Mazzard stocks were killed in root the worst.” 
 G. D. T., Des Moines, la. 
 
 “’Strawberries 50 per cent, dead, probably caused by dry freezing, as 
 those parts of field covered by early snow, which melted and entered 
 the ground are all right:” (No snow in coldest weather.) R. N. 
 McC., Sergeant Bluff, la. 
 
 “Snyder blackberry, exposed on South, are dead, root and branch; on 
 north slope, and protected on south and west by grove, 60 per cent, now 
 in bloom.” (Minimum temperature -30°, no snow.) W. F. S., Car- 
 roll, la. 
 
 “Variety cut no figure, it was all in location; fruits protected strongly 
 on north and west did not suffer so seriously as those exposed to north- 
 west wind.” J. G. B., Des Moines, Iowa. 
 
16 
 
 Bulletin No. 77. 
 
 “The lazy man’s trees and plants are in fair condition, but well culti- 
 vated are alike more or less injured.” M. Bros., Crescent, la. 
 
 “Peaches, blackberries and raspberries on the north side of the grove 
 suffered less than on the south side, which I attribute to the fact that 
 the south side thawed and froze several times, while the north side re- 
 mained frozen. On the south side my currants and berries were pushed 
 up out of the ground two or three inches where they were on a flat lo- 
 cation.” J. H. C. Chariton, la. 
 
 Whether or not the absence of the snow blanket coupled with the un- 
 usually cold weather, is sufficient to fully explain the extensive de- 
 struction of roots, it is impossible to say positively. The assumed dry 
 condition of the soil has been frequently offered in explanation, but 
 there is lack of positive evidence that the soil was drier during the past 
 winter than it had been during several previous winters when no root- 
 killing occurred. The rainfall at Madison during September, October 
 and November of 1898 was 7.28 inches which is but about % inch less 
 than the average for 23 years prior to 1896. The precipitation during De- 
 cember and January was, however, only .37 inch which is much below the 
 normal. The number of cisterns that became dry during the winter in 
 Madison was much larger than usual. It does not, however, follow 
 that the soil was drier than it had often been before during the winter 
 months. 
 
 Mr. Geo. J. Kellogg, of Lake Mills, has endeavored to ascertain if an 
 equal amount of root destruction has occurred before in Wisconsin 
 since the settlement of the state. His conclusion is in the negative. 
 Root-killing has been serious in certain localities before, but never over 
 so wide an area as during the past winter. 
 
 SUGGESTED TEACHINGS. 
 
 A snow covering for the nursery in winter may prove invaluable. 
 While we are unable to influence the fall of snow, we may determine to 
 some extent its distribution and the time that it shall remain on the 
 land. By planting our nurseries as far as practicable on north slopes, 
 and by interspersing our nursery blocks with evergreen wind-breaks ex- 
 tending east and west, the retention of snow on the land may be con- 
 siderably promoted. 
 
 A litter covering is next in value to a snow covering. While we can- 
 not advocate slovenly culture, a cover crop for winter in the orchard 
 and nursery is unquestionably a wise provision. Keep the ground free 
 from weeds and well cultivated until July 15 or August 1, then sow oats 
 or buckwheat, or if the soil needs enriching with nitrogen, sow peas, 
 vetches or mammoth clover. The latter is advisable only in wet sea- 
 sons, .and in orchards, as it would commonly need to be plowed up the 
 
Effects of the February Freeze of 1899. 
 
 17 
 
 following spring. If mice are feared in winter, sow corn that has been 
 soaked in a solution of strychnine on the ground late in autumn. 
 
 Graft only on hardy stocks. Had the crab been generally used for 
 root grafting the apple in the northwest, the loss from root-killing 
 would probably have been reduced at least one-half. Work the plum on 
 Americana seedlings and the cherry on Mahaleb stock rather than Maz- 
 zard, until we can find a satisfactory stock more hardy than either. 
 
 The roots of the blackberry are especially tender, hence all precau- 
 tions should be taken to preserve snow on the groupd where this crop 
 .is planted. An earth protection may save the tops, but it will not alone 
 save the roots in winters like the past. A covering of straw or other 
 litter would be a wise precaution for open winters. 
 
 In conclusion, I take pleasure in acknowledging my indebtedness to 
 
 the following persons wl|p have 
 without which this bulletin would 
 
 E. C. Alsmeyer, Cottage Grove, Wis. 
 
 H. N. Antisdale, Fostoria, Ia. 
 
 J. Q. Arnold, Marcus, la. 
 
 L. S. Axtell, Honey Creek, la. 
 
 Geo. S. Bacon, Des Moines, la. 
 
 A. D. Barnes, Waupaca, Wis. 
 
 M. G. Beals, Otto, la. 
 
 C. D. Bent, Columbus City, la. 
 
 Bents & Upton, Cresco, la. 
 
 J. G. Berry hill, Des Moines, la. 
 
 G. Bishard, Valley Junction. Ia. 
 
 W. M. Bomberger, Huron, Ia. 
 
 J. M. Bonnell, Ripon, Wis. 
 
 Josiak Buffett, Dixon, 111. 
 
 S. R. Buffom, Lake Park, Ia. 
 
 A. S. Caulkins, Storm Lake, Ia. 
 
 John H. Clark, Chariton, Ia. 
 
 G. A. C. Clarke, Le Mars, Ia. 
 
 Frank Cleeremans, Bay Settlement, Wis 
 L. A. Clemons, Storm Lake, Ia. 
 
 John Coldwell, Virden, Man. 
 
 H. R. Cotta, Freeport, 111. 
 
 J. V. Cotta, Nursery, 111. 
 
 C. W. Conner, Sac City, Ia. 
 
 Prof. John Craig. Ames, Ia. 
 
 H. J. Cushman, Marcus, Ia. 
 
 Dawson & Strever, Larrabee, Ia. 
 
 F. C. Edwards, Fort Atkinson, Wis. 
 
 J. H. M. Edwards & Son, Logan, Ia. 
 
 J. M. Edwards & Son, Fort Atkinson, 
 Wis. 
 
 W. B. Emmons, Rock Falls, 111. 
 
 H. L. Felter, Washta, Ia. 
 
 kindly contributed the information 
 have been impossible. 
 
 Z. Iv. Jewett & Co., Sparta, Wis. 
 
 A. W. Keays, Elk River, Minn. 
 
 L. G. Kellogg, Ripon, Wis. 
 
 M. Kimble, Carroll, Ia. 
 
 Geo. J. Kellogg & Sons, Janesville, Wis. 
 Frank Kroll, Ripon, Wis. 
 
 Ernest Kumbier, Pickett, Wis. 
 
 Laigh & Christensen, Fairmount, Minn. 
 
 B. F. Longley, Des Moines, Ia. 
 
 T. F. Luckenbill, Huron, ia. 
 
 C. E. May, Kingsley, Ia. 
 
 H. L. May, Columbus City, Ia. 
 
 Robt. X. McCoy, Sergeant Bluffs, Ia. 
 Meneray Bros., Crescent, Ia. 
 
 H. Meyers, Mediapplis, Ia. 
 
 D. S. Michael, Logan, Ia. 
 
 Midland Nursery Co., Des Moines, Ia. 
 
 P. J. Moran, Crescent, Ia. 
 
 R. S. Paine, Chariton, Ia. 
 
 A. J. Philips, West Salem, Wis. 
 
 F. K. Phoenix, Delavan, Wis. 
 
 F. L. Pierce, Kussuth, Ia. 
 
 C. R. Powell, Sterling, 111. 
 
 B. A. Ralph, Fort Atkinson, Wis. 
 
 Elmer Reeves, Waverly, Ia. 
 
 G. G. Rice, Council Bluffs, la. 
 
 S. D. Richardson & Son, Winnebago City, 
 
 Minn. 
 
 A. Ries & Son, Carroll, Ia. 
 
 A. C. Russell, Oakville^ Ia. 
 
 D. P. Sackett, Fairmont, Minn. 
 
 J. H. Seaver, Darien, Ia. 
 
 R. B. Shepard, Delavan, Wis. 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No. 77. 
 
 Jno. C. Ferris, Hampton, la. 
 
 P. W. Flanders, Elkhorn, Wis. 
 
 L. M. Garner, Le Mars, la. 
 
 J. W. Gatten, Carroll, la. 
 
 R. O. Goodrich, Ripon, Wis. 
 
 M. J. Graham, Adel, la. 
 
 Wesley Greene, Des Moines, la. 
 
 L. M. Gregg, Austin, Minn. 
 
 J. S. Griffin & Sons, Sac City, la. 
 
 Groom Bros., Storm Lake, la. 
 
 C. W. Gurney, Yankton, S. D. 
 
 J. L. Hartwell, Dixon, 111. 
 
 A. L. Hatch, Sturgeon' Bay, Wis. 
 
 W. C. Haviland, Fort Dodge, la. 
 
 E. L. Hayden, Oakville, la. 
 
 M. E. Hinkley, Marcus, la. 
 
 Chas. Hix-schinger, Baraboo, Wis. 
 
 Mrs. W. A. Houghton, West Salem, Wis. 
 W. T. Innis, Ripon, Wis. 
 
 Jens A. Jensen, Rose Creek, Minn. 
 Jewell Nursery Co., Lake City, Minn. 
 
 B. H. Smith, Green Bay, Wis. 
 
 H. B. Smith, Odebalt, la. 
 
 Jno. Spi-y, Fort Atkinson, Wis. 
 
 B. E. St John, Fairmont, Minn. 
 
 W. F. Steigei’walt, Cari’oll, la. 
 
 C. Steinman, Mapleton, la. 
 
 A. P. Stevenson, Nelson, Man. 
 
 I. N. Stone, Sioux City, la. 
 
 Henry Tai-rant, Janesville, Wis. 
 
 H. A. Terry, Crescent, la. 
 
 Geo. D. Thomas, Des Moines, la. 
 Jas. R. Throckmorton, Derby, la. 
 
 C. Tinus, Douceman, Wis. 
 
 C. H. Van Worner, Wast Salem, Wis. 
 H. D. Weavei% Boone, la. 
 
 Frank Wernli, Le Mars, la. 
 
 F. L. White, Des Moines, la. 
 
 Alex Woo^ Council Bluffs, la. 
 
 M. J. Wragg, Waukee, la. 
 
 Joseph Wright, Delavan, Wis. 
 
 In addition to the above names, three correspondents from Iowa and 
 one each from Minnesota and Manitoba forgot to sign their name. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF A TUBERCULOUS HERD OF COWS. 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN, AUGUST, 1899. 
 
 13 W~The Bulletins and Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
 Note. — Bulletin No. 77, entitled “ Effects of the February Freeze of 1899 upon Nurser- 
 ies and Fruit Plantations in the Northwest,” was not sent to the full mailing list. 
 Copies of this bulletin will be sent upon request, so long as the supply on hand holds out. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, BX-OFFICIO. 
 PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 State-at-large, JOHN JOHNSTON, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, J. A. VAN CLEVE, Marinette. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 JOHN JOHNSTON, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasurer. 
 
 GEORGE H NOYES, Vice-President, j E. F. RILEY, Madison, Secretary. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION; 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, ---------- Director 
 
 S. M BABCOCK, ------- - Chief Chemist 
 
 F. H. KING, - ... .... Physicist 
 
 E. S. GOFF, Horticulturist 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, animal Husbandry 
 
 F. W, WOLL, Chemist 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, . Bacteriologist 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON. -....-- Dairy Husbandry 
 J. A. JEFFERY, - - - - - - Assistant Physicist 
 
 J, W. DECKER, - Dairying 
 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, - - - - - - - - Assistant Chemist 
 
 E. G. HASTINGS, ------ Assistant Bacteriologist 
 
 FRED CRANEFIELD ------ Assistant in Horticulture 
 
 A. G. HOPKINS, .... Instructor in Veterinary Science 
 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, ------- Farm Superintendent 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, ------- Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, ........ Librarian 
 
 FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, -------- Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end <of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
THE HISTORY OF A TUBERCULOUS HERD OF COWS. 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL. 
 
 A TOO FREQUENT EXPERIENCE. 
 
 Eight years ago a thrifty farmer in one of our eastern counties de- 
 cided that he could have better cows than those which he then possessed. 
 When he reached this decision, he did not sell all that he had, and buy 
 new ones to take the place of the old herd, but he purchased a few pure 
 bred animals that he had reason to believe were better milk-producers 
 than those which he originally possessed. With this influx of new 
 blood, he started as thousands of dairymen have done to “build up” a 
 herd by gradual selection of the best animals. 
 
 When ihe'purchase of these animals was made, he paid for registered 
 cows, and thought that this was to close the bargain ; but, unfortunately, 
 such was not the case. With these pure bred cows, he introduced into 
 his herd, a microbe, which, later, was to increase and spread through- 
 out his herd to such an extent as to seriously threaten the success of 
 his whole enterprise. The germ in question was that of tuberculosis, 
 and undoubtedly, some of these animals had in a latent form, the seeds 
 of this disease in their systems, as later they were the first to succumb. 
 
 At the time of purchase it was practically impossible for this buyer 
 to determine whether any of his herd was affected or not, for the diag- 
 nosis of this disease in the beginning stages was then confined to merely 
 a physical examination, and even the most thorough expert could not be 
 sure of its presence in the earlier stages. If this breeder were to repeat 
 this experience at the present time, it would be a comparatively easy 
 matter for him to determine by means of the tuberculin test whether 
 any of his animals were affected with this disease or not. 
 
 This test can be so easily applied, and especially in the earlier stages 
 of the disease is so much more reliable than any other method of diag- 
 nosis that no one should run the risk of buying tuberculosis when they 
 bring new cattle into their herds. The use of this test is , however, not 
 so widespread as yet, but that one must generally insist on a “tuberculin 
 certificate,” if they are to secure its advantages. Breeders will not be 
 in a hurry to test their herds, if prospective purchasers do not insist on 
 “tuberculosis-free” animals. Indifference and failure to recognize its 
 value are the main reasons why the test has not already been more 
 widely employed that it has. 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 78 . 
 
 HISTORY OF THE OUTBREAK OF THE DISEASE. 
 
 When this pure bred stock was first bought, it was kept apart from the 
 balance of the herd, but in 1894, three years later, the herd was re- 
 divided on the basis of age, all young animals being kept together on 
 one side of the barn, while the mature animals were stabled on the 
 other. The history of the herd for a time presented no unusual feature. 
 The more promising calves were raised, and so the herd was gradually 
 improved. 
 
 In 1895 some of the pure bred cows began to fail, and in that and the 
 following year, two of them died of what later was determined to be 
 tuberculosis. The owner at this time was ignorant of the true nature 
 of the malady, as the slow wasting away of the animals had not espe- 
 cially impressed him. When the true character of the disease was de- 
 termined by a post-mortem examination, a tuberculin test of the entire 
 herd was at once made, under the auspices of the Experiment Station, 
 and the surprising fact established that with three exceptions (13 out 
 of 16), all of the mature animals in the herd reacted. In addition to this 
 three head of young stock also responded to the test. 
 
 THE CONTAGIOUSNESS OF THE DISEASE. 
 
 The contagiousness of the disease is evident in this history if one 
 can rely on circumstantial evidence. Of course it cannot be positively 
 asserted that the trouble was introduced into the herd with the purchase 
 of the pure bred stock, but this theory is in accord with the most facts. 
 No disease of this character had ever been noted in the herd before, and 
 when it did occur, it attacked the pure bred animals first, and subse- 
 quently, those which had been most in contact with these. Supposing 
 that some of the original cows were infected with the disease at time 
 of purchase, it is probable that the malady was disseminated among the 
 mature animals from 1894 to 1896. 
 
 In this brief space of time, the outbreak had spread so that nearly 
 every mature animal of the herd was more or less involved. All of this 
 had happened practically unbeknown to the owner. Could there be a 
 more striking example of the insidiousness of the malady than this? 
 Does it not show to the breeder and the dairyman that the appearance 
 of an animal is no sure index of its actual condition? The recognition 
 of this fact alone should lead cattle owners to use the test for their own 
 protection. When the true state of the herd was recognized, what was 
 to be done? 
 
 COURSE TO BE PURSUED. 
 
 Here was a herd with every breeding animal except two tainted with 
 tuberculosis. According to the strict letter of the law, every one of 
 
History of a Tuberculous Herd of Coirs. 
 
 5 
 
 these animals should be killed. From a legal point of view, in this 
 state, and in many others, it makes no difference as to the extent of the 
 disease in the animal. Before the law all reacting animals are classed 
 alike, and condemned to die. The manifest injustice of such a method 
 of procedure is apparent at once to any one who is familiar with the 
 course of the disease in the animal. In the strict sense of the word, all 
 animals that react to the tuberculin test are affected with tuberculosis, 
 but as Theobald Smith has so well pointed out, many animals that re- 
 act are not diseased in the ordinary acceptation of the term. They may 
 be called infected, as he says, but generally, they are not dangerous, 
 so far as disease dissemination to either man or beast is concerned. 
 
 Animals affected in the earlier stages, but kept under favorable hy- 
 gienic conditions will frequently live for years without the disease mak- 
 ing any apparent headway in their systems. The progeny of such ani- 
 mals is scarcely more apt to have tuberculosis at birth than that of non- 
 reacting mothers. If such calves are removed from an infected at- 
 mosphere, placed under good hygienic surroundings, and fed- on tubercle- 
 free food, they will not show any taint of this disease. 
 
 Fig. 1.— A bunch of tuberculous cows. 
 
 Were it not for the tuberculin test, frequently the presence of the 
 disease would hardly ever be recognized in animals of this cla^s. This 
 point receives striking confirmation, if one will note, as shown in fig. 1. 
 the appearance of some of the cows that have been tuberculous for 
 several years. To destroy such, in order to eradicate the malady, often 
 wipes out of existence not only large money values, but what is of far 
 more importance, it may needlessly destroy the labor of years spent in 
 careful and selected breeding. 
 
 Let us suppose that a breeder has been engaged for years in building 
 up a strain that is noted for several points of excellence in some one di- 
 rection. Kill the herd on which these years of labor have been put, and 
 you destroy the actual capital involved in the animals in question, but 
 the potential values that are lost are much greater, for money alone 
 cannot replace these in any way. 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 78 . 
 
 So long as the disease was considered as absolutely incurable, so long 
 as it was believed that the only way in which it could be effectively 
 stamped out was by slaughtering all animals that reacted at all, this 
 method of wholesale slaughter was justifiable in a sense, because it is 
 the part of wisdom to be on the safe side in matters pertaining to public 
 welfare. When, however, it was definitely shown that a reaction to the 
 tuberculin test did not necessarily mean that the dairy products from 
 such an animal were dangerous to human health; that it might be per- 
 fectly safe, under certain conditions to keep such an animal itself in the 
 herd for even years, then the need of compulsory slaughter of every re- 
 acting animal became less evident. 
 
 With the increased knowledge that has come from a more thorough 
 study of the course of the disease in the bovine race, new methods of 
 treatment have gradually been evolved. These have differed slightly 
 in different countries, owing to the variation in conditions, but the same 
 general principle is operative in the various methods that are now being 
 inaugurated. 
 
 CONTROL OF TUBERCULOSIS BY QUARANTINE. 
 
 The principles of this method are briefly these: — 
 
 Separate at time of test, all reacting from non-reacting animals, keep- 
 ing them practically as two independent herds. Breed these reacting 
 animals under careful conditions, separating the calves at birth from 
 their mothers, feeding them on thoroughly pasteurized milk of reacting 
 cows (or milk from non-reacting animals.) All healthy cows, and 
 calves from both affected and healthy sections should be kept in 
 quarters known to be free from tubercular contagion. The disposition 
 of the product of the reacting herd may be varied to suit the exigencies 
 of the occasion, but in any case it should be treated by pasteurizing so 
 as to render it innocuous. 
 
 Believing that it was possible in this case to restore the herd to a per- 
 fectly healthy condition, and that it could be done with less expense, 
 where the above plan was followed, than it would be to kill all the ani- 
 mals that reacted and fill their places with other stock, this method was 
 proposed to the owner and adopted by him. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF THE HERD. 
 
 The herd had been stabled in a basement barn of the usual type in 
 which the ventilation was only fair. The animals were kept in 
 stanchions, and were watered generally out of doors in a large tank, al- 
 though there was a pipe inside from which water could be drawn in 
 pails and given to the cows. A silo communicated with the stable at 
 the end of the barn. The fodder was distributed to the cattle on either 
 side of a central aisle. 
 
History of a Tuberculous Herd of Coivs. 
 
 7 
 
 The conditions were such as might be found on hundreds of farms 
 throughout Wisconsin. No other building was available in which either 
 the healthy or the affected part of the herd could be kept, and it was 
 therefore necessary to arrange quarters in the original stable in some 
 way, so as to prevent contact of one section of the herd with another. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Ground-plan of bam, showing arrangement of herd. 
 
 This was done by throwing a partition made of single thickness of 
 boards across the stable as shown in fig. 2. The two sections 
 of the herd were pastured in separate paddocks and watered 
 in different tanks. It was of course somewhat hazardous to 
 allow direct passage between the two compartments, and also 
 to bring the food for the healthy section through the room oc- 
 cupied by the diseased stock, but such an arrangement under the cir- 
 cumstances was the only practicable one that could be instituted. 
 
 DISINFECTION OF THE BARN. 
 
 Before the rebuilding of the herd was begun, it was necessary to 
 thoroughly disinfect the whole stable, — a process that generally presents 
 considerable difficulty on account of the character of the space to be 
 treated. The bacillus of consumption usually finds its way into the air 
 from the breaking down of the tissues of the affected lungs or glands. 
 The cow does not expectorate, but at the same time, the disintegrated tis- 
 sue, in which the tubercle bacilli are abundant is thrown out from the 
 lungs, and in this way gains access to the air. Here it soon dries, and like 
 any dust particle, may be easily set in motion by a slight air current, and 
 so disseminated throughout the air of the stable. The inevitable re- 
 sult is that a barn occupied by tuberculous animals for any length of 
 time is almost sure to contain the seeds of this disease on its walls and 
 ceilings, but more particularly, in the mangers and stalls that have 
 been occupied by the affected animals as here the contagious matter is 
 more frequently deposited. One may conscientiously kill all reacting an- 
 imals in their efforts to get rid of the disease, but if the barn in which 
 
Bulletin A o. 78. 
 
 g 
 
 they have been kept is not thoroughly purged from all infectious matter, 
 the introduction of a new herd, even though it passes satisfactorily the 
 tuberculin test, is almost sure to acquire the disease from the inhalation 
 of the dried bacilli in the dust. 
 
 In disinfecting the barn, all litter and loose material was first cleaned 
 out so as to give better penetration to the disinfectant. Then the 
 stalls and mangers were thoroughly washed with a hot solution of lye, 
 the walls and ceilings being treated with a coat of milk of 
 lime (a thin whitewash made from freshly slaked lime). There 
 are other agents than these that might have been ap- 
 plied ; indeed some that are more frequently recommended. In 
 the disinfection of a tight room or closed space, two methods are 
 available. One where a disinfecting gas is liberated that permeates the 
 entire space; the other where a liquid disinfectant is brought directly 
 in contact with the surface to be treated. The first method is only 
 applicable where the space can be closed tightly. In a barn or stable, 
 this method is generally of no service because the cracks and crevices 
 are so numerous as to render it difficult to confine the gas. The direct 
 application of a liquid is much more certain to be effective. Of the 
 various substances that can be used, corrosive sublimate in the propor- 
 tion of 1 oz. of the crystals to 15 gallons of water is often recommended. 
 The addition of a few ounces of common salt intensifies its disinfecting 
 power. This liquid should be mixed in wooden barrels or pails as it 
 will corrode metals. 
 
 Crude carbolic acid is often used. The effectiveness of this agent may 
 be greatly increased by mixing it with an equal volume of sulfuric acid. 
 Care should be taken in pouring the sulfuric into the carbolic acid as a 
 large amount of heat is quickly liberated by mixing these agents. This 
 mixture should be diluted about twenty times (6 ounces of carbol-sul- 
 furic acid to one gallon of water). 
 
 HISTORY OF THE TUBERCULIN TEST OF THIS HERD. 
 
 First tuberculin test. The first test was applied January 2, 1896. The 
 results of this examination showed that thirteen out of sixteen mature 
 animals responded, and that three yearlings were also affected. At this 
 time two animals showed marked physical symptoms of the disease, and 
 these were slaughtered, as it was thought unwise to leave them even In 
 the affected herd. On January 10 the herd was divided into the two sec- 
 tions, and from that time to the present, these divisions have been 
 handled as two separate herds. 
 
 Second tuberculin test. To make sure that no animals were left in the 
 healthy section that might have the disease in the earliest stages, a 
 second test was applied on May 12, 1896. The results of this test were 
 identical with the first. Five calves had been dropped in the interim, 
 four of these coming from the tuberculous section. These had been 
 
9 
 
 History of a Tuberculous Herd of Cores. 
 
 separated at birth and fed on boiled milk, and at this test showed no 
 reaction in any case. The majority of the bull calves coming from 
 grade mothers were not raised but were sold for veal. At the time of 
 the second examination the general appearance of the herd had 
 materially improved when compared with its condition in the winter, 
 although all animals that originally responded to the test did so on the 
 second application. 
 
 Third tuberculin test. The third test was not made until nearly a 
 year afterward, April 26, 1897. The results of this test were equally 
 satisfactory. No new case of the disease had developed in any instance, 
 and every calf from the tuberculous section as well as the other showed 
 entire freedom from the disease. In a couple of the old cows, the 
 disease had made such progress that it was evident that they were on 
 the decline, and these were killed. The herd continued to increase in 
 numbers, and in January, 1898, had reached such proportions that it be- 
 came necessary to dispose of some of the animals on account of insuffi- 
 cient stable room. 
 
 PURCHASE OF AFFECTED ANIMALS BY EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 Inasmuch as the herd had now been under close observation for 
 about two years, it was deemed expedient to purchase as many of the 
 tuberculous section as possible, in order that the course of the disease 
 in these might be watched to its ultimate conclusion. 
 
 Although the question of bovine tuberculosis has been quite 
 thoroughly investigated for a considerable number of years, still there 
 is lacking in a large measure, data as to the exact period of incubation 
 of the disease in the animal, and also as to the possibility of recovery. 
 At this time there were ten tuberculous cows left in the herd. Of these 
 the Experiment Station purchased six, the owner promising to keep the 
 remainder, which were registered stock, under the same conditions as 
 before. 
 
 The six infected cows were isolated on one of the university farms, 
 where they were kept in an ordinary stable which had rather poor ven- 
 tilation. 
 
 Fourth partial tuberculin test. The continued testing of the entire herd 
 having failed to show any further spread of the disease, it was deemed 
 unnecessary to make the tests of the whole herd so frequently, so that 
 during 1898, testing was confined to the yoi^ng stock. During this 
 period, two more of the original herd of tuberculous animals succumbed 
 to the ravages of the disease. Natural death was not allowed to occur, 
 but they were killed when they began to show unmistakable signs of de- 
 cline. 
 
 Fifth tuberculin test. In February, 1899, a final round-up test of the 
 entire herd was again made as the increase in progeny again necessi- 
 tated the sale of some of the stock. This test gave the same general re- 
 sults as before, there being no increase in the disease whatever. 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 78 . 
 
 SUMMARY OF TIIE TESTS. 
 
 In order to present the actual figures showing the rate of herd in- 
 crease, the results of the different tuberculin tests are summarized in 
 the following table. These figures include the status of the herd at the 
 different testing periods, but do not take into consideration the young 
 calves which were not raised. 
 
 Table I .— Record of repjeated tuberculin tests made on a herd in 
 which the progeny of reacting animals wets separated from 
 dams at birth . 
 
 Date of tist. 
 
 No. of Animals Ad- 
 judged bx Test as 
 
 No. of Animals in 
 
 Healthy. 
 
 1 
 
 Affected . 
 
 Healthy sec- 
 tion reacting 
 to subsequent 
 tests. 
 
 Affected sec- 
 tion not re- 
 acting to sub- 
 sequent tests. 
 
 January, 1896 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 May, 1896 ; 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 April, 1897 
 
 30 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 February, 1899 
 
 64 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 The relation of the progeny of the tuberculous animals to that section 
 is brought out more forcibly in the following diagram, in which the re- 
 acting animals are represented by the shaded area, the healthy stock by 
 the unshaded portions. The complete check given to the spread of the 
 disease is shown by the perfectly healthy progeny that descended from 
 the non-reacting branch of the herd. The success of the method, how- 
 ever, is to be noted in the graphical representation of the originally 
 tuberculous section. The number of diseased animals has been steadily 
 lessened by the continued progress of the disease, but the young in all 
 cases have stood the test, showing that the disease is contracted after 
 birth rather than inherited from the affected dam. This relationship is 
 shown more clearly in fig. 4, in which the entire history of every 
 animal in the herd is delineated. The originally affected animals are 
 shown by the red lines, the healthy by the black. The broken line repre- 
 sents in all cases, the male sex, the continuous solid line, the female. 
 The fact that since this experiment was begun, every calf born in the 
 herd has been free from tuberculosis is brought out forcibly by the black 
 lines coming off from the red lines in the different years. In the major- 
 ity of cases where bull calves were dropped, they were disposed of as 
 veal, and this fact is shown by changing the heavy line to a “hollow” or 
 double line. It is of course possible that these animals might have 
 acquired tuberculosis later, but the fact that they w r ere born free from 
 
method of immediate slavghter been followed. 
 

 
 
 
History of a Tuberculous Herd of Cores. 
 
 n 
 
 the disease, and remained so for several months before the test was made, 
 indicates that it is possible to raise a healthy calf from an affected 
 mother in the great majority of cases. 
 
 ACTUAL 
 
 CONDITION OF HERD AT 
 TIMES OF DIFFERENT TESTS 
 
 Date Tuberculous section 
 inoc. and its joroejeny 
 
 Healthy section 
 and itsjDroyenL] 
 
 i Ian. 9 6 
 
 18 1 n FHTFj 
 
 
 Reacting 
 
 Mau’96. 14 
 
 ’ ^ ! I — 1 h |-i , 1 1 
 
 -J 
 
 1 iealthy 1 1 
 
 Apr.QZ 1 M 
 
 19 1 
 
 
 
 n ec 07 i i3 
 
 23 1 
 
 
 
 Feb.’99 27 F7T 
 
 37 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 In no case did any of the animals originally pronounced tuberculous 
 ever fail to react in any of the subsequent tests. This fact is somewhat 
 peculiar, as it oTen happens that the continued introduction of tuber- 
 culin results in a failure to respond in some cases. Even where no 
 response occurs, one cannot be sure that a cure is effected, for the oft re- 
 pealed injections- of tuberculin decreases the susceptibility of the system 
 to the agent used. 
 
 COUKSE OF THE DISEASE IN THE INDIVIDUAL ANIMAL. 
 
 One of the striking facts that has been noted in these investigations 
 is the way in which the disease seems to progress in the individual 
 animal. Aside from the five original cows which were bought, the pre- 
 sumption is strongly in favor of the theory that the other animals ac- 
 quired the disease subsequent to 1894. By 1896 two of the original cows 
 had died. Of the sixteen affected when the first test was made, several 
 were killed for demonstration purposes. In 1896 and 1897 four had to 
 be destroyed on account of the progress of the disease; in 1898, two 
 more broke down, and so far in 1899 still one more has succumbed. 
 Fig 5 shows the appearance of one that was failing fast when she 
 
Bulletin No. 78 . 
 
 U 
 
 was killed. The seven of the original sixteen that now remain are ap- 
 parently healthy and aside from a very slight cough, show no visible 
 symptom of the disease. The photographs of some of them attest this 
 fact. In these cases the disease has persisted for nearly four years 
 to our knowledge, and probably for a period of one to two years longer. 
 
 Fig. 5. — A tuberculous cow in the later stages of the disease. Two months before this 
 picture was taken, this cow was pparently as healthy as any of the herd. 
 
 Fig. 6.— A tuberculous grade Guernsey. One of the best producers in the herd. 
 
History of a Tuberculous Herd of Coivs. 
 
 13 
 
 In these cases ihe animals now eat well, show no tendency toward wast- 
 ing away, and so far as an ordinary examination might go are ap- 
 parently sound. How long they will remain so is one of the problems 
 which we propose to solve by keeping them until they die or recover. 
 
 If it is possible to keep a reacting animal under ordinarily good condi- 
 tions for a period of several years, then it is possible to build up a 
 healthy herd on a diseased foundation. 
 
 Fig. 7.— An apparently healthy but reacting cow that has had tuberculosis about five 
 
 years . 
 
 It is noteworthy in those cases in which the disease has gained the 
 ascendency over the animal that the decline has generally been rapid 
 toward the last. The animal has maintained herself in good condition 
 until some set of causes has thrown her from a chronic latent tubercu- 
 losis into an acute stage. The intense cold of last winter hastened this 
 change in one case; in two other instances the inciting cause was evi- 
 dently the strain of calving. A fact of great practical value is that the 
 diseased condition generally remained comparatively quiescent for a 
 number of years, the resisting powers of the body being able to hold the 
 disease germ in check; then a sudden turn for the worse occurred, 
 generally as a result of some external inciting cause. 
 
 POSSIBLE DISTRIBUTION OF DISEASE BY THE HERD. 
 
 The milk of this herd of cows has been submitted to frequent exami- 
 nations in order to determine the possible presence of the disease germ, 
 but so far, we have always failed to find tubercle bacilli, although 
 generally, they have been detected in control examinations where small 
 quantities of tuberculous sputum have been added to the milk as a check 
 upon the accuracy of the methods of examination. 
 
14 
 
 Bulletin No. 78 . 
 
 Moreover, feeding experiments have also been carried out with this 
 herd to determine whether these animals were able to impart the disease 
 to others. Calves from tuberculous mothers as well as progeny from 
 non-reacting animals have been allowed to suckle several of the re- 
 acting animals; also healthy young cattle have been kept in contact 
 with the affected herd in stable and pasture to see if they would acquire 
 the disease by ingestion or inhalation. In no case, however, has the 
 disease been contracted by any animal either where cohabitation or 
 suckling was allowed. This signifies that where the disease is not 
 generalized, even though the animals may have reacted for some years 
 that the danger of propagation was but slight, and therefore, such ani- 
 mals should not be regarded as positively dangerous, but only potenti- 
 ally so, inasmuch as the disease may possibly develop to such an extent 
 as to become a source of danger to those about them. 
 
 As a precautionary measure from the standpoint of public health, the 
 milk of such animals should doubtless be treated so as to deprive it of 
 any possible infectious properties. This can readily be done by 
 pasteurizing it at a temperature ranging from 140° to 155° F. or even 
 higher, for a period of 40 minutes, or less, depending upon the heat em- 
 ployed. Such a treatment does not impair the milk for direct consump- 
 tion or for butter, although the use of the higher pasteurizing limit will 
 render it less suitable for cheese purposes. 
 
 That this method of handling tuberculosis is practical, and in many 
 cases desirable, this experience as well as that of others abund- 
 antly verifies. Certain it is, that such a method looks at the ques- 
 tion from a broader point of view than where the reacting animal is 
 immediately sacrificed, regardless of all conditions. The method of 
 eradication by immediate slaughter approaches the question from a 
 single view point; the other procedure recognizes a bad condition, but 
 instead of throwing up the whole matter, and beginning at the foun- 
 dation again, it attempts to save time and values by using the dis- 
 credited herd as a foundation on which a perfectly healthy progeny can 
 be raised. Then the original herd can be sacrificed, after its good qual- 
 ities are perpetuated in the progeny. 
 
 The one method is apt to array the owner against the health official, 
 representing the public weal; for, in the owner’s judgment, immediate 
 slaughter is hardly justifiable, unless the state stands ready to fully 
 compensate him for his loss, which policy would be repudiated by any 
 commonwealth on account of its excessive cost. The other method uni- 
 fies the two interested parties, the owner and the guardian of public 
 health, bceause it points a way to the dairyman or breeder that enables 
 him to eradicate the disease with a minimum loss while at the same 
 time, the possibility of disease dissemination by milk and meat can be 
 safely controlled. 
 
 The data Here detailed is of considerable interest on account of the 
 
History of a Tuberculous Herd of Cows. 
 
 10 
 
 length of time that has been covered and the thoroughly successful results 
 that have been reached under ordinary conditions. Their value is some- 
 what enhanced by the fact that the experiments have been carried on, 
 not under ideal conditions, but in the same environment in which the 
 disease was contracted. It shows therefore that the effect of unfavor- 
 able surroundings of the animal can be minimized, if the tubercle organ- 
 ism is positively excluded from the same. The partial failure that is 
 frequently to be noted where this method has been tried is generally 
 traceable to imperfect disinfection of barns or incomplete separation of 
 herds. 
 
 RESULTS COMPARED WITH WORK OF OTHERS. 
 
 The method here followed has come to be known as the Danish 
 method, because under the energetic leadership of Prof. Bang, the gov- 
 ernment veterinarian, it has been thoroughly tried in Denmark. Bang’s 
 numerous experiments indicate that the disease can be “weeded out” in 
 a practical manner. At tie present time the Danish law is such that 
 the government supplies the tuberculin and makes the test gratis, pro- 
 vided the owner will separate his herd on the basis of the results of the 
 test. The sale of reacting animals is prohibited except for immediate 
 slaughter, which must be done under authorized veterinary control, the 
 meat being used under certain restrictions, if not wholly condemned. 
 Owing to the extensive spread of the disease among Danish cattle, all 
 skim milk returned to the farm must be heated to a temperature that 
 will surely destroy the tubercle bacilli. Since the introduction of this 
 regulation, the percentage of the disease in calves has fallen from 15.5 
 per cent, in 1895 to 10.6 per cent, in the years 1896 to 1898. 
 
 The results of Bang’s tests were recently presented to the Congress 
 for the Study of Tuberculosis (Paris, 1898). In the case of twenty-three 
 herds here reported, none were so successfully controlled as in the 
 instance here detailed. In every herd in which he tried this method, a 
 varying number of animals were found that reacted positively to subse- 
 quent tests. These partial failures, amounting in all cases to about 12 
 per cent., he attributes to carelessness in maintaining complete separa- 
 tion of reacting from healthy herds. 
 
 This same general treatment has also been followed in Norway and 
 Sweden with good results. The Royal Commission of Great Britain ap- 
 pointed to thoroughly investigate this question recommended a similar 
 course. The opinion of students of this question is that this method 
 offers a more rational method of treatment t£an that of immediate 
 slaughter, and therefore, our laws should be so modified as to permit its 
 being used under such supervision as experience shows necessary, for 
 no one would claim that the interests of public health would be main- 
 tained unless some regulation by the state was enforced. It seems 
 highly probable, and the experience of various European countries is 
 
16 
 
 Bulletin No. 78 . 
 
 beginning to teach us the same story, that the eradication of, or holding 
 in subjection, the scourge of bovine tuberculosis can be more eco- 
 nomically and more thoroughly performed if this method is sometimes 
 used than where a compulsory tuberculin test is authorized and all re- 
 acting animals slaughtered as was attempted in Massachusetts. 
 
 WHEN SHALL THIS METHOD BE EMPLOYED? 
 
 The objection may be raised against this method that it is unwise to 
 permit animals to remain alive that may in any possible way endanger 
 public health, that the method here detailed involves too much super- 
 vision. Such a generalization in the abstract is permissible, but the 
 evidence is constantly accumulating that indicates that a reaction to 
 the tuberculin test does not necessarily mean that the affected animal is 
 dangerous at the time. No one will deny but that the possibility of 
 danger is present, that an animal affected with the disease, even in the 
 latent form, is less desirable than a perfectly healthy animal, but inas- 
 much as it is already practical to completely destroy the seeds of disease 
 in the milk by pasteurization, it would seem unnecessary to destroy 
 valuable animals that react to the test until it has been possible to 
 perpetuate their good qualities in offspring that is perfectly healthy. 
 
 This method entails considerable work, and of course some extra ex- 
 pense, and the question must be raised in each individual instance, 
 which process of eradication shall be used, for there can be no question 
 but that earnest endeavors should be made to eradicate the disease in 
 some way or other as soon as its presence is recognized. Whether all 
 reacting animals are slaughtered at once, or whether some or all are 
 separated and kept for breeding purposes, will depend upon the condi- 
 tions that surround each case. 
 
 If a tuberculin test shows a single animal or comparatively few af- 
 fected, then it is unquestionably good policy to exterminate the disease 
 by slaughter, or in any event to remove the infected animals from the 
 herd with the view of disposing of the same as soon as circumstances 
 permit. 
 
 If on the other hand a tuberculin test of a valuable herd shows the 
 disease to be present in a large number of cases, say a majority of the 
 breeding animals, then the “weeding out” of the disease can be more 
 economically done by quarantine and separation of tested progeny. 
 Animals worth hundreds of dollars can well be saved for the healthy 
 calves which can be secured from them. If after the herd has been built 
 up to the desired number, by using the diseased foundation for breeding 
 these healthy animals, then the original cows can be destroyed. They 
 have served their purpose well, if they permit their owner to perpetuate 
 their valuable qualities in healthy offspring. 
 
Wi a. Bull. No. 79. 
 
 irn^i 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 79. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 
 OF COUNTRY ROADS. 
 
 MADISON , WISCONSIN, SEPTEMBER, 1899. 
 
 &B~The Bulletins and Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, ex-officio. 
 State-at-large, JOHN JOHNSTON, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District. JOHN E. MORGAN. Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS. Shphoygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District. ORLANDO E. CLARK. Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, J. A. VAN CLEVE, Marinette. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Res'ents. 
 
 GEORGE H NOYES. President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasurer. 
 J. H. STOUT, Vice-President. | E. F. RILEY, Secretary, Madison. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS. MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 
 TH 5 PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY ...... Director 
 
 S M BABCOCK. ....... . Chief Chemist 
 
 F H. KING ... .... Physicist 
 
 E. S. GOFF, Horticulturist 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, ........ Animal Husbandry 
 
 F. W. WOLL, .......... Chemist 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON. 
 
 J. W. DECKER, 
 
 ALFRED VI VI \N, 
 
 A. R. WHITSON, 
 
 E. G. HASTINGS, 
 FREDERTC CRANEFIELD 
 A. G. HOPKINS, 
 
 R. A. MOORE, 
 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, - 
 IDA HERFURTH. 
 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, 
 
 Bacteriologist 
 Dairy Husbandry 
 Dairying 
 - Assistant Chemist 
 Assistant Physicist 
 Assistant Bacteriologist 
 - Assistant in Horticulture 
 Veterinarian 
 Assistant to Director 
 Farm Superintendent 
 - Clerk and Stenographer 
 Librarian 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, -------- Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Grade of roads 9 
 
 How the draft increases with the grade 9 
 
 The steepest grade admissible 9 
 
 Rigidity of the road bed 11 
 
 Draft with different widths of tire 11 
 
 Size of the carriage wheel 13 
 
 Distribution of load on the carriage .. 13 
 
 Heaviest load on the hind wheels 14 
 
 Establishing the grade 15 
 
 Factors to be considered in establish- 
 ing the grade 15 
 
 Road drainage 17 
 
 The relation of water to roads 17 
 
 Depth of underdrainage 19 
 
 Place for the drain 19 
 
 Fall of the drain 21 
 
 Outlet of the drain 21 
 
 Size of tile 21 
 
 Kind of tile 21 
 
 Surface drainage 22 
 
 Slope of the road surface 22 
 
 Water-breaks 22 
 
 Texture of road material 23 
 
 Roads should be built in layers 23 
 
 Uniformity of size of material used — 23 
 
 Shape of fragments 24 
 
 Cleanness of material 24 
 
 Earth roads 24 
 
 Forming the roadbed 24 
 
 Utilizing the old road as a roadbed 25 
 
 Preparing the roadbed a year or more 
 
 in advance 27 
 
 Roads on gravelly loam 27 
 
 Roads in fine clay soil 27 
 
 Clay roads surfaced with gravel 27 
 
 Sandy roads 28 
 
 The use of stone, sawdust and tan bark 
 
 on sandy roads 28 
 
 Road gravel 29 
 
 Page. 
 
 Clean white gravel not suitable 29 
 
 Texture of gravels altered by crushing 
 
 and screening 29 
 
 Some gravels contain too much clay. .. 30 
 
 Gravel roads 30 
 
 Roads in swampy places 30 
 
 Stone roads 31 
 
 Macadam roads 31 
 
 Construction of macadam roads 32 
 
 Fitting the roadbed 32 
 
 Forming the shoulders 33 
 
 Kinds of rock for the road 33 
 
 Foundation and surfacing stone may 
 
 be different 34 
 
 Sorting boulders before crushing 34 
 
 Using limestone for binding 34 
 
 Roads made without binding material 35 
 
 Use of sand for binding 35 
 
 Limestone for stone roads 37 
 
 Spreading the rock on the roadbed — 37 
 
 Thickness of layer 37 
 
 Rolling 39 
 
 Size and weight of roller 39 
 
 Amount of rolling 39 
 
 Manner of rolling 39 
 
 Kind of roller 42 
 
 Rock crushers 42 
 
 Revolving screen 42 
 
 Earth and stone road combined 43 
 
 Telford foundations 43 
 
 Maintenance of country roads 44 
 
 Section men necessary 44 
 
 Road Master 44 
 
 Width of tires controlled 44 
 
 Maintenance and repairs 45 
 
 Good maintenance 45 
 
 Maintenance of earth and gravel roads 45 
 Road supervision 46 
 
Fig. 1.— View of a section of the Menomonee model road before any work had been done upon it. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 
 OF COUNTRY ROADS. 
 
 F. H. KING. 
 
 The immediate occasion for the preparation of this bulletin was the 
 effort of our public spirited citizen, Senator J. H. Stout of Menomonee, 
 Wis., to build, at his own expense, a section of model road, in the vicin- 
 ity of his own town, which should serve as an object lesson and an 
 inspiration to the better construction and maintenance of city and 
 country roads. 
 
 As Senator Stout had decided to make so thorough an example of 
 a piece of good road, and had secured from the United States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture the services of Special Agent E. G. Harrison to 
 supervise its construction, it seemed best to supplement this effort 
 by obtaining good photographs showing important steps in the process 
 of construction and to prepare a bulletin which might bring to a 
 larger number of our citizens the results of this effort, together with 
 other information specially needed at this time. 
 
 The section of road built begins at the northwest corner of Dunn 
 County Fair grounds and extends eastward along the public highway 
 one-half mile toward the Dunn County Asylum. 
 
 The soil upon which the road was built is a sandy loam naturally 
 well drained, and Fig. 1 represents a portion of the road before any 
 work was done upon it. The plans, when fully executed, contemplate 
 leaving the road with the profile represnted in Fig. 2. 
 
 The work superintended by Mr. Harrison consisted in preparing the 
 roadbed and building' two types of stone road, each one-fourth of a 
 mile long and twelve feet wide. The west quarter of a mile was given 
 a gravel foundation which, when consolidated, was four inches thick, 
 and the east quarter of a mile a crushed rock foundation of the same 
 thickness. 
 
 The object of building the half mile of road of two types was to test 
 the value of a local gravel as a road foundation when surfaced with 
 crushed rock of good quality, for, if this proved satisfactory when 
 compared with the all stone portion over which the same traffic must 
 pass, it would cheapen the construction of good roads in that locality 
 very materially. 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 The rock used in the construction of this piece of road was shipped 
 from Chippewa Falls, where they were taken from the bed of the stream 
 in the form of granitic and trapean boulders. There were used on 
 the half mile of road 42 carloads of rock, most of which required 
 
 to be broken with hammers 
 
 before it could be received by 
 
 the No. 3 Austin crusher, 
 
 shown at work in the three 
 
 • engravings, Figs. 8, 9, 10, 
 
 ■g which, together with the 
 
 I* other machinery, was secured 
 
 8 through the United States De- 
 
 § partment of Agriculture. 
 
 .a 
 
 £ The crusher was driven by 
 'S a 22-horse power threshing 
 •2 engine, and on July 19, nine- 
 | ty-three cubic yards of rock 
 g were crushed and placed upon 
 
 o 
 
 03 the road. 
 
 03 
 
 r d It will be seen from the il- 
 
 03 
 
 g lustrations that the crusher 
 was provided with an elevator 
 g and revolving screen which 
 
 2 separated the rock into three 
 a 
 
 ® grades, depositing each in sep- 
 § arate bins from which they 
 
 <D 
 
 S could be loaded directly into 
 
 wagons as shown in the cuts. 
 
 The coarser pieces, passing 
 
 ® the end of the screen, were 
 
 g used in the foundation layer 
 a 
 
 t D as far as they would go. The 
 
 a __ 
 
 £ medium grade shown in Figs. 
 ^ 23 and 24 was used for sur- 
 
 C n 
 
 B facing and for the foundation 
 
 a 
 
 bo when needed, while the finest 
 
 03 
 
 p portion was used for binding. 
 Jj There was not fine material 
 o’ enough to fill all the voids and 
 sand was used in the founda- 
 tion layer beginning with the 
 corner of the fair grounds and 
 extending east about 600 feet. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 7 
 
 Fig. 3.— View of the west end of the Menomonee model road with the stone portion in the foreground nearly completed. 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 Fig. 4.— View of the middle section of the Menomonee model road where four inches of crushed rock for wearing surface is 
 
 being built upon four incher of road-gravel as foundation layer. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 9 
 
 It was not the original intention, however, to do this, the situation be- 
 ing accepted only to meet the emergency of insufficient fine material 
 to fill the voids in the two layers of crushed rock. This variation in the 
 all-stone road will serve to show whether, for light roads where rock 
 must be shipped for long distances, the crushed rock filling may be 
 omitted and thus save expense by using sand for binding. 
 
 The gravel used for this foundation is of a reddish brown color, and 
 a sample taken from the roadbed had the texture given below: 
 
 38.17 per cent, not passing a screen of 4 meshes per inch. 
 
 14.57 per cent, passing screen of 4 meshes but not one of 12 meshes per inch. 
 
 8.58 per cent, passing screen of 12 meshes but not one of 20 meshes per inch. 
 
 21.27 per cent, passing screen of 20 meshes but not one of 40 meshes per inch. 
 
 13:50 per cent, passing screen cu 40 meshes but not one of 100 meshes per inch. 
 
 4.01 per cent, passing screen of 100 meshes per inch. 
 
 The same or closely similar gravel was also used in the construction 
 of a section of gravel road in the city of Menomonee, on Broadway be- 
 tween Ash and West Willow streets, which will serve to demonstrate 
 the value of the same material for the construction of all-gravel roads. 
 
 GRADE OF ROADS. 
 
 A pull of 2,000 lbs. is required to lift a ton vertically, but to simply 
 move it horizontally only the friction of the carriage and the resistance 
 of the air need be overcome. The more nearly level that roads are 
 built, therefore, the heavier and the faster may loads be moved over 
 them. 
 
 HOW THE DRAFT INCREASES WITH THE GRADE. 
 
 If the roadbed rises one foot in 100 feet it is said to have a one 
 per cent, grade, and this amount of slope will increase the draft one 
 per cent, of the weight of the load over what it would be on the same 
 roadbed level. A two per cent, grade rises two feet in every 100 feet 
 and the draft is increased by it two per cent, of the load; a ten per 
 cent, grade rises ten feet in every 100 feet and will increase the draft 
 of a ton 200 lbs. over what it is on a level road of the same charac- 
 ter. The heavier the loads to be moved, therefore, the more objection- 
 able becomes any grade in the road. This is why with all railroads 
 the heavier their freight the more they overhaul their tracks and lower 
 the grade. 
 
 THE STEEPEST GRADE ADMISSIBLE. 
 
 When it is asked what is the steepest grade which should be per- 
 mitted on a given road there are many factors which must be con- 
 sidered, but the most general rule is to make the grade as small as 
 practicable on roads where horses are expected to carry all they can 
 well handle on good, nearly level roads, and the better the level part 
 
Bulletin No. 79, 
 
 10 
 
 Fig. 5.— View on the east section of the Menomonee model road where the road-bed, in the foreground, has been shaped with 
 road grader and is receiving the foundation layer of crushed rock 4 inches thick. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 11 
 
 of the road, the longer the haul and the more teams to pass over it, 
 the less steep should the grade be. On all well designed roads a great 
 effort is usually made to keep below a rise of seven feet in 100 feet. 
 
 RIGIDITY OF THE ROAD-BED. 
 
 A yielding roadbed is perhaps the most serious defect of roads, and 
 the one which increases the draft more than any other. If a wheel 
 is steadily cutting into its roadbed it is continually tending to rise 
 over an obstruction or out of a rut, or it is doing what is in effect 
 all the time passing up a grade, the hill being steeper in proportion 
 as the wheels are smaller. 
 
 When the obstruction is only four per cent, of the radius of the 
 wheel the draft is increased more than two-fold. That is to say, if 
 a wheel is 48 inches in diameter, an obstruction of four per cent, would 
 be only .96 of an inch, and yet the draft is made by it more than twice 
 as heavy. 
 
 When the wheel cuts in one inch the draft would not increase quite 
 so much because the wheel never rises quite out of the rut, but the 
 difference between the draft on the macadam and dirt road is due 
 mostly to the difference in the yielding, or cutting in of the wheels. 
 
 An experiment conducted by the United States Department of Agri- 
 culture testing the draft of ordinary wagons on steel wagon road 
 showed that a single small horse easily drew 11 tons, or 22 times the 
 weight of the animal, and it is stated in the report that the horse could 
 readily have hauled 50 times his own weight. This would be, for a 
 1,000-pound horse, 25 tons, but of course with such a load the road must 
 be practically level, for a grade of one per cent, would increase its 
 draft 500 pounds. 
 
 DRAFT WITH DIFFERENT WIDTHS OF TIRE. 
 
 Prof. J. H. Waters 1 has made an extended series of trials to test 
 the effect of the width of tires on the draft of loads under different 
 conditions of road. He used always a net load of one ton, but the 
 6-inch tired wagon was 245 pounds heavier than the 1 1-2 inch, mak- 
 ing the gross loads 3,225 and 2,980 pounds respectively, when the wag- 
 ons were free from mud. The following are his results: 
 
 On macadam streets, wide tire 26 per cent less than narrow tire. 
 
 On gravel road, wide tire 24.1 per cent, less than narrow tire. 
 
 On dirt roads, dry, smooth, free from dust, wide tire 26.8 per cent, less than 
 narrow tire. 
 
 On clay road, with mud deep and drying on top and spongy beneath, wide 
 tire 52 to 61 per cent, less than narrow tire. 
 
 On meadow, pasture, stubble, corn ground and plowed ground from dry to 
 wet, wide tire 17 to 120 per cent, less than narrow tire. 
 
 1 M1. No. 39, Missouri Agr. Exp. Station. 
 
12 
 
 Bulletin No. 79, 
 
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The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 13 
 
 On the other hand he found that when the roads were covered with 
 a deep dust, or with a thin mud but hard below, the narrow tired wagon 
 gave the lightest draft. Alsd when the mud was thick and so sticky 
 as to roll up on the wheel, loading it down, and again when narrow 
 tired wagons had made deep ruts in the road which the wide tired 
 wagon tended to fill up, the narrow wheeled wagon gave the lightest 
 draft. 
 
 SIZE OF THE CARRIAGE WHEEL. 
 
 It is plain from what has been said, that on yielding roadbeds the 
 draft must necessarily be heavier, other things being the same, the 
 smaller the wheels of the vehicle. This must be so both because small 
 wheels present less surface to the roadbed to sustain the load, and be- 
 cause when the wheel has depressed the surface it must move its load 
 up a steeper grade than the large wheel. It follows also from these 
 statements that wagons with small wheels must be more destructive 
 to the road itself, whether this be of dirt, gravel, stone or iron. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF LOAD ON THE CARRIAGE. 
 
 When there is nothing to prevent doing so, the load carried by the 
 wagon should be so distributed upon the wheels as to be divided pro- 
 portionately to the surface the wheels present to the ground, and when 
 the front wheels are smaller they should carry a smaller load. When 
 care is not exercised in this matter there is danger, especially on 
 soft roads and in the field generally, of very materially increasing the 
 labor of hauling. When the load is heaviest on one side the wheels 
 of that side are unduly depressed, thus increasing the draft. The 
 tilting of the wagon in this way throws the center of the load to one 
 side still further and to a very serious degree if the load is high, as 
 is the case in hauling hay or cordwood. 
 
 HEAVIEST LOAD ON THE HIND WHEELS. 
 
 In loading the ordinary wagon the heaviest load should be placed 
 on the hind wheels for three important reasons: First, because they 
 are larger and will not depress the roadbed so much and will draw 
 easier if they do; second, when the wheels track, the front wheels 
 make a road, by firming the ground, over which the balance of the 
 load may be more easily drawn; third, when the axle of the front 
 wheel is free to be turned, as in the common wagon, the slight inequal- 
 ities of the roadbed tend all the time to keep the tongue vibrating, so 
 that there is a strong tendency, by this to and fro swinging, to cause 
 the front wheels to cut more deeply into the ground and thus increase 
 the draft. On a very rigid roadbed this matter is not as important 
 as in doing field work, but the differences are large enough on earth 
 roads so that they should never be overlooked. 
 
14 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 Fig. 7. — View on the Menomonee model road showing horse roller at work compacting the road metal. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 15 
 
 In the following table some observed differences are recorded: 
 
 
 Drv sheep 
 pasture. 
 
 Dry 
 
 meadow. 
 
 Load equally on four wheels 
 
 Lbs. per ton. 
 
 110.4 
 
 120.0 
 
 129.3 
 
 101.8 
 
 Lbs. per ton. 
 
 174.0 
 
 187.5 
 
 229.9 
 
 190.9 
 
 Load heaviest on one side 
 
 Load heaviest on front wheels 
 
 Load heaviest on hind wheels 
 
 
 These statements may appear to contradict the common practice of 
 hauling logs butt end forward and the general tendency of placing 
 the heaviest portion of the load forward. The conditions, however, are 
 quite different from those where there is a real advantage in placing 
 the heaviest load forward. 
 
 Having outlined the principles underlying the draft of wagons on 
 roads the next consideration should be how to make and maintain the 
 road for the given locality which, everything considered, is the most 
 economical. 
 
 ESTABLISHING THE GRADE. 
 
 For ordinary country roads the roadbed will generally conform with 
 the natural slope of the surface over which it passes; steep hills, how- 
 ever, should, if possible, always be avoided either by turning to one 
 side or by grading and filling. 
 
 Where the hills are short and steep they may usually be graded 
 down to better advantage than to pass around them, but when the hill 
 is both long and high then it may be best to reduce the grade by pass- 
 ing obliquely up the hill. 
 
 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN ESTABLISHING THE GRADE. 
 
 There are many factors which must be considered in deciding the 
 particular grade a road over a given hill may be permitted to have. If 
 the road for the main travel is generally excellent and level, with a 
 good deal of traffic over it, then it is important to keep the grade as 
 low as practicable. Where the country is generally rolling, so that 
 there are many hills which must in any event have a high grade, it 
 will not be as important to cut other hills down as much as a more 
 level country could warrant. 
 
 The better the more level portions of the road are where heavy 
 teaming is done the more important it is to reduce the grade to a 
 low per cent., because it is important to be able to go over any hill 
 readily which can be approached with the largest load the team is 
 able to handle without injury to itself. The great importance of this 
 
16 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 Fig. 8.— View of No. 3 Austin Crusher, with revolving screen breaking boulders for Menomonee model 
 road; and wagon loading coarsest grade of broken stone. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads . IT 
 
 point will be readily understood when it is stated that the steepest 
 grade admissible on an average macadam road is 10.5 per cent., and on 
 a dirt road in good condition 16 per cent. But as these grades will tax 
 the team to its utmost the hills should not be permitted to rise if prac- 
 ticable faster than 4 feet in 100 feet for the ordinary macadam and 6.2 
 feet in 100 feet for the earth road in good condition. 
 
 In thinly settled sections people must be content to improve the 
 roads gradually, but if the end finally to be reached is kept in mind 
 all the time it will usually be possible to make each year’s work count 
 as permanent improvement and avoid tearing down one year the work 
 of the years preceding. 
 
 ROAD DRAINAGE. 
 
 The keeping of the road dry, both above and below, is the most 
 fundamental necessity of a good permanent highway. Fill any soil, 
 however hard and firm, completely with water, and a child walking 
 over it will mire; and to completely drain and dry any soft and marshy 
 place will leave it so that heavy loads may be moved across it readily 
 and safely. Drainage is one of the first requisites of a good road. 
 
 In some places only surface drainage requires attention. Where 
 the surface is more or less rolling and underlaid with coarse porous 
 materials, so that standing water in the ground does not occur within 
 10 to 20 feet of the surface, unaer drainage will not be necessary; but 
 wherever the adjacent fields would be improved by drainage, wherever 
 the ground is springy, and wherever the ground water at any season 
 of the year rises to within three or four feet of the surface there the 
 roadbdd should be drained. 
 
 In humid climates provisions should be made to surface drain every 
 road. 
 
 THE RELATION OF WATER TO ROADS. 
 
 When a soil is completely filled with water the individual soil grains 
 are invested by water and tend to float in it so that there is the great- 
 est freedom of motion of the particles. On the other hand let all 
 water be removed from the soil and the ground, while hard, easily 
 frets into fine, loose, separate dust particles, which not only increase 
 the draft but are easily drifted away by the wind, thus injuring the 
 road much as it would be were the top washed away by running 
 water. 
 
 There is a medium condition or amount of water in jthe soil which 
 gives it power to withstand the eroding tendency of the tramp of 
 the horses’ feet and the rolling of the wheels. When sand is just wet 
 enough its surface is hard and will carry a heavy load, the grains 
 being bound together by the surface tension of the water films. So, 
 too, with the clay roads and those of the best of loam, the right amount 
 of water always present, so as to keep the surface damp and dark 
 without making them soft, greatly improves the quality and lengthens 
 2 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No: 79, 
 
 Fig, 9.— View of engine and crusher breaking rock, and wagon loading surfacing grade for Menomonee model road. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 19 
 
 their life. So valuable is the right amount of water on earth roads 
 that sprinkling them in arid and semi-arid climates and in dry times in 
 humid climates, is one of the most effective means of maintenance. 
 
 DEPTH OF UNDER DRAINAGE. 
 
 Where under drainage is needed the drain should not be less than 
 three to four feet deep, and this is especially true if heavy traffic Is 
 to be maintained over it. 
 
 No one thinks of walking on the yielding surface of the water of 
 a lake or stream, but let it be covered with a sufficiently thick layer 
 of ice and it then makes the best kind of a roadbed. The drained 
 ground beneath the road surface must be sufficiently thick to float on 
 the soft soil beneath any load which may be driven along it, just as 
 the ice floats its burden. 
 
 PLACE FOR THE DRAIN. 
 
 In the narrow roads of eight to sixteen feet, where the water to be 
 removed is that which may be raised by hydrostatic pressure vertically 
 upward beneath the roadbed, the best place for the drain is directly 
 beneath the center of the drive-way, as represented in Fig. 11. 
 
 Fig. 11.— Showing method of under-draining a narrow road. (After Spalding.) 
 
 Where the main source of the water causing the trouble is an under- 
 flow through sands and gravels from adjacent higher lands then the 
 drain should be placed upon the side of the road from which the water 
 comes, as represented in Fig. 12. 
 
 Fig. 12.— Showing method of under-draining for a road on a side hill where the 
 underflow is from the hill side. (After Spalding.) 
 
 Where the ground is marshy on all sides, and particularly if the 
 road is wide, it may then be necessary to lay two lines of tile, one 
 on each side, as represented in Fig. 13. 
 
 Fig. 13.— Showing method of under-draining a broad roadbed in a wet place. 
 
 (After Spalding.) 
 
 If springy places occur under or near the roadbed drains must be 
 connected with the spring itself. 
 
20 
 
 Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 Fig. lO.-Side view of No. 3 Austin Crusher and wagon loading screenings for the Menomonee model road. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads* 21 
 
 FALL OF THE DRAIN". 
 
 The fall of the drain will usually conform somewhat nearly to the 
 grade of the roadbed, but should not be less than two inches in 100 
 feet, if this can be secured. It will, however, be necessary sometimes 
 to lay the drain on a slopq less than this, even as low as 1-2 an inch 
 in 100 feet. In all cases care should be exercised to lay the tile on 
 a true grade, not allowing them to drop anywhere below or rise above 
 a rigidly maintained grade line. If they are not laid in this man- 
 ner waiter will stand in the sags and behind the bends, and in these 
 places the tile may become filled with silt. 
 
 It may sometimes occur that the road is so nearly level that there 
 is no fall for the drain. In such cases it may be necessary to lay 
 the beginning end of the drain nearer the surface of the ground by 
 as much as six or even twelve inches. In this way could be given a 
 fall of one inch in 100 feet over a distance of 1,200 feet, but of course 
 the upper portion of the road could not be as well drained and the 
 plan should be followed only where there is no other alternative. 
 
 OUTLET OF THE DRAIN. 
 
 The drain should be turned out to the side of the road whenever 
 there is an opportunity for doing so, that is, whenever there is a natural 
 line of drainage leading across the road which will answer for the 
 purpose. The free end of the drain is best made of one length of 
 cast iron sewer pipe eight feet long, because this will not be injured 
 by freezing nor be easily broken. There should be a free fall at the 
 end of the tile and it is better that the opening should be protected 
 by some sort of metal grating or screen to prevent animals from run- 
 ning in in dry times. 
 
 SIZE OF TILE. 
 
 Tile three inches in diameter is the best to use for the reason that, 
 in case the grade is very small, slight errors in laying the line can- 
 not carry the entire opening of the tile above or below the grade line 
 and hence permit the drain to be entirely closed by silt. 
 
 KIND OF TILE. 
 
 Where the tile can be laid two feet or more below the surface of 
 the road ordinary drain tile which are well burned, straight, smooth 
 inside and having the ends cut squarely off so that they may fit closely 
 together are best. Great care should be taken in placing the tile to 
 turn them until the ends fit very closely all the way around, and then 
 to fix them rigidly there. This care is needed in order to prevent 
 silt from being washed in at the joints. 
 
 Where the tile must come less than two feet below the surface it 
 will be safer either to use the vitrified drain tile or else second qual- 
 ity sewer tile no't likely to be disintegrated by frost. 
 
22 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 SURFACE DRAINAGE. 
 
 The quick removal of water from the surface of a road and the 
 prevention of seepage down through the roadbed are the most impor- 
 tant points to be secured in the matter of maintenance. The surface 
 of every road, therefore, should be so shaped as to act like a roof in 
 throwing all rains quickly and completely off, permitting only a little 
 moisture to be drawn downward by capillary action to moisten the 
 material and lessen the formation of dust. If the compacted mate- 
 rial of the road and the roadbed beneath it can be kept with only a 
 small per cent, of capillary water in them the danger of injury from 
 frost is greatly lessened and the liability to soften during wet periods 
 is also largely removed. 
 
 Water should under no conditions be permitted to stand either upon 
 the surface nor along the side of the road, the shape being sufficiently 
 rounded to throw the rains quickly to either side, and the surface 
 ditches deep enough, clean enough and possessing sufficient capacity 
 to carry all water rapidly away. 
 
 SLOPE OF THE ROAD SURFACE. 
 
 In order to have quick, complete surface drainage it is necessary 
 to so arch the face as to make a road twelve feet wide three inches 
 higher in the center than at either margin, a slope of about four per 
 cent, or four inches in 100 inches. But if the road has itself a con- 
 siderable grade, then the slope must be made enough greater than four 
 per cent, to force the water to the side ditches rather than to permit 
 it to flow down the center of the road. But evenness or smoothness 
 of surface is the most important condition to be secured and main- 
 tained in order to afford perfect drainage. If the road surface is left 
 uneven, or is permitted to become so, no amount of slope which can 
 be tolerated will secure the drainage. 
 
 The road must not be made too rounding or sloping for the reason 
 that then teams all drive in one place on the surface and wear it into 
 ruts and this prevents drainage. 
 
 WATER-BREAKS. 
 
 On steep grades where the hill is long it is a common practice to 
 throw a ridge obliquely across the road at intervals to turn the water 
 to the side. This is a bad practice and should be avoided wherever 
 possible, and in all but the steepest grades this may be done by mak- 
 ing the slope of the road higher than the grade. 
 
 If the water cannot be turned off in this way it is better to make 
 two paved gutters meeting V-shaped in the center of the road with 
 the point up the grade. The paving will prevent washing and mak- 
 ing the gutters meet in the center does not tip the wagon in passing 
 across them. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 23 
 
 Whenever it becomes necessary to carry water across a road on a 
 hill from one gutter to the other it is much better to carry it under 
 the road than above it, as is so often done with the aid of water-brakes. 
 A culvert is of course necessary but it should be used. 
 
 TEXTURE OF ROAD MATERIAL. 
 
 Closeness of texture is necessary to the building of a solid road. 
 The more completely all pores can be obliterated and the road given 
 the close texture of iron the better and more durable will it be. 
 
 Field soil in its natural condition may have from 30 to 50 per cent, 
 of space unoccupied by anything but water and air, and in this con- 
 dition it cannot form a good road. It is too yielding to pressure and 
 water percolates through it too rapidly. When it is properly rolled 
 and tamped the pore space is very greatly reduced, giving it so close 
 a texture that water does not enter it readily, and so large a portion 
 of the grains are in actual contact that it approaches the character 
 of a rock. Of whatever material a road is built it should be of such 
 a character as to permit the parts to pack so closely as to approach 
 the character of solid rock. * 
 
 ROADS SHOULD BE BUILT IN LAYERS. 
 
 Whether a road is to be built of crushed rock or earth it is indis- 
 pensable that the materials used shall be put on in layers. The thick- 
 ness of the layers will depend primarily upon the size of the pieces 
 of material used, the layers being thicker the coarser the material. 
 With crushed rock having pieces 2 to 2 1-2 inches in diameter the 
 layers will need to be 3 to 4 inches thick; with smaller pieces the 
 layers should be thinner. If thicker layers than these are made the 
 effect will be the formation of a crust of closely packed material, a 
 little thicker than the diameter of the material used, over a loose and 
 open structure below. 
 
 The hardest and best earth road can be built only by spreading the 
 material on very uniformly in thin layers and thoroughly compacting 
 each layer before the next is put in place; the thickness of these lay- 
 ers should be 2 inches and less, rather than more. 
 
 UNIFORMITY OF SIZE OF MATERIAL USED. 
 
 It is impossible to crush rock into sizes varying all the way from 
 fine dust to pieces 1.5 inches in diameter and then use this material un- 
 sorted to make a solid, unyielding road. The materials when laid down 
 at once with all sizes mixed will not pack so as not to work up loose 
 with the travel upon it; and this is the main reason why more solid 
 roads cannot be built from earth. 
 
 Crushed rock must be carefully separated into nearly uniform sizes 
 by means of screens and the different grades applied to the road in 
 layers. 
 
24 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 When a layer is made of only a single size of pieces these may be 
 brought together by packing so that all touch and press firmly against 
 one another. If now a grade is used of smaller pieces such as will 
 work readily into the pores left between the angles of the larger ones, 
 pressing hard upon all sides, a still more stable layer will be formed. 
 If it were practicable to follow this method step by step there would 
 be reproduced a nearly solid rock from the fragments made and the 
 most substantial of roads built. 
 
 SHAPE OF FRAGMENTS. 
 
 The shape of the materials used in road building has important 
 bearings on the quality of the road. The best form is that which ap- 
 proaches most closely to the cube with broad, flat faces, sharp angles 
 and having the same diameter in three directions. Fragments of this 
 form pack most readily and, as the broad, flat faces set against each 
 other, the fragments do not so readily turn under the wheel or horses* 
 feet and withstand a heavier load without crushing. 
 
 Where sands and gravels are used in road building those of glacial 
 origin which are much sharper and more angular than water worn 
 types are much to be preferred, for the simple reason that when packed 
 together they give a more rigid body and stronger binding. Beach 
 gravels and sands cannot be held rigidly by any ordinary cementing 
 material because, with the round, smooth surfaces, there is little op- 
 portunity for any locking. 
 
 CLEANNESS OF MATERIAL. 
 
 Where crushed rock is used in the building of roads it is important 
 that these materials be clean and free from dirt, clay and rubbish of 
 any sort. So with gravel or sand, when these are called for they 
 should be clean. In general, anything which works against uniformity 
 of material should be avoided. 
 
 EARTH ROADS. 
 
 In the country in most parts of the United States the greatest num- 
 ber of miles of travel for a long time to come must be made over earth 
 roads. It is therefore of great importance that they should be built 
 in the best possible manner. The proper construction of earth roads 
 is made the more important through the fact that when well built 
 and well maintained there is no road easier on the team, the carriage 
 or the parties riding, where speed is an important consideration, than 
 an earth road. 
 
 FORMING THE ROADBED. 
 
 After the grade has been established and under-drainage provided 
 where necessary, all organic material and stone should be cleared out 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 25 
 
 of the way and the road given the form and width desired by a road 
 machine such as represented in Figs. 15 and 16, or by other means. 
 
 The road itself should have a width of 16 or 18 feet bordered on 
 either side by a strip of grass three feet wide, outside of which should 
 be the surface drains, where needed, five feet wide at the top, two feet 
 at the bottom and 24 inches deep, making a total width of 32 or 34 feet 
 as represented in Fig. 14. 
 
 Fig. 14.— Showing cross-section of an earth road 18 feet wide; bordered on each 
 side with 3 feet of grass, outside of whiqh are placed the surface drains 
 when needed. The center of the road is three inches higher than the sides 
 at the grass. 
 
 The- center of the roadbed should be thoroughly rolled with as heavy 
 a roller as practicable in order to compact it and to discover in it any 
 soft places. If soft places are found these should be filled and brought 
 to the proper level. If the soft place is due to a different kind of ma- 
 terial this should be removed and replaced by other and better. 
 
 The center of the finished road should be two to six inches higher 
 than the margins at the grass border, varying with the width of the 
 track, in order to give quick, complete surface drainage, and this should 
 be built up in thin successive layers of as uniform material as possible. 
 If earth is brought in from the sides and ditches great care should be 
 exercised in distributing it evenly, and thoroughly harrowing it ahead 
 of the roller, so as to secure the necessary uniformity of texture. This 
 is of the utmost importance in order to prevent the formation of ruts. 
 Thorough rolling should follow the addition of each layer of material 
 and should be kept up until a hard, even surface has been secured. 
 
 In making earth roads it is particularly important not to make them 
 wider than necessary because the narrow road is always more quickly 
 and better drained and lack of drainage more than anything else will 
 destroy the earth road. 
 
 If the soil contains cobble stones everything larger than one inch in 
 diameter should be thrown out, otherwise they will form ruts. 
 
 If, in establishing the necessary grades on the earth roads, fills must 
 be made, this filling should be done systematically, distributing the 
 earth in uniform layers which are thoroughly firmed with the roller 
 as the work progresses. 
 
 UTILIZING THE OLD ROAD AS A ROADBED. 
 
 In cases where the grade does not require changing and where 
 natural under-drainage is adequate the old roadbed may be utilized 
 in its already tramped and packed condition upon which to build the 
 new road. This may be fitted with the road machine by throwing the 
 
26 
 
 Bulletin No. 7 9 
 
 
 Figs. 15, 16.— Views of one type of road machine, Champion road grader. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 27 
 
 loose and uneven portion of the surface outward to form the shoulders. 
 Then if there are still low places these should be filled in and thor- 
 oughly packed with the roller, the use of which is necessary even 
 where no leveling is needed, in order to discover any soft spots, quite 
 certain to exist, and in order to give the foundation a more thorough 
 packing than the wagons have secured. 
 
 PREPARING- THE ROADBED A YEAR OR MORE IN ADVANCE. 
 
 It will generally be found advantageous 10 get the roadbed into 
 proper shape to receive the surfacing material, whether this be gravel 
 or crushed rock, a year or more in advance, utilizing the weathering 
 of rains, the frost of winter and the traffic to settle the roadbed, but 
 directing and assisting these agencies by a timely and judicious use 
 of the harrow, road machine and roller. It is particularly important 
 to allow time to intervene where there has been much filling neces- 
 sary. 
 
 ROADS ON GRAVELLY LOAM. 
 
 Where the soils are a gravelly loam the best earth roads are pos- 
 sible. The reason for this is found in the fact that a gravelly loam 
 is made up of large and small grains in such proportions that when 
 they are thoroughly worked and compacted the coarser sand particles 
 work in between the gravel, and the fine clay particles between those 
 of sand, in such a way that there is left almost no open space; un- 
 der these conditions the water is shed the most rapidly and completely 
 so that the road is less liable to soften under the travel over it and 
 it is less liable to be injured by frost. 
 
 ROADS IN FINE CLAY SOIL. 
 
 Where the soil is a fine adhesive clay it is hardly possible to make 
 a good road without the aid of foreign material. Of course by grading 
 it into proper form so as to secure the needed drainage the road will 
 be good when it is not wet, and under these conditions it will remain 
 fair much longer than if not so prepared because, when this soil has 
 been once thoroughly compacted and dry, water enters it very slowly, 
 so that it is only during long wet spells and when the frost is going 
 out that the most serious injury to the road comes. 
 
 CLAY ROADS SURFACED WITH GRAVEL. 
 
 Where gravel of suitable quality is available a covering of three 
 or four inches, thoroughly rolled and packed, will very greatly im- 
 prove the surface of a clay road, preventing it from softening so read- 
 ily with every rain and with the action of frost. Even sand and good 
 loam, where nothing better is available, will improve the quality. 
 
 In some cases burning the clay has been practiced so as to render it 
 
28 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 less plastic and sticky, but this practice will be one of the last to 
 be resorted to at this time of cheap transportation and high price of 
 fuel. 
 
 SANDY ROADS. 
 
 The making of good roads in a country of very sandy soil is ex- 
 tremely difficult on account of the nearly complete absence of bind- 
 ing properties in the sand when dry. If there were any cheap method 
 of keeping the surface wet sand would make an excellent road. Even 
 the rounded grains of beach sand for a short time after the waves 
 have withdrawn are so tightly bonded that a horse may canter along 
 the beach, making but little impression upon it. The water, how- 
 ever, drains away so rapidly from the coarse clean rounded grains that 
 there is no longer anything to bind them together, and the foot or 
 wheel easily sets them aside. When, however, there are a sufficient 
 number of much finer particles commingled with the coarse sand 
 grains a loam is the result whose water holding power is increased 
 so that for a longer time the grains are bonded together by it, en- 
 abling the loam to form the better road. On the other hand, the 
 amount of water may be too great to permit it to act as a binding ma- 
 terial and as the water-holding power of the clays is greater than the 
 loams, they more quickly come into the condition of over saturation 
 during long rains and so the loam which is intermediate between the 
 two extremes makes the best earth road, sand tending most of the time 
 to retain too little water and the clay retaining too much for tight 
 binding. 
 
 With this principle to direct practice it is clear that if the right 
 amount of finer soil particles can be obtained to incorporate with the 
 sand of sandy roads their firmness will be increased. It is unfortu- 
 nately too often true that in districts where sandy roads prevail there 
 is no clayey or loamy material available, either to incorporate with the 
 sand or to place above it. 
 
 THE USE OF STRAW, SAWDUST AND TAN BARK ON SANDY ROADS. 
 
 It is well known that these materials when applied to sandy roads 
 have temporarily a beneficial effect. The fundamental principle un- 
 derlying this improvement is that stated in the last paragraph; that 
 is, in the power they have of maintaining a higher per cent, of water 
 in the sand, which is necessary in order to bind the grains together. 
 The sawdust, tan bark and straw act in two ways to maintain the 
 needed amount of water in the sand. At first they act as a mulch, 
 lessening the rate of evaporation from the surface. Later, when they 
 begin to disintegrate, they form a humus-like material, in its physical 
 effects, which increases the capillary power and diminishes the rate of 
 percolation downward after rains. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 29 
 
 The reason why these materials are only temporary in their effect 
 is because they rapidly decay, being converted into soluble salts and 
 gaseous products which finally leave the sand as if nothing had been 
 added. 
 
 ROAD GRAVEL. 
 
 It occasionally happens that natural gravel beds are found which 
 possess the right characteristics for making roads, and when the 
 gravel is just right excellent roads may be made from it. 
 
 There are several important features which a good road gravel must 
 possess: 
 
 1. There must be one prevailing size of pebble in sufficient quantity 
 so that when thoroughly rolled they press against one another. 
 
 2. There must be enough of the finer sizes of coarse sand and fine 
 gravel to fill the voids between the coarser gravel. 
 
 3. There must be enough of fine loam to fill the voids between the 
 eoarse sand and fine gravel and retain a sufficient amount of water 
 to bind the sand grains together and prevent their rolling. 
 
 4. The course and fine gravel and the sand must be made up of more 
 •or less angular fragments in order that flat faces of rock may set to- 
 gether and thus lessen the danger of rolling and of crushing under the 
 weight of the load. 
 
 It is not possible to give specific, concise directions for identifying a 
 good road gravel, but a man who has seen and worked with it readily 
 recognizes it. 
 
 CLEAN WHITE GRAVEL NOT SUITABLE. 
 
 It will be apparent at once that the several characteristics which have 
 been pointed out are not likely often to occur together in just the 
 right ratios; and so there will be all possible gradations from the ideal 
 gravels to those which will not answer at all. Indeed it must be said 
 that most gravel beds have had the finer materials so completely 
 washed out that only clean sand and gravel remains; and when this 
 is true it is useless to try to make a road with it. Such materials can 
 •only be used to temper a road which is too clayey in its texture by re- 
 ducing its water capacity. 
 
 TEXTURE OF GRAVELS ALTERED BY CRUSHING AND SCREENING. 
 
 It happens in the majority of cases that much of the gravel is too 
 large and too rounded to permit close packing and fast binding. When 
 this is true much better qualities may be secured by using either the 
 crusher or the screen or both together. It will be at once apparent 
 that where much of the gavel is too coarse, to run it through the 
 crusher so as to reduce the material to a more uniform size and at the 
 same time to increase the angularity of the fragments will make a 
 much better road material to use either by itself, to build a road of 
 or as a tempering material. 
 
30 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 SOME GRAVELS CONTAIN TOO MUCH CLAY. 
 
 There are many deposits of gravelly clay which it might appear 
 would make a good road material, but the principle must be kept al- 
 ways in mind that too much of a too fine material will take in and 
 retain so much water that the binding quality of the water is lost. 
 These gravelly clays occur in many of the hills of the glaciated por- 
 tions of the United States and through which roads are often cut. 
 
 GRAVEL ROADS. 
 
 In the construction of a gravel road, as in that of a stone road,, 
 it is of prime importance to secure first of all a properly shaped and. 
 thoroughly rolled and firmed roadbed before any gravel is laid on. 
 When this has been done, and a suitable gravel has been found, the 
 next step is to spread evenly over the surface and thoroughly roll a. 
 layer which, when finished, will measure three inches thick. 
 
 In the rolling it will be important to firm the outer edges of the 
 gravel first in order that the rolling may not force it outward and 
 destroy the slope. Should the gravel be too dry to pack it must be 
 moistened or the work be suspended to take advantage of the rains. 
 
 To make a good road there should be not less than three 3-inch, 
 layers, and usually four will be better. Of course a road 6 inches 
 thick will be a great improvement, and often where the travel is light 
 and the roadbed thoroughly made three inches of good gravel, well’ 
 placed, will make a great improvement in the road, serving as a wear- 
 ing surface. 
 
 Where the gravel must be crushed and screened to secure the proper" 
 sizes the revolving screen represented in Figs. 8 and 25 should be used 
 and should have two sizes of holes iy 2 to 2-inch and % inch in diame- 
 ter. The coarser size of gravel will form the body of the road while 
 the finer will have to be discarded unless it happens to be of the right 
 quality to use as a binding material or in making a bicycle path along, 
 one side of the road. 
 
 ROADS IN SWAMPY PLACES. 
 
 It occasionally happens that roads must be built in places which.! 
 cannot be drained and which are too soft to permit of the construction 
 of a solid earth foundation. A common way to meet this type of con- 
 ditions is to lay a foundation of logs, poles or even brush, having the 
 desired width of the road and of sufficient body to enable an earth 
 or gravel road to be built upon it. When such roads are built in sit- 
 uations where the wood is kept constantly beneath the water it does 
 not decay and a road of considerable permanence and solidity is se- 
 cured. 
 
 Where logs are used care is taken to arrange them at right angles- 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Hoads. 31 
 
 to the direction of the road, parallel with one another and like sizes 
 side by side. The depressions between the logs are filled with smaller 
 logs or poles, whole or split, while these in turn may be covered with 
 twigs and limbs forming a mat upon which the earth or gravel road 
 is built. Upon this mat of wood is usually first thrown the material 
 taken from ditches on either side made for drainage building the 
 earth or gravel road upon this after it has first been well spread and 
 firmed. 
 
 STONE ROADS. 
 
 Stone roads of one form or another date back to and possibly be- 
 yond Roman times; and Figs. 17, 18, and 19 represent three types of 
 the extremely massive and substantial roads which were built ten to 
 fifteen centuries ago, some of which still survive. These roads had 
 a width of 30 feet and pavements of heavy stone at the bottom and 
 often one or more layers of stone bedded in cement to make the road 
 water proof. One type of construction which they followed made the 
 road consist of four layers: 
 
 1. Two or three courses of flat stone or, if these were not obtainable, 
 of other stone, generally laid in mortar. 
 
 2. A layer of rubble masonry or coarse concrete. 
 
 3. A finer concrete upon which was laid 
 
 4. A layer of paving blocks jointed with the greatest nicety. 
 
 It is stated that with many of the great roads the paved portion had 
 a width of 16 feet bordered by raised stone causeways outside of which 
 on each side were unpaved side-ways each eight feet wide, and the 
 paved way sometimes had an aggregate thickness of three feet. 
 
 MACADAM ROADS. 
 
 The use of crushed rock in road building is at least as old as Roman 
 history; but as, during the dark ages, little road building of a per- 
 manent character was practiced, the art had to be revived in modern 
 times and about 1764 the French engineer Tresaguet appears to have 
 introduced in France the type of road represented in Fig. 20, consist- 
 ing of a stone pavement covered with two or three inches of crushed 
 rock as a facing material. After being introduced into England and 
 Scotland, where the details were modified and perfected by Telford 
 about 1820, this type of stone construction came to be known as the 
 Telford road. 
 
 Macadam’s work began somewhat earlier than Telford’s in 1816, and 
 to him apparently is due the idea that when any roadbed is thor- 
 oughly under drained, so as to remain permanently hard, then crushed 
 stone alone may be used, the pavement of Roman practice becoming 
 unnecessary. 
 
32 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 Figs. 17, 18, 19. — Three types of Ancient Roman stone roads. (After Shaler.) 
 
 Fig. 20.— Type of road introduced into France by Tresaquet about 1764. 
 
 (After Shaler.) 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF MACADAM ROADS. 
 
 After the foundation for the stone road has been completed the 
 border is left with a shoulder of earth on each side as represented in 
 Fig. 5, between which the roadbed is covered with a layer of crushed 
 rock as nearly one size as possible and three or four inches thick. This 
 layer is next thoroughly rolled and then covered with enough of finely 
 crushed rock to fill the voids between the larger fragments. This ma- 
 terial is worked in with the roller and water until a solid bed has been 
 formed. 
 
 After the first layer has been placed the second is applied in the 
 same manner, rolled, and the binding material applied and again rolled, 
 until thorough consolidation has been secured. 
 
 FITTING- THE ROAD BED. 
 
 It is of the utmost importance to have a thoroughly firmed and 
 seasoned roadbed put into proper form and well drained before the 
 stone surface is to be applied and to do this most economically it is 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 33 
 
 well to do all of this preliminary work a year or more ahead so that 
 traffic, rains and frosts shall have an opportunity to do the work of 
 consolidation, and to discover the soft places which may exist. In 
 short, the formation of a good earth road to be used for a number of 
 years as such will generally be found the best and most economical 
 preparation for the stone road. 
 
 FORMING THE SHOULDERS. 
 
 The formation of the shoulders represented in the foreground of 
 Fig. 5 is best done with a road grader or road machine. With this 
 tool the surface of the roadbed is prepared at the same time and the 
 shoulders left in such shape that very little hand labor will be re- 
 quired for the finisihng touches. After the shoulders have been 
 roughly formed and before the finishing touches are given the roller 
 should go over the roadbed to make sure that it is properly firmed 
 and that there are no soft places. 
 
 KINDS OF ROCK FOR THE ROAD. 
 
 Practical experience has demonstrated that the best rocks for road 
 making are the dark green, black and dark gray trap or igneous rock 
 such as are known in common language as “nigger heads” in glaciated 
 countries where large boulders are common in the fields and cuts of 
 roads. They are tough, fine grained rock, much less brittle than most 
 others, which yield when grinding upon themselves and under the 
 wheel a fine rock flour whose texture is such that it holds the needed 
 amount of moisture to make it bind together well, and consequently 
 a road built from these fragments sets sooner than almost any other 
 crystalline rock and hence is subject to less internal wear. In Wis- 
 consin there are natural ledges or outcrops of this type of rock at 
 various places from St. Croix Falls on the southwest extending in a 
 northeasterly direction through Minong and Cabal and on across the 
 Michigan boundary up into the Kewaunee peninsula. 
 
 Next to the trap rock in value for road building purposes stand the 
 closer grainer hornblend-bearing syenites and gneisses which are spe- 
 cies of granite where hornblend takes the place of mica of the true 
 granites. It is the class of dark minerals allied to hornblend compos- 
 ing much of the trap rock referred to above which makes that the best 
 road stone. 
 
 Next in order stand the true granites made up of quartz, feldspar and 
 mica, and their gneissoid varieties. The best of this class of rocks are 
 the close fine-grained varieties having the least tendency to break into 
 thin layers, giving flat instead of cubical blocks. 
 
 To the granites and syenites with their banded or gneissoid varie- 
 ties belong the lighter colored and flesh colored boulders which are 
 usually associated with the “nigger heads” of glacial drift. 
 
 3 
 
34 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 The chief difficulty with syenites and granites for road metal is their 
 brittle, unyielding quality and coarse crystalline structure which makes- 
 them grind and pound up into a coarse sand without a sufficient 
 amount of the finest dust to give it the needed water-holding power 
 to permit it to properly bind the pieces together. The roadbed fails 
 to set quickly and the internal wear is larger while there is a greater 
 tendency for ruts to form in wet weather and for the surface to ravel 
 or throw out loose pieces in a dry time. 
 
 Next to the syenites and granites in general availability for road 
 metal stand the close grained hard limestones which break into 
 hard, clean blocks and fragments with sharp edges and little material 
 which will rub off under the fingers. Any rock which crushes readily 
 into an earth-like or sandy material will not answer for road work. 
 
 When a good road limestone wears down under the wheels, the 
 horses’ feet or the roller, a loam-like powder is formed which holds 
 the right amount of water for good binding, and besides this it ap- 
 pears more quickly to pass into that cementing stage which in nature 
 cements beds of loose fragments into rock. 
 
 The chief objection to limestone as a road metal is its softness, 
 which permits it to wear away rapidly, leaving the surface dusty in 
 dry and muddy in wet weather. 
 
 The extremely hard and brittle quartzite which throws off angular 
 bits under the blows of horses’ feet and the rolling of wheels make 
 one of the poorest road materials because it too nearly possesses glass- 
 like brittleness and the dust is too coarse and sand-like to hold the 
 needed water for binding. 
 
 FOUNDATION AND SURFACING STONE MAY BE DIFFERENT. 
 
 Where there is in the locality a rock which does not make a good 
 wearing surface but which binds well, like limestone, this may be used 
 to advantage for the foundation of country roads, thus making it neces- 
 sary to import only the wearing surface layer. 
 
 SORTING BOULDERS BEFORE CRUSHING. 
 
 In localities where there are many boulders available for road work 
 it will often be practicable to sort these when hauling them to the 
 crusher in such manner as to use the lighter colored varieties for the 
 foundation, reserving all of the “nigger heads” for the surface layer, 
 and in this way increase the efficiency of the material. 
 
 USING LIMESTONE FOR BINDING. 
 
 Where only granitic rock and quartzite are available for road work 
 and these do not bind well, it will often happen that the limestone of 
 the locality may be crushed fine to form screenings and used to great 
 advantage as a binding material to hold the harder rocks more se- 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 35 
 
 curely in place. This practice would be especially desirable for the 
 foundation layer where it could not be converted into dust. But in 
 localities where both limestone and the harder rock are available, 
 but where the limestone can be obtained at much the less cost, this 
 may be used alone for the foundation and as a binding material for 
 the surface layer. 
 
 ROADS MADE WITHOUT BINDING MATERIAL. 
 
 It was Macadam’s practice in road building to strictly forbid the use 
 of all binding material whatsoever. He preferred to wait for the gen- 
 eral traffic over the road to develop from the wear of the crushed, 
 stone, both superficial and internal, the necessary amount of rock flour 
 to do the work of filling and cementing. While this work was in 
 progress the road was given constant supervision to keep it in proper 
 form. At the same time the filling and binding material was being 
 slowly produced there was brought upon the road with the wheels and 
 horses’ feet a considerable amount of earth which slowly worked down- 
 ward and united with the rock flour to complete the consolidation. 
 Macadam certainly secured in the end a better road by this method 
 than was usually secured with the use of the then available binding 
 material. 
 
 It must be remembered, however, that in his time rock were crushed 
 by hand and little fine material was made to use for binding, whereas 
 with the modern rock crushers a large amount of this material is pro- 
 duced which must be a dead loss if it cannot be used for binding and 
 surfacing, and it is quite certain that had Macadam used our modern 
 rock crushers he would have availed himself of the screenings. 
 
 USE OF SAND FOR BINDING. 
 
 The great readiness with which clean dry sand works into and fills 
 the voids between the stone of a road, the ease with which it may be 
 handled and the readiness with which it may often be obtained, leads 
 to its occasional use as a binding material in macadam road. The 
 coarse silicious sands, however, have very little cementing quality, they 
 do not retain water well enough either to make the road shed the 
 rains nor give the surface tension of water much opportunity to bind 
 the grains together firmly; consequently the best results cannot be se- 
 cured when it is used. 
 
 If loam is used there is danger that it will pack in the upper sur- 
 face of the layer of stone and prevent even the combined use of water 
 and the roller from working it to the bottom so as to completely fill 
 the voids. There is the still further danger that it will work in be- 
 tween the flat surfaces of the crushed rock, holding them apart to such 
 an extent that heavy loads will produce too much rocking of the 
 pieces and quickly lead to the formation of ruts. If the loam could be 
 
36 
 
 Bulletin No. 79, 
 
 Fig. 21. — View of distributing cart being raised to spread crushed rock on the Menomonee model road. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 37 
 
 had in a dry condition, such as is usually the case with the screenings 
 and the sand, it would be possible with dry rolling to nearly completely 
 fill the voids so that the subsequent use of water would, with the roller, 
 lead to good results. 
 
 LIMESTONE FOR STONE ROADS. 
 
 There is no doubt that crushed limestone although a soft rock will 
 make an excellent country road where the traffic is not heavy and the 
 use of it should be encouraged wherever suitable quality of rock is 
 available. There is no rock which breaks in better form or which 
 binds as well and sets as quickly. It is readily quarried and put in 
 shape for the crusher; and the power required for crushing being small 
 makes it less burdensome for towns to invest in the necessary ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 It is true that the road wears rapidly under heavy traffic and the 
 surface becomes dusty in a dry time, but not more so than clay roads 
 do. It is true that careful road engineers advise against its use, but 
 it is usually from the standpoint of city and suburban traffic rather 
 than from that of the purely country road. 
 
 SPREADING THE ROCK' ON THE ROAD BED. 
 
 It is important that the crushed rock should be laid down on the 
 roadbed in a sheet both of uniform thickness and uniform density and 
 where this is not done the road is quite certain to roll to an uneven 
 surface which will make it neseccary to add more material in some 
 places and remove it in others. But this will unnecessarily add to the 
 cost of the road. Not only this, but when a wagon-load of stone is 
 all dumped in one place, leaving it for a man to spread, it is certain 
 to occur that all of the dust and fine materials not removed by the 
 screen will drop into the voids at the place where the load was left 
 and this will give rise to a spot more compacted than the balance of 
 the road and hence when it comes into service two ruts or depressions 
 are liable to form one on either side of the harder spot. 
 
 To avoid these difficulties and to save time in spreading the mate- 
 rial the distributing cart represented in Figs. 21 and 22 has been de- 
 vised. In it can be placed two cubic yards of rock, and after tilting 
 the box as shown in Fig. 21 the end board may be opened to such a 
 width as to deposit a uniform layer of any desired thickness while the 
 team travels along at a slow and uniform pace. Fig. 23 is a view 
 showing how the surface was left by the distributing cart and the 
 watch is a scale by which the size of the pieces may be judged, its 
 diameter being a trifle less than two inches. 
 
 THICKNESS OF LAYER. 
 
 The thickness of a layer placed at one time should vary somewhat 
 with the size of the pieces, the depth being greater with the larger 
 
38 
 
 Bulletin No. 79, 
 
 •View of distributing cart spreading crushed rock on the Menomonee model road. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 39 
 
 fragments. With pieces of the size shown in Fig. 23 the layer when 
 packed should not be greater than four inches and three inches will 
 pack more quickly and closely than four inches. A thick layer tends 
 to form a crust on the surface, making it difficult to fill all the voids 
 below completely. 
 
 ROLLING. 
 
 The function of rolling is to arrange the fragments in the positions 
 of the greatest stability with reference to the rolling of wheels and the 
 tramping of horses. The first effect of the roller is to bring the pieces 
 nearer together and to reduce the size of the voids. This is clearly 
 brought out by the two photo-engravings, Figs. 23 and 24. 
 
 There is one other important thing which rolling should secure and 
 that is to put the several pieces of stone together in the positions of 
 the most stable equilibrium; that is, in positions such as to make cer- 
 tain that they shall not tip or turn when the stress of the wagon or 
 team is brought upon them. 
 
 SIZE AND WEIGHT OF ROLLER. 
 
 The diameter of the roller should be large to prevent it from shoving 
 the stone forward as it moves and in order that the thrust may be as 
 nearly directly downward as possible. It will be observed that even 
 the front wheel of a loaded wagon often slides rather than rolls when 
 coming upon the unpacked layer of rock on the road, and such move- 
 ment cannot do proper packing. 
 
 There appears to be a lack of agreement between practical men re- 
 garding the proper weight of the roller, some advocating a roller of 3.5 
 to 5.5 tons, while others hold that only one of 15 to 20 tons weight 
 will serve the purpose. Others advocate a light weight to begin with 
 
 and a heavier one at the close. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 AMOUNT OF ROLLING. 
 
 The only general rule which can be given in regard to the amount 
 of rolling a given layer should receive is that the work should be 
 continued until the stone cease to move in front of the roller or un- 
 til the roller no longer sensibly depresses the bed and it has become 
 hard and smooth. It should be kept in mind, however, that the road 
 may be rolled too much, or until the stone again begin to move. This 
 
 ■'*' "if' 
 
 is most likely to occur when the stone is too dry. 
 
 MANNER OF ROLLING. 
 
 The rolling should begin at the outer sides of the road, packing the 
 stone first against the shoulder of the road. If this is not done the 
 fact that the roadbed is highest in the center will lead to flattening the 
 slope and thinning out the rock in the center through a side creeping 
 of the material from under the roller. 
 
40 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 Fig. 23.— View of surfacing crushed rock as left by the distributing cart on the Menomonee model road. The watch, 2 inches 
 in diameter, serves as a scale to show the size of the rock fragments. 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 41 
 
 Fig. 24.— View of the surfacing rock after it has been packed by the roller. 
 
42 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 KIND OF ROLLER. 
 
 There are three methods of consolidating the layers of stone put into 
 a road. The first, now largely abandoned as being too expensive and 
 too uncertain, is to allow it to be done by the natural traffic. The 
 second, also being abandoned as too expensive, is the use of a 3.5 to 
 5-ton horse roller; and the third, which is regarded the cheapest and 
 best, is with the aid of an 8 to 20-ton steam roller. 
 
 The safest indications seem to point to the use on country roads of 
 an 8 to 10-ton steam roller as most satisfactory; although good work 
 can be done with the horse roller of half this weight which may be 
 made heavier or lighter by taking on and laying off weights. Such a 
 roller as this is represented in Fig. 7, which, naked, weighs 3 1-2 
 tons, but by the addition of castings to the inside of the roller may be 
 increased to 5.5 tons. This roller has the frame and tongue so con- 
 structed that the team may be turned without reversing the roller, a 
 very important feature. 
 
 It will be readily seen that the use of two men and two teams must 
 make the service of this roller very expensive, and when the disturbing 
 effects of the horses’ feet are recalled it becomes clear that the steam 
 roller easily managed by one man is much better. 
 
 ROCK CRUSHERS. 
 
 Until recently all rock crushing for road work has been done by hand 
 and hammer, and in the days of slave labor when the man was a ma- 
 chine which managed, fed, cared for and reproduced itself, it is clear 
 how such Herculean tasks as the ancient Roman roads could be ac- 
 complished. But happily, the use of steel and inanimate forces is 
 freeing man from such drudgery; and in Figs. 8, 9 and 10 are three 
 views of a rock crusher at work, breaking stone, sorting it and deliv- 
 ering it into bins where it may easily be dropped into wagons for de- 
 livery upon the road. 
 
 At the time these views were taken the crusher was being driven 
 by a 22 H. P. traction engine and was crushing rock at the rate of 
 100 wagon loads per day. The material is separated into three sizes, 
 the coarsest used for the foundation, the intermediate for the wear- 
 ing surface and the finest as binding and surfacing material, and Fig. 
 J shows a wagon loading with the foundation size, Fig. 9 with the 
 wearing size, and Fig. 10 with the screenings or binding material. 
 
 There are various forms of crushers on the market and Fig. 25 repre- 
 sents another type. 
 
 REVOLVING SCREEN.. 
 
 The revolving screen is an indispensable attachment to a rock 
 crusher, because a good road cannot be made with the unsorted ma- 
 terial, for with this method of putting the crushed rock upon the road 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 43 
 
 the fine materials are certain to work downward and the coarser frag- 
 ments to come to the surface. It should be thoroughly understood too 
 that the chute screen will not do the work. 
 
 Fig. 25.— Champion rock crusher and screen. 
 
 EARTH AND STONE ROAD COMBINED. 
 
 Where it is desired to cheapen the construction of stone roads it is 
 practicable to make the central portion 8 feet wide of this material, 
 and then have on one or both sides an earth road of eight feet, giving 
 a total width of 16 or 24 feet to the margin of grass and 30 feet to the 
 side ditches. The most serious objections to this combined plan is the 
 securing at all times of sufficient and quick surface drainage. 
 
 The chief difficulty which will arise in the carrying out of this plan 
 will come from the tendency of summer traffic on the narrow earth 
 road to go so persistently in one track as to develop wheel and foot 
 ways deep enough to prevent surface drainage. The fact that the 
 -stone road may come into service when the ground is wet will only 
 lessen the tendency to develop the evil pointed out but not prevent it. 
 For winter service in cold climates it seems clear that the earth road 
 -will be likely to ensure better sleighing. 
 
 TELFORD FOUNDATION. 
 
 When it is necessary to build the road where the ground is soft then 
 it may be best to lay a foundation of larger stone as was the general 
 practice with the Romans and with the English engineer, Telford, 
 whose name is now attached to this type of road foundation. The pav- 
 ing blocks should be uniform in size, laid in rows across the road after 
 it has been given the proper slope, the pieces breaking joints. The 
 -stones should not exceed 10 inches in length, 6 inches wide on the bot- 
 tom and 4 inches at the top, the thickness being 4 or 5 inches for a 
 aroad 8 inches thick. The surface of the pavement foundation should 
 
44 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 bo as even as practicable and the voids filled with broken stone. It is 
 necessary to have each piece thoroughly bedded before the madacam 
 material is added so as not to be tilted on the surface. 
 
 MAINTENANCE OF COUNTRY ROADS. 
 
 Important as the matter of construction of good roads is, it is, or 
 should be, secondary to that of maintenance; when a good road haa 
 been made which is designed for permanent service it is clearly a mat- 
 ter of sound business policy to provide whatever economic means is 
 practicable for keeping it in order. 
 
 SECTION MEN NECESSARY. 
 
 In the maintenance of railroads it was early learned that two or 
 more men provided with proper tools must be employed by the year, 
 permanently or as long as they rendered efficient service, to care for 
 and keep in order a certain number of miles of road. It is the busi- 
 ness of these men to daily go over their section and keep it in first class 
 repair and their tenure of office is only conditioned upon their doing 
 this satisfactorily. 
 
 It is self-evident that good country roads can only be maintained by 
 adopting and keeping in force a system which is equivalent to that 
 found indispensable in railroad maintenance. That is, men competent 
 to do the work, provided with the necessary authority, tools and ma- 
 terials, must have constant employment at a price which will permit 
 them to devote their time to it, and they must be made responsible 
 for the maintenance of a certain number of miles of road 365 days in a 
 year. 
 
 ROAD MASTER. 
 
 In the country road service it will be necessary to have one man who 
 corresponds in duties and responsibilities to the “Section Boss” of the 
 railroad. He must be competent, temperate and in every way reliable 
 and trustworthy. He must have a practical knowledge of the princi- 
 ples and details underlying the maintenance of good roads and at his 
 command the necessary assistance and appliances for doing the work 
 required. 
 
 WIDTH OF TIRES vCONTROLLED. 
 
 When we come to have a system of good roads and the means for 
 maintaining them it will be necessary to have ordinances regulating 
 the width of tire and diameter of wheel which may be used on the 
 roads when carrying specified loads. In Europe, where better roads 
 are found and a better system for maintenance exists, there are ordi- 
 nances which fix the width of tire to be used with given loads. In 
 Bavaria the regulations are as follows: 
 
The Construction and Maintenance of Country Roads. 45 
 
 2 wheel carts with two horses, 4.133 inch tires. 
 
 2 wheel carts with four horses, 6.180 inch tires. 
 
 4 wheel carts with two horses, 2.596 inch tires. 
 
 4 wheel carts with four horses, 4.133 inch tires. 
 
 4 wheel carts with five to eight horses, 6.180 inch tires. 
 
 Carts with more than four and wagons with more than eight horses 
 are not allowed to use the roads without a special permit from the au- 
 thorities. 
 
 Other countries of the Old World have found similar ordinances 
 necessary and it is clearly rational and just that such matters should 
 be regulated, for otherwise one man may easily put in jeopardy the In- 
 terests of a whole community. 
 
 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS. 
 
 A sharp distinction should always be made between the maintenance 
 of a road and its repairs. It is only when some accident has occurred 
 to seriously injure a road or when, from long neglect, it has become 
 well nigh worn out that repairs are needed, but the daily touching up 
 of slight defects and places of evident wear constitutes maintenance. 
 
 GOOD MAINTENANCE. 
 
 Good maintenance will consist in daily attention to all the details 
 which are necessary to keep a section of road up to the standard of per- 
 fection practicable to its type, influenced by its local surroundings and 
 conditions. It must consist in (1) keeping the road in proper form; 
 (2) in adding materials to the wearing surface where needed; (3) in 
 keeping the road surface and drainage channels clean; (4) in keeping 
 the road sides free from weeds and otherwise neat; (5) in caring for 
 and maintaining road trees if they are grown; (6) in maintaining the 
 proper conditions in winter in regard to snow. 
 
 MAINTENANCE OF EARTH AND GRAVEL ROADS. 
 
 The first requisite to the maintenance of any road is the knowledge 
 which can be gained by going over the road while or immediately after 
 it has rained. Observations at this time will show the road master 
 where the most serious defects exist and he should make careful note 
 of them to use in directing his efforts as soon as the weather permits. 
 It should therefore be the business of the road master to study his 
 roads in wet weather and he should be equipped with clothing, etc., in 
 a way which will permit him to do this without risk of injury to 
 health. 
 
 Whenever ruts or saucers begin to show in the road they should be 
 corrected immediately, provided the moisture conditions permit of do- 
 ing so, but on the earth roads the soil may be either too wet or too dry 
 to allow this to be done well, and the highest success will be attained 
 when the road master comes to know and understand his conditions 
 
46 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 and then is alert to move at just the right time. The ruts will be 
 formed chiefly in both the very wet and the very dry weather, and in 
 the country where sprinkling the roads cannot be afforded, everything 
 must be planned to take advantage of every shower heavy enough to 
 bring the road into condition for working with grader, shovel, rake and 
 roller. 
 
 With our present system of working country roads there is no pos- 
 sibility of either making or maintaining earth roads in first class or- 
 der. It is possible, however, to do much better than is done in many 
 places, and one of the most fundamental changes which needs to be 
 made, and which may readily be made, is to reserve a considerable part 
 of the road tax each year to be worked out along the lines of mainten- 
 ance on any day during mid-summer, fall and early winter when it is 
 seen that something needs to be done and when the soil is in just the 
 right condition to permit the most effective work. 
 
 The general practice of working out all of the road tax in the late 
 spring and early summer makes it necessary to be nearly all of the time 
 either making road or repairing that which is in very bad condition, 
 and the result is that during most of the time the travel is over poor 
 or bad roads when, if the work were more intelligently distributed 
 through the seasons when work may be effectively done, nearly the 
 whole labor would be devoted to correcting the slight defects and thus 
 enabling nearly all travel to be over good or fairly good roads. 
 
 The intelligent use of the grader and roller at the right time after 
 the rains of a wet period and after a dry period will make marvelous 
 changes in the character of earth roads of all classes and particularly 
 in those which are proverbially bad. 
 
 We cannot too strongly emphasize that to drive up one side of the 
 road with a road machine and back on the other, scraping a lot of loose, 
 heterogeneous rubbish and earth into the middle of the road, to be 
 tramped out again by the traffic, is neither repairing nor maintaining 
 the road. The material brought upon the road should be well distrib- 
 uted and harrowed until an even, uniform layer has been secured and 
 then the roller should be thoroughly applied when the earth is in just 
 the right condition to pack well. Work of this sort will count and will' 
 be appreciated. 
 
 EOAD SUPEEVISION. 
 
 It seems clear that the development of the proper machinery for put- 
 ting into effective execution an adequate system of road construction 
 and road maintenance requires the evolution of a system of supervision 
 which, while it is in harmony with our form of government, is yet less 
 subject to political influences and changes than is our public school 
 system. It is clear that the work must be in the hands of men spe- 
 cially trained for it, and that competency and honesty shall be the 
 only conditions necessary to permanency of position. Any system' 
 
The Construction and Maintena?ice of Country Roads. 47 
 
 which will make the tenure of office dependent upon the changes of po- 
 litical administration can be but little better than the one we now have. 
 
 It seems clear that there should be a State Commissioner or Superin- 
 tendent of Roads, whose duties shall be to unify and co-ordinate the 
 work throughout the state. Subordinate to this central officer there 
 may be County Road Engineers who shall have immediate supervision 
 of road construction in their respective counties, and subordinate to 
 the county road engineer there should be the City Road Engineers for 
 cities above a certain size, and District Road Masters for the country 
 and small towns, the latter officials having for their duty the main- 
 tenance of country roads. 
 
 f 1 
 
 f f 
 
 Fig. 26.— View of country stone road with foot path on one side, near Maybole, 
 Ayrshire, Scotland. From photo in 1895. 
 
 To properly equip these offices with men of the needed training im- 
 plies two courses of instruction, one for engineers of road and bridge 
 construction, and street pavement, and one for road masters for the 
 maintenance of country roads. The first course may best be devel- 
 oped in connection with engineering schools and the second in connec- 
 tion with schools of agriculture. 
 
48 
 
 Bulletin No. 79. 
 
 Fig. 28.— View on the same road showing the tool house where appliances for 
 caring for the road are kept. Photo, in 1895, near Grignon. 
 
V£> 
 
 V 
 
 Wia. Bull. No. 80. 
 
 / 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 80. 
 
 THE CHARACTER AND TREATMENT OF SWAMP OR 
 HUMUS SOIL. 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN , JANUARY , 1900. 
 
 mrThe Bulletins and Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, BX-OFFICIO. 
 8tate-at-large, JOHN JOHNSTON, Milwaukee. 
 
 3tate-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS. Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, J. A. VAN CLEVE, Marinette. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of tlie Board of Regents. 
 
 GEORGE H. NOYES, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasurer 
 J. H. STOUT, Vice-President. | E. F. RILEY, Secretary, Madison. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION; 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, 
 
 S. M. BABCOCK, - 
 
 F. H. KING, 
 
 E. S. GOFF, 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, .... 
 
 F. W. WOLL, .... 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, .... 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON, 
 
 A. R. WHITSON,* .... 
 
 A. G. HOPKINS, .... 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, - 
 
 E. G. HASTINGS, - 
 
 R. A. MOORE, .... 
 
 U. S. BAER, 
 
 FREDERIC CRANEFIELD, - 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, - 
 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, 
 
 Director 
 Chief Chemist 
 Physicist 
 Horticulturist 
 
 - Animal Husbandry 
 
 Chemist 
 Bacteriologist 
 Dairy Husbandry 
 
 - Assistant Physicist 
 
 - Veterinarian 
 
 - Assistant Chemist 
 Assistant Bacteriologist 
 
 Assistant to Director 
 Dairying 
 
 Assistant Horticulturist 
 
 - Farm Superintendent 
 - Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 Librarian 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory; Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
 After May 1, 1900, 
 
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS REGARDING SWAMP OR 
 HUMUS SOILS. 
 
 1. There are in Wisconsin alone in the neighborhood of 4,000 square miles of 
 
 humus soils, most of which may readily he drained and put In condition 
 for tillage. 
 
 2. So far as the elements of plant food are concerned they contain a higher per 
 
 cent, than most of the best upland soils. 
 
 3. The soil when drained is easy to work and maintains an excellent tilth. 
 
 4. But when reclaimed they are often found relatively unproductive, especially 
 
 after two or three years. 
 
 5. Their productiveness frequently varies to a marked degree in different sea- 
 
 sons and without an evident cause for it. 
 
 6. Coarse farmyard manure, in almost all cases, greatly improves even the best 
 
 of these lands, enabling them to give large yields. 
 
 7. Liquid farmyard manure has not been found to have an appreciable influ- 
 
 ence on the yield. 
 
 8 Potassium carbonate, sulphate and nitrate and wood ashes have been found 
 to greatly improve these soils for corn. Kainite improves the yield but 
 to a less degree. 
 
 9. Potassium chloride in one-lialf the quantity of other salts killed the corn. 
 10. Land plaster, lime, marl, phosphates, boufe meal and Thomas slag have 
 been tried with little benefit. 
 
 1 1- Coarse litter, like straw, plowed in, is often very helpful. 
 
 12. A good dressing of manure may materially increase the yield for four con- 
 
 secutive years. 
 
 13. Heavy crops of oat hay can often be grown upon the lands but the plants 
 
 are liable to lodge and not fill well if left to mature. 
 
 14. It is difficult to get a good stand of clover and winter killing is very common. 
 
 15. Timothy and red top appear to do best among the grasses, but it is often 
 
 very difficult to get a stand of these if the field has been cultivated sev- 
 eral years. 
 
 16. One farmer has tried three consecutive years to seed a field to timothy and 
 
 failed, even when sowing early in the spring with and without oats, late 
 in the summer, and in the fall with rye, and yet in former years heavy 
 crops had been taken from the ground, including timothy. 
 
 17. Almost any crop maybe grown upon these soils if they are manured and 
 
 very heavy crops of corn. 
 
 18. As pastures these lands only give a moderate amount of feed. 
 
 19. When undrained and kept in the native wild grass and cut continuously 
 
 these lands in some known cases greatly decrease in productiveness, so 
 much so as to hardly pay for cutting. 
 
 20. In sowing to grain and seeding after corn, which has been kept clean, it 
 
 will generally be best not to plow on account of the naturally loose char- 
 acter of the soil. If plowing must be done and the ground is dry enough 
 to do so it will be best to roll to increase the firmness. 
 
 21. When clover has winter killed, leaving the timothy standing, the ground 
 
 may be seeded to clover very early in the spring by sowing on the surface 
 and harrowing lightly. 
 
year there was uniform heavy stand. 
 
THE CHARACTER AND TREATMENT OF SWAMP OR 
 HUMUS SOIL. 
 
 F. H. KING and J. A. JEFFERY. 
 
 AMOUNT OF HUMUS SOILS IN WISCONSIN. 
 
 If reference is made to the soil map of Wisconsin published by the 
 State Geological Survey of 1873 to 1879 it will be seen that there is rep- 
 resented a very large number of areas covered by humus soils; and an 
 approximate estimate of the aggregate surface places the number of 
 acres at 2,700,000, equal in round numbers to 4,000 sq. miles. 
 
 These soils, when measured by the amount of plant food they contain, 
 as indicated by chemical analyses, are among the richest we have, and 
 yet many if not most of them, after being reclaimed, soon become com- 
 paratively unproductive unless fertilized with farmyard manure. 
 
 CHARACTER OF THE SOIL. 
 
 The soils of this type are usually quite black in color; very mellow 
 and easily worked, the horses feet often sinking deeply into the ground 
 when dry. The soil holds a very high percentage of water and 
 yet the capillary rise of water into the surface when it is loose is so 
 slow that young plants, especially clover, suffer severely when the 
 weather becomes dry before the roots have penetrated deeply into the 
 ground. 
 
 If the surface of the ground is naked long, so that considerable evap- 
 oration takes place, a white deposit forms over the unstirred surface 
 and it is usually where these deposits form most profusely that crops 
 are smallest. 
 
 These soils are at all times relatively rich in nitrates and chemical 
 analyses show a good supply of phosphates and potash in them, indeed 
 often more than most upland soils. They have more lime and more 
 magnesia than most soils and the content of humus is very high, and 
 yet a good dressing of coarse farmyard manure usually increases the 
 productiveness in a remarkable degree. 
 
 THE BEHAVIOR OF CROPS ON HUMUS SOILS. 
 
 It appears to be the most general experience regarding these soils 
 that when reclaimed by draining and plowing the first crop is good or 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 80 „ 
 
 excellent unless some unfavorable weather conditions prevent. Suc- 
 ceeding crops are not as large and in some cases after the third or fourth 
 season it becomes very difficult to raise any crop upon the ground. 
 
 It is oftenest true that fields of these soils are very unequal in pro- 
 ductiveness in different portions, some areas bearing good yields while 
 others produce little or nothing. When corn is grown upon these 
 lands there will often be one or two unusually large hills surrounded 
 on all sides by plants which are very small and yellow, and Fig. 1 is a 
 fair illustration of a very common appearance. 
 
 The soil often varies in a marked degree in productiveness different 
 years and the figure just referred to is an illustration in point. The 
 year before, on the same ground, there was a heavy growth of nearly 
 uniform plants; but this was the first crop. The third crop was more 
 nearly like the second, but the present year, or fourth crop, the growth 
 has again been much larger and more even. 
 
 In the places where crops fail to develop normally it is common to 
 find on pulling up plants that they have a very imperfect root system, 
 the tips of new roots appearing brown and soft much as if they had been 
 corroded. Farmers frequently ascribe this appearance to wire worms 
 and they do sometimes work in these soils but wire worms are not re- 
 sponsible for the deficient root system in most cases. 
 
 RESULTS OF WORK IN 1896 AND 1897. 
 
 The experiments wih commercial fertilizers tried in 1896 showed that 
 only those containing potash materially improved the yield, as a study 
 of the table on page 107, Rept. of 1896, will show. 
 
 By averaging the yields of the two unfertilized plots adjacent to each 
 fertilized plot, to use as a standard for comparison of the effect exerted 
 by the fertilizer, we find the results given in the table below: 
 
 Table showing influence of fertilizers on humus soil in 1896. 
 
 A 
 
 Fertilized, 
 dry matter 
 per acre. 
 
 Not fertilized, 
 dry matter 
 per acre. 
 
 | Difference. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Farmyard manure 
 
 7,622 
 
 3,597 
 
 +4,025 
 
 Marl 
 
 4,292 
 
 4,083 
 
 +209 
 
 Kainite 
 
 4,817 
 
 4,912 
 
 -95 
 
 Potassium sulphate 
 
 4,101 
 
 3,441 
 
 +660 
 
 Potassium chloride 
 
 5,772 
 
 3,544 
 
 +2,228 
 
 Superphosphate 
 
 4,529 
 
 4,851 
 
 —322 
 
 Bone meal 
 
 4,286 
 
 4,171 
 
 +115 
 
 Basic slag 
 
 5,568 
 
 5,788 
 
 -220 
 
Char act er'jxnd Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 7 
 
 It appeared from the results in 1896 that these soils might, for some 
 reason, be lacking in available nitrogen and potash, and in 1897 work 
 was done in the plant house bearing upon this phase of the problem, 
 and the results, with others, are recorded on pages 234 to 239 of the re- 
 port for that year. There it was shown that, while farmyard manure, 
 straw and potassium carbonate had marked beneficial effects, nitrate of 
 soda did hot sensibly affect the growth of corn upon these soils, as il- 
 lustrated in Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Showing that available nitrogen in the form of sodium nitrate does not im 
 prove the yield on black marsh soil. The four large cylinders, in the center, have 
 received sodium nitrate, while the four on the right were treated with farmyard 
 manure, and those on the left with potassium carbonate. 
 
 It was also shown that corn on clover sod did very much better than 
 corn following oats, as illustrated in Fig. 3. After this very marked im- 
 provement in the corn crop following clover was secured it was resolved 
 to repeat the experiments; but before this could be done an interval be- 
 tween December, 1897, and February, 1898, occurred during which these 
 and other cylinders of the plant house were used for the tillage experi- 
 ments recorded in the report of 1898. At the close of these trials the 
 cylinders were again planted to corn but as the crop advanced toward 
 maturity it was found that the influence of the clover had entirely dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 There appear to be but two rational explanations of the failure of 
 the corn to respond to the clover as it had done in so marked a manner 
 before. The first is that the development of nitrates in the soil during 
 the tillage experiments had been so large that no difference existed be- 
 tween the cylinders which had borne clover and the others. The second 
 is that during the interval of tillage all of the clover roots had decayed 
 
Bulletin No. 80 . 
 
 and so the influence which these might be supposed to exert analq/^ous 
 to that of the cut straw and coarse manure was lost. 
 
 When these soils came to be examined for the quantity of nitric acid 
 they contained it was found that there was present an unusual amount, 
 as shown in the table below, where the quantities found in the first, 
 second and third feet of the several cylinders are given. 
 
 After oats. After clover. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Showing the increased yield on black marsh soil due to red clover. 
 
 It will be seen from these figures that, so far as nitrates are concerned, 
 the soils, at the time the crop which showed no benefit from the clover 
 was on the ground, contained very large amounts of it but no more in 
 the clover cylinders than in the others. 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 Table showing amount of nitric acid in pounds per million of dry 
 humus soil of plant house cylinders after tillage experiments of 
 1897 - 98 . Samples taken May 4 , 1898. 
 
 
 *Best Soil, West Series. 
 
 Poorest Soil, East Series. 
 
 
 Depth of Sample. 
 
 Depth of Sample. 
 
 No of 
 Cyl. 
 
 First 
 
 foot. 
 
 Second 
 
 loot. 
 
 Third 
 
 foot. 
 
 No of 
 Cyl. 
 
 First 
 
 foot. 
 
 Second 
 
 foot. 
 
 Tiiird 
 
 foot. 
 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 Losely packed •< 
 
 
 y 94 
 
 131 
 
 143 
 
 
 V 242 
 
 382 
 
 573 
 
 35 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 34 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 Cut straw < 
 
 
 y 117 
 
 185 
 
 332 
 
 
 [ 274 
 
 332 
 
 394 
 
 l 
 
 33 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 l 
 
 32 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 Farmyard manure s 
 
 31 
 
 286 
 
 300 
 
 394 
 
 6 
 
 J 300 
 
 350 
 
 407 
 
 ( 
 
 30 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 Sodium nitrate -s 
 
 
 y 315 
 
 300 
 
 335 
 
 
 [■ 420 
 
 485 
 
 525 
 
 ( 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 28 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 Potassium carbonate K 
 
 
 }■ 225 
 
 355 
 
 600 
 
 
 V 233 
 
 420 
 
 485 
 
 l 
 
 27 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 l 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 Closely packed s 
 
 
 [■ 315 
 
 394 
 
 315 
 
 
 y 450 
 
 350 
 
 315 
 
 25 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 l 
 
 24 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 Oats < 
 
 
 y 315 
 
 233 
 
 162 
 
 
 f- 162 
 
 450 
 
 450 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Clover 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 } 162 
 
 180 
 
 371 
 
 16 
 
 17 j 
 
 J 242 
 
 350 
 
 228 
 
 l 
 
 19 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 Notwithstanding the presence of these large amounts of nitric acid in 
 the soil, and in so soluble a form that they are quickly removed by dis- 
 tilled water, farmyard manure produced a marked improvement in the 
 crop as shown in Fig. 4. These being the facts, it seemed clear that 
 the farmyard manure must exert an influence not attributable to its in- 
 fluence on the development of nitric acid through fermentation. On 
 this account and because of the good effect which cut straw has been 
 found to have, it was decided to make a study of the influence of differ- 
 ent kinds of farmyard manure in the field during the season of 1898. 
 
 *The west series of cylinders was filled with soil taken from places in the field where 
 the first crop of corn was largest and the east cylinders with soil where the corn was 
 smallest. 
 
Bulletin No. 80 . 
 
 10 
 
 INFLUENCE OF THREE TYPES OF FARMYARD MANURE ON CROPS GROWN ON 
 
 HUMUS SOIL. 
 
 To study this problem two plots of humus soil on the Station farm 150 
 feet by 100 feet were each divided into 11 sub-plots 13.6 feet wide and 100 
 feet long. A set of three of these sub-plots on each of the plots sepa- 
 rated by blanks were treated, one with coarse manure, one with fine well 
 rotted manure and the other with liquid manure. The solid manure 
 was applied April 15 at the rate of 64.36 cubic feet to each sub-plot and 
 plowed in. The liquid manure was taken from the collecting cistern 
 
 Manure. Nitrate. 
 
 Fig. 4.— Showing the beneficial effect of farmyard manure on black marsh soil, and the 
 failure of sodium nitrate to improve the crop. 
 
 and applied to the surface, after the ground had been plowed on April 
 25; the amount being 458 lbs. per sub-plot. This liquid was very dark 
 colored and contained .1356 per cent, of solids. Corn was planted upon 
 the ground and when it came to maturity a very large increase in yield 
 on the sub-plots receiving the solid manure was realized and the differ- 
 ence between two of the sub-plots and the blank between them is clearly 
 shown in Fig. 5. We were much surprised to find, however, that no per- 
 ceptible influence was exerted by the liquid manure, either upon corn, 
 oats, timothy or clover where two other trials were made. The liquid 
 manure was not examined for the amount of fertilizers it contained ex- 
 cept as to the total solids in solution, but we know of no reason to sup- 
 pose that it was notably deficient and such dressings have very much 
 improved upland soils. 
 
Fig. 5. — Showing the effect'of coarse and fine farmyard manure on black marsh soil. The center strip of small corn 
 
 is on the untreated soil. 
 
 Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 11 
 
1 
 
 Bulletin No. 80 . 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CLAY, SAND AND LAND PLASTER. 
 
 On the same two plots the same season other sub-plots were used to 
 test the influence of dressings of clay and sandy soil and of land plaster 
 on these marsh grounds. The same dimensions of sub-plots as those 
 used for the manure were employed and each was alternated with a 
 blank or untreated area of like dimensions. 
 
 After the ground had been plowed and before it was planted 1,350 
 lbs. of sandy loam and 1,770 lbs. of good clay soil were evenly spread 
 over the respective sub-plots, each 13.6 feet by 100 feet; and 20 lbs. of 
 land plaster were sown upon each of two other sub-plots of like soil. 
 After this had been done the surface was harrowed lengthwise of the 
 sub-plots. 
 
 On two other plots within the tile drained area, and where the soil 
 was notably poor, other sub-plots were treated with liquid manure and 
 with land plaster, where the ground had been sowed to oats and seeded 
 to clover. The dressings applied were at the rate of 6 lbs. of land 
 plaster and 60 lbs, of liquid manure per square rod. 
 
 In no one of the sub-plots treated with liquid manure, with land 
 plaster or with sand or clay was there any observable improvement of 
 the crop, when judged by plants growing upon the blank or control plots 
 between them. 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF LAND PLASTER STUDIED IN THE PLANT HOUSE. 
 
 On June 10 and 11, 1898, the odd numbers of cylinder^, Fig. 6, 1 to 18 
 and even numbers 20 to 36, were given dressings of 200 gms. of land 
 plaster each, or at the rate of 2,717 lbs. per acre. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Showing ths arrangement of plant house cylinders used in studying black 
 
 marsh soils. 
 
 This treatment was given on the working hypothesis that these soils 
 may contain a sufficient amount of black alkali — sodium carbonate — to 
 produce the bad effects observed, it having been found in the west that 
 land plaster is a corrective of this trouble by converting the sodium 
 carbonate into sodium sulphate, which is less harmful to vegetation. 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil . 
 
 13 
 
 In starting the experiment, about a cubic foot of the surface soil was 
 removed and one-half of the land plaster applied and well worked in. 
 Water was then added to bring the cylinders up to standard weight, the 
 amount required ranging from 50 to 103 lbs. per cylinder. When this 
 water had been absorbed the balance of the land plaster was sowed upon 
 the wet surface, reserving a little to sprinkle in each hill when the corn 
 was planted. The soil which had been removed was then returned and 
 the corn planted. 
 
 On July 7, 26 days after the land plaster had been applied clyinders 11, 
 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 on the east side and 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 and 
 26 on the west side were flooded with 100 lbs. of water, the object being 
 to test the effect of leaching upon the crop and upon the amount of 
 sodium carbonate left in the soil. After 15 hours standing the drains 
 were opened and the water withdrawn. The last portion of this drain- 
 age water was examined for carbonates in solution, with results as given 
 below, computed as Na 3 C0 3 , composites having been made of the four 
 classes. 
 
 Nominal alkalinity of drainage water from humus soil in plant 
 house , treated and not treated with land plaster. 
 
 Parts per million. 
 
 East side, poorest soil, treated with land plaster 1079 
 
 East side, poorest soil, not treated with land plaster 1113 
 
 West side, best soil, treated with land plaster 731 4 
 
 West side, best soil, not treated with 1^ nd plaster 099. 6 
 
 On July 14, 100 lbs. more water were added to the cylinders and al- 
 lowed to drain away. Composite samples of the surface foot of soil from 
 the eight groups were then taken and the nominal alkalinity in these 
 determined, with the results given in the next table. 
 
 Table showing the nomina alkalinity of humus soil in plant house 
 which has been treated and not treated with land plaster and 
 afterwards either leached or not. Carbonates computed as 
 Na 2 CO s in parts per million of dry soil. 
 
 Series. 
 
 Land Plaster. 
 
 No Land 
 
 Plaster. 
 
 Leached. 
 
 Not leached. 
 
 Leached. 
 
 Not leached. 
 
 East side, or poorest soil 
 
 West side, or best soil 
 
 Lbs. pr mill. 
 238.5 
 
 206.7 
 
 Lbs. pr mill. 
 238.5 
 
 259.7 
 
 Lbs. pr mill. 
 299.4 
 
 206.7 
 
 Lbs. pr mill. 
 
 310.9 
 
 243.9 
 
14 
 
 Bulletin No. 80 . 
 
 After these determinations were made still anotner 100 lbs. of water 
 were added to the cylinders to be leached, on July 21, and the water 
 drawn off. On August 4 it was concluded that the corn had advanced 
 far enough to show any effect which the land plaster and the leaching 
 were likely to develop and it was cut and the dry matter determined. 
 The results are given below: 
 
 Table showing the dry matter in corn grown in plant house on humus 
 soil treated and not treated with land plaster , and which had 
 either been leached or not. 
 
 Series. 
 
 Land Plaster. 
 
 No Land Plaster. 
 
 Leached. 
 
 Not leached. 
 
 Leached. 
 
 Not leached. 
 
 East side, or poorest soil 
 
 137.8 
 
 141.7 
 
 189.9 
 
 148 9 
 
 West side, or best soil 
 
 357.6 
 
 318.3 
 
 403.6 
 
 316.2 
 
 
 If the results of these two tables are combined they will stand as 
 follows : 
 
 
 Leached. 
 
 Not 
 
 leached. 
 
 Land 
 
 plaster. 
 
 No land 
 plaster. 
 
 Yield of dry matter 
 
 544.4 
 
 475.6 
 
 462.5 
 
 526.5 
 
 475.6 
 
 472.7 
 
 522.2 
 
 530 5 
 
 Amount of nominal alkalies 
 
 
 That is to say, the yield of dry matter on the ground leached is 
 larger than on that not leached and the nominal alkalinity of the soil 
 is least where it has been leached. This relation is what should be ex- 
 pected if sodium carbonate were present in the soil to an injurious ex- 
 tent. Then, too, the nominal alkalinity is less on the soil to which 
 land plaster was applied, as should be expected if sodium carbonate 
 were present in measurable quantities and it was decomposed by the 
 land plaster. But, contrary to what should be expected, the yield on 
 the cylinders treated with land plaster was less than where they were 
 not so treated. The case therefore was not a demonstrative one; but 
 we had come to think that the real difficulty with these soils could not 
 be the presence in them of sodium carbonate and a change in the line 
 of treatment was resolved upon. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF MAGNESIUM SALTS. 
 
 In view of the fact that magnesium salts have been recognized to 
 produce injurious effects upon field crops under certain conditions, and 
 the fact that the magnesium salts are more soluble than those of lime. 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 15 
 
 together with the fact that in many parts of our state dolomitic lime- 
 stones occur in heavy and extensive beds, under conditions to yield 
 their salts to the drainage water, led us to try in the plant house the in- 
 fluence of magnesium carbonate and magnesium sulphate upon the 
 growth of corn. 
 
 These two salts were chosen as being the two most likely to be pres- 
 ent in the largest amounts in the underflow waters giving rise to the 
 formation of the humus soils in question. 
 
 In carrying out the trials cylinders Nos. 5, 7, 10, 12, 15 and 18 and 
 19, 22, 25, 27, 30 and 32 of Fig. 6 were chosen for treatment with mag- 
 nesium sulphate; and Nos. 2, 4, 9, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 28, 33 and 35 for 
 magnesium carbonate, the remaining numbers being reserved as blanks 
 for comparison. 
 
 On May 2, 1898, the soil of all of these cylinders was examined for 
 nominal alkalies in the first, second and third feet, and those on the 
 east side, Nos. 1 to 18, were found to contain a mean of .03874 per cent, 
 of the dry weight when computed as all sodium carbonate; and on the 
 west side, Nos. 19 to 36, .03034 per cent, of the dry weight of the soil. 
 
 For the purposes of the series of experiments next to be made it was 
 assumed that the total nominal alkalinity was due to magnesium car- 
 bonate, and we planned to double the content assumed to be present in 
 the east cylinders and to increase the amount in the west series until it 
 should equal that in the other set. Magnesium sulphate was also taken 
 sufficient to give amounts of magnesium equal to that carried to the 
 soils by the carbonate to be added. 
 
 The 2-ounce package commercial magnesia alba was used for the 
 carbonate and 1.75 lbs. were placed in each of three galvanized cylin- 
 ders 18 inches in diameter and 42 inches deep, which were then filled 
 with well water, the plan being to add the carbonate as a saturated 
 water solution, using this to water the plants with as needed. The 
 water was stirred from time to time and the carbonate allowed to set- 
 tle before the water was to be applied. The amount of carbonate added 
 each time of watering was computed by titrating a sample of the water 
 used with ^ H Cl, the alkalinity usually averaging about .0136 per cent. 
 The magnesium sulphate was dissolved in water and one-half the 
 amount required to represent the equivalent of the nominal alkalinity 
 found in May was added at once and the balance August 19, making in 
 all, .4002 lbs. to each east cylinder and .4839 to each west one, or at 
 the rate of 2466 and 2982 lbs. per acre, respectively. On September 16, 
 a quarter more MgS0 4 was added, increasing the total to 3082 and 3727 
 lbs. The total amount of magnesium carbonate which had been added 
 at the close of the trials was an average, for the twelve cylinders of 
 541.1 lbs. per acre computed from the titrations and the amounts of 
 water used. 
 
 Corn was planted three different times under these treatments and 
 
16 
 
 Bullet in No. SO. 
 
 the results as amounts of dry matter produced are given in the table 
 which follows: 
 
 Table showing the yield of dry matter of corn on humus soil in 
 plant house treated with magnesium sulphate , magnesium car- 
 bonate, and not treated. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Treated with Mag- 
 nesium Sulphate. 
 
 Treated with 
 Magnesia Alba. 
 
 Not Treated. 
 
 East 
 
 series, 
 
 poorest 
 
 soil. 
 
 West 
 series, 
 best soil. 
 
 East 
 
 series, 
 
 poorest 
 
 soil. 
 
 West 
 series, 
 best soil. 
 
 East 
 
 series, 
 
 poorest 
 
 soil. 
 
 West 
 series, 
 best soil. 
 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 Aug. 9 to Sept. 14 
 
 198.9 
 
 390.3 
 
 173.7 
 
 307.3 
 
 197.8 
 
 436.3 
 
 Sept. 16 to Dec. 2 
 
 295.9 
 
 669.6 
 
 243 5 
 
 672.1 
 
 260.8 
 
 822.5 
 
 Total 
 
 494.8 
 
 1059.9 
 
 417.2 
 
 979.4 
 
 458.6 
 
 1258.8 
 
 Per cent 
 
 107.9 
 
 84.19 
 
 90.97 
 
 77.79 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 It appears clear from these results that the magnesia alba has re- 
 duced the yield of dry matter on both the poorest and best soil, but 
 much more on the best soil, the yield there being only 77.79 per cent, of 
 that on the best soil receiving no treatment. It appears clear also that 
 the magnesium sulphate has decreased the yield on the best soil, that 
 being only 84.19 per cent, of that on the same soil not treated. Speak- 
 ing of the poorest soil, there is some indication that the magnesium sul- 
 phate has increased the yield, although the amounts are not large 
 enough to make sure that the differences may not be due to some other 
 factor. 
 
 The appearance of the plants of the first set at the time that the ex- 
 periment was closed are represented in Figs. 7, 8 and 9. 
 
 It would appear safe to conclude that magnesium sulphate in the 
 soil water certainly cannot be the cause of the unproductiveness of 
 these soils. The case is not so clear in regard to the magnesium car- 
 bonate, and partly because subsequent analysis has shown the mag- 
 nesia alba to contain .473 per cent, of sodium carbonate, as well as .091 
 per cent, of potassium carbonate. 
 
 With these results standing as given it appeared best, before chang- 
 ing the treatment, to make it still more violent, and the series was 
 again repeated, but this time adding one pound of each of the two salts 
 to the cylinders which had already received these salts. 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil , 
 
 17 
 
 Treated with Treated with 
 
 Not treated. Magnesia alba. Magnesium sulphate. 
 
 Fig. 7.— Showing the influence of treating black marsh soil with magnesium sulphate. 
 
 and Magnesia alba. 
 
 Poorest soil Best soil treated 
 
 treated with Poorest soil Best soil not „ with land 
 
 land plaster. untreated. treated. plaster. 
 
 Fig . 8.— Showing the small effect resulting from the use of land plaster. These are 
 the same plants shown in Fig. 7, but all those which had been grown on soil treated 
 with land t p]aster are placed in two groups, and these grown on the soil not treated 
 with land; plaster are jut in two other groups. 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No. 80 . 
 
 Best soil Poorest soil Poorest soil Best soil not 
 
 leached. leached. not leached. leached. 
 
 Fig. 9.— The same plants as in Fig. 7 grouped to show the effect on the second crop of 
 the first experiment in leaching. 
 
 In applying this dressing a cubic foot of the soil was first removed, 
 then the salts were sown over the surface and thoroughly worked in by 
 stirring with a four-tined fork to a depth of three inches. Water 
 enough was then added to bring the cylinders to standard weight and 
 after this had soaked away and the soil become firm, corn was planted 
 directly upon the wet surface, and covered with the soil which had 
 been removed. The planting was done Dec. 12, in four hills of six ker- 
 nels each, and later, on Jan. 4, after studying the differences in ger- 
 mination, the hills were thinned to two stalks. 
 
 On February 13 the experiment was closed and the dry matter In 
 the plants produced under the three treatments determined with the 
 results given below: 
 
 Table showing the yield of dry matter in corn on humus soil treated 
 with magnesium sulphate and carbonate ; and on that not treated. 
 
 
 Treated with Mag 
 nesium Sulphate. 
 
 Treated with 
 Magnesia Alba. 
 
 Not Treated. 
 
 Date. 
 
 East series 
 poorest 
 soil. 
 
 West series 
 best soil. 
 
 East series 
 poorest 
 soil. 
 
 West series 
 best soil. 
 
 East series 
 poorest 
 soil. 
 
 West series 
 best soil. 
 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 December 12 to 
 
 
 Feb. 13 
 
 89.58 
 
 138.96 
 
 62 71 
 
 93.83 
 
 108.13 
 
 176.25 
 
 
 Per cent .... 
 
 82 87 
 
 78.84 
 
 58.01 
 
 53.22 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 19 
 
 It is very clear now that the magnesium salts have seriously inter- 
 fered with the growth of the corn and that the influence of the mag- 
 nesia alba has been much stronger than that of the sulphate, the results 
 being quite parallel with those from the lighter dressings, except that 
 they are more intensified. 
 
 : ' !i : : J J- j 
 
 CONDITION OF THE ROOT SYSTEM. 
 
 In harvesting the corn of the last trial the plants were pulled and 
 the condition of the roots examined. By bringing into composite groups 
 two plants from each cylinder receiving like treatment it was very evi- 
 dent that the first set of roots from the tip of the radicle had developed 
 much less on the plants which had been treated with the magnesia alba 
 than on either of the other two treatments. It was also true that this 
 condition was most marked in the plants from the poorest soil or East 
 series; indeed, in the majority of these cases this set of roots was dead. 
 
 The roots from the first and second nodes above the tip of the radicle 
 were much better developed and more branched on both the sulphate 
 and no treatment than they were on the carbonate treatment. It was 
 not clear, however, to the eye, that any important difference existed be- 
 tween the plants of the sulphate treatment and those on the untreated 
 soil. Below is given a comparison of the weight of dry matter in the 
 roots, which came up with the plants in pulling them from the soil. 
 
 Table showing the dry matter in roots of corn grown on humus 
 soil in plant house between Dee. 12 and Feb. 13. 
 
 
 Treated with Mag 
 nesium Sulphate. 
 
 Treated with 
 Magnesia Alba. 
 
 Treated with 
 Nothing. 
 
 Date. 
 
 East 
 
 series, 
 
 poorest 
 
 soil. 
 
 West 
 
 series, best 
 soil. 
 
 East 
 
 series, 
 
 poorest 
 
 soil. 
 
 West 
 
 series, best 
 soil. 
 
 East 
 
 series, 
 
 poorest 
 
 soil. 
 
 West 
 
 series, best 
 soil. 
 
 Dec. 12 to Feb. 13 
 
 Dry matter 
 13.33 
 
 Dry matter 
 15.80 
 
 Dry matter 
 7.90 
 
 Dry matter 
 12.07 
 
 Dry matter 
 11.43 
 
 Dry matter 
 18.57 
 
 Percent., roots. 
 
 116.60 
 
 85.08 
 
 69.12 
 
 65.00 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 Per cent., tops 
 
 82.87 
 
 78.84 
 
 58.01 
 
 53.22 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 This table shows that the root system is less seriously affected by the 
 treatment than the tops, but this is perhaps what should be expected, 
 provided the difficulty was really in the root system, because if the 
 roots were being injured it might be expected that the plant would make 
 its greatest effort to repair the injured tissues and hence fail to develop 
 as fully the portions not directly injured. 
 
20 
 
 Bulletin No. 80 . 
 
 INFLUENCE OF DRAINAGE WATER FROM HUMUS SOIL ON THE GROWTH OF 
 CORN IN THE PLANT HOUSE. 
 
 The drainage from one of the tile drained pieces of humus soil is ar- 
 ranged so that the water may be examined from each line of tile and 
 the laterals discharge into a main which passes through a silt well be- 
 fore reaching the outlet. On Nov. 10, 1898, a sample of the composite 
 water from the silt well was taken and analyzed by the “Official method” 
 for calcium and magnesium, which showed it to contain .01495 per cent, 
 of CaO, and .0207 per cent, of MgO. 
 
 The total solids in solution in 1000 cc., taken from the same place Oct. 
 13, 1899, was .379 gms. or .0379 per cent. 
 
 An examination of the drainage water from several laterals taken 
 July 15, 1898, for C0 2 and nominal alkalinity, gave the results stated 
 in the table which follows: 
 
 Table showing the amount of C0 2 salts found in drain water from 
 humus soil; (1) by titrating directly against If Cl ; and (2) by 
 
 first evaporating to dryness , then redissolving in distilled water , 
 filtering and titrating against H Cl; cochineal being used as 
 indicator. 
 
 
 Solution. 
 
 
 Solution. 
 
 1 
 
 No. ot 
 lateral. 
 
 Not 
 
 evaporated. 
 
 Evaporated. 
 
 No. of 
 lateral. 
 
 Not 
 
 evaporated. 
 
 Evaporated. 
 
 Pounds 
 per million as 
 Nag C0 3 . 
 
 Pounds 
 per milliofi 
 
 Na 2 C0 3 . 
 
 Pounds 
 per million 
 Nag C0 3 . 
 
 Pounds 
 per million 
 Na 2 C0 3 . 
 
 1 
 
 358.3 
 
 68.92 
 
 6 
 
 307.5 
 
 32.87 
 
 2 
 
 344.5 
 
 47.71 
 
 9 
 
 318.1 
 
 40.29 
 
 3 
 
 360.4 
 
 95.45 
 
 10 
 
 324.4 
 
 36.04 
 
 4 
 
 355.1 
 
 71.02 
 
 11 
 
 342 5 
 
 34.98 
 
 5 
 
 339.2 
 
 62.55 
 
 12 
 
 337.1 
 
 42.40 
 
 Mean . . 
 
 
 
 
 338.71 
 
 53.232 ‘ 
 
 
 
 
 
 As it was possible to have easy access to the water draining away 
 from the humus soil under investigation it appeared desirable to test 
 the influence of this water on the growth of corn in the plant house, us- 
 ing a different quality of water as a check, working upon the hypothesis 
 that if the soil water contained a toxic or otherwise injurious principle 
 its effect would become evident. 
 
 To carry out the work the conditions were planned to use as much 
 water as praticable by arranging for as large an evaporation as could 
 be secured. 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 2l 
 
 Two galvanized iron trays 83 in. long, 6 in. wide and 6 in. deep, coated 
 inside with asphalt paint, were filled with soil, two with a sandy loam 
 and two with a clay loam in good moisture condition for plant growth. 
 When filled the two trays with clay loam contained 165.5 and 165.75 lbs. 
 and the two with sandy loam 175.25 and 178 lbs., respectively. 
 
 In order to keep the soil warm and the air dry the trays were placed 
 upon boards resting upon brick on the top of' the steam radiator in the 
 plant house, conditions which secured a soil temperature of about 80° F. 
 and a high root pressure. To make the consumption of water still more 
 rapid nine hills of corn were planted in each tray, each with 6 kernels. 
 The drain water for two of the trays was brought fresh from the silt 
 well, referred to above, the day it was used and, for the other two, rain 
 water or melted snow collected from the roof of the plant house was 
 employed. The trays were watered as often as needed to keep the soil 
 moist, usually every two or three days; and four repetitions of the ex- 
 periment were made beginning Nov. 2, 1898, and closing June 29, 1899. 
 
 Table showing the amount of water used and the dry matter pro- 
 duced when watering corn with drainage water from humus 
 soil and with rain water . 
 
 
 
 
 Sandy Loam. 
 
 
 
 Clay Loam. 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 Drain water. 
 
 Soft water. 
 
 Drain water. 
 
 Soft water. 
 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Dry 
 
 matter. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Dry 
 
 matter. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Dry 
 
 matter. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Dry 
 
 matter. 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 ) 
 
 Gms. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Gms. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Gms. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Gms. 
 
 to 
 
 Dec. 29 
 
 Dec. 29 
 
 1 
 
 y 206 
 
 ) 
 
 61.5 
 
 206 
 
 65.5 
 
 243 
 
 46.5 
 
 243 
 
 64.0 
 
 to 
 
 Feb. 21 
 
 Feb. 21 
 
 < 
 
 y 198 
 
 73.0 
 
 198 
 
 74.9 
 
 225 
 
 97.4 
 
 225 
 
 89.9 
 
 to 
 
 Apr. 10 
 
 Apr. 10 
 
 
 - 231 
 
 ) 
 
 127.4 
 
 234 
 
 106.3 
 
 250 
 
 136.0 
 
 250 
 
 123.8 
 
 to 
 
 June 20 
 
 j 
 
 ► 288 
 
 222.2 
 
 286 
 
 149.5 
 
 304 
 
 228.0 
 
 304 
 
 149.5 
 
 Sum. 
 
 
 926 
 
 484.1 
 
 924 
 
 396.2 
 
 1,022 
 
 508.3 
 
 1,022 
 
 427.2 
 
22 
 
 Bulletin No. 80 . 
 
 The total water added to the 6 inches in depth of soil and other data 
 are as follows: 
 
 
 Sandy Loam. 
 
 Clay Loam. 
 
 Soft water. 
 
 Drain 
 
 water. 
 
 Soft water. 
 
 Drain 
 
 water. 
 
 Inches of water added 
 
 51.37 
 
 51.48 
 
 .3136 
 
 .0493 
 
 .1917 
 
 .2415 
 
 .6158 
 
 56.82 
 
 56.82 
 
 .3462 
 
 .0544 
 
 .2117 
 
 .2665 
 
 .6796 
 
 Total carbonates added in lbs 
 
 Total nominal alkalies added 
 
 
 
 Total Mg 0 added in water, lbs 
 
 
 
 Pounds of Mg O per acre added 
 
 
 
 Pounds per acre added if the Mg',0 were 
 half carbonate and half sulphate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It would appear from the data of this table and the last that this 
 series of trials fail to show that the soil water is more harmful than 
 ordinary rain water collected from the roof of the plant house, and yet 
 the drainage water added may have carried to the soil as much magne- 
 sium in the form of salts as we added to the humus soil in the other 
 series of trials. 
 
 It is true that we did not make these trials with the humus soil, but 
 this appeared to us legitimate as we wished to avoid the possibility of 
 the soil itself being a necessary factor in developing the injurious in- 
 fluence and it was for this reason that we chose soils known to be fer- 
 tile. 
 
 In crowding the soils as severely as we did it is probable that we 
 should have supplied soluble plant foods to both sets of trays in order 
 to avoid starvation effects obscuring or overshadowing the ones we were 
 seeking; this is suggested by the fact that during the first period the 
 soft water produced the largest yields; it was- our fear, however, that 
 this difference might have been due to a difference in temperature and 
 to eliminate this possible effect the positions of the trays were reversed 
 on the radiator. Temperature could not have been a disturbing factor 
 in the last period where the differences are most marked, the drainage 
 water giving the 1»"Y~ yields. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF HUMUS SOILS BY THOROUGH DRAINAGE. 
 
 If the difficulty with the soils is an accumulation of soluble salts to 
 an injurious extent on account of a large evaporation of water from 
 them in consequence of the ground water being so close to the surface, 
 then thorough drainage should help, provided this will lessen the 
 amount of vaporation or increase the amount of percolation and leach- 
 ing. 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 23 
 
 It was decided to begin on March, 1, 1899, a test of the influence of 
 thorough drainage or leaching on the growth of corn on these humus 
 soils in the plant house and for this purpose the cylinders were divided 
 into three groups so as to include among those leached those which had 
 before received the different kinds of treatment described. Those to be 
 leached and not leached are indicated by their numbers in the table 
 which follows: 
 
 
 Not 
 
 treated. 
 
 Treated with 
 MgCOa 
 
 Treated with 
 MgS0 4 
 
 Poorest soil leached 
 
 3- 8-13 
 
 4- 9-14 
 
 7—12—15 
 
 Poorest soil not leached 
 
 1- 6-16 
 
 2-11-17 
 
 5-10-18 
 
 Best soil leached 
 
 24-29-34 
 
 23-28-33 
 
 22-25-30 
 
 Best soil not leached 
 
 21-31-36 
 
 20-26-35 
 
 19-27-32 
 
 In beginning the treatment, all of the cylinders were given water to 
 bring them to standard weight. Weighed quantities of water were then 
 added to the cylinders to be leached, from time to time, as indicated in 
 the table which follows: 
 
 March 1, P. M. -water added 
 
 March 2, A. M. water added 
 
 March 2, P. M. water added 
 
 March 3, A. M. water added 
 
 March 3, P. M. water added 
 
 March 4, P. M. water added 
 
 The outlets were closed and the water held on until A. M. March 5. 
 
 March 6, P. M. water added 
 
 March 7, A. M. water added 
 
 The outlets are again closed until March 8, A. M. 
 
 Total water drained through 1, 
 
 180 lbs. = 4.896 in 
 200 lbs. = 5 44 in. 
 2001bs. = 5.44 in. 
 200 lbs. = 5.44 in. 
 200 lbs. = 5.44 in. 
 200 lbs. = 5 44 in. 
 
 200 lbs. = 5 44 in. 
 200 lbs. = 5.44 in. 
 
 580 lbs. =42.976 in. 
 
 As soon as the soil was dry enough, after this leaching of nearly 43 
 inches of water through it, corn was planted on March 23, which was 
 allowed to grow until May 26, 64 days, when the crop was removed and 
 the dry matter determined, there being four hills in each cylinder with 
 two stalks in a hill. The yields were as follows: 
 
u 
 
 Bulletin No. 80 , 
 
 Table showing the influence of leaching humus soil not treated and 
 treated with magnesium carbonate and sulphate. 
 
 • 
 
 Not Treated 
 
 Treated with 
 Magnesia 
 Alba. 
 
 Treated with 
 Magnesium 
 Sulphate 
 
 No. of 
 Cyl. 
 
 Dry 
 
 matter. 
 
 No. 
 
 of Cyl. 
 
 Dry 
 
 matter. 
 
 No. 
 
 of Cyl. 
 
 Dry 
 
 matter, 
 
 
 
 gms, 
 
 
 gms. 
 
 
 gms. 
 
 ( 
 
 3 
 
 141.8 
 
 4 
 
 92.7 
 
 7 
 
 91.0 
 
 Poorest soil leached < 
 
 8 
 
 121.5 
 
 9 
 
 128.0 
 
 12 
 
 74.5 
 
 l 
 
 13 
 
 93.5 
 
 14 
 
 63.8 
 
 15 
 
 67.1 
 
 Sum 
 
 
 356 8 
 
 
 284.5 
 
 
 232.6 
 
 ( 
 
 ! 
 
 114.8 
 
 2 
 
 78.2 
 
 
 323.0 
 
 Poorest soil not leached . . •< 
 
 6 
 
 284.5 
 
 11 
 
 143.9 
 
 10 
 
 239.7 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 131.3 
 
 17 
 
 74.8 
 
 18 
 
 120.2 
 
 Sum 
 
 
 510.6 
 
 
 296.9 
 
 
 6'2 9 
 
 C 
 
 24 
 
 299.3 
 
 23 
 
 151 3 
 
 22 
 
 221.0 
 
 Best soil leached < 
 
 29 
 
 195.0 
 
 28 
 
 313.3 
 
 25 
 
 278.5 
 
 l 
 
 34 
 
 206.8 
 
 33 
 
 238.3 
 
 30 
 
 230 1 
 
 Sum 
 
 
 701.1 
 
 
 702.9 
 
 
 729.6 
 
 ( 
 
 21 
 
 435.3 
 
 20 
 
 332.3 
 
 19 
 
 399.1 
 
 Best soil not leached. ■< 
 
 31 
 
 401.3 
 
 26 
 
 274.5 
 
 27 
 
 483.6 
 
 ( 
 
 36 
 
 323.3 
 
 35 
 
 212.0 
 
 32 
 
 410.8 ‘ 
 
 Sum 
 
 
 1,159.9 
 
 
 818.8 
 
 
 1,293.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the data in this table it is clear that the immediate effect of 
 leaching the humus soil was to lessen its ability to support plant life. 
 This will be more evident from the condensed table below: 
 
 
 Not Treated. 
 
 Treated with Mag- 
 nesia Alba. 
 
 Treated with Mag- 
 nesium Sulphate. 
 
 
 Poorest 
 
 soil. 
 
 Best soil. 
 
 Poorest 
 
 soil. 
 
 Best soil. 
 
 Poorest 
 
 soil. 
 
 Best soil. 
 
 Soil not leached 
 
 gins. 
 
 510.6 
 
 gms. 
 
 1,159.9 
 
 gms. 
 
 291.9 
 
 gms. 
 
 818.8 
 
 gms. 
 
 682.9 
 
 gms. 
 
 1,293.5 
 
 Soil leached 
 
 356 8 
 
 701.1 
 
 284 5 
 
 702.9 
 
 232.6 
 
 729.6 
 
 Loss by leach 
 ing 
 
 153.8 
 
 458.8 
 
 12.4 
 
 115.9 
 
 450.3 
 
 563.9 
 
 This grouping of the data shows in how pronounced a manner the 
 leaching has reduced the productiveness of the soil. 
 
 Referring again to the influence of the magnesium salts it will be 
 seen that the effect of the magnesia alba is so prejudicial that it greatly 
 obscures the effect of the leaching, while the magnesium sulphate ap- 
 pears to have increased the yield. 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 25 
 
 EFFECT OF LEACHING ON THE AMOUNT OF NITRIC ACID IN HUMUS SOILS. 
 
 Immediately after the above crop was removed from the ground com- 
 posite samples of the surface foot of soil were taken and the nitric acid 
 in them determined with the results given below: 
 
 Table showing the effect of leaching on the amount of nitric acid in 
 humus soils 64 days later. The results are in pounds per million 
 of the dry soil. 
 
 
 Not leached. 
 
 Leached. 
 
 Nitric acid, poorest soil ; lbs. per million 
 
 1,026.7 
 
 99.7 
 
 Dry matter in crop, poorest soil : gms 
 
 1,490.4 
 
 458.2 
 
 873.9 
 
 Nitric acid, bast soil ; lbs. per million 
 
 16.29 
 
 Dry matter in crop, best soil ; gms 
 
 3,272.2 
 
 2,133.2 
 
 
 
 It will be seen that the change in the nitric acid content of the two 
 soils under the leaching has been very marked, but the relative yields 
 of dry matter are such as to make it appear that the reduction of yield 
 cannot be ascribed to the loss of nitric acid. Indeed, there was nothing 
 in the appearance of the corn when growing that would suggest nitrogen 
 starvation. It will be seen from the table that 16 pounds of nitric acid 
 to a million pounds of the best dry soil on the leached cylinders is as- 
 sociated with a yield about 2.5 times that on the poor soil leached, and 
 yet this contained six times the amount of nitric acid in the best soil. 
 
 When this stage of the investigations had been reached it appeared 
 to us clear that either some other essential plant food than nitric acid 
 had been washed out by the leaching or else that some toxic principle 
 had been developed which was responsible for the difference in yield 
 observed and a series of trials were planned to test the two hypotheses. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF ORGANIC AND COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS ON HUMUS SOILS IN 
 THE PLANT HOUSE. 
 
 It has been pointed out that coarse farmyard manure is extremely 
 helpful to these humus soils, while liquid farmyard manure and most 
 .of the ordinary commercial fertilizers, except the potash salts, exert 
 a very small effect. It has also been shown that cut straw and some of 
 the potash salts improve the yield, the cut straw being nearly as ef- 
 fective as the potash fertilizers used. Further, it has been shown that 
 corn following clover immediately, when the soil was filled with the 
 clover roots, was much improved by it, but that when time enough had 
 
Bulletin No. 80 . 
 
 2(j 
 
 been allowed for the roots to decay before planting no apparent benefit 
 was experienced. 
 
 Again, it has been shown that the first crop taken from humus soils 
 when they contain much undecayed, organic matter, is likely to be bet- 
 ter than those which follow, if nothing is added to them. We have 
 shown, too, that the effect which these coarse organic materials exert 
 upon humus soils is not clearly ascribed to any purely physical influence 
 they may exert, either in the direction of better soil ventilation or bet- 
 ter moisture relations. Moreover, it was known that some conditions 
 exist which often cause the roots of the growing crop to die or fail 
 to develop, much as if they had been injured by an excess of black 
 alkali. 
 
 An effort was next made to devise a treatment of the surface soil to 
 neutralize any toxic or otherwise injurious principle which might be 
 concentrated, through capillarity and surface evaporation, where the 
 new whorls of corn roots are forming in the surface soil; reasoning 
 that if such a disturbing influence existed, and this could be avoided in 
 the surface three inches, then young roots might be able to become so 
 mature, and their tender active surfaces so far below the zone of most 
 concentrated solutions in the soil water, as to continue to grow in the 
 deeper soil and render a more nearly normal service to the plant. 
 
 To avoid the use of farmyard manure, whose value was known, and 
 yet to have something which should possess some of its essential quali- 
 ties, finely ground rye straw was chosen as one material, the greater 
 part of farmyard manure being in reality finely ground vegetable fiber 
 of one kind or another. As materials containing more plant food and 
 yet possessing some of the structural characters of farmyard manure 
 we selected ground oats, ground corn and ground rye. To vary these 
 relations still further it was planned to use in one series the ground 
 straw, oats, corn and rye by themselves; in another to introduce potas-, 
 sium carbonate; in another calcium phosphate; and in still another 
 these two fertilizers mixed in equal parts by weight. 
 
 The plan of carrying out the trials is represented in Fig. 10 where 
 the large circle represents one of the soil cylinders and the four smaller 
 ones inside represent strips of galvanized iron four inches broad forced 
 into the soil to a depth of three inches in each case. The object of these 
 strips of metal was to keep the treated surface three inches of soil sep- 
 arate from that outside, not treated, and to prevent any young root tips 
 from coming in contact with untreated soil until they had attained a 
 depth exceeding 3 inches and therefore below the zone of greatest con- 
 centration of soil solutions. 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 2 ? 
 
 The thirty-six cylinders were divided into groups and treated accord- 
 ing to the schedule which follows: 
 
 Treatment with ground straw. 
 
 Poorest soil, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4. Best soil, Nos. 36, 35, 34, 33. 
 
 Treatment ivith ground oats. 
 
 Poorest soil, Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8. Best soil, Nos. 32, 31, 30, 29. 
 
 Treatment with ground corn. 
 
 Poorest soil, Nos. 9, 10, 11, 12. Best soil, Nos. 28, 27, 26, 25. 
 
 Treatment with ground rye. 
 
 Poorest soil, Nos. 14, 15, 16, 17. Best soil, Nos. 23, 22, 21, 20. 
 
 Treatment with ground rye. 
 
 Poorest soil, Nos. 13-18. Best soil, Nos. 24-19. 
 
 Fig. 10. — Showing the manner of subdividing the large cylinders to study the influence 
 of treating the surface soil. The large circle represents a cylinder; the small part 
 circles represent the 4-iuch strips of galvanized iron which were used to sepaiate 
 the treated from the untreated soil • the numbers are the numbers of hills used in 
 the tables and in the text. ff 
 
 When it came to planting, the soil within each of the circles 1, 2, 3, 4, 
 Pig. 10 was removed to a depth of 3 inches, into a pail, and with it was 
 mixed 50 gms. of ground straw, oats, corn or rye as the case might be. 
 This treatment is at the rate of 357.3 lbs. per acre where corn is planted 
 
28 
 
 Bulletin Bo. 80 . 
 
 3 ft. 8 in. apart both ways, or at the rate of 6,114 lbs. per acre, if the 
 whole surface of the field were treated at the same rate. 
 
 All hills numbered 1 received only the straw, oats, corn or rye. All 
 hills numbered 2 received in addition 6.6 gms. of calcium phosphate, 
 which was mixed thoroughly with the organic fertilizer before that 
 was mixed with the soil. All hills numbered 3 received 6.6 gms. of 
 potassium carbonate, and hills numbered 4 received 3.3 gms. of calcium 
 phosphate and 3.3 gms. of potassium carbonate. All hills numbered 5, 
 except those in cylinders Nos. 13-18 and Nos. 24-19, were not treated in 
 any way and were intended as checks on the other four. To the hills 
 numbered 5, in 13-18 and 24-19, there was added 5 gms. of potassium 
 nitrate and 5 gms. of calcium phosphate. 
 
 This experiment was started May 27, four kernels of corn being 
 planted in each hill, which were thinned later to two stalks. Before 
 the soil removed from the circles was returned to place, a little of the 
 fertilizers reserved for the purpose was sprinkled over the top of the 
 unstirred soil in the ring and the corn dropped upon this, when the 
 kernels were covered by returning the treated soil. 
 
 In watering the corn, the cylinders before planting had been brought 
 to standard weight and then were held there by adding water once per 
 week or once in two weeks, as needed. The water was added by cupfuls 
 in rotation on the several hills, each hill within the ring always receiv- 
 ing the same amount, and the portion of the cylinder outside a propor- 
 tionate amount as nearly as could be estimated. 
 
 This trial was allowed to run from May 27 to July 6, 39 days, when 
 the corn was cut and the amount of dry matter in each group of hills 
 of like treatment determined. 
 
 Table showing influence of organic and mineral fertilizers on 
 humus soil. Yield of dry matter in gms. 
 
 
 Poorest Soil. East Side. 
 
 Best Soil, West Side. 
 
 Nos. of hills: 
 
 l 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 l 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Ground straw 
 
 68.7 
 
 67.0 
 
 237.7 
 
 210.8 
 
 52.2 
 
 131.2 
 
 92.0 
 
 221.2 
 
 189.0 
 
 104.7 
 
 Ground oats 
 
 60.0 
 
 69 7 
 
 277.5 
 
 184.2 
 
 45.7 
 
 118.2 
 
 83.2 
 
 227.6 
 
 207.5 
 
 93.4 
 
 Ground corn 
 
 53.4 
 
 62.9 
 
 260 3 
 
 208.5 
 
 29.7 
 
 ! 108.0 
 
 69.0 
 
 288.2 
 
 211.7 
 
 84.2 
 
 Ground rye 
 
 77.0 
 
 72 9 
 
 301.9 
 
 244.0 
 
 23.9 
 
 108.9 
 
 90.9 
 
 256.4 
 
 232.0 
 
 107.5 
 
 Sums 
 
 259.1 
 
 272.5 
 
 1077.4 
 
 847.5 
 
 % 
 
 151.5 
 
 466.3 
 
 335.1 
 
 993.4 
 
 840.2 
 
 389.8 
 
 It will be seen from this table that the hills, Nos. 3, to which potas- 
 sium carbonate was given, have had their yields much more increased 
 than any others; further, the hills receiving the heaviest applications 
 have been most increased. Not only has this been true, but in both of 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 29 
 
 these cases the effect of the potash has been to increase the yield on the 
 poorest soil to an amount exceeding that of the potash treated hills on 
 the best soil. 
 
 The phosphate of lime, given to hills Nos. 2, has had little effect, but 
 appears to have increased the yield on the poorest soil a little and to 
 have decreased it on the best soil. Figs. 11, 12 and 13 show the crops 
 grown on the cylinders given ground straw and ground oats. 
 
 Hills 52143 34 12 5 
 
 Poorest soil. Best soil. 
 
 Fig. 11.— Showing the effect of different treatments of the surface three inches of black 
 
 marsh soil. 
 
 Hills 5 grew on untreated soil ; hills 1 were treated with ground ' straw ; .hills 2 were 
 treated with calcium phosphate and ground straw ; hills 3 were treated with potassium 
 carbonate and ground straw; hills 4 were treated with ground straw and half the 
 quantity of calcium phosphate and potassium carbonate, which were given to hi 
 2 and 3. 
 
 Hills. 52 1 43 341 2 5 
 
 Poorest soil. Best soil . 
 
 Fig. 12.— Same as Fig 11 except that ground cats have teen used instead of ground 
 
 straw. 
 
30 
 
 Bulletin No. 80 . 
 
 Hills. 5214 33 4 125 
 
 Poorest soil. Best soil. 
 
 Fig. 13.— Same as Fig. 11, but second crop. 
 
 Comparing the sums it will be seen that the heaviest dressing of pot- 
 ash on the poorest soil has increased the yield over no treatment seven- 
 fold and on the best soil two fold. 
 
 If, to compare the effect of organic fertilizers, we take the sums the 
 other way in the table, omitting the columns 5, or hills receiving noth- 
 ing, it will appear that the ground straw on the 1 whole has been least 
 beneficial, while the rye has produced the largest increase. The sums 
 are given in the table below: 
 
 Total yield of hills treated with 
 
 
 Poorest soil. 
 
 Best soil. 
 
 Ground straw ; 
 
 575.2 
 
 633.4 
 
 Ground oats 
 
 591.1 
 
 636.5 
 
 Ground corn 
 
 657.1 
 
 676.9 
 
 Ground ryo 
 
 695 8 
 
 688.2 
 
 
 The progressive increase in the table can hardly be due to peculiari- 
 ties of the cylinders because if the yields from the hills receiving no 
 treatment are compared, it will be seen that there the progression is 
 on the whole in the opposite direction. 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 31 
 
 In the case of the four cylinders Nos. 13-18 and 24-19, where potas- 
 sium nitrate was given to the center, or No. 5 hills, the increase in yield 
 was equally marked, being as follows: 
 
 Table showing influence of potassium nitrate on humus soil. 
 
 No. of hills 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Poorest soil 
 
 22 5 
 
 33.5 
 
 145 
 
 70.5 
 
 110.7 
 
 Best soil 
 
 39.5 
 
 42.0 
 
 115.2 
 
 87.9 
 
 123.7 
 
 Here it is seen that hills 3, 4 and 5, all of which received potash, are 
 much ahead of the other two; and also that both the potassium car- 
 bonate and nitrate have increased the yield of the poorest soil until it 
 has exceeded or nearly equaled that of the similar treatment on the 
 best soil. 
 
 It appears therefore from these trials that either the potash, which 
 “official” chemical analysis shows to be in these soils, is only partly 
 available or else that the potassium carbonate and nitrate, in some man- 
 ner, exert a corrective influence upon some injurious condition or prin- 
 ciple in the soil. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF POTASH SALTS ON HUMUS SOILS. 
 
 After securing the results with potassium carbonate and nitrate re- 
 ported above, it was decided to plant a second crop upon the same areas 
 in the cylinders but to add other potash salts to some of them to see 
 if there was any notable difference in the influence they exerted. The 
 salts containing potash which were chosen, in addition to the two 
 named, were wood ashes, kainite, and potassium chloride and sulphate. 
 
 The hills chosen for these trials were all of those numbered 1 and 5 
 in both the east and west series, excepting the four which had re- 
 ceived K N0 3 Hills numbered 5 were selected for the trials with wood 
 ashes, alternate cylinders being treated with 30 gms. of water-free fresh 
 red oak ashes directly from the grate, sown upon the surface and 
 worked in. The planting was done on July 7. When the corn was cut 
 on August 24 and the dry matter determined, the results stood as shown 
 in the table below: 
 
 Table showing the effect of wood ashes on humus soils applied to the 
 hills at the rate of 214.2 lbs . per acre. 
 
 
 Poorest Soil. 
 
 Best Soil. 
 
 
 Nothing. 
 
 jwood ashes. 
 
 Nothing. 
 
 Wood ashes. 
 
 Dry matter 
 
 71.5 
 
 414.2 
 
 156.4 
 
 475.9 
 
32 
 
 Bulletin No. 80 . 
 
 Here it is clear that a very marked improvement is assoc'/xted with 
 the use of the ashes and that the poorest soil is most benefited. 
 
 In the case of the other salts they were not applied until July 13, after 
 the corn was up, the solids being spread upon the surface after having 
 been thoroughly pulverized in a mortar. After sowing, they were 
 stirred into the soil and the soil watered. Hills numbers 1 were used 
 for this series and were treated as follows: 
 
 Given nothing Nos. 1-7-13 and Nos. 36-30-24. 
 
 Given 5.5 gins, of K 2 SO 4 Nos. 2 - 8 - U and Nos. 35-29-23. 
 
 Given 5.8 gms. of KC1 Nos. 3-9-15 and Nos. 34-28-22. 
 
 Given 2.8 gms. of K 2 S0 4 + 2.9 KC1 Nos. 4-10-16 and Nos. 33-27-21. 
 
 Given 5.5 gms. kainite Nos. 5-11-17 and Nos. 32-26-20. 
 
 Given 11 gms. kainite Nos. 6-12-18 and Nos. 31-25-19. 
 
 The Kainite used in these trials contained 12.8 per cent. ofK 2 O. 
 
 The yields of dry matter in these cases, compared with the alternate 
 hills receiving nothing, are as represented in the next table, where the 
 numbers have been multiplied by three to make the number of hills 
 comparable with the wood ashes. In the same table are also placed the 
 results from the other potash salts. 
 
 Table showing the effect of potash salts on the yield of corn grown 
 on humus soils in the plant house. 
 
 
 Poorest Soil. 
 
 Best Soil. 
 
 
 Potash. 
 
 Nothing. 
 
 Potash. 
 
 Nothing. 
 
 Dry matter with wood ashes 
 
 414.2 
 
 71 5 
 
 475.9 
 
 156.4 
 
 Dry matter with potassium nitrate K NO 3 . .. 
 
 586.8 
 
 101.3 
 
 587.7 
 
 117.8 
 
 Dry matter with potassium sulphate K 2 SO 4 
 
 961.7 
 
 180.5 
 
 635.7 
 
 311 5 
 
 Dry matter with patassium chloride K CL.. 
 
 " (ptb 
 
 Dry matter with K 2 SO 4 + K Cl 
 
 Plants 
 
 killed. 
 
 180.5 
 
 Plants 
 
 killed. 
 
 311.5 
 
 Plants 
 
 killed. 
 
 180.5 
 
 Plants 
 
 killed. 
 
 311.5 
 
 Dry matter with 5.5 gms. kainite 
 
 301.1 
 
 180.5 
 
 353.7 
 
 311.5 
 
 Dry matter with 11 gms. kainite 
 
 441.5 
 
 180.5 
 
 642.2 
 
 311.5 
 
 Dry matter with potassium carbonate 
 
 737.8 
 
 180.5 
 
 772.7 
 
 311.5 
 
 It is clear from this table that the potash salts, except the chloride, 
 very materially improve these humus soils, and the poorest type more 
 than the best. The sulphate appears to have exerted the greatest effect 
 and to have carried the yield on the poorest soil far ahead of that of 
 the same treatment on the best soil. Fig. 14 is a view of this crop of 
 corn in the plant house before cutting. 
 
 
 
 M/X* !<ji3 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 33 
 
 FIELD TESTS OF POTASSIUM CARBONATE AND WOOD ASHES. 
 
 The effect of both potassium carbonate and wood ashes was tested 
 in the field on the two plots already referred to. The ashes were the 
 same as those used in the plant house but were taken from the pile 
 rathe: than directly fronrthe grate, and had been wet with rain but not 
 leached. They were applied directly at the surface about each hill 
 June 27 after the corn was up, covering nearly a square foot of surface 
 in 100 gm. lots, or about at the rate of 714.6 lbs. per acre for hills 3 ft. 
 8 in. apart each way. On the plot where the soil is best and giving the 
 largest yield, to which alone the ashes were applied, they increased the 
 yield 41.19 per cent. 
 
 Fig. 14. — Shows the second crop of corn on the black marsh soil cylinders after the 
 surface three inches of soil had been treated in different ways. 
 
 On the same date that the wood ashes were applied potassium car- 
 bonate was given to two rows in each of the two plots. It was dissolved 
 in water and applied in a shallow furrow drawn around each hill about 
 12 inches in diameter. The amount applied was at the rate of 27.62 
 lbs. per acre where the hills are 3 ft. 8 in. apart each way. On the best, 
 soil the increase in yield was 24.5 per cent., but on the poorest soil only 
 10.47 per cent. 
 
u 
 
 Bulletin No. SO. 
 
 One-half the amount of sodium carbonate dissolved in water and ap- 
 plied in the same manner to four rows of hills, two on each plot, failed 
 to produce any measurable effect upon the yield. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF ORGANIC FERTILIZERS ON THE FIELD. 
 
 Trials in the field were made of the influence of straw, ground coarse 
 and fine, and of ground oats and ground corn as a check upon the work 
 in the plant house. No fertilizers, however, were' used with these. 
 The materials were applied at about the same rate per hill as in the 
 plant house and, in doing the work, a metal ring one foot in diameter 
 was pressed into the ground, where the hills were to be, and about 2 
 inches in depth of soil removed, with which the straw or meal was 
 mixed in a pail and then returned to cover the corn, after the bottom 
 of the hill had been sprinkled with the fertilizer used. 
 
 Every third row in the two plots were treated in this way, giving a 
 series arranged as stated below: 
 
 First two rows not treated. 1 
 
 3rd row treated with courss ground straw. 
 
 4th and 5th rows not treated. 
 
 6th row treated with fine cut straw. 
 
 7th and 8th rows not treated. 
 
 9th row treated with ground oats. 
 
 10th and 11th rows not treated. 
 
 12th row treated with ground corn. 
 
 This series was repeated until all the rows of each plot were included. 
 In making a study of the effect of each treatment, the yield of the two 
 rows not treated is compared with the yield of the treated row between 
 them. 
 
 The effects of these treatments are shown in the table which follows, 
 containing the green weight of well matured whole plants by rows: 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 35 
 
 Table showing the effect of organic fertilizers on the y ield of corn on 
 
 humus soil. 
 
 Ground Straw. 
 
 Ground Mead. 
 
 Nothing. 
 
 Course. 
 
 Nothing. 
 
 Fine. 
 
 Nothing. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Nothing. 
 
 Corn. 
 
 Plot south of lane. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 172.0 
 
 
 147.5 
 
 
 168 .5 
 
 
 176.2 
 
 
 156.8 
 
 146.0 
 
 181.5 
 
 131.5 
 
 164.6 
 
 144.0 
 
 163 9 
 
 141.7 
 
 158.5 
 
 
 160.9 
 
 
 181.1 
 
 
 170.9 
 
 
 183.0 
 
 152.5 
 
 174.1 
 
 155.0 
 
 160.2 
 
 144.8 
 
 190 6 
 
 155.5 
 
 183.8 
 
 
 151.8 
 
 
 142.2 
 
 
 169.4 
 
 
 205.2 
 
 165.2 
 
 123.5 
 
 142.9 
 
 126.3 
 
 117.3 
 
 170.7 
 
 141.5 
 
 186.9 
 
 
 98.9 
 
 
 123.9 
 
 
 120 9 
 
 
 125.6 
 
 165.8 
 
 119.7 
 
 124.0 
 
 134 3 
 
 122.8 
 
 125.7 
 
 115.1 
 
 100 5 
 
 
 130.1 
 
 
 144.7 
 
 
 136.1 
 
 
 119.3 
 
 125.3 
 
 123. 
 
 139.2 
 
 124.2 
 
 138.2 
 
 138.5 
 
 140.6 
 
 885 8 
 
 754.8 
 
 707.6 
 
 692.6 
 
 735.0 
 
 607.1 
 
 781.4 
 
 694.4 
 
 Plot north of lane. 
 
 84.7 
 
 
 82.0 
 
 
 105.8 
 
 
 110.7 
 
 
 85.5 
 
 104.4 
 
 109.3 
 
 100.9 
 
 91.8 
 
 122.6 
 
 114.3 
 
 119.4 
 
 109.1 
 
 
 109 7 
 
 
 149.6 
 
 
 149.0 
 
 
 87.3 
 
 139.7 
 
 107.1 
 
 114.3 
 
 157.2 
 
 148.0 
 
 127.4 
 
 152.0 
 
 93.7 
 
 
 95.2 
 
 
 151.5 
 
 
 157.3 
 
 
 75.3 
 
 91.1 
 
 149.8 
 
 119.7 
 
 128.9 
 
 128.9 
 
 115.4 
 
 110.5 
 
 88.3 
 
 
 101.6 
 
 
 117.9 
 
 
 151.8 
 
 
 89.9 
 
 113.7 
 
 134.5 
 
 111.8 ! 
 
 129.6 
 
 141.1 
 
 122.8 
 
 126.8 
 
 108.8 
 
 
 105.6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 101.1 
 
 100.3 
 
 102.5 
 
 98 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 461.9 
 
 549.2 
 
 498.7 
 
 535.3 
 
 516.1 
 
 540.6 
 
 524 3 
 
 8 
 — 1 
 
 Under the field conditions it will be seen that, on the south side of 
 the lane, where the soil is best, the organic fertilizers have decreased 
 the yield almost without exception, but on the north side of the lane, 
 where the soil is poorest, the effect on the whole has been in the oppo- 
 site direction. In the first case the yield was decreased an average of 
 13.13 per cent, and in the other case increased 6.64 per cent. It should 
 be noted in this connection that the potassium carbonate improved the 
 yield most on the soil that the organic fertilizers have decreased the 
 yield upon. 
 
36 
 
 Bulletin No. 80 . 
 
 INFLUENCE OF GREEN MANURE ON HUMUS SOIL. 
 
 In view of the fact that coarse manure and coarse litter have been 
 observed to improve these soils it appeared important to ascertain what 
 the effect would be of plowing under a crop of green manure. This ap- 
 peared the more important because it is often very difficult to apply 
 farmyard manure to some of these lands when it would be compara- 
 tively simple to apply green manure. To test this influence, three 
 strips, twice the width of the grain drill, were sowed to oats at the rate 
 of three bushels per acre on April 22, without plowing. These sub-plots 
 crossed the others of last year at right angles and, as the corn was 
 planted in hills 30 inches apart both ways and the weight of each in- 
 dividual hill taken when mature, it was possible to study the yields 
 under the different treatments so as to note the effect on the treatment 
 of last season as well. The oats were allowed to grow until June 2, 
 when the ground was plowed, fitted and planted as already described. 
 The oats were very thick and stood a foot high before plowing under. 
 
 In comparing the yields of corn it was found that the effect of the 
 green manure had been of the same character as that of the ground 
 straw and ground meal, that is, it had improved the crop on the poor- 
 est soil but decreased the yield on the best soil. The results stand as 
 follows: 
 
 1. Green manure on best soil not manured last year decreased the yield 4.81 per cent. 
 
 2. Green manure on best soil manured last year decreased the yield to 5.00 per cent. 
 
 3. Green manure an poorest soil not manured last year increased the yield 5.49 per 
 
 cent. 
 
 4. Green manure on poorest soil manured last year increased the yield 8.32 per cent. 
 
 It should be said, however, in regard to both this and the last section, 
 that these results have occurred during a season when, for some reason, 
 the corn has been unusually heavy on both pieces of ground under treat- 
 ment. 
 
 L. 
 
 LENGTH OF TIME FARMYARD MANURE IS EFFECTIVE ON HUMUS SOIL. 
 
 The corn on the two plots of humus soil was cut and weighed at the 
 right stage for going into the silo, that is, when the ears were thor- 
 oughly hard but the stalks, husks and leaves yet green. We have com- 
 bined the weights so as to show the yield on the sub-plots which were 
 manured in 1898, and on the one manured in 1896: 
 
 Yields per acre , 1899. 
 
 Poorest soil Manured, 1898, 36.38 tons ; not manured, 26.16 tons 
 
 Poorest soil Manured, 1896, 33.85 tons ; not manured, 31.68 tons 
 
 Best soil Manured, 1898, 38.75 tons; not manured, 30.785 tons 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 37 
 
 That is to say, the farmyard manure in this season of good crops in- 
 creased the second crop on the best soil 25.88 per cent., and on the poor- 
 est soil 38.97 per cent., while the fourth crop on the poorest soil still 
 had its yield increased 6.85 per cent, by the farmyard manure of 1896. 
 
 In the case of the four plant house cylinders treated with farmyard 
 manure in December, 1896, and upon which we have grown not less 
 than three crops each season, the soil has finally reached a condition 
 when the present crop, Oct. 16, 1899, does not show to the eye any ad- 
 vantage from the manure. 
 
 CHANGE WITH TIME IN THE CHARACTER OF HUMUS SOIL AFTER LEACHING. 
 
 When the third crop, following the heavy leaching on the cylinders 
 oi humus soil, was harvested, the dry matter of each separate hill was 
 determined and this made it possible to study what effect the earlier 
 leaching had had upon this yield and also what effect the magnesium 
 sulphate and carbonate were still exerting. 
 
 It is only possible to use the series of hills numbered 2, 3 and 4 in 
 this comparison, but as they are found in all of the 36 cylinders, the 
 series is complete in that way. The following table shows the results 
 referred to: 
 
 Table showing the influence of time on the effects of leaching. 
 
 
 Not Treated. 
 
 Treated with 
 Magnesia Alba. 
 
 Treated with Mag- 
 nesium Sulphate . 
 
 
 I Best "Soil. 
 
 Poorest 
 
 soil. 
 
 Best soil. 
 
 Poorest 
 
 soil. 
 
 Best soil. 
 
 Treated with potassium carbonate . 
 
 Leached 
 
 279.5 
 
 311.6 
 
 312.1 
 
 263.1 
 
 222.2 
 
 267.9 
 
 Not leached 
 
 259.0 
 
 260.4 
 
 203.3 
 
 245.2 
 
 202.4 
 
 195.2 
 
 Difference. . . 
 
 + 20.5 
 
 + 51.2 
 
 +108.8 
 
 + 17.9 
 
 + 19.8 
 
 + 72.7 
 
 Treated with calcium phosphate . 
 
 [ 
 
 Leached 
 
 61.4 
 
 91.4 
 
 94.2 
 
 120.8 
 
 74.7 
 
 57.8 
 
 Not leached 
 
 69.3 
 
 111 1 
 
 54.8 
 
 78.2 
 
 51.6 
 
 90.1 
 
 Difference. . . 
 
 - 4.9 
 
 — 29.7 
 
 +39.4 
 
 +42.6 
 
 +23.1 
 
 -32.3 
 
 
 Treated with both phosphates 
 
 and potash 
 
 
 
 Leached 
 
 189.3 
 
 209.1 
 
 188.3 
 
 245.9 
 
 137.1 
 
 205.3 
 
 Not leached 
 
 135.3 
 
 192.6 
 
 164.9 
 
 170.2 
 
 172.7 
 
 180.1 
 
 Difference. . . 
 
 +54.0 
 
 +16.5 
 
 +23.4 
 
 +75 7 
 
 -35.6 
 
 +25.2 
 
Bulletin No. 80 . 
 
 3S 
 
 It is clear from this table that a marked change has occurred in these 
 soils since the first crop following the heavy leaching. With that crop 
 there was no exception to a profound decrease in the yield associated 
 with the leached soils. In this case, however, every cylinder which had 
 been treated with magnesia alba, and every cylinder but one which had 
 received potassium carbonate, show larger yields on the leached soils. 
 It appears as though some essential plant food had increased with time 
 after the leaching until now better yields are possible and yet there is 
 little reason to suppose that it can be the nitric acid; but it appears even 
 more strange to think that it can be potash because it is the cylinders 
 which have been given potash since the leaching which have most in- 
 creased their yield on the leached soil. This latter phase might appear 
 to suggest that some prejudicial principle or condition in the unleached 
 soils prevents the potash, or both the potash and nitric acid, from being 
 as effective as they might otherwise be. 
 
 BENEFICIAL EFFECT OF POTASH SALTS EXERTED NEAR THE SURFACE. 
 
 The working hypothesis upon which the last line of experiments with 
 the humus soils in the plant house was based is that some injurious prin- 
 ciple existed in the soil water, which is concentrated near the surface 
 by capillarity and evaporation, and that this interferes with growth by 
 killing newly forming roots but is not fatal to the older roots. 
 The aim was, if possible, to treat a sufficient amount of the surface soil 
 in a manner to destroy or neutralize the effect of this principle or condi- 
 tion, and thus provide a soil in which the newly forming roots could de- 
 velop and penetrate to some depth below the surface without coming in 
 contact with the injurious conditions. 
 
 The four inch strips of galvanized iron were used to prevent any 
 new root tips coming in contact with untreated soil until they had first 
 attained some age, and had penetrated at least to a depth of 3 inches 
 below the surface, where it was presumed the concentration of the in- 
 jurious principle was too slight to kill the roots. 
 
 It was very evident that the hills No. 5, growing outside the rings, 
 in no way derived benefit from the potash salts used inside and yet the 
 plants stood within less than 6 inches of the treated soil and cut off 
 from it in only the surface 3 inches. 
 
 The watering was done from the surface as described and often with 
 sufficient volume to wet down much more than three inches, but care 
 was taken to wet all portions alike and at nearly the same time so as 
 to avoid unnecessarily washing the salts from place to place. 
 
 It was a very great surprise to us to find that the treatment given to 
 the first crop remained so distinct and that the second crop failed to 
 show any notable influence from it except within the circles. Even in 
 the third crop, which is now upon the ground and just coming into 
 
Character and Treatment of Swamp Soil. 
 
 30 
 
 tassel Oct. 20, the No. 5, hills, which have not been treated, show no ad- 
 vantage from the potash salts, although they have been applied to the 
 soil since May 27 and the ground has been twice stirred in replanting 
 and has been heavily surface watered nearly every week. 
 
 These conditions make it appear clear that, whatever influence the 
 potash salts are exerting, the beneficial effect must be confined to the 
 surface; and it does not appear clear that this influence can be in the 
 direction of supplying needed potash for plant food, for were this the 
 main advantage it would appear that the roots from the central hills, 
 in underrunning the treated soil, must come in position to avail them- 
 selves of at least a portion of it. 
 
 Indeed in the case of all the rings treated with potassium chloride, 
 the corn plants in the center or hills 5 outside, standing nearest to this 
 circle, have either been killed or are very much affected by this soil, 
 showing that in this case there has been either diffusion of salts out- 
 ward or root penetration into the treated soil. 
 
 The ash of the plants will be examined for potash to see if those which 
 are so small and have not been given potash are notably deficient in it 
 and if the others have an unusual amount. Until this has been done 
 the light we have suggests that the action of the potash salts has in 
 some manner been indirect rather than to serve as needed plant food. 
 
 RESULTS OF WORK AT THE INDIANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 Some careful experiments conducted at the Indiana Experiment Sta- 
 tion by Prof. H. A. Huston regarding “The Improvement of Unproduct- 
 ive Black Soils,’’ Bulletin No. 57, Vol. VI, have led him to the following 
 general conclusions: 
 
 “1. Thousands of acres of ground now unproductive may be improved 
 and made the most productive corn lands in the state.” 
 
 “2. The use of straw or kainite has proved very profitable as a means 
 of temporary improvement of such lands.” 
 
 “3. The permanent improvement of such lands must be effected by 
 efficient drainage. This drainage will usually be of a special kind.” 
 
 “4. Before making any outlay for the improvement of such lands a 
 preliminary survey should be made and the system of improvement 
 should be based on the results of this survey.” 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 Of THE 
 
 DIVERSITY of ILLINOIS. 
 
 wifl. BaLL No. 81. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 81. 
 
 ANALYSES OF LICENSED COMMERCIAL FERTI- 
 LIZERS, 1900. 
 
 MADISON , WISCONSIN, APRIL, 1900. 
 
 'The Bulletins and Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon reqtiest . 
 
 Democrat Printing Company, State Printer, Madison, Wis. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, EX-OFFICIO. 
 State-at-^irge, GEORGE W. PECK, Milwaukee, 
 itate-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, GEORGE E. MERRILL, Ashland. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 GEORGE H. NOYES, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasurer 
 J. H. STOUT, Vice-President. | E. F. RILEY, Secretary, Madison. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION; 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, ---------- Director 
 
 S. M. BABCOCK, - -- -- -- -- Chief Chemist 
 
 F. H. KING, ----- .... Physicist 
 
 E. S. GOFF, - 
 W. L. CARLYLE, 
 
 F. W. WOLL, 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON, 
 
 A. R. WHITSON,* - 
 A. G. HOPKINS, 
 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, 
 
 E. G. HASTINGS, 
 
 R. A. MOORE, - 
 U. S. BAER, - 
 FREDERIC CRANEFIELD, 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, 
 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, 
 
 Horticulturist 
 
 - Animal Husbandry 
 
 Chemist 
 Bacteriologist 
 Dairy Husbandry 
 
 - Assistant Physicist 
 
 - Veterinarian 
 
 - Assistant Chemist 
 Assistant Bacteriologist 
 
 Assistant to Director 
 Dairying 
 
 Assistant Horticulturist 
 
 - Farm Superintendent 
 
 Clerk 
 
 Librarian 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, - - - - - - - Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, Olerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory [Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
 *After May 1, 1900. 
 
ANALYSES OF LICENSED COMMERCIAL FERTI- 
 LIZERS, 1900. 
 
 F. W. WOLL and ALFRED VIVIAN. 
 
 The present bulletin is published in accordance with Wisconsin Stat- 
 utes of 1898, sec. 149 id, and gives the results of the analyses of fertilizers 
 licensed to be sold in this state during the 'current calendar year. The 
 general subject of commercial fertilizers has been discussed in some detail 
 in earlier publications of our Station, and the explanations there given as 
 to the main principles governing the application of fertilizers, will doubt- 
 less be of service to those unfamiliar with this subject. It has been 
 thought well to repeat in this place a few explanatory remarks concerning 
 technical terms met with in statements of fertilizer analyses, and to say a 
 few words about the fertilizing elements on which we have to depend for 
 maintaining or restoring the fertility of our land. 
 
 The main fertilizing ingredients which it may be essential to supply in 
 crop growing, are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. 
 
 Nitrogen may be present in fertilizers in three different forms, as ni- 
 trates, ammonia , or organic compounds. The first two forms of nitro- 
 gen are of immediate value to crops, since they are easily soluble and may 
 be readily assimilated by plants. Organic nitrogen is the form of nitrogen 
 found in fertilizers of vegetable or animal origin. Some of these, like 
 leather- or woolen scraps, hoofs, horn shavings, etc., possess very little 
 value as fertilisers, being insoluble and but slowly decomposed in the soil. 
 The fertilizer laws of many states do not recognize nitrogen contained in 
 materials of this kind as of any value. A vailable nitrogen means nitrogen 
 supplied in nitrates, ammonia salts, and organic compounds of easily de- 
 composable character, like dried blood, tankage, cotton seed meal, etc. 
 
 The nitrogenous fertilizers met with in this state are nitrate of soda, 
 tankage, and dried blood. The first mentioned fertilizer is mostly used by 
 market gardeners and florists, and is of great value in stimulating plant 
 growth. Nitrogen is the most costly ingredient of artificial fertilizers. 
 Certain kinds of plants, like the clovers, alfalfa, vetches, and other species 
 of the legume family, are able through the agency of microscopic organisms, 
 to transform the free nitrogen of the air to organic nitrogenous compounds, 
 which may be used for the nutrition of farm animals and thus indirectly, 
 or indeed directly, contribute to the supply of nitrogenous plant food ini 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 81 . 
 
 the soil. The farmer adopting a system of crop rotation in which some 
 clover or other legumes are included may therefore avoid a cash outlay for 
 nitrogenous fertilizers, and need only see that the potash- and phosphoric- 
 acid contents of his land are not unduly reduced through continuous 
 cropping. 
 
 Phosphoric acid is found in different forms in the commercial fertil- 
 izers offered for sale in this state, viz.: in combinations with calcium, iron, 
 or aluminum, some of which are soluble, and some insoluble. We distinguish 
 in fertilizer analysis between soluble , reverted and total phosphoric 
 acid. Mono-calcium phosphate (containing soluble phosphoric acid) is 
 soluble in water; di- calcium phosphate (containing reverted phosphoric 
 acid) is insoluble in water, but soluble in a strong, hot solution of ammon- 
 ium citrate, while the tri calcium phosphate (containing insoluble phos- 
 phoric acid) is insoluble in either of these liquids. The phosphoric acid 
 contained in raw animal bones, or bone meal, is in the form of tri-calcium 
 phosphate. When applied to the soil in a fine ground condition, it is 
 gradually dissolved by the juices of the plant roots and thus rendered 
 available to plants. Coarse-ground bone, on the other hand, is but slowly 
 decomposed in the soil and therefore of less value for crop production. 
 Superphosphates contain both water-soluble and citrate-soluble phos- 
 phoric acid. Broadly speaking, the water-soluble and the citrate-soluble 
 phosphoric acid are of about equal value to plants. The phosphoric acid 
 in basic slag (odorless phosphate) is largely soluble in ammonium-citrate 
 solution. Available phosphoric acid means the sum of the water-soluble 
 and the reverted phosphoric acid, and represents the phosphoric acid o£ 
 immediate value to plants. The results of the analyses are calculated on a 
 basis of the content of phosphoric anhydrid (P 3 0 5 ). 
 
 Potash is freely soluble in water in the compounds used as potassic fer- 
 tilizers. There are several kinds of potash fertilizers, as potassium sulfate, 
 muriate, silicate, and potassium-magnesium carbonate and sulfate, etc. 
 Since muriates (chlorids) have an injurious effect on the quality of certain 
 crops, notably tobacco and potatoes, the use of potash salts free from 
 muriate is in some cases desirable or even essential. Wood ashes con- 
 tain potash mainly in the form of carbonate. The results of the analyses 
 are figured on a basis of the content of potassium oxid (K 2 0). 
 
 The methods of analysis followed in the chemical work of our Station 
 are those adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists; the 
 methods are revised from year to year at the annual conventions of this 
 Association. 
 
 VALUATION OF FERTILIZERS. 
 
 The cost of commercial fertilizers in the market is governed by the laws 
 of supply and demand, as is that of all other commodities. Raw-materials 
 and chemicals, containing one or two fertilizing ingredients furnish data 
 for the calculation of the average cost of these ingredients in commercial 
 
Commercial Fertilizers. 
 
 5 
 
 fertilizers. Since the prices of the different fertilizing materials vary 
 somewhat from time to time according to the condition of the market, the 
 calculations must be revised at intervals. The average retail prices of 
 raw-materials and chemicals in the large eastern fertilizer markets for the 
 six months preceding March each year are calculated by a number of east- 
 ern experiment stations, and the cost of the different fertilizing ingredients 
 which commercial fertilizers on the market contain, is obtained on the basis 
 of these figures; these values will nearly correspond with the prices of fer- 
 tilizing materials in our main fertilizer markets, and may be used for the 
 purpose of comparing approximately the value of the various fertilizers 
 offered for sale in this state. 
 
 The trade values of fertilizing ingredients in raw-materials and chemi- 
 cals adopted for the current year are given in the following schedule. 
 
 Nitrogen— Cents per lb. 
 
 in ammonia salts 17 
 
 in nitrates 13 % 
 
 Organic Nitrogen — 
 
 in dry and fine-ground fish, meat, blood, and in high-grade mixed fertilizers. 15J4 
 
 in fine bone and tankage 15% 
 
 in coarse bone and tankage 10y 2 
 
 Phosphoric Acid — 
 
 soluble in water 1% 
 
 soluble in ammonium-citrate solution 4 
 
 in dry fine-ground fish, bone and tankage 4 
 
 in coarse bone and tankage 3 
 
 in cottonseed meal, linseed meal, castor pomace and wood ashes 4 
 
 insoluble (in ammonium-citrate solution) in mixed fertilizers 2 
 
 Potash — 
 
 as high-grade sulfate, and in forms free from muriate 5 
 
 as muriate 414 
 
 In order to obtain the valuation prices of 100 lbs. of the fertilizers licensed 
 for sale in our state, the percentages of valuable fertilizing components are 
 in each case multiplied by the prices given in the preceding schedule; 
 to this actual cost of the fertilizing ingredients contained in each fertilizer 
 should be added the expense of placing the fertilizers on the market; this 
 expense will vary considerably according to local and other conditions; 
 the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture estimates the expense as 
 follows: 
 
 Mixing $1.00 per ton. 
 
 Bagging 1.00 per ton. 
 
 Agent’s commission 20 per cent, of retail cash value 
 
 of ingredients. 
 
 Freight $2.00 per ton. 
 
 The approximate value of the various licensed fertilizers may be ascer- 
 tained by this method of calculation, and the purchaser may thus learn 
 whether or not the price asked for a certain fertilizer is about what it 
 is worth. 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 81 . 
 
 It must be remembered, however, that the valuation placed on the vari- 
 ous fertilizers by this method is a commercial , and not an agricultural 
 one. It shows the average retail cash price of the different fertilizing ingre- 
 dients plus the cost of placing the fertilizer on the market; the agricul- 
 tural value of a fertilizer depends on a number of conditions beyond the 
 control of the seller, such as the need of the soil or the crop, of the particu- 
 lar fertilizing ingredient or ingredients in question: the judgment used in 
 applying the same, as to methods, time and quantities; conditions of 
 weather, etc.; the agricultural value of a fertilizer, in other words, will 
 vary according to the season and according to the intelligent application 
 of the fertilizer; one farmer may derive full benefit from the use of a fertil- 
 izer, while to another it may be money thrown away. It is therefore evi- 
 dent that only a commercial valuation of fertilizers is ever possible; this 
 will enable persons to compare the different fertilizers offered for sale, and 
 will assist them in deciding which are the most economical ones for their 
 special purpose. 
 
 ANALYSES OF LICENSED FERTILIZERS IN WISCONSIN DURING 19C0. 
 
 The following manufacturers have taken out a license for the sale of the 
 brands of fertilizers given, in this state during the current year, in accord- 
 ance with Wisconsin Statutes of 1893, sec. 1491c. 
 
 Sta- 
 
 tion 
 
 No. 
 
 Name of Manufacturer. 
 
 Name of Brand. 
 
 34 
 
 Darling & Co., Chicago, 111 
 
 Darling’s Tobacco Special. 
 
 35 
 
 Darling & Co., Chicago, 111 
 
 Darling’s Vegetable and Lawn Fer- 
 tilizer. 
 
 36 
 
 Darling & Co., Chicago, 111 
 
 Darling’s Chicago Brand. 
 
 37 
 
 Currie Bros , Milwaukee, Wis 
 
 Currie’s Complete Fertilizer for 
 Lawns, Hay and Pasture. 
 
 
 38 
 
 Milwaukee Tallow and Grease Co., Milwau- 
 
 
 
 kee, Wis 
 
 Milwaukee Tallow and Grease Co.’s 
 Bone Meal. 
 
 39 
 
 Armour Fertilizer Works, Chicago, 111 
 
 Bone Meal. 
 
 40 
 
 Armour Fertilizer Works, Chicago, 111 
 
 Ammoniated Bone and Potash. 
 
 The Station analyses of the brands given are shown in the following 
 table. According to Wisconsin Statutes of 1898, section 1491c, each manu- 
 facturer “ shall affix to every package of fertilizer sold ... a state- 
 ment of the following fertilizing constituents, namely: The percentage of 
 nitrogen in an available form, of potash soluble in water, and of availa- 
 ble phosphoric acid, soluble and reverted, as well as total phosphoric 
 acid.” The guaranteed composition of the licensed fertilizers is given 
 in the table in connection with the results of our analyses of the samples 
 furnished by the manufacturers in compliance with the state fertilizer law. 
 
Analysis of licensed commercial fertilizers in Wisconsin, 1900. 
 
 
 Commercial Fertilizers. 
 
 CO 
 
 < 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 a* 
 
 • 
 
 
 « 3 S? S si 
 
 • O 
 
 • iA 
 
 ** l-‘ 00 r-i t- : 
 
 P-i : 
 
 
 
 o o 
 
 00 1-4 
 
 u S 
 
 t. ,_j 
 
 oo O 
 lf5 O 
 
 ■** © 
 
 gS 
 
 P 
 
 C+3 S3 
 
 °0 S 
 
 05 05 
 
 «d oo 
 
 PS n 
 
 ® 
 
 t> 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Guar- 
 
 anteed. 
 
 Pr. ct 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.3 
 
 2.0 
 
 5.1 
 
 4.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 2 4 
 
 Found 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 3.36 
 
 3.48 
 
 2.23 
 
 5.13 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.10 
 
 2.10 
 
 Moist- 
 
 ure. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 5.00 
 
 9.30 
 
 4.50 
 
 2.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 4.90 
 
 7.84 
 
 > O 
 
 a £ 
 
 O P 
 
 z£ 
 
 rr OP 
 § CQ << 
 
 *§6 
 
 to'5Z 
 
 TO CO CO CO 
 
 7 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 81 . 
 
 The mechanical analysis of the samples of bone meal included among 
 the licensed brands of fertilizers gave the following results, the t po»tion pass- 
 ing through a sieve of /o inch mesh being designated as fine-ground , and 
 that remaining on such a sieve as coarse. 
 
 Mechanical analysis of bone meal. 
 
 Sta- 
 
 tion 
 
 No. 
 
 Brand. 
 
 Fine- 
 
 ground 
 
 Coarse. 
 
 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 38 
 
 Milwaukee Tallow and Grease Co.’s Bone Meal 
 
 89 
 
 11 
 
 39 
 
 Bone Meal 
 
 59 
 
 41 
 
 
 Fertilizer inspection. It is impossible to tell from tue appearance or 
 odor of a commercial fertilizer whether it contains a large amount of val- 
 uable fertilizing ingredients or only a very small amount. There is there- 
 fore a strong temptation for irresponsible parties to make and sell inferior 
 or eve.n valueless goods as standard fertilizing articles; so much so, that 
 it has been found necessary in all states where the* fertilizer business has 
 grown to be of any importance, that the state should in some way supervise 
 their sale. Laws regulating the sale of commercial fertilizers are at the 
 present time in force in a large majority of the states in the Union. The 
 Wisconsin fertilizer law which was passed by the legislature in 1895 is given 
 in full in the following pages. According to the provisions of the law, 
 all commercial fertilizers sold in this state at a cost exceeding $10.00 per 
 ton are to be licensed. They must be sold on a guarantee of certain 
 amounts of valuable fertilizing ingredients contained therein, and the 
 director of the experiment station, on whom is laid the duty of seeing to it 
 that the law is enforced, is authorized, in person or by deputy, to take 
 samples of all commercial fertilizers sold in this state which come within 
 the scope of the law. In case of licensed fertilizers it may thus be ascer- 
 tained whether these come up to the guaranteed composition, and when it 
 is found that parties are selling fertilizers without complying with the pro- 
 visions of the law, the offenders may be brought before the proper legal 
 authorities and convicted according to section 149 Id of Wisconsin Statutes 
 of 1898. This section imposes a fine of $100.00 for the first offense and 
 $200.00 for each subsequent offense. 
 
 It is hoped that all dealers in commercial fertilizers in the state will 
 comply with the law in all particulars, and that they as well as purchasers 
 of such fertilizers, will assist in the enforcement of the law by giving 
 notice of violations of the same. A strict compliance with the law is for 
 the best interests of all honest dealers and consumers alike. Only firms 
 that live up to the requirements of the law and have taken out licenses for 
 the sale of their brands of fertilizers should be patronized; the law does 
 not offer purchasers any protection against dealers in other states who sell 
 inferior or fraudulent goods. 
 
Commercial Fertilizers. 
 
 9 
 
 THE WISCONSIN FERTILIZER LAW. 
 
 [Sections 1494c, 1494d and 1494c, Wisconsin Statutes of 1898. J 
 
 Section 1494c. Every person who shall, in this state, sell or expose for 
 sale any commercial fertilizer or any material used for fertilizing purposes, 
 the price of which exceeds ten dollars per ton, shall affix to every package 
 of such fertilizer or material, in a conspicuous place on the outside thereof, 
 a plainly printed statement clearly and truly certifying the number of net 
 pounds therein, name or trade-mark under which the article is sold, name 
 of the manufacturer or shipper, place of manufacture, place of business 
 of the manufacturer and of the following fertilizing constituents, namely: 
 The percentage of nitrogen in an available form, of potash soluble in water 
 and of available phosphoric acid, soluble and reverted, as well as total 
 phosphoric acid. Every such person shall also file with the director of 
 the agricultural experiment station of the university of Wisconsin, in the 
 month of December in each year, a certified copy of such statement for 
 every such fertilizer or material bearing a distinguishing brand or trade- 
 mark and which he sells or exposes for sale, which copy shall, when re- 
 quired by such director, be accompanied by a sealed glass jar or bottle 
 containing at least one pound of such fertilizer or material, and an affi- 
 davit that such sample corresponds, within reasonable limits, to the fer- 
 tilizer or material which it represents in the percentage of the aforesaid 
 constituents, which affidavit shall apply to the remaining portion of the 
 then calendar year. Additional brands of such fertilizer or material may 
 be offered for sale during the year, provided samples and affidavits are so 
 filed at least one month before they are offered, in which case an analysis 
 fee of double the usual amount must be paid. A deposit of the sample of 
 fertilizer shall be required by said director unless the person selling or offer- 
 ing for sale a fertilizer or material within this section shall certify that its 
 composition for the succeeding year is to be the same as given in the last 
 previously certified statement, in which case the furnishing of a sample 
 shall be at the discretion of said director. 
 
 Section 1494d. Said director shall analyze~or cause to be analyzed all 
 such samples and publish the results of such analysis in a bulletin or re- 
 port on or before the first day of the next succeeding April. Every manu- 
 facturer, importer, agent or seller of any such fertilizer or material shall 
 pay annually to said director for each brand thereof sold within this state 
 the sum of twenty-five dollars, and upon doing so and complying with the 
 other provisions of law shall receive from him a certificate of such com- 
 pliance which shall be a license for the sale of each brand thereof within 
 the state for the calendar year for which such fee is paid. All moneys re- 
 ceived by said director pursuant to this section shall be paid into the 
 treasury of said station. Any person who shall sell or expose for sale any 
 commercial fertilizer or material used for fertilizing purposes which is 
 within the provisions of the preceding section without complying with the 
 foregoing provisions or which contains a substantially smaller percentage 
 of fertilizing constituents than are indicated by the printed statement 
 thereon shall be punished by a fine of one hundred dollars for the first 
 offense and of two hundred dollars for each subsequent offense. 
 
 Section 1494e. Said director shall annually analyze or cause to be ana- 
 lyzed at least one sample of every fertilizer or material used for fertilizing 
 purposes sold or exposed for sale under the two preceding sections and en- 
 force their provisions by prosecuting or causing the prosecution of every 
 person who shall violate them. He may in person or by deputy, on tendering 
 the value thereof, take a sample, not exceeding two pounds, for said analysis 
 from any lot or package of fertilizer or any material used for fertilizing 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 81 . 
 
 purposes which may be in the possession of any manufacturer, importer, 
 agent or dealer in this state; said sample shall be drawn in the presence 
 of the person from whom taken or his representative, be taken from a par- 
 cel or a number of packages which shall not be less than ten per centum 
 of the whole lot sampled, be thoroughly mixed and divided into two equal 
 samples, placed in glass vessels and carefully sealed and a label placed on 
 each, stating the name or brand of the fertilizer or material sampled, the 
 name of the party from whose stock the sample was drawn, the time and 
 place of such taking; said label shall be signed by the director or his 
 deputy and such person or his representative at the drawing and sealing 
 of said samples; one of said duplicate samples shall be retained by the di- 
 rector and the other by the party whose stock was sampled; the sample 
 retained by the director shall be for comparison with the certified state- 
 ment named in section 1494c. The result of the analysis of the sample or 
 samples so procured shall be reported to the person requesting the analysis 
 and be published in a report or bulletin to be issued within a reasonable 
 time. 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 Of THE 
 
 
 No. 82 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 82. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS IN GRINDING WITH SMALL STEEL 
 FEED MILLS. 
 
 MADISON . WISCONSIN. APRIL. 1900. 
 
 |af“The Bulletins and Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request . 
 
 Democrat Printing Company, State Printer, Madison, Wis. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, bx-officio. 
 State-at-large, GEORGE W. PECK, Milwaukee. 
 
 State- at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Ean Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, GEORGE F. MERRILL, Ashland. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonle. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 GEORGE H. NOYES, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasurer 
 J. H. STOUT, Vice-President. | E. F. RILEY, Secretary, Madison. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION; 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, Director 
 
 S. M. BABCOCK, --------- Chief Chemist 
 
 F. H. KING, ..... .... Physicist 
 
 E. S. GOFF, - 
 W. L. CARLYLE, 
 
 F. W. WOLL, 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON, 
 
 A. R. WHITSON, - 
 A. G. HOPKINS, - 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, 
 
 E. G. HASTINGS, 
 
 R. A. MOORE, - 
 U. S. BAER, - 
 FREDERIC CRANEFIELD, 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, 
 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, 
 
 Horticulturist 
 
 - Animal Husbandry 
 
 Chemist 
 Bacteriologist 
 Dairy Husbandry 
 
 - Assistant Physicist 
 
 - Veterinarian 
 
 - Assistant Chemist 
 Assistant Bacteriologist 
 
 Assistant to Director 
 Dairying 
 Assistant Horticulturist 
 
 - Farm Superintendent 
 
 - Clerk 
 Librarian 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, -------- Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus* 
 ban dry. Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
Fig. 1. Showing the exposure of the 12-foot and 16-foot geared Aermotor windmills with which the grinding trials of Tables I and II 
 were made. The 18 sails of the 12-foot wheel are each 46 inches long and 7^ inches wide at the inner end and 19 ^ inches at the 
 outer end. Tower 90 feet high. 
 
EXPERIMENTS IN GRINDING WITH SMALL STEEL 
 
 FEED MILLS. 
 
 F. H. KING and J. A. JEFFERY. 
 
 This bulletin records an effort to determine the rate at which feed for 
 stock on the farm may be ground with several of the types of small steel 
 mills now on the market; the power required to run them; and the approx- 
 imate cost of grinding. 
 
 Something over 400 trials have been made, whose results are recorded in 
 the tables which follow. These were made with eight different mills, 
 driven by two sizes of engines and two sizes of geared windmills, grinding 
 corn, oats, corn and oats, oats and rye. 
 
 THE MILLS USED. 
 
 All of the feed grinders tested were of the metal type, using steel burrs, 
 as follows: (1) The O. Aermotor grinder, represented in Fig. 7, used only 
 with the 12-foot geared Aermotor windmill; (2) The N Aermotor grinder, 
 designed for U9e with the 16-foot geared Aermotor windmill, and repre- 
 sented in Fig. 11; (3) The No. 3 Appleton Prize Pulley Mill, represented in 
 Fig. 14 and manufactured at Batavia, 111.; (4) the No 2. Bowsher, Fig. 16, 
 manufactured at South Bend, Indiana ; (5) The Giant, Fig. 18. made at Ke- 
 waunee, Wisconsin; (6) No. 0 Ideal, Fig. 19, made at Freeport, Illinois; (7). 
 The No. 6 Smalley Monarch, Fig. 21, manufactured at Manitowoc, Wiscon- 
 sin, and (8) the Vessot, Little Champion, Fig. 23, manufactured at Joliet, 
 Province of Quebec, and at Watertown, N. Y. These mills were all new 
 except No. 2, obtained direct from the manufacturers expressly for these 
 trials and in shape ready for use. 
 
 POWERS USED. 
 
 The powers used to drive the several grinders were (1) a 5 horse-power 
 horizontal Fairbanks gas engine; (2) a 234 horse power Webster vertical 
 gas engine, (3) a 16 foot geared aermotor windmill and (4) a 12-foot geared 
 and roller bearing aermotor windmill, the two mounted as shown in Fig. 
 1, the 12-foot mill being upon a 90-foot tower. 
 
 The two engines were able to show very nearly their rated capacity by 
 brake tests made upon the counter shaft from which all of the mills ex- 
 cept No. 1 were driven. An adjustable platform was provided upon which 
 the several mills could be placed so as to be driven under every way like 
 
Grinding ivith Small Steel Feed Mills , 
 
 5 
 
 
 ad£&4)gejj33)S 
 
 Fig. 2. Showing the four grades into which the meal was sorted in order to 
 compare the work done in grinding. 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 Fig. 3. Showing meal of “fine” grade, natural size. This grade contains 81.2 
 per cent, of No. 4, or finest meal. 18.2 per cent, of No. 3, .5 per cent, of 
 No. 2, and .1 per cent, of the coarsest meal No. 1. 
 
 conditions. The fuel used by the engine was the city illuminating gas, 
 costing $1.25 per 1,000 cubic feet, and the amount used was measured 
 with a meter placed next to the engines. The wind velocities under which 
 the windmill trials were made were obtained with the aid of a Robinson 
 anemometer No. 329 belonging to the U. S. Weather Bureau, placed as 
 shown in Fig. 1. 
 
 METHODS OF MAKING THE TRIALS. 
 
 In each trial an effort was made to regulate the feed so as if possible to 
 fully load the power which was being used at the time. This, however, 
 could not always be done with the 5 H. P. engine, especially when the 
 coarser grades of meal were being ground. The usual practice was to start 
 the mill with grain enough in the hopper to get it regulated and adjusted to 
 the engine and, at a signal, as the last of this left the hopper, a weighed 
 quantity of grain was placed in the mill and the exact time required to run 
 it through noted, together with the amount of gas consumed or the miles 
 of wind passing the windmill. 
 
Grinding with Small Steel Feed Mills. 
 
 7 
 
 Fig. 4. Showing meal of “medium” grade, natural size. This grade contains 
 59 per cent, of No. 4 meal, 38.4 per cent, of No. 3 meal, 1.9 per cent, of 
 No. 2 and .7 per cent, of the size of meal No. 1. 
 
 A sample of the meal in each trial was taken for grading, as described 
 in another place, and for determining the per cent, of moisture in the 
 grain at the time of grinding. These data will be found given in the sev- 
 eral tables for the different mills. 
 
 It was early found to be practically impossible to closely duplicate in 
 degree of fineness of meal a given trial with either of the grinders used, 
 and this, among other things, made it necessary to make the trials short 
 and to take a sample of the meal ground at each trial, to be graded. The 
 per cent, of moisture in the meal ground was determined for each of the 
 trials made. As nearly all of the determinations showed that the mois- 
 ture ranged between 11 and 11 per cent, it has been thought best not to 
 take the space necessary to publish the individual results. There was a 
 single trial, No. 252, as high as 17 77 per cent, and another as low as 6.88, 
 No. 325. No others were as low as 10 per cent, or higher than 11.96 per 
 cent. 
 
 To secure a reliable basis of judgment for estimating the amount of 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 Fig. 5. Showing meal of “coarse” grade, natural size. This grade contains 24.7 
 per cent, of the finest meal, No. 4, 28.6 per cent, of No. 3, 24.1 per cent, of 
 No. 2, and 27.6 per cent, of the coarsest meal, No. 1. 
 
 work done in each grinding trial it was necessary to know the degree of 
 fineness of meal produced as well as the am’ount ground in a unit of time* 
 In order to compare the fineness of grinding in the different trials 100 
 grams of meal from each lot was sorted with the aid of three sieves, into 
 four grades as represented in Fig. 2. The first degree of fineness was 
 such as would not pass a screen of 8 meshes to the inch; the second that 
 passing a screen of 8 but stopped by one of 10 meshes; the third that 
 which would pass a screen of 10 meshes but be stopped by one of 16 meshes 
 to the inch, while the fourth grade was that passing the screen of 16 
 meshes to the inch. 
 
 In the trials of grinding corn an effort was made to produce four grades 
 of meal (1) very coarse, suitable for feeding sheep, (2) coarse, and (3) med- 
 ium, suitable for cattle, and (4) fine, suitable for hog feeding. The per 
 cent, of each degree of meal found in each of these four grades is given 
 in the table below and represented in Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6: 
 
Grinding with Small Steel Feed Mills . 
 
 9 
 
 Fig. 6. Showing meal of “very coarse” grade, natural size. This grade con- 
 tains 9.2 per cent, of the finest meal, No. 4, 11.1 per cent, of No. 3, 10.5 per 
 cent, of No. 2, and 69.2 per cent, of the coarsest meal, No. 1. 
 
 Grade of meal. 
 
 Per cent, by weight of each degree of 
 fineness of meal. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Very coarse 
 
 69.2 
 
 10.5 
 
 11.1 
 
 9 2 
 
 Coarse 
 
 27.6 
 
 24.1 
 
 28.6 
 
 24.7 
 
 Medium 
 
 .7 
 
 1.9 
 
 38.4 
 
 59.0 
 
 Fine 
 
 .1 
 
 .5 
 
 18.2 
 
 81.2 
 
 GRINDING TRIALS WITH THE O. AERMOTOR GRINDER AND 12-FOOT ROLLER- 
 BEARING AERMOTOR WINDMILL. 
 
 The grinding trials with this grinder were all made with the 12-foot mill 
 mounted and located as represented in Fig. 1. This mill is mounted upon 
 a 90-foot tower standing 50 feet to the northwest of the tower carrying the 
 16-foot mill shown in the illustration. At the foot of the tower was a tem- 
 porary building containing a bin arranged so that the grain may feed by 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 Fig. 7. Showing O Grinder used with the 12-foot windmill and a portion of 
 the large hopper or bin used for self-feeding. 
 
 gravity automatically into the mill as shown in Fig. 7, the meal dropping 
 upon the floor. 
 
 Several trials were made with long runs, feeding from the hopper, but 
 it was early found that shorter trials would give a much more accurate 
 measure of the capacity of the mill with different wind velocities, and the 
 table on page 17 contains the results of 48 trials, mostly of corn. Some of 
 these trials are based upon the amount of meal ground by the passage of 
 a single mile of wind through the mill, as measured by one of the U. S. 
 Weather Bureau Anemometers. Other trials were of 5, 10, and 15 min- 
 utes duration, while others continued through 8 consecutive hours. 
 
 During 8 hours of Jan. 20; 7 hours 35 min. of Jan. 21, and 4 hours 22 
 min. of Jan. 23, there were ground 7,816 lbs., or 139.57 bushels of corn dur- 
 ing 19 hours and 57 minutes, and with a movement of 339.3 miles of wind 
 through the windmill. When the trial began the wind was blowing at the 
 rate of 7.25 miles per hour, and w T hen it closed the rate was 19.6 miles per 
 hour. During the first eight hours the highest wind velocity was 13.5 
 miles; during the second interval the wind ranged between 15.5 and 25.5 
 miles per hour, and on the third day the velocities started with 10.5 miles 
 and closed with 20.9 miles per hour. The average wind velocity was per- 
 
Grinding with Small Steel Feed Mills. 11 
 
 haps 17 miles per hour, and the grade of meal between the “medium” and 
 “coarse.” 
 
 The most rapid grinding of corn done with this windmill and grinder 
 was at the rate of about 25 bushels per hour with a wind velocity of 31.8 
 miles, the meal being a little coarser than “medium.” Corn and oats were 
 ground at the rate of 110.3 lbs. per hour with the wind at 26.18 miles 
 With a wind velocity of 26.67 miles oats were ground at the rate of about 
 5.5 bushels per hour and rye at the rate of 15.35 bushels with the wind 
 25.35 miles. The rye w 7 as ground a little finer than “medium” and the oats 
 a little coarser. 
 
 RELATION OF WIND VELOCITY TO THE AMOUNT OF CORN GROUND. 
 
 In Fig. 8 there have been plotted each of the trials of corn grinding 
 made with the 12-foot windmill and the O grinder, and it will be seen that 
 although there is a large irregularity in the amount ground with the differ- 
 ent wind velocities there is nevertheless a tendency for the amounts to in- 
 crease systematically with the wind velocity. The curve A A. shows where 
 all of the observed rates of grinding should fall if the amounts ground in- 
 creased with the square of the velocity of the wind. This curve is 
 constructed from the computed mean amount ground at 16 miles per 
 hour, using the amount ground at 15.999 miles per hour with the 
 amounts computed for 16 miles from the observed amounts ground at 
 15.32' and 16.6 miles, which gives 216.3 lbs. But in computing the amounts 
 which should be ground at the different wind velocities from this value no 
 corrections have been made for resistance to be overcome in the mill itself 
 nor for any differences in the degree of fineness of the meal ground. It 
 will be seen that below 16 miles per hour the amounts ground are too 
 small, while above they are mostly too large. 
 
 To obtain a correction for the differences in amount of work done due 
 to the varying degree of fineness of meal ground a large number of the 
 trials made with the several grinders when driven by the 2 34 H. P. engine 
 have been classified according to the fineness of the meal and the mean 
 amounts of meal ground per hour taken as expressing the rate of work 
 necessary to produce the several grades of meal. By taking as a standard 
 the amount of meal ground when the finest grade was 45 per cent, of the 
 whole the following ratios were found: 
 
 Per cent, of finest grade 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 
 
 Ratio 19.2 16.95 14.70 14.26 13.80 12.32 11.84 
 
 Percent 50 45 39.37 33.75 28.12 20 15 10 
 
 Ratio 10.92 10 00 9.78 9.57 9.35 7.76 5.22 3.94 
 
 These ratios have been used to compute the amounts of meal which 
 might have been ground of a single grade a little coarser than the “medium,” 
 that is, containing 45 per cent, of the finest degree. These amounts are 
 plotted in Fig. 9, and are given in the table which follows: 
 
12 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
Grinding with Small Steam Feed Mills. 
 
 13 
 
 Table showing the observed amounts of meal ground under different 
 ivind velocities but computed to a single grade. 
 
 Wind, 
 
 Meal, 
 
 Wind, 
 
 Meal, 
 
 Wind, 
 
 Meal. 
 
 Wind, 
 
 Meal, 
 
 miles per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 miles per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 miles per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 miles per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 hour. 
 
 hour. 
 
 hour. 
 
 hour. 
 
 hour. 
 
 hour. 
 
 hour. 
 
 hour. 
 
 7.25 
 
 18.52 
 
 13.3 
 
 88 73 
 
 18.65 
 
 418.9 
 
 22- 1 
 
 776.5 
 
 9.2 
 
 63.01 
 
 13 89 
 
 155.6 
 
 18.80 
 
 450.3 
 
 23.5 
 
 800.9 
 
 9.84 
 
 30 0 
 
 14.34 
 
 199.8 
 
 19 26 
 
 510.4 
 
 23 53 
 
 739.4 
 
 10.4 
 
 108.0 
 
 14 41 
 
 189.8 
 
 19 6 
 
 444 2 
 
 25 95 
 
 1024.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 130 2 
 
 15 32 
 
 237.5 
 
 19.78 
 
 570.5 
 
 26 48 
 
 878.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 76 06 
 
 15 999 
 
 239.0 
 
 20.8 
 
 459.8 
 
 26.52 
 
 1159.0 
 
 12.8 
 
 226.3 
 
 16.6 
 
 219.0 
 
 20.8 
 
 641.6 
 
 28.35 
 
 547.7 
 
 12.99 
 
 101 0 
 
 17 46 
 
 644.8 
 
 20 93 
 
 554.3 
 
 31.296 
 
 1571.0 
 
 13.28 
 
 134.9 
 
 18.3 
 
 739.6 
 
 21.0 
 
 820 8 
 
 31 8 
 
 1348.0 
 
 13.285 
 
 127 4 
 
 18.37 
 
 458 0 
 
 21 3 
 
 564 8 
 
 32 2 
 
 35.6 
 
 1076.0 
 
 1288.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 When these values are plotted as shown in Fig. 9 and a computed curve 
 A. A. constructed it again appears that the amounts ground at veloci- 
 ties higher than 16 miles per hour, the one taken as the standard, are 
 larger than those computed; while those produced at lower velocities 
 are lower. This is as should be expected because the resistence to be 
 overcome in the windmill itself is nearly the same at all wind velocities 
 and hence is a much larger proportion of the total work which may be 
 done at the lower speeds than at the higher ones. The value used for the 
 amount ground at 16 miles per hour, in computing this curve, is a mean 
 determined by computing the amount ground at 16 miles per hour from 
 the amounts ground at all the observed trials. 
 
 It was found by observation that there was required between 5 miles and 
 6.6 miles of wind to run this windmill and empty grinder and when 6.25 
 miles is subtracted from 16 miles, to obtain the effective wind velocity 
 at 16 miles, and this is used, with the amount of grain ground by it, 
 to compute the amounts of grain which should be ground at the other 
 effective velocities between 7 miles and 36 miles per hour, the curve B. B. 
 is obtained, and it will be seen that it agrees fairly well w T ith the observed 
 rates of grinding, although assuming that the effective energy of the 
 mill increases with the square of the wind velocity. It may be that this 
 curve is a little too steep and that we should have deducted but 6 or 
 possibly 5.8 miles from the observed wind velocity to obtain the effective 
 velocity for this particular mill. 
 
 THE AMOUNT OE CORN WHICH MAY BE GROUND IN A YEAR BY THE 12 FOOT 
 MILL AND THE O GRINDER. 
 
 In bulletin 68, of this station, page 24, there is given the number of 
 hours during the year March 6, 1897 to March 6, 1898 when the wind veloc- 
 ities were 9, 10, 11, 12 etc. up to 30 miles per hour. If these are used with 
 the amounts of corn ground with these different velocities by the 12-foot 
 windmill, as shown by the curve B. B., Fig. 9, the results given in the 
 next table will be found. 
 
Bulletin No. 82 , 
 
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 SlfX 
 
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 l||d. 
 
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 1111 = 
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Grinding with Small Steel Feed Mills . 
 
 15 
 
 Table showing the amount of corn which could have been ground by 
 the 12-foot aermotor windmill during the year, from March 6, 1897 , 
 to March 6 , 1898 , with all winds from 9 miles to 30 miles per hour. 
 
 Wind, 
 miles per 
 hour. 
 
 No. of 
 hours of 
 wind. 
 
 Amount 
 ground 
 per hour. 
 
 Total 
 
 meal 
 
 ground. 
 
 Wind, 
 miles per 
 hour. 
 
 No. of 
 hours of 
 wind. 
 
 Amount 
 ground 
 per hour. 
 
 Total 
 
 meal 
 
 ground. 
 
 9 
 
 480 
 
 lbs. 
 
 20 61 
 
 lbs. 
 
 98,910 
 
 20 
 
 195 
 
 lbs. 
 
 515.10 
 
 lbs. 
 
 100,400 
 
 10 
 
 559 
 
 38.31 
 
 21,410 
 
 21 
 
 144 
 
 592.8 
 
 85,360 
 
 11 
 
 495 
 
 61.46 
 
 30,430 
 
 22 
 
 114 
 
 675.9 
 
 77,050 
 
 12 
 
 425 
 
 90 07 
 
 38,280 
 
 23 
 
 112 
 
 764.4 
 
 85,610 
 
 13 
 
 406 
 
 124 10 
 
 50, 400 
 
 24 
 
 92 
 
 858.4 
 
 78,970 
 
 14 
 
 401 
 
 164.00 
 
 65,770 
 
 25 
 
 71 
 
 957.8 
 
 68,010 
 
 15 
 
 341 
 
 208 60 
 
 71,130 
 
 26 
 
 70 
 
 1,063 0 
 
 74,390 
 
 16 
 
 328 
 
 259 00 
 
 84,950 
 
 27 
 
 57 
 
 1,173.0 
 
 66,870 
 
 
 264 
 
 314.90 
 
 83, 120 
 
 28 
 
 44 
 
 1,289.0 
 
 56, 710 
 
 18 
 
 223 
 
 376.10 
 
 83,850 
 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 1,410.0 
 
 56,400 
 
 19 
 
 193 
 
 442.90 
 
 85, 480 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 1,537.0 
 
 50, 710 
 
 The total footing of this table shows the amount of grinding equal to 
 27,010 bushels of corn or an average of about 75 bushels per day for the 
 entire year. It will be seen from an inspection of Fig. 9 that of the 35 
 trials there plotted between the wind velocities of 9 and 30 miles, only 14 
 of them are less than the amounts computed, and from this it follows that 
 the table gives an under rather than an over estimate of the grinding 
 efficiency of the mill if 't had been kept at work for the whole of the year 
 under consideration. Jt is true, however, that the amount of wind during 
 the year in question was somewhat above the average, and on this account 
 the year’s work is larger than it would otherwise be. 
 
 MINIMUM AMOUNT OF GRINDING PER YEAR. 
 
 The minimum amount of grinding this mill could be expected to do 
 could hardly be less than would be given by supposing that the total 
 number of hours of wind shown in the table above, between 9 miles per 
 hour and 30 miles, was divided equally between the seven velocities 9 to 
 15 miles per hour. Computing from this supposition the results in the 
 next table would be given: 
 
 Miles per hour. 
 
 No of hours of wind. 
 
 Amount of corn 
 ground per hour. 
 
 Total meal ground. 
 
 9 
 
 727 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 20.6 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 14,980 
 
 10 
 
 727 
 
 38.31 
 
 27,850 
 
 11 
 
 727 
 
 61.46 
 
 44,680 
 
 12 
 
 727 
 
 90.07 
 
 65,490 
 
 13 
 
 727 
 
 124.10 
 
 90,220 
 
 14 
 
 727 
 
 164.00 
 
 119,200 
 
 15 
 
 727 
 
 208.60 
 
 151,650 
 
 
 
 Total for year 
 
 514,070 
 
 9, 180 bushels 
 
1G 
 
 Bulletin A o. 
 
 It is clear from these figures that this 12-foot windmill, when set up so 
 as to work continuously and automatically, is capable of grinding feed 
 enough for a large number of animals. If no provision is made for grind- 
 ing continuously or automatically it is still possible to do considerable 
 work by following the practice of grinding each day when the wind veloc- 
 ities between 7 A. M. and 6 P. M. are more than 15 miles per hour. The 
 records in bulletin 68 show that between Oct. 1 and May 1 there were 87 
 days when a man could attend the mill and grind 10 hours with a wind 
 velocity not less than 15 miles per hour, and much of the time higher than 
 this. He should therefore be able to grind more than 46 bushels per day 
 and on the average more than 100 bushels per week. The 87 grinding 
 days, during the 7 months, places the grinding days, on the average more 
 than two per week, and if it is supposed that this is twice too high it would 
 still be possible on the average to take advantage of high winds during the 
 working hours and grind about 50 bushels of corn, or 2,800 lbs. per week. 
 Counting the man’s time who tends the mill $1.00 per day, the cost of 
 grinding would be only about 3 % cents per cwt. 
 
 TRIALS WITH OTHER GRINDERS AND THE 12-FOOT WINDMILL. 
 
 Several trials were made with the 12-foot windmill a9 a motive power for 
 the other grinders, and the observed rates of grinding with these, together 
 with the grades of meal produced by them, will be found in the general 
 tables under the respective mills. 
 
 Fig. 10. Showing the pulley for driving other machinery from the 12-foot wind- 
 mill, the one used in making the trials with the other feed mills. 
 
 The rates of grinding corn, computed to standard grade, are plotted in 
 Pig. 9. Referring to this figure it will be seen that generally the 12-foot 
 windmill has not been able to produce as much meal with them as it did 
 with the O. grinder designed especially for this power. 
 
 It should be said that the O. grinder was driven directly from the driv- 
 ing shaft of the windmill as shown in Fig. 3, while the other mills were 
 
Grinding with Small Steel Feed Mills, 
 
 17 
 
 driven from a 14^ inch pulley attached to the vertical shaft of the wind- 
 mill as represented in Fig. 10; this arrangement would of course entail 
 some loss through the belt, but it should also be said as an offset to this 
 that the rate of feeding of the several mills was carefully regulated by hand 
 so as to get the maximum results. Had this not been done the results 
 would have been smaller. With both the Aermotor grinders there is a cen- 
 trifugal feed which is not only simple and automatic but delivers the 
 grain at a rate rigidly proportional to the speed with which the burrs are 
 driven. With none of the other mills used is the rate of feeding so rigidly 
 and promptly controlled, and on this account hand regulation for these 
 trials, in order to secure maximum results, was imperative. 
 
 Table I. — Showing results of trials in grinding grain with the O 
 Aermoter grinder. 
 
 No. 
 
 of 
 
 trial. 
 
 Grain 
 
 ground. 
 
 Power used. 
 
 Texture of Meal Ground. 
 
 Meal 
 
 ground 
 
 per 
 
 hour. 
 
 Miles 
 
 of 
 
 wind 
 pr. hr. 
 
 l. 
 
 2 . 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 
 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 96 
 
 Corn 
 
 12-ft. windmill. 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.8 
 
 38 4 
 
 58.2 
 
 73.33 
 
 13.3 
 
 97 
 
 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.7 
 
 38.4 
 
 58.2 
 
 90.97 
 
 12.99 
 
 98 
 
 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.7 
 
 38.4 
 
 52.2 
 
 26.55 
 
 9.84 
 
 99 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 0 8 
 
 5.3 
 
 47. 
 
 46.9 
 
 134.5 
 
 13.28 
 
 100 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 0.8 
 
 5.3 
 
 47. 
 
 46.9 
 
 189.2 
 
 14.41 
 
 101 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 0 8 
 
 5 3 
 
 47. 
 
 46.9 
 
 236.8 
 
 15.32 
 
 102 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 0.8 
 
 5.3 
 
 47. 
 
 46.9 
 
 155.1 
 
 13.89 
 
 10:1 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 0.8 
 
 5.3 
 
 47. 
 
 46 9 
 
 456.6 
 
 18.37 
 
 104 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 0 8 
 
 5.3 
 
 47 
 
 46 9 
 
 447.6 
 
 18.65 
 
 105 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 0 8 
 
 5 3 
 
 47. 
 
 46 9 
 
 568.8 
 
 19.78 
 
 195 
 
 Corn 
 
 . . do 
 
 0 6 
 
 2.3 
 
 •'7.6 
 
 69 5 
 
 397.5 
 
 21.30 
 
 200 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 0.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 23.3 
 
 74.7 
 
 504.0 
 
 23.53 
 
 202 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 1.2 
 
 3.3 
 
 35.8 
 
 59.7 
 
 714.8 
 
 26.48 
 
 204 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 2 3 
 
 6.7 
 
 41 2 
 
 49 8 
 
 468.3 
 
 19.26 
 
 206 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 14.6 
 
 23.1 
 
 40 6 
 
 21.7 
 
 651.5 
 
 20.93 
 
 207 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 30.4 
 
 22.8 
 
 31.2 
 
 15.6 
 
 1,005.0 
 
 28 35 
 
 352 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 5 4 
 
 13.4 
 
 46.1 
 
 35.1 
 
 19.25 
 
 7.25 
 
 353 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 5.4 
 
 13.4 
 
 46 1 
 
 35.1 
 
 65.5 
 
 9.2 
 
 354 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 5.4 
 
 13.4 
 
 46 1 
 
 35.1 
 
 1 5.25 
 
 11. 0 
 
 355 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 5.2 
 
 14 0 
 
 43.5 
 
 37 3 
 
 474.5 
 
 20.8 
 
 356 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 5.2 
 
 14.0 
 
 43 5 
 
 37.3 
 
 826.5 
 
 23.5 
 
 357 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 5.2 
 
 14 0 
 
 43.5 
 
 37 3 
 
 763.25 
 
 18.3 
 
 358 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 17.3 
 
 44.2 
 
 31 5 
 
 114.0 
 
 10.4 
 
 359 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 17 3 
 
 44.2 
 
 31.5 
 
 239.0 
 
 12 8 
 
 360 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 17.3 
 
 44 2 
 
 31.5 
 
 475.5 
 
 18.8 
 
 361 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 17.3 
 
 44.2 
 
 31.5 
 
 677 5 
 
 20.8 
 
 362 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 17.3 
 
 44 2 
 
 31.5 
 
 469.1 
 
 19.6 
 
 363 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 4.7 
 
 11.0 
 
 43 0 
 
 41.3 
 
 832 5 
 
 21*0 
 
 364 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 4.7 
 
 11.0 
 
 43 0 
 
 41. 3 
 
 654.0 
 
 17 46 
 
 365 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 5.4 
 
 17 2 
 
 44.0 
 
 33 4 
 
 1,348.0 
 
 35.6 
 
 366 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 4 9 
 
 11 0 
 
 43 4 
 
 40 7 
 
 1,098 0 
 
 32 2 
 
 367 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 3 9 
 
 11 0 
 
 41.2 
 
 43.9 
 
 780.0 
 
 22 1 
 
 368 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 3.5 
 
 14 9 
 
 46 7 
 
 34.9 
 
 1,401.0 
 
 31.8 
 
 369 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 2.7 
 
 10.7 
 
 46.9 
 
 39.7 
 
 223.5 
 
 16.6 
 
 370 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 1 .5 
 
 2.6 
 
 35 9 
 
 60.0 
 
 831.0 
 
 25.95 
 
 371 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 0.8 
 
 3 5 
 
 36 9 
 
 58.8 
 
 949.2 
 
 26.52 
 
 372 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 1.8 
 
 4.8 
 
 40 4 
 
 53.0 
 
 66 72 
 
 12. 
 
 373 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 1 2 
 
 4 6 
 
 40 2 
 
 54 0 
 
 109 32 
 
 13 285 
 
 374 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 1.0 
 
 2 7 
 
 33.8 
 
 62.5 
 
 183.0 
 
 15.999 
 
 375 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 0.9 
 
 2.2 
 
 31 0 
 
 65.9 
 
 142.68 
 
 14.34 
 
 376 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 9 
 
 23 7 
 
 75 0 
 
 1,068 0 
 
 31 296 
 
 192 
 
 Corn and oats . 
 
 
 4 8 
 
 5.8 
 
 40.8 
 
 48 '6 
 
 ’410.3 
 
 26*48 
 
 110 
 
 Oats 
 
 . . do . . . 
 
 15.7 
 
 11.0 
 
 36.7 
 
 42.6 
 
 174.7 
 
 26.67 
 
 111 
 
 Oats 
 
 
 15.7 
 
 11 0 
 
 36^7 
 
 42^6 
 
 123^8 
 
 19.46 
 
 112 
 
 Oats 
 
 do ... 
 
 15.7 
 
 11.0 
 
 36 7 
 
 42*6 
 
 166.0 
 
 23 38 
 
 193 
 
 Oats 
 
 
 11.6 
 
 10.3 
 
 41 4 
 
 36 ’7 
 
 156 0 
 
 24.0 
 
 235 
 
 Rye 
 
 do 
 
 0 7 
 
 2 9 
 
 38.9 
 
 57 5 
 
 859 4 
 
 25 35 
 
 236 
 
 Rye 
 
 
 0.9 
 
 2.9 
 
 38.6 
 
 57^6 
 
 766.7 
 
 25.18 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 RATE OF GRINDING OTHER GRAIN. WITH THE 12-FOOT WINDMILL. 
 
 Some grinding of other grains than corn with the 12-foot windmill was 
 also done, but the number of trials was limited. With corn and oats, half 
 and half by measure, the rate was 4,103 lbs. per 10 hours with a wind of 
 26.48 miles per hour. This is 9314 bushels per day of 10 hours. 
 
 In grinding clear oats four trials were made with wind velocities of 
 19, 46; 23.38; 24 and 26.67 miles per hour, and 10 hours work at the observed 
 rates would represent a grinding of 38.7; 50.2; 45.6 and 54.6 bushels re. 
 spectively. At wind velocities of 25.35 and 25.18 miles per hour rye was 
 ground at the rates of 153.4 and 136.8 bushels per 10 hours. 
 
 GRINDING TRIALS WITH THE N GRINDER AND THE 16-FOOT GEARED 
 AERMOTOR WINDMILL. 
 
 The windmill and grinder used in these trials are the same as those re- 
 ferred to in Bulletin 68 of this Station, p. 22, and the results of the several 
 trials, including some of those reported in Bulletin 68, are given in Table 
 II. The grinder is represented in Fig. 11, and the burrs in Fig. 12. 
 
 Table II . — Showing results of trials in grinding grain with the N. 
 Aermotor grinder. 
 
 ttH 
 
 O 
 
 6 
 
 Grain 
 
 ground 
 
 Power used. 
 
 Size 
 
 of 
 
 pul- 
 
 ley. 
 
 Texture of Meal Ground. 
 
 Meal 
 
 ground 
 
 per 
 
 hour. 
 
 Gas used per 
 hour . 
 
 1. 
 
 3. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 
 389 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 5 H. P. engine.. 
 
 16 
 
 in. 
 
 10.1 
 
 15.7 
 
 39.3 
 
 34.9 
 
 1,0U0.0 
 
 
 
 390 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 5 H. P. engine.. 
 
 16 
 
 in. 
 
 10.96 
 
 18.5 
 
 41.16 
 
 29.38 
 
 1,422.0 
 
 
 
 246 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 2y 2 H. P. engine 
 
 12 
 
 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.6 
 
 11.0 
 
 88.2 
 
 284 5 
 
 66.88 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 259 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 
 
 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.0 
 
 21.5 
 
 77.3 
 
 290.3 
 
 66.04 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 260 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 
 
 iu. 
 
 0.3 
 
 1.1 
 
 19.2 
 
 79.4 
 
 296.3 
 
 59.26 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 391 
 
 Corn 
 
 Ho 
 
 9 
 
 in. 
 
 10.0 
 
 
 
 
 610.8 
 
 79 2 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 392 
 
 Corn 
 
 Ho 
 
 9 
 
 in. 
 
 37.6 
 
 
 
 
 696.1 
 
 66 4 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 106 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 16 ft. windmill.. 
 
 12 
 
 in. 
 
 1.2 
 
 3.4 
 
 39.0 
 
 56.4 
 
 525.3 
 
 34.29 
 
 miles. 
 
 107 
 
 Corn 
 
 . . . do 
 
 12 
 
 in. 
 
 1.2 
 
 3.4 
 
 39.0 
 
 56.4 
 
 397 . 5 
 
 28 8 
 
 miles. 
 
 108 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 
 
 in. 
 
 17.2 1 
 
 19 4 
 
 37 5 
 
 25.9 
 
 813.9 
 
 34.29 
 
 miles. 
 
 194 
 
 Corn 
 
 Ho 
 
 12 
 
 in. 
 
 1.0 i 
 
 4.0 
 
 39.0 
 
 56.0 
 
 257 . 9 
 
 22.93 
 
 miles. 
 
 199 
 
 Corn 
 
 . . do 
 
 16 
 
 in. 
 
 2 5 
 
 5.4 
 
 41.0 
 
 51.1 
 
 352.6 
 
 22.78 
 
 miles. 
 
 201 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 
 
 in. 
 
 4.7 
 
 10.4 
 
 43.7 
 
 41.2 
 
 496 5 
 
 21.82 
 
 miles. 
 
 203 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 
 
 in. 
 
 9.8 
 
 17.1 
 
 39.8 
 
 33 3 
 
 646 5 
 
 22.93 
 
 miles. 
 
 205 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 
 
 in. 
 
 58.9 
 
 15.2 
 
 12.7 
 
 13.2 
 
 795.6 
 
 23.84 
 
 miles. 
 
 377 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 
 
 in. 
 
 3 3 
 
 3.4 
 
 24.3 
 
 69.0 
 
 15.1 
 
 8.25 
 
 miles. 
 
 378 
 
 Corn.. 
 
 do 
 
 9 
 
 in. 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.4 
 
 24.3 
 
 69.0 
 
 107.18 
 
 11.5 
 
 miles. 
 
 379 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 9 
 
 in. 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.4 
 
 21.3 
 
 69 0 
 
 156.0 
 
 13.398 
 
 miles. 
 
 380 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 9 
 
 in. 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.4 
 
 24.3 
 
 69 0 
 
 195.4 
 
 18.18 
 
 miles. 
 
 381 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 
 
 in. 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.1 
 
 24.3 
 
 
 389. 2 
 
 23.6 
 
 miles. 
 
 382 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 
 
 in. 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.4 
 
 24.3 
 
 69 0 
 
 431.1 
 
 25.0 
 
 miles. 
 
 383 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 
 
 in. 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.4 
 
 24.3 
 
 69.0 
 
 993.2 
 
 34 8 
 
 miles. 
 
 384 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 
 
 in. 
 
 no 
 
 t deter 
 
 mined. 
 
 
 295.0 
 
 16.74 
 
 miles. 
 
 385 
 
 Corn 
 
 . _ . do 
 
 16 
 
 in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 44.0 
 
 11.69 
 
 miles. 
 
 386 
 
 Corn 
 
 Ho 
 
 16 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 750.0 
 
 24.00 
 
 miles. 
 
 387 
 
 Corn 
 
 . . . Ho 
 
 16 
 
 in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 774.2 
 
 18.46 
 
 miles. 
 
 388 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 
 
 in. 
 
 10.1 
 
 15.7 
 
 39.3 
 
 34.9 
 
 300.0 
 
 16.40 
 
 miles. 
 
 190 
 
 Corn& 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oats . 
 
 do 
 
 12 
 
 in. 
 
 3.8 
 
 9.0 
 
 37.3 
 
 49.9 
 
 187.2 
 
 20 58 
 
 miles. 
 
 41 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 do 
 
 16 
 
 in. 
 
 22.2 
 
 10.7 
 
 36.8 
 
 30.3 
 
 81 1 
 
 13.68 
 
 miles. 
 
 109 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 do 
 
 12 
 
 in. 
 
 17.7 
 
 13.0 
 
 37.6 
 
 31.7 
 
 309.8 
 
 27.27 
 
 miles. 
 
 191 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 do 
 
 12 
 
 in. 
 
 8.9 
 
 13.1 
 
 44.0 
 
 34.0 
 
 117 0 
 
 17.76 
 
 miles. 
 
 276 
 
 Rye .. 
 
 5 H. P. engine.. 
 
 12 
 
 in. 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.7 
 
 41.4 
 
 55.4 
 
 857.0 
 
 115.7 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 277 
 
 Rye .. 
 
 2*4 H P. engine 
 
 9 
 
 in 
 
 0.9 
 
 4.4 
 
 43.5 
 
 51.2 
 
 525.5 
 
 65 66 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 222 
 
 Rye .. 
 
 16-ft. windmill. 
 
 16 
 
 in. 
 
 0.6 
 
 2.9 
 
 32.4 
 
 64.1 
 
 395.4 
 
 19.67 
 
 miles. 
 
 223 
 
 Rye . 
 
 I 
 
 do 
 
 16 
 
 iu. 
 
 0.6 
 
 3.5 
 
 41 3 
 
 54.6 
 
 178.9 
 
 22.37 
 
 miles. 
 
Grinding ivith Small Steel Feed Mills. 
 
 19 
 
 Referring to the table it will be seen that the most rapid grinding was' 
 done with the 5 H. P. engine with the grade of meal between “coarse” and 1 
 “medium.” The rate of grinding was 254 bushels of corn in 10 hours. The 
 same engine ground rye at the rate of 153 bushels in 10 hours at a cost of 
 $1.45 for fuel, less than one cent per bushel 
 
 Fig. 11. Shows the X Aermotor grinder used in making the trials of Table II, 
 
 page 18. 
 
 Fig. 12. Shows the grinding burrs used with the X and O Aermotor grinders in 
 making the trials recorded in Tables I and II, pages' 17 and 18. 
 
 The work done with the N. grinder driven by the 16-foot windmill has 
 been plotted in Fig. 13, after reducing each trial to standard grade. If 
 reference is made to the figure it will be seen that up to 20 miles per hour 
 of wind velocity the capacity of the 16-foot windmill has been materially 
 greater than that of the 12-foot wheel; but at higher velocities the 
 
20 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 Fig. 13. Showing the rates of grinding with the 16-foot windmill. The solid dots show the observed rates of grinding with the N 
 grinder computed to a single grade. The open dots with arrow points show the amounts ground with other grinders driven by the 
 16-foot windmill. Curve A shows the amounts which should be ground if the rates increased with the square of the wind velocity. 
 
Grinding ivith Small Steel Feed Mills. 
 
 21 
 
 reverse is true. This relation of the amounts of work done by the two 
 wheels is very largely due to the fact that the 12-foot mill did not begin to 
 regulate out of the wind until a velocity of nearly or quite 30 miles per 
 hour was reached, while the larger mill began to regulate out at 20 miles. 
 It was exaggerated still further by the fact that the pulley on the driving 
 shaft was often not great enough to permit the grinder to be driven at 
 such a speed as to fully load the mill. 
 
 It will be further clear from a study of the plotted results that the other 
 types of grinders were here also less efficient, as a rule, with the windmill 
 for driving power than was the N. grinder. 
 
 TRIALS WITH THE NO. 3 APPLETON PRIZE PULLEY GRINDER. 
 
 The No. 3 Prize Pulley feed mill used in these trials is a light compact 
 simple grinder represented in Fig. 14, and the steel burrs are shown in Fig 0 
 15. Nearly 70 trials were made with it and the rates of grinding, in pounds 
 per hour, together with the cubic feet of gas used with each engine, or the 
 wind velocity under which the grinder was driven are given in the table 
 which follows. In the same table are given the grades of meal produced 
 together with the size of the pulley on the counter-shaft from which the 
 grinder was driven. The counter shaft usually made from 450 to 500 revo- 
 lutions per minute when driven by either of the engines. 
 
 The most rapid grinding in any case was with corn, trial No. 19, at the 
 rate of 44.8 bushels per hour of the “ coarse” grade, at a cost of 18.84 cents 
 for fuel. Ten hours’ grinding at this rate wou d cost for fuel $1.88 for 448 
 bushels ground with the 5 H. P. engine. The slowest grinding of corn 
 with the same engine was at the rate of 146 bushels in ten hours, of meal 
 between “ medium ” and “ fine,” at a cost of $1.65. 
 
 With the 234 H. P. engine the most rapid grinding was the trial No. 21, 
 of 361 bushels of “ very coarse ” meal at a cost of $.93 for fuel, while the 
 slowest was 57.6 bushels of fine meal per ten hours, at a cost for fuel of 
 $.82. The rates at which corn and oats, oats and rye were ground will be 
 found in Table III, p. 23: 
 
22 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 Fig. 14. Shows the No. 3 Appleton Prize Pulley Grinder used in making the 
 trials in Table III, page 23. 
 
 Fig. 15. Shows the grinding burrs of the Appleton Prize Pulley Grinder use iu 
 making the trials in Table III, page 23. 
 
©2 
 
 o‘C 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 335 
 
 336 
 
 337 
 
 338 
 
 339 
 
 340 
 
 341 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 127 
 
 128 
 
 129 
 
 130 
 
 131 
 
 132 
 
 133 
 
 134 
 
 135 
 
 283 
 
 284 
 
 235 
 
 286 
 
 287 
 
 238 
 
 311 
 
 312 
 
 313 
 
 314 
 
 331 
 
 342 
 
 343 
 
 314 
 
 345 
 
 346 
 
 347 
 
 343 
 
 349 
 
 350 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 196 
 
 197 
 
 198 
 
 137 
 
 175 
 
 176 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 136 
 
 138 
 
 351 
 
 32 
 
 177 
 
 266 
 
 267 
 
 233 
 
 264 
 
 265 
 
 224 
 
 225 
 
 Grinding with Small Steel Feed Mills, 
 
 23 
 
 . — Showing results of trials in grinding grain with the 
 No. 3 Appleton Prize Pulley Grinder. 
 
 5 H. 
 
 16-ft. 
 
 >wer used. 
 
 Size 
 
 of 
 
 pul- 
 
 ley. 
 
 Texture of Meal Ground. 
 
 Meal 
 
 ground 
 
 per 
 
 hour. 
 
 Gas used. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 
 
 pr ct. 
 
 per ct. 
 
 per ct. 
 
 per ct 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 P. engine . 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.0 
 
 29.2 
 
 69.6 
 
 929.4 
 
 145.6 cu, ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 16.6 
 
 15.5 
 
 32.0 
 
 35.9 
 
 1895.0 
 
 138.9 cu. ft. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 27.8 
 
 20.5 
 
 25.4 
 
 26.3 
 
 2511.0 
 
 150.7 cu. ft. 
 
 do 
 
 l6 in. 
 
 74.7 
 
 9.3 
 
 8.9 
 
 7.1 
 
 2400. 
 
 96.01 cu. ft. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in 
 
 6.0 
 
 13 3 
 
 40.1 
 
 40.6 
 
 1768. 
 
 132.6 cu. ft. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1 0 
 
 2.4 
 
 30.0 
 
 66.6 
 
 822.8 
 
 132.2 cu. ft. 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0.9 
 
 2.3 
 
 34.3 
 
 62.5 
 
 833.1 
 
 133.7 cu. ft. 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0 5 
 
 1.0 
 
 25.0 
 
 73.5 
 
 904.0 
 
 138.9 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0 5 
 
 1.1 
 
 22 5 
 
 75.9 
 
 964.7 
 
 153.3 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.5 
 
 .9 
 
 20.6 
 
 78 0 
 
 854.3 
 
 137.3 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.7 
 
 24.3 
 
 73.2 
 
 1028. 
 
 146.9 cu. ft. 
 
 d. P. engine 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 10 3 
 
 89.5 
 
 368.6 
 
 87.24 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.5 
 
 2 1 
 
 36.5 
 
 60.9 
 
 514.2 
 
 65.15 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 8.0 
 
 13.1 
 
 37.7 
 
 41.2 
 
 1026. 
 
 74.01 cu ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 71 9 
 
 9.5 
 
 10.0 
 
 8.6 
 
 20:18. 
 
 74.71 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 14.6 
 
 16.7 
 
 33.7 
 
 35. C 
 
 794 1 
 
 84.70 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 14.6 
 
 16.7 
 
 33.7 
 
 35.0 
 
 806.3 
 
 77.91 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in 
 
 0 3 
 
 1.2 
 
 25.7 
 
 72.8 
 
 435.2 
 
 79.8 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.5 
 
 2 3 
 
 32.5 
 
 64.7 
 
 519.2 
 
 81 34 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 14 in 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.3 
 
 32.5 
 
 64.7 
 
 526.7 
 
 77.27 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 0.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 32.7 
 
 63.7 
 
 539.3 
 
 75.49 cu. ft. 
 
 .do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 0.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 32.7 
 
 63.7 
 
 586.9 
 
 76.31 cu. ft. 
 
 .do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 2.6 
 
 6.8 
 
 37.2 
 
 53.4 
 
 662.5 
 
 75.09 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 3.2 
 
 8.1 
 
 36.9 
 
 51.8 
 
 696.8 
 
 76.65 cu. ft. 
 
 . do' 
 
 9 in. 
 
 1.4 
 
 5.6 
 
 36.3 
 
 56.7 
 
 533.3 
 
 61.34 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.9 
 
 23.3 
 
 75.6 
 
 444.4 
 
 66.67 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 2.7 
 
 9 2 
 
 39.7 
 
 48.4 
 
 626.0 
 
 71.99 cu. ft, 
 
 . do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.9 
 
 4.1 
 
 37.8 
 
 57.2 
 
 393.4 
 
 66.88 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 2.6 
 
 9.3 
 
 39.4 
 
 48.7 
 
 590.1 
 
 61.96 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 9 in 
 
 4.1 
 
 9.2 
 
 36.9 
 
 49 8 
 
 631.6 
 
 66 31 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 2.4 
 
 6.4 
 
 38.4 
 
 52.8 
 
 626.0 
 
 61.18 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 1.3 
 
 4 5 
 
 37.5 
 
 56.7 
 
 645.5 
 
 71.99 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1.1 
 
 3.7 
 
 36.9 
 
 58.3 
 
 576.0 
 
 69.12 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 9 in 
 
 3.0 
 
 7.4 
 
 37.8 
 
 51.8 
 
 585.6 
 
 64.39 cu. ft. 
 
 . do ........ 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.5 
 
 20.4 
 
 78.8 
 
 322.8 
 
 66.19 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 12 3 
 
 86 1 
 
 357 5 
 
 65.92 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 12 in 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.1 
 
 14.9 
 
 83.4 
 
 323. 
 
 70 37 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0 7 
 
 1 4 
 
 21.9 
 
 76.0 
 
 358.7 
 
 67.90 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.2 
 
 26.7 
 
 69.7 
 
 421.8 
 
 69.29 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in 
 
 0.9 
 
 1 7 
 
 20.8 
 
 76 6 
 
 357.5 
 
 67.67 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.8 
 
 29.7 
 
 66.4 
 
 446.1 
 
 7C.10 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.9 
 
 21.4 
 
 75.7 
 
 365.0 
 
 69.13 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.3 
 
 32.1 
 
 64.5 
 
 489.4 
 
 61 17 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 30.9 
 
 65.2 
 
 454. 0 
 
 58.37 cu. ft. 
 
 windmill. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.5 
 
 18.0 
 
 81.4 
 
 242.6 
 
 15.45 miles. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 60 5 
 
 11.9 
 
 15.3 
 
 12.3 
 
 338 8 
 
 15.31 miles. 
 
 . do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.6 
 
 2.4 
 
 33.8 
 
 63.2 
 
 523.1 
 
 21 30 miles. 
 
 ;. windmill. 
 
 
 0.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 32.8 
 
 65.2 
 
 449 0 
 
 26.67 miles. 
 
 . do 
 
 
 0.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 32.8 
 
 65,2 
 
 596.7 
 
 27.04 miles. 
 
 H. P. engine 
 
 
 16.5 
 
 23.7 
 
 34.0 
 
 25.8 
 
 729 7 
 
 82.70 cu. ft. 
 
 ;. windmill. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 9.5 
 
 7 4 
 
 '36.7 
 
 46.4 
 
 171.6 
 
 21.56 miles. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 11.7 
 
 9.4 
 
 37.0 
 
 41.9 
 
 420.3 
 
 21.95 miles. 
 
 P. engine.. 
 
 16 in 
 
 17.4 
 
 11.3 
 
 31.8 
 
 39.5 
 
 459.5 
 
 142.5 cu. ft. 
 
 E. P. engine 
 
 16 in. 
 
 7 4 
 
 3.6 
 
 26.9 
 
 62.1 
 
 158.1 
 
 85.39 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 22.4 
 
 9.4 
 
 36.0 
 
 31.9 
 
 364.9 
 
 79.05 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 
 24.5 
 
 13.2 
 
 30.7 
 
 31.6 
 
 321 . 5 
 
 68.58 cu- ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 
 25.8 
 
 15.5 
 
 30.0 
 
 28.7 
 
 368.6 
 
 81 .98 cu. ft- 
 
 .do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 18.8 
 
 11.5 
 
 ! 30. 
 
 39.7 
 
 159.1 
 
 49.22 cu. ft. 
 
 ;. windmill. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 21.5 
 
 28.5 
 
 33.9 
 
 16.1 
 
 95.47 
 
 15.8 miles. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 27.0 
 
 15.7 
 
 33.1 
 
 24 2 
 
 354.9 
 
 22.93 miles. 
 
 P. engine.. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 2.0 
 
 8.2 
 
 53.0 
 
 36.8 
 
 1199. 
 
 140.1 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.6 
 
 31.4 
 
 66.6 
 
 837.1 
 
 154.9 cu. ft. 
 
 E. P. engine 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 21.0 
 
 78.8 
 
 103.2 
 
 66.94 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.C 
 
 38.0 
 
 59.5 
 
 311.7 
 
 62.34 cu. ft. 
 
 . do 
 
 18 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.6 
 
 23.8 
 
 75.4 
 
 211.7 
 
 64.58 cu. ft. 
 
 t. windmill. 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.5 
 
 23.5 
 
 75.9 
 
 166.8 
 
 17.56 miles. 
 
 . do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.9 
 
 26.2 
 
 72.6 
 
 153. 
 
 17.14 miles. 
 
24 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 TRIALS WITH THE NO. 2 BOWSHER GRINDER. 
 
 This feed mill and its burrs are represented in Figs. 16 and 17, and in 
 Table IV are given the results of 59 different trials made in our laboratory. 
 
 Fig. 16. Shows the No. 2 Bowsher Grinder used in making the trials in Table 
 
 IV, page 25. 
 
 Fig. 17. Showing grinding burrs of No. 2 Bowsher Grinder used in making the 
 trials of Table IV, page 25. 
 
 The most rapid grinding of corn with this mill and the 5 H. P. engine is 
 given under trial No. 6, where a grade between “coarse” and “very 
 coarse ” was ground at the rate of 58.8 bushels per hour with a cost for 
 fuel of 16.725 cents, or $1.67 for 588 bushels, or a run of 10 hours. The 
 slowest grinding of corn with the same engine was trial No. 1 where “fine” 
 meal was ground at the rate of 13 72 bushels per hour at a cost of 17.6 
 cents, or $1.76 for a 10 hour run, grinding 137.2 bushels of fine meal. 
 
 With the 2^4 H. P. engine the most rapid grinding of corn was trial 
 No. 7 where 39 7 bushels of “ very coarse ” meal were ground per hour at 
 
Grinding with Small Steel Feed Mills . 
 
 25 
 
 a cost of 11.05 cents, or 397 bushels in 10 hours for $1.11. The slowest 
 grinding of corn with this engine and mill was in trial No. 2, 3.8 bushels 
 of fine meal per hour at a cost for fuel of 7.72 cents, or at the rate of 38 
 bushels in 10 hours for 77 cents as the price for fuel. The fastest grinding 
 for the same grade of meal and engine was trial No. 150, where 6.84 bush- 
 els were ground in one hour, or at the rate of 68.4 bushels in 10 hours, at 
 a cost of 95.75 cents for fuel. 
 
 Table IV. — Showing results of trials in grinding grain with the 
 No. 2 Bowsher Grinder. 
 
 1 No. of 
 
 1 trial. 
 
 Grain 
 
 ground 
 
 Power used. 
 
 Size 
 
 of 
 
 pul- 
 
 ley. 
 
 Texture of Meal Ground. 
 
 Meal 
 ground 
 pr. hr. 
 
 Gas used. 
 
 l. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 pr.ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 5 H. P. engine . 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 17.2 
 
 82.5 
 
 768.3 
 
 141.6 cu.ft. 
 
 5 
 
 Corn. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 8.7 
 
 21.3 
 
 37.2 
 
 32.8 
 
 2,352 0 
 
 175.8 cu.ft. 
 
 6 
 
 
 do 
 
 
 61 8 
 
 8 2 
 
 12 0 
 
 18 0 
 
 3,292 0 
 
 133.8 cu. ft. 
 
 9 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1.1 
 
 5.1 
 
 52.2 
 
 41.6 
 
 1,321.0 
 
 128 2 cu.ft. 
 
 159 
 
 
 
 
 0 5 
 
 2 o 
 
 36.7 
 
 60 8 
 
 9>6.3 
 
 157.8 cu. ft. 
 
 393 
 
 
 
 
 9 0 
 
 17.6 
 
 39.6 
 
 33.8 
 
 1,832,4 
 
 163.6 cu. ft. 
 
 395 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 1.1 
 
 2 5 
 
 45 0 
 
 62.4 
 
 1,292.2 
 
 139.2 cu.ft. 
 
 396 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 4 
 
 49 2 
 
 48 2 
 
 1 134 0 
 
 121.1 cu.ft. 
 
 2 
 
 Corn.. 
 
 2J4 H. P engine 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1.9 
 
 0 9 
 
 17.8 
 
 80^3 
 
 212.6 
 
 61.77 cu. ft. 
 
 3 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 13.2 
 
 86 3 
 
 436 4 
 
 84 55 cu. ft. 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 4 9 
 
 16.9 
 
 21 .7 
 
 56 5 
 
 778 4 
 
 53.5 cu. ft. 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 77 5 
 
 7 2 
 
 8.4 
 
 6^9 
 
 2,226.0 
 
 88.41 cu. ft. 
 
 8 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 
 
 0 9 
 
 3 8 
 
 53.8 
 
 41.5 
 
 837.3 
 
 87.9 cu. ft. 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 0 3 
 
 0.4 
 
 19.2 
 
 80.1 
 
 382.9 
 
 76.6 cu. ft. 
 
 156 
 
 
 
 
 0J2 
 
 0.6 
 
 19 6 
 
 79.6 
 
 338.0 
 
 72.68 cu. ft. 
 
 157 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.7 
 
 16.9 
 
 81.4 
 
 344.5 
 
 74.08 cu. ft. 
 
 158 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0 3 
 
 0.5 
 
 26.4 
 
 72.8 
 
 375.0 
 
 76.88 cu. ft. 
 
 160 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 0 3 
 
 1.2 
 
 27.2 
 
 71.3 
 
 464.5 
 
 74.33 cu. ft. 
 
 245 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 10.8 
 
 88.8 
 
 269.7 
 
 66 07 cu. ft. 
 
 289 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do . . _ 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0 9 
 
 4.2 
 
 49.5 
 
 45.3 
 
 654.5 
 
 58.91 cu. ft. 
 
 290 
 
 Corn.. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.7 
 
 3.9 
 
 50 0 
 
 45.4 
 
 6t 0 . 6 
 
 62.77 cu ft. 
 
 191 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 . . . do . . „ 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.9 
 
 4.4 
 
 50 6 
 
 44.1 
 
 685.7 
 
 68.57 cu. ft. 
 
 292 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 0 6 
 
 3 5 
 
 46.9 
 
 48^0 
 
 580.7 
 
 72.58 cu. ft. 
 
 305 
 
 Corn. 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0 7 
 
 3.0 
 
 48.6 
 
 47 7 
 
 580.7 
 
 69.68 cu. ft. 
 
 306 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 ... do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.4 
 
 2.2 
 
 41.2 
 
 56.2 
 
 571.4 
 
 71.42 cu. ft. 
 
 307 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 14 in, 
 
 0.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 48.7 
 
 47.7 
 
 537.3 
 
 64.48 cu. ft. 
 
 308 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 14 in 
 
 0.8 
 
 3.8 
 
 49.8 
 
 45.6 
 
 545.4 
 
 73.36 cu. ft. 
 
 309 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 in 
 
 0.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 50.0 
 
 46.1 
 
 631 . 6 
 
 66.31 cu. ft. 
 
 310 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 0 6 
 
 2 7 
 
 42 7 
 
 54 0 
 
 637.1 
 
 70.08 cu. ft. 
 
 29 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 16 ft. windmill 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.9 
 
 36.5 
 
 62.4 
 
 346.0 
 
 21.19 miles. 
 
 33 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.6 
 
 28.9 
 
 70.3 
 
 239.2 
 
 15.0 miles. 
 
 34 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 73 2 
 
 7 2 
 
 8 7 
 
 10 9 
 
 235.4 
 
 13.28 miles. 
 
 28 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 12 ft do... 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1.4 
 
 8.2 
 
 56.7 . 
 
 33.7 
 
 595.4 
 
 20.81 miles. 
 
 13 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & cob. 
 
 5 H. P. engine . 
 
 16 in 
 
 7.6 
 
 14.5 
 
 48.3 
 
 29.6 
 
 642.9 
 
 128.6 cu. ft. 
 
 14 
 
 .. do .. 
 
 2Vt H. P. engine 
 
 16 in 
 
 6 2 
 
 11.4 
 
 51.7 
 
 30.7 
 
 368 6 
 
 88.45 cu. ft. 
 
 12 
 
 .. do .. 
 
 16 ft. windmill 
 
 16 in. 
 
 7.7 
 
 10.5 
 
 50.9 
 
 30.9 
 
 134.5 
 
 15.86 miles. 
 
 26 
 
 . . do . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 10 6 
 
 12 7 
 
 48.4 
 
 28.3 
 
 272.5 
 
 18.95 miles. 
 
 27 
 
 .. do .. 
 
 12 ft. windmill 
 
 10.6 
 
 12.7 
 
 48.4 
 
 28.3 
 
 148.6 
 
 16.51 miles. 
 
 163 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & oats 
 
 5 H. P. engine. 
 
 12 in. 
 
 5.3 
 
 7.3 
 
 39.0 
 
 48.4 
 
 666.7 
 
 130.0 cu. ft. 
 
 164 
 
 . . do . . 
 
 do . . . 
 
 16 in. 
 
 5 2 
 
 6 5 
 
 42.0 
 
 46.3 
 
 610.1 
 
 146.4 cu. ft. 
 
 165 
 
 . . do . . 
 
 do .... 
 
 16 in. 
 
 5 2 
 
 6 5 
 
 42 0 
 
 46 3 
 
 610 1 
 
 152.6 cu. ft. 
 
 161 
 
 .. do .. 
 
 2H!H. P. engine 
 
 12 in. 
 
 2 5 
 
 4.2 
 
 38.5 
 
 54.8 
 
 201.6 
 
 68.57 cu. ft. 
 
 162 
 
 .. do . . 
 
 do . . 
 
 12 in. 
 
 2 5 
 
 4.2 
 
 38 5 
 
 54 8 
 
 180.9 
 
 65.11 cu. ft. 
 
 181 
 
 .. do .. 
 
 16 ft. windmill 
 
 16 in! 
 
 2.3 
 
 3.4 
 
 37.4 
 
 56.9 
 
 493.3 
 
 23.08 miles. 
 
 182 
 
 .. do .. 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 7.1 
 
 8.5 
 
 38.5 
 
 45.9 
 
 197.3 
 
 18.46 miles. 
 
 10 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 5 H P. engine. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 16.9 
 
 15.0 
 
 45.9 
 
 22.2 
 
 526.7 
 
 144.0 cu. ft. 
 
 11 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 2 Vi H. P. engine 
 
 16 in. 
 
 13.2 
 
 18 4 
 
 44.5 
 
 23 9 
 
 417 0 
 
 86.18 cu. ft. 
 
 151 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 10 1 
 
 10 0 
 
 32.3 
 
 47.6 
 
 98.2 
 
 72 70 cu. ft. 
 
 152 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 28.2 
 
 22 0 
 
 29.5 
 
 20 3 
 
 288 1 
 
 69 12 cu. ft. 
 
 153 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 in 
 
 28 2 
 
 22.0 
 
 29.5 
 
 20.3 
 
 310.3 
 
 74.47 cu. ft. 
 
 154 
 
 Oats. . 
 
 
 22 0 
 
 29 5 
 
 36.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 354.6 
 
 81.58 cu. ft. 
 
 155 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 
 
 22 0 
 
 29.5 
 
 36.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 301.2 
 
 73.81 cu. ft. 
 
 35 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 16 ft. windmill 
 
 16 in. 
 
 16.7 
 
 24 5 
 
 41.6 
 
 17.2 
 
 164.2 
 
 18.0 miles. 
 
 247 
 
 Rye. .. 
 
 5 H. P. engine. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0 1 
 
 0.5 
 
 18.7 
 
 80 7 
 
 395.6 
 
 136.5 cu. ft. 
 
 232 
 
 Rye. .. 
 
 H P. engine 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 0 5 
 
 24.5 
 
 74 8 
 
 150.0 
 
 55.0 cu. ft. 
 
 261 
 
 Rye . . . 
 
 do . . . 
 
 9 in 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.2 
 
 31.6 
 
 66.8 
 
 249 1 
 
 66.02 cu. ft. 
 
 262 
 
 Rve . . . 
 
 do . . . 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0 3 
 
 1.0 
 
 23.5 
 
 75.2 
 
 198.4 
 
 64 47 cu. ft. 
 
 263 
 
 Rye . . 
 
 do .... 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 7 
 
 27 5 
 
 71 4 
 
 227 1 
 
 64.13 cu ft. 
 
 226 
 
 Rye. .. 
 
 16 ft. windmill 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.8 
 
 18.1 
 
 80 9 
 
 255.2 
 
 24.49 miles. 
 
 227 
 
 Rye. .. 
 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.0 
 
 38.2 
 
 59.1 
 
 381.0 
 
 22.61 miles. 
 
26 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 TRIALS WITH THE HAMACHEK GIANT GRINDER. 
 
 This feed mill is represented in Fig. 18. Fifty trials have been made 
 with it and these are given in Table V, page 27. 
 
 The most rapid grinding of corn with this mill was in trial No. 53 with 
 the 5 H. P. engine. In this case corn was ground at the rate of 31.11 
 bushels per hour, costing for gas 14.51 cents or at the rate of 311.1 bushels 
 in 10 hours for $1.45 for fuel when the grade of meal ground was “very 
 coarse ” and “coarse.” The slowest rate of grinding was 12.28 bushels 
 per hour when the meal was 90 per cent, of the finest degree. This is a 
 rate of 122.8 bushels in 10 hours with a cost for fuel of $1.78. 
 
 Fig. 18. Showing the Hamacheck Giant Grinder used in making the trials of 
 
 Table V, page 27. 
 
 When the 234 H. P. engine was used the most rapid grinding was at the 
 rate of 126 bushels in 10 hours at a cost of $1.03 for fuel and where the 
 grade of meal was “coarse.” The finest grinding done was at the rate of 
 69.38 bushels in 10 hours when the fuel cost for the same was $1.02. 
 
Grinding with Small Steel Feed Mills, 
 
 27 
 
 Table V. — Showing results of trials in grinding grain with the 
 
 Giant Grinder. 
 
 Is 
 
 Grain 
 
 ground 
 
 Power used. 
 
 Size 
 of the 
 
 Texture of Meal Ground. 
 
 Meal 
 
 ground 
 
 per 
 
 hour. 
 
 Gas used . 
 
 *8 
 
 6 
 
 •55 
 
 pul- 
 
 ley. 
 
 t. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 46 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 5 H. P. engine . . 
 
 16 in. 
 
 pr ct. 
 0.05 
 
 pr. ct. 
 0.05 
 
 pr ct. 
 14.5 
 
 pr. ct. 
 85.4 
 
 lbs 
 
 955.7 
 
 172.0 cu. ft. 
 
 47 
 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0 2 
 
 1 4 
 
 46.8 
 
 51.6 
 
 1,385.0 
 
 775.4 
 
 105.1 cu. ft. 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 16 in. 
 
 trace 
 
 0.1 
 
 18.4 
 
 81 5 
 
 141.3 cu. ft. 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 16 in. 
 
 trace 
 
 0.4 
 
 36.9 
 
 62 7 
 
 1,317 
 
 171.2 cu. ft. 
 
 53 
 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 55.2 
 
 10.2 . 
 
 14.4 
 
 20.2 
 
 1,742.0 
 
 116.1 cu. ft. 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 14 in. 
 
 trace 
 
 0 1 
 
 9 3 
 
 90.6 
 
 687.9 
 
 142.1 cu. ft. 
 
 66 
 
 
 do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 trace 
 
 0.1 
 
 9 3 
 
 90 6 
 
 696.8 
 
 139.4 cu. ft. 
 
 67 
 
 
 do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0 1 
 
 8.3 
 
 91 5 
 
 900.6 
 
 156.0 cu. ft. 
 
 397 
 
 
 do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 1. 
 
 2 5 
 
 49.0 
 
 48.4 
 
 1,095.4 
 
 118.1 cu. ft. 
 
 398 
 
 
 
 14 in. 
 
 1 5 
 
 6 0 
 
 59.2 
 
 33 3 
 
 1,008.0 
 
 1,039.2 
 
 1,039.2 
 
 108.0 cu. ft. 
 
 399 
 
 
 
 14 in. 
 
 .1 
 
 2.4 
 
 44.7 
 
 52.8 
 
 115.6 cu. ft. 
 
 400 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 
 14 in 
 
 .4 
 
 3.7 
 
 56.9 
 
 39 0 
 
 120.6 cu. ft. 
 
 45 
 
 Corn.. 
 
 uVi H. P. engine 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 15.1 
 
 84.7 
 
 404.5 
 
 80.91 cu. ft. 
 
 48 
 
 
 do -.. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 trace 
 
 0.4 
 
 31.5 
 
 68.1 
 
 596.6 
 
 81.55 cu. ft. 
 
 50 
 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 trace 
 
 0 1 
 
 13.9 
 
 86.0 
 
 392.7 
 
 81 . 17 cu. ft. 
 
 51 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 trace 
 
 0.4 
 
 39.1 
 
 60 5 
 
 388.5 
 
 81.58 cu. ft. 
 
 54 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in 
 
 50 2 
 
 11.9 
 
 14.8 
 
 23.3 
 
 705.8 
 
 82.35 cu. ft. 
 
 ;293 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 0 3 
 
 1 3 
 
 41.0 
 
 57.4 
 
 518.0 
 
 62 . 16 cu. ft. 
 
 294 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 1 4 in. 
 
 0.4 
 
 2.4 
 
 48.5 
 
 48.7 
 
 541 3 
 
 67.66 cu. ft. 
 
 295 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.2 
 
 42 8 
 
 55.6 
 
 503.5 
 
 70.50 cu. ft. 
 
 296 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 •9 in 
 
 0.3 
 
 2.1 
 
 47 7 
 
 49.9 
 
 521.7 
 
 57 .38 cu. ft. 
 
 301 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 12 
 
 4.0 
 
 51.2 
 
 43.7 
 
 533.3 
 
 64 0 cu. ft. 
 
 303 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 14 in 
 
 0.8 
 
 3.2 
 
 50.3 
 
 45 7 
 
 580.7 
 
 63.87 cu. ft. 
 
 303 
 
 Corn.. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.7 
 
 2 9 
 
 47.0 
 
 49.4 
 
 585.3 
 
 67.32 cu. ft. 
 
 304 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0.7 
 
 n.:) 
 
 50.1 
 
 46.9 
 
 595.0 
 
 65.45 cu. ft. 
 
 332 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 0.8 
 
 2.7 
 
 47.5 
 
 49.0 
 
 545.4 
 
 68 17 cu. ft. 
 
 333 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 0 9 
 
 3.2 
 
 45.7 
 
 50 2 
 
 541 3 
 
 67 . 66 cu. ft. 
 
 42 
 
 Corn.. 
 
 16-ft. windmill. 
 
 16 iu. 
 
 0.2 
 
 l’l 
 
 37.3 
 
 61.4 
 
 120.1 
 
 13.64 miles. 
 
 189 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.6 
 
 29 6 
 
 69.6 
 
 368.8 
 
 20.81 miles. 
 
 213 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 12-ft windmill. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0 3 
 
 17.9 
 
 81.7 
 
 148 9 
 
 17.73 miles. 
 
 214 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 
 0.3 
 
 1.6 
 
 45.0 
 
 53.1 
 
 lb9.4 
 
 19.26 miles. 
 
 183 
 
 Corn & 
 oats . 
 
 16-ft. windmill. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 35.0 
 
 58.8 
 
 249.1 
 
 15 26 miles. 
 
 184 
 
 .. do .. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 3.3 
 
 4.2 
 
 37.2 
 
 55.3 
 
 397.3 
 
 18 18 miles. 
 
 185 
 
 .. do .. 
 
 do 
 
 14 iu. 
 
 3.0 
 
 4.8 
 
 36.2 
 
 56.0 
 
 380.2 
 
 19.04 miles. 
 
 .186 
 
 . . do . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 in 
 
 3 0 
 
 4.2 
 
 34.2 
 
 58 6 
 
 327.0 
 
 16.59 miles. 
 
 36 
 
 Oats .. 
 
 5 H. P. engine . . 
 
 16 iu. 
 
 12.5 
 
 4.1 
 
 28 8 
 
 54.6 
 
 208.9 
 
 124. 6 cu. ft. 
 
 39 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 8.5 
 
 7.5 
 
 43 5 
 
 40.5 
 
 366.1 
 
 112.3 cu. ft 
 
 43 
 
 Oats .. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 11 .7 
 
 16.2 
 
 37.1 
 
 35.0 
 
 256 . 5 
 
 101 .8 cu. ft 
 
 37 
 
 Oats .. 
 
 2 l A H. P. engine 
 
 16 in. 
 
 6.2 
 
 6 7 
 
 39.0 
 
 48.1 
 
 174.8 
 
 76.31 cu. ft. 
 
 38 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in 
 
 11.7 
 
 10.4 
 
 34 6 
 
 43.3 
 
 332 3 
 
 87.5 cu. ft. 
 
 44 
 
 Oats .. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 10.1 
 
 11.3 
 
 43.6 
 
 35.0 
 
 242.7 
 
 79 39 cu. ft. 
 
 40 
 
 Oats .. 
 
 16-ft. windmill. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 10. 4 
 
 8 o ; 
 
 40.2 
 
 41.2 
 
 71.45 
 
 14.0 miles. 
 
 187 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 7.5 
 
 7 7 
 
 39 4 
 
 45 4 
 
 122.9 
 
 17.82 miles. 
 
 188 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in 
 
 7.0 
 
 7 7 
 
 39. 2 
 
 46.1 
 
 200 3 
 
 18 37 miles. 
 
 268 
 
 Rye. .. 
 
 5 H. P. engine . . 
 
 16 in 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 8.2 
 
 91.6 
 
 385.1 
 
 U1.3 cu. ft. 
 
 269 
 
 Rye. .. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.3 
 
 14.1 
 
 85 5 
 
 553 9 
 
 127.4 cu. ft. 
 
 231 
 
 Rye... 
 
 2V* H. P. engine 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0.3 
 
 - 0.6 
 
 13.1 
 
 86 0 
 
 152.2 
 
 60.12 cu. ft. 
 
 270 
 
 R ve . . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 12 9 
 
 86 5 
 
 255.4 
 
 61. 57 cu. ft. 
 
 271 
 
 Rye. . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 in 
 
 0 2 
 
 0.9 
 
 23 2 
 
 75 . 6 
 
 245 7 
 
 54.07 cu. ft. 
 
 .230 
 
 Rye. .. 
 
 16-ft. windmill. 
 
 14 in 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 16 9 
 
 82.0 
 
 248.5 
 
 17.56 miles. 
 
 TRIALS WITH THE STOVER NO. 0 IDEAL GRINDER. 
 
 This grinder is represented in Fig. 19 and its burrs in Fig. 20. There 
 ■were 37 trials made with this mill and the results are given in Table VI, 
 page 29. It will be seen from this that the most rapid grinding with th e 
 5 H. P. engine was trial No. 77 where meal a little coarser than the 
 “coarse” grade was ground at the rate of 10 2 bushels at a cost of 
 16.88 cents. This gives 402 bushels for a 10-hour day with a fuel cost of 
 ;$1.69. The slowest grinding with the 5 H. P. engine was in trial No. 68. 
 
Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 during which meal was ground at the rate of 114.8 bushels in 10 hours at 
 a cost of $1.31. The meal of this trial had a grade a little finer than 
 “ medium.” 
 
 Fig. 19. Showing the Stover No. 0 Ideal Grinder used in making the trials in 
 
 Table VI, page 29. 
 
 Fig. 20. Showing the grinding burrs of the Stover No. 0 Ideal Grinder used in 
 making the trials of Table VI, page 29. 
 
 With the 234 H- P. engine the fastest grinding was with a grade of meal 
 coarser than the “coarse ” and the rate was 24.1 bushels per hour, cost- 
 ing for fuel 10.69 cents. Ten hours grinding would be represented by 
 
 241 bushels costing $1.07. The slowest grinding was done in trial No. 
 
 242 where the rate was 53.25 bushels of meal between “ medium ” and 
 “ fine,” in 10 hours at the cost for fuel of 89 cents. 
 
Grinding with Small Steel Feed Mills . 
 
 29 
 
 Table VI . — Showing results of trials in grinding grain with the No. 
 
 0 Ideal Grinder. 
 
 1 No. of 
 
 I trial. 
 
 Grain 
 
 ground 
 
 Power used. 
 
 Size 
 
 of 
 
 pul- 
 
 ley. 
 
 Texture of Meal Ground. 
 
 Meal 
 ground 
 pr. hr 
 
 Gas used. 
 
 1 . 
 
 3. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 
 
 
 
 pr.ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 68 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 5 H. P. engine.. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.9 
 
 3.0 
 
 34.4 
 
 61.7 
 
 642.9 
 
 105.0 cu. ft. 
 
 73 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 5.9 
 
 12.6 
 
 38.8 
 
 42.7 
 
 1,271.0 
 
 148.3 cu It. 
 
 74 
 
 
 
 
 6 8 
 
 12.8 
 
 38 8 
 
 41 6 
 
 1 Z56.0 
 
 138 1 cu. ft. 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 
 44.6 
 
 14.4 
 
 19.8 
 
 21 2 
 
 2,250 0 
 
 135.0 cu. ft. 
 
 244 
 
 
 
 9 in. 
 
 1.3 
 
 4.3 
 
 29 5 
 
 64.9 
 
 6 >2.3 
 
 162.7 cu. ft. 
 
 70 
 
 Corn.. 
 
 2*4 H. P. engine 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.3 
 
 1.1 
 
 22.1 
 
 76.5 
 
 507 0 
 
 ? 91.26 cu. ft. 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 
 0 3 
 
 1.1 
 
 22.1 
 
 76 5 
 
 603 3 
 
 ? 90.49 cu. ft. 
 
 72 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 5.2 
 
 10.7 
 
 38 3 
 
 45.8 
 
 705.8 
 
 72.95 cu. ft. 
 
 75 
 
 Corn.. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in 
 
 6.6 
 
 12.3 
 
 33.7 
 
 47.4 
 
 776 9 
 
 82.87 cu. ft. 
 
 76 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 50.8 
 
 13 0 
 
 18.5 
 
 17 7 
 
 1 , 35C . 0 
 
 85.51 cu. ft. 
 
 139 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 2.0 
 
 5.2 
 
 36.6 
 
 56.2 
 
 393 4 
 
 66.88 cu. ft. 
 
 140 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 ...... do 
 
 12 in . 
 
 2.0 
 
 5.2 
 
 36.6 
 
 56.2 
 
 581.1 
 
 69 23 cu. ft. 
 
 141 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 in 
 
 3.4 
 
 8 7 
 
 43.5 
 
 44.4 
 
 399.9 
 
 68.0 cu. ft. 
 
 142 
 
 Corn.. 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 3 4 
 
 8.7 
 
 43.5 
 
 44.4 
 
 452.8 
 
 76.98 cu. ft. 
 
 242 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 1 0 
 
 3.7 
 
 29 9 
 
 65.4 
 
 298.2 
 
 71.40 cu. ft. 
 
 80 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 16-ft. windmill. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 2.0 
 
 6.0 
 
 37.7 
 
 54.3 
 
 34 96 
 
 10 34 miles. 
 
 82 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 54.2 
 
 11 6 
 
 19.0 
 
 15 2 
 
 133.9 
 
 10.62 miles. 
 
 174 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1.5 
 
 4 5 
 
 34 5 
 
 59.5 
 
 507.2 
 
 22 5 miles. 
 
 209 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 12 -ft. windmill. 
 
 3.3 
 
 6 7 
 
 33 2 
 
 56.8 
 
 194 0 
 
 21.06 miles. 
 
 210 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 
 
 0.9 
 
 2.2 
 
 26.3 
 
 70.6 
 
 415.0 
 
 25.54 miles. 
 
 172 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & oats 
 
 16-ft. windmill 
 
 9 in. 
 
 12.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 32.7 
 
 •46.3 
 
 157.5 
 
 22.5 miles. 
 
 173 
 
 . . do . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 14 9 
 
 12.6 
 
 41 3 
 
 31.2 
 
 368.6 
 
 20.34 miles. 
 
 78 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 5 H. P. engine.. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 26.9 
 
 14.1 
 
 30.8 
 
 28 2 
 
 459.5 
 
 159 3 cu. ft. 
 
 79 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 tVz H. P. engine 
 
 9 in. 
 
 24.4 
 
 15.7 
 
 30.8 
 
 29.1 
 
 293.5 
 
 75.34 cu. ft. 
 
 143 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 25.5 
 
 19.0 
 
 29.6 
 
 25.9 
 
 231.5 
 
 72.92 cu. ft. 
 
 149 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 24 5 
 
 18.6 
 
 26 3 
 
 30.6 
 
 216 9 
 
 74 82 cu ft. 
 
 81 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 16-ft. windmill. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 29.5 
 
 22.1 
 
 31.2 
 
 17.2 
 
 35.31 
 
 12.81 miles. 
 
 145 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 do . . . 
 
 9 in. 
 
 11.4 
 
 13 6 
 
 80.1 
 
 44.9 
 
 67.35 
 
 16.75 miles. 
 
 146 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 
 9 in. 
 
 11 4 
 
 13.6 
 
 30.1 
 
 44 9 
 
 64.86 
 
 16.22 miles. 
 
 147 
 
 Oats 
 
 do 
 
 16 in 
 
 23.9 
 
 14 6 ' 
 
 33.7 
 
 27 8 
 
 55.64 
 
 16.37 miles. 
 
 148 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 .. do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 20.9 
 
 15.4 
 
 31.1 
 
 32.6 
 
 51.31 
 
 13.79 miles. 
 
 208 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 12 -ft. windmill 
 
 16 ia. 
 
 12.0 
 
 18.4 
 
 37.0 
 
 32.6 
 
 162 7 
 
 24.00 miles. 
 
 941 
 
 Rye .. 
 
 5 H. P. engine 
 
 9 in. 
 
 1.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 37 0 
 
 56.5 
 
 608.2 
 
 144.00 cu. ft. 
 
 234 
 
 R.ve .. 
 
 2 Vi H. P. engine 
 
 ! 9 in. 
 
 0.5 
 
 3.2 
 
 38 8 
 
 57.5 
 
 109.1 
 
 70.34 cu. ft. 
 
 241 
 
 Rye .. 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0 5 
 
 4 1 
 
 35 4 
 
 60 0 
 
 179 1 
 
 68.93 cu ft. 
 
 226 
 
 Rye . 
 
 16-:t. windmill. 
 
 14 in 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.6 
 
 34.3 
 
 62.4 
 
 257.2 
 
 20.81 miles. 
 
 237 
 
 Rye .. 
 
 12 -ft. windmill. 
 
 
 0.6 
 
 3.3 
 
 42.7 
 
 53.4 
 
 446 6 
 
 22.78 miles. 
 
 TRIALS WITH THE SMALLEY MONARCH GRINDER. 
 
 This grinder and its grinding burrs are represented in Pigs. 21 and 22, 
 and the results of the 42 trials are given in Table VII. 
 
 The most rapid grinding of corn with this mill was trial No. 59 with the 
 5 H. P. engine where the rate was 45.9 bushels per hour, at a cost for fuel 
 of 18.21 cents, the meal being of the “very coarse” grade. This would 
 make the grinding per 10 hours cost $1 82 for 459 bushels. The rate of 
 grinding for a grade of meal between “ medium ” and “fine” was 113.4 
 bushels in ten hours, at a cost of $1.69. 
 
 With the 2^4 H. P. engine the most rapid grinding of corn was at the 
 rate of 167.7 bushels in 10 hours of a “ coarse ” grade of meal and at a cost 
 of about 94 cents for fuel. When the meal ground was finer than the 
 
30 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 “ fine ” grade the rate of grinding was 42.3 bushels in 10 hours, at a fuel 
 cost of $1.03. When the grade of meal was finer than “ medium ” in trial 
 No. 57, the rate of grinding was G2.2 bushels in 10 hours and the cost was 
 88.5 cents. 
 
 Fig. 21. Showing the No. 6 Smalley Monarch Grinder used in making the trials 
 of Table VII, page 31. 
 
 Fig. 22. Shows the grinding burrs of the No. 6 Smalley Monarch Grinder used ini 
 making the trials of Table VII, page 31. 
 
Grinding with Small Steel Feed Mills , 
 
 31 
 
 Table VII.— Showing results of trials in grinding grain with the 
 No. 6 Smalley Monarch Grinder. 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 ground 
 
 Power used. 
 
 Size 
 
 of 
 
 Texture of ! 
 
 Meal Ground. 
 
 Meal 
 
 ground 
 
 Gas used. 
 
 o.2 
 
 . u 
 O+i 
 ?: 
 
 pul- 
 
 ley. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 per 
 
 hour. 
 
 55 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 5 H. P. engine.. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 pr.ct. 
 
 *.0.3 
 
 per ct. 
 1.3 
 
 per ct. 
 28.3 
 
 per ct. 
 70.1 
 
 lbs. 
 
 635.3 
 
 135.5 cu. ft. 
 
 58 
 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 5.0 
 
 10.2 
 
 39.5 
 
 45.3 
 
 8C0.0 
 
 106.7 cu. ft. 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 16 in. 
 
 71.5 
 
 7.6 
 
 9.7 
 
 11.2 
 
 2571.0 
 
 145 . 7 cu. ft. 
 
 123 
 
 
 
 16 in. 
 
 5.0 
 
 10.9 
 
 35.3 
 
 4S.2 
 
 1440. 
 
 168. cu. ft. 
 
 56 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 2i4 H. P. engine 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 10.1 
 
 89.6 
 
 236.8 
 
 82.89 cu. ft. 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.2 
 
 34.1 
 
 63.2 
 
 348.3 
 
 70.82 cu. ft. 
 
 60 
 
 Corn.. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 56.4 
 
 12.3 
 
 15.8 
 
 15.5 
 
 670.8 
 
 62.62 cu. ft. 
 
 122 
 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 4.7 
 
 9.6 
 
 39.2 
 
 46.5 
 
 624.3 
 
 ? 97 81 cu. ft. 
 
 124 
 
 
 
 16 in. 
 
 31.5 
 
 18.5 
 
 24.5 
 
 25.5 
 
 939.1 
 
 75.08 cu. ft. 
 85.11 cu. ft. 
 
 125 
 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 3.5 
 
 9.2 
 
 39.8 
 
 47 5 
 
 568.3 
 
 126 
 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 4.3 
 
 10.5 
 
 38.6 
 
 46.6 
 
 635.3 
 
 84.72 cu. ft. 
 
 297 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 7.3 
 
 11.4 
 
 37.4 
 
 43.9 
 
 660.6 
 
 62 76 cu. ft. 
 
 298 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1.8 
 
 6.4 
 
 43.1 
 
 48.9 
 
 483.2 
 
 62.82 cu. ft. 
 
 .299 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 2.2 
 
 7.7 
 
 38.2 
 
 51.9 
 
 428.5 
 
 72.87 cu. ft. 
 
 300 
 
 Corn 
 
 do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 6.3 
 
 10.2 
 
 38.2 
 
 45.3 
 
 553 9 
 
 60.92 cu. ft. 
 
 315 
 
 Corn 
 
 . . . do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 7.0 
 
 9.6 
 
 37.3 
 
 46.1 
 
 654.5 
 
 68.73 cu. ft. 
 
 316 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 2.8 
 
 8.0 
 
 40.7 
 
 48.5 
 
 549.5 
 
 63.20 cu. ft. 
 
 317 
 
 Corn.. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 30.7 
 
 65.1 
 
 533.3 
 
 69.34 cu. ft. 
 
 318 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 3.0 
 
 6.0 
 
 39.5 
 
 51.5 
 
 571 4 
 
 88.57 cu. ft. 
 
 319 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do 
 
 12 in. 
 
 4.1 
 
 8 5 
 
 39 8 
 
 47.6 
 
 595 0 
 
 62.47 cu. ft. 
 
 168 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 16-ft. windmill. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0.7 
 
 2 6 
 
 28.5 
 
 68.2 
 
 125 . 5 
 
 15.13 miles. 
 
 169 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 do . . 
 
 16 in. 
 
 2.3 
 
 6.5 
 
 37 5 
 
 53.7 
 
 450.5 
 
 18.46 miles. 
 
 211 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 12-ft. windmill. 
 
 1.1 
 
 3.6 
 
 34.0 
 
 61.3 
 
 284.1 
 
 21.69 miles. 
 
 212 
 
 Corn 
 
 , . . do 
 
 
 2.0 
 
 6.4 
 
 38.4 
 
 53.2 
 
 227.0 
 
 18.65 miles. 
 
 145.1 cu. ft. 
 
 119 
 
 Corn& 
 
 oats. 
 
 5 H. P. engine.. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 18.3 
 
 24.3 
 
 30.4 
 
 27 0 
 
 1742.0 
 
 120 
 
 . . do 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 8.9 
 
 15.6 
 
 38.5 
 
 39.0 
 
 1367. 
 
 173.2 cu. ft. 
 
 121 
 
 . . do . . 
 
 2J4 H. P. engine 
 
 16 in. 
 
 4.9 
 
 9.0 
 
 43.00 
 
 43.1 
 
 428.5 
 
 94.28 cu. ft. 
 
 167 
 
 . do .. 
 
 16-ft. windmill. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 8.8 
 
 10.6 
 
 36.6 
 
 44.0 
 
 153.2 
 
 19.26 miles. 
 
 170 
 
 .. do .. 
 
 — do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 19.2 
 
 17.0 
 
 34.1 
 
 29.7 
 
 377.0 
 
 21.18 miles. 
 
 61 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 5H P. engine.. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 42.6 
 
 17.4 
 
 21.1 
 
 18.5 
 
 507.0 
 
 125.0 cu.ft. 
 
 64 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 30.7 
 
 13.5 
 
 23.4 
 
 32.4 
 
 418.4 
 
 161.9 cu. ft. 
 
 62 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 214 H. P. engine 
 
 16 in. 
 
 20 8 
 
 11.2 
 
 30 5 
 
 37.5 
 
 134.5 
 
 80.13 cu. ft. 
 
 63 
 
 Oats . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 28.2 
 
 18.8 
 
 27.1 
 
 25 9 
 
 173.4 
 
 78.38 cu. ft. 
 
 166 
 
 Oats.. 
 
 16-ft. windmill. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 24.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 35.8 
 
 27.7 
 
 26.37 
 
 20.81 miles. 
 
 171 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 28.7 
 
 15.9 
 
 30.9 
 
 24 5 
 
 111.0 
 
 15.86 miles. 
 
 218 
 
 Rye. .. 
 
 5 H. P. engine.. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.7 
 
 38.9 
 
 57.7 
 
 595.1 
 
 116 0 cu. ft. 
 
 219 
 
 Rye. .. 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 1.6 
 
 8.3 
 
 48.4 
 
 41.7 
 
 1007. 
 
 151.1 cu.ft. 
 
 220 
 
 Rye . . . 
 
 do 
 
 14 in. 
 
 1.4 
 
 6.0 
 
 50.2 
 
 42.4 
 
 986.3 
 
 138.2 cu. ft. 
 
 217 
 
 Rye. .. 
 
 214 H. P. engine 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.5 
 
 28.1 
 
 71.8 
 
 152.2 
 
 59.5 cu.ft. 
 
 272 
 
 Rye. . . 
 
 do 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 32.9 
 
 64.0 
 
 306 3 
 
 58.21 cu. ft. 
 
 273 
 
 Rye. .. 
 
 do 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 27.2 
 
 71 4 
 
 284.5 
 
 76.84 cu. ft. 
 
 221 
 
 Rye. .. 
 
 16-ft. windmill 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.0 
 
 37.2 
 
 60.1 
 
 196.4 
 
 17.23 miles. 
 
 TRIALS WITH THE VESSOT LITTLE CHAMPION GRINDER. 
 
 This mill and its grinding burrs are represented in Figs. 23 and 24, and 
 the results of the 50 trials are recorded in Table VIII. 
 
 The most rapid grinding of corn with this mill when driven by the 5 H. P. 
 engine was in trial No. 91 where a meal was ground some finer than the 
 “ very coarse ” grade. The rate was 60.26 bushels per hour, using fuel at 
 a cost of 19.69 cents. This is at the rate of 602.6 bushels in 10 hours for 
 $1.97. 
 
 The slowest grinding with this mill and the 5 H. P. engine was in trial 
 No. 85 where a grade between “ medium ” and “ fine ” was ground at the 
 rate of 170 bushels in 10 hours at a fuel cost of $1.95. 
 
32 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 With the 234 H. P. engine the most rapid grinding of corn was in trial 
 No. 92 where a grade a little finer than the “very coarse” was ground at 
 the rate of 283.7 bushels in 10 hours with a fuel cost of 86 cents. The rate 
 of grinding with the finest grade of meal, a little coarser than the “ fine,” 
 was 67 bushels in 10 hours at a cost for fuel of 80 cents. 
 
 Fig. 23. Showing the Little Champion Vessot Grinder used in making the trials 
 of Table VIII, page 33. 
 
 Fig. 24. Shows the grinding burr of the Little Champion Vessot Grinder used 
 in making the trials in Table VIII, page 33. 
 
o « 
 
 6*3 
 
 £ 
 
 85 
 
 86 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 
 401 
 
 402 
 
 403 
 
 404 
 
 83 
 
 84 
 
 87 
 
 88 
 
 89 
 
 • 92 
 
 115 
 
 '278 
 
 279 
 
 280 
 
 • 281 
 
 282 
 
 320 
 
 321 
 
 322 
 
 324 
 
 325 
 
 326 
 
 327 
 
 328 
 
 329 
 
 330 
 
 331 
 
 93 
 
 94 
 
 215 
 
 216 
 
 117 
 
 118 
 
 116 
 
 178 
 
 179 
 
 180 
 
 114 
 
 113 
 
 95 
 
 240 
 
 238 
 
 239 
 
 274 
 
 275 
 
 228 
 
 Grinding with Small Steel Feed Mills . 
 
 33 
 
 . — Showing results of trials in grinding grain with the 
 Vessot , Little Champion Grinder. 
 
 Power used. 
 
 5 H. P. engine. 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 2 V6 H.P. engine 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 ...... do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 16 ft. windmill 
 
 do 
 
 12-ft. windmill 
 do 
 
 5 H. P. engine. 
 
 do 
 
 214 H. P. engine 
 16-ft windmill 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 5 H. P. engine. 
 214 H. P. engine 
 16-ft. windmill 
 5 H. P. engine. 
 214 H. P. engine 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do — 
 
 16-ft. windmill 
 
 Size 
 
 of 
 
 pul- 
 
 ley. 
 
 Texture of Meal Ground. 
 
 Meal 
 ground 
 pr. hr. 
 
 l. 
 
 3. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 
 pr.ct. 
 
 pr ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.4 
 
 3.0 
 
 33.7 
 
 62.9 
 
 955.7 
 
 16 in. 
 
 4.6 
 
 13.6 
 
 44.4 
 
 37.4 
 
 180J.0 
 
 16 in. 
 
 6.6 
 
 16.2 
 
 41.8 
 
 35.4 
 
 2769.0 
 
 16 in. 
 
 63.9 
 
 9.2 
 
 11.3 
 
 15.6 
 
 3375 0 
 
 14 in. 
 
 15.5 
 
 20.4 
 
 35.4 
 
 28.7 
 
 2016 0 
 
 14 in. 
 
 .7 
 
 3.7 
 
 38.2 
 
 57.4 
 
 1440.0 
 
 14 in. 
 
 .7 
 
 3.7 
 
 36.0 
 
 59.6 
 
 1344 0 
 
 14 in. 
 
 !5 
 
 2.2 
 
 33.5 
 
 63.8 
 
 1308.0 
 
 16 in 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.0 
 
 21.7 
 
 77.1 
 
 532.0 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.0 
 
 21.7 
 
 77.1 
 
 532.0 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.6 
 
 3.8 
 
 37.6 
 
 58.0 
 
 565.4 
 
 16 in 
 
 0.3 
 
 3.0 
 
 36.1 
 
 60.6 
 
 683.4 
 
 16 in 
 
 0.5 
 
 4.7 - 
 
 38.8 
 
 56.0 
 
 642.9 
 
 16 in. 
 
 62.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 13.1 
 
 12.4 
 
 1589.0 
 
 16 in. 
 
 2.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 44.8 
 
 44.0 
 
 696.8 
 
 9 in. 
 
 1 0 
 
 5 2 
 
 43.2 
 
 50.6 
 
 613.9 
 
 16 in. 
 
 2.0 
 
 10 4 
 
 43.2 
 
 41.4 
 
 660.6 
 
 14 in. 
 
 2 5 
 
 7 0 
 
 36.7 
 
 53.8 
 
 605.0 
 
 12 in. 
 
 1.9 
 
 10.0 
 
 48.5 
 
 39.6 
 
 496.5 
 
 9 in. 
 
 2.0 
 
 7 3 
 
 44.3 
 
 46.4 
 
 590.1 
 
 12 in. 
 
 1.3 
 
 5.9 
 
 39.4 
 
 53.4 
 
 476.7 
 
 14 in. 
 
 1. 
 
 4.2 
 
 35.4 
 
 59.4 
 
 393.4 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.7 
 
 3.5 
 
 33.3 
 
 62.5 
 
 375.0 
 
 9 in. 
 
 1.5 
 
 6.9 
 
 42.0 
 
 49.6 
 
 444.4 
 
 9 in. 
 
 1.1 
 
 5.2 
 
 40.3 
 
 53.4 
 
 590.1 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1 8 
 
 5.3 
 
 39.7 
 
 53.2 
 
 599.9 
 
 16 in. 
 
 3.4 
 
 10 8 
 
 46.0 
 
 39.8 
 
 541.3 
 
 16 in. 
 
 1.4 
 
 5-2 
 
 40.0 
 
 53.4 
 
 590.1 
 
 14 in 
 
 2.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 44.0 
 
 46-0 
 
 585 3 
 
 12 iD. 
 
 3.7 
 
 12.7 
 
 44.0 
 
 39.6 
 
 566 9 
 
 12 in. 
 
 2.7 
 
 8.4 
 
 42 7 
 
 48.1 
 
 585.3 
 
 16 in. 
 
 72.4 
 
 9.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 9 1 
 
 679.5 
 
 16 in. 
 
 0.9 
 
 5.4 
 
 38.5 
 
 55.2 
 
 450.0 
 
 
 0.3 
 
 2.0 
 
 31.8 
 
 65.9 
 
 35 41 
 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.8 , 
 
 32.3 
 
 6t 4 
 
 80 51 
 
 16 in. 
 
 14.7 
 
 25.7 
 
 36.2 
 
 23- 4 
 
 2077.0 
 
 16 in 
 
 3 6 
 
 11.2 
 
 46.8 
 
 38-4 
 
 1963.0 
 
 16 in. 
 
 4.2 
 
 12.2 
 
 48 5 
 
 35-1 
 
 710.6 
 
 14 in. 
 
 14.7 
 
 29.0 
 
 39. 2 
 
 171 
 
 624.6 
 
 12 in 
 
 1 6 
 
 6.1 
 
 35.1 
 
 57-2 
 
 554.6 
 
 12 in. 
 
 2.2 
 
 4.4 
 
 32 7 
 
 60-7 
 
 207.1 
 
 16 in 
 
 10. 1 
 
 17.6 
 
 47.1 
 
 25 2 
 
 729.7 
 
 16 in. 
 
 3 5 
 
 4.0 
 
 40.9 
 
 51-6 
 
 387.1 
 
 16 in 
 
 8.1 
 
 14.1 
 
 46.3 
 
 31-5 
 
 473 6 
 
 9 in. 
 
 4.0 
 
 29 0 
 
 52.0 
 
 140 
 
 1242.0 
 
 9 in. 
 
 1.0 
 
 8.8 
 
 54.7 
 
 55-5 
 
 262.7 
 
 9 in. 
 
 1.2 
 
 10.5 
 
 60 5 
 
 27-8 
 
 444.4 
 
 16 in 
 
 0.4 
 
 7.7 
 
 59.8 
 
 32-1 
 
 426.0 
 
 9 in. 
 
 0.7 
 
 9.7 
 
 53.2 
 
 36-4 
 
 470.6 
 
 14 in. 
 
 0,2 
 
 1.5 
 
 30.5 
 
 67-8 
 
 300.5 
 
 Gas used per. 
 hour. 
 
 156.1 cu. ft. 
 186.0 cu ft. 
 
 193.8 cu. ft. 
 
 157.5 cu. ft. 
 
 143.9 cu. ft. 
 154 3 cu. ft. 
 
 145.6 cu. fy. 
 166.4 cu. ft. 
 
 83.35 cu. ft. 
 88.68 cu. ft. 
 
 84.82 cu. ft. 
 89.07 cu. ft. 
 77.09 cu. ft. 
 
 68.82 cu. ft. 
 76.65 cu ft. 
 50.99 cu. ft. 
 62.76 cu. ft. 
 69.58 cu. ft. 
 67.04 cu. ft. 
 59 01 cu. ft. 
 71.51 cu. ft. 
 64.91 cu. ft. 
 
 S 63-76 cu. ft. 
 68-90 cu. ft. 
 64.91 cu. ft. 
 78.00 cu. ft. 
 
 81.19 cu. ft. 
 76.72 cu. ft. 
 64.39 cu. ft. 
 
 65.19 cu. ft. 
 58 53 cu. ft. 
 18.37 miles. 
 20 0 miles. 
 14.86 miles, 
 
 17.82 miles. 
 
 173. cu. ft. 
 163.6 cu ft. 
 92.39 cu. ft. 
 23.84 milc6 
 21.30 miles. 
 15 93 miles. 
 
 120.8 cu. ft. 
 78.7 cu. ft. 
 27 06 miles. 
 
 148.9 cu. ft. 
 49 . 92 cu. ft. 
 57.78 cu. ft. 
 66 04 cu. ft. 
 63 53 cu. ft. 
 18.75 miles. 
 
34 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 THE COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF THE FEED MILLS TESTED. 
 
 It has been practically impossible in these trials, for several reasons, to 
 make a close comparison of the efficiency of the different feed grinders 
 tested. In the first place the method of construction adopted in all of 
 them, which permits the grinding burrs to spread apart in case a nail or 
 similar object were fed in, makes it impossible to grind a perfectly uni- 
 form grade of meal. If the feeding is not absolutely uniform, when the 
 grain is going through fast the meal is ground coarser and vice versa. 
 Changing the power from one engine to the otner, without altering the mill, 
 invariably changed the grade. Under like conditions of mill the 5 H. P. 
 engine always ground coarser than the 2 y 2 H. P. engine because the grain 
 going through more rapidly would open the burrs wider. This fact has a 
 tendency to make the 2% H. P. engine appear to grind less than one-half 
 as much as the 5 H. P. engine. The only way we could approximately 
 duplicate a grade of meal was by altering the tension until, by sifting a 
 sample of the meal produced, it wps found to have the degree of fineness 
 desired. 
 
 In the table which follows the results have been obtained by attempting 
 to reduce the different grades of meal all to the same standard by the 
 method described on page 11, but it must be kept in mind that the re- 
 sults can be only very roughly approximate. 
 
 Table showing the computed mean rate of grinding corn by the 
 several feed mills. 
 
 Name of Feed Mill. 
 
 With 5 H. 
 
 P. Engine. 
 
 With 2J4 H. P. Engine. 
 
 Meal ground 
 per hour 
 
 Gas used 
 per hour. 
 
 Meal ground 
 per hour. 
 
 Gas used 
 per hour. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Cu. ft. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Cu. ft. 
 
 Appleton 
 
 1,425 5 
 
 136.9 
 
 729.9 
 
 70.70 
 
 Bowsher 
 
 1,559.5 
 
 145.1 
 
 716.7 
 
 71.19 
 
 Giant 
 
 1,430 5 
 
 137.8 
 
 617.6 
 
 70.78 
 
 Ideal 
 
 1,140.1 
 
 137.8 
 
 641.6 
 
 74.22 
 
 Monarch 
 
 1,038.6 
 
 139.0 
 
 5S4.4 
 
 70.20 
 
 Vessot 
 
 1,742 3 
 
 162.9 
 
 638.2 
 
 71.12 
 
 General average. — 
 
 1,391.5 
 
 142.6 
 
 653. t 
 
 71.37 
 
 If the result showing the fastest and slowest rates of grinding, as stated 
 i n the discussion of the work done by the different mills, are brought to- 
 gether in tabular form they will appear as given below: 
 
Grinding with Small Steel Feed Mills. 
 
 35 
 
 Table showing the most rapid and slowest rates of grinding corn by 
 the different feed mills. 
 
 Name of Feed 
 Grinder. 
 
 Most Rapid Grinding. 
 
 Least Rapid Grinding. 
 
 Meal 
 gro’nd 
 pr. 10 
 hour, 
 bush. 
 
 Degree of fineness. 
 
 Meal 
 gro’nd 
 pr. 10 
 hour, 
 bush. 
 
 Degree of fineness. 
 
 1 . 
 
 3. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 1 . 
 
 3. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 pr. cc. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 pr ct. 
 
 pr. ct 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 Five horse-power engine. 
 
 Appleton 
 
 Bowsher 
 
 Giant 
 
 Ideal 
 
 Monarch 
 
 Vessot 
 
 448.0 
 
 588.0 
 
 311.1 
 402.0 
 459. 
 602.6 
 
 27.8 
 
 61.8 
 55.2 
 44.6 
 71.5 
 63.9 
 
 20.5 
 
 8.2 
 
 10.2 
 
 14.4 
 
 7.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 25.4 
 12.0 
 
 14.4 
 19.8 
 
 9.7 
 
 11.3 
 
 26.3 
 
 18.0 
 
 20.2 
 
 21.2 
 
 11.2 
 
 15.6 
 
 146.0 
 137 2 
 122.8 
 114.8 
 113.4 
 
 170.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 tr. 
 
 0 9 
 0.3 
 0.4 
 
 2.4 
 
 0.2 
 
 0 1 
 3.0 
 1.3 
 3.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 17.3 
 9.3 
 
 34.4 
 28.3 
 33.7 
 
 66.6 
 
 82.5 
 
 90.6 
 
 61.7 
 70.1 
 62.9 
 
 Two and one-half Horse-power engine. 
 
 Appleton 
 
 364.0 
 
 71.9 
 
 9.5 
 
 10.0 
 
 8.6 
 
 57.6 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 10.3 
 
 89.5 
 
 Bowsher 
 
 397.0 
 
 77.5 
 
 7.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 6.9 
 
 38.0 
 
 1 9 
 
 0.9 
 
 17.8 
 
 80.3 
 
 Giant 
 
 126/0 
 
 50.2 
 
 11.9 
 
 14.6 
 
 23.3 
 
 70.1 
 
 tr. 
 
 0.4 
 
 39.1 
 
 60.5 
 
 Ideal 
 
 241.0 
 
 50.8 
 
 13.0 
 
 18.5 
 
 17.7 
 
 53.3 
 
 1.0 
 
 3.7 
 
 29.9 
 
 65.4 
 
 Monarch 
 
 167.0 
 
 31.5 
 
 18.5 
 
 24.5 
 
 25 5 
 
 42.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 10.1 
 
 89.6 
 
 Yessot 
 
 283 7 
 
 62.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 13.1 
 
 12.4 
 
 67.0 
 
 0.7 
 
 3.5 
 
 33 3 
 
 62.5 
 
 It will be seen that the results in this table are not wholly concordant 
 with those in the last, the Giant mill here showing the smallest capacity 
 everywhere except with the finest meal ground with the V/% H. P. engine 
 while there the mill stands third in rate of grinding. The high efficiency 
 of this mill as shown in the previous table is due to the large correction 
 which was made to the observed amounts ground on account of the meal 
 being so fine. This mill being so constructed as to make it impossible for 
 the faces of the burrs to touch each other even when entirely empty it 
 had, on this account, an important advantage over all the others as no 
 energy was lost through friction of the burrs upon themselves. The 
 Giant runs much stiller than the others tried on the account stated, and 
 the life of the burrs must be proportionally lengthened. The feature of 
 this grinder which makes it impossible for the burrs to come into con- 
 tact is very important, but there were evidently other conditions in the 
 mill we tested which prevented it from grinding the coarse grades of meal 
 as rapidly as some of the other types. 
 
36 
 
 Bulletin No. 82 . 
 
 COST OF GRINDING FEED. 
 
 The cost of the item of fuel in grinding feed with small powers and small 
 feed mills is fairly well demonstrated by the averages of the trials recorded 
 in these pages. 
 
 The average of all the grinding trials of corn with the two engines makes 
 the cost for fuel 1.322 cents per hundred pounds; the cost for corn and 
 oats was 2.11 cents per cwt.; for oats 4.413 cents; and for rye 2.172 cents per 
 100 lbs. It will be seen that the fuel cost for oats is more that three times 
 that for corn, and that for corn and oats and for rye are nearly the same 
 and about two-thirds more than for corn. 
 
 In the table which follows there is given the average number of bushels 
 of grain which may be ground by the different mills when driven during 
 10 hours by the 5 horse power and the 2 34 horse power engines. 
 
 Table showing the computed number of bushels of corn , corn and 
 oats , oats , and rye ground to a grade of 45 per cent, of the finest 
 degree in 10 hours , together with the cost of fuel for the same time. 
 
 Name of Mill. 
 
 5 H. P. Engine. 
 
 2^ H. P. 
 
 Engine. 
 
 Bushels per 
 
 10 hours. 
 
 Cost of gas 
 per 10 hours. 
 
 Bushels per 
 10 hours 
 
 Cost of gas 
 per 10 hours. 
 
 Corn— 
 
 
 
 
 
 Appleton 
 
 254.6 
 
 $1.71 
 
 130.3 
 
 $ .88 
 
 Bowsher 
 
 278.5 
 
 1.81 
 
 128.0 
 
 .89 
 
 Giant 
 
 255.4 
 
 1.67 
 
 110.3 
 
 .88 
 
 Ideal 
 
 203.6 
 
 1.72 
 
 114.6 
 
 .92 
 
 Monarch 
 
 190.8 
 
 1.74 
 
 104.3 
 
 .88 
 
 Vessot — 
 
 811.1 
 
 2.04 
 
 114.0 
 
 .89 
 
 Average 
 
 249.0 
 
 $1.78 
 
 116.6 
 
 $ .89 
 
 Corn and Oats— 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average of all mills .. 
 
 239.3 
 
 1.94 
 
 95.0 
 
 1.01 
 
 Oats— 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average of all mills . . 
 
 113 4 
 
 1.66 
 
 70.2 
 
 .96 
 
 Rye— 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average of all mills . . 
 
 157.0 
 
 1.72 
 
 58.5 
 
 .78 
 
 It will be seen from this table that as an average of all the grinding 
 trials with the 5 H. P. engine the cost of fuel per day was $1,775 and for 
 the 2^4 H. P. engine $.885. This is at the rate of 3.55 cents and 3.54 cents 
 per horse power per hour for fuel where gas costs $1.25 per thousand cubic 
 feet. 
 
 The average amount of corn ground per horse power per hour was 4.822 
 bushels, equal to 270 lbs. and this is 2,700 lbs. per horse power for a 10- 
 hour day. 
 
Grinding with Smalt Steel Feed Mills. 
 
 37 
 
 The usual price paid for grinding feed at custom mills ranges between 
 5 and 9 cents per sack, or roughly per hundred weight. In addition to 
 this the cost is increased by the expense of hauling the grain to and from 
 the mill. It will be an under estimate to say that not more than 3,000 
 lbs. would be taken to mill per load on the average, and that not less than 
 the equivalent of a day’s time for man and team would be spent in getting 
 it to and from the mill, which at $1.00 per day for each would make the 
 total cost for 3,000 lbs. of meal, calling the rate for grinding 7 cents per 
 hundred, $4.10. 
 
 If grain is fed at the rate of 7 lbs. per cow per day for 200 days to 30 
 cows, the amount of meal to be ground would be 42,000 lbs. which at the 
 above rate, would cost $57.40. 
 
 The 5 H. P. engine should grind this meal in 31.1 hours at a fuel cost of 
 $5.55. It is safe to say that the labor of grinding this feed at home would 
 be covered by two men working 4 days with a 5 H. P. gasoline engine 
 which would make the cost for labor and fuel $13.55. 
 
 If a farmer was using a 234 H. P. engine to drive his separator and to 
 do his pumping and churning it is clear that it would be an economic plan 
 to so arrange matters as to be able to grind his feed as well, for with it a 
 week’s feed could be ground in less than three hours. 
 
 If the grinding were to be done With the 12-foot windmill it is a very 
 simple matter to so arrange the conditions that the only cost of grinding 
 the feed is the placing of the grain in the feeding bins, the labor of oiling 
 the windmill and grinder, and the cost of oil and repairs on the wind' 
 mill, together with the interest on the money invested. The cost of grind- 
 ing the feed for 30 cows as stated above, is $57.40, and this is ten per cent, 
 interest on a much larger sum than would be required to fit up an auto- 
 matic grinding plant with the 12-foot windmill, the price of the mill and 
 90 foot tower being $160. It has been pointed out that the capacity of 
 such a grinding plant would be many times what would l^e demanded for 
 a herd of 30 cows. 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 Of THE 
 
 RSITY of ILLINOIS. 
 
 Wis. Bull. No. 83. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 83. 
 
 SILAGE, AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN SILOS 
 
 MADISON. WISCONSIN. MAY. 1900 . 
 
 Bulletins and Annual Beport's of this Station are sent free to all * 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
 Democrat Printing Company, State Printer. Madison, Wis. 
 
I 
 
 UNIVERSITY ()!•■ WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS; 
 
 PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, BX-OFFICIO. 
 State-at-large, GEORGE W. PECK, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN II. FETIIERS. Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE n. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. ' 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, GEORGE F. MERRILL, Ashland. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 GEORGE H. NOYES, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-Officio Treasurer 
 J. H. STOUT, Vice-President. | E. F. RILEY, Secretary, Madison. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and PRESIDENT ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION! 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, - - - - - - - - - Director 
 
 S. M. BABCOCK, - Chief Chemist 
 
 F. H. KING, .. ... .... Physicist 
 
 E. S. GOFF, Horticulturist 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, 
 
 F. W. WOLL, 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON, 
 
 A. R. WHITSON, - 
 A. G. HOPKINS, - 
 ALFRED VIVI AN, 
 
 E. G. HASTINGS, 
 
 R. A. MOORE, - 
 U. S. BAER, - 
 FREDERIC CRANEFIELD, 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, 
 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE, 
 
 - Animal Husbandry 
 
 Chemist 
 Bacteriologist 
 Dairy Husbandry 
 
 - Assistant Physicist 
 
 - Veterinarian 
 
 - Assistant Chemist 
 Assistant Bacteriologist 
 
 Assistant to Director 
 Dairying 
 
 Assistant Horticulturist 
 
 - Farm Superintendent 
 
 - Clerk 
 Librarian 
 
 FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, -------- Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, iu Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent, to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephoue to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Silage as a feed 6 
 
 Essential conditions for preserving silage 7 
 
 Importance of depth of silage 8 
 
 Silo walls must be rigid and very strong 8 
 
 Lower portion of the silo in the ground 9 
 
 The silo should be a substantial building constructed to last 10 
 
 Protection against frost . 10 
 
 The construction of stone silos 10 
 
 The cost of stone silos 15 
 
 The construction of brick silos 16 
 
 The brick walls 17 
 
 Strengthening the walls 17 
 
 Wetting the brick before laying ... .. 17 
 
 Making the walls air tight 17 
 
 The door jambs IS 
 
 Cost of brick silos 19 
 
 Construction of brick and wood silos 19 
 
 Construction of the woodwork 20 
 
 The silo lining 21 
 
 Cost of brick lined silos 22 
 
 Round plastered silos 23 
 
 Cost of lathed and plastered silos 24 
 
 Construction of all-wood silos 25 
 
 The foundation 25 
 
 Bottom of the silo 27 
 
 Tying the top of the stone wall 27 
 
 Forming the sill 2S 
 
 Setting the studding 2S 
 
 Setting the studding for doors, and their construction 30 
 
 Silo sheeting and siding 30 
 
 Forming the plate . . 30 
 
 Lining of wood silos 30 
 
 Galvanized iron in silo lining 30 
 
 All-wood lining of 4-inch flooring 31 
 
 Lining of half inch boards and paper 32 
 
 The silo roof 34 
 
 Ventilation of the silo 35 
 
 Painting the silo lining 37 
 
 Cost of all-wood round silo • 37 
 
 The cheapest silo for warm climate and for summer feeding only 3S 
 
 The stave or tank silo 3S 
 
 Construction of stave silo 40 
 
 Lumber for the staves 42 
 
 Foundation of the stave silo 42 
 
 Hoops for the stave silo .- 42 
 
 -Splicing the staves 44 
 
 ' Doors for stave silos .'. , 44 
 
 Cost of stave silos 44 
 
 Pit silos 45 
 
4 
 
 Contents. 
 
 rAGE. 
 
 Rectangular wood silos 46 
 
 Connecting silo with barn and feeding chute 47 
 
 Comparative cost of different types of silos 48 
 
 Weight of silage per cubic foot 48 
 
 The capacity of silos 49 
 
 The proper horizontal feeding area 50 
 
 Silage crops 52 
 
 Corn for silage 52 
 
 Millet for silage 52 
 
 Clover for silage 52 
 
 Rye and oats .for silage 52 
 
 Pea-vine silage 52 
 
 Sorghum stalk silage 53 
 
 Nou-saceliarine sorglium for silage 53 
 
 Alfalfa for silage 53 
 
 Stage of maturity of crops for silage 53 
 
 Drying and wetting silage 54 
 
 Rate of filling llie^ silo 54 
 
 Danger in filling the silo 55 
 
 Putting materials into the silo cut or whole 55 
 
 Importance of tramping silage when filling 55 
 
 Tramping the surface after filling is finished 56 
 
 Covering silage after filling 56 
 
 Filling the silo 57 
 
 Cutting the corn 58 
 
 Hauling corn to the cutter 58 
 
 Ensilage cutters 59 
 
 Power to drive the cutter 59 
 
 Co-operative filling 59 
 
 Raising corn for silage 60 
 
 The variety of corn 60 
 
 Method of planting » 60 
 
 Unavoidable losses in the silo 60 
 
 Differences in the unavoidable losses in three types of silos 62 
 
 The amount of loss from the top of silos 64 
 
 Waste of silage from too slow feeding 65 
 
 Silage may sustain heavy losses and appear good 66 
 
 Conditions which indicate that heavy losses are taking place 66 
 
 Poorly constructed silo may be very expensive although the first cost is 
 
 small 67 
 
 A silo the best means of feeding a soiling crop 67 
 
 The silo a means of carrying feed in reserve 67 
 
Fig. 1.— Showing a brick lined and brick vqneered silo with water reservoir for stock above it. 
 
SILAGE AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN SILOS 
 
 F. H. KING. 
 
 In 1891 the silage problem had reached an extremely critical stage. 
 Serious mistakes had been made in the construction of the earlier wood 
 silos, which led to the rapid decay of the lining and to a spoiling of the 
 silage, and silos were being abandoned because of the large losses in the 
 feed put into them. A letter came to the Station from a man who had 
 been to great expense three years before to build what at the time was 
 called a first- class silo. The lining had so completely rotted that no 
 could not use it the fourth season without heavy repairs, and he desired 
 information as to what to do. 
 
 A visit to the silo revealed several serious defects which had been 
 embodied in its construction, and this led to a tour of inspection, dur- 
 ing which over 100 silos were visited and carefully studied to discover 
 errors which had been made and to devise a plan of silo construction 
 which should avoid them and secure a better quality of silage. This 
 led to the cylindrical silo now so extensively built and which has proved 
 to be so generally satisfactory. 
 
 The problems of silage and silo construction have been studied now 
 continuously for nearly 10 years. Two bulletins on the subject have 
 been issued, and the present one embodies the knowledge which has 
 been gained through a personal inspection of more than 200 silos, one- 
 half of which were visited the past year, together with the conclusions 
 regarding the essential conditions necessary to the making and pre- 
 serving of good silage which have been reached through experimental 
 studies extending over seven years. 
 
 There yet remains much to be learned regarding the subject of silage 
 but we have now obtained a sufficient body of sound knowledge upon 
 which to build a safe and economic practice In its handling. 
 
 SILAGE AS A FEED. 
 
 The verdict is practically unanimous among all dairymen, who have 
 fed good silage, that it is the best winter feed they ever used as a sub- 
 stitute for hay or corn fodder, and that they would not think of doing 
 without it. It is relatively cheap, deteriorates but little with age after 
 
7 
 
 1 Silage , and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 the first unavoidable changes have occurred, is compactly stored, easily 
 l*ed and so thoroughly relished by the animals that there is no difficulty 
 in inducing them to eat all they are able to assimilate. 
 
 In intensive farming it may be fed the year around and is relished 
 as well in summer as in winter. It is much cheaper than soiling crops 
 for summer feed, and there is nothing equal to it for “short pastures. 1 
 
 As part of the winter ration of domestic animals it is the only avail- 
 able substitute for roots and it is a great misfortune to the interests of 
 animal husbandry that so few feeders yet realize that a sufficient 
 amount of one or the other is indispensable to the highest bodily vigor 
 and the largest financial returns. 
 
 Feeders as a rule do not sufficiently appreciate the fact that through 
 unnumbered centuries of evolution our herb-eating domestic animals 
 became habituated to conditions which made the chief part of their diet 
 of necessity some form of fresh succulent vegetation. All of their 
 processes of digestion, assimilation, excretion and reproduction grew 
 into balanced action with the fresh tissues, juices and storage products 
 of plants as essential stimulants and foods; and now when the system 
 is long deprived of them the functions cease to be normal, because their 
 presence in the body are now indispensable. 
 
 It is only within comparatively recent times that the absolute neces- 
 sity of some form of fresh vegetable food or fruit in our own diet has 
 been learned and the methods of canning fruits and vegetables, to be 
 used in camp life, at sea, and on polar expeditions, as well as on the 
 table in winter has rendered an immense service to man in maintaining 
 health under those conditions. 
 
 The silo is a cheap means of canning grass on a large scale to be used 
 by domestic animals at times and in places when it could not other- 
 wise be had ; and, because silage can be produced cheaper, kept longer, 
 and fed to stock more expeditiously, it must largely take the place of 
 roots wherever large amounts must be stored. 
 
 ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS FOR PRESERVING SILAGE. 
 
 We have succeeded in demonstrating the past season that if green 
 corn is put into a vessel having strictly air tight walls and at the same 
 time is so thoroughly packed as to largely expel the entangled air, good 
 silage may be made in very small quantities. 
 
 We have used galvanized iron cylinders as small as 18 inches in diam- 
 eter and 42 inches deep, filling them with corn cat in half-inch lengths 
 and simply covering with two thicknesses of acid and water-proof paper, 
 and yet after 178 days standing in our continuously warm and sunny 
 plant house there was only 9 inches of spoiled silage on the top. All of 
 the balance was of excellant quality. In another silo only 1 foot in diam- 
 eter and 10 feet deep, filled with corn at the same time, similar results 
 were secured. Even so difficult a crop as green oats, just coming into 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 the milk stage, has been kept in good condition during 60 days in the 
 same cylinders covered in the same manner. 
 
 These observations make it clear that the only essential condition 
 for making and preserving a good quality of silage is the close packing 
 of suitable material in a receptacle from which the air may be com- 
 pletely excluded. 
 
 Whatever means may be adopted to completely exclude the air from 
 silage will preserve it. If air can find access to it spoiling will be in- 
 evitable and the rate will be greater the more readily the air gains 
 access. 
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF DEPTH OF SILAGE. 
 
 There are four important reasons in the storing of silage for making 
 its depth as great as practicable. (1) The largest amount of feed per 
 cubic foot can be stored in this way. (2) There is less loss at the surface 
 during slow feeding and because the silage is so closely packed air can 
 enter in but slowly from above. (3) The spoiled silage at the top is less 
 in proportion to the whole silage stored. (4) The stronger lateral 
 pressure forces the silage so closely against the walls that if they are at 
 all open it tends to exclude the air and the silage keeps better than 
 when shallow. 
 
 SILO WALLS MUST BE RIGID AND VERY STRONG. 
 
 The outward pressure of cut corn silage when settling at the time of 
 filling increases with the depth of the silage at the rate of about 11 lbs. 
 per square foot for each foot of depth. This being true, at a depth of 10 
 feet the pressure per square foot may be 110 lbs., at 20 feet 220 lbs., at 
 30 feet 330 lbs. and at 40 feet 440 lbs. per square foot. This means that 
 in the case of a 16-foot square silo where the sill is 30 feet below the top 
 of the silage the side pressure on the lower foot of the wall would be 
 about 
 
 16 x 330 lbs. = 5280 lbs. 
 
 It is because of this great pressure that it is so difficult to make large 
 rectangular silos deep enough to be economical and it is because the 
 walls of rectangular silos always spring more or less under the pressure 
 of the silage, as represented in Fig. 2, that silage seldom keeps as well 
 in them as it does in those whose walls cannot spring. 
 
 To understand the force of this statement it must be remembered that 
 after the silage has once settled the lateral pressure becomes much less 
 and silos have been burned a few days after filling, leaving the silage 
 standing like a stack. 
 
 As the silage in the lower part of the silo continues to settle the 
 stronger outward pressure there spreads the walls more than higher 
 up and the result is the wall may be actually forced away from the 
 silage so that air may enter from above; and even if this does not Qccur 
 
9 
 
 Silage, and tlie Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 the pressure against the sides will be so much lessened above by the 
 greater spreading below that if the walls are at all open air will more 
 readily enter through them. 
 
 In the round wooden silos every board acts as a hoop and as the wood 
 stretches but little lengthwise there can be but little spreading of such 
 walls. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Illustrating how the bulging of rectangular wood silo walls allows air to 
 come down the sides between the walls and the silage, causing it to spoil. 
 The amount of spreading is exaggerated in the figure for clearness of illustra- 
 tion, but it is none the less real. 
 
 LOWER PORTION OF THE SILO IN THE GROUND. 
 
 In most cases it is best to begin the silo as deeply in the ground as 
 possible and readily remove the silage in feeding. This depth will 
 usually be from three to four below the feeding floor. 
 
 If there is a basement stable with walls 8 to 9 feet the silo may then 
 be from II to 13 feet in the ground, having a door through the basement 
 wall leading to the stable. 
 
 The lower-door of such silo may be made to extend to within one foot 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 of the bottom and the silo be entered by a series of three or more steps 
 leading from the stable floor through the bottom of the feeding chute into 
 the silo. These steps may be covered with a trap door which acts as a 
 floor to that portion of the feeding chute until the silage has been fed 
 down to this level. 
 
 THE SILO SHOULD BE A SUBSTANTIAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTED TO LAST. 
 
 As a general rule if it is prudent to build a silo at all it will pay to 
 build it so that it will preserve the silage perfectly and so that it will 
 last as long as the other farm buildings. Emergencies may arise when 
 a renter may desire to erect a temporary silo, but ordinarily a silo 
 should have all the characteristics of a permanent building, including 
 a roof. 
 
 PROTECTION AGAINST FROST. 
 
 It is not necessary to build a silo so as to be entirely frost proof in 
 cold climates, but it will pay to build them reasonably warm where 
 they are to be fed from during cold weather. The freezing of silage 
 does not injure it seriously but it is not well to feed it when frozen. 
 If a silo is not to be opened until warm weather no special attention 
 need be given to warmth. If a silo is 10 to 13 feet in the ground and 
 only 20 feet above ground, the settling and the early feeding before se- 
 vere cold weather will usually have carried the surface of the silage so 
 low that little inconvenience from frost will be experienced even in 
 stone silos. In all the wooden silos, except the questionable stave types, 
 the construction needed for strength and to keep the air from the silage 
 will usually be a sufficient protection against frost. 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF STONE SILOS. 
 
 Whenever stone can be had on the farm suitable for building pur- 
 poses these may be used in silo construction, thus converting idle into 
 active capital. So far as the silo itself is concerned no better or more 
 durable material can be used, and where it can be 10 to 13 feet in the 
 ground the Inconveniences from freezing will be small, and the stone 
 silo will be found one of the cheapest of the thoroughly good forms. 
 Great pains should be taken in building the walls to fill all spaces be- 
 tween stones solid with smaller ones and mortar and to have them thor- 
 oughly bonded in order to secure strength and prevent cracking. 
 
 The portion of the silo wall which is below ground better be about 
 2 feet thick and laid in one of the cheap brands of cement rather than 
 lime, the cement being desirable because lime mortar becomes hard so 
 very slowly in heavy walls, especially below ground. After the wall is 
 two feet above ground good lime mortar may be used, but in this case 
 there ought to be at least two months for the wall to season and set be- 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. li 
 
 fore filling. The upper portion of the silo wall need not be heavier 
 than 18 inches, and if the size of stone permit of it, the outer face of 
 the wall may be drawn in gradually to a thickness of 12 inches at the 
 top. 
 
 Fig. 3.— Showing an all-stone silo with conical roof and openings for feeding 
 doors; the heavy black dots 1, 1, 1 show where iron rods may be bedded in 
 the wall to prevent cracking from the pressure of the silage. 
 
 The inner face of the silo wall should be plastered with a thin coat 
 of rich cement not leaner than 1 of cement to 1 y 2 or 2 of clean sharp 
 
12 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 sand. If the mortar is not rich and troweled smooth, the acids of the 
 silage will act upon it much more rapidly, dissolving out the lime and 
 leaving it open and porous. 
 
 It will usually be prudent also to whitewash these linings every two 
 or three years, especially the lower portion where the silage is longest 
 in contact with the cement, in order to prevent softening, using cement 
 to make the whitewash. 
 
 Doors for filling and feeding should be arranged as represented in 
 Pig. 3, and if the lower one is long, cutting out a good deal of the wall, 
 an iron rod should be bedded in the wall above it to prevent cracking 
 between tlie doors. The rod should be of % inch round iron bent to 
 the curve of the circle and about 12 feet long. The two ends should be 
 turned short at right angles, so as to anchor better in the mortar. 
 
 Fig. 4.— Showing method of bedding iron rods in stone, brick or concrete silo 
 walls to increase the strength. The heavy lines with ends bent represent the 
 iron rods. 
 
 In deep stone silos, which rise more than 18 feet above the surface of 
 the ground, it will be safest to strengthen the wall between the two 
 lower doors with iron tie rods and, if such a silo is built of boulders, 
 it will be well to use rods enough to make a complete line or hoop 
 around the silo about two feet above the ground, as represented in 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Too great care cannot be taken in making the part of the wall below 
 and near the ground solid, and especially its outer face, so that it will 
 be strong where the greatest strain will come. It is best also to dig 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 13 
 
 the pit for the silo large enough so as to have plenty of room outside 
 of the finished wall to permit the earth filled in behind to be very thor- 
 oughly tamped, so as to act as a strong backing for the wall. This is 
 urged because a large per cent, of the stone foundations of wood silos 
 have cracked more or less from one cause or another and these cracks 
 lead to the spoiling of silage. 
 
 Fig. 5.— Showing method of constructing silo door and door jamb for stone silo. 
 E shows cross section of silo door, F shows how the door jamb is made to 
 make it air tight, and how the door is held in place with lag bolts against a 
 gasket of ruberoid roofing. 
 
 Flat quarry rock, like limestone, will make the strongest silo wall, 
 because they bond much better than boulders do, and when built of lime- 
 stone they will not need to be reinforced much with iron rods. It will 
 be best even in this case, however, to use the iron tie rods between the 
 lower two doors. 
 
 The door jambs for the stone silo are best made of 4x4*8 framed to- 
 gether and set far enough apart to give a depth four inches less than 
 the thickness of the wall. This will allow mortar to be filled in between 
 the 4x4’s to make an air-tight joint. A 6-inch board may be fitted 
 
14 
 
 j bulletin No. 83. 
 
 around the outside of the inner side of the door jambs to form the rab- 
 bet for the doors, or the jambs may be made as represented in Fig. 5. 
 There will be slight shoulders left in the round stone silo above and be- 
 low the doors when these are made flat, and these should be filled out 
 with mortar when plastering, giving a long, gentle slope back to the 
 wall. 
 
 Fig. 6.— Shows the method of jacketing a stone silo to protect it against frost; 
 the heavy black squares are blocks bedded into the stone wall to which girts 
 or studs may be nailed to carry the siding. 
 
 The door is best made of two layers of 6-inch flooring, tongued and 
 grooved, crossing at right angles, nailed or screwed together, with a 
 layer of good acid- and water-proof paper between, as shown at E, Fig. 
 5. To make the door fit perfectly air-tight there should be tacked to the 
 face of the door jamb, all around, a wide strip of thick roof paper or 
 strips of old worn out rubber belting, and the door drawn up against 
 this with four 1 / &x4 inch lag bolts provided with washers. 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 15 
 
 If one prefers to do so the door may be made small enough so as to 
 leave a half-inch space between it and the jamb all around, and this 
 space filled with puddled clay after the door is put in place. Either of 
 these methods is better than to tack strips of tar paper over the joints. 
 
 THE COST OF STONE SILOS. 
 
 The data collected regarding the cost of stone silos and of stone foun- 
 dations of silos make them range from 5.5 cents per square foot of out- 
 side wall to 13.1 cents, the average being 9 cents. This price includes 
 everything but stone, and is for walls mostly 18 inches to 2 feet thick, 
 laid in lime mortar and plastered with one of the cheaper brands of 
 cement. 
 
 Figuring on the basis of 10 cents per sq. ft. of outside surface, and 
 with a wall averaging 18 inches thick, the cost of the walls of silos 
 of various dimensions is given in the table which follows: 
 
 Table giving the estimated cost of the walls of stone silos of various 
 dimensions , but not including the cost of stone. 
 
 Inside 
 
 diame- 
 
 ter. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Inside 
 
 diame- 
 
 ter. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 20 feet. 
 
 25 feet. 
 
 30 feet. 
 
 20 feet. 
 
 25 feet. 
 
 30 feet. 
 
 13 feet... 
 
 $100 
 
 $126 
 
 $151 
 
 20 feet.. 
 
 $143 
 
 $179 
 
 $217 
 
 14 feet.. . 
 
 107 
 
 134 
 
 160 
 
 21 feet.. 
 
 151 
 
 189 
 
 226 
 
 15 feet. .. 
 
 113 
 
 141 
 
 170 
 
 22 feet.. 
 
 157 
 
 196 
 
 236 
 
 16 feet. .. 
 
 119 
 
 149 
 
 179 
 
 23 feet. 
 
 163 
 
 204 
 
 245 
 
 17 feet. .. 
 
 126 
 
 157 
 
 189 
 
 24 feet.. 
 
 170 
 
 212 
 
 255 
 
 1$ feet. .. 
 
 132 
 
 165 
 
 198 
 
 25 feet.. 
 
 176 
 
 220 
 
 264 
 
 19 feet. .. 
 
 138 
 
 173 
 
 207 
 
 30 feet.. 
 
 207 
 
 259 
 
 311 
 
 The cost of the roof of stone silos has not been included in the esti- 
 mate, because this will vary more than that of the wall on account of 
 differences in form and finish; but a good shingled roof for the 13-foot 
 silo will cost not far from $23, and that of the 25-foot silo about $63. 
 This would make the 13-foot silo, 30 feet deep, cost about $175, for a 
 storage capacity of between 70 and 80 tons. The silo 25 feet in diameter, 
 30 feet deep, would cost in the neighborhood of $328 for a capacity of 
 290 tons, making $2.33 per ton for the smaller silo, and $1.14 per ton 
 for the larger one. 
 
Uultetin No. 83, 
 
 16 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OP BRICK SILOS. 
 
 — ’ 
 
 !• 
 
 Very excellent silos may be made of brick, as represented in Fig. 7, 
 and where brick of a good quality can be obtained at $4.25 to $7.00 per 
 thousand a silo which will last indefinitely may be made at a moderate 
 cost. 
 
 Fig. 7. — Shows an all brick silo with wall 14 inches thick made of three courses 
 of brick, the outer course being set so as to form a 2 inch dead air space as 
 high up as the shoulder. 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 17 
 
 The foundation of the brick silo is best made of stone, wherever these 
 may be had, carrying the stone work up at least a foot above the ground 
 and beginning below frost line. The brick work will then be set with 
 its inner face flush with the inner surface of the stone work. 
 
 If the silo is to be carried 20 or more feet above the stone wall it 
 will be desirable to bed a %-inch round iron hoop into the upper sur- 
 face of the stone work in order to guard against cracking the wall by 
 the pressure of the first filling before the mortar has had time to thor- 
 oughly season, which does not take place until after five or more 
 months. The method of laying the sections of iron rod in the wall 
 is represented in Fig. 4. 
 
 The Brick Walls. — In cold climates it will be best to make the lower 
 portion of the wall up to within 10 feet of the top, with a 2-inch dead 
 air space, using three courses of brick, thus making the wall 14 inches 
 thick, for all the smaller and medium sized silos. If the silo is to 
 exceed 24 feet inside diameter the lower third of the brick wall should 
 be made of four courses of brick and 18 inches thick, the second third 
 14 inches thick, and the upper third 8 inches, solid. The dead air 
 space should be next to the outside and this course of brick should be 
 tied to the inner wall as frequently as necessary to make it stable. 
 
 Strengthening the Walls. — The tendency of the pressure of the silage 
 to crack the walls of round silos increases with the depth and with 
 the diameter of the silo. The tendency of the silage to burst a silo 
 26 feet inside diameter is twice as great as in one 13 feet in diameter 
 and the same depth, and this makes it necessary to strengthen the walls 
 of the larger brick silos. In all brick silos there should be an iron tie 
 rod bedded in the wall, in the manner illustrated in Fig. 4, between 
 each of the lower doors to compensate for the weakening caused by 
 the doors; and in the larger silos these ties should extend entirely 
 around the silo in the manner shown in Fig. 4. 
 
 Wetting fne Brick before Laying. — It is very important in laying the 
 brick for a silo wall that they should be wet and especially if the work 
 is done in hot, dry weather. If this is not done the brick will so com- 
 pletely dry out the mortar that it cannot set properly and become 
 strong. 
 
 Making the Walls Air-Tight. — There are several ways in which this 
 may be done, and some of these will be given in the reverse order of 
 their effectiveness. 
 
 1. After the wall is finished it may be simply given two coats of thick 
 cement whitewash, and this repeated every two or three years as the 
 acid of the silage dissolves it away. 
 
 2. The face of the brick wall may be given a good, rich coat of cement 
 plaster, one-fourth to one-half an inch thick, and then this be kept 
 whitewashed so as to neutralize the acid and prevent it from softening 
 the cement, 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 3. The wall, or at least the inner portion, may be laid in rich cement 
 mortar, making the horizontal joints about one-fourth of an inch thick 
 and the vertical ones a half inch thick, taking great care to get all 
 joints of the inner tier of brick thoroughly filled with mortar. This 
 method will place the cement where it will not be as readily affected 
 by the acids and frost and does away with the necessity of plastering, 
 care being taken to lay the brick smoothly and to point the joints care- 
 fully. Milwaukee cement will answer for this work. Whitewashing 
 the inner face of such a lining will be sufficient for smoothness and 
 tightness. 
 
 4. The inner edge of the brick forming the lining can be dipped in 
 hot coal tar to fill the pores before they are laid in Milwaukee or 
 other cheap cement. The tar should be boiled so as to become thick 
 when cold, but the edge of the inner layer of brick should be dipped 
 in the boiling tar so that the heat may expel the air and permit the 
 tar to penetrate the pores deeply. 
 
 5. The very best possible lining which could be made would be se- 
 cured by using the small, thin size of vitrified paving brick. These may 
 be set on e~dge, to reduce both the cost and the number of cement 
 joints. It will be necessary to tie this course occasionally to the main 
 wall by turning a brick endwise. Rich cement mortar should be 
 used and the joints made thin but thoroughly filled with the mortar. 
 Such a lining would give a surface like a stone jug, thoroughly air- 
 tight and indefinitely permanent. 
 
 The Door Jambs . — These may best be made of 3x6’s or 3x8’s rabbetted 
 two inches deep to receive the door on the inside. The center of the 
 jambs outsi'de should be grooved and a tongue inserted projecting % 
 of an inch outward to set back into the mortar and thus secure a thor- 
 oughly air-tight joint between the wall and jamb. 
 
 The doors are best made as described under the stone silo, of two 
 layers of matched flooring with paper between. The jambs should 
 be faced with ruberoid roofing or some other material to act as a gas- 
 ket and the doors should be secured in place with 4 lag bolts and 
 washers to force the door close against the gasket. Heavy screws may 
 be used instead of the lag bolts but the door cannot be brought home 
 as closely in this way. 
 
 It may appear to some that the pressure of the silage will be strong 
 enough to hold the door in place, and so it would be if there was no 
 tendency to warp and the doors were always certain to lay perfectly 
 close without pressure. If the door is a little warped or if the jambs 
 are out of true then, after the silage has stopped settling and the 
 pressure largely relieved, the door will spring away and permit air 
 to enter causing much silage to spoil. 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 19 
 
 COST OF BRICK SILOS. 
 
 In the majority of cases there may be as much as 6 feet of stone 
 wall in the foundation of brick silos. Counting the cost of this por- 
 tion the same as in the all stone silo, 10 cents per square foot of outer 
 surface, the brick work 20.7 cents per square foot where there are 
 three courses and 13.8 cents where there are two courses, or a wall 
 8 inches thick, the walls of silos 30 feet deep will cost not far from 
 the amounts given below: 
 
 Approximate cost of walls of brick silos 30 feet deep on a 6-foot stone 
 Joundation where the lower 18 ft. are 14 inches thick with 2 inch 
 dead air space and the upper 6 feet solid 8 inches thick. 
 
 Inside 
 
 diameter. 
 
 Without 
 
 roof. 
 
 With 
 
 roof. 
 
 Inside 
 
 diameter. 
 
 Without 
 
 roof. 
 
 With 
 
 roof. 
 
 13 feet 
 
 $213 
 
 $273 
 
 20 feet 
 
 $356 
 
 $395 
 
 14 feet 
 
 259 
 
 280 
 
 21 feet 
 
 373 
 
 414 
 
 15 feet 
 
 275 
 
 299 
 
 22 feet 
 
 389 
 
 434 
 
 16 feet 
 
 292 
 
 318 
 
 23 feet 
 
 405 
 
 454 
 
 17 feet 
 
 308 
 
 337 
 
 24 feet 
 
 421 
 
 474 
 
 18 feet 
 
 324 
 
 356 
 
 25 feet 
 
 437 
 
 494 
 
 19 feet 
 
 340 
 
 375 
 
 30 feet 
 
 538 
 
 617 
 
 Two brick silos 24 feet deep and 12^ feet inside diameter, built 
 in a barn, cost the owner $110 each with no stone work in the founda- 
 tion and the lower 18 feet fourteen inches thick, with a 2-inch dead air 
 space, and with iron rods laid in the wall every 6 feet. The brick 
 cost $4.25 per thousand. 
 
 Another brick silo 30 feet deep, 12 feet inside diameter, with the 
 lower 4 feet of stone, the next 8 feet of 3 brick with hollow wall 14 
 inches thick and the remainder of 2 brick 8 inches thick, cost the 
 owner a liftle less than $100. These silos have cost less than 10 cents 
 per surface foot. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF A BRICK AND WOOD SILO. 
 
 Next to the all-masonry silos in point of durability and efficiency 
 must be ranked the masonry lined silos, of which there are several 
 types, as follows: (1) Stone silos, jacketed with wood; (2) concrete 
 lined silos; (3) brick lined silos; (4) lathed and plastered silos. 
 
 Of these Types the brick lined silo is likely to come into the more 
 general use, and its construction will be described first, 
 
20 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 Construction of the Wood-work . — Like the brick silo, this form should 
 have a stone foundation, wherever it is practicable to obtain the mate- 
 rial for it. Upon this will first be laid the sill made of 2x4’s cut in 
 two-foot lengths with the ends beveled so that they may be toe-nailed 
 together and bedded in cement mortar upon the wall in the manner 
 represented in Fig. 8. The sill is set just far enough back from the 
 inside of the wall so that when the brick are laid they come flush with 
 the inside of the silo wall. 
 
 Fig. 8.— Showing method of making the sill of brick lined and of round wood silos. 
 
 The 2x4 studding are next set up and toe-nailed to the sill. A stud 
 is first set at each angle of the sill, plumbed and stayed from a 
 post set in the center of the silo. After four or five of these are set 
 and plumbed from the center these should be stayed from side to side 
 by tacking to them a strip of half-inch sheeting bent around the out- 
 side as high up as a man can reach, taking care to get each stud plumb 
 in this direction before staying. After the alternate studs have been 
 set up in this manner the intervening ones may be put in place, toe- 
 nailed to the sill and stayed to the rib holding the others in place. 
 
 The next step should be to put on the outside layer of sheeting which, 
 for all of the silos less than 30 feet in diameter, should be %-inch lum- 
 ber made by buying a good quality of fencing and taking it to the mill 
 to have it sawed in two. The usual price for sawing fencing in two 
 in this way is $1.00 per thousand. The reason for getting fencing and 
 having it sawed in this manner is to save expense. It is the custom 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 21 
 
 of dealers to charge the same price for half inch as for inch lumber, 
 and hence buying good fencing and having it sawed reduces the cost 
 just one half, less the cost of sawing. The studding should be covered 
 inside and out with this sheeting, nailing thoroughly with 8-penny 
 nails, two nails in each board at every stud. The object of the boards 
 is to act as hoops and give the silo the needed strength. 
 
 If the silo is out of doors it will need to be covered with house sid- 
 ing with the thick edge rabbetted, or else veneered with a single course 
 of brick. Several silos have been sided with half-inch lumber with both 
 edges beveled at an angle of 45 degrees to take the place of the rabbet. 
 This method gives greater strength, but is not likely to keep out rain 
 as thoroughly. 
 
 The Silo Lining . — The brick lining of the silo should be laid in rich 
 Milwaukee, Akron or Louisville cement mortar, the bricks being pre- 
 viously wet. The most rigid lining will be secured by laying the 
 brick flatwise making the layer 4 inches thick but with one-half the 
 amount of brick they may be set on edge, thus considerably lessening 
 the cost. If set on edge, as represented in Fig. 9, a row of spikes should 
 be driven into the studding through the joints of every fourth course 
 to hold the brick more securely in place until the cement has had time 
 to season. 
 
 The mortar should not be made more than % of an inch thick and 
 great care should be taken to leave no open space anywhere. The ne- 
 cessity of plastering the wall may be avoided by filling behind each 
 brick with one-half an inch of mortar which will keep out the air as 
 well as if on the front side and there will be the additional advantage 
 of the cement not coming in direct contact with the silage juices. If 
 care is taken in setting the brick so as to secure a smooth face, point- 
 ing the joints carefully, it will not be necessary to even whitewash the 
 wall and a permanent lining requiring no attention will thus be secured. 
 
 In this form of silo the brick may have one face filled with coal tar, 
 as described under the all-brick silo, or the vitrified paving brick may 
 be used as there described, giving a lining wholly air tight and perma- 
 nent. 
 
 3 
 
22 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 Fig.^ 9.— Showing a brick lined round silo with bricks set on edge and plastered 
 with cement. Dots A, A show where an iron rod may be bedded in the wall 
 to prevent spreading. 
 
 COST OF BRICK-LINED BILOS. 
 
 Counting the stone foundation of this type of silo 10' cents per sur- 
 face foot of wall the cost of the types of brick-lined silos which have 
 been described will be, when brick are $7 per thousand, not far from 
 the figures in the following table: 
 
Silage , and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 23 
 
 Approximate cost of the walls of two types of brick-lined silos 
 
 30 feet deep. 
 
 Inside Diameter. 
 
 Outside Construction. 
 
 Inside Construction. 
 
 Brick 
 
 flatwise. 
 
 Brick 
 on edge. 
 
 Brick 
 
 flatwise. 
 
 Brick 
 on edge . 
 
 13 feet 
 
 $219 
 
 $171 
 
 $142 
 
 $131 
 
 14 feet 
 
 226 
 
 182 
 
 183 
 
 140 
 
 15 feet 
 
 241 
 
 194 
 
 195 
 
 149 
 
 16 feet.. 
 
 255 
 
 206 
 
 206 
 
 158 
 
 17 feet 
 
 269 
 
 217 
 
 208 
 
 167 
 
 18 feet 
 
 283 
 
 229 
 
 229 
 
 176 
 
 19 feet* 
 
 298 
 
 241 
 
 241 
 
 185 
 
 20 feet 
 
 312 
 
 252 
 
 252 
 
 194 
 
 21 feet 
 
 326 
 
 264 
 
 264 
 
 203 
 
 22 feet 
 
 341 
 
 276 
 
 276 
 
 212 
 
 23 feet 
 
 355 
 
 288 
 
 287 
 
 221 
 
 24 feet 
 
 369 
 
 299 
 
 299 
 
 230 
 
 25 feet 
 
 384 
 
 311 
 
 310 
 
 239 
 
 30 feet 
 
 455 
 
 370 
 
 368 
 
 284 
 
 If either of these silos is to be provided with a good roof the cost 
 of the smallest one would be increased about $20, and that of the 25- 
 foot one about $58. 
 
 ROUND PLASTERED SILO. 
 
 Where brick are high, lumber low, and clean, sharp sand may be 
 readily obtained, a cement plastered lining may be made to take the 
 place of the brick lining, using the Milwaukee, Akron, Rosendale or 
 Louisville cement in making the mortar. 
 
 The frame work of the silo should be made exactly like that of the 
 silo with brick lining except that there should be two layers of half- 
 inch sheeting on the inside with a layer of 3-ply Giant P. and B. paper 
 between, or other of as good quality. 
 
 After the woodwork of the silo has been completed it should be 
 lathed and plastered with a cement mortar made of 1 of cement to 
 2 of sand. 
 
 If wood lath are used there should be furring strips of lath nailed 
 to each stud up and down and the lath nailed through these. If metal 
 lath is used this may be nailed directly to furring strips of lath nailed 
 to the studding over the lining and the plastering then done. 
 
24 
 
 Jlullctin No. 83. 
 
 There are a good many of these lathed and plastered cylindrical 
 silos in Racine and Kenosha counties in this state, and across the line 
 in Illinois. Some of these have been in use since 1889 and have given 
 good satisfaction. 
 
 It should be understood that it would not do to lath and plaster a 
 rectangular wood silo because the springing of the walls would crack 
 the cement. It should be understood further that on account of the 
 fact that the layer of cement is so thin it is a matter of greater im- 
 portance to keep the surface whitewashed to prevent the acid from 
 softening the cement and rendering it porous. It is because of this 
 also that two layers of lining with paper between are recommended. 
 
 In some of these silos ordinary hair mortar has been used for the 
 first coat and this covered with a cement finish, while in others only the 
 cement plaster has been employed with hair in the first coat. 
 
 COST OF LATHED AND PLASTERED SILOS. 
 
 Four of the lathed and plastered silos visited cost $300, $200, $475 
 and $352.90 respectively. The first was 22 feet deep and 26 feet inside 
 diameter; the second 23 feet by 18 feet; the third 25 feet by 30 feet, 
 and the fourth 27 feet deep and 30 feet inside diameter. All were pro- 
 vided with stone foundations 12 to 30 inches in height, with good roofs 
 and cupolas, and were substantially built in every way. 
 
 If we allow the same cost for the roof of this type of silos as we 
 have in computing the cost of the preceding types, namely, 9 cents per 
 square foot of horizontal area covered by the roof, and deduct this 
 from the total cost of the silo, it will be found that the cost of the 
 walls of these four lathed-and-plastered silos was at the mean rate of 
 12.98 cents per square foot of outside surface of the wall; and using 
 these values the results given in the table below are obtained: 
 
 Approximate cost of lathed and plastered cylindrical silos 30 feet 
 
 deep. 
 
 Inside 
 
 diameter. 
 
 Outside con- 
 struction with 
 roof and sid- 
 ing. 
 
 Inside con- 
 struction with 
 out roof and 
 outer layer of 
 siding. 
 
 13 feet 
 
 $185 
 
 $133 
 
 14 feet 
 
 199 
 
 143 
 
 15 feet 
 
 213 
 
 152 
 
 16 feet 
 
 228 
 
 161 
 
 17 fet 
 
 242 
 
 170 
 
 18 feet 
 
 257 
 
 180 
 
 19 feet 
 
 272 
 
 189 
 
 Inside 
 
 diameter. 
 
 Outside con- 
 struction with 
 roof and sid- 
 ing. 
 
 Inside con- 
 struction with 
 out roof and 
 outer layer of 
 siding. 
 
 20 feet 
 
 $286 
 
 $198 
 
 21 feet 
 
 301 
 
 207 
 
 22 feet 
 
 316 
 
 217 
 
 23 feet. 
 
 332 
 
 226 
 
 24 feet 
 
 347 
 
 235 
 
 25 feet 
 
 363 
 
 244 
 
 30 feet 
 
 443 
 
 291 
 
25 
 
 Qilagc, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 It will be seen that the cost of this type of silo is somewhat more 
 than that of the stone silo where the cost of stone is not included. 
 Where the silo is made inside of a barn or if it is built out of doors 
 without roof or other weather protection than the materials needed for 
 strength and lining, a silo 13 feet inside diameter and 30 feet deep will 
 cost about $133, while one 25 feet in diameter will cost $244. The first 
 silo will hold 70 to 80 tons, and the last 290 tons, thus making the cost 
 at the rate of $1.77 and 80 cents per ton of silage. 
 
 Fig. 10.— Showing two round w r ood silos with stone foundations at Hubbletou, 
 
 Wis. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF ALL- WOOD SILOS. 
 
 Up to the present time more silos have been built of wood than of 
 any other material, and since Bulletin 28 of this Station, issued in 
 1891, describing the method of constructing the all-wood cylindrical 
 silo, represented in Fig. 11, the majority of wood silos built have been 
 after this model. Very few silos of the rectangular type are now built 
 unless they be of stone. 
 
 The Foundation . — There should be a good, substantial masonry 
 foundation for all forms of wood silos and the woodwork should every- 
 where be at least 12 inches above the earth to prevent decay from 
 dampness. There are few conditions where it will not be desirable to 
 have the bottom of the silo 3 feet or more below the feeding floor of 
 the stable and this will require not less than 4 to 6 feet of stone, brick, 
 or concrete wall. For a silo 30 feet deep the foundation wall of stone 
 should be 1.5 to 2 feet thick. 
 
26 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 The inside of the foundation wall may be made flush with the wood- 
 work above, as represented in Fig. 12 A, or the building may stand in 
 the ordinary way, flush with the outside of the stone wall, as repre- 
 sented in Fig. 12 B. In both cases the wall should be finished sloping 
 as shown in the drawings. 
 
 Fig. 11.— Showing an all-wood round silo on stone foundation. H represents a 
 method of saAving boards for the conical roof. 
 
 So far as the keeping of the silage is concerned it makes little dif- 
 ference which of these types of construction is adopted. The outward 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 27 
 
 pressure on the silo wall is greater where the wall juts into the silo, 
 but the wall is better protected against the weather. Where the pro- 
 jecting wall is outside, the silo has a greater capacity, but there is 
 a strong tendency for the wall to crack and allow rain to penetrate it. 
 Where this plan is followed it is important to finish the sloping sur- 
 face with cement or to shingle it to keep out the water. 
 
 Fig. 12.— Showing two methods of placing the wood, brick lined or lathed and 
 plastered silo on a stone foundation. A shows the silo set with upper por- 
 tion flush with the inside of the stone w^all, and B shows the upper por- 
 tion flush with the outside of the stone wall. 
 
 Bottom of the Silo . — After the silo has been completed the ground 
 forming the bottom should be thoroughly tamped so as to be solid and 
 then covered with two or three inches of good concrete made of 1 of 
 cement to 3 or 4 of sand and gravel. The amount of silage which will 
 spoil on a hard clay floor will not be large, but enough to pay a good 
 interest on the money invested in the cement floor. If the bottom of 
 the silo is in dry sand or gravel the cement bottom is imperative to shut 
 out the soil air. 
 
 Tieing the Top of the Stone Wall . — In case the wood portion of the 
 silo rises 24 or more feet above the stone work and the diameter is 
 more than 18 feet it will be prudent to stay the top of the wall in some 
 way. 
 
 If the woodwork rises from the outer edge of the wall, then building 
 the wall up with cement so as to cover the sill and lining as represented 
 in Figs. 18 and 16 will give the needed strength, because the wood- 
 work will act as a hoop; but if the silo stands at the inner face of the 
 wall, it will be best to lay pieces of iron rod in the wall near the top 
 to act as a hoop. 
 
 Where the stone portion of the silo is high enough to need a door 
 
28 
 
 Bulletin No. S3. 
 
 it is best to leave enough wall between the top and the sill to allow 
 a tie rod of iron to be bedded in this portion. So, too, the lower door 
 in the woodwork of the silo should leave a full foot in width below it 
 of lining and siding uncut to act as a hoop, where the pressure is 
 strongest. 
 
 Forming the Sill . — The sill in the all-wood silo may be made of a 
 single 2x4 cut in 2-foot lengths in the manner represented in Fig. 8 and 
 described under the brick lined silo. 
 
 Setting the Studding . — The studding of the all-wood round silo need 
 not be larger than 2x4 unless the diameter is to exceed 30 feet, but 
 they should be set as close together as one foot from center to center, 
 as represented in Fig. 13. This number of studs is not required for 
 strength but they are needed in order to bring the two layers of lining 
 very close together so as to press the paper closely and prevent air 
 from entering where the paper laps. 
 
 Fig. 13.— Showing the plan of studding for the all-wood, brick lined or lathed 
 
 and plastered silo. 
 
 Where studding longer than 20 feet are needed short lengths may 
 be lapped one foot and simply spiked together before they are set in 
 place on the wall. This will be cheaper than to pay the higher price 
 for long lengths. All studding should be given the exact length de- 
 sired before putting them in place. 
 
29 
 
 Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 To stay the studding a post should be set in the ground in the cen- 
 ter of the silo long enough to reach about 5 feet above the sill and to 
 this stays may be nailed to hold in place the alternate studs until the 
 lower 5 feet of outside sheeting has been put on. The studs should 
 be set first at the angles formed in the sill and carefully stayed and 
 plumbed on the side toward the center. When a number of these have 
 
 v- 
 
 
 V/<A/77^7yW//W/yW//W/M 
 
 
 jlL : 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 
 F 
 
 Fig. 14.— Showing tne construction of the door for the all-wood silo. G is a cross 
 section of the door resting against the door jamb, which is provided with a 
 gasket of three-ply ruberoid roofing and held in place with four lag bolts and 
 washers, the door opening on the inside. F is a front view of the door 
 made of two layers of four inch or six inch tongued and grooved flooring 
 with a layer of three-ply acid and water proof P. »fc B. paper between. 
 
 been set they should be tied together by bending a strip of half-inch 
 sheeting around the outside as high up as a man can reach, taking 
 care to plumb each stud on the side before nailing. When the alter- 
 nate studs have been set in this way the balance may be placed and 
 toe-nailed to the sill and stayed to the rib, first plumbing them sideways 
 and toward tne center. 
 
30 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 Setting Studding for Doors. — On the side of the silo where the doors 
 are to be placed the studding should be set double and the distance 
 apart to give the desired width. A stud should be set between the two 
 door studs as though no door were to be there and the doors cut out 
 at the places desired afterwards. The construction of the door is rep- 
 resented in Fig. 14. 
 
 Silo Sheeting and Siding. — The character of the siding and sheeting 
 will vary considerably according to conditions, and size of the silo. 
 
 Where the diameter of the silo is less than 18 feet inside and not 
 much attention need be paid to frost, a single layer of beveled siding, 
 rabbetted on the inside of the thick edge deep enough to receive the 
 thin edge of the board below, will be all that is absolutely necessary 
 on the outside for strength and protection against weather. This 
 statement is made on the supposition that the lining is made of two 
 layers of fencing split in two, the three layers constituting the hoops. 
 
 If the silo is larger than 18 feet inside diameter, there should be a 
 layer of half-inch sheeting outside, under the siding. 
 
 If basswood is used for siding care should be taken to paint it at 
 once, otherwise it will warp badly if it gets wet before painting. 
 
 In applying the sheeting begin at the bottom, carrying the work 
 upward until staging is needed, following this at once with the siding. 
 Two 8-penny nails should be used in each board in every stud, and to 
 prevent the walls from getting “out of round” the succeeding courses 
 of boards should begin on the next stud, thus making the ends of the 
 boards break joints. 
 
 When the stagings are put up new stays should be tacked to the 
 studs above, taking care to plumb each one from side to side; the sid- 
 ing itself will bring them into place and keep them plumb the other way 
 if care is taken to start new courses as described above. 
 
 Forming the Plate. — When the last staging is up the plate should be 
 formed by spiking 2x4’s, cut in two-foot lengths, in the manner of the 
 sill, and as represented in Fig. 17, down upon the tops of the studs, 
 using two courses, making the second break joints with the first. 
 
 THE LINING OF THE WOOD SILO. 
 
 There are several ways of making a good lining for the all wood 
 round silo, but which ever method is adopted it must be kept in mind 
 that there are two very important ends to be secured with a certainty. 
 These are (1) a lining which shall be and remain strictly air tight, (2) 
 a lining which will be reasonably permanent. 
 
 Galvanized Iron in Silo Lining. — The tightest lining for a wood silo 
 may be made with a light weight of galvanized iron, No. 28 to No. 32. 
 Where the silos are 18 feet in diameter or less this may be put directly 
 upon the studding, buying the strips 8 feet long and 36 inches wide, 
 so as to be nailed on up and down and exactly cover the space between 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos . 31 
 
 three or four studs. Headers should be put in every 8 feet to nail the 
 ends of the sheets to between the studs, and these are best when sawed 
 to the curve of the silo. The metal should be put on with roofing nails, 
 nailing close so as to make the joints tight. 
 
 After the metal is in place it should be given a heavy coat of asphalt 
 paint, taking special care to make it heavy where the nails and laps 
 come so as to shut out the air. 
 
 When the metal is in place and painted it should be covered with a 
 layer of sheeting made the same as that used outside, by splitting good 
 fencing in two. The object of this layer of sheeting is, first, to take 
 the pressure of the silage; second, to act as a hoop for strength, and 
 third, to keep the silage from softening and wiping the paint from 
 the metal lining. Were it not for the fact that the heat of the silage 
 tends to soften the paint and its settling to wipe it off, it would be 
 better to let the metal come next to the silage. 
 
 Where the silo is more than 18 feet in diameter it will be best to 
 use two layers of fencing split in two, placing the galvanized iron be- 
 tween the two layers. In these cases the sheets of metal may be put 
 on horizontally, using those 36 inches wide. 
 
 It has been demonstrated that such a lining as this will reduce the 
 unavoidable losses to as low as 3.8 per cent. Such a lining, too, will 
 be permanent because all of the woodwork outside of the lining will 
 not be affected at all by the silage and there is only a single layer 
 of boards % inch thick against the silage. This layer cannot rot 
 when the silage is in contact with it because it will be completely 
 filled with w r ater and air is excluded from it. When the silage is re- 
 moved from the lining it is so thin that it will dry rapidly and this 
 will prevent it from rotting. 
 
 The galvanized iron varies somewhat in price, but at the present 
 time costs about 6 cents per pound. This is at the rate of 4 cents 
 per square foot for No. 32 iron, and would make for nails, paint, and 
 iron a cost of about $47 for the 24 feet of woodwork of a silo 13 feet 
 in diameter and 30 feet deep; and for a silo 25 feet inside diameter 
 nearly twice this amount. The best 3-ply Giant paper would cost 
 about Ye of this amount, but this is not likely to remain air tight as 
 long. 
 
 All Wood Lining of Ifinch Flooring . — If one is willing to permit a 
 loss of 10 to 12 per cent, of the silage by heating, then a lining of 
 tongued and grooved ordinary 4-inch white pine flooring may be made 
 in the manner represented in Fig. 15, where the flooring runs up and 
 down. When this lumber is put on in the seasoned condition a sin- 
 gle layer would make tighter walls than can be secured with the stave 
 silo where the staves are neither beveled nor tongued and grooved. 
 
 In the silos smaller than IS feet inside diameter the two layers 
 of boards outside will give the needed strength, but when the silo is 
 
32 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 larger than this and deep there would be needed a layer of the split 
 fencing on the inside for strength; and if in addition to this there 
 is added a layer of 3-ply Giant P. and B. paper a lining of very supe- 
 rior quality would be thus secured. 
 
 Fig. 15.— Showing the construction of the all-wood round silo where the lining 
 is made of ordinary four inch flooring running up and down, and nailed to 
 girts cut in between the studding every four feet. 
 
 Lining of Half-inch Boards and Paper . — Where paper is used to make 
 the joints between boards air tight, as represented in Fig. 16, it is ex- 
 tremely important that a quality which will not decay and which is 
 both acid and water-proof be used. A paper which is not acid and 
 water-proof will disintegrate at the joints in a very short time and 
 thus leave the lining very defective. 
 
 The best paper for silo purposes with which we are acquainted is 
 the 3-ply Giant P. and B. brand manufactured by the Standard Paint 
 Co. of Chicago and New York. It is thick, strong, and acid and water- 
 proof. 
 
 A silo lining with two thicknesses of good fencing having only small 
 knots, and these thoroughly sound and not black, will make an excel- 
 lent lining. 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 33 
 
 Great care should be taken to have the two layers of boards break 
 joints at their centers, and the paper should lap not less than 8 to 12 
 inches. 
 
 The great' danger with this type of lining will be that the boards 
 may not press the two layers of paper together close enough so but that 
 some air may rise between the two sheets where they overlap and 
 thus gain access to the silage. It would be an excellent precaution to 
 take to tack down closely with small carpet tacks the edges of the 
 paper where they overlap, and if this is done a lap of 2 inches will be 
 sufficient. 
 
 Fig. 16.— Showing method of constructing the all-wood round silo and connecting 
 it with the wall flush with the outside. This figure shows the most sub- 
 stantial form of construction with three layers of three inch lumber and two 
 layers of three-ply acid and water proof 1’ & B paper between them. A 
 very excellent silo is made after this plan omitting the inner layer of lining 
 and paper and the layer of paper on the outside. With small siios 15 feet in 
 diameter only the siding on the outside is necessary for strength and pro- 
 tection against weather. 
 
 The first layer of lining should be put on with 8-penny nails, two 
 in each board and stud, and the second or inner layer with 10-penny 
 nails, the fundamental object being to draw the two layers of boards 
 as closely together as possible. 
 
34 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 Such a lining as this will be very durable because the paper will 
 keep all the lumber dry except the inner layer of half-inch boards, and 
 this will be kept wet by the paper and silage until empty and then 
 the small thickness of wood will dry too quickly to permit rotting to 
 set in. 
 
 A still more substantial lining of the same type may be secured 
 by using two layers of paper between three layers of boards, as rep- 
 resented in Fig. 16, and if the climate is not extremely severe, or if 
 the silo is only to be fed from in the summer, it would be better to do 
 away with the layer of sheeting and paper outside, putting it on the 
 inside, thus securing two layers of paper and three layers of boards 
 for the lining with the equivalent of only 2 inches of lumber. 
 
 Fig. 17. — Showing construction of conical roof of round silo where rafters are not 
 used. The outer circle is the lower edge of the roof, the second circle is the 
 plate, the third and fourth circles are hoops to which the roof boards are 
 nailed. The view T is a plan looking up from the under side. 
 
 THE SILO ROOF. 
 
 The roof of cylindrical silos may be made in several ways, but the 
 simplest type of construction and the one requiring the least amount 
 of material is that represented in Figs. 11 and 17, and which is the 
 
 cone. 
 
35 
 
 Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 If the silo is not larger than 15 feet inside diameter no rafters need 
 be used, and only a single circle like that in the center of Fig. 16, this 
 is made of 2-inch stuff cut in sections in the form of a circle and two 
 layers spiked together, breaking joints. 
 
 The roof boards are put on by nailing them to the inner circle and 
 to the plate as shown in the drawing, the boards having been sawed 
 diagonally as represented at H, Fig. 11, making the wide and narrow 
 ends the same relative widths as the circumferences of the outer edge 
 of the roof and of the inner circle. 
 
 If the silo has an inside diameter exceeding 15 feet it will be neces- 
 sary to use two or three hoops according to diameter. When the 
 diameter is greater than 25 feet it will usually be best to use rafters 
 and headers cut in for circles 4 feet apart to nail the roof boards 
 to, which are cut as represented at H, Fig. 11. 
 
 The conical roof may be covered with ordinary shingle, splitting 
 those wider than 8 inches. By laying the butts of the shingle y 8 to 
 of an inch apart it is not necessary to taper any of the shingles 
 except a few courses near the peak of the roof. 
 
 In laying the shingle to a true circle and with the right exposure 
 to the weather a good method is to use a strip of wood as a radius 
 w r hich works on a center set at the peak of the roof and provided 
 with a nail or pencil to make a mark on the shingle where the butts 
 of the next course are to come. The radius may be bored with a series 
 of holes the right distance apart to slip over the center pivot, or the 
 nail may be drawn and reset as desired. Some carpenters file a notch 
 in the shingling hatchet and use this to bring the shingle to place. 
 
 VENTILATION OF THE SILO. 
 
 Every silo which has a roof should be provided with ample ventila- 
 tion to keep the underside of the roof dry and in the case of wood silos, 
 to prevent the walls and lining from rotting. One of the most serious 
 mistakes in the early construction of wood silos was the making of 
 the walls with dead-air spaces which, on account of the dampness from 
 the silage, lead to rapid “dry rot” of the lining. 
 
 In the wood silo and in the brick lined silo it is important to pro- 
 vide ample ventilation for the spaces between the studs, as well as 
 for the roof and the inside of the silo, and a good method of doing 
 this is represented in Fig. 18, where the lower portion represents the 
 sill and the upper the plate of the silo. Between each pair of studs 
 where needed a l^-inch auger hole to admit air is bored through the 
 siding and sheeting and covered with a piece of wire netting to keep 
 out mice and rats. At the top of the silo on the inside the lining is 
 only covered to within two inches of the plate and this space is cov- 
 ered with wire netting to prevent silage from being thrown over when 
 filling. This arrangement permits dry air from outside to enter at 
 
36 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 Fig. 18.— Showing method of construction for ventilating the spaces between the 
 studding in all-wood and lathed and plastered silos. The lower portion shows 
 the intakes of fresh air from the outside at. the bottom, and the upper por- 
 tion shows where the air enters the silo at the plate to pass out at the ven- 
 tilator in the roof. 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 37 
 
 the bottom between each pair of studs and to pass up and into the 
 silo, thus keeping the lining and studding dry and at the same time 
 drying the under side of the roof and the inside of the lining as fast 
 as exposed. In those cases where the sill is made of 2x4’s cut in 2- 
 foot lengths there will be space enough left between the curved edge 
 of the siding and sheeting and the sill for air to enter so that no holes 
 need be bored as described above and represented in Fig. 18. The 
 openings at the plate should always be provided and the silo should 
 have some sort of ventilator in the roof. This ventilator may take 
 the form of a cupola to serve for an ornament as well, or it may be 
 a simple galvanized iron pipe 12 to 24 inches in diameter, rising a foot 
 or two through the peak of the roof. 
 
 PAINTING THE SILO LINING. 
 
 It is impossible to so paint a wood lining that it will not become 
 wholly or partly saturated with the silage juices. This being true, 
 when the lining is again exposed when feeding the silage out, the paint 
 greatly retards the drying of the wood work and the result is decay 
 sets in, favored by the prolonged dampness. For this reason it is best 
 to leave a wood lining naked or to use some antiseptic which does not 
 form a water proof coat. 
 
 COST OF THE ALL-WOOD ROUND SILO. 
 
 The cost of this type of silo will vary with the thoroughness of the 
 manner of making the lining and of protection against frost. At the 
 present prices for materials, the walls will cost about 12.75 cents per 
 square foot of outside surface when the lining is two layers of half- 
 inch split fencing with a layer of 3-ply Giant P. and B. paper between, 
 and with one layer of split fencing outside, covered with rabbetted 
 house siding. 
 
 If the silo is built inside of the barn the siding and painting may 
 be omitted and this would reduce the cost more than 3 cents per square 
 foot of outside surface, and save the roof. In the next table are given 
 the costs for outside and inside construction for this type of silo made 
 as stated, including 6 feet of foundation wall and roof for the outside 
 silo. 
 
 In this table the figures given are for thoroughly good silos which 
 will keep the silage well and which will have a durability comparable 
 with that of other wooden farm buildings. 
 
 4 
 
38 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 Approximate cost of all-wood round silos 30 feet deep. 
 
 Inside 
 
 diameter. 
 
 Outside 
 
 construction. 
 
 Inside 
 
 construction. 
 
 Inside 
 
 diameter. 
 
 Outside 
 
 construction. 
 
 Inside 
 
 construction. 
 
 13 feet 
 
 $183 
 
 $128 
 
 90 ffiftt. 
 
 $282 
 
 $19 1 
 
 14 feet 
 
 196 
 
 137 
 
 21 feet 
 
 298 
 
 200 
 
 15 feet 
 
 211 
 
 146 
 
 
 312 
 
 208 
 
 16 feet 
 
 224 
 
 155 
 
 
 327 
 
 217 
 
 17 feet 
 
 239 
 
 164 
 
 91 fppf-, 
 
 342 
 
 226 
 
 18 feet 
 
 253 
 
 173 
 
 25 font, . . . 
 
 358 
 
 235 
 
 19 feet 
 
 268 
 
 182 
 
 30 feet 
 
 437 
 
 280 
 
 THE CHEAPEST SILO FOP, WARM CLIMATES AND FOR SUMMER FEEDING ONLY. 
 
 If one Is not particular about the appearance of the building and 
 is willing to do without a roof or to cover the silo with straw, wild 
 hay, or some similar makeshift, it is possible to build much more 
 cheaply than the figures indicated above. 
 
 With studding, $18; fencing, $26, split into %-inch lumber, and 3-ply 
 acid and water proof paper, $7.00 per thousand, the materials for a 
 silo 15 feet inside diameter and 20 feet deep would cost about $35, not 
 including 4 feet of foundation wall. Including the wall the whole may 
 be built for between 50 and 60 dollars, and thoroughly good silage be 
 made in ft. At the same time the walls would stand rigidly without 
 the attention required for the stave silo, described in the next section. 
 
 THE STAVE OR TANK SILO. 
 
 We have examined personally the past season 19 stave silos and 
 have made a careful study of the unavoidable losses in one of these. 
 We have also studied the unavoidable losses in two kinds of small 
 stave silos. As a result of these observations it has been demonstrated 
 that there are several very serious objections to stave silos intended 
 as permanent buildings out of doors. Some of these are stated .below : 
 
 1. When the silo is empty the staves shrink and loosen the hoops 
 and in this condition the wind racks the building, getting it out of 
 round, out of plumb, and out of place upon the foundation. It is much 
 more easily blown down than other forms of silos. Two of the 
 fourteen out-of-door silos visited had been blown down; one of these was 
 abandoned and the hoops sold to another farmer; the other was set 
 up again at the expense of a day’s drive for new staves and getting 
 the carpenters to set it up, the accident happening just as they were 
 ready to fill the silo last fall. 
 
Silage , and the Construction of Modern Silos. 39 
 
 A third silo of the fourteen out-of-doors we visited had moved on 
 the foundation so much that I could put my arm up through between 
 the stone wall and the outside of the staves. This silo had been stayed 
 to the end of the barn, using fence wire for guy rods. 
 
 Three others of the fourteen out-of-door stave silos had been found 
 so unsatisfactory that they were subsequently lined on the inside to 
 prevent the silage from spoiling, and in two of these three the inner 
 lining has rotted out on account of the dampness which the outside 
 staves confines 
 
 2. There is great danger of the hoops being broken by the intense 
 pressure of the silage increased by the swelling of the staves. In one 
 of the silos visited eight out of ten hoops on one side of the silo and 
 six out of ten on the opposite side had sheared in two the 2x4’s used for 
 lugs; but, by a fortunate coincidence, two of the ten hoops remained 
 intact to hold the silo up, assisted by some half-inch boards which had 
 been bent around the inside of the silo at the top to prevent the staves 
 from falling in. 
 
 In another silo where 4x4 oak pieces had been used as lugs, the 
 2-inch iron washers had been crushed their full depth of y 2 inch into 
 the hard wood and two of the pieces of wood had been badly injured 
 by the severe strain upon them. 
 
 In a fourth silo where the hoops were provided with iron lugs the 
 staves on one side had been thrown into the silo by the swelling of the 
 wood. 
 
 It is urged by the advocates of these silos that with a little care and 
 judgment the nuts of the hoops may be tightened or loosened as needed 
 and such accidents averted. There is enough truth in this statement 
 to induce many farmers with limited means to take the risk, but life 
 is too short and there are too many other things to engross the at- 
 tention of good farmers for them to lie awake nights wondering 
 whether the silo hoops are too tight or too loose. 
 
 3. Staves do not contain the same amount of sapwood in all parts 
 and for this reason shrink unequally, with the result that after 3 or 
 4 years’ use there are places which do not close up tightly on swell- 
 ing and which open again on the sunny side of the silo, and thus ad- 
 mit air, even where the silage is in contact with them. 
 
 Three of the silos visited showed these peculiarities, and ip one of 
 them visited last winter we could see through between several staves 
 on the south side of the silo close to the silage surface, on the inside. 
 
 4. Railroad water tanks, when made in the best manner, of the best 
 lumber, and cared for in the most thorough way practicable, have to 
 be replaced on the average as often as every 15 to 30 years. 
 
 Hon. Onward Bates, Engineer and Supt. of Bridges and Buildings 
 for the C., M. & St. P. Railway Co., writes in reply to questions re- 
 garding the life of wooden water tanks as follows: 
 
4C 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 “Replying to your letter of March 8tli, the life of wooden water tanks on 
 our road is variable. I think it may be given as from 15 years, under unfavor- 
 able conditions, to 30 years under favorable conditions. If the tank is kept full 
 of water the wood remains in a saturated condition and will last almost indefi- 
 nitely. In such a case the hoops are apt to rust out and give away, but they 
 can be replaced when necessary. 
 
 The worst condition for a tank is when it is filled with water at times and 
 at other times is empty. In this case both the staves and the bottom rot out. 
 
 When a tank is kept partly filled with water the top of it will rot out first 
 and we have the additional trouble with the top ends of the staves shrinking 
 so that the tank will not hold water if filled above the ordinary level. 
 
 From your description of stave silos, I do not think a wooden tank will prove 
 durable, because the staves will not be kept continuously wet. I would expect 
 such a tank to fail from decay in from five to ten years.’’ 
 
 The condition which seems to the writer most likely to cause rotting 
 in these silos is the thickness of the lumber and the liability that 
 the silage may not give moisture enough to it to completely saturate 
 it, and so will bring it into that condition of moisture favorable to “dry 
 rot.” The case is manifestly quite different from the wood lined silo 
 where only a thin layer of wood is backed by a water-proof paper 
 which helps to keep it wet while the silage is against it. 
 
 5. The expansion and contraction of the staves during wetting by 
 the silage and drying when the silo is empty makes it difficult to se- 
 curely anchor a permanent roof and impossible to connect the staves 
 permanently with the foundation, so as to be air-tight. Something 
 must be done each season to cement the joints between the staves and 
 foundation or air will enter. 
 
 6. There is no reason to hope that good silage with small losses 
 in dry matter can be made in the stave silos which are not carefully 
 constructed of good lumber with the staves both beveled, and tongued 
 and grooved. It is really more difficult to make a stave silo air-tight 
 than it is to make a tank water-tight, and we have found by careful 
 tests that the unavoidable losses in a new stave silo next to the walls 
 were as High as 24 to 28 per cent., as given in detail under another 
 section, page 66. 
 
 In one of the silos visited it was reported that they had from 2 to 
 3 inches of mouldy silage next to the walls, but that cattle would eat 
 it. Such conditions, however, are not associated with small losses and 
 it must be remembered that silage may lose as high as 15 to 25 per 
 cent, of its dry matter and yet appear to be good. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF STAVE SILOS. 
 
 There a-re three methods adopted in the construction of these silos. 
 The best and only one which should be used in the permanent silo 
 is that represented in Fig. 19, where the staves are both beleved and 
 tongued-and-grooved; the second is where the staves are beveled so 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 41 
 
 that the flat surfaces fit together accurately as water tanks are made; 
 sented in Fig. 27 where 2x4’s of Norway pine were hooped together 
 without either beveling or tonguing-and-grooving, and this both ob- 
 servation and principles of construction indicate should be adopted 
 with very great hesitation and as temporary makeshifts only until 
 
 Fig. 19.— Showing the construction of the stave silo. A shows the silo complete 
 on stone foundation with four feeding doors. B is cross section of four staves 
 showing how they are tongued and grooved to make them air-tight. C shows 
 a method of splicing staves. D shows iron lugs for tightening hoops. 
 
42 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 more experience and exact knowledge has been obtained regarding 
 their permanent efficiency. * 
 
 This third plan has been recommended because the first cost is rel- 
 atively low and because it is assumed that the pressure due to the swell- 
 ing of the wood and the rigidity of the hoops will result in crushing the 
 edges of the staves together so as to make a sufficiently tight joint to 
 preserve the silage. 
 
 The last reason has been put to a rigid test in the small silo repre- 
 sented in Fig. 27 where 2x4’s of Norway pine were hooped together 
 as shown in the cut in a small circumference in order to give oppor- 
 tunity for the maximum amount of crushing the edges together. The 
 pressure due to swelling became so great that the outer edges of the 
 staves, where they^came against the hoops were strongly dented, and 
 yet when the silo was opened the spoiled silage along every joint be- 
 tween the staves proved that air had entered. Had this silo been out 
 of doors ft is probable that freezing would have reduced this spoiling 
 but it must be remembered that there is considerable warm weather in 
 the fall and in the spring when the temperatures are high enough to 
 permit fermentation. It should also be remembered that if silage does 
 not freeze in a stave silo in cold winter weather, it is because fermen- 
 tation is going on with sufficient rapidity to prevent it, and this means 
 a large loss of feeding value. 
 
 Lumber for the Staves . — The lumber selected for the staves of this 
 type of silo should be of the grade known commercially as “tank stuff,” 
 and lumber freest from knots and straightest grained is best. Wood is 
 quite air-tight under low pressures in directions across the grain but 
 along the grain the air passes more or less freely. The Washington 
 cedar used by the Williams Manufacturing Co. in the construction of the 
 silo shone in Fig. 27 appears to be an excellent wood for this pur- 
 pose, as 'it shrinks much less than the pine after the silage is re- 
 moved and, for this reason, the building will be much more stable when 
 empty and less liable to burst the hoops when filled. 
 
 Foundation of the Stave Silo. On account of the tendency of the 
 stave silo to work off from the wall when empty a flat cement floor has 
 been recommended, made of sand and gravel or crushed rock, forming 
 a bed of concrete about 12 inches thick. This is perhaps as good as can 
 be done under the circumstances but it precludes the extension of the 
 silo into the ground. 
 
 If the silo stands upon a stone wall, as represented in Fig. 19 it will 
 be prudent to have a shoulder jutting into the silo as much as 2 inches 
 and a similar amount on the outside, to permit of some movement on 
 the foundation. 
 
 Hoops for the Stave Silo. — Five-eighths inch round iron rods, in about 
 16-foot lengths, form the best hoops and they should be provided with 
 long threads and joined with iron lugs and nuts, as represented in D, 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 43 
 
 Fig. 19. The iron lugs should always be used in preference to the 
 2x4’s or 4x4’s because they are better in every way. So too should 
 they be used in preference to posts set up against the silo outside or 
 shaped to act as a part of the staves as has been recommended. In 
 visiting over 100 silos in 1891 it was found that wherever a silo lining 
 
 Fig. 20.— Showing the construction of doors for stave silos. F is front view of 
 door viewed from outside. G cross section of same. E is a vertical section 
 showing the shoulder against which the door rests, and upon which should be 
 a gasket of three-ply ruberoid roofing. The door should also be drawn tight 
 against it with four lag bolts and washers, opening from the inside. 
 
44 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 had a heavy timber back of it, the holding of dampness caused rotting 
 there in three or four years, and it is quite certain that the use of iron 
 lugs is the safest way to avoid this danger in stave silos. 
 
 Splicing Staves . — Where the silo is to be deeper than can readily be 
 secured with single lengths of lumber the staves may be spliced in the 
 manner represented at C, Fig. 19, where a saw-cut is made in the ends of 
 the two staves and a piece of galvanized iron, a little wider than the 
 stave is slipped into it. This crushes into the wood on the sides and 
 forms a water tight joint. 
 
 Doors for Stave Silos . — A good method of constructing doors for the 
 stave silo is represented in Fig. 20. Two inch lumber is bolted to the 
 staves on the outside, projecting two inches into the doorway all around, 
 thus forming a rabbet against which the door may rest. A strip of 
 thick ruberoid roofing should be used on the rabbet under the door and 
 the door drawn down tight with four lag bolts and washers. 
 
 A common way of making these doors is to cut the staves out on a 
 bevel and make the door fit into this beveled cut directly. If the work 
 is carefully done and then, at the time of filling, if the face of the bevel 
 is plastered with a thick coat of puddled clay and the door forced tightly 
 into this a fairly close joint may be secured. 
 
 COST OF STAVE SILOS. 
 
 Mr. Herman Ree’s stave silo, 18 ft. inside diameter and 24 ft. deep, 
 cost him complete $242.80. The tub is made of staves 3" x 6," 18 feet 
 long each accurately beveled and provided with four dowel pins. Seven 
 hoops 2 y 2 inches x 3-16 inch were used and the tub part, set up, in- 
 cluding lumber for roof, cost $162.50. The carpenter work in the roof 
 was $12.30 and the stone foundation, 6 feet deep, cost $68.00. This is a 
 well built silo of its kind, made in 1899. 
 
 Two other silos built in a barn in 1898, 13 feet inside diameter, of 
 2x4 staves, 26 feet long, beveled and with 10 % inch round hoops each, 
 cost complete $170.50 for the two. The bottom of these silos extend 8 
 feet into a red clay subsoil and are cemented directly upon it, only one 
 course of brick being used above for the tubs to stand upon. The bill 
 of expenses for both silos as given by the owner, Mr. A. Crittenden, is 
 as follows: 
 
 Staves 2 x 4’s, 16 and 10 ft., 4785 ft $75 00 
 
 Hoops, 5-8 round iron 16 80 
 
 Cutting threads on hoops .' 5 00 
 
 Washers 1 95 
 
 Brick 1 25 
 
 Mason’s work 3 00 
 
 Digging silos 8 ft. deep i 16 00 
 
 Water lime 16 00 
 
 Beveling staves' 12 00 
 
 Hooks for coupling hoops 1 50 
 
 Carpenter ‘work 27 00 
 
 Carpenters’ board 5 00 
 
 $170 50 
 
45 
 
 Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 At the present price of materials the tub portion of stave silos cannot 
 be well built for much less than 9.62 cents per sq. ft. of outside surface. 
 On this basis and counting the roof and foundation the same as we have 
 in other silos the cost of stave silos of different diameters will be about 
 ag given in the table which follows: 
 
 Approximate cost of stave silos 30 feet deep with 6 feet of masonry 
 foundation and with and without roofs. 
 
 Inside 
 
 diameter. 
 
 Silo with 
 roof. 
 
 Silo without 
 roof. 
 
 Inside 
 
 diameter. 
 
 Silo with 
 roof. 
 
 Silo without 
 roof. 
 
 13 feet 
 
 $144 
 
 $127 
 
 20 feet 
 
 $226 
 
 $191 
 
 14 feet 
 
 155 
 
 136 
 
 21 feet 
 
 239 
 
 200 
 
 15 feet 
 
 166 
 
 145 
 
 22 feet 
 
 250 
 
 209 
 
 16 feet 
 
 178 
 
 154 
 
 23 feet 
 
 263 
 
 218 
 
 17 feet 
 
 189 
 
 163 
 
 24 feet 
 
 276 
 
 227 
 
 18 feet 
 
 202 
 
 173 
 
 25 feet 
 
 289 
 
 236 
 
 19 feet 
 
 213 
 
 181 
 
 30 feet 
 
 356 
 
 282 
 
 PIT SILOS. 
 
 In localities where both lumber and masonry are expensive or cannot 
 be had, and where the soil is of such a character that a pit 15 to 20 
 feet deep may be sunk in the ground, a good silo may be made in this 
 way. The most serious objection to such a silo is the inconvenience of 
 removing the silage to feed. 
 
 If the soil is of such a character that it will not cave in the pit may 
 be made circular in form of the desired size and depth and then plas- 
 tered with cement in the manner of a cistern. If there is a little diffi- 
 culty in the walls standing the pit may be made with sloping sides, 
 smallest at the bottom. 
 
 In using such a silo, especially when filling it, care should be observed 
 ir going into it when there is a possibility that carbonic acid has ac- 
 cumulated to a dangerous extent. There need be no danger in using 
 such a silo if caution is observed as stated on page 55. 
 
46 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 Pig. 21.— Illustrates the frame work of a rectangular silo where girts are used 
 instead of studs. In this case both siding and lining will be put on up and 
 down. It must be noted, however, that this plan unless/ provision is made to 
 prevent, makes dead air spaces between each pair of girts, which will cause 
 the lining to rot quickly, aqd where silos are built after this plan some pro- 
 vision must be made for ventilation. The ventilation may be provided by 
 nailing on the inner face of all the girts, strips one inch thick and two 
 inches' wide and then sawing out of these sections two inches long about 
 every two feet to provide passage ways for air to circulate. It will then be 
 necessary to leave air openings at the top of the silo inside all around and to 
 provide openings at the bottom on the outside for air to enter. 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 47 
 
 Fig. 22.— Showing two methods of roofing silos and of connecting them with the barn so as to provide a feeding chute. 
 
48 
 
 Bulle tin No. 83 . 
 
 THE COMPARATIVE COST OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SILOS. 
 
 If we bring together for comparison the costs of silos of the different 
 types which have been discussed using for comparison those 13 ft. and 
 25 ft. inside diameter and 30 feet deep, the figures will stand as given be- 
 low: 
 
 Kinds of Silo. 
 
 13 Feet Inside 
 Diameter. 
 
 25 Feet Outside 
 Diameter. 
 
 Without 
 
 roof. 
 
 With roof. 
 
 Without 
 roof . 
 
 With roof. 
 
 Slone silo 
 
 $151 
 
 $175 
 
 $264 
 
 $328 
 
 Brick silo 
 
 243 
 
 273 
 
 437 
 
 494 
 
 Brick lined silo, 4 inches thick 
 
 142 
 
 230 
 
 310 
 
 442 
 
 Brick lined, 2 inches thick 
 
 131 
 
 193 
 
 239 
 
 369 
 
 Lathed and plastered silo 
 
 133 
 
 185 
 
 214 
 
 363 
 
 Wood silo with galvenized iron 
 
 168 
 
 222 
 
 308 
 
 432 
 
 Wood silo with paper 
 
 128 
 
 183 
 
 235 
 
 358 
 
 Stave silo 
 
 127 
 
 144 
 
 236 
 
 289 
 
 Cheapest wood silo 
 
 101 
 
 120 
 
 185 
 
 240 
 
 It will be seen from this table that when stave silos are built of good 
 durable lumber they are but little cheaper than the very much more 
 substantial and much better wood and lathed and plastered silos; and 
 that if one wishes to build a cheap temporary silo which will stand 
 rigidly and' will preserve the silage in good condition it is possible to do 
 this for less money than the stave silo will cost. In short the instability 
 of the stave silo should prevent its use outside of another building. 
 
 THE WEIGHT OF SILAGE PER CUBIC FOOT. 
 
 The weight of corn silage increases with the depth below the surface, 
 with the amount of water in the silage, and with the diameter of the silo. 
 In silos of small diameters the amount of surface in the wall is so much 
 greater in proportion to the silage contained that the friction on the 
 sides has more influence in preventing the settling of the silage. In the 
 following table will be found the weights of silage per cubic foot in 
 round silos given for different depths and the mean weight of silage 
 above the given depth: 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 49 
 
 Table showing the computed weight of well matured corn silage at 
 different distances below the surface , and the computed mean 
 weight for silos of different depths , two days after filling : 
 
 Depth 
 
 of 
 
 silage. 
 
 Weight 
 of silage 
 at 
 
 differeni 
 
 depths. 
 
 Mean 
 veightof 
 silage 
 jer cubic 
 loot. 
 
 Depth 
 
 of 
 
 silage. 
 
 Weight 
 of silage 
 at 
 
 different 
 
 depths. 
 
 Mean 
 weight of 
 silage 
 per cubic 
 foot. 
 
 Depth 
 
 of 
 
 silage. 
 
 Weight 
 of silage 
 at 
 
 different 
 
 depths. 
 
 Mean 
 weight of 
 silage 
 per cubic 
 foot. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 1 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 18.7 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 18.7 
 
 Feet. 
 
 13 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 37.3 
 
 Lb;. 
 
 28.3 
 
 Feet. 
 
 25 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 51.7 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 36.5 
 
 2 
 
 20.4 
 
 19.6 
 
 14 
 
 38.7 
 
 29.1 
 
 26 
 
 52.7 
 
 37.2 
 
 3 • 
 
 22.1 
 
 20 6 
 
 15 
 
 40.0 
 
 29.8 
 
 27 
 
 53.6 
 
 37.8 
 
 4 
 
 23.7 
 
 21.2 
 
 16 
 
 41.3 
 
 30.5 
 
 28 
 
 54.6 
 
 38.4 
 
 5 
 
 25.4 
 
 22.1 
 
 17 
 
 42.6 
 
 31.2 
 
 29 
 
 55.5 
 
 39.0 
 
 6 
 
 27.0 
 
 22.9 
 
 18 
 
 43.8 
 
 31.9 
 
 30 
 
 56.4 
 
 39.6 
 
 7 
 
 28.5 
 
 23.8 
 
 19 
 
 45.0 
 
 32.6 
 
 31 
 
 57.2 
 
 40.1 
 
 8 
 
 30.1 
 
 24.5 
 
 20 
 
 46.2 
 
 33 3 
 
 32 
 
 58.0 
 
 40.7 
 
 9 
 
 31.6 
 
 25.3 
 
 21 
 
 47.4 
 
 33.9 
 
 33 
 
 58.8 
 
 41.2 
 
 10 
 
 33.1 
 
 26.1 
 
 22 
 
 48.5 
 
 34.6 
 
 34 
 
 59.6 
 
 41.8 
 
 11 
 
 34.5 
 
 26.8 
 
 23 
 
 49.6 
 
 35.3 
 
 35 
 
 60.3 
 
 42.3 
 
 12 
 
 35.9 
 
 27.6 
 
 24 
 
 50.6 
 
 35.9 
 
 36 
 
 61.0 
 
 42.8 
 
 THE CAPACITY OF SILOS. 
 
 The amount of silage which may be stored in a silo increases in a 
 higher ratio than the depth increases. A silo 36 feet deep will store 
 nearly 5 times the amount of feed that one 12 feet deep will hold. 
 
 Doubling the diameter of a silo increases its capacity more than 
 fourfold and a silo 30 feet in diameter will hold more than 9 times as 
 much as one 10 feet in diameter and of the same depth. It is clear 
 from this that small silos must be relatively more costly than those of 
 larger diameter. 
 
50 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 Table giving the approximate capacity of cylindrical silos for well 
 matured corn silage, in tons. 
 
 Depth, 
 
 Inside Diameter in Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 58.84 
 
 66.95 
 
 75.58 
 
 84.74 
 
 94.41 
 
 104.6 
 
 115.3 
 
 126.6 
 
 138.3 
 
 150.6 
 
 463.4 
 
 176.8 
 
 21 
 
 62.90 
 
 71.56 
 
 80.79 
 
 90.57 
 
 100.9 
 
 111.8 
 
 123.3 
 
 135.3 
 
 147.9 
 
 161.0 
 
 174.7 
 
 189.0 
 
 22 
 
 67.35 
 
 76.52 
 
 86.38 
 
 96.81 
 
 107.9 
 
 119.6 
 
 131.8 
 
 144.7 
 
 158.1 
 
 172.2 
 
 186.8 
 
 202.1 
 
 23 
 
 71.73 
 
 81.61 
 
 92.14 
 
 103.3 
 
 115.1 
 
 127.5 
 
 140.6 
 
 154.3 
 
 168.7 
 
 183.6 
 
 199.3 
 
 215.5 
 
 24 
 
 76.12 
 
 86.61 
 
 97.78 
 
 109.6 
 
 122.1 
 
 135.3 
 
 149.2 
 
 163.7 
 
 179.0 
 
 194.9 
 
 211.5 
 
 228.7 
 
 25 
 
 80.62 
 
 89.64 
 
 103.6 
 
 116.1 
 
 129.3 
 
 143.3 
 
 158.0 
 
 173.4 
 
 189.5 
 
 206.4 
 
 223.9 
 
 242.2 
 
 26 
 
 85.45 
 
 97. 2S 
 
 109.8 
 
 123.0 
 
 137.1 
 
 151.9 
 
 167.5 
 
 183.8 
 
 200.9 
 
 218.8 
 
 237.4 
 
 256.7 
 
 27. 
 
 90.17 
 
 1C2.6 
 
 115.8 
 
 129.8 
 
 144.7 
 
 1(0.3 
 
 176.7 
 
 194.0 
 
 212.0 
 
 230.8 
 
 250.5 
 
 270.9 
 
 28 
 
 94.99 
 
 108.1 
 
 J22.0 
 
 136.8 
 
 152.4 
 
 168.9 
 
 186.2 
 
 204.3 
 
 223.3 
 
 243.2 
 
 263.9 
 
 285.4 
 
 29 
 
 99.92 
 
 113.7 
 
 128.3 
 
 113.9 
 
 160.3 
 
 177.6 
 
 195.8 
 
 214.9 
 
 234.9 
 
 255.8 
 
 277.6 
 
 300. & 
 
 30 
 
 105.0 
 
 119.4 
 
 134.8 
 
 151.1 
 
 168.4 
 
 186.6 
 
 205.7 
 
 2*5.8 
 
 216.8 
 
 268.7 
 
 291.6 
 
 315.3 
 
 31 
 
 109.8 
 
 124.9 
 
 141.1 
 
 158.2 
 
 176.2 
 
 195.2 
 
 215.3 
 
 236.3 
 
 00 
 
 281.8 
 
 305.1 
 
 330.0 
 
 32 
 
 115.1 
 
 135.9 
 
 t47.8 
 
 165.7 
 
 181.6 
 
 204.6 
 
 225.5 
 
 247.5 
 
 270.5 
 
 294.6 
 
 319.6 
 
 345.7 
 
 In this table the horizontal lines give the number of tons of silage 
 held by a silo having the depth given at the head of the column. 
 
 THE PROPER HORIZONTAL FEEDING AREA. 
 
 In the construction of silos it is very important to have the horizontal 
 dimensions such that the rate of feeding shall be rapid enough not to 
 permit moulding to occur on the exposed or feeding surface. It is also 
 important to have the horizontal dimensions as large as possible be- 
 cause the larger the silo is the less it costs in proportion to the feed 
 it stores. Then, too narrow, small silos do not allow the silage to settle 
 as well, and hence in them the necessary losses are greater than in the 
 larger ones. 
 
 Observations indicate that if silage is fed down at a rate slower than 
 1.2 inches daily, moulding is liable to set in. This is more likely to be 
 true in the upper half of the silo than in the lower half but it will be 
 prudent to have the silo of such a diameter as to lower the surface more 
 rapidly in feeding than is necessary rather than less rapidly. 
 
 A silo 30 feet deep will allow 1.5 inches in depth of silage per day for 
 240 days, and one 24 feet deep will allow 1.2 inches for the same time. 
 From the table on page 51 it will be seen that the mean weight of 
 silage per cubic foot for a silo 30 feet deep is 39.6 lbs., and allowing 40 
 lbs. of silage per cow per day it is seen that a cubic foot of silage on the 
 average will feed a cow one day. But from the same table it will be 
 
Silage } and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 51 
 
 seen that If the silo Is 24 feet deep there will be required 1.114 cubic 
 feet of silage to give the desired weight. 
 
 Using these data the inside diameter of cylindrical silos 24 feet and 
 30 feet deep which will hold feed enough for different numbers of cows 
 may be computed and Such results are given in the table below: 
 
 Table giving the inside diameter of silos 24 feet and 30 feet deep 
 which will permit the surface to be lowered in feeding at the mean 
 rate of 1.2 to 2 inches per day , assuming 40 lbs. of silage to be 
 fed to each cow daily. 
 
 
 Feed for 240 Days. 
 
 
 Silo 04 feel deep . 
 
 Silo 30 feel deep. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cows. 
 
 Rate 1, 
 
 .2 in. daily. 
 
 Rate 1.5 in. 
 
 daily. 
 
 
 
 Inside 
 
 
 Inside 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 diameter. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 diameter. 
 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 10 
 
 48 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 48 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 72 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 72 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 96 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 96 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 120 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 120 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 144 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 14 1 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 35 
 
 168 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 168 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 192 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 192 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 45 
 
 216 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 216 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 240 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 240 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 60 
 
 288 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 288 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 70 
 
 336 
 
 31 
 
 6 
 
 336 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 80 
 
 384 
 
 33 
 
 8 
 
 384 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 90 
 
 432 
 
 35 
 
 9 
 
 432 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 100 
 
 480 
 
 37 
 
 8 
 
 480 
 
 31 
 
 11 1 
 
 Feed for 180 Days. 
 
 Silo 04 feel deep. 
 
 Silo 30 feet deep . 
 
 Rate 1.6 in. 
 
 daily. 
 
 Rate 2 
 
 ! in. daily. 
 
 
 Inside 
 
 
 Inside 
 
 Tons. 
 
 diameter. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 diameter. 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 36 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 34 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 54 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 72 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 72 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 90 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 90 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 108 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 108 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 126 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 126 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 144 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 144 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 162 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 162 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 180 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 180 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 216 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 216 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 252 
 
 27 
 
 4 
 
 252 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 288 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 288 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 324 
 
 30 
 
 11 
 
 324 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 360 
 
 32 
 
 8 
 
 360 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 In choosing diameters and depths for silos for particular herds indi- 
 vidual needs and conditions must decide which is best. It may be said 
 in general for the smaller sizes of silos the more shallow ones will be 
 somewhat cheaper in construction and be more easily filled with small 
 powers. For large herds the deeper types are best and cheapest. 
 
52 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 SILAGE CROPS. 
 
 There are many crops which may be grown for silage, but practical 
 experience points to the conclusion that plants with solid stems will 
 make better silage with less unavoidable loss than those with hollow 
 stems like wheat, oats, rye and barley. 
 
 Corn for Silage. — There is no crop now generally grown which is so 
 well suited to the production of silage as Indian corn wherever it will 
 grow well to full maturity. The unavoidable losses with it are very 
 small; heavy yields per acre may be secured with great certainty at 
 moderate cost, and the silage made from it has less objectionable fea- 
 tures than that of most other crops. 
 
 The sweet corns do not make the best silage on account of the tendency 
 of the sugar to develop into acid. The large varieties of southern corn 
 will produce more tons of roughage per acre than the flints and smaller 
 dents, but the quality of the silage from these latter is much better 
 as a rule, less acid, and it sustains less loss in the silo. 
 
 Millet forSilage.—MiUet, when cut into the silo, produces an excel- 
 lent silage so far as appearance is concerned, having even less odor 
 than good corn silage, and it is eaten with relish by both cattle, horses 
 and hogs. These facts were demonstrated the past season by Mr. J. 
 R. Bleecker of Hubbleton, Wis., whose corn failed him on a piece of 
 marsh land and he sowed it to German millet, putting it into the silo 
 with the few stalks of corn which matured. The millet was run 
 through the cutter and it packed closely and kept in excellent shape. 
 Eleven acres fed 25 head of cattle about 4 y 2 months. 
 
 Clover for Silage. — Medium and alsike clover make good silage, but 
 the unavoidable losses are greater than with corn and the silage is 
 liable to have a stronger and less pleasant odor, owing apparently to 
 the higher per cent, and less stable condition of the nitrogenous com- 
 pounds. 
 
 Rye and Oats for Silage. — These two crops have been used to a con- 
 siderable extent for silage, but when cut into the silo green, strong 
 odors develop and heavy losses are apparently unavoidable. If the 
 material is put in in the more mature stage the hollow stems carry 
 Into the silo so much air that this apparently leads to heavier losses 
 than with corn. Both of these crops are better suited to summer feed- 
 ing, where a crop of oats or rye are used to keep weeds down in get- 
 ting a catch of clover; they may be cut green, put into the silo and 
 fed out at once during times of short pastures or in cases of intensive 
 farming as a labor-saving method of handling a soiling crop. 
 
 When fed as silage, made in this way and fed out within 60 days, 
 time enough is not allowed for serious spoiling and the development 
 of strong odors. 
 
 Pea Vine Silage. — At canning factories the pea vines may be made 
 
Silage } and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 53 
 
 into silage and fed to advantage to stock. They do not make a first 
 class silage, but it is a good way of utilizing them as a by-product of 
 the canning industry. 
 
 Sorghum Stalk Silage . — Mr. E. J. Myers, King’s Corners, Wis., has 
 sent to this Station a sample of silage made from sorghum stalks and 
 leaves after the juice has been expressed for syrup. The leaves were 
 not stripped from the canes but most of the seed was, and the sam- 
 ples sent were in good condition as a silage, with pleasant odor and 
 small degree of acidity. The feeding value of this material is un- 
 known, but Prof. P. W. Well is making an analysis of the sample sent. 
 
 Non-Saccharine Sorghum for Silage. The sorghums of the Kafir 
 corn type are likely to produce better silage than the sweet varieties 
 on account of the tendency of the sugars to be converted into acid 
 in the silo. The character of these plants, the heavy yields of forage 
 and grain per acre which they produce and their ability to withstand 
 drought are all important features of a good silage crop. While these 
 cannot take the place of corn, where this may be grown, it is quite 
 possible that in the warm, semi-arid portions of the United States they 
 may be used to advantage for silage. More practical experience than 
 has yet been had will be required to demonstrate the value of sorghum 
 as a silage crop. 
 
 Alfalfa for Silage . — If the alfalfa will keep well in the silo and pro- 
 duce a good feed it is very likely to become an important crop for the 
 making of silage in the dry portions of the United States. There is 
 no apparent reason why it may not be expected to make as good silage 
 as clover and as there is great danger of its losing its leaves when 
 being cured for hay the silo offers an important means of saving this 
 loss, provided only that it will make good feed when so preserved. 
 Practical experience, however, is too limited to furnish a basis for «afe 
 judgment at this time. 
 
 STAGE OF MATUKITY OF CROPS FOR SILAGE. 
 
 The most exact knowledge we now have upon this subject indicates 
 that generally crops will make the best silage when they are cut as 
 near full maturity as possible and yet have their tissues filled with 
 sap. When corn is put into the silo in a very succulent state it is 
 filled with a large per cent, of compounds which are easily decom- 
 posed, and this not only makes the unavoidable losses high but it is 
 likely to cause unpleasant odors and less palatable feed. Besides there 
 has not yet been developed enough of the woody tissues in the plant 
 to enable The juices to be retained under the pressure of the silage and 
 in early silo practice provision was often made for drainage on this 
 account. 
 
 Corn is In the best stage for the silo when it is in the best stages 
 
 5 
 
54 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 for cutting and putting in the shock; that is, when the ears are fully 
 matured but the stalks, leaves and husks are yet green. 
 
 Clover for the silo should be a little more mature than for making 
 the best hay, that is, the bloom should have well begun to turn brown. 
 
 In practice it will, of course, be necessary often to put some of the 
 corn into the silo a little too early for the best results in order that 
 the last may not be too dry; but judgment in planting at different 
 times and in cutting that which on account of differences in soil or 
 variety has matured first will usually give two or three weeks for the 
 filling season if that time is needed. 
 
 DRYING AND WETTING SILAGE. 
 
 It should be kept in mind that little is gained in letting a too succu- 
 lent crop fie and wilt after it is cut, before putting it into the silo, 
 because the drying of a crop usually means the replacing of more 
 or less of the water lost by evaporation with air in the tissues which 
 when carried into the silo favors fermentative changes there. 
 
 If the corn or clover is put at once into the silo while the tissues 
 are yet alive the active cells use up at once a, large portion of the 
 air necessarily entangled in it, and when this is done the fermentive 
 changes cannot go on, but if the plants are cut and allowed to wilt 
 the cells become less active and thus are unable to as completely ex- 
 haust the oxygen in the silage air. 
 
 If a crop has become too dry to go into the silo in the best condi- 
 tion the wetting of it may help somewhat to preserve the silage, but 
 it must be kept in mind that water cannot take the place of the 
 natural juices and the activity of living cells. If leaves and stalks 
 have become ary the cells have become filled with air and the adding 
 of water can only partly displace it. Its chief help is in softening 
 the tissues and helping the silage to pack more closely. 
 
 RATE OF FILLING THE SILO. 
 
 So far as the making of good silage is concerned the rate of filling 
 may be as slow as the stage of maturity of the crop will permit. Slow 
 filling is preferable to rapid filling in that it gives the silage more 
 time to settle and for the first heating to expel all of the air not con- 
 sumed by the tissues while alive and active. A steady filling at the 
 rate of perhaps 8 to 15 tons per day for small and medium silos is 
 best, or the filling may be done more rapidly on alternate days; but 
 the silo should not, as a rule, stand longer than two days between suc- 
 cessive fillings. Longer intervals may of course intervene when emer- 
 gency demands it, but there will always be a loss of feeding value in 
 the silage as the result. 
 
Silage } and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 55 
 
 DANGER IN FILLING THE SILO. 
 
 It never should be forgotten in connection with the filling of silos, 
 that carbonic acid is generated very rapidly the first few days after 
 silage is put into the silo, and it sometimes happens when a silo has 
 stood over night, if the air is very still, and if the surface of the silage 
 is a considerable distance below any door, that carbonic acid accumu- 
 lates in sufficient quantity over the silage to make it impossible for 
 a man to live in it. Cases are on record where people have been suffo- 
 cated by going into a silo under these conditions. If the doors in a 
 silo are so close together that a man standing on the silage will have 
 his head above an open door the carbonic acid gas will flow out of the 
 door and not accumulate to such an extent as to be injurious. 
 
 In cases where the silage is below any opening far enough to leave 
 a man’s head below the opening care should be taken not to go into 
 the silo in the morning after filling has begun until after the machinery 
 has been started. After the silage has been dropping into the silo 
 for a few minutes it will stir the air up sufficiently to render it pure 
 enough for a man to work in it without danger. Ordinarily the air 
 currents outside are sufficiently strong to prevent the carbonic acid 
 from accumulating, but it should be kept in mind that it is possible 
 on still nights for this accumulation to take place. 
 
 PUTTING MATERIALS INTO THE SILO CUT OR WHOLE. 
 
 Corn and any of the crops suitable for making silage may be put 
 into the silo just as taken from the field but the labor of thoroughly 
 packing and the labor of feeding out will be enough greater to pay 
 for the extra expense of cutting in all cases where more than the equiv- 
 alent of 20 head of cattle are to be continuously fed. In the case of 
 corn, too, the silage will be eaten more completely if cut. If the power 
 and cutter are on the farm, then the silage should always be cut into 
 the silo. In regard to length of cutting, this will depend somewhat 
 upon the available power; as a general rule the feed cut into half- 
 inch lengths is best, but more power is required to do this. 
 
 The shredder may be used instead of the cutter if one has this and 
 not the other, but it will not essentially improve the feeding qualities 
 of the silage and will require considerably more power to run it. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF TRAMPING SILAGE WHEN FILLING. 
 
 Attention has not been sufficiently called to the importance of thor- 
 oughly compacting silage at the time of filling the silo. The imme- 
 diate and continuous thorough tramping not only enables a much larger 
 amount of silage to be put into the silo, but it expels at once a large 
 volume of air which, if allowed to remain, prolongs the changes which 
 occur. 
 
56 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 General tramping of the whole surface is important, but much the 
 larger amount of labor should be expended around the sides because 
 the lateral pressure tends to develop friction of the silage against the 
 walls which prevents its settling, and if it does not settle here and 
 become compact the tendency of air to enter through defects in the 
 wall is much greater. 
 
 The importance of tramping is greater the more shallow the silo 
 and the more porous the walls. In the deeper silos, if help is scarce, 
 one can better afford to dispense with a man in the silo; but the upper 
 10 to 15 feet of silage in all silos should be very thoroughly tramped 
 and the feed saved by it will abundantly pay for the labor of two 
 faithful men who can be depended upon to work. 
 
 TRAMPING THE SURFACE AFTER FILLING IS FINISHED. 
 
 In deep silos so much settling occurs, especially where filling has 
 been rapid, that the dragging of the silage on the walls so much loosens 
 it there that air is liable to penetrate from the top to considerable 
 depths and to more easily enter through defective walls. It is be- 
 cause of this fact that slow filling is better, and that silage so often 
 spoils badly around the sides at the top in so many cases. 
 
 To overcome these conditions the whole surface of the silage should 
 be tramped once a day for three or four days after filling has been 
 completed. One should begin at the walls and go around the edge 
 with short steps and the feet close together, springing the full weight 
 suddenly upon the feet to increase the pressure, and then by slow de- 
 grees work toward the center until the whole surface has been covered. 
 Whoever does this will be surprised to find how loose the silage ap- 
 pears to have become next to the wall and how much it may thus be 
 made to settle. 
 
 COVERING SILAGE AFTER FILLING. 
 
 It is a good plan, if practicable, to reserve several loads of the green- 
 est, heaviest corn for the top of the silo whenever feeding is not to 
 begin immediately after filling. Such a cover will be more likely to 
 develop a wet, thin, rotten layer over the surface which will largely 
 exclude the air. 
 
 If one has no cheaper material to use as the cover for silage than 
 the silage itself, this may be used, and Fig. 23 is an illustration of 
 such a cover where, after 80 days, there was on the surface onlv 1 to 
 1.5 inches of rotten material and only 2 inches of white mould be- 
 fore the surface of bright green silage was reached. This result was 
 secured by thoroughly wetting the surface of the silage after the third 
 tramping as described above; applying about a pailful of water to 
 the square foot of surface. The object of the water is to develop 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 5 ? 
 
 quickly a thin layer of thoroughly rotten silage on the surface which, 
 in this matted condition, practically seals over the top of the silo and 
 excludes the air so effectually that the oxygen is entirely consumed 
 in the thin wet and rotting layer as rapidly as it can penetrate into 
 it and liitle or none reaches the silage below. 
 
 Fig. 23.— Showing amount of spoiled silage when the surface is thoroughly 
 tramped and wet and no other cover used. From 1 to 1% inches on the top 
 is spoiled; from 1% inches to 3*4 inches below the surface is a white mould; 
 from 3y 2 inches to 7 inches in bright green silage 80 days after filling. 
 
 Some have practiced the sowing of oats on the top of the silo to 
 develop a tight mat of roots to exclude the air; this is partly right 
 in principle but the tendency of the tops to dry out the surface of 
 the silage works against the matting of the roots and oftener defeats 
 the end sought. 
 
 If green marsh grass can be had more cheaply than the corn itself, 
 a load of this may be cut on, tramped and wet and the rotten layer 
 developed in this, thus saving the corn; oat chaff put on and thor- 
 oughly rotted makes an effective cover. 
 
 The fundamental point is to prevent the surface of the silage from 
 becoming dry and this is one of the needs of a silo roof. 
 
 Silage may be fed at once on the completion of filling, if desired, and 
 then no covering is needed and there is no loss from surface rotting. 
 
 FILLING THE SILO. 
 
 One of the most frequent objections made to the silo is the amount 
 of help and expensive machinery required to do the filling. Except 
 in the case of small farmers this objection is oftener more imaginary 
 than real. In regard to machinery the large dairyman who feeds corn 
 without the silo requires the same pieces that the one does who uses 
 the silo if we except the larger carrier. To secure first class feed there 
 
Bulletin No. 83 . 
 
 58 
 
 is no more need of hurry in one case than in the other. Our notes 
 regarding the over 200 practical silo men we have visited show that 
 the time required for filling ranges all the way from 3 to 30 days; the 
 number of people employed from two men and one boy to eleven; 
 and the number of teams from two where a tread power was used, to 
 nine where a 12-horse sweep power did the cutting and elevating. 
 
 In one case where 100 head of cattle were kept and cream shipped 
 daily from 80 cows, four men and three teams with a gasoline en- 
 gine put 459 tons of corn into the silo during an interval of 20 days, 
 14 of which, of 8 hours each, were required for the silo work. During 
 this 20 days the men did their regular chores and harvested and got 
 ready to feed silage enough for nearly a year for 100 cows. 
 
 Fig. 24.— Shows the McCormick corn harvester used in cutting corn for silo. 
 
 Cutting the Corn . — The corn or clover or whatever the crop may be 
 should only be cut as fast as it goes to the silo. For corn the self 
 binders represented in Fig. 24 are one of the best, easiest and cheap- 
 est means of cutting the corn for the silo where a large silo is to- 
 be filled; but two men and even one will cut and throw into armfuls 
 a large amount of corn in a day. A team may do the cutting late in 
 the afternoon and early in the morning while others are doing the 
 chores, if help is scarce, and reduce the number needed in this way. 
 
 Hauling Corn to the Cutter . — The most economical and easiest way 
 to get the corn from the field to the cutter is to use the low-down 
 racks as represented in Fig. 25. These wagons enable the teamster 
 to do the loading and save the heavy labor of lifting the bundles high. 
 Next to these racks the low-wheeled trucks with flat racks are best. 
 
Silage , and the Construction of Modern Silos. 59 
 
 When rapid filling is being done a common distribution of help is, 
 one man and team cutting, 2 men and teams hauling, — or 3 if the 
 distance is long, — one man feeding, one man in the silo, one man driv- 
 ing or tending the engine and one or two men helping load in the field. 
 
 Fig. 25.— Showing low down rack for handling silage corn, the two stringers are 
 3 x 8’s, 18 or 20 feet long swung from the front axle tree by a lengthened king 
 bolt provided with inn and washer; and from the hind axle tree by % inch 
 rods provided with nut and washer below, and with hook above which hang 
 from the bolster. The stringers are 20 inches apart outside measure in front 
 and a short reach keeps the hounds from tripping up. To prevent the king 
 bolt breaking by twisting it is sometimes made in two parts,, the pieces being 
 held together by eyes. 
 
 Ensilage Cutters . — The commonest mistake made with the ensilage 
 cutters is in getting those which are too small. It is much better to 
 have a cutter a little larger than is needed than one a little too small. 
 Rapid feeding into a large cutter is much easier and the liability to 
 produce choking is enough less so that usually less power is needed 
 tc drive the machine. Few cutters should be less than 14 inches. 
 
 Much thought should always be given to planning to avoid the use 
 of long carriers as they very greatly increase the power needed to 
 do the work and are very much more liable to get out of order. 
 
 Where the machine is out of doors the carrier needs to be covered 
 as shown in Fig. 6 to prevent the wind from blowing the leaves about. 
 
 Power to Drive the Cutter . — For small silos, where the length of 
 the carrier need not exceed 24 feet, a two-horse~ tread power will 
 answer for filling; but where rapid work is to be done and where 
 the carrier must be long an effective 6 to 8-horse power is needed. 
 More people are now using 8 to 10-horse power engines for silo filling 
 than any other. Some are using 6 to 12-horse power gasoline engines 
 and like them very much, because they may be stopped and started 
 so quickly, and because the man who does the feeding can give the 
 engine all the attention required. A considerable number are using 
 3-horse tread powers, but where horses are used more are employing 
 sweep powers with two to five teams. Many men hire an engine for 
 filling, paying $3 to $3.50 per day and furnish the fuel. 
 
 Co-operative Filling . — In some neighborhoods it is the practice of 
 two, three or four neighbors to work together in filling the silo, chang- 
 ing work as commonly done in threshing grain, and this is a good 
 
60 
 
 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 plan for small farmers, but on farms where 40 or more cows are kept 
 there is usually enough regular help to do the filling, and with an en- 
 gine a sufficient number of teams. So, too, in cases where a 2-horse 
 tread power can run the cutter the filling can usually be done with 
 the regular help of the farm. Indeed, slower filling, using the regular 
 help of the farm, is the better plan to follow generally. 
 
 RAISING CORN FOR SILAGE. 
 
 The Variety of Corn . — The corn best suited for silage must vary 
 somewhat with the local conditions. If a man has a small farm and 
 finds it difficult to supply the amount of roughage needed he will want 
 to plant as large a variety of corn as will mature on his land, and 
 it may even be best for him to grow a form which will not mature 
 sufficiently to ensure the smallest loss in the silo; but usually the larger 
 varieties of flint corn and the smaller and medium dents make the best 
 silage. 
 
 Method of Planting . — If the ground is well fitted and prepared so 
 as to be harrowed once or twice before planting and once after the corn 
 is up it will be tended easiest if planted to cultivate one way only. 
 It is best generally to plant somewhat thicker than would be done 
 for ear corn, the object being to increase the amount of stalks and 
 to reduce the amount of ears until the two exist in about the ratio 
 at which the stock will digest all the corn. For the flint corn this 
 condition will be secured with rows about 3.5 feet apart and one stalk 
 every 8 to 12 inches. With the smaller and medium dent corn the 
 rows may be 3 feet 8 inches, and stalks 8 to 12 inches apart in the 
 row. If irregular check-row planting is practiced the number of ker- 
 nels and the distance between hills may be made such as to give the 
 average number of stalks above. 
 
 UNAVOIDABLE LOSSES IN THE SILO. 
 
 In this discussion “ unavoidable losses ” means the loss of feeding 
 value which cannot be prevented in the interior of a silo with air-tight 
 linings wnen filled in the best practicable manner. Regarding how 
 large these losses must be we have as yet no thoroughly satisfactory 
 data. It was shown in the 12th annual report that ears of corn, such 
 as were being put into the silo at the time, lost only 1.15 per cent, 
 of their dry weight when placed 5 feet below the surface in the center 
 of the silo represented in Fig. 26. 
 
 In another trial described in the same report it was shown that the 
 ears lost 4.9 per cent., the whole silage 7.53 per cent., and the stalks 
 alone 9.2 per cent, of their non-volatile matter. 
 
 The same silo, after being lined with the galvanized iron, was filled 
 with corn separated into eight layers, and the losses of dry matter de- 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 61 
 
 termined in each after the silage had stood from September until 
 March; the losses being as given below: 
 
 Surface layer of 
 7th layer of 
 6th layer of 
 5th layer of 
 4th layer of 
 3d layer of 
 2d layer of 
 
 Bottom layer of 
 
 8,934 lbs', put in the silo lost 32.53 per cent, of dry matter. 
 
 8.722 lbs. put in the silo lost 23.38 per cent, of dry matter. 
 
 14,661 lbs. put ip the silo lost 10.25 per cent, of dry matter. 
 
 48,801 lbs. put in the silo lost 2.10 per cent, of dry matter. 
 
 13,347 lbs. put in the silo lost 7.01 per cent, of dry matter. 
 
 7.723 lbs. put iu the silo lost 2.752 per cent, of dry matter. 
 
 12,689 lbs. put in the silo lost 3.53 per cent, of dry matter. 
 
 12,619 lbs. put in the silo lost 9.47 per cent, of dry matter. 
 
 Fig. 26. — Shows wood silo lined with galvanized iron in which the unavoidable 
 losses were only 3.66 per cent., and in which ear corn lost but 1.15 per cent, 
 of the dry matter. 
 
 It will be seen from these figures that the losses range from nearly 
 a third of the dry matter put into the silo in the top layer to only 
 2.10 in the 5th layer. These figures mean that after throwing away 
 all spoiled silage, that left contained 67.47 per cent, of the total non- 
 volatile matter put into the top layer in the silo; and that from the 
 5th layer there was recovered as. good silage 97.9 per cent, of the total 
 dry matter put in that layer. 
 
 The total loss of non-volatile matter from all layers, including the 
 dry matter in the spoiled silage, was only 6.38 per cent., while the mean 
 loss of non-volatile matter in the lowest 6 layers was only 3.66 per 
 cent. 
 
 It appears clear from these figures that the unavoidable losses of non- 
 volatile products in the siloing process may be as small as 2 to 4 per 
 cent, and that in good silo practice they need not exceed 4 to 8 per cent. 
 
 It should be observed that no allowance has been made here for the 
 
bulletin No. 83. 
 
 62 
 
 volatile products other than water which are driven off in the drying 
 of the samples, and hence the real losses are less than the figures stated. 
 
 DIFFERENCES IN THE UNAVOIDABLE LOSSES IN THREE TYPES OF SILOS. 
 
 It is extremely important to know what the differences in the un- 
 avoidable losses are in silos of different types of construction, and we 
 have made a beginning toward this study in 'the three small silos repre- 
 sented in Fig. 27. 
 
 Fig. 27.— Shows three types of silos in which the unavoidable losses during 180 
 days were determined. The silo on the left is of galvanized iron with water 
 tight bottom. The silo in the center is made of 2 x 4’s hooped together with- 
 out being beveled or tongued and grooved. The silo on the left is made with 
 staves both beveled and tongued and grooved after the plan of the Williams 
 Mfg. Co., Kalamazoo, Mich. The least loss in the metal silo was in the bot- 
 tom layer, .51 per cent., in the Kalamazoo silo 13.15 per cent., in the other 
 stave silo 14.98 per cent. 
 
63 
 
 Silage y and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 The stave silo on the left is made of Washington cedar in the best 
 practicable manner with staves accurately beveled and tongued-and- 
 grooved. The one in the center is made of sized and selected pine 2x4’s 
 put together without either beveling or tonguing and grooving after 
 a plan which is now being extensively followed. The third silo is a 
 galvanized iron cylinder with water-tight bottom and sides. 
 
 The two stave silos are without bottoms but were placed upon a 
 smooth, level cement floor such as has been recommended for them. 
 The results obtained with the Kalamazoo silo are hardly comparable 
 with those of the other two for the reason that it had been provided 
 with three doors which proved to be not quite air-tight at their tops 
 and bottoms. 
 
 These silos were all filled at the same time with short cut corn from 
 the same loads, putting a basketful in each in regular rotation, which 
 was carefully packed by a man tramping continuously in each silo. 
 
 When full the silos were covered with three layers of acid and water- 
 proof paper cut to a circle to fit closely, and upon this was placed a 
 layer of sand about 5 inches deep. The silos stood in the warm plant 
 house from August 29 until March 1, when they were opened. 
 
 From these three silos filled and covered in exactly the same manner 
 there was a loss from the top layer, including the spoiled silage, of 
 50.75 per cent, from the Kalamazoo silo; 49.71 per cent, from the other 
 stave silo, but only 9.21 per cent from the metal silo, computed on the 
 green weight put in. 
 
 It should be said that the Kalamazoo silo is placed at a disadvantage 
 in this comparison on account of the three defective doors which it 
 contained, while the other two had none. The doors in this case were 
 all tight on the sides, but at both ends there was no swelling of 
 the wood lengthwise of the staves and air enough entered to produce 
 a large part of the spoiling which occurred in tnis silo. 
 
 From the middle layer in each case the losses stood 13.15 per cent, 
 of the dry matter in the Kalamazoo silo; 14.98 per cent, in the other 
 stave silo and 7.01 per cent, in the metal silo. 
 
 From the bottom layer the losses of dry matter were 31.75 per cent, 
 from the Kalamazoo silo; 26.16 per cent, from the other stave silo, 
 but only .51 per cent, from the metal silo. 
 
 The large losses from the bottoms of the two stave silos were due 
 to air entering between the ends of the staves and the cement floor, and 
 the greater losses from the Kalamazoo silo at both the bottom and top 
 were due to the additional leaKS about the doors 
 
 The metal silo was absolutely air-tight everywhere except at the 
 top, and the three cases illustrate in an extremely forceful way how 
 important it is to exclude the air from the silage. 
 
 Let every farmer who reads these statements reflect upon the fact 
 that in the 80-ton silo of Fig. 26, with its galvanized iron lining, there 
 was lost only 6.38 per cent, of the dry matter put into it in 1897, in- 
 
64 
 
 Bulletin No. 83* 
 
 eluding that spoiled on the top and about the doors, but only 3.66 per- 
 cent. of that below the two surface layers. Even in the small 1,500- 
 pound metal silo the total loss, including that spoiled on top, was but 
 8.57 per cent., while the mean loss from the middle and bottom lay- 
 ers was only 5.3 per cent., and yet the silage had stood under the con- 
 ditions of summer temperature and sun during 180 days. 
 
 The observations with these silos prove that where the linings are 
 strictly air-tight very small losses need be sustained even in small 
 silos and that when the air is not excluded the losses must increase 
 in proportion to the openness of the silo lining. 
 
 THE AMOUNT OF LOSS FROM THE TOP OF SILOS. 
 
 The amount of silage lost at the top of a silo varies between very 
 wide limits, depending upon a number of conditions. It should be un- 
 derstood that if the top of a silo could be sealed strictly air-tight the 
 losses on the top would be very small, but probably not quite as small 
 as in the lower part of the silo, for the reason that the silage cannot 
 be as compact and must for this reason entangle more air. It may 
 also receive some unused oxygen rising from the lower portion of the 
 silo. The chief cause of loss at the top, however, is the slow diffusion 
 of air downward from above. 
 
 The data which have been collected show that silos left without 
 covers of any sort from early September until March without being 
 disturbed develop about 28 pounds of spoiled silage per square foot 
 of surface; while silos opened from the middle of October to the mid- 
 dle of December have an average of about 16 pounds of spoiled silage 
 per square foot of surface. These rates give 2,832 and 4,956 pounds 
 of loss for a silo 15 feet in diameter, which is 1.4 and 2.5 per cent, on 
 100 tons of silage. 
 
 Whether anything should be done to reduce this loss will depend 
 wholly upon whether the cost of the effort would be materially less 
 than the value of the silage saved. Wherever a farm is stocked to 
 its full capacity and a single silo is used, feeding will be continuous 
 through the year and the 1.4 to 2.5 per cent, of loss at the surface 
 will be avoided and hence become clear gain. The practice of continu- 
 ous feeding is manifestly the one toward which all should aim, but 
 this does not necessarily mean that the silo shall be deep enough to 
 hold a year’s feed; but only until a spring crop of clover, rye or oats 
 has matured enough to be made into summer silage. 
 
Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 65 
 
 WASTE OF SILAGE FROM TOO SLOW FEEDING. 
 
 Next to the losses due to the surface decay between filling and open- 
 ing the silo the most serious one is that which is due to too slow feed- 
 ing. One of the most common mistakes now being made in silo con- 
 struction is that of making it too large in diameter for the amount 
 of stock to be fed silage. Wherever silage heats and moulds badly 
 on or below the feeding surface heavy loss in feeding value is being sus- 
 tained, and in such cases the herd should be increased until the .losses 
 are prevented by more rapid feeding. 
 
 In case the herd cannot be increased sufficiently to prevent heat- 
 ing and moulding at the surface, the silo may be divided by means of 
 a partition, but this necessity should be avoided where possible. 
 
 SILAGE MAY SUSTAIN HEAVY LOSSES AND APPEAR GOOD. 
 
 In a new stave silo built without beveling or tonguing and grooving 
 the staves there were placed twelve samples of corn to learn how great 
 the unavoidable losses might be. The silo was 20 feet in diameter and 
 22 feet deep and the samples were placed in it as shown in Fig. 28 at a 
 level which left them 7 feet above the ground when reached. 
 
 When the samples were removed on February 11 the silage of the 
 .silo had a bright green appearance, was not more acid than normal, 
 was not mouldy, and the cows ate it with much relish, and yet the 
 twelve samples which lay in direct contact with this silage had sus- 
 tained the losses stated under the figure but had the appearance of 
 thoroughly good silage. 
 
 The dry matter contained in these samples when removed from the 
 silo was computed from the amount they contained when put in as 
 shown by the other half of each and every piece put in which was 
 reserved and the dry matter contained determined. It will be seen that 
 the heaviest loss from the stalks was 28.86 per cent, and from the ears 
 13.1 per cent., and yet in neither case was there anything in the ap- 
 pearance to indicate such heavy losses. 
 
 A still more surprising feature of these observations was the fact 
 that two of the samples, — one of ears and one of stalks, — showed 
 a growth of delicate white mould and yet sustaining a smaller loss than 
 other samples. It is true that these samples were bright and fresh 
 looking and it may be that the mould had just started upon them. 
 
 It is certain that large losses may be sustained by silage and yet 
 have the appearance of that which has experienced but little, and a 
 silo may appear to be rendering good service when in reality It Is 
 quite Inefficient. There is much reason to fear that this is the case 
 with the many stave silos now being built without beveling or tonguing 
 and grooving the staves. 
 
Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 06 
 
 10 
 
 Fig. 28. — Showing the arrangement of samples to determine the unavoidable 
 losses in a stave silo made without beveling or tonguing or grooving the 
 staves. This silo was 20 feet in diameter, 22 feet deep, and the samples were 
 seven feet above the ground when removed. The losses of dry matter in the 
 samples of ears was at 1, 9.706, at 10, where the silage was frozen 8.712, at 8, 
 13.10, at 12, 12.51, at 18, 11.59, and at 32, 9.637 per cent. The losses in the 
 samples of stalks were at 2, 28.86 per cent., at blank 19.04 per cent., at 6, 17.57 
 per cent., at 15, 24.56 per cent., at 23, 25.21, and at 29, 24.43 per cent, 
 per cent., at 15, 24.56 per cent., at 23, 25.21, and at 29, 24.43 per cent. Silage 
 mouldy at the dotted area on south side. 
 
 CONDITIONS WHICH INDICATE THAT HEAVY LOSSES ARE TAKING PLACE. 
 
 Silage that is keeping well and is sustaining small losses should 
 cool down after the first heating has occurred and feel cold to the hand 
 on digging down into the silage. If the silage remains hot it must be 
 losing its feeding value, for it is this loss which maintains the heat. 
 The stave sflo in which the samples were placed had no frozen silage 
 in it 6 inches below the surface when the samples were removed, ex- 
 cept a little on the north side as shown by the drawings. 
 
 When the silage is extremely acid large changes have taken place in 
 it and often there is associated with this high acidity heavy losses of 
 dry matter, but a high degree of acidity is also associated with com- 
 paratively small losses; but how the feeding value is affected by the 
 
67 
 
 Silage, and the Construction of Modern Silos. 
 
 degree of acidity lias not yet been determined. Wherever there is ex- 
 tensive moulding and where the silage has turned dark in color con- 
 siderable losses have taken place. 
 
 POORLY CONSTRUCTED SILO MAY RE VERY EXPENSIVE ALTHOUGH THE FIRST 
 
 COST IS SMALL. 
 
 If it is true that the large losses in the stave silo described above 
 are unavoidable with that form of construction, then it is a very costly 
 building on account of the heavy losses which it will incur annually. 
 If one silo saves all of the feed put into it but 6 per cent, and an- 
 other loses annually 16 per cent., it is plain that this greater saving 
 of 10 per cent, of the feed stored is a clear profit and may represent 
 a high rate of interest on the difference in cost of a good and a poorly 
 constructed silo, and the farmer who has his money invested in an 
 efficient silo is on a par with another who has his money safely in- 
 vested where it is drawing an equivalent interest. A silo which per- 
 mits 10 to 15 per cent, more of the feed put into it to spoil than is 
 necessary is a structure a farmer cannot afford to keep. 
 
 A SILO THE BEST MEANS OF FEEDING A SOILING CROP. 
 
 When it comes to intensive farming and the pasture becomes too 
 expensive a means of feeding cows in summer, silage will be found 
 the least expensive and most satisfactory roughage for dairy cows. 
 With expensive help the cost is too great to permit large herds to be 
 fed by the daily cutting and hauling of green feed. Besides this, with 
 the variability of the seasons "it will always be very difficult to pro- 
 vide the needed acreage of soiling crops without incurring heavy loss 
 through the necessity of feeding in both the under and over-ripe con- 
 dition. 
 
 With a silo a whole field may be cut at once at just the right stage 
 and fed as needed, at much smaller cost for labor, waste of feed and 
 from a smaller acreage. 
 
 THE SILO A MEANS OF CARRYING FEED IN RESERVE. 
 
 Where a man possesses a thoroughly good silo of somewhat larger 
 capacity than is needed he is able to manage so as in a large measure 
 to be unaffected by the variability of seasons. Silage may be carried 
 from year to year with little loss so that one is able, if he has a 
 silo, to store a reserve of feed in seasons of heavy crops to be used 
 in seasons when they fall below the average. In this way one is not 
 only more largely independent of seasons but he is able to carry a 
 much larger herd upon the same amount of land.. Silage in a good 
 
68 Bulletin No. 83. 
 
 silo does not appear to materially deteriorate with age, and it has been 
 fed when six years old. 
 
 In semi-arid climates where the rainfall is extremely variable the 
 silo will be found very desirable as a means of holding green feed in 
 reserve to be used in seasons of drought; and if experience shall prove 
 that alfalfa and Kafir corn can be made into silage with anything like 
 the advantage with which corn is handled in this way the agricultural 
 possibilities of semi-arid climates will be very greatly increased. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 84 . 
 
 BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS IN WISCONSIN.' 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN, MARCH, 1901. 
 
 m~TTie Bulletins and Annual JR eports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 ACTING PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, hx-offici®. 
 State-at-large, GEORGE W. PECK, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, GEORGE F. MERRILL, Ashland. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 GEORGE H. NOYES, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-officio Treasurer. 
 J. H. STOUT, Vice-President. j E. F. RILEY, Secretary, Madison. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and ACTING PRES. 
 BIRGE. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION- 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, Director 
 
 f}. M. BABCOCK, . . . Assistant Director and Chief Chemist 
 
 F. H. KING Physicist 
 
 B. S. GOFF, ......... Horticulturist 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, 
 
 F. W. WOLL,* 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 ®. H. FARRINGTON, 
 
 ■A. R. WHITSON, 
 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, 
 
 B. G. HASTINGS, 
 
 R. A. MOORE, 
 
 U. S. BAER, 
 
 FREDERIC CRANEFIELD, 
 F. DEWHIRST, 
 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, 
 
 BFFIE M. CLOSE 
 
 . . Animal Husbandry 
 
 Chemist 
 
 . . . Bacteriologist 
 
 . Dairy Husbandry 
 
 . Assistant Physicist 
 . . Assistant Chemist 
 
 Assistant Bacteriologist 
 . Assistant Agriculturist 
 . . . . Dairying 
 
 Assistant in Horticulture 
 . Assistant in Dairying 
 . Farm Superintendent 
 
 Clerk 
 
 Librarian and Stenographer 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and Joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
 •Absent on leave. 
 
BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS IN WISCONSIN. 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL and E. G. HASTINGS. 
 
 Within the last few years the dairy and stock interests of many por- 
 tions of the country have been awakened to a keen realization of the 
 fact that they have in bovine tuberculosis an infectious disease of 
 germ origin that has been spreading quite rapidly, though irregularly 
 through many sections of the land. While the disease of tuberculosis 
 is one that has been recognized more or less perfectly for several cen- 
 turies, yet, it may be said that the more exact knowledge of its nature 
 and mode of dissemination has practically all been gained within the 
 last two decades. With the discovery of the tubercle bacillus by Koch 
 in 1882, and, in 1892, the introduction of the tuberculin test as a diag- 
 nostic aid in the detection of the disease in animals, it has become pos- 
 sible to accumulate positive data that have given a broad foundation 
 for further study. c 
 
 The discovery of the tubercle bacillus and the improvements in diag- 
 nosis came at such a time as to permit of their application to the study 
 of American conditions, and fortunately before the disease had become 
 so widely spread as in Europe. 
 
 In determining what should be done to prevent its spread in Wiscon- 
 sin, it is first necessary to find out what percentage of our herds are 
 affected. This can only be done through a wide use of the tuberculin 
 test, which is now generally acknowledged to be the most accurate diag- 
 nostic agent that we have at our command. The present bulletin gives 
 such data as it has been possible for us to collect in tests made by our- 
 selves or immediately under our direction. Through the courtesy of 
 Dr. H. P. Clute, state veterinarian, it has also been possible to include a 
 part of the work that has been done under his auspices. 
 
 PRESENT STATUS OF BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS IN WISCONSIN. 
 
 For several years past this Experiment Station has attempted to 
 further the introduction of the tuberculin test among the farmers of 
 the state by distributing through its agents tuberculin that has been 
 furnished by the U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, and also by giving instruc- 
 tion in the details of the test to agricultural students, so that they 
 could, under our direction, test their own herds. In this way nearly 
 1,250 animals have been tested. (See Table I.) 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 8\ 
 
 The difference in percentage of reacting animals is strikingly shown 
 in table 1, for there have been quite a large number of animals tested 
 that were subjected to this examination by reason of the fact that Illi- 
 nois required a tuberculin certificate before they would permit the ship- 
 ment of dairy animals into that state. These sales have been made 
 from various portions of the state, but particularly in the southern part, 
 and inasmuch as they represent a large number of herds, it is reason- 
 able to believe that the percentage of reacting animals found in this 
 class approximates more nearly the actual conditions as found in the 
 state at large than in the case of herds that have been tested by Dr. 
 Clute or ourselves. 
 
 Table I. — Summary of results of tuberculin tests made on Wis- 
 consin cattle. 
 
 
 Suspected Heeds. 
 
 Non-Suspected Herds. 
 
 Tests Made By 
 
 No. 
 
 animals 
 
 tested. 
 
 No. 
 
 re-act- 
 
 ing. 
 
 Per ct. 
 affec- 
 ted. 
 
 No. 
 
 animals 
 
 tested. 
 
 No. 
 
 re-act- 
 
 ing. 
 
 Per ct. 
 affec- 
 ted. 
 
 Experiment Station 
 
 323 
 
 115 
 
 35.6 
 
 935 
 
 84 
 
 9.0 
 
 State Veterinarian (Dr. H. P. Clute, 
 1898-1903) 
 
 588 
 
 191 
 
 32.5 
 
 
 
 
 Local Veterinarians under Dr. 
 Clute’s direction (on cattle in- 
 tended for shipment into states 
 requiring tuberculin certificates) 
 
 3,421 
 
 76 
 
 • 2.2 
 
 
 
 
 Among those herds in which there was reason to believe that tuber- 
 culosis did exist before the test was applied, the percentage of reacting 
 animals was large, being practically one-third of all of those that were 
 examined (306 in 911 cases) both by the state veterinarian and by our- 
 selves. 
 
 PERCENTAGES OF ANIMALS AFFECTED IN NON-SUSPECTED HERDS. 
 
 Nearly a thousand animals have also been tested under our direction 
 in which there was no reason to suspect the presence of the disease. 
 With the exception of three or four herds, the number of reacting ani- 
 mals in this class was very small, ranging from none to one to five per 
 herd. Out of the 42 herds of this class examined, 22 were entirely free, 
 and eight had only one or two affected animals. 
 
 In four cases where non-suspected herds have been tested by our stu- 
 dents, high percentages have been found. In one herd twenty out of 
 forty-two animals reacted; in another, eighteen out of twenty-eight; 
 and in two others, seven out of twenty-seven, and six out of twenty-five, 
 respectively. In none of these cases had there been any previous deaths 
 from tuberculosis and the existence of the disease had not been at all 
 suspected. 
 
Bovine Tuberculosis in Wisconsin. 
 
 5 
 
 The great value of the tuberculin test is particularly well shown in 
 just such cases, for without doubt the disease would have continued to 
 develop insidiously in these herds for a considerable period before ac- 
 tual losses would have occurred, and during this interim, a constantly 
 increasing number of animals would have acquired the infection. 
 
 These results together with those obtained from animals intended for 
 shipment outside of the state show that the percentage of the disease 
 on the average in the state is small. Where it has already established 
 itself, the percentage may fluctuate widely, as in some cases practically 
 the whole herd has been affected (one case, 23 out of 24, another, 25 
 out of 28). 
 
 PERCENTAGE OF ANIMALS AFFECTED IN HERDS SUSPECTED OF TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 Where it is apparent from the physical condition of the herd that 
 bovine tuberculosis is present, one is almost certain to find a larger 
 number of animals responding to the tuberculin test than would be con- 
 sidered as diseased from mere physical methods of diagnosis. 
 
 Fig. 1. — Record of tuberculin tests made on several herds in each of which not 
 more than one or two animals showed any physical symptoms of disease. 
 In some cases no tuberculosis was found ; in others from 30-95# of animals 
 responded. 
 
 In order to show the unequal distribution of the disease in herds in 
 which there was some reason to think that tuberculosis might be pres- 
 ent, some of the data collected in such cases is shown in Pig. 1. 
 In most of these cases not more than one or two animals were badly 
 diseased, although probably a careful veterinary inspection would have 
 shown a larger number. In no case, however, would a physical exami- 
 nation have revealed the actual state of affairs in a manner at all com- 
 parable to that shown by the tuberculin test. 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 8Jf. 
 
 PERCENTAGE OF TUBERCULAR ANIMALS FOUND IN OTHER STATES. 
 
 In this connection it will be of service to note the results of tubercu- 
 lin tests obtained in other states. These statistics probably represent 
 more than the actual average of the disease, because in many cases, the 
 test has been applied to suspected herds only and not universally to all 
 cattle in a region. 
 
 New England States . — In Vermont a large number of tests have been 
 made. Since Feb., 1895, the State Board of Agriculture has tested 
 60,000 head, and of these 2,390 or 3.9 per cent, were found to be tuber- 
 cular. 
 
 Several methods of determining the amount of the disease in herds 
 have been tried in Massachusetts. For a number of years it has been 
 customary to make a physical inspection of all herds, and quarantine all 
 animals suspected of disease. Of these 24,685 were tested with tuber- 
 culin from 1894-1897 with the result that 12,443 or practically one-half 
 were adjudged tubercular. In about one-fifth of these the disease was 
 found to be generalized. From June to December, 1895, tests of entire 
 herds were made upon application of owners and 4,093 examinations 
 showed 1,080 reactions, of 26.4 per cent, of stock affected. 
 
 Of 6,300 cattle tested in Connecticut 14.2 per cent, reacted. 
 
 Middle States . — In 1894 the Tuberculosis Committee of the New York 
 State Board of Health confined part of its work to a given area that was 
 thought to be comparatiyely free from general infection from other 
 sources, 947 animals were tested, 66 of which were condemned, or 6.9 
 per cent. * 
 
 In 1897-8, 1,200 animals were tested, 163 were found to be tubercular, 
 or 18.4 per cent. 
 
 The testing of cattle has perhaps been more thorough in Pennsylvania 
 than in any other state. Under the auspices of the State Live Stock 
 Sanitary Board, over 34,000 head have been tested. Of these 4,800 re- 
 acted to the test. These herds for the most part were submitted to ex- 
 amination because the existence of the disease was suspected. From 
 examinations of non-suspected herds and private tests and from slaugh- 
 ter house statistics in the country, small town, and cities, Dr. Pearson, 
 the state veterinarian, thinks that the average of the disease for the 
 state at large is about 2 per cent. 
 
 In New Jersey the test is applied only to cattle that are suspected of 
 the disease on physical examination, and yet are not sufficiently ad- 
 vanced to condemn from such test. Tests of whole herds are made only 
 where the herd has been contaminated for a long time and when ani- 
 mals have died from year to year. From 1896 to 1899, 2,500 animals 
 were tested, of which 21.4 per cent, reacted. 
 
 North Central States . — During two years prior to November, 1898, 
 929 dairy cattle were tested by the Illinois State Board of Live Stock 
 Commissioners, 12 per cent, of which reacted. From May to November, 
 1899, 3,655 animals were tested, 560 of which reacted, or 15.32 per cent. 
 
oOo 
 
Bovine Tuberculosis in Wisconsin . 
 
 7 
 
 In Michigan about jl3 per cent, of the cattle tested by the State Vet- 
 erinarian have been found to be tubercular. 
 
 In Minnesota, Reynolds has reported the results of 3,430 tests. Nearly 
 all the herds examined were those furnishing milk for city consumption, 
 only 694 animals being from farm herds. The per cent, of reacting 
 animals was 11.1. Reynolds thinks this does not represent the true 
 status of affairs in the state, as according to his data, farm herds show 
 less of the disease than city dairy herds. However, no attempt was 
 made to select suspicious herds. According to the city ordinance all 
 milk offered for sale in the city of Minneapolis must be from tested 
 cows. The larger part of the cattle tested were herds furnishing milk 
 to the cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul. 
 
 Stalker and Niles have reported the results of tests made on 50 herds 
 in Iowa. The number of animals tested was 873, of these 122 reacted, 
 equalling 13.8 per cent. They state that the unsuspected herds as a 
 rule, have not been tested. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULOSIS IN WISCONSIN. 
 
 It is a well known fact that the percentage of tuberculosis in any 
 given section is generally greater in the older settled localities than it 
 is in the more newly settled regions. The reason for this is that the 
 opportunity for the introduction of the disease is determined largely by 
 the transfer of stock, and in the older dairy sections, there has been 
 more interchange due to the attempt to improve the character of herds 
 by breeding. There is no reason to believe that pure bred or high grade 
 stock is more liable to contract tuberculosis than animals without a 
 pedigree, but as such animals are more frequently transferred from 
 herd to herd, they are thus more often exposed to infection. 
 
 The available data with reference to the distribution of the disease 
 in various portions of the state is shown in accompanying map. xn 
 each set of figures given, the first number represents total number of 
 animals tested, the second number those that reacted to the test. The 
 data collected by the Experiment Station is represented by heavy bold 
 face figures; that gathered by the state veterinarian, Dr. H. P. Clute, 
 by open-faced figures. These data are shown by counties. Tests made 
 by veterinarians under Dr. Clute’s direction are shown in lighter plain 
 type and are placed under the name of the town in which the veterin- 
 arian happened to reside. Such tests should not be considered as be- 
 longing entirely to county in question as frequently they were made in 
 adjoining counties. 
 
 MODE OF DISSEMINATION OF DISEASE FROM HERD TO HERD. 
 
 In order to be able to institute repressive measures it is necessary 
 to understand how the disease organism is distributed from one herd 
 to another. 
 
 The tubercle bacillus belongs to the class of bacteria that are known 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 8J+. 
 
 as parasites. This organism is not able to thrive outside of the animal 
 body, although it is able to retain its vitality in a dried form for a num- 
 ber of months. For this reason it is absolutely impossible to produce 
 the disease unless an animal is brought in contact with another al- 
 ready affected, or with tuberculous matter that has been thrown off 
 from a diseased individual. While there is a possibility that herds 
 may become infected from tuberculous attendants, the number of re- 
 corded instances of such cases is so exceedingly small that they can 
 be neglected. 
 
 INTRODUCTION THROUGH PURCHASE OF REACTING ANIMALS. 
 
 The much more common method of herd infection is where the dis- 
 ease is introduced into the herd through the purchase of an already in- 
 fected animal. No one would of course willingly buy tuberculous ani- 
 mals, but in the earlier stages of the disease it is practically impossible 
 for the purchaser to recognize its presence, and the consequence is that 
 animals that contain the seeds of this scourge are often brought into 
 his herd unwittingly. This danger could be practically eliminated if 
 all additions to the herd were first subjected to the tuberculin test, but 
 many farmers have not recognized the value of this simple precaution 
 until they have learned their lesson in the severe and costly school of 
 experience. (See Fig. 3.) 
 
 Where the disease establishes itself in herds that are sold for breed- 
 ing purposes the danger is much increased, for animals from such 
 sources are much more apt to be widely disseminated'as they generally 
 serve as a foundation for the breeding up of common stock. The 
 state of Wisconsin, as well as other northwestern states, have suffered 
 in this regard very severely from some of its finest breeding herds. 
 
 One herd in particular in this state has had anything but an enviable 
 record in this matter for it has been determined that tuberculosis has 
 broken out in at least sixteen herds to which members of this original 
 herd were sold. While it cannot be proved that the origin of the dis- 
 ease in each of these sixteen cases could be traced to the animals orig- 
 inally purchased, yet it is noteworthy that in a considerable number 
 of cases the first animals to show evident symptoms of the disease were 
 those that were introduced from this badly diseased herd. Not only 
 were a number of fine herds in our own state infected from this 
 source, but the contagion was also spread, in a number of cases, to 
 Minnesota and Iowa. Had the tuberculin test been used in such a 
 herd, no such broadcast distribution could have happened! It would 
 seem that enterprising breeders would be quick to adopt this measure 
 for their own benefit, for a knowledge of an animal’s actual condition 
 as to tuberculosis is worth something to any intending purchaser. So 
 long as buyers are indifferent though, there is not much incentive to 
 make the test. And in some herds owners are doubtless glad to dis- 
 pose of animals without submitting them to the test for fear that con- 
 ditions might be found that would be far from pleasant. 
 
Bovine Tuberculosis in Wisconsin. 
 
 9 
 
 In inaugurating the test in Wisconsin herds we have encouraged as 
 far as possible the use of the same, especially among the breeding 
 herds, and from this point of view it is gratifying to note that the per- 
 centage of affected animals found in these cases is less than it was in 
 the dairy or milk supply herds that have been examined. 
 
 Table II. — Distribution of tuberculosis in different kinds of herds 
 as. determined by tests made under direction of Experiment 
 Station. 
 
 Character of Herd. 
 
 
 Breeding. 
 
 Milk 
 
 supply. 
 
 Dairy. 
 
 "Total number of herds tested 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 37 
 
 Total number of animals tested 
 
 365 
 
 295 
 
 713 
 
 Total number of reacting animals 
 
 42 
 
 54 
 
 147 
 
 Percentage of reacting animals 
 
 11.5 
 
 18.3 
 
 20.6 
 
 
 Of the 42 diseased animals found in breeding herds, one herd of 56 
 contained 22 affected animals. Excluding this case, the 15 remaining 
 herds had less than 7 per cent. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF DISEASE IN HERDS THROUGH INFECTED SKIM MILK. 
 
 Under some circumstances herds may become infected through the 
 use of tuberculous skim milk. If the percentage of tuberculous ani- 
 mals in any region is high, as has been determined especially in Den- 
 mark and Germany, it is quite possible that the separator slime and 
 skim milk may contain sufficient numbers of tubercle bacilli, so as to 
 be able to produce the disease in calves and pigs, and in this way new 
 foci of the disease may be readily established. This manner of infec- 
 tion has proved to be a serious menace in the countries mentioned, and 
 at the present time the Danish law requires the treatment of all skim 
 milk that is taken back to the farmers in a manner that will insure 
 the destruction of the tubercle bacillus. 
 
 ADVISABILITY OF STATE QUARANTINE TO PREVENT IMPORTATION OF THE 
 
 DISEASE. 
 
 The course to follow with a private herd is also applicable in the state 
 at large. There is no use in a state attempting to eradicate or control 
 the disease so long as it is possible for persons to import cattle from 
 any source whatever without having them first tested to determine 
 whether they are affected or not. Experience of eastern states has 
 shown that there are unscrupulous persons who will buy reacting ani- 
 mals that show no visible symptoms, and ship them from one section 
 to another. Not only is this true, but not infrequently incipiently dis- 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 8Jf. 
 
 eased animals may be unwittingly transferred from herd to herd, due 
 to the ignorance of both seller and buyer as to the actual condition of 
 the stock in question. 
 
 Protection in interstate traffic can be gained through legislative en- 
 actments by the different states. At the present time the United States 
 government requires a tuberculin test to be made on all cattle imported 
 from other countries for breeding or dairy purposes. The same is 
 true among many of the states of the Union, seventeen of which now 
 have legislation of this character that is designed to prevent their re- 
 spective commonwealths from being made a “dumping ground” for the 
 sale of such animals. This interference with interstate traffic has been 
 objected to in some quarters, but the inconvenience of the measure is 
 largely diminished by confining it to stock used for breeding and dairy- 
 ing. Such a law in Wisconsin would enable the state to gain the great- 
 est advantage with the least interference with stock movement be- 
 cause most of the dairy or breeding animals brought into the state are 
 of high grade and are intended to be used in building up herds rather 
 than simply for milk supply. 
 
 MODE OF DISSEMINATION WITHIN THE HERD. 
 
 While it is easily possible to keep tuberculosis out of a herd by 
 quarantining all introduced animals until after they have been tuber- 
 culin tested, it is a much more difficult matter to control the disease 
 within the herd after it has once obtained a foothold. The manner of 
 dissemination of the disease is a question of prime importance for the 
 control of the same rests largely upon the mode of distribution. 
 
 The experiments of Pearson and Ravenel* on this question of in- 
 dividual infection have done much to explain the mode of transmis- 
 sion. These investigators tied nose-bags over the muzzles of tubercu- 
 lous animals, and then made an examination of the saliva that dropped 
 from the mouth and also of the material that was coughed up from 
 the lungs. The results of these tests showed in both cases virulent 
 tubercle bacilli. They further found that the expired air itself from 
 such animals was not infectious. A determination of these condi- 
 tions shows how readily the tubercle bacilli from an animal may be 
 discharged on mangers, stalls and other surfaces, where it is easily 
 possible for other animals to lick the same, and so absorb the bacilli di- 
 rectly, or where the germs may become dried and spread more widely 
 throughout the barn by means of any air currents. 
 
 AN INSTRUCTIVE LESSON. 
 
 That the disease germ is practically scattered from one animal to 
 another in this way is often assured from the manner in which ani- 
 mals in a herd acquire the same. The following instructive instance 
 from our own records indicates how the disease was unquestionably 
 
 ♦Kept, of Penn. Dept, of Agr., 1899, p. 344. 
 
Bovine Tuberculosis in Wisconsin. 
 
 11 
 
 spread from a single focus. Fig. 2 shows the ground plan of a t>arn 
 in which a herd was housed. Animal No. 3 died of tuberculosis and 
 this led to the application of the tuberculin test with the result as in- 
 dicated on the diagram. It should be noted that a tight board parti- 
 tion separated the row of stalls marked A from the rest of the barn. 
 Every animal in this section responded to the test, while only four out 
 of twelve of the remainder were affected. Abundant opportunity would 
 of course be had for the infection of these four cases as the whole 
 herd were turned out together daily and were watered in common from 
 a single water tank. 
 
 inally affected animal (marked *). + = tuberculous ; — = healthy animals. 
 
 DISINFECTION OF INFECTED QUARTERS. 
 
 It is manifestly useless to eradicate this disease from a herd unless 
 at the same time the infected quarters are subjected to a thorough 
 disinfection. 
 
 One case that has come to our attention sufficiently illustrates this 
 point. Within the past two years a herd of cows were tested and the 
 larger part of the herd condemned by the test and slaughtered. A post- 
 mortem examination showed many of them to be badly diseased. . : 
 short time afterward a new herd was purchased and introduced into 
 the same quarters. Within a year it was found that many of this sec- 
 ond herd had also acquired the same disease. Undoubtedly they con- 
 tracted the same from the infected quarters in which they were placed. 
 Such a course of action cannot be justified under any conditions. There 
 is no use in attempting to rid a herd of the disease, there is no use in 
 the state paying for diseased animals, unless measures are employed 
 to render infected barns safe for new herds. 
 
12 
 
 Bulletin No. 8J+. 
 
 CONTROL OF DISEASE. 
 
 It needs no extended argument to convince an intelligent person as 
 to the desirability of repressing or eradicating this disease. The ques- 
 tion may be presented from two points of view: (1) that of public 
 health, (2) successful animal industry. 
 
 Either of these are of sufficient importance to merit, careful consid- 
 eration. The one says the bovine phase of the disease should be held 
 in check because of the menace to human life from the unrestricted 
 sale of products from affected animals; the other considers the case 
 from the standpoint of the herd itself. No farmer ought to allow this 
 disease to remain in his herd if he is selling his product, especially if 
 it is disposed of in the form of milk; no farmer can afford simply for 
 the sake oi the herd itself to permit this disease to continue to develop 
 among his stock. 
 
 The problem as to what should be done to eradicate the disease is, 
 under any condition, a difficult one to solve. 
 
 on the basis of the tuberculin test. 
 
 A close co-operation between the owner and the commonwealth is- 
 necessary before successful restrictive measures can be inaugurated. 
 Generally speaking, the state recognizes the advisability and necessity 
 of sharing the burden incurred in repressing the disease by granting 
 to the owner partial compensation at least for losses sustained on ac- 
 count of the public good. On the other hand it is necessary to restrict 
 these payments in order to avoid a free live stock insurance system be- 
 ing foisted on the state. This can best be done by paying only a pro 
 rata proportion of the value of the animals as determined at time of 
 slaughter. 
 
Bovine Tuberculosis in Wisconsin. 
 
 13 
 
 TREATMENT OF REACTING ANIMALS. 
 
 A question which is of most interest to stock owners is what should 
 be done with reacting animals? The tuberculin test is now generally 
 admitted to be a much more reliable means of determining whether 
 animals are affected with this disease than any other method. It is 
 objected to by some on the ground that it is too sensitive, that it may 
 show a reaction long before the animal is a source of danger to other 
 animals directly, or through her milk. This is true, but at the same 
 time it is indeed fortunate that it is so, for it permits of the recogni- 
 tion of animals that are potentially tubercular, i. e., liable to develop 
 the disease more severely at a later date. If these animals are al- 
 lowed to remain in a herd for a long enough period of time, the disease 
 will frequently increase in extent, and no one can tell at just what stage 
 an animal may reach a condition that makes her dangerous to the rest 
 of the herd. It is therefore much better to be able to detect all ani- 
 mals that are infected even in the slightest degree than to allow some 
 to remain in the herd to cause trouble later (See figures 3 and 4). 
 
 Fig. 4.— Same animal as in Fig. 3, eighteen months later, in the last stages of 
 “quick consumption.” 
 
 In some states the method of disposal of all reacting animals has 
 been by immediate slaughter, regardless of the physical condition of 
 the animal, but such a system soon meets with active opposition on the 
 part of the stock owners — and justly so, for, in many cases it is not 
 the best method of getting rid of the disease. 
 
 Many of these animals — in fact the greater majority as the disease 
 usually goes — are infected in the earlier stages, and the disease may 
 develop so slowly that for years the animal may show no physical symp- 
 toms oi the malady. During such stages the milk may contain abso- 
 lutely no tubercle bacilli and the meat be perfectly wholesome for use. 
 Moreover, the progeny from such reacting animals, and also from those 
 
14 : 
 
 Bulletin No. 8J/.. 
 
 more severely affected, is at birth almost without exception free from 
 any taint of the disease whatever, and if such calves are removed from 
 quarters occupied by tubercular animals, and fed on pasteurized or 
 boiled milk, or that of healthy cows, they will continue to remain free. 
 When these facts are taken into consideration, it is clearly evident that 
 to destroy by immediate slaughter, every animal that responds to the 
 tuberculin test, without regard to its condition, is imposing an unwise 
 and needlessly severe restriction on animal industry. 
 
 Where only a single animal or two in a herd is affected with the 
 disease, manifestly the most economical way to eradicate the trouble 
 would be to immediately kill such, but if a large proportion of the herd 
 are found to be affected, more particularly if the same are especially 
 valuable animals, immediate condemnation and slaughter of such may 
 often be unwise. If such animals can be removed from the healthy 
 part of the herd, and kept under quarantine, and the calves from the 
 same cared for as suggested above, it is possible to use these diseased 
 animals as a foundation for a perfectly healthy herd and in this way 
 preserve the valuable characteristics of the herd. 
 
 That this can be done under practical conditions is shown by the 
 fact that this method of “weeding” out instead of “stamping” out the 
 disease has been practiced for some years with great success in Den- 
 mark and other countries of continental Europe. Several badly dis- 
 eased herds within our own state have also been handled in this way 
 with signal success. In one of these a valuable but affected animal 
 has given birth to five healthy calves. In keeping these reacting ani- 
 mals in a separate herd, it is necessary to treat the milk product, so 
 as to insure the destruction of the tubercle organisms that may possi- 
 bly be present. This can be readily done by pasteurization. An ap- 
 plication of heat at a temperature of 140° P. for 15 minutes in a closed 
 pasteurizing apparatus, or at a temperature of 155-165° F. for a briefer 
 exposure will result in the destruction of all tubercle bacilli. If pas- 
 teurization is carried on at this lower temperature, there is no chang9 
 in the taste of the milk or even in its creaming properties. Such a 
 treatment ensures thorough safety without changing the character of 
 the milk. 
 
 It is true that such a practice involves some trouble, but when a 
 farmer finds that his herd is invaded with the scourge of tuberculosis 
 he must make up his mind to either one of two things: either to suf- 
 fer the financial loss incurred from the destruction of affected animals, 
 or to take the trouble of caring for his herd so as not to further spread 
 the disease, and still handle the product in any way that will not en- 
 danger public health. 
 
 The state should give him the option of eradicating the disease with 
 the least possible expense, and still safeguard the interests of the con- 
 sumer of milk and milk products. Such a course as this would allay 
 
Bovine Tuberculosis in Wisconsin . 
 
 15 
 
 much of the opposition to the tuberculin test, for it would enable the 
 owner to keep the more valuable affected animals until healthy calves 
 could be raised. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 1. The disease of bovine tuberculosis is dangerous not only to human 
 health, but to successful dairying or stock raising, and this danger is 
 aggravated because of the insidious nature of the malady. 
 
 2. Tuberculosis is widely distributed in various portions of our state, 
 but it is impossible to give any definite figures because only a very 
 small percentage of herds have been examined. In all probability the 
 condition in Wisconsin is not materially different from other surround- 
 ing states that have been engaged in dairying for similar periods of 
 time. The fact that probably only a small percentage of our stock is af- 
 fected at this time makes it all the more desirable that measures shall 
 be taken to prevent its further dissemination at a time when the ex- 
 pense involved will be moderately small in comparison with what it 
 would cost if the disease was wider spread. 
 
 3. In considering measures that are of value in restricting this dis- 
 ease, especial emphasis should be laid on the matter of education. The 
 rank and file of dairymen are not yet awake to the importance of this 
 question, more especially as to the effect of the disease on their own 
 herds. 
 
 4. The use of the tuberculin test should be widely extended, for in this 
 method we possess a means, not infallible in every case, but so superior 
 to all other methods of diagnosis known, that it is of the greatest aid 
 in determining the presence or absence of the disease. 
 
 5. When dairymen in general have determined whether their herds 
 have the disease or not, they can easily prevent its further spread. In 
 case of herds now free from the disease future safety is insured by 
 testing all animals introduced into the same. In case of affected herds, 
 separation of reacting animals and thorough disinfection of quarters 
 occupied by the herd will stop further progress. 
 
 6. A most important question is what shall be done with the reacting 
 animals? By far the larger majority of animals that respond to the 
 test have the disease in a latent form, or at so early a stage of develop- 
 ment that neither their milk nor meat is of necessity dangerous for use. 
 Still, inasmuch, as they react to the test they show the presence of the 
 disease germ in their systems, and as there is no simple way in which 
 it is possible to detect just when the product may become dangerous, it 
 is wise of course to regard the milk of all reacting animals as unsuit- 
 able for use until it is first treated in a way so as to render it safe, 
 which can be done by pasteurizing it in closed pasteurizers at 140° F. 
 for 15 minutes. 
 
 7. The calves from reacting mothers can in almost every instance be 
 raised in a perfectly healthy condition by removing them from the cow 
 
1 G 
 
 Bulletin No. 8Jf. 
 
 at birth (a day or so after) and feeding them upon boiled or pasteurized 
 milk or that from non-reacting animals. It has been fully demon- 
 strated that healthy herds can thus be raised from the originally dis- 
 eased animals. This often furnishes the least expensive way of con- 
 trolling the disease, and meets the objection of those who insist that 
 immediate slaughter is unnecessary. Only such infected animals should 
 be saved, for the time being, as show no well marked physical symptoms 
 of the disease. 
 
 8. Revision of our veterinary laws. The present veterinary law of 
 Wisconsin was framed and passed before the nature of bovine tuber- 
 culosis was understood, hence its provisions do not meet the condition's 
 that surround this disease. As it has been carried out, all animals 
 reacting to the test are considered ^o be affected with a contagious 
 malady and have been slaughtered forthwith. This provision should be 
 modified so that under the auspices of the state, the owner may have 
 the option of retaining valuable animals under quarantine in order to 
 permit him to raise from these affected animals healthy progeny. The 
 milk from such reacting animals should be rendered safe by the appli- 
 cation of heat. 
 
 The state should give a partial compensation for the destruction of 
 affected animals as is done at present, but only where the infected 
 quarters have been thoroughly and efficiently disinfected to kill disease 
 organisms present in the barns. 
 
 Furthermore the state should require that all cattle imported for 
 breeding or dairy purposes (cattle intended for immediate slaughter 
 exempted) should be subjected to the tuberculin test before shipment 
 or as soon as they are brought into the state. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 — 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 85 . 
 
 DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF NITRATES AND 
 OTHER SOLUBLE SALTS IN CULTIVATED SOILS. 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN, MARCH, 1901. 
 
 mrr, ie “•* - »« 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, bx-officig. 
 State-at-large, GEORGE W. PECK, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE II, NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, GEORGE F. MERRILL, Ashland. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 GEORGE H. NOYES, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-officio Treasurer. 
 J. H. STOUT, Vice-President. j E. F. RILEY, Secretary, Madison. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and ACTING PRES. 
 BIRGE. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, .......... Director 
 
 S. M. BABCOCK, . . . Assistant Director and Chief Chemist 
 
 F. H. KING, Physicist 
 
 E. S. GOFF, 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, 
 
 F. W. WOLL,* 
 
 R. H. SHAW, - 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON, 
 
 A. R. WHITSON, 
 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, 
 
 H. G. HASTINGS, 
 
 R. A. MOORE, 
 
 U. S. BAER, 
 
 FREDERIC CRANEFIELD, 
 
 F. DEWHIRST. 
 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, 
 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE 
 
 Horticulturist 
 . . Animal Husbandry 
 
 Chemist. 
 
 Acting Chemist 
 . . . Bacteriologist 
 
 . Dairy Husbandry 
 
 . Assistant Physicist 
 . . Assistant Chemist 
 
 Assistant Bacteriologist 
 . Assistant Agriculturist 
 . . . . Dairying 
 
 Assistant in Horticulture 
 . Assistant in Dairying 
 . Farm Superintendent 
 
 Clerk 
 
 Librarian and Stenographeb 
 
 FARPdERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, ....... Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographeb 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and Joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
 •Absent on leave. 
 
DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF NITRATES AND 
 OTHER SOLUBLE SALTS IN CULTIVATED SOILS. 
 
 F. H. KING and A. R. WHITSON. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 In this bulletin there is presented a series of studies: 
 
 1st. Aiming to observe and record the amounts of nitric nitrogen 
 and the total soluble salts found in field soils under growing crops 
 during the whole of the growing season. This study has covered 
 nine field plots aggregating ten acres, and has been made to cover 
 the first, second, third and fourth feet separately in each case. 
 
 2nd. Aiming to show the difference between the amounts of nitric 
 nitrogen and of soluble salts in the soil under growing crops and In 
 that immediately adjacent which has been kept fallow, cultivated, and 
 free from weeds. 
 
 3rd. Aiming to show the influence of both the depth, and frequency 
 of cultivation on the development of nitric nitrogen and of total sol- 
 uble salts. 
 
 4th. Aiming to show the amounts of nitric nitrogen in a soil when 
 crops begin to turn yellow from lack of it and the amount present 
 in the soil when they are still green and growing. 
 
 5th. Aiming to show what difference in the amount of nitric nitro- 
 gen and of total soluble salts may occur in the soil under the hills 
 of corn and at different distances from the hills, between the rows, at 
 different depths. 
 
 6th. Aiming to show what relations may exist between the quan- 
 tity of nitric nitrogen and total soluble salts in the soil water of the 
 field and in that of the deeper ground water of wells in the same lo- 
 cality. 
 
 7th. Aiming to devise an accurate, rapid and sensitive method of 
 determining the nitric nitrogen in soils. 
 
 It has been found: 
 
 1st. That the nitrates and total soluble salts in the surface foot 
 start in the spring comparatively small in amount, then increase 
 somewhat rapidly until June 1st on clover and oat ground, and un- 
 til July 1st on corn and potato ground; from these dates they fall 
 more or less rapidly until August 1st, when crops are growing most 
 vigorously. After this date they remain nearly constant with a gen- 
 eral tendency to rise slightly until September. In the third and fourth 
 feet the seasonal changes are comparatively small and show but lit- 
 tle progression, and they are not marked in the second foot. 
 
 2nd. The amounts of nitrates and of soluble salts in the soil under 
 the clover and oat crops were much smaller than in the soil under 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 85 . 
 
 corn and potato crops through the entire season, the greatest differ- 
 ences occurring during the month of June. 
 
 3rd. There has been no strong concordance between the yields 
 of dry matter per acre and the amounts of nitrates found in the 
 soils during the season, but where the yields have been relatively 
 quite small there, too, there has been found a marked deficiency of 
 both nitrates and total soluble salts. In the case of the three corn 
 crops the largest yields of dry matter are associated with the largest 
 total soluble salts. 
 
 4th. The relation between the amount of nitrates in a soil and the 
 total soluble salts varies between wide limits, when the salts are 
 measured by the electrical method. It occasionaly happens that there 
 may be as much or even more nitrates than the total salts indicated. 
 This may be due to the destruction of bicarbonates by the nitric acid 
 when it is forming. 
 
 5th. The amount of nitrates and soluble salts under growing crops 
 and in fallow ground at the same time is very different. Our observa- 
 tions showing a relation for nitrates of 10.88 pounds in the surface 
 foot per acre as a mean, to 473.65 pounds for immediately adjacent 
 fallow ground at the same time. 
 
 6th. It was found that stirring the soil once per week, as compared 
 with the stirring of it once in two weeks, left the soil stirred, after 
 91 days, with 98.16 as compared with 53.01 pounds of nitric nitrogen 
 per million of dry soil. In the second series of experiments which 
 covered 258 days the soil stirred once per week had acquired a mean 
 of 225.41 parts, and that once in two weeks 158.79 parts per million 
 of dry soil, showing the largest gains with the more frequent culti- 
 vation. 
 
 7th. It was found that stirring the soil to depths of one inch, two 
 inches, three inches and four inches during an interval of 258 days 
 resulted in an increasing amount of nitric nitrogen until the three 
 inch depth was passed, but that cultivation four inches deep gave a 
 smaller nitrification than the three-inch depth did. 
 
 8th. In the plant house cylinders nitrification appears to have 
 taken'place to a depth of three feet, but was most rapid in the surface 
 foot. 
 
 9th. There was 22 per cent, more nitric nitrogen developed in soil 
 upon which clover had grown than from that after corn, and 13 per 
 cent, more than from that after oats, during the same time, under like 
 conditions. 
 
 10th. Virgin soil which had grown corn continuously the same 
 number of years that like soil had grown clover contained at the be- 
 ginning of the cultivation experiment, nearly three times as much 
 nitric nitrogen as that upon which the clover had grown, and it closed 
 the cultivation period with 17 per cent. more. 
 
 11th. Virgin soil growing oats began the cultivation experiment, 
 after the same number of years of cropping as the soil bearing clover, 
 with 2.6 times as much nitric nitrogen and closed the 91 days with 
 13.8 per cent. more. 
 
 12th. Clover and alfalfa appear to hold the nitric nitrogen In the 
 soil down to a lower limit than corn, oats and potatoes do, but when 
 the crop is removed from the ground nitrification appears to go on 
 faster in the clover and alfalfa soil. 
 
 13th. The amount of nitric nitrogen left in the surface foot of soil 
 before crops begin to turn yellow for lack of available nitrogen be- 
 comes very small, the amount found being .213 parts per million 
 
Development of N Urates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 5 
 
 where oats were yet green, and .025 parts per million where they were 
 turning yellow. In corn it was found as low as .95 parts where corn 
 Was green, and .10 parts per million where it was strongly yellow. 
 
 14th. The amounts of nitric nitrogen and of soluble salts were 
 found greatest between the rows of corn, as they were coming into 
 tassel, and least, directly beneath hills, except in the surface six 
 inches, and in the fourth foot where the relations were slightly re- 
 versed. 
 
 15th. The amounts of nitric nitrogen and of total soluble salts are 
 less in the deeper ground water of wells of this vicinity than in the 
 soil moisture of the fourth foot, the nitric nitrogen being only about 
 one-third of the amount. 
 
 16th. Observations indicate that when the textural equilibrium of 
 soils is destroyed in the presence of salts in solution the refloccula- 
 tion and regranulation of the soil may take out of solution a portion 
 of the salts leaving a smaller per cent, present after establishing the 
 new equilibrium. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Work reported under this head in the 16th Annual Report, p. 219, has 
 been continued the past year under better conditions and has been 
 pushed more systematically and extensively. 
 
 The chief effort has been devoted to a study of the amount of nitric 
 nitrogen in-field soils under crop conditions throughout the season; at 
 the same time following a parallel control series of studies in our plant 
 house cylinders as a check upon the field work. 
 
 Work in the field was begun as soon as the frost was out of the 
 ground and the nitric nitrogen content of the nine field plots, covering 
 ten acres, has been determined at the middle and beginning of each 
 month from April j.8 to Sept. 18, or eleven times, and again on Nov. 1 
 and 29. 
 
 In ten of these cases samples were taken in one foot sections to a 
 depth of four feet, at the other intervals to a depth of two feet. By 
 doing this we have secured a detailed record of the changes in the 
 amount and distribution of nitric acid through an entire growing season 
 for three plots of corn, two plots of potatoes, two plots of clover, one 
 plot of alfalfa and one plot of oats. 
 
 Besides this we have made other studies in our plant house cylinders 
 where the amount of soil and moisture are not only known but under 
 •complete control. 
 
 Side by side with the nitric acid determinations we have made a study 
 of the total soluble salts as indicated by the electrical resistance, the 
 two' sets of determinations. being usually made on each set of samples. 
 
 The amounts of water present in the field soil have been recorded at 
 •each interval and for each depth ana the total amount of dry matter 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 85 . 
 
 produced on each plot has also been recorded; so that we are now in 
 possession of a fairly accurate set of data showing the amount of nitric 
 acid and the amount of water present in the soil, throughout the season, 
 upon which known amounts of nine crops have been grown. 
 
 The samples of soil have been taken by our Field Assistant, Harvey 
 Sandel; the nitric acid was determined by the junior and the soluble 
 salts by the senior authors of the paper. Our data are derived from 
 more than 3,000 cores of soil, each one foot long. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF TILLAGE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF NITRIC ACID AND SOLUBLE 
 
 SALTS. 
 
 Series I. 
 
 The field work reported in 1899 in the 16th Annual Report was re- 
 peated during the winter in our plant house cylinders, which are 52 
 inches deep and either three feet or eighteen inches in diameter. 
 
 On Dec. 2nd to 9th, after the crops had all been removed, four inches 
 of soil were taken from each cylinder and placed in one vessel and then 
 a second layer removed to place on top. The soil was then spaded to a 
 depth of eight inches, water enough added to bring the cylinders tp 
 standard weight and after this had been absorbed the soil removed was 
 returned. The cylinders were allowed to stand five days, for the sur- 
 face soil to become moistened by capillarity, when the surfaces of all 
 were leveled and tamped with a flat metal disk one foot in diameter, 
 weighing 27.5 lbs. 
 
 The cylinders were divided into three groups as follows: 
 
 1. Those not cultivated. 
 
 2. ' Those cultivated once per week. 
 
 3. Those cultivated once in two weeks. 
 
 The stirring of the soil was done to a depth of three inches with a flat 
 tined potato fork provided with a gauge to fix the depth to which the 
 soil was stirred. The cylinders were all weighed on Dec. 14, and the 
 experiment started, continuing until March 15, or 91 days, no water be- 
 ing added to either group of cylinders in that time. 
 
 The soluble salts contained in the first, second and third feet of these 
 cylinders were determined before the soil was disturbed for the experi- 
 ment and samples were quickly dried at a low temperature for the de- 
 termination of the nitric nitrogen* after the junior author should take 
 up his work at the Station. 
 
 In the table which follows are given the total soluble salts .as found 
 by the electrical method, described on page 48, and the total nitric 
 nitrogen as found by the method described on page 38. In this table 
 are given the amount of salts found at the close of the tillage experi- 
 ments and at its beginning, together with the loss or gain. 
 
 t 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 7 
 
 Table showing the changes which had occurred in the amount of 
 nitric nitrogen and the total soluble salts in the soil of plant house 
 cylinders when cultivated once per week , once in two weeks , or 
 not at all during an interval of 91 days. Amounts are expressed 
 'in parts per million of dry soil. 
 
 Not Cultivated. Cultivated Once 
 
 Cultivated. Once Per Week. in Two Weeks. 
 
 Depth of soil: 
 
 1st 
 
 foot. 
 
 22d 
 
 foot. 
 
 I 3d 
 
 J foot. 
 
 1st 
 
 foot. 
 
 1 2d 
 
 1 foot. 
 
 | 3d 
 
 1 foot. . 
 
 1st 
 
 foot. 
 
 1 2d 
 
 I foot. 
 
 1 3d 
 foot. 
 
 CLAY LOAM UPON 
 
 WHICH 
 
 : CORN 
 
 WAS GROWN. 
 
 
 
 
 Total sol. salts at close. . 
 
 182.1 
 
 136.0 
 
 170 8 
 
 133.7 
 
 120.7 
 
 140.7 
 
 139.6 
 
 119.7 
 
 113.9 
 
 Total sol. salts at start. . 
 
 74 3 
 
 101.9 
 
 118.9 
 
 74.3 
 
 101.9 
 
 118.9 
 
 74.3 
 
 101.9 
 
 118.9 
 
 Total gain or loss . 
 
 107.8 
 
 34.1 
 
 51.9 
 
 59.4 
 
 18.9 
 
 21.8 
 
 65.3 
 
 17.8 
 
 —5.0 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 close 
 
 30.68 
 
 19.87 
 
 28.34 
 
 21.07 
 
 13.49 
 
 24.77 
 
 23.13 
 
 16.00 
 
 24.82 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 start 
 
 4.23 
 
 8.03 
 
 16.07 
 
 4.23 
 
 8.03 
 
 16.07 
 
 4.23 
 
 3.03 
 
 16.07 
 
 Gain 
 
 26.45 
 
 11.84 
 
 12.27 
 
 16.84 
 
 5.46 
 
 8.70 
 
 18.90 
 
 7.97 
 
 8.75 
 
 CLAY LOAM WHICH HAD BEEN IN CLOVER. 
 
 Total sol. salts at close . . 
 
 185.3 
 
 119.2 
 
 133.7 
 
 180.1 
 
 177 4 
 
 137.0 
 
 153.7 
 
 107.1 
 
 131.0 
 
 Total sol. salts at start. . 
 
 58.4 
 
 70.0 
 
 108.0 
 
 58.4 
 
 70.0 
 
 108.0 
 
 58.4 
 
 70.0 
 
 108.0 
 
 Gain 
 
 126.9 
 
 149.2 
 
 25.7 
 
 121.7 
 
 107.4 
 
 29.0 
 
 105.3 
 
 37.1 
 
 23.0 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 close 
 
 28.50 
 
 15.81 
 
 17.06 
 
 28.28 
 
 12.44 
 
 16.99 
 
 24.39 
 
 13.31 
 
 16.02 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at 
 start 
 
 2.32 
 
 2.41 
 
 5.07 
 
 2.32 
 
 2.41 
 
 5.07 
 
 2.32 
 
 2.41 
 
 5.07 
 
 Gain . . .^ 
 
 26.18 
 
 13 40 
 
 11.99 
 
 25.96 
 
 10.03 
 
 11.92 
 
 22.07 
 
 10.90 
 
 10.95 
 
 CLAY LOAM WHICH HAD BEEN IN OATS. 
 
 Total soluble salts at close 
 
 186.6 
 
 147.6 
 
 143.7 
 
 145.1 
 
 120.1 
 
 142.1 
 
 Total soluble salts at start 
 
 100.8 
 
 1 94.2 
 
 119.6 
 
 100.8 
 
 94.2 
 
 119 6 
 
 Gain 
 
 85.8 
 
 53.4 
 
 24.1 
 
 43.3 
 
 25.9 
 
 22.5 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at close 
 
 33.46 
 
 19.38 
 
 24.19 
 
 13.99 
 
 15.93 
 
 24.20 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at start 
 
 4.40 
 
 8.96 
 
 12 68 
 
 4.40 
 
 8.96 
 
 12.68 
 
 Gain . . 
 
 29.06 
 
 10.42 
 
 11 51 
 
 9 59 
 
 6 97 
 
 11.52 
 
 CLAY LOAM WHICH HAD BEEN IN POTATOES. 
 
 Total soluble salts at close 
 
 218.8 
 
 149.7 
 
 137.8 
 
 188.0 
 
 132.7 
 
 171.0 
 
 Total soluble salts at start 
 
 333.9 
 
 134.4 
 
 135.6 
 
 338.9 
 
 134.4 
 
 135.4 
 
 Gain or loss 
 
 -120.1 
 
 15.3 
 
 2.2 
 
 -150.9 
 
 -1.7 
 
 35.6 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at close 
 
 41.17 
 
 26.31 
 
 2jb60 
 
 347)6 
 
 2lT08 
 
 28798 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at start 
 
 63.42 
 
 15.01 
 
 16.91 
 
 63.42 
 
 15.01 
 
 16.91 
 
 Gain or loss 
 
 -22.25 
 
 11.30 
 
 8.69 
 
 -29 36 
 
 6.07 
 
 12.07 
 
 CLAY LOAM WITH BEANS, TIMOTHY AND OATS. 
 
 Total soluble salts at close 
 
 313 4 
 
 186.2 
 
 19».0 
 
 239.7 
 
 161.8 
 
 154.0 
 
 Total soluble salts at start 
 
 201.4 
 
 297.0 
 
 184.5 
 
 201.4 
 
 297.0 
 
 184.5 
 
 Gain or loss 
 
 112.0 
 
 -110.8 
 
 10.5 
 
 38.3 
 
 -135.2 
 
 —30.5 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at close 
 
 69/20 
 
 33.31 
 
 32.50 
 
 47.70 
 
 23 37 
 
 22.55 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at start 
 
 34.67 
 
 29.59 
 
 24 59 
 
 34.67 
 
 29.59 
 
 24.59 
 
 Gain or loss 
 
 34.53 
 
 1 3.75 
 
 7.91 
 
 13.03 
 
 —6.22 
 
 ' -2.04 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 Table showing the changes which had occurred in the amount of 
 nitric nitrogen and the total soluble salts in the soil of plant house 
 cylinders , etc. — Continued. 
 
 Not Cultivated. 
 
 Cultivated 
 Once Per Week. 
 
 Depth of soil. 
 
 1st 
 
 | 2d 
 
 3d 
 
 1 1st 
 
 2d 1 
 
 3d 
 
 
 foot. 
 
 I foot. 
 
 foot. 
 
 ' foot. 
 
 foot. ! 
 
 foot . 
 
 BLACK MARSH SOIL WHICH HAS BEEN IN CORN YIELDING POOR CROPS. 
 
 Total soluble salts at close 
 
 2,300. 
 
 1.955. 
 
 1,595. 
 
 2, 1m2. 
 
 1,972. 
 
 1,522. 
 
 Total soluble salts at start 
 
 1,650/ 
 
 b826. 
 
 1,507. 
 
 1,650 
 
 1,826 
 
 1,507. 
 
 Gain 
 
 650. 
 
 129. 
 
 88. 
 
 542. 
 
 146. 
 
 15. 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at close 
 
 236.0 
 
 228.7 
 
 17V9* 
 
 ~m.2 
 
 250T 
 
 168.2 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at start 
 
 l: 0.5 
 
 251.4 
 
 149.5 
 
 130.5 ' 
 
 251.4 
 
 149.5 
 
 Gain or loss 
 
 105.5 
 
 —22.7 
 
 26.4 
 
 97.7 
 
 - .8 
 
 18.7 
 
 ELACK MARSH SOIL WHICH HAD 
 
 BEEN IN CORN YIELDING 
 
 BETTER CROPS. 
 
 
 Total soluble salts at close 
 
 
 1,587. 
 
 1,145. 
 
 1, 172. 
 
 1,510. 
 
 4,371. 
 
 Total soluble salts at start 
 
 910.4 
 
 1,374. 
 
 1,538. 
 
 910.4 
 
 1,374. 
 
 1,538. 
 
 Gain or loss 
 
 401.6 
 
 213. 
 
 --93. 
 
 231.6 
 
 166. 
 
 -167. 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at close 
 
 ~i33ir 
 
 192.5 
 
 170.2 
 
 81.9 
 
 152.0 
 
 142.0 
 
 Total nitric nitrogen at start 
 
 97.4 
 
 137.8 
 
 196.9 
 
 97.4 
 
 137.8 
 
 196.9 
 
 Gain or loss 
 
 35.8 
 
 54.7 
 
 —26.7 
 
 -15.5 
 
 21.2 
 
 -54.9 
 
 No water was given to any of these cylinders during the 91 days ex- 
 cept that added at the start to bring them to standard weight, and there 
 was no leaching so that whatever gain or loss of nitric nitrogen oc- 
 curred must be explained by its production in the soil or its conversion 
 into some form not responding to the method; unless, indeed, they be 
 explained by errors of method or of observation. 
 
 If we bring together into a condensed table the gains and losses in the 
 several groups the results below will be found. 
 
 Table showing the gains and losses of nitric nitrogen and of soluble 
 salts from clay loam cultivated once per week , once in two weeks 
 and not at all after 91 days and without crops. Amounts are in 
 parts per million of dry soil. 
 
 Not 1 
 
 Cultivated 
 
 Cultivated Once 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Once Per Week. 
 
 in Two Weeks. 
 
 Nitric nitrcg3n in parts per million of dry soil. 
 
 
 1 ft. 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 1 ft. 
 
 2 ft. 3 ft. 1 1 ft. 
 
 i 1 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 After corn 
 
 26.45 
 26.18 
 29.06 
 2° 25 
 
 34.53 
 
 11.84 
 
 13.40 
 
 10.42 
 
 11.30 
 
 3.75 
 
 12.26 
 
 11.99 
 
 11.51 
 
 8.69 
 
 7 91 
 
 16.84 
 25.96 
 9 59 
 -29.36 
 
 13.03 
 
 5 46 8.70 18.90 
 10.03 11.92, 22.07 
 
 7.97 
 
 10.90 
 
 8.75 
 
 10.95 
 
 After clover 
 
 After oats 
 
 6.971 11.52 
 6.071 12.07 
 
 
 Aftp.r pnt.atops .... , 
 
 
 
 
 After beans, timothy 
 
 cinci boots* 
 
 -6.22 
 
 I 
 
 -2.04 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 18.79 
 
 10 14 
 
 1 10.47 
 
 7.21 
 
 4 16 
 
 ! 8.43 
 
 20 49 
 
 9 44 
 
 9.85 
 
 After corn 
 
 After clover 
 
 Total soluble salt in parts per million of dry soil. 
 
 107.8 
 
 126.9 
 85.8 
 
 -120.1 
 
 112.0 
 
 34 1 
 
 49.2 
 53.4 
 
 15.3 
 
 -110.8 
 
 51.9 
 
 25.7 
 
 24.1 
 
 2.2 
 
 10.5 
 
 59.4 
 
 121.7 
 
 44.3 
 —150.9 
 
 38.3 
 
 18.8 
 
 107.4 
 
 25.9 
 
 —1.7 
 
 —135.2 
 
 21.8 
 29.0 
 22 5 
 35.6 
 
 -30.5 
 
 65.3 
 
 105.3 
 
 I 17 8 
 37.1 
 
 -5.0 
 
 23.0 
 
 
 After potatoes 
 
 After beans, timothy 
 and beets 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 62.5 
 
 1 8.24 
 
 22.88 
 
 22.56 
 
 3.04 
 
 15.68 
 
 85.3 
 
 27.45 
 
 9.00 
 
Develovment of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 9 
 
 It will be seen from the grouping of the data in this and the preceding 
 table that — 
 
 1st. Nitrification has taken place at all depths down to three feet 
 below the surface, and hence that, in these cases, the process has not 
 been limited to the surface few inches. 
 
 2nd. As a general rule there has been the highest increase of nitric 
 nitrogen in the surface foot and the increase in the third foot has gen- 
 erally exceeded that in the second foot. 
 
 3rd. The increase of nitric nitrogen has been greater at all depths, 
 as a rule, where the soils have not been cultivated than where they 
 have been cultivated. 
 
 4th. In two groups of cylinders there has been a tendency for the 
 nitric nitrogen to decrease rather than 10 increase. 
 
 5th. There has been 22 per cent, more nitric nitrogen developed from 
 the soil after clover than from the soil after corn, and 13 per cent, more 
 than from that after oats during the 91 days. 
 
 6th. But the soil which had grown corn the same number of years 
 that the other soil had grown clover began this experiment with nearly 
 three times as much nitric nitrogen in it as the soil bearing clover did 
 and it closed the cultivation period with 17 per cent, more nitric nitro- 
 gen. 
 
 7th. The soil, growing oats, began the experiment with 2.6 times as 
 much nitric nitrogen as the clover soil did and it closed the cultivation 
 period with 13.8 per cent, more nitric nitrogen. 
 
 8th. The fertilizing power of clover appears to depend more upon 
 the form of nitrogenous material left in the soil which is capable of 
 rapid nitrification rather than upon nitrogen accumulated by it. 
 
 9th. With the marsh soil yielding poor crops there was in both cases 
 a heavy gain of nitric nitrogen in the first foot but in the soil giving 
 better yields there was only a small gain in the not cultivated ground 
 and a loss in the surface foot of cultivated ground. Indeed there was a 
 total mean gain in the poorer soil of 37.47 parts per million but one of 
 only 2.97 parts per million in the better soil for all three feet, while in 
 the case of clay loam the total mean gain was 8.77 parts per million of 
 nitric nitrogen. 
 
 We have in the plant house 9 cylinders with plastering sand upon 
 which clover and alfalfa were grown during 1898 and the total product 
 returned to the sand, with a view of developing humus in it. There are 
 four other cylinders containing the Minong pine barrens soil upon which 
 alfalfa was grown, the total crop being returned to the soil after each 
 cutting. 
 
 These cylinders were carried through the season of 91 days, with those 
 reported above, as fallow ground and the nitric nitrogen determined at 
 the close with the results given in the table which flows’: 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 Table showing the changes in nitric nitrogen in sands which had 
 occurred after an interval of 91 days of fallowing . Results are in 
 • parts per million of dry sand. Amounts are in parts per million 
 of dry soil. 
 
 
 After Clover on 
 Plastering Sand. 
 
 After Alfalfa on 
 Plastering Sand. 
 
 After Alfalfa on 
 Pine Barrens Sand. 
 
 
 1st ft. 
 
 2nd ft. 
 
 3rd ft. 
 
 1st ft 
 
 2nd ft. 
 
 3rd ft. 
 
 1st ft. 
 
 2nd ft. 
 
 3rd ft. 
 
 Total nitric ni- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 trogen at close 
 
 14.5 
 
 5.95 
 
 3.40 
 
 23.92 
 
 12.60 
 
 12 53 
 
 52.03 
 
 23.22 
 
 12.68 
 
 Total nitric ni- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 trogen at start 
 
 0.00 
 
 0.00 
 
 0.00 
 
 1 40 
 
 1.28 
 
 0.83 
 
 1 65 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.62 
 
 Gain 
 
 14.50 
 
 5.55 
 
 3 40 
 
 22.52 
 
 11.32 
 
 11.80 
 
 50.37 . 
 
 22.72 
 
 12.06 
 
 It will be seen that in this case there has been a notable change in the 
 nitric nitrogen, amounting to 17.18 parts per million of dry sand as a 
 mean of the whole series for the three feet in depth; while the mean 
 gain in the clay loam after clover was only 15.93 parts per million of 
 dry soil. 
 
 These results corroborate the statement made under 8th, and suggest 
 that the clovers leave a soil in such a condition that the rate of develop- 
 ment of nitric nitrogen in them is more rapid than after other crops, 
 like oats and corn. 
 
 NITRIC NITROGEN AND SOLUBLE SALTS IN THE STIRRED SOIL OF CULTIVATED 
 GROUND AND NEAR THE SURFACE OF THAT NOT STIRRED. 
 
 The data presented in the last section do not indicate that surface til- 
 lage to a depth of three inches exerts a notable influence on the forma- 
 tion of nitrates or other salts below the soil stirred. What evidence 
 they bear appears to suggest that under those conditions the tillage may 
 even have retarded the process under consideration. 
 
 At the close of that experiment a composite sample of soil, from all of 
 the loam cylinders not cultivated, was taken of the surface half inch 
 and of the second and third half inches to note the degree of concen- 
 tration of salts there. Similar samples were taken from the marsh 
 soils. Composites, too, were taken of all of the mulches developed in 
 the cultivation of the several groups of cylinders. The determination 
 of the salts in these samples are given in the table below: 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 11 
 
 Table showing the nitric nitrogen and soluble salts in the surface of 
 soils not cultivated and in the stirred portion of cultivated soils. 
 Amounts are in parts per million of dry soil. 
 
 
 
 Surface 
 
 half-inch. 
 
 2nd and 3d 
 half-inch. 
 
 Dif- 
 
 ference. 
 
 
 \ Soluble salts . . . 
 
 1,198 
 
 170.4 
 
 1,027 6 
 
 
 ( Nitric nitrogen 
 
 330.6 
 
 26 91 
 
 303 . 69 
 
 Marsh soil yielding poorest crops.. 
 
 5 Soluble salts . . . 
 
 ] Nitric nitrogen. 
 
 4,685 
 
 839 44 
 
 2,300 
 
 324.0 
 
 2,385 
 
 505.44 
 
 Marsh soil yielding better crops 
 
 \ Soluble salts 
 
 ) Nitric nitroeen. 
 
 2,678 
 
 297.16 
 
 1,250 
 
 75.39 
 
 1,428 
 
 221.77 
 
 
 
 Cultivated 
 once per 
 week. 
 
 Cultivated 
 once in two 
 weeks. 
 
 Dif- 
 
 ference. 
 
 Stirred portion of soil, clay loam. .. 
 
 ( Soluble salts 
 
 ( Nitric nitrogen. 
 
 321.6 
 
 98.16 
 
 244 2 
 53.01 
 
 77.4 
 
 45.15 
 
 Marsh soil yielding poorest crops. .. 
 
 \ Soluble salts 
 
 1 Nitric nitrogen 
 
 2,174 
 
 353.16 
 
 1,566 
 
 168.72 
 
 608 
 
 184.44 
 
 Marsh soil yielding better crops 
 
 j Soluble salts — 
 
 1 Nitric nitrogen. 
 
 1,418 
 99.14 
 
 7 §2 
 
 65 02 
 
 636 
 
 34.12 
 
 In this table it will be seen that the soils stirred once per week have 
 developed much more nitric acid than those stirred but once in two 
 weeks, the^clay loam showing an increase of 85.17 per cent., and since 
 the soil was stirred three inches deep it represents one-fourth of an acre- 
 foot, or, for this soil, about 685,000 lbs. in round numbers, In which 
 there was a gain of 45.15 parts per million of nitric nitrogen and where 
 this is expressed as calcium and magnesium nitrates would weigh 170 
 lbs. per acre. This is nearly enough for 20 bushels of wheat. 
 
 In the case of the marsh soil yielding the poorest crops there was an 
 increase of nitric nitrogen of 109.3 per cent, but on the other soil of 
 the same type, giving the better yields, the increase was only 52.48 per 
 cent. 
 
 These observations stand in such sharp and strong contrast as to the 
 influence of frequency of cultivation on the development of nitrates in 
 a soil that it appears strange that stronger evidence is not found when 
 the samples of the first, second and third feet are compared and that 
 there is clearly stronger nitrification in the cylinders of clay loam not 
 cultivated. To this it should be said that the stronger drying of the 
 soil in cylinders not cultivated resulted in more or less shrinkage away 
 from the walls and that this would permit better aeration, because 
 where the mulches were maintained there was less shrinkage and if 
 shrinkage did occur, the stirring of the mulch would keep shrinkage 
 cracks closed so far as a mulch could do so. 
 
 The larger amount of nitric nitrogen in the bottom foot of so many 
 cylinders may be due to one or all of three causes: 1st. The cylinders 
 have the construction and are filled as represented in Fig. 1. No water 
 stood in the bottom of the cylinders and the caps on the outlets are 
 
12 
 
 Bulletin No. 85, 
 
 only screwed on with the fingers and are not likely to be perfectly air- 
 tight. It is not impossible therefore that some aeration may have oc- 
 curred here but it is not clear how it could have been large. 2nd. In 
 those cases where we have washed out the roots of plants grown in such 
 cylinders we have found that they form a dense mat on the bottom of 
 the can and if this had occurred in these cases there would be more or- 
 ganic matter to decompose and give rise to nitric nitrogen. 3rd. The 
 capillary rise of soil moisture may have caused more salts to pass from 
 the second into the first foot than passed from the third into the second 
 tending to develop such a distribution as that observed. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Showing construction of plant house cylinders. A, outlet; B, tile; C, 
 
 layer of sand. 
 
 SERIES II. INFLUENCE OF FREQUENCY AND DEPTH OF TILLAGE ON THE FOR- 
 MATION OF NITRIC NITROGEN AND SOLUBLE SALTS. 
 
 We have conducted a second series of observations bearing upon the 
 influence of tillage on the formation of nitrates, using the cylinders rep- 
 resented in Fig. 2. Twenty of these were filled with a thoroughly 
 mixed and uniform clay loam a little coarser than that used in the plant 
 house. When filled they were divided into two groups of ten each, one 
 set to be cultivated once per week and the other once in two weeks. In 
 each set there were — 
 
 1st. 2 cylinders not cultivated. 
 
 2d. 2 cylinders cultivated 1 inch deep. 
 
 3d. 2 cylinders cultivated 2 inches deep. 
 
 4th. 2 cylinders cultivated 3 inches deep. 
 
 5th. 2 cylinders cultivated 4 inches deep. 
 
 In developing the mulch it was done by removing the soil from the 
 full cylinder to a depth of the desired thickness of mulch and then re- 
 turning so much of it as needed to fill the cylinder level full without 
 jarring or tamping. 
 
 The cultivation was done by removing the entire mulch into a dish 
 and then returning it to place again each time. 
 
 The experiment was begun in Dec., 1899, and closed August 27, 1900. 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 13 
 
 On this date the soil was removed from each cylinder in layers having 
 the thickness designated in the table below. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Showing construction of small cylinders used in studying influence of 
 depth and frequency of cultivation on the formation of nitrates in the soil. 
 
 Table showing the influence of depth and frequency of tillage on the 
 development of nitric nitrogen in clay loams . 
 
 
 Depth of 
 sample. 
 
 Not 
 
 cultivat- 
 
 Cultivated to the 
 Depth of 
 
 
 ed. 
 
 1 in. 
 
 1 2in - 
 
 | 3 in. 
 
 j 4 in. 
 
 
 Parts per million of dry soil. 
 
 Cultivated once per week ... . 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 
 
 | Surface to 1 in, 
 
 544.92] 
 
 170.45 
 
 240.50 
 
 266.20 
 
 195.20 
 
 278.73 
 
 257.58 
 
 267.68 
 
 223.25 
 
 Difference 
 
 
 
 70.05 
 
 71.00 
 
 21.15 
 
 44.43 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cultivated once per week .... 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 
 
 | 1 in. to 2 in 
 
 173.52] 
 
 134.48 
 
 105.41 
 
 256.52 
 
 65.39 
 
 278.98 
 
 281.43 
 
 295.74 
 
 129.60 
 
 Difference 
 
 
 
 29.07 
 
 191.13 
 
 +2.45 
 
 166.14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cultivated once per week — 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 
 
 | 2 in. to 3 in 
 
 54.10 -j 
 
 53.79 
 
 59.54 
 
 114761 
 
 84.32 
 
 _ 113j69 
 119.04 
 
 ~ 127751 
 97.92 
 
 Difference 
 
 
 
 +5.75 
 
 30.29 
 
 +5.36 
 
 29.59 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cultivated once per week — 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 
 
 |^3 in. to 4 in 
 
 30.62] 
 
 43.30 
 
 28.36 
 
 72^82 
 
 38.84 
 
 59.76 
 
 52.36 
 
 73 35 
 56.20 
 
 Difference 
 
 
 
 14.94 
 
 33.98 
 
 7 40 
 
 17.15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cultivated once per week — 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 
 
 j- 4 in. to 8 in 
 
 26.78] 
 
 34.14 
 
 28.06 
 
 ~53789 
 
 31.43 
 
 5C31 
 
 39.31 
 
 55.11 
 
 32.83 
 
 Difference .. 
 
 
 
 6.08 
 
 22.46 
 
 12.00 
 
 22.28 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cultivated once per week — 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 
 
 ^8 in. to 12 in. .. 
 
 16.54] 
 
 28^56 
 
 23.46 
 
 36.14 
 
 21.89 
 
 ~ 35.91 
 25.14 
 
 33~28 
 
 24.62 
 
 Difference .. 
 
 
 
 5.10 
 
 14.25 
 
 10.77 
 
 8 66 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cultivated once per week .... 
 
 ^ 12 in. to 16 in . . 
 
 4.84] 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 
 
 8.04 
 
 7.33 
 
 6.68 
 
 6.60 
 
 Difference 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cultivated once per week 
 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 
 
 j 16 in. to 20 in.. 
 
 0.00 ] 
 
 
 
 
 
 .66 
 
 .00 
 
 .00 
 
 .00 
 
 Diffpronoo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
14 
 
 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 It will be seen from this table that there are but four cases where the 
 nitrates developed under the cultivation once in two weeks are not less 
 than those where the cultivation was once per week and this is true 
 to a depth of a full foot at least. 
 
 It is unfortunate that only one of the series of cylinders was exam- 
 ined in the two lower layers, for the figures indicate that there would 
 have been a difference even in the next layer. 
 
 It is to be noted that the lower layer which was completely saturated 
 with water shows no nitric nitrogen and yet the cylinders were kept 
 supplied with water containing an average of about 5.4 parts per mil- 
 lion of nitric nitrogen when fresh from thu well, but this amount was 
 decreased on standing in the tank. 
 
 Since there was no nitric acid in the lower zone of soil it would ap- 
 pear that the nitric nitrogen found in the zones above must have either 
 existed in the soil when the cylinders were filled or else it must have 
 been developed during the interval of the experiment, either from 
 humus in the soil, or in part from the humus and in part from a reduc- 
 tion product of the nitrates in the water added. 
 
 The amounts of nitric nitrogen in the surface foot of the plant 
 house cylinders described under series I, page 6, after the 91 days of 
 fallowing were, on the average for the clay loam 
 
 Not cultivated.. 162.42 lbs. 
 
 Cultivated once per week 116.20 lbs. 
 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 95.04 lbs. 
 
 The amounts of nitric nitrogen in the surface foot in the series of 
 smaller cylinders at the close of 258 days were: 
 
 Pounds per acre foot. 
 
 Not cultivated 325.48 
 
 Cultivated once per week 1 inch deep 217.60 
 
 Cultivated once per week 2 inches deep 323.44 
 
 Cultivated once per week 3 inches deep. 441.21 
 
 Cultivated once per week 4 inches deep 287.96 
 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 1 inch deep 213.29 
 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 2 inches deep 199.00 
 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 3 inches deep 401.68 
 
 Cultivated once in two weeks 4 inches deep 245.26 
 
 This is counting 4,000,000 pounds of dry soil to the acre foot. 
 
 It will be seen that here is a very large increase of nitric nitrogen in 
 a form immediately available in crop production. The amount pro- 
 duced under the three and four inch cultivation was in round numbers, 
 400 lbs. per acre of soil one foot deep. This is available nitrogen enough 
 per acre to produce 250 bushels of wheat. 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF NITRIC ACID IN FALLOW GROUND AND ITS LOSS THROUGH 
 THE WINTER AND EARLY SPRING. 
 
 In the 16th Annual Report, p. 237, it was shown that the mean amount 
 of nitric nitrogen found in the upper four feet of the nine fallow plots 
 had come to be 95.5 lbs. per acre on Aug. 22. Before winter set in 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 15 
 
 trenches were made on all sides of the fallow ground, throwing up the 
 earth to form a border preventing any water which fell upon the ground 
 running away, and to prevent any surface wash upon it, the object being 
 to secure all leaching possible to natural precipitation and to prevent 
 any other. 
 
 On April 30, 1900, samples of soil were taken in one foot sections in 
 each of the nine plots to a depth of four feet and the nitric nitrogen de- 
 termined, with results given in the table below. 
 
 Table sho wing the amount of nitric nitrogen found in fallow ground 
 after the leaching of winter and early spring. Pounds per mil- 
 lion of dry soil. 
 
 No. of plot. 
 
 Apr. 3C, 1900.. 
 Aug. 22, 1899... 
 
 Apr. 30, 1900.. 
 Aug. 22, 18*9.. 
 
 Apr. 30, 1900.., 
 Aug. 22, 1889... 
 
 Apr. 30, 1900.., 
 Aug. 22, 1899... 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 ' 
 
 9 
 
 j- 1st foot..'! 
 
 75.90 
 
 16.81 
 
 58.31 
 
 13.58 
 
 58.08 
 
 26.67 
 
 55.22 
 
 26.80 
 
 51.66 
 
 19.09 
 
 51.25 
 
 16.82 
 
 88.02 
 
 5.50 
 
 44.34 
 
 24.07 
 
 48.26 
 
 19.60 
 
 J" 2nd foot. | 
 
 15.81 
 
 4.34 
 
 16.75 
 
 7.75 
 
 7.97 
 
 1.81 
 
 6.51 
 
 9.07 
 
 13.06 
 
 5.74 
 
 15.66 
 
 2.76 
 
 17.33 
 
 1.43 
 
 18 56 
 6.06 
 
 14.85 
 
 6.61 
 
 j- 3rd foot. . -J 
 
 2.46 
 
 .70 
 
 4 75 
 0.51 
 
 4.93 
 
 2.48 
 
 4.89 
 
 .80 
 
 3.94 
 
 0.54 
 
 7.35 
 
 1.37 
 
 6.04 
 
 0.95 
 
 8.24 
 
 0.54 
 
 6.71 
 
 3.01 
 
 4th foot. . \ 
 
 2.95 
 
 .80 
 
 2.37 
 
 3 05 
 
 1.04 
 
 2.35 
 
 2.01 
 
 1.55 
 
 2 36 
 0.52 
 
 3 65 
 0.26 
 
 5.60 
 
 0.53 
 
 5.08 
 3 51 
 
 From this table it will be seen that there was more nitric nitrogen 
 in the soil at the beginning of May, 1900, than was found after being 
 cultivated every week or two weeks from May, 1899, until Aug. 22 of that 
 year with no crop on the ground. 
 
 Since we do not know how much nitric nitrogen was formed between 
 Aug. 22 and the time of freezing in the winter we do not know how 
 much leaching, if any, may have occurred. We do know, however, 
 that the amount of leaching was so small as to leave the nitrates in 
 the soil very large. 
 
 AMOUNT OF NITRIC NITROGEN IN FALLOW GROUND IN THE SPRING COMPARED 
 WITH THAT NOT FALLOW. 
 
 If an average of the amounts of nitric nitrogen found in the surface 
 four feet of the nine field plots in the spring is compared with the 
 amounts found in the upper four feet of the nine fallow plats they will 
 stand as given in the table below, and as shown graphically in Fig. 3. 
 
 Table shpwing the differences in the amounts of nitric nitrogen after 
 the winter and early spring rains in ground kept fallow and free 
 from weeds the previous season and that bearing crops. 
 
 Deptfe. 
 
 1st ft 
 
 2nd ft. 
 
 3rd ft. 
 
 4th ft. 
 
 Fallow plots, pounds per acre of dry soil 
 
 Plots not fallow, pounds per acre of dry soil 
 
 212.00 
 
 25.24 
 
 56.22 
 
 15.08 
 
 21.91 
 
 10.00 
 
 13.11 
 
 7.24 
 
 Difference 
 
 186.76 
 
 41.14 
 
 11.91 
 
 5.87 
 
 This is counting 4,000,000 pounds of dry soil to the acre food. 
 
16 
 
 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 CHANGES IN THE AMOUNTS OF NITRIC NITROGEN AND SOLUBLE SALTS UNDER 
 FIELD CROPS DURING THE GROWING SEASON. 
 
 The work of studying the seasonal changes of nitrates and other 
 soluble salts which was begun in 1899, was carried through 1900, the 
 work beginning in April, just after the frost left the ground, and con- 
 tinuing until Sept. 19, when most of the crops had completed their 
 growth and some had been harvested. Determinations of nitrates were 
 also made on Nov. 1 and Nov. 29. These are included in the general 
 table, pages 18 and 19, but not in the plotted curves. 
 
 The observed amounts of nitric nitrogen expressed as equal molecular 
 weights of calcium and magnesium nitrates are given for the thirteen 
 dates under the respective plots in the two tables on pp. 18 and 19, and 
 with these data are given the total salts as indicated by the electrical 
 method described under that head on page 40. 
 
 Referring to the nine plots under observation it will be seen that 
 there are three of corn and two of potatoes and four of clover and al- 
 falfa, but one of these carrying oats up to July 5th when they were cut 
 for hay. Each of the clover plots was cut three, the alfalfa four times 
 and the oat plot twice during the interval of observation and as these 
 plots were irrigated when the rain was deficient they have produced as 
 heavy yields as water and the fertility of the land would permit under 
 the seasonal conditions which existed. 
 
 We have in this series of studies therefore two types of conditions, 
 1st, one where the crop covers the entire surface and intertillage cannot 
 be practiced, and 2nd, the other where the crop occupies a portion only 
 of the surface, where intertillage may be practiced, and where a por- 
 tion of the soil approaches the conditions which would be given by cul- 
 tivated fallow ground, during the earlier part of the season. 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 17 
 
 To convey an idea of the differences in the nitrates and total soluble 
 salts which developed under these two types of cultivation we have 
 combined the data so as to show the mean amounts of nitrates and of 
 total salts in each of the four feet on the eleven dates from April 18 to 
 Sept. 19, under the two types of conditions. 
 
 Fig. 4.— Showing changes in the amounts of calciurp anti magnesium nitrates 
 and of total soluble salts during the growing season in soils under culti- 
 vated crops, corn and potatoes, and under crops not cultivated, clover, al- 
 falfa and oats. The shading of the nitrate curves for the first, second, third 
 and fourth feet correspond with those of the total salts in the cultivated 
 ground. 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No. 85, 
 
 These combined data are given in the table on page 20 and they 
 are shown graphically in the plate, Fig. 4, where it will be seen that the 
 nitrates of the surface foot of the culitvated ground increased rapidly 
 until the first of July, then falling very rapidly until August 1 when 
 the crops were making the most rapid growth. From this point there 
 was a slow rise until the corn was cut Sept. 1, and then one more rapid 
 until Sept. 19. On Nov. 1, the nitrates had increased to 85.43 on the cul- 
 tivated plots, falling again to 51.09 on Nov. 29. 
 
 Table giving the amounts of nitric nitrogen as calcium and magne- 
 sium nitrates and of total soluble salts in parts per million of 
 the dry soil on different dates during the season of 19C0.' 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 First Foot. 
 
 Second Foot. 
 
 Third 
 
 Foot. 
 
 Fourth 
 
 Foot. 
 
 Ca. and 
 Mg. 
 
 nitrates. 
 
 Total 
 
 salts. 
 
 Ca. and 
 Mg. 
 
 nitrates. 
 
 Total 
 
 salts. 
 
 Ca and 
 .Mg. 
 nitrates. 
 
 Total 
 
 salts. 
 
 Ca. and 
 Mg. 
 
 nitrates 
 
 Total 
 
 salts. 
 
 
 r 
 
 Apr. 18 
 
 14.19 
 
 61.21 
 
 34 65 
 
 126.70 
 
 31.51 
 
 97.72 
 
 26.40 
 
 91.79 
 
 
 
 May 2 
 
 88.44 
 
 123.40 
 
 54 01 
 
 138.90 
 
 29.20 
 
 90.46 
 
 16.22 
 
 52.72 
 
 
 
 
 162 05 
 
 246.80 
 
 50 98 
 
 152 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 May 31 
 
 141.79 
 
 151.50 
 
 33.22 
 
 109.10 
 
 19.96 
 
 84.05 
 
 14.19 
 
 60.52 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 209.84 
 
 
 74 84 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 July 2 
 
 150.61 
 
 150.80 
 
 57.71 
 
 147.00 
 
 13.40 
 
 99.52 
 
 11.99 
 
 71.71 
 
 ▼H 
 
 
 July 18 
 
 28.38 
 
 
 38.66 
 
 
 12.88 
 
 
 6.41 
 
 
 +3 
 
 O 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 12.45 
 
 63.01 
 
 41.74 
 
 131.10 
 
 33.93 
 
 122.50 
 
 12.87 
 
 ■**68!80 
 
 rr* 
 
 
 
 21.09 
 
 68 50 
 
 28.43 
 
 112.30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 12.41 
 
 69.31 
 
 17.46 
 
 111.10 
 
 8.21 
 
 100.30 
 
 7.02 
 
 59.92 
 
 
 
 Sept. 19 
 
 34.04 
 
 71.47 
 
 30.63 
 
 106.10 
 
 13.97 
 
 79 92 
 
 10.89 
 
 57.95 
 
 
 | 
 
 N ov. 1 
 
 39.27 
 
 
 25.66 
 
 
 21.72 
 
 
 9.68 
 
 
 
 
 Nov . 29 
 
 40.59 
 
 
 41.03 
 
 
 20.79 
 
 
 11.77 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 Apr. 18 
 
 36.63 
 
 163.10 
 
 28.87 
 
 244.00 
 
 33.60 
 
 196.10 
 
 17.60 
 
 134.20 
 
 
 
 May 2 
 
 48.78 
 
 175 50 
 
 37.84 
 
 207.40 
 
 27.77 
 
 149.10 
 
 21.17 
 
 95.39 
 
 
 
 May 16 
 
 157 52 
 
 217.40 
 
 57.75 
 
 241.70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 May 31 
 
 114 40 
 
 202 70 
 
 35.03 
 
 259.40 
 
 22.00 
 
 198.80 
 
 16.28 
 
 143.10 
 
 0 
 
 
 June 14 
 
 133 90 
 
 
 53.92 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f- 
 
 o 
 
 
 July 2 
 
 125.73 
 
 222 70 
 
 36.60 
 
 240.30 
 
 20.98 
 
 138.90 
 
 14.38 
 
 64.00 
 
 O -j 
 
 
 * July 18 
 
 13 42 
 
 
 35.11 
 
 
 19.25 
 
 
 12.04 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 6*98 
 
 116.40 
 
 s!o9 
 
 168.70 
 
 11.77 
 
 "ie2!io 
 
 16.44 
 
 174.50 
 
 4-> 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 7.95 
 
 127.30 
 
 3.99 
 
 180.80 
 
 
 
 
 
 JO 
 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 7.01 
 
 102.00 
 
 4.08 
 
 140.20 
 
 8.05 
 
 85.76 
 
 13.46 
 
 79.34 
 
 QLi 
 
 
 Sept. 19 
 
 15.51 
 
 107.10 
 
 5.39 
 
 140.30 
 
 8.96 
 
 103.60 
 
 13.86 
 
 60.77 
 
 
 
 N ov. 1 
 
 44.89 
 
 
 21.12 
 
 
 21.01 
 
 
 17.98 
 
 
 
 
 Nov. 29 
 
 22.22 
 
 
 10.89 
 
 
 11.93 
 
 
 10.39 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 Apr. 18 
 
 14 90 
 
 143.70 
 
 5.67 
 
 136.90 
 
 8.25 
 
 153.70 
 
 3.19 
 
 60.38 
 
 
 
 May 2 
 
 19.91 
 
 110.50 
 
 15.34 
 
 213.00 
 
 8.09 
 
 110.10 
 
 6.32 
 
 71.83 
 
 
 
 May 16 
 
 72.23 
 
 110.10 
 
 15.12 
 
 173.90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 May 31 
 
 89.01 
 
 134.60 
 
 11.52 
 
 161.40 
 
 3.26 
 
 99.91 
 
 4.32 
 
 59.35 
 
 0 I 
 
 
 June 14 
 
 90 09 
 
 
 12 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 July 2 
 
 57.45 
 
 127.80 
 
 6.44 
 
 168.60 
 
 2.92 
 
 93 95 
 
 2.06 
 
 51.58 
 
 o -i 
 
 
 July 18 
 
 4.19 
 
 
 5.12 
 
 
 1.98 
 
 
 1.92 
 
 
 oT 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 2.54 
 
 69 07 
 
 0.83 
 
 177 20 
 
 3.05 
 
 134 !20 
 
 3.25 
 
 66.10 
 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 2.78 
 
 86.36 
 
 1.38 
 
 156.70 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 6.24 
 
 68.00 
 
 1.41 
 
 173.60 
 
 2.06 
 
 102.30 
 
 2.91 
 
 61.67 
 
 Oh I 
 
 
 Sept.19 
 
 12.76 
 
 73.98 
 
 0.00 
 
 189.30 
 
 0.69 
 
 108.70 
 
 3.24 
 
 43.94 
 
 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 25.68 
 
 
 3.36 
 
 
 2.86 
 
 
 2.97 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Nov. 29 
 
 30.58 
 
 
 7.92 
 
 
 1.15 
 
 
 3.08 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 Apr. 18 
 
 34.21 
 
 89.41 
 
 10.89 
 
 131.40 
 
 9.79 
 
 128.50 
 
 11.39 
 
 83.93 
 
 
 
 May 2 
 
 42.18 
 
 126.30 
 
 7.01 
 
 154 70 
 
 8.42 
 
 128.40 
 
 3.30 
 
 62.98 
 
 
 
 May 16 
 
 103.18 
 
 191 60 
 
 13 88 
 
 153 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 £ 
 
 
 May 31 
 
 150 35 
 
 308! 50 
 
 20 ! 13 
 
 153.00 
 
 4.76 
 
 105.30 
 
 2.65 
 
 78.87 
 
 
 
 JuD0 14 
 
 162 14 
 
 
 13 54 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Q 
 
 
 July 2 
 
 276/28 
 
 392.00 
 
 1315 
 
 178.80 
 
 4.22 
 
 117.80 
 
 2.85 
 
 78.59 
 
 ft < 
 
 
 July 18 
 
 91 08 
 
 
 51 78 
 
 
 5.06 
 
 
 4 73 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 37.83 
 
 121.50 
 
 46.12 
 
 269.60 
 
 8.58 
 
 235.00 
 
 4.99 
 
 210 50 
 
 
 
 Augy 25 
 
 30.58 
 
 132 . 70 
 
 29 32 
 
 226 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 30!66 
 
 108 ! 60 
 
 27.39 
 
 192.30 
 
 18.59 
 
 146.90 
 
 9.47 
 
 87.02 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Sept. 19 
 
 42.79 
 
 130.70 
 
 26.67 
 
 199.70 
 
 9.57 
 
 150.90 
 
 7.48 
 
 99.83 
 
 
 
 
 113.90 
 
 
 51.98 
 
 
 15.51 
 
 
 10.07 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Nov. 9 
 
 66! 00 
 
 
 36! 96 
 
 
 17,55 
 
 
 12.64 
 
 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 19 
 
 Table giving the amounts of nitric nitrogen as calcium and magne- 
 sium nitrates — Continued. 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 First Foot. 
 
 Second 
 
 Foot. 
 
 Third Foot. 
 
 Fourth 
 
 Foot. 
 
 Ca. and 
 Mg. 
 
 nitrates. 
 
 Total 
 
 salts. 
 
 Ca. and 
 Mg. 
 
 nitrates 
 
 Total 
 
 salts. 
 
 Ca. and 
 .Mg. 
 nitrates. 
 
 Total 
 
 salts. 
 
 Ca. and 
 Mg. 
 
 nitrates. 
 
 Total 
 
 salts. 
 
 r 
 
 Apr. 18 
 
 39.05 
 
 70.71 
 
 26.73 
 
 127.00 
 
 6.76 
 
 101.40 
 
 7.64 
 
 46.98 
 
 . i 
 
 May 2 
 
 27.77 
 
 69.84 
 
 13.53 
 
 97.65 
 
 6.60 
 
 98 05 
 
 9.19 
 
 34.52 
 
 
 May 16 
 
 82 74 
 
 116.70 
 
 6.65 
 
 91 01 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 May SI 
 
 152.46 
 
 187.90 
 
 12.21 
 
 94.32 
 
 3.00 
 
 111.40 
 
 8.63 
 
 58 20 
 
 cd 
 
 Jure 14 
 
 142.45 
 
 
 14.70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 1 
 
 July 2 
 
 174.59 
 
 188.60 
 
 8 58 
 
 116 60 
 
 3.83 
 
 116 30 
 
 6.74 
 
 55.00 
 
 ft J 
 
 July 18 
 
 
 
 60 28 
 
 
 7.62 
 
 
 8.52 
 
 
 CD 1 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 16.85 
 
 72.02 
 
 31.08 
 
 198.90 
 
 13 24 
 
 135.40 
 
 7.98 
 
 70l72 
 
 
 
 21.75 
 
 73.08 
 
 37.12 
 
 167.40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aug- 30 
 
 45.92 
 
 98 02 
 
 32.61 
 
 119.40 
 
 11.44 
 
 131.70 
 
 9.24 
 
 98.84 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 19 
 
 79.11 
 
 120.90 
 
 30.25 
 
 158.20 
 
 14.41 
 
 146.50 
 
 9.35 
 
 79.28 
 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 203.39 
 
 
 87 62 
 
 
 21.50 
 
 
 13.92 
 
 
 l 
 
 f 
 
 
 96.08 
 
 
 38.61 
 
 
 22.99 
 
 
 14.30 
 
 
 Apr. 18 
 
 21.78 
 
 117.90 
 
 17.05 
 
 169.50 
 
 23.26 
 
 94.95 
 
 13.36 
 
 30.44 
 
 
 May 2 
 
 28.87 
 
 99.43 
 
 20 51 
 
 134.10 
 
 12.21 
 
 69.20 
 
 10 83 
 
 23.22 
 
 
 May 16 
 
 36.68 
 
 109.00 
 
 7.45 
 
 119 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 May 31 
 
 33.41 
 
 120.00 
 
 6.16 
 
 119.00 
 
 3.67 
 
 72.21 
 
 4.60 
 
 177.00 
 
 > 
 
 June 14 
 
 4 98 
 
 
 3 68 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 July 2 
 
 22 00 
 
 109.50 
 
 2.80 
 
 124.50 
 
 2.40 
 
 59.06 
 
 2 83 
 
 26.12 
 
 
 July 18 
 
 10.28 
 
 
 4.05 
 
 
 2.82 
 
 
 3.60 
 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 13.42 
 
 88.3* 
 
 6.05 
 
 i 63 ' 20 
 
 3.30 
 
 92.82 
 
 2 . 87 
 
 42 71 
 
 o 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 30.85 
 
 116.20 
 
 6.62 
 
 127.40 
 
 
 
 
 
 S ' 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 30.54 
 
 110.M) 
 
 6.85 
 
 >77.20 
 
 .68 
 
 72.92 
 
 3.13 
 
 33.63 
 
 1 
 
 Sept.19 
 
 6.85 
 
 75.30 
 
 4.70 
 
 124.30 
 
 3.53 
 
 57.46 
 
 2.66 
 
 38.89 
 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 10.32 
 
 
 4.52 
 
 
 3.47 
 
 
 1.85 
 
 
 L 
 
 Nov. 29 
 
 9.30 
 
 
 2.97 
 
 
 2.09 
 
 
 1.60 
 
 
 r 
 
 Apr. 18 
 
 19.52 
 
 89.72 
 
 24.97 
 
 211 20 
 
 12.37 
 
 169.40 
 
 8.91 
 
 75.26 
 
 
 May 2 
 
 24.31 
 
 102.60 
 
 20.95 
 
 194 30 
 
 20.29 
 
 89.50 
 
 13.31 
 
 73.31 
 
 rQ \ 
 
 May 16 
 
 57.53 
 
 112.10 
 
 41.0-4 
 
 215.10 
 
 
 
 
 
 <D \ 
 
 © -J 1 
 
 May 31 
 
 60.74 
 
 127.00 
 
 56.32 
 
 216.40 
 
 19.02 
 
 130 90 
 
 10.39 
 
 119.00 
 
 “ £ 
 
 June 14 
 
 12.24 
 
 
 35.75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m > 1 
 
 July 2 
 
 3.49 
 
 64.67 
 
 .81 
 
 130.00 
 
 4.40 
 
 121.40 
 
 6.10 
 
 97.65 
 
 
 July 18 
 
 2.67 
 
 
 4 . 52 
 
 
 5.61 
 
 
 5.99 
 
 
 O © 1 
 
 ' o 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 6.93 
 
 80.36 
 
 6 38 
 
 i72M0 
 
 6 73 
 
 122.00 
 
 7.18 
 
 * 124 ' 50 
 
 I 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 2.81 
 
 78.36 
 
 2.83 
 
 146.80 
 
 
 
 
 
 O ] 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 9.62 
 
 77.98 
 
 .71 
 
 133.60 
 
 0.00 
 
 86.00 
 
 4.42 
 
 58.58 
 
 Oj | 
 
 N ov. 1 
 
 5 82 
 
 
 3.51 
 
 
 1.41 
 
 
 6.17 
 
 
 l 
 
 r 
 
 Nov. 29 
 
 5.72 
 
 
 2 91 
 
 
 
 3.85 
 
 
 4.84 
 
 
 .£pr. 18 
 
 18 26 
 
 79 29 
 
 14.62 
 
 141 20 
 
 4.18 
 
 148.50 
 
 3.30 
 
 104.70 
 
 1 
 
 May 2 
 
 21.94 
 
 120.30 
 
 10.34 
 
 149.90 
 
 4.89 
 
 155.00 
 
 4.88 
 
 145.30 
 
 ! 
 
 May 16 
 
 25.09 
 
 105.70 
 
 3.35 
 
 149.40 
 
 
 
 
 
 © i 
 
 May 31 
 
 10.45 
 
 68.58 
 
 4.7.7 
 
 127.80 
 
 i 96 
 
 140.60 
 
 2.72 
 
 189.20 
 
 o I 
 
 June 14 
 
 4 18 
 
 
 3.59 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r-H ! 
 
 © J 
 
 July 2 
 
 16.88 
 
 90.16 
 
 3 19 
 
 i32.00 
 
 0.00 
 
 152.40 
 
 0.68 
 
 202.70 
 
 
 July 18 
 
 7.70 
 
 
 2.65 
 
 
 0.00 
 
 
 1.09 
 
 
 ■S 1 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 4.43 
 
 " 88* 6i 
 
 2.43 
 
 "moo 
 
 0.00 
 
 176.60 
 
 0 00 
 
 164 . 50 
 
 £ 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 22.61 
 
 93.41 
 
 5.72 
 
 156.90 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft 1 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 30.77 
 
 105.30 
 
 4.59 
 
 140.70 
 
 1.11 
 
 135.60 
 
 1.91 
 
 204.20 
 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 10.28 
 
 
 4.46 
 
 
 4.7:- 
 
 
 2.86 
 
 
 l 
 
 Nov. 29 
 
 9.18 
 
 
 , 3.96 
 
 
 1.48 
 
 
 2.58 
 
 
 f 
 
 Apr. 18 
 
 3.66 
 
 65 39 
 
 4.29 
 
 111 20 
 
 3.38 
 
 107.60 
 
 3.79 
 
 37 71 
 
 1 
 
 May 2 
 
 10.17 
 
 74.23 
 
 6.93 
 
 132.00 
 
 6.65 
 
 85.57 
 
 4.62 
 
 53.84 
 
 - 
 
 May 16 
 
 19.44 
 
 65.81 
 
 8.11 
 
 97 97 
 
 
 
 
 
 <2 1 
 
 May 31 
 
 8.16 
 
 13.11 
 
 6.14 
 
 105.30 
 
 4.50 
 
 106.10 
 
 5.66 
 
 62.66 
 
 3 
 
 J une 14 
 
 3.84 
 
 
 4 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 July 2 
 
 5.79 
 
 59 02 
 
 .2.69 
 
 i03 . 90 
 
 2.14 
 
 93.61 
 
 1.28 
 
 79.27 
 
 C3 \ 
 
 July 18 
 
 5.20 
 
 
 2 24 
 
 
 2.02 
 
 
 1.90 
 
 
 OO 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 5.25 
 
 ' 63.76 
 
 2.24 
 
 135.10 
 
 2.41 
 
 120.20 
 
 2.62 
 
 87.59 
 
 4-3 1 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 4.67 
 
 56 . 63 
 
 3.15 
 
 116.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 SI 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 12.32 
 
 67.03 
 
 2 83 
 
 116.60 
 
 l.3t 
 
 80.30 
 
 1.82 
 
 65.78 
 
 ft 1 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 6.22 
 
 
 0 88 
 
 
 3 1! 
 
 
 1 32 
 
 
 l 
 
 Nov. 29 
 
 8.52 
 
 
 2.88 1 
 
 
 
 • 2.3] 
 
 
 2.80 
 
 
20 
 
 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 Table giving the mean amounts of nitric, nitrogen as calcium and 
 magnesium nitrates and of total soluble salts in parts per million 
 of the dry soil on different dates during the season of 1900 for the 
 five plots in corn and potatoes and the four plots in clover , in 
 oats seeded to clover and in alfalfa. 
 
 
 
 First 
 
 Foot. 
 
 Second 
 
 Foot. 
 
 Third Foot. 
 
 Fourth Foot. 
 
 • 
 
 Date. 
 
 Ca. and 
 
 Total 
 
 Ca. and 
 
 Total 
 
 Ca. and 
 
 Total 
 
 Ca. and 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 Mg. 
 
 nitrates. 
 
 salts. 
 
 Mg. 
 
 nitrates 
 
 salts. 
 
 Mg. 
 
 nitrates. 
 
 salts. 
 
 Mg. 
 
 nitrates. 
 
 salts. 
 
 , r 
 
 Apr 18 
 
 27.79 
 
 105.63 
 
 21.35 
 
 153.20 
 
 17.97 
 
 155.48 
 
 13 25 
 
 83 46 
 
 g'2 1 
 
 May 2 
 
 45 42 
 
 181.46 
 
 25.55 
 
 161.32 
 
 16.01 
 
 113.27 
 
 11.23 
 
 71.40 
 
 
 May 16 
 
 115.54 
 
 
 28 87 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « § | 
 
 May 81 
 
 129.17 
 
 197.04 
 
 22.66 
 
 166.54 
 
 10.60 
 
 119.89 
 
 9.21 
 
 80.94 
 
 05 03 
 
 June 14 
 
 147 68 
 
 
 31.89 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w o 
 
 J uly 2 
 
 156.94 
 
 “216.38 
 
 21.50 
 
 170.26 
 
 8.91 
 
 113.29 
 
 7.60 
 
 64.18 
 
 50'S - 
 
 July 18 
 
 40.68 
 
 
 38 . 19 
 
 
 9 36 
 
 
 6.72 
 
 
 03 o . 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 14.91 
 
 88.40 
 
 26.97 
 
 "mu 
 
 14.42 
 
 157.85 
 
 9.11 
 
 118.12 
 
 - 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 17.43 
 
 
 20 05 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 20.45 
 
 ”‘89 ’.28 
 
 19.59 
 
 149.32 
 
 10.31 
 
 113.39 
 
 8.43 
 
 77.36 
 
 "o 3 ^ I 
 
 Sept 19 
 
 36 83 
 
 
 18.59 
 
 
 9.52 
 
 
 8 97 
 
 
 & 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 85.43 
 
 
 37.95 
 
 
 16.52 
 
 
 10.92 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Nov. 29 
 
 51.09 
 
 
 27.08 
 
 
 14.88 
 
 
 10 44 
 
 
 n f 
 
 Apr. 18 
 
 15.80 
 
 90.35 
 
 15.18 
 
 165.78 
 
 10.80 
 
 130.11 
 
 7.35 
 
 62.03 
 
 > O 
 
 May 2 
 
 21.32 
 
 105.24 
 
 14.68 
 
 158.10 
 
 11.66 
 
 110.17 
 
 8.41 
 
 85.39 
 
 O C3 
 
 May 16 
 
 34.69 
 
 
 14.96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ’« - 
 
 May 31 
 
 28.19 
 
 85.42 
 
 18.35 
 
 142.13 
 
 7.15 
 
 112 45 
 
 5.60 
 
 112.14 
 
 oojS^ 1 
 
 June 14 
 
 6.31 
 
 
 11.82 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tS a a J 
 
 July 2 
 
 12.02 
 
 80.84 
 
 2.38! 122.60 
 
 2.47 
 
 106.62 
 
 2.72 
 
 101.43 
 
 CS | 
 
 July 18 
 
 6.46 
 
 
 3.37 
 
 
 2.61 
 
 
 3 15 
 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 7 . 52 
 
 80.12 
 
 4.2 7 
 
 155: is 
 
 2.97 
 
 127.75 
 
 3.00 
 
 ”i04‘83 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 15 24 
 
 
 4 58 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 3 I 
 
 3 O 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 20.78 
 
 90.28 
 
 3.75 
 
 117.03 
 
 6.78 
 
 93 50 
 
 2.77 
 
 90.40 
 
 
 N ov. 1 
 
 8.16 
 
 
 3.34 
 
 
 3.20 
 
 
 3.05 
 
 
 a l 
 
 Nov. 29 
 
 8.18 
 
 
 3.17 
 
 
 2.43 
 
 
 2.96 
 
 
 With the clovers, on the other hand, or crops not cultivated, the 
 nitrates of the first foot had increased much more slowly, reaching a 
 maximum less than one-fifth as great June 1st or a month earlier. 
 From this point they declined slowly, reaching their lowest limit with 
 the other plots on Aug. 1, when they again rose until Aug. 31, hut fall- 
 ing to 8.16 Nov. 1, and 8.18 Nov. 29. 
 
 The curves show that the nitrates in the surface foot under the corn 
 and potatoes rose rapidly above those in any other depth until the 1st 
 of July when they were six times as concentrated as in the 2nd and 
 twenty-one times as in the fourth foot; but in thirty days more, at the 
 beginning of August, when these crops were growing rapidly, the 
 nitrates had been reduced from a mean of 423.9 lbs. per acre to 40.5 
 lbs. which means that nitric nitrogen enough for 383.4 lbs. of calcium 
 and magnesium nitrates had disappeared from the surface foot of the 
 corn and potato, or cultivated ground. After August 1, the nitrates of 
 the surface foot rose very slowly until the corn was cut Sept. 1 and 
 then more rapidly until the soil contained 99.36 cn Sept. 19, instead of 
 40.5 lbs. per acre and 23.41 lbs. on Nov. 1. 
 
 In the case of the not cultivated crops, clover, alfalfa and oats, the 
 fields startecbApril 18th with 42.66 lbs. of nitrates per acre in the 
 surface which increased to 76.14 lbs. on June 1st; from this date 
 
 the nitrates fell somewhat rapidly until July 1 and then more slowly 
 
Develovment of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 21 
 
 Wntil Aug. 1, when there was but 20.3 pounds per acre in the surface 
 foot. By the end of August, however, the nitrates in the surface foot 
 had become 56.1 lbs. per acre but had fallen to 22.3 lbs. Nov. 1. 
 
 In- the case of the total soluble salts there was at first on the culti- 
 vated ground a more rapid rise in the surface foot from 285.2 lbs. per 
 acre on April 18 to 489.9 lbs. on May 1, and reaching the highest point 
 with the nitrates July 1st when the amount was 584.2 lbs. per acre. 
 From this date there was a rapid decrease to 238.7 lbs. Aug. 1st. 
 
 Turning next to the not cultivated fields of clover, alfalfa and oats 
 they start at the going out of the frost April 18 with 243.9 lbs. of solu- 
 ble salts per acre in the surface foot, but rise rapidly in 14 days to 
 284.1 lbs. From this date there is a slow decrease until the time of 
 maximum amounts in the cultivated soils, when there is only 218.3 
 for the clovers instead of 584.2 lbs. where corn and potatoes were grow- 
 ing. After the first of July the total salts in the. surface foot remain 
 stationary until August, when they begin to rise, reaching 243.8 lbs. 
 Sept. 1st, or the same as at the beginning of the season. 
 
 If comparison is made between the changes in nitrates in the sec- 
 ond, third and fourth feet and in the total soluble salts for correspond- 
 ing depths it will be seen that the curves generally' go through the same 
 phases throughout the season under both the cultivated and not cul- 
 tivated crops, each rising and falling together but through a much 
 greater amplitude with the total salts where the amounts are so much 
 larger. 
 
 The most striking difference between the seasonal changes, both 
 of nitrates and total salts, in the first foot of soil, and in the next three 
 feet, is found in the much greater fluctuations recorded for the surface 
 foot. 
 
 RELATIVE AMOUNTS OF NITRATES AND TOTAL SOLUBLE SALTS IN FIELD SOILS. 
 
 The relation existing between the amount of nitric nitrogen in field 
 soils computed as calcium and magnesium nitrates and the total soluble 
 salts as indicated by the electrical resistance appears to be widely varia- 
 ble under different conditions. 
 
 As a general rule when the amounts of nitric nitrogen in clay loams 
 are very high the total salts are relatively very low. It even happens 
 that the electrical resistance will indicate but little more salts than are 
 required to account for the nitric nitrogen computed as calcium and 
 magnesium nitrates. Examples like the following will be found in the 
 tables on p. 7, multiplying the nitric nitrogen by 5.5 to reduce it to cal- 
 cium and magnesium nitrates: 
 
 Total soluble salts .• 
 
 182.1 
 
 1*6 fi 
 
 338.9 
 
 S13.4 
 
 Nitric nitrogen as calcium nitrates 
 
 168.7 
 
 181.0 
 
 348 8 
 
 380.6 
 
 Results like these suggest that the electrical resistance fails sig- 
 nally to give the amounts of salts dissolved in the soil water. But in 
 the absence of positive data as to just what salts may have been present 
 
22 
 
 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 with the nitrates in the above samples it does not appear impossible 
 and perhaps not improbable that the nitrates were the only water solu- 
 ble salts present. It is to be expected that if nitric acid is being formed 
 in the presence of calcium and magnesium carbonates these would be 
 decomposed to form the nitrates,, and if the nitric acid was sufficiently 
 
 Pig. 5. — Showing changes in the amount of calcium and magnesium nitrates dur- 
 ing the growing season under three plots of corn. The shadings for depths 
 correspond with those for the soluble salts in Fig. 6. 
 
 abundant possibly no bi-carbonates might remain in solution. If such 
 cases do ever occur it is quite likely that the remaining water soluble 
 salts in our clay loams would be sufficiently small to leave the results 
 consistent. 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 23 
 
 Again in the absence of evidence it may be anticipated that a strong 
 solution of nitrates may be incompatible with the bicarbonates of lime 
 and magnesia in the same solution, the strong nitrate solution, by phys- 
 ical action, causing precipitation just as the nitrates will cause floccu- 
 lation of clays in turbid waters. 
 
 Fig. 6.— Showing the changes in the amount of total soluble salts, as indicated 
 by the electrical resistance, during the growing season, under three plots 
 of corn. These curves are plotted on two-thirds the scale of that used for 
 the nitrates. 
 
Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 24 
 
 The ratio of total soluble salts to the nitrates in the surface foot of 
 the five cultivated fields is, on the average for the whole season, 2.14 to 
 1, while in the surface foot of the clover fields it is 4.8 to 1. For the 
 •2nd, 3rd and 4th feet for the season the ratio is 7.29 to 1 for the corn 
 •’and potato fields, and 9.97 to 1 for the clover, alfalfa and oats. 
 
 If the formation of nitrates in a soil does cause a destruction of the 
 bic&roonates in the soil water some such ratios as are found should be 
 expected. 
 
 Relation of the amount of nitric nitrogen and soluble salts in field 
 
 SOILS TO THE CROP PRODUCED. 
 
 In the two plates, Figs. 5 and 6, pp. 22, 23, are plotted the amounts 
 of nitric nitrogen as calcium and magnesium nitrates and the total 
 salts found in the surface four feet of soil under three corn plots at 
 eleven different dates during the growing season. We have an accur- 
 ate determination of the yield of dry .matter above ground in these 
 cases, but have not yet determined the total nitrogen and ash removed 
 with the crops. 
 
 It is clear from the curves plotted that marked differences existed in 
 the amounts both of nitrates and of .soluble salts in the soils. These 
 differences are associated with marked differences of yield. On plot 9, 
 where the nitrates did not reach 110 parts per million in the surface 
 foot, the mean yield of dry matter per acre was 8,010 lbs. and the nitro- 
 gen removed was 102.07 lbs., computed from the tables in the Year Book, 
 U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. Plot 3, where the nitrates were 133.9 parts 
 per million in the first foot, gave a yield of 11,440 lbs. of dry matter, 
 and removing 146.05 lbs. of nitrogen, while plot 1, with an amount of 
 nitrates in the first foot at one time reaching nearly 210 lbs. per mil- 
 lion, gave a yield of dry matter of 11,215 lbs. per acre and removed 
 139.88 lbs. of nitrogen. 
 
 In the case of these three fields of corn the largest yield was not as- 
 sociated with the soil having the highest per cent of nitrates, either 
 in the surface or lower feet. The heaviest yield is, however, associated 
 with the largest amount of soluble salts as shown in Fig. 6. 
 
 In the case of the two clover plots and the plot of alfalfa the yields 
 of dry matter per acre and of nitrogen removed were 
 
 
 Plot 2. 
 
 Plot 4. 
 
 Plot 7. 
 
 Plot 8. 
 
 Yield of dry matter 
 
 5,839 lbs. 
 134.5 
 
 6,289 lbs. 
 82.6 
 
 8,151 lbs. 
 187.7 
 
 8,502 lbs. 
 198.4 
 
 Computed nitrogen removed 
 
 If we count the changes in the amounts of nitric nitrogen in the soil 
 between the time when they were highest and when they were lowest 
 as representing nitrogen taken by the crops, the results will stand as 
 below: 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 25 
 
 
 Plot 1, 
 corn. 
 
 Plot 2, 
 clover. 
 
 Plot 3, 
 corn. 
 
 Plot 4, 
 oats and 
 clover. 
 
 Plot 7, 
 clover. 
 
 Plot 8, 
 alfalfa. 
 
 Plot 9, 
 corn. 
 
 Nitrogen taken by 
 crop, lbs. per acre 
 Nitrogen lost from 
 soil, lbs. per acre 
 
 139.88 
 
 i55 . 99 
 
 101.8 
 
 27.31 
 
 146.05 
 
 125.68 
 
 82.6 
 
 105.92 
 
 187.7 
 
 23.43 
 
 198.4 
 
 * 16.75 
 
 102.11 
 
 51 63: 
 
 Difference . .. 
 
 — 16. 11 
 
 64.49 
 
 20.37 
 
 -23.32 
 
 164.27 
 
 181.67 
 
 50.48'. 
 
 From this table it appears that for the corn of plot 1 and for the 
 oats and clover of plot 4 there was a loss of nitrogen from the soil 
 greater than that computed as being removed by the crop; but in each 
 of the other cases there has been a gain of nitric nitrogen in the soil 
 since the amount removed by the crop is greater than the change. 
 
 In the case of the three crops of alfalfa the nitrates were held so low 
 at all times during the season that the soil shows a loss of only 16.73 
 lbs., and this makes it appear that there must have been formed in the 
 soil during the season nitrates enough to supply the 182.67 lbs. addi- 
 tional needed or else that the crop obtained it indirectly from the air. 
 If it came from nitrates in the soil then there must have been formed, 
 to supply the deficiency, 1,004.69 lbs. of calcium and magnesium ni- 
 trates per acre. But referring to Fig. 7 it will be seen that both the 
 total salts and the nitrates were lower at all times under the alfalfa 
 than under either of the other plots. 
 
 The nitrates and total salts in the soil of the two potato plots are 
 represented in Fig. 8. The yield of plot 5 was 399 bushels per acre and 
 of plot 6, 368.9 bushels. 
 
 THE CLOSENESS WITH WHICH NITRATES ARE FED DOWN IN THE SOIL BY 
 DIFFERENT CROPS. 
 
 One of the most surprising results to us which has been brought out 
 by the past season’s work is the extremely small amounts of nitric 
 nitrogen which may exist in a soil at any one time and yet vigorous 
 plant growth and large yields be produced. 
 
 Referring to the curves of Figs. 4, 5, 7 and 8, or to the tables of pp. 
 18, 19, it will be seen that the nitrates in the field were held down so 
 low in the several feet during the 45 days following July 15th, that 
 there were only the amounts per acre* given in the table below: 
 
 Table showing the mean amount of nitrates per acre under differ- 
 ent crops between July 18 and Sept . 1 . 
 
 
 Corn, 
 Plot 1. 
 
 Clover, 
 Plot 2. 
 
 Corn, 
 Plot 3. 
 
 Oats 
 and 
 clover, 
 Plot 4. 
 
 Pota- 
 toes, 
 Plot 5. 
 
 Pota- 
 toes, 
 Plot 6. 
 
 Clover, 
 Plot 7. 
 
 Alfalfa 
 Plot 8. 
 
 Corn, 
 Plot 9. 
 
 Nitrates in 1st 
 
 Lbs.pr. 
 
 acre. 
 
 Lbs.pr. 
 
 acre. 
 
 Lbs.pr. 
 
 acre. 
 
 Lbs.pr. 
 
 acre. 
 
 Lbs.pr. 
 
 acre. 
 
 Lbs.pr. 
 
 acre. 
 
 Lbs.pr. 
 
 acre. 
 
 Lbs.pr. 
 
 acre. 
 
 Lbs.pr. 
 
 acre. 
 
 foot 
 
 50.94 
 
 58.32 
 
 2i.ll 
 
 15.07 
 
 130.21 
 
 105 32 
 
 44.91 
 
 18.84 
 
 10.85 
 
 Nitrates in 2d 
 fo t 
 
 127.35 
 
 23. 7 4 j 
 
 48.81 
 
 14.42 
 
 155.95 
 
 172.62 
 
 15.63 
 
 10.65 
 
 8.88 
 
 Nitrates in 3d 
 foot 
 
 83.52 
 
 10 28 1 
 
 59.44 
 
 18.81 
 
 49 65 
 
 50.66 
 
 1.75 
 
 9.53 
 
 10.79 
 
 Nitrates in 4tli 
 foot 
 
 40.83 
 
 14.80 
 
 64.82 
 
 27 05 
 
 24.08 
 
 39 82 
 
 4.59 
 
 9.73 
 
 12.51 
 
 *The weights 
 
 of dry 
 
 soil in 
 
 the 1st 
 
 , 2d, 3d 
 
 and 4th feet 
 
 are 2,740,000; 4,034,000; 
 
 4,557,000 and 4,637,000 respectively. 
 
Bulletin No. S3. 
 
 a 6 
 
 It will be seen from this table that with the right amount and dis- 
 tribution of water, such as we had this year, enormous yields may be 
 produced when the nitrates in the surface foot of soil are reduced be- 
 tween July 18 and Sept. 1 as low as 24 lbs. for corn, 45 lbs. for clover, 
 19 lbs. for alfalfa and 105 lbs. for potatoes. 
 
 Fig. 7. — Showing changes in the amounts of nitrates and total soluble salts in 
 the first and second feet, during the growing season under clover and al- 
 falfa. The nitrate curves are shaded to correspond with those of the total 
 soluble suits for the two depths. 
 
2? 
 
 Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 When these amounts are expressed as nitric nitrogen in parts per 
 million of the dry soil they stand 3.38, 1.61 and 0.72 for corn; 3.87, 2.98 
 and 1.00 for clover; 1.25 for alfalfa, and 8.64 and 6.99 for potatoes. 
 
 Fig. 8.— Showing the changes in the amount of nitrates and of total soluble 
 salts In the first and second feet, during the growing s#ason, under potatoes 
 and oats seeded to clover. 
 
28 
 
 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 THE LIMIT OF NITRIC NITROGEN IN FIELD SOIL AT WHICH THE LEAVES OF 
 CORN AND OATS TURN YELLOW. 
 
 The oats of plot 4 were sown with a drill after corn without plow- 
 ing the ground, the surface having been pulverized with a disc harrow. 
 After the oats had reached the stage when stems were beginning to 
 form, June 8 to 12, it was observed that lighter and darker green streaKs 
 could be seen stretching across the field the same distances apart that 
 the rows of corn had been planted the year before. Examination 
 showed that the dark green streaks were over the former corn rows 
 and the light green were half way between. This was probably due to 
 the ridging of the rows for irrigation, causing an accumulation of sur- 
 face soil at the row and a definciency between. We took advantage of 
 this opportunity to determine the amount of nitric nitrogen in the soil 
 at which oats did show yellow for lack of nitrogen, and that at which 
 they still held the normal green color. 
 
 It was found as an average of two duplicate determinations on June 
 10 that the nitric nitrogen under the yellow oats in the surface foot 
 was .025 parts per million, while under the green it was .213 parts; and 
 again on June 11 a similar set of determinations showed .027 parts 
 for the yellow and .297 parts per million of nitric nitrogen where the 
 oats were green. These amounts, when expressed as nitrates per acre 
 in the surface foot, are as low as .392 lbs. where the oats are yellow 
 and 3.843 lbs. where the oats are still green. 
 
 A similar study was made in regard to corn on Aug. 3 to 8, and In 
 the next table are given the amounts of nitric nitrogen found under 
 the yellow stalks or stalks where the leaves were turning yellow along 
 the midrib and finally browning at the tip and then dying. The de- 
 ficiency of nitrates in this case was due to the fact that the soil had 
 been taken from this area for sodding before this field was plowed. 
 
 Table showing the amounts of nitric nitrogen under corn rows ivhere 
 , leaves are turning yellow , and where they are normal green. 
 Pounds per million of the dry soil. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Plot 9. 
 
 Marsh Soil. 
 
 Hand all Field. 
 
 Corn, 
 yellow . 
 
 Corn, 
 
 green. 
 
 Corn, 
 
 yellow. 
 
 Corn, 
 
 green. 
 
 Corn, 
 
 yellow. 
 
 Corn, 
 
 green. 
 
 First font 
 
 0 61 
 
 0.92 
 
 0.95 
 
 3.62 
 
 0.10 
 
 0.95 
 
 Second foot 
 
 0.14 
 
 1.70 
 
 0.40 
 
 1.41 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.60 
 
 Third foot 
 
 0.41 
 
 2.95 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.37 
 
 Fourth foot 
 
 0.42 
 
 1.82 
 
 0.00 
 
 0.00 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.30 
 
 In these cases it will be seen that the amount of available nitrogen 
 in the soil within reach of the corn is extremely small, and yet on plot 
 9 tne average yield was over 8,000 lbs. of dry matter per acre; on the 
 marsh soil it was larger than this, and on Randall Field the corn on 
 the ground where the plants were yellow, contained at the time 3,213 
 lbs. of ary matter per acre, and on the other, where the plants were 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 20 
 
 green, the stand was at the rate of 6,887 lbs. per acre August 8 when 
 the corn was in full tassel, but the kernels only just setting. 
 
 Referring to the data in the table on page 18 it will be seen that 
 the corn on plot 3 August 15 had reduced the nitric nitrogen In the first 
 foot to 1.446 parts per million and in the second foot to .726 parts and 
 yet the yield per acre was 11,440 lbs. of water free dry matter per acre. 
 
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TIIE AMOUNTS OF NITRIC NITROGEN UNDER GROWING 
 CROPS AND IN CULTIVATED FALLOW GROUND AT THE SAME TIME. 
 
 On June 27 samples' of soil were taken in one foot sections to a depth 
 of four feet, two feet in from the margins of plots upon which were 
 growing peas, oats, barley and spring rye. Between these plots there 
 were fallow cultivated strips either 8 feet or 4 feet wide kept free from 
 weeds; in these strips, 2 feet out from the growing crops, a second set 
 of samples were taken in one foot sections to a depth of four feet. Both 
 the total soluble salts and the nitric nitrogen were determined to ascer- 
 tain what differences might have been developed under the two sets of 
 conditions. The results appear in the next table: 
 
 Table showing the amounts of nitrates and total soluble salts in soils 
 under crops and in soil immediately adjacent which has been 
 kept fallow , cultivated and free from weeds. Pounds per million 
 of dry soil. 
 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Fallow. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 
 Nitrates. 
 
 Total salts. 
 
 Nitrates. 
 
 Total salts. 
 
 Nitrates. 
 
 Total salts. 
 
 1 
 
 5.91 
 
 70.94 
 
 246 40 
 
 199.3 
 
 2.62 
 
 61.72 
 
 2 
 
 8.12 
 
 114.6 
 
 26.75 
 
 123.5 
 
 5.10 
 
 87.08 
 
 3 
 
 4.73 
 
 124.7 
 
 6.50 
 
 108.0 
 
 4.04 
 
 112.6 
 
 4 
 
 4.60 
 
 39.44 
 
 2 81 
 
 42.10 
 
 3.03 
 
 51.76 
 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Fallow. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 1 
 
 3.25 
 
 80.35 
 
 143.05 
 
 206.1 
 
 8.38 
 
 77.00 
 
 2 
 
 3.22 
 
 162.1 
 
 29.50 
 
 254 3 
 
 18.57 
 
 197.2 
 
 3 
 
 2.95 
 
 102.7 
 
 8.87 
 
 115.0 
 
 6.59 
 
 135.8 
 
 4 
 
 2.70 
 
 58.24 
 
 4.10 
 
 95.32 
 
 2.66 
 
 44.62 
 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Fallow. 
 
 Spring Rye. 
 
 1 
 
 2.47 
 
 78.56 
 
 129.15 
 
 211.3 
 
 1.24 
 
 77.34 
 
 2 
 
 2 46 
 
 102 9 
 
 35.60 
 
 254.7 
 
 2.62 
 
 102.1 
 
 3 
 
 3.83 
 
 72.98 
 
 9.11 
 
 117.8 
 
 2 07 
 
 94.82 
 
 4 
 
 3.16 | 
 
 33.99 
 
 4.08 
 
 61.91 
 
 2.78 
 
 48 85 
 
 It is clear from this table that a crop growing upon the ground ex- 
 erts a very profound influence upon the soluble salts the soil contains, 
 and particularly upon the nitric nitrogen. If the mean amounts of ni- 
 trates in the surface foot under the crops and in the fallow ground are 
 expressed in' pounds per acre they stand 10.88 lbs. under the crops 
 and 473.65 lbs. where no crop has grown. This difference is enough for 
 85 bushels of oats per acre wh^re the ratio of gffrin to gtraw is a§ 3 
 to 5, 
 
30 
 
 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF NITRATES AND OTHER SOLUBLE SALTS IN SOIL UNDER 
 GROWING CORN AS IT COMES INTO FULL TASSEL. 
 
 | ; 
 
 In our studies of the distribution of soil moisture under growing 
 corn it has appeared that the moisture is not withdrawn from the soil 
 at the same rate in all portions. This year we have determined the 
 distribution of nitric nitrogen and of total salts with reference to the 
 hills of corn m the soil occupied by the roots at the stage of growth at 
 which it has reached full tassel. 
 
 To do this a composite sample of 10 cores of soil was taken six inches 
 deep directly beneath ten hills of corn, using the soil tube; then a simi- 
 lar sample was taken of the next six inches in the same holes. In this 
 way the soil was sampled to a depth of three feet and then the next 
 core was made to cover the fourth foot. 
 
 Three other similar sets of samples were taken, one six inches out 
 from the hill, one twelve inches out and another eighteen inches out 
 from the hill, this set being in the middle between the rows. The hills 
 in the rows were 30 inches apart. 
 
 The composite samples were thoroughly mixed and out of each fifty 
 grams of soil were taken for the determination of the nitric nitrogen, 
 while another lot was taken to be used in .measuring the electrical re- 
 sistance. 
 
 When the results obtained are used in computing the amounts of ni- 
 trates in the soil and of total soluble salts the results given in the table 
 which follows are found. 
 
 Table showing the distribution of nitrates and of soluble salts in the 
 soil under a field of corn in full tassel. Amounts in parts -per 
 million of dry soil. 
 
 Depth of 
 
 Nitric Nitrogen, Calcium 
 and Magnesium Nitrates. 
 
 Total Soluble Salts. 
 
 Sample. 
 
 Under 
 
 hill. 
 
 6 in. 
 
 12 in. 
 
 18 in. 
 
 Aver- 
 
 age. 
 
 Under 
 
 hill. 
 
 6 in. 
 
 12 in. 
 
 18 in. 
 
 Aver- 
 
 age. 
 
 Surface to 6 in- 
 ches 
 
 17.67 
 
 9 04 
 
 15.16 
 
 8.39 
 
 12.56 
 
 100.1 
 
 80.3 
 
 98.5 
 
 79.7 
 
 89.65 
 
 6 inches to 12 in- 
 ches 
 
 31.10 
 
 52.39 
 
 86.13 
 
 61.73 
 
 57.81 
 
 102.9 
 
 125.2 
 
 157.1 
 
 123.0 
 
 127.05 
 
 12 inches to 18 in- 
 ches 
 
 27.35 
 
 53.99 
 
 76.03 
 
 83.07 
 
 60.11 
 
 118.7 
 
 190.7 
 
 200.7 
 
 211.8 
 
 180 47 
 
 18 inches to 24 in- 
 ches 
 
 32.89 
 
 42.57 
 
 45.03 
 
 49.66 
 
 42.67 
 
 231.4 
 
 240.0 
 
 235.1 
 
 261.3 
 
 241.95 
 
 24 inches to 30 in- 
 ches 
 
 17.03 
 
 19.73 
 
 19.38 
 
 17.67 
 
 18.45 
 
 16$. 7 
 
 165.3 
 
 218.8 
 
 164.4 
 
 179.3 
 
 30 inches to 36 in- 
 ches 
 
 13.46 
 
 9.43 
 
 11.13 
 
 11.41 
 
 11.36 
 
 109.3 
 
 95.96 
 
 121.7 
 
 110.8 
 
 109.44 
 
 .36 inches to 48 in- 
 ches 
 
 6.06 
 
 5.62 
 
 5.62 
 
 5.06 
 
 5.59 
 
 52.82 
 
 39.02. 
 
 41.54 
 
 44.24 
 
 44.40 
 
 It will be seen from this table that very large differences, both in the 
 amounts of nitrates and of total salts, are found under the different 
 distances from the corn row. These differences have been plotted in 
 the curves shown in Fig. 9, where the mean amount of salts found in a 
 given zone of soil has been taken as a datum line and the departures 
 Jxom the mean have been expressed in distances above and below this 
 
Dcvelovmcnt of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 31 
 
 datum line, according as the amounts of salts were greater or less than 
 the mean value. 
 
 Fig. 9. Showing variations in the amounts of nitrates and of total soluble salts 
 under and between hills of corn at different depths at the time when it is 
 coming into full ‘tassel. The dotted lines represent the total soluble salts 
 and the solid lines the nitrates, the soluble salts being plotted on one-half 
 the scale of the nitrates. 
 
 Referring to the curves of the surface 6-inches it will be seen that 
 each, at every point, goes through the same phase, the curve of soluble 
 salts differing from the curve of nitrates only in going through a little 
 more than double the amplitude, but shown only about the same because 
 it is plotted on one-half the scale. This regular variation in amounts of 
 
Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 32 
 
 salts appears to be due to the fact that the surface was left slightly 
 ridged by the cultivator when the corn was laid by. It so happened 
 that the distances chosen for the lines of samples brought them alter- 
 nately in the grooves and on the ridges left by the cultivator teeth. 
 The smallest amounts of salts are found under the furrows and the 
 largest amounts under the ridges. The table shows about 16 pounds of 
 nitrates per million in the soil under the ridges and only about one- 
 half this amount under the furrows. Of total salts the amount under 
 the ridges is nearly 100 lbs. per million as against 80 lbs. under the 
 furrows. j 4 j vA 
 
 In the next depth the differences in the distribution of salts are 
 much greater but the amounts rise and fall with the surface of the 
 ground, except that under the corn hills the salts are much less than 
 anywhere else, as though the rate of feeding or of percolation had been 
 more rapid or else that the rate of nitrification had been less. The 
 amount of nitrates at this level, six to twelve inches, is nearly five 
 times the amount at the surface at this time and the amount in the soil, 
 twelve inches out from the hill, is nearly three times that found under 
 the hill. 
 
 In the third six inches below the surface the curve of nitrates is much 
 simpler than at any other level and the amounts larger. While at the 
 lower levels the differences in distribution of both nitrates and total 
 salts are less than above, these are still strongly marked. 
 
 It is difficult to understand how such differences in the amounts of 
 salts can be developed in such close proximity as here appears, but the 
 two sets of observations agree in a general way at so many points that 
 there can be no question but that the samples themselves did possess 
 these differences. Moreover, we are unable to see in what way it was 
 possible for the method of taking the samples to develop so systematic 
 a set of quantitative relations as here exist. 
 
 If the whole set of observations is not a remarkable example of coinci- 
 dences it must be that the rigid surface, the distribution of corn roots 
 and percolation have worked together to develop the differences the fig- 
 ures indicate. There had certainly been some percolation from the 
 rains of July 20 and 21, 8 days earlier, and it is clear that the ridged 
 surface would cause the water to percolate along planes vertically be- 
 low the bottoms of the furrows; that this would both dilute and move 
 forward the soluble salts, while capillarity would produce lateral move- 
 ment under the ridges to cause concentration of salts there. But our 
 observations are clearly too limited to attempt a full explanation of 
 the distribution of salts observed. 
 
 A similar, though not quite comparable, series of samples had been 
 taken July 23 near the same place, and the amount of nitrates and other 
 salts tnen present indicate that at every depth there had been, on July 
 28, an increase in the amount of both under the corn hills and also be- 
 tween the row$ in the third and fourth feet, as though water from above 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 had moved into these places, carrying salts with them, or else that rapid 
 nitrification had occurred. 
 
 The table below indicates the changes which had taken place: 
 
 Table showing changes in soluble salts under growing corn between 
 
 July S3 and S8. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Per Cent, of 
 Water. 
 
 Nitrates in 
 Parts Per Million 
 of Dry Soil. 
 
 Total Soluble 
 Salt in Parts Per 
 Million of Dfiy 
 Soil. 
 
 Under 
 
 hill. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 18 in. 
 
 Under 
 
 hill. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 18 in. 
 
 Under 
 
 hill. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 18 in. 
 
 i 
 
 July 23.. 
 
 27.21 
 
 26 53 
 
 26.51 
 
 14.37 
 
 24.37 
 
 51.95 
 
 92.97 
 
 98.60 
 
 124.11 
 
 1st foot. . •< 
 
 July 28 . . 
 
 21.29 
 
 
 22 52 
 
 24.:- 8 
 
 
 35 06 
 
 101 50 
 
 
 101.40 
 
 1 
 
 Change . 
 
 —5.92 
 
 
 —3*99 
 
 +10.01 
 
 
 —16.89 
 
 +8.53 
 
 
 —22.71 
 
 ( 
 
 July 23.. 
 
 20.78 
 
 21.57 
 
 21.73 
 
 7.04 
 
 74.32 
 
 35.46 
 
 138.00 
 
 228.7 
 
 255.2 
 
 2d foot . < 
 
 July 28 . . 
 
 20.74 
 
 
 20 50 
 
 30.22 
 
 
 66.37 
 
 175.0) 
 
 
 236.6 
 
 ? 
 
 Change . 
 
 — .04 
 
 
 — 1.23 
 
 +23 . 18 
 
 
 +30.91 
 
 +37.00 
 
 
 —18.6 
 
 { 
 
 July 23 . . 
 
 19.24 
 
 18.03 
 
 18.03 
 
 13.31 
 
 15.93 
 
 13 92 
 
 101.97 
 
 83 73 
 
 78.45 
 
 3d foot . . ■< 
 
 July 28.. 
 
 20.40 
 
 
 20.11 
 
 15 25 
 
 
 14.54 
 
 139.00 
 
 
 137.60 
 
 
 Change . 
 
 +1.11 
 
 
 +2.08 
 
 +1.91 
 
 
 + 62 
 
 4-37.03 
 
 +59.15 
 
 l 
 
 July 23.. 
 
 15.74 
 
 15.68 
 
 15.89 
 
 5.52 
 
 5.21 
 
 4.71 
 
 36 30 
 
 35.31 
 
 34.30 
 
 
 July 28.. 
 
 15.76 
 
 
 14.62 
 
 6.06 
 
 
 5.06 
 
 52.82 
 
 
 44 24 
 
 4th foot . -j 
 
 Change . 
 
 + .02 
 
 
 -1.27 
 
 + .54 
 
 
 + .35 
 
 +16.52 
 
 ” .... 
 
 +9 94 
 
 THE STRENGTH OF SOIL SOLUTIONS UNDER FIELD CROPS. 
 
 The rate at which nitrates can make their way into the roots of 
 plants to serve as food depends partly upon the strength of the soil 
 water solution and partly upon the rate at which the plant is able to 
 fix the nitrogen of the nitrates when brought to it. When the rate of 
 fixation in the plant is so raipd as to keep the nitrates in- the sap low 
 and the conditions for nitrification are such as to keep the soil solution 
 outside strong then the growth may be rapid if other conditions are 
 right. ! 14/ } : 
 
 The changes in the strength of the soil solution under the plots of 
 corn and potatoes is given in the next table: (1) at the commencement 
 of the season; (2) at the time when the salts were strongest; and (3) 
 again at the end of the growing season when they were weakest. 
 
 Table showing mean changes in the strength of soil solutions under 
 growing corn and potatoes. Amounts in parts per million of 
 water. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 April 18. 
 
 July 1. 
 
 Sept 1. 
 
 Total 
 
 salts. 
 
 Ni- 
 
 trates. 
 
 Dif- 
 
 feience 
 
 Total 
 
 salts. 
 
 Ni- 
 
 trates. 
 
 Dif- 
 
 ference 
 
 Total 
 
 salts. 
 
 Ni- 
 
 trates. 
 
 Dif- 
 
 ference 
 
 1st foot 
 
 397.7 
 
 112 2 
 
 285.5 
 
 1,015 
 
 757.6 
 
 287.4 
 
 463.3 
 
 106.1 
 
 357 2 
 
 2nd foot 
 
 639.7 
 
 89.14 
 
 550.56 
 
 933.9 
 
 134.3 
 
 799 6 
 
 832.2 
 
 109.2 
 
 723.0 
 
 3rd foot 
 
 735.7 
 
 85.05 
 
 650.65 
 
 639.4 
 
 52 28 
 
 587.12 
 
 649.1 
 
 59.03 
 
 590.07 
 
 4th foot 
 
 476.9 
 
 75.71 
 
 401.19 
 
 469.8 
 
 55.61 
 
 414.16 
 
 490.9 
 
 53.49 
 
 437.11 
 
 It will be seen that the nitrates constitute about three-fourths of the 
 salts in solution in the soil water of the surface foot in July; in Sep- 
 
 § 
 
34 
 
 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 tember they are less than one-third, while in April they constitute be- 
 tween a third and a half. In the fourth foot the salts in solution are 
 nearly one-sixth nitrates in April, less nan- one-eighth in July, and less 
 than one-ninth in September. The soil water in the fourth foot is rich- 
 est in nitrates in April and grows leaner until September, while in 
 other salts it is weakest in April and strongest in September. 
 
 In connection with our soil studies we have followed the changes in 
 the salt content of the water of nine wells situated either on or imme- 
 diately adjacent to the Station farm, and the results are given in the 
 table below. The water in these wells is in no case nearer than 20 feet 
 of the surface and in five it is more than 40 feet below the surface. It 
 will be seen that the table shows a small but clear increase both in ni- 
 trates and in total salts as the summer advances. There seems to be a 
 small falling off in nitrates at August 2, and of total salts on August 16. 
 After this date the total salts and the nitrates increase again. We have 
 shown that in the surface four feet of soil there is a strong falling off 
 in soluble salts in July and August and that after this date the salts 
 increase again so that in these particulars the superficial soil water and 
 the deeper ground water go through changes of similar phase. 
 
 Table showing nitrates and total soluble salts in well waters on dif- 
 ferent dates. Amounts in parts per million of the water. 
 
 No. 
 
 June 4. 
 
 July 3. 
 
 July 17. 
 
 Aug. 2. 
 
 Aug 
 
 . 16. 
 
 Sept. 3. 
 
 Total salts. 
 
 Nitrates. 
 
 Total salts. 
 
 Nitrates. 
 
 Total salts. 
 
 Nitrates. 
 
 Total salts- 
 
 Nitrates. 
 
 i 
 
 Total salts. 
 
 Nitrates. 
 
 Total salts. 
 
 Nitrates. 
 
 ] 
 
 i 
 
 387.3 
 
 26.40 
 
 407.1 
 
 34.32 
 
 436.8 
 
 27.06 
 
 434.0 
 
 28.61 
 
 430.5 
 
 33.00 
 
 440 4 
 
 32.12 
 
 2 
 
 433.9 
 
 24.20 
 
 440.5 
 
 24.20 
 
 442.0 
 
 20.24 
 
 444.2 
 
 19.80 
 
 443.1 
 
 23.32 
 
 443 1 
 
 23 ! 32 
 
 3 
 
 376.6 
 
 11.44 
 
 376.9 
 
 13 64 
 
 387.1 
 
 15 84 
 
 335.3 
 
 14.96 
 
 381.4 
 
 15 84 
 
 379.4 
 
 17.60 
 
 4 
 
 413 2 
 
 5.50 
 
 397.8 
 
 5.72 
 
 427.0 
 
 4.68 
 
 416.9 
 
 5.45 
 
 413.2 
 
 5.61 
 
 415 9 
 
 5.61 
 
 5 
 
 405 6 
 
 5.06 
 
 416.5 
 
 4.40 
 
 377 1 
 
 3.69 
 
 420.4 
 
 4.07 
 
 425 0 
 
 4.90 
 
 415.9 
 
 4.95 
 
 6 
 
 409.7 
 
 5.45 
 
 413.6 
 
 7 04 
 
 438.3 
 
 6.49 
 
 422.8 
 
 6 18 
 
 424.8 
 
 7 04 
 
 429.0 
 
 7.92 
 
 7 
 
 372.4 
 
 13.20 
 
 377.1 
 
 14 08 
 
 375.0 
 
 13.20 
 
 375.8 
 
 14.08 
 
 379.7 
 
 15.40 
 
 386.8 
 
 16.72 
 
 8 
 
 515.5 
 
 36.08 
 
 520.8 
 
 35 20 
 
 538.2 
 
 41 36 
 
 547.7 
 
 36.96 
 
 526.5 
 
 29.48 
 
 534.3 
 
 31.24 
 
 9 
 
 395.8 
 
 22.88 
 
 396.7 
 
 27.72 
 
 401.6 
 
 29.48 
 
 405 8 
 
 31.24 
 
 398.2 
 
 33.88 
 
 403.8 
 
 30.36 
 
 Mean — 
 
 412 2 
 
 16 69 
 
 416.3 
 
 18.48 
 
 424.8 
 
 18.00 
 
 428.1 
 
 17.88 
 
 1 424.7 
 
 18.72 
 
 427.6 
 
 18.87 
 
 It is not clear what explanation is to be given for the much larger 
 amounts of nitrates in the fourth foot than are found in the deeper 
 water of the wells, unless it be that there is a superficial drainage from 
 the upper surface of the water table which carries the stronger solu- 
 tions into our adjacent lakes. It does not appear impossible that there 
 is an underflow of water southward through the sandstone in which sev- 
 eral of these wells are and that this water is not as rich in nitrates or 
 other salts as the soil water of the fourth foot is. It is true that the 
 water of the deeper wells of the city waterworks here in Madison has 
 thus far shown not even a trace of nitric nitrogen after evaporating 
 200 c. c. of it. 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 OK 
 
 oO 
 
 RESULTS OF WARINGTON’S NITRIC NITROGEN STUDIES AT ROTHAMSTED. 
 
 So far as we know, the only studies which have heretofore heen made 
 on the amount of nitrates in field soils under crop conditions which are 
 comparable to ours are those made by «Warington at the Rothamsted ex- 
 periment station in England and published in a paper on “The Nitro- 
 gen as Nitric Acid in the Soils and Subsoils of some of the Fields at 
 Rothamsted” in Vol. V of the Rothamsted Memoirs in 1883. 
 
 Determinations were made in September and October of the nitric 
 nitrogen in soils which had been fallow through the season, in soils 
 which had grown beans, clover, wheat and barley, and in a few cases 
 in July, in soils while the crop was growing, and again in the spring on 
 soils which had grown crops and others which had been fallow. To 
 make these results comparable with ours we have expressed them as 
 calcium and magnesium nitrates. 
 
 Table sho wing nitrates in pounds per acre in the surface 27 inches in 
 soils of Rothamsted in September. 
 
 No'. 
 
 Previous Cropping and Manuring. 
 
 Nitrates in lbs. 
 per acre. 
 
 
 Fallow (ordinary cultivation) 
 
 323.4 
 
 
 Fallow (ordinary cultivation) 
 
 310.7 
 
 
 Fallow (rotation, fully manured) 
 
 268.4 
 
 
 Beans (rotation, fully manured) 
 
 112 7 
 
 ) 
 
 Fallow (rotation, superphosphate only) 
 
 199.6 
 
 \ 
 
 Beans (rotation, superphosphate only) 
 
 58.3 
 
 
 Clover (rotation, fullv manured) 
 
 107.8 
 
 I 
 
 Wheat (unmanured land) 
 
 14.3 
 
 In July the soil growing Bokhara clover and white clover showed 
 33.0 lbs. and 91.3 lbs. respectively, of nitrates per acre as a total in the 
 first three feet. In April land which had been fallow the previous sea- 
 son snowed 151.2 lbs. Oi. nitrates per acre in the first three feet. 
 
 In order that these results may be compared with those we have ob- 
 tained we give the most nearly comparable data in the following table: 
 
 Table showing the amounts o f nitrates found in soils at Rothamsted 
 and in Wisconsin. 
 
 
 Rothamsted. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nitrates 
 
 Date. 
 
 Depth . 
 
 - Crop. 
 
 in lbs. per 
 acre. 
 
 Oct. 3.. 
 
 27 in. 
 
 Fallow 
 
 300.7 
 
 Sept. 25. . 
 
 18 in. 
 
 Beans 
 
 85.5 
 
 Sept. 8.. 
 
 27 in. 
 
 Clover 
 
 107.8 
 
 Sept. 28.. 
 
 27 in. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 14.3 
 
 July 30.. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 Clover, Bok- 
 hara 
 
 33.0 
 
 July 30.. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 Clover, white 
 
 91.3 
 
 Apr 
 
 36 in. 
 
 After fallow.. 
 
 151.2 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Depth 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Niti-ates 
 in lbs. per 
 acre. 
 
 Aug. 22 
 
 24 in. 
 
 Fallow 
 
 286.0 
 
 June 27. 
 
 18 in. 
 
 Peas 
 
 60.3 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 21 in. 
 
 Clover 
 
 101.4 
 
 Aug. 27. 
 
 27 in. 
 
 Oats .... 
 
 11.8 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 36 in. 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 36.2 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 36 in. 
 
 Red clover.. 
 
 22.0 
 
 April 30. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 After fallow! 
 
 1254 0 
 
i 
 
 36 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 METHOD OF DETERMINING SOU' DLE SALTS AND NITRIC NITROGEN IN FIELD 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 The work of last season made it evident that there were difficulties in 
 both the method of determining thp nitric nitrogen and the total soluble 
 salts which prevented sufficient accuracy of results to enable us to de- 
 termine such small differences as we must expect to measure in order 
 to show whether differences of tillage and other practical operations 
 materially modify the formation of the nitrates or other soluble salts in 
 a soil. Several important modifications of the details of both the 
 method for determining the nitric nitrogen and the total soluble salts 
 have been made which have enabled more satisfactory results to be ob- 
 tained. 
 
 To do the work we wished to accomplish in field studies it was im- 
 perative that methods of detail be used which would reduce the time re- 
 quired for each step as far as possible. For both lines of work it was 
 necessary to procure a satisfactory sample and for the nitrate work it 
 was imperative that the salts be washed out quickly and completely. 
 We give below the methods we have finally come to adopt for the nitric 
 nitrogen determinations and the total water soluble salts, although 
 these as we explain below r are not fully satisfactory. 
 
 Method of Procuring the Sample . — The method of taking the samples ' 
 of soil for the field studies has consisted in procuring five cores of soil 
 with the soil tube shown in Fig. 10 in as many equally distant places 
 along a middle line extending across the plot which are put together to 
 form a composite. The several cores of a sample are subdivided as 
 finely as practicable and thoroughly mixed and from this mixed com- 
 posite the samples for both the nitric nitrogen determinations and the 
 total soluble salts are taken. The diameter of the soil core taken was 
 .875 inches and the length usually one foot making the total sample 
 43.08 cubic inches. Where the cores are sticky they must be picked 
 into small pieces or subdivided by rubbing them through a screen of 
 four meshes to the inch. 
 
 The Soil Solution for Nitric Nitrogen . — To prepare these solutions, as 
 many pint Mason jars twice rinsed in distilled water are arranged in 
 series as there are determinations to be made, and into each of these is 
 placed a close textured muslin sac. 11.5 x 5% inches with mouth open 
 and rolled down. The sacs are kept in quantity in a tank containing 5 
 cubic feet of water free from nitric nitrogen and are wrung out from 
 this as dry as practicable at the time of using. We first used well 
 water showing a content of less than one* part in ten million. It was 
 found after the bags had been several times used and returned, after 
 washing, to this tank that denitrification was set up in the water which 
 maintained the water constantly so free from nitric nitrogen that none 
 could be detected ip 100 cc. of the water. This method was adopted 
 after it was found that the water of the third rinsing of the bags in dis- 
 tilled water still showed .144 parts per million of nitric nitrogen. 
 
Fig. 10.— Showing soil’ tube, and soil trays 7, soil sample 5, mallet 6, and Whit ;ey’s apparatus, 1, 2, 3 and 4, used in determining the 
 
 soluble salts in sons. 
 
38 
 
 'Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 After weighing into each sac its sample of soil, usually 50 gms., the 
 sacs are taken in rotation, placed in a wedgewood mortar and washed 
 in 250 cc. of a .1 per cent, solution of formaldehyae made up of 244 cc. 
 of distilled water, 5.36 cc. of a saturated solution of potassium alum 
 crystals and .64 cc. of commercial formalin. The water is poured into 
 the sac upon the soil, then closing the sac the soil is kneaded with the 
 pestle during usually two but not more than three minutes with con- 
 stant turning and shifting of the bag, finely divide the soil, when 
 the water is wrung from the sac, poured into its can and set away 
 to clear. The alum is used to flocculate the sediment and give a 
 clear solution quickly, the time required varying usually from two to 
 six hours. The formalin is used as an antiseptic to prevent changes in 
 the nitrates, and it is important to get the sample of soil under the in- 
 fluence of the formalin as quickly as possible after removing it from 
 the field. Our samples are usually taken during the forenoon and 
 washed at once after dinner. The nitrates in a soil sample are liable 
 to materially change if allowed to stand over night, and this makes it 
 necessary to use a fresh instead of a water-free sample. 
 
 Evaporating the Solution. — When the solutions are clear usually 50 cc. 
 are measured into an evaporating dish with a pipette and evaporated 
 over a water bath. 
 
 Adding Disulphonie Acid and Ammonia. — When dry, twelve to twenty 
 drops of disulphonie acid are added and with a glass rod thoroughly 
 worked over the surface of the evaporating dish covered by the resi- 
 due. After standing not less than ten minutes, including the time of 
 working, about 20 cc. of distilled water is added and enough ammonia 
 about one-half ordinary strength to make the solution alkaline. The 
 disulphonie acid is made after the method of Gill* using pure sul- 
 phuric acid and phenol in the ratio of 37 to 3. These are put together 
 in a flask and boiled in, not on, a water bath during six hours, the 
 mouth of the flask being closed with a loose glass stopper. Judging 
 from comparisons the prepared acid may be kept under laboratory 
 conditions at least a year. 
 
 Determining Nitric Nitrogen with the Colorimeter. — The form of 
 colorimeter used is represented and described under Fig. 11. The solu- 
 tion in the evaporating dish is rinsed into a narrow Nessler tube, filter- 
 ing, if a precipitate is formed. If the color produced is too dark for ac- 
 curate comparisons with the standard it is made up to 100 cc. and a 
 convenient aloquot taken with a pipette and placed in the determination 
 tube. This is diluted with distilled water until it has about the in- 
 tensity of color of the standard and a volume such that the final ad- 
 justment will permit the reading to be made between 40 and 80. We 
 prepare our standard of color by heating in a platinum crucible nearly 
 
 *A. H. Gill, Tech. — Quarterly, vol. VII, 1894, pp. 55-62. 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 39 
 
 to fusion a quantity of C. P. pottasium nitrate and from this make a 
 solution in distilled water containing ten parts of nitric nitrogen per 
 million; then when a color standard is desired ten cc. of this solution 
 is treated in the same manner as a soil solution is treated, diluting an 
 aliquot of this colored solution until it contains two parts of nitric nitro- 
 gen in ten million. This extent of dilution is necessary to give the best 
 intensity for comparison. It is safest to make this standard anew each 
 day or two at most as the color is not permanent in the light. The 
 amount of chlorine present in our samples is not sufficient to interfere 
 with the determinations b,y this method. 
 
 FRONT VIFW SECTION 
 
 Fig. 11.— Showing construction of colorimeter. 
 
 Correction for the Waler in the Sample. — To calculate the amount of 
 nitric nitrogen in the sample in terms of the dry soil it is necessary to 
 know the per cent, of water present. This is determined by weighing 
 into a tared tray and drying 200 gms. of the composite sample, at the 
 time the sample for nitrates is taken. The amount of water found in 
 the sample and that contained in the sack in which the sample was 
 washed are then added to the 250 cc. used in washing, for making tne 
 calculations. 
 
 Solution Curve for Calculating the Total Soluble Salts. — It was found 
 in the work of last year that Whitney’s formula for computing the 
 amount of soluble salts in our soils from the observed electrical resist- 
 ance did not give as much as a gravimetric determination showed to be 
 present. This year we have constructed a solution curve as he directs 
 for soluble salts for use in calculating the amount of salts present. This 
 was done by obtaining several of the most concentrated soil solutions 
 we could find and determining gravimetrically the total salt content. 
 The electrical resistance was measured and then it was diluted by 
 
40 
 
 bulletin No. 8§. 
 
 measured steps of short intervals determining the resistance for each 
 dilution until it became too high for the bridge. The observations were 
 then plotted on a large scale and the values read off to obtain a table 
 which is given on pages 41 and 42. For use with Whitney’s apparatus 
 this curve has been found accurate for our conditions to within three or 
 four per cent, when used in determining ordinary well and drainage 
 waters. 
 
 Determining the Soluble Salts in Drainage and Well Waters. — To do 
 this by the electrical method it is only necessary to fill the cell with 
 the solution to be measured, read the resistance, reduce this to 60° F. 
 and take out the parts per million directly from the table. 
 
 Determining the Soluble Salts in Soils. — Place about 100 grams of 
 the soil into a porcelain cup carefully rinsed with distilled water and 
 work this into a rather stiff paste by adding distilled water, stirring 
 with a glass spatula. Fill the cell, first rinsed with distilled water, with 
 the paste, using the spatula and strike off level full. Wipe the sides of 
 cell dry, clean top with a but of filter paper, then weigh, using a tare for 
 the cell. 
 
 Next read the resistance, note the temperature, and then remove the 
 paste into a tray with a spatula rinsing everything into the tray to se- 
 cure all the soil which is dried at 110° C. It is best to have a set of trays 
 all of exactly the same weight so they may be tared to save labor in 
 weighing and calculation. 
 
 To Compute the Soluble Salts in the Soil. — When the resistance of a 
 soil sample has been measured and computed to 60° F. the total salts In 
 parts per million of dry soil may be calculated by the formula 
 
 = parts per million of dry soil 
 S 
 
 where A is the parts per million taken from the table entering it with 
 the observed resistance multiplied by the “factor of texture” whose 
 mean value is given by Whitney as .548. 
 
 W. is the weight of water in the cell. 
 
 S. is the weight of dry soil in the cell. 
 
41 
 
 Development of Nitrate 9 in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 Table for soluble salts in soil solutions. 
 
 R. at 
 60° F. 
 
 Parts 
 per 
 mil- 
 lion . 
 
 R. at 
 60° F. 
 
 Parts 
 
 per 
 
 mil- 
 
 lion. 
 
 R. at 
 60° F. 
 
 Parts 
 
 per 
 
 mil- 
 
 lion. 
 
 R. at 
 CO-’F 
 
 Parts 
 
 per 
 
 mil- 
 
 lion. 
 
 R. at 
 60° F. 
 
 Parts 
 
 per 
 
 mil 
 
 lion. 
 
 R. at 
 60° F. 
 
 Parts 
 
 per 
 
 mil- 
 
 lion. 
 
 R. at 
 60° F. 
 
 Parts 
 
 per 
 
 mil- 
 
 lion. 
 
 68 
 
 3500 
 
 128 
 
 1700 
 
 188 
 
 1121 
 
 218 
 
 796 
 
 308 
 
 640 
 
 '306 
 
 549 
 
 400 
 
 489 
 
 on 
 
 400 
 
 129 
 
 685 
 
 189 
 
 1114 
 
 249 
 
 79.' 
 
 303 
 
 638 
 
 366 5 
 
 548 
 
 400.8 
 
 488 
 
 70 
 
 300 
 
 130 
 
 670 
 
 190 
 
 107 
 
 250 
 
 788 
 
 310 
 
 636 
 
 367 
 
 547 
 
 401 .6 
 
 487 
 
 71 
 
 250 
 
 131 
 
 655 
 
 191 
 
 100 
 
 251 
 
 734 
 
 311 
 
 634 
 
 367.5 
 
 546 
 
 402.4 
 
 486 
 
 72 
 
 20 
 
 132 
 
 640 
 
 192 
 
 91 
 
 252 
 
 780 
 
 312 
 
 632 
 
 368 
 
 545 
 
 403 
 
 485 
 
 73 
 
 150 
 
 133 
 
 6*6 
 
 193 
 
 86 
 
 253 
 
 776 
 
 313 
 
 610 
 
 368.5 
 
 544 
 
 403.8 
 
 484 
 
 74 
 
 100 
 
 134 
 
 6i3 
 
 194 
 
 80 
 
 254 
 
 773 
 
 314 
 
 628 
 
 369 
 
 543 
 
 404.6 
 
 483 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 
 135 
 
 600 
 
 195 
 
 74 
 
 ‘J55 
 
 770 
 
 315 
 
 626 
 
 369.5 
 
 542 
 
 405.4 
 
 482 
 
 76 
 
 3000 
 
 136 
 
 587 
 
 196 
 
 68 
 
 256 
 
 767 
 
 3 i 6 
 
 624 
 
 3; 0 
 
 541 
 
 406.2 
 
 481 
 
 77 
 
 2950 
 
 137 
 
 574 
 
 197 
 
 62 
 
 257 
 
 761 
 
 317 
 
 622 
 
 370.5 
 
 540 
 
 407 
 
 4 80 
 
 78 
 
 900 
 
 138 
 
 5 5* 
 
 198 
 
 56 
 
 258 
 
 761 
 
 318 
 
 620 
 
 371 
 
 539 
 
 407 8 
 
 479 
 
 7'- 
 
 850 
 
 139 
 
 550 
 
 199 
 
 50 
 
 259 
 
 758 
 
 319 
 
 618 
 
 371.5 
 
 584 
 
 405.6 
 
 478 
 
 80 
 
 800 
 
 140 
 
 53s 
 
 20. 
 
 44 
 
 260 
 
 755 
 
 320 
 
 616 
 
 372 
 
 537 
 
 4U9.4 
 
 477 
 
 81 
 
 767 
 
 141 
 
 5*7 
 
 201 
 
 38 
 
 261 
 
 752 
 
 321 
 
 614 
 
 372.5 
 
 536 
 
 410 2 
 
 476 
 
 82 
 
 733 
 
 142 
 
 516 
 
 20* 
 
 32 
 
 262 
 
 749 
 
 322 
 
 612 
 
 373 
 
 535 
 
 411 
 
 475 
 
 83 
 
 700 
 
 14 3 
 
 505 
 
 20 -> 
 
 26 
 
 263 
 
 746 
 
 323 
 
 610 
 
 37^.5 
 
 531 
 
 411.8 
 
 474 
 
 81 
 
 667 
 
 144 
 
 494 
 
 204 
 
 *0 
 
 2 4 
 
 743 
 
 3*4 
 
 608 
 
 374 
 
 533 
 
 412.6 
 
 473 
 
 85 
 
 633 
 
 145 
 
 483 
 
 205 
 
 14 
 
 265 
 
 740 
 
 3.5 
 
 606 
 
 374.5 
 
 5 5* 
 
 413 4 
 
 472 
 
 86 
 
 600 
 
 146 
 
 472 
 
 206 
 
 8 
 
 266 
 
 737 
 
 3i0 
 
 604 
 
 375 
 
 531 
 
 414.2 
 
 471 
 
 87 
 
 571 
 
 147 
 
 461 
 
 207 
 
 2 
 
 237 
 
 734 
 
 327 
 
 602 
 
 375 5 
 
 530 
 
 415 
 
 470 
 
 88 
 
 51. 
 
 148 
 
 450 
 
 208 
 
 996 
 
 268 
 
 731 
 
 328 
 
 600 
 
 376 
 
 529 
 
 415.8 
 
 469 
 
 89 
 
 513 
 
 149 
 
 440 
 
 20 
 
 990 
 
 *69 
 
 7*8 
 
 3*9 
 
 598 
 
 376.5 
 
 528 
 
 416 6 
 
 468 
 
 90 
 
 484 
 
 150 
 
 430 
 
 210 
 
 935 
 
 270 
 
 725 
 
 330 
 
 596 
 
 377 
 
 5*7 
 
 417.4 
 
 467 
 
 91 
 
 456 
 
 15 1 
 
 420 
 
 211 
 
 980 
 
 271 
 
 72* 
 
 341 
 
 594 
 
 377 5 
 
 526 
 
 418.2 
 
 466 
 
 92 
 
 427 
 
 152 
 
 410 
 
 212 
 
 975; 
 
 272 
 
 719 
 
 332 
 
 592 
 
 378 
 
 5*5 
 
 419 
 
 465 
 
 9 
 
 400 
 
 1.3 
 
 400 
 
 213 
 
 970, 
 
 273 
 
 716 
 
 383 
 
 590 
 
 378.5 
 
 521 
 
 4 0. 
 
 464 
 
 94 
 
 375 
 
 151 
 
 390 
 
 214 
 
 965 
 
 274 
 
 713 
 
 334 
 
 588 
 
 3,9 
 
 5*3 
 
 4*1.0 
 
 463 
 
 9 j 
 
 35n 
 
 155 
 
 330 
 
 215 
 
 960' 
 
 275 
 
 710 
 
 335 
 
 586 
 
 379.5 
 
 52* 
 
 4*2.0 
 
 462 
 
 96 
 
 325 
 
 156 
 
 370 
 
 216 
 
 955 ! 
 
 276 
 
 707 
 
 336 
 
 584 
 
 380 
 
 521 
 
 4*3.0 
 
 461 
 
 97 
 
 300 
 
 157 
 
 360 
 
 217 
 
 950 
 
 277 
 
 704 
 
 337 
 
 582 
 
 380 5 
 
 520 
 
 424 
 
 460 
 
 98 
 
 276 
 
 158 
 
 350 
 
 218 
 
 945, 
 
 *78 
 
 701 
 
 338 
 
 5f-0 
 
 381 
 
 519 
 
 424.8 
 
 4 9 
 
 99 
 
 253 
 
 159 
 
 341 
 
 219 
 
 940 
 
 27.1 
 
 698 
 
 339 
 
 578 
 
 381.5 
 
 51,' 
 
 425 6 
 
 458 
 
 10. 
 
 230 
 
 160 
 
 332 
 
 220 
 
 935' 
 
 280 
 
 696 
 
 340 
 
 577 
 
 382 
 
 517 
 
 426.4 
 
 457 
 
 101 
 
 208 
 
 161 
 
 3*4 
 
 221 
 
 930 
 
 *81 
 
 694 
 
 341 
 
 576 
 
 382.5 
 
 £16 
 
 4*7.2 
 
 456 
 
 10* 
 
 186 
 
 162 
 
 316 
 
 222 
 
 925 
 
 282 
 
 692 
 
 ! 342 
 
 575 
 
 383 
 
 515 
 
 428.0 
 
 455 
 
 103 
 
 164 
 
 163 
 
 30S 
 
 223 
 
 920 
 
 *83 
 
 690 
 
 343 
 
 574 
 
 383 5 
 
 514 
 
 429.0 
 
 454 
 
 104 
 
 142 
 
 164 
 
 300 
 
 2*4 
 
 9 5 
 
 284 
 
 688 
 
 344 
 
 573 
 
 384 
 
 513 
 
 430.0 
 
 453 
 
 105 
 
 121 
 
 165 
 
 292 
 
 225 
 
 910 
 
 285 
 
 686 
 
 345 
 
 572 
 
 384.5 
 
 512 
 
 431.0 
 
 452 
 
 106 
 
 100 
 
 166 
 
 28 1 
 
 226 
 
 905 
 
 286 
 
 6-4 
 
 346 
 
 571 
 
 385 
 
 511 
 
 432 0 
 
 451 
 
 107 
 
 79 
 
 167 
 
 276 
 
 227 
 
 900 
 
 237 
 
 632 
 
 317 
 
 570 
 
 7 86 
 
 510 
 
 433 
 
 450 
 
 108 
 
 5' 
 
 163 
 
 26' 
 
 228 
 
 895' 
 
 *88 
 
 680 
 
 348 
 
 569 
 
 386.5 
 
 509 
 
 433 8 
 
 419 
 
 109 
 
 39 
 
 169 
 
 260 
 
 229 
 
 890 
 
 289 
 
 678 
 
 349 
 
 568 
 
 387 
 
 508 
 
 431.6 
 
 448 
 
 110 
 
 19 
 
 170 
 
 252 
 
 230 
 
 885 
 
 *90 
 
 676 
 
 350 
 
 567 
 
 387.5 
 
 507 
 
 435.4 
 
 417 
 
 111 
 
 2000 
 
 171 
 
 244 
 
 231 
 
 880 
 
 291 
 
 674 
 
 351 
 
 566 
 
 388 
 
 506 
 
 436.2 
 
 446 
 
 ii 4 
 
 1981 
 
 172 
 
 236 
 
 232 
 
 875 
 
 292 
 
 672 
 
 352 
 
 565 
 
 389 
 
 505 
 
 437 
 
 445 
 
 113 
 
 962 
 
 173 
 
 228 
 
 233 
 
 870 
 
 293 
 
 670 
 
 353 
 
 564 
 
 390 
 
 504 
 
 438 0 
 
 444 
 
 114 
 
 943 
 
 174 
 
 220 
 
 234 
 
 865 
 
 294 
 
 663 
 
 354 
 
 563 
 
 390.5 
 
 503 
 
 439.0 
 
 443 
 
 115 
 
 924 
 
 175 
 
 212 
 
 235 
 
 860 
 
 295 
 
 666 
 
 355 
 
 562 
 
 391 
 
 502 
 
 440.0 
 
 442 
 
 lie 
 
 905 
 
 176 
 
 205 
 
 236 
 
 855 
 
 *96 
 
 661 
 
 356 
 
 v 561 
 
 391.5 
 
 501 
 
 441.0 
 
 441 
 
 117 
 
 887 
 
 177 
 
 198 
 
 237 
 
 850 
 
 297 
 
 662 
 
 357 
 
 560 
 
 392 
 
 500 
 
 442 
 
 440 
 
 118 
 
 869 
 
 178 
 
 191 
 
 238 
 
 845 
 
 298 
 
 660 
 
 358 
 
 559 
 
 392.5 
 
 499 
 
 442.8 
 
 439 
 
 119 
 
 851 
 
 179 
 
 184 
 
 239 
 
 840 
 
 *99 
 
 658 
 
 359 
 
 558 
 
 393 
 
 498 
 
 443.6 
 
 438 
 
 120 
 
 834 
 
 180 
 
 177 
 
 240 
 
 835 
 
 300 
 
 656 
 
 360 
 
 557 
 
 393.5 
 
 497 
 
 445.4 
 
 437 
 
 121 
 
 817 
 
 181 
 
 170 
 
 241 
 
 830 
 
 301 
 
 654 
 
 361 
 
 556 
 
 394 
 
 496 
 
 445.2 
 
 436 
 
 122 
 
 800 
 
 182 
 
 163 
 
 242 
 
 825 
 
 302 
 
 652 
 
 362 
 
 555 
 
 394.5 
 
 495 
 
 446 
 
 435 
 
 123 
 
 783 
 
 183 
 
 156 
 
 243 
 
 820 
 
 303 
 
 610 
 
 363 
 
 554 
 
 395 
 
 494 
 
 447 
 
 434 
 
 124 
 
 766 
 
 184 
 
 149 
 
 244 
 
 815 
 
 304 
 
 618 
 
 361 
 
 553 
 
 396 
 
 493 
 
 448 
 
 433 
 
 125 
 
 749 
 
 185 
 
 14* 
 
 245 
 
 810 
 
 305 
 
 646 
 
 364.5 
 
 552 
 
 397 
 
 492 
 
 449 
 
 43* 
 
 126 
 
 73* 
 
 186 
 
 135 
 
 246 
 
 805 
 
 306 
 
 644 
 
 365 
 
 551 
 
 398 
 
 491 
 
 450 
 
 431 
 
 127 
 
 715 
 
 187 
 
 128 
 
 247 
 
 800 
 
 1 307 
 
 642 
 
 365.5 
 
 550 
 
 399 
 
 490 
 
 451 
 
 430 
 
42 
 
 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 Table for soluble salts in soil solutions — Continued. 
 
 R. at 
 00°F 
 
 Parts 
 
 per 
 
 mil- 
 
 lion 
 
 R. at 
 60° F. 
 
 Parts 
 per 
 mll- 
 lon 1 
 
 R,. at 
 60° F. 
 
 Parts 
 
 per 
 
 mil- 
 
 lion. 
 
 R at 
 60° F. 
 
 Parts 
 
 per 
 
 mil- 
 
 lion. 
 
 R at 
 60° F. 
 
 Parts 
 
 per 
 
 mil- 
 
 lion. 
 
 R. at 
 60° F. 
 
 Parts 
 
 per 
 
 mil- 
 
 lion. 
 
 R. at 
 60° F. 
 
 P’rts 
 
 per 
 
 mil- 
 
 lion 
 
 432 
 
 429 
 
 521 
 
 369 
 
 616 
 
 309 
 
 754 
 
 249 
 
 966 
 
 189 
 
 1,394 
 
 129 
 
 2,522 
 
 69 
 
 453 
 
 428 
 
 522 
 
 368 
 
 618 
 
 308 
 
 757 
 
 248 
 
 971 
 
 188 
 
 1,404 
 
 128 
 
 2, 555 
 
 68 
 
 454 
 
 427 
 
 523.5 
 
 367 
 
 620 
 
 30' 
 
 760 
 
 217 
 
 976 
 
 137 
 
 1,414 
 
 127 
 
 2.593 
 
 67 
 
 455 
 
 426 
 
 525 
 
 366 
 
 622 
 
 306 
 
 762 
 
 216 
 
 981 
 
 186 
 
 1,423 
 
 126 
 
 2,631 
 
 66 
 
 45G 
 
 425 
 
 526 
 
 36.3 
 
 624 
 
 305 
 
 765 
 
 245 
 
 985 
 
 185 
 
 1,433 
 
 125 
 
 2,670 
 
 65 
 
 457 
 
 424 
 
 5*27 
 
 364 
 
 626 
 
 304 
 
 76£ 
 
 244 
 
 990 
 
 1»4 
 
 1,443 
 
 124 
 
 2,712 
 
 64 
 
 458 
 
 423 
 
 528 5 
 
 363 
 
 628 
 
 303 
 
 771 
 
 243 
 
 995 
 
 183 
 
 1,453 
 
 123 
 
 2,755 
 
 63 
 
 450 
 
 422 
 
 530 
 
 362 
 
 630 
 
 302 
 
 774 
 
 242 
 
 1,000 
 
 182 
 
 1,461 
 
 122 
 
 2. 798 
 
 62 
 
 460 
 
 421 
 
 531.5 
 
 361 
 
 632 
 
 301 
 
 77: 
 
 241 
 
 1,005 
 
 1 H 1 
 
 1,475 
 
 • 121 
 
 2,842 
 
 61 
 
 461 
 
 420 
 
 533 
 
 360 
 
 634 
 
 300 
 
 780 
 
 240 
 
 1,010 
 
 180 
 
 1 ,486 
 
 120 
 
 2,886 
 
 60 
 
 462 
 
 419 
 
 534.5 
 
 359 
 
 636 
 
 299 
 
 783 
 
 239 
 
 1,016 
 
 179 
 
 1,498 
 
 119 
 
 2, 932 
 
 50 
 
 463 
 
 418 
 
 536 
 
 358 
 
 638 
 
 298 
 
 78" 
 
 233 
 
 1,022 
 
 178 
 
 1,509 
 
 118 
 
 2, 978 
 
 58 
 
 464 
 
 417 
 
 537.5 
 
 3V7 
 
 610 
 
 297 
 
 789 
 
 237 
 
 1,027 
 
 177 
 
 1,520 
 
 1 1 7 
 
 3, 025 
 
 57 
 
 465 
 
 416 
 
 539 
 
 356 
 
 642 
 
 296 
 
 792 
 
 236 
 
 1,032 
 
 176 
 
 1,533 
 
 116 
 
 3,071 
 
 56 
 
 466 
 
 415 
 
 510 5 
 
 355 
 
 644 
 
 295 
 
 795 
 
 235 
 
 1,018 
 
 175 
 
 1,546 
 
 115 
 
 3,120 
 
 55 
 
 467 
 
 414 
 
 542 
 
 334 
 
 616 
 
 294 
 
 798 
 
 234 
 
 1,044 
 
 174 
 
 1,559 
 
 114 
 
 3,170 
 
 51 
 
 468 
 
 413 
 
 543 5 
 
 353 
 
 618 
 
 293 
 
 801 
 
 2:33 
 
 1,019 
 
 173 
 
 1,572 
 
 113 
 
 3, 220 
 
 53 
 
 469 
 
 412 
 
 515 
 
 352 
 
 630 
 
 292 
 
 804 
 
 232 
 
 1,0 '5 
 
 172 
 
 1,535 
 
 112 
 
 3, ‘ ? 77 
 
 52 
 
 470 
 
 411 
 
 516.5 
 
 351 
 
 652 
 
 291 
 
 807 
 
 231 
 
 1,06 
 
 171 
 
 1,599 
 
 111 
 
 3,336 
 
 51 
 
 471 
 
 410 
 
 548 
 
 350 
 
 634 
 
 29o 
 
 811 
 
 230 
 
 1,067 
 
 170 
 
 1,614 
 
 110 
 
 3, 394 
 
 50 
 
 472.2 
 
 409 
 
 519 5 
 
 319 
 
 656 
 
 239 
 
 814 
 
 229 
 
 1,073 
 
 169 
 
 1,679 
 
 109 
 
 3, 450 
 
 40 
 
 473.4 
 
 4)8 
 
 531 
 
 348 
 
 658 
 
 288 
 
 817 
 
 22- 
 
 1,079 
 
 168 
 
 1,641 
 
 10H 
 
 3, 508 
 
 48 
 
 474.6 
 
 407 
 
 552 . 5 
 
 347 
 
 661.5 
 
 287 
 
 820 
 
 227 
 
 1 , 085 
 
 167 
 
 1,661 
 
 107, 
 
 3,576 
 
 47 
 
 475.8 
 
 406 
 
 554 
 
 346 
 
 663 
 
 286 
 
 821 
 
 226 
 
 1,091 
 
 166 
 
 1,678 
 
 io6; 
 
 3,648 
 
 46 
 
 477 
 
 • 405 
 
 555 5 
 
 345 
 
 665 
 
 285 
 
 827 
 
 225 
 
 1,097 
 
 165 
 
 1,695 
 
 105 
 
 3,717 
 
 45 
 
 47 3 
 
 401 
 
 557 
 
 311 
 
 647 
 
 284 
 
 830 
 
 221 
 
 1,104 
 
 164 
 
 1,712 
 
 101 
 
 3,788 
 
 44 
 
 479 
 
 491 
 
 558.5 
 
 343 
 
 669.5 
 
 283 
 
 834 
 
 223 
 
 1,110 
 
 103 
 
 1,729 
 
 103! 
 
 3, 858 
 
 43 
 
 480 
 
 4021 
 
 560 . 
 
 34 1 
 
 672 
 
 282 
 
 837 
 
 222 
 
 1,118 
 
 162 
 
 1, 746 
 
 102 
 
 3,935 
 
 42 
 
 481 
 
 401 
 
 561 5 
 
 341 
 
 674 
 
 281 
 
 841 
 
 221 
 
 1,125 
 
 161 
 
 1,763 
 
 101 j 
 
 4,005 
 
 41 
 
 432 
 
 400 
 
 563 
 
 340 
 
 676 
 
 280 
 
 841 
 
 220 
 
 1 , 132 
 
 160 
 
 1,780 
 
 100 
 
 4,090 
 
 40 
 
 483 2 
 
 399 
 
 565 
 
 33) 
 
 678.5 
 
 279 
 
 84S 
 
 219 
 
 1,140 
 
 129 
 
 1,797 
 
 99 
 
 4,180 
 
 39 
 
 484.4 
 
 398 
 
 567 
 
 338 
 
 681 
 
 278 
 
 851 
 
 218 
 
 1,147 
 
 158 
 
 1.814 
 
 98 
 
 4,275 
 
 38 
 
 485 6 
 
 397 
 
 568.5 
 
 337 
 
 683 
 
 277 
 
 854 
 
 217 
 
 1, 151 
 
 157 
 
 1,831 
 
 97 1 
 
 4,375 
 
 37 
 
 486.8 
 
 3)6 
 
 570 
 
 336 
 
 685 
 
 276 
 
 858 
 
 216 
 
 1, 161 
 
 156 
 
 1.8)8 
 
 96, 
 
 4 , 475 
 
 36 
 
 488 
 
 395 
 
 571.5 
 
 335 
 
 687 5 
 
 275 
 
 862 
 
 215 
 
 1,168 
 
 155 
 
 1, 855 
 
 95 1 
 
 4, 580 
 
 35 
 
 489 2 
 
 391 
 
 573 
 
 334 
 
 690 
 
 271 
 
 845 
 
 214 
 
 1,176 
 
 151 
 
 1,882 
 
 94 ! 
 
 4,695 
 
 34 
 
 490 4 
 
 39 i 
 
 574.5 
 
 333 
 
 692.5 
 
 273 
 
 869 
 
 213 
 
 1, 181 
 
 153 
 
 1 , 900 
 
 93 
 
 4,810 
 
 33 
 
 491 6 
 
 392 
 
 576 
 
 332 
 
 695 
 
 272 
 
 872 
 
 212 
 
 1, 192 
 
 152 
 
 1,918 
 
 92 
 
 4,925 
 
 32 
 
 492.8 
 
 3 H 
 
 578 
 
 331 
 
 697 5 
 
 271 
 
 87 w 
 
 211 
 
 1,200 
 
 151 
 
 1,936 
 
 91 
 
 5,050 
 
 31 
 
 494 
 
 399 
 
 580 
 
 330 
 
 700 
 
 270 
 
 880 
 
 210 
 
 1 . i03 
 
 150 
 
 1,954 
 
 90 
 
 5,195 
 
 30 
 
 495 
 
 389 
 
 581 5 
 
 329 
 
 702 
 
 269 
 
 831 
 
 209 
 
 1,216 
 
 149 
 
 1,972 
 
 89 
 
 5,310 
 
 29 
 
 496 
 
 388 
 
 58 5 
 
 328 
 
 701 
 
 268 
 
 837 
 
 208 
 
 1,221 
 
 143 
 
 1,9.1! 
 
 88 
 
 5,500 
 
 28 
 
 497.5 
 
 38 1 
 
 581.5 
 
 327 
 
 707 
 
 267 
 
 891 
 
 207 
 
 1,232 
 
 147 
 
 2,011 
 
 87 
 
 5,660 
 
 27 
 
 399 
 
 386 
 
 586 
 
 326 
 
 709 
 
 266 
 
 895 
 
 206 
 
 1,240 
 
 146 
 
 2,033 
 
 86 
 
 5,820 
 
 26 
 
 500.5 
 
 385 
 
 587 . 5 
 
 325 
 
 7 12 
 
 265 
 
 899 
 
 205 
 
 1,218 
 
 145 
 
 2, 055 
 
 85 
 
 6,020 
 
 25 
 
 502 
 
 384 
 
 589 
 
 321 
 
 715 
 
 264 
 
 903 
 
 204 
 
 1 , 257 
 
 141 
 
 2,079 
 
 84 
 
 6,2 r 0 
 
 24 
 
 503 
 
 383 
 
 591 
 
 323 
 
 717 
 
 263 
 
 907 
 
 203 
 
 1,265 
 
 143 
 
 2,103 
 
 83 
 
 6. 560 
 
 23 
 
 504 
 
 382 
 
 593 
 
 322 
 
 720 
 
 262 
 
 911 
 
 202 
 
 1,274 
 
 142 
 
 2,128 
 
 82 
 
 6,980 
 
 22 
 
 505.5 
 
 381 
 
 594.5 
 
 321 
 
 722 
 
 261 
 
 915 
 
 201 
 
 1,283 
 
 141 
 
 2,152 
 
 81' 
 
 7,210 
 
 21 
 
 507 
 
 380 
 
 596 
 
 320 
 
 725 
 
 260 
 
 920 
 
 200 
 
 1,292 
 
 140 
 
 2, 177 
 
 80| 
 
 7,600 
 
 20 
 
 508 
 
 379 
 
 1 598 
 
 319 
 
 ?°7 
 
 259 
 
 924 
 
 190 
 
 1,301 
 
 139 
 
 2, 203 
 
 79 
 
 7, £00 
 
 19 
 
 509 
 
 378 
 
 600 
 
 318 
 
 7 4) 
 
 258 
 
 928 
 
 198 
 
 1,310 
 
 138 
 
 2, 232 
 
 78 
 
 8, 250 
 
 18 
 
 510.5 
 
 377 
 
 601.5 
 
 317 
 
 73 1 
 
 257 
 
 932 
 
 197 
 
 1,3>0 
 
 137 
 
 2, 259 
 
 77 
 
 8,800 
 
 17 
 
 512 
 
 376 
 
 603 
 
 316 
 
 735 
 
 256 
 
 936 
 
 196 
 
 1,328 
 
 136 
 
 2,238 
 
 76 
 
 9, 300 
 
 16 
 
 513 
 
 375 
 
 605 
 
 315 
 
 738 
 
 255 
 
 940 
 
 195 
 
 1,337 
 
 135 
 
 2,320 
 
 75 
 
 9,700 
 
 15.5 
 
 514 
 
 37: 
 
 607 
 
 314 
 
 740 
 
 251 
 
 914 
 
 194 
 
 1,346 
 
 134 
 
 2,351 
 
 74 
 
 10,087 
 
 15 
 
 515.5 
 
 373 
 
 609 
 
 313 
 
 743 
 
 253' 
 
 948 
 
 193 
 
 1 , 355 
 
 133 
 
 2, 383 
 
 73 
 
 10,200 
 
 14.9 
 
 517 
 
 372 
 
 611 
 
 312 
 
 746 
 
 252 
 
 953 
 
 192 
 
 1,365 
 
 132 
 
 2,416 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 518.5 
 
 371 
 
 612.5 
 
 31 1 
 
 749 
 
 251 
 
 958 
 
 191 
 
 1,371 
 
 131 
 
 2,451 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 520 
 
 370 
 
 614 
 
 310 
 
 751 
 
 250 
 
 962 
 
 190 
 
 | 1,384 
 
 130 
 
 2,486 
 
 70 
 
 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 43 
 
 SENSITIVENESS OF THE METHODS USED IN THE STUDY OF NITRIC NITROGEN AND 
 • SOLUBLE SALTS. 
 
 In order to understand how it has been possible to determine such dif- 
 ferences in nitric nitrogen and in soluble salts as have been recorded 
 something should be said regarding the sensitiveness of the methods 
 used. 
 
 Sensitiveness of the Electrical Method. — When the electrical method is 
 used to determine the soluble salts in soils it is possible to measure dif- 
 ferences as small as from one to four lbs. of salts per million pounds of 
 the dry soil, A set of ten duplicate determinations of one lot of soil 
 gave the following results: 
 
 No. of samples. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 Mean 
 
 Parts of soluble salts per mil- 
 lion of dry soil 
 
 
 45.75 
 
 45.88 
 
 41.65 
 
 12.60 
 
 42.84 
 
 42.93 
 
 45.28 
 
 44.03 
 
 45.22 
 
 44.17 
 
 In two other sets of Determinations the results were: 
 
 No. of Sample. 
 
 First Set. 
 
 Second Set. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Soluble salts in parts per million 
 
 45.57 
 
 45.92 
 
 44.82 
 
 I 69 59 
 
 69.67 
 
 69.91 
 
 When a set of samples is taken in the field and then another duplicate 
 set of samples is taken near the same places we have obtained results 
 like these: 
 
 
 Soluble Salts in Parts Per Million 
 of Dry Soil. 
 
 1st ft. 
 
 2nd ft. 
 
 3rd ft. 
 
 4th ft. 
 
 First set of samples 
 
 225.0 
 
 233 
 
 j OOO 
 
 cc*. 
 
 I 
 
 64.14 
 
 68. 2S 
 
 27.21 
 
 .27.53 
 
 Second set of duplicate samples 
 
 Difference 
 
 8 1 7.9 
 
 4.14 
 
 .32 
 
 In working with drainage and well waters the differences are much 
 less than those obtained with soil samples. 
 
 Sensitiveness of the Nitric Nitrogen Method. — To test this five sets of 
 observations were made upon five degrees of dilution of a solution of 
 potassium nitrate making four independent determinations for each 
 strength. The results are given in the table below. 
 
44 
 
 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 Table showing variations in independent deter ruinations of nitric 
 nitrogen in solutions of known strengths of potassium nitrate. 
 
 Solution contain- 
 
 Solution contain- 
 
 Solution contain- 
 
 Solution contain 
 
 Solution contain- 
 
 mg 1 
 
 2 parts per 
 
 ing .24 parts per 
 
 mg .12 parts oer 
 
 ing .06 parts per 
 
 ing .03 parts per 
 
 million. 
 
 million. 
 
 
 million. 
 
 million. 
 
 million. 
 
 •■4 
 
 1 200 
 
 
 0 204 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 0.088 
 
 1 5 
 
 0.056 
 
 ‘4 
 
 0.026 
 
 1.216 
 
 0.200 
 
 1 . . 
 
 ? 
 
 0 . 0 t 8 
 
 1 "I 
 
 0 056 
 
 0.026 
 
 *•4 
 
 1.152 
 
 *4 
 
 0.172 
 
 
 5 
 
 l 
 
 0 076 
 
 *> 5 
 
 0 054 
 
 
 0.027 
 
 1 . 104 
 
 0.164 
 
 " 
 
 0.068 
 
 
 0 054 
 
 2 -i 
 
 0.028 
 
 3 -4 
 
 1.136 
 
 3 4 
 
 0.152 
 
 3.. 
 
 5 
 
 l 
 
 0.068 
 
 
 0.050 
 
 *4 
 
 0 023 
 
 1.136 
 
 0.156 
 
 0.072 
 
 M 
 
 0.018 
 
 0.024 
 
 4 
 
 1.152 
 
 4 $ 
 
 0.204 
 
 4 
 
 ( 
 
 0 080 
 
 4..j 
 
 0 060 
 
 4 4 
 
 0.022 
 
 1.168 
 
 l 
 
 0.212 
 
 
 7 
 
 0.088 
 
 9.062 
 
 0.021 
 
 The strengths of the solutions used in this series lie between those Ob- 
 tained in washing the soil samples for our general field work, these 
 ranging from as high as 8.64 to below .03 parts per million. 
 
 Another series of observations was made using the solutions of the 
 last table instead of the distilled water to wash the nitrates from sam- 
 ples of a field soil. Two other samples were washed in distilled water 
 to serve as checks. The ten samples used are all taken from a single 
 composite of the surface six inches of Plot 8. in the next table are 
 found the results. 
 
 Table showing duplicate determinations of nitric nitrogen in soils 
 washed in distilled ivater aud in water containing known 
 amounts of potassium nitrate. 
 
 Soil washed in 
 distilled water. 
 
 Soil washed in 
 water containing 
 .06 parts per mil- 
 lion of KNO 3 . 
 
 Soil washed in 
 water containing 
 . 12 parts per mil- 
 lion KNO 3 . 
 
 Soil washed in 
 water containing 
 24 parts per mil- 
 lion KNO 3 . 
 
 Soil washed in 
 water containing 
 1.2 parts per mil- 
 lion of KNO. 
 
 Parts per million 
 found after 
 washing. 
 
 Parts per million 
 found after 
 • washing. 
 
 Ports per million 
 found after 
 washing. 
 
 Parts per;million 
 found after 
 washing. 
 
 Parts per million 
 found after 
 washing. 
 
 1 0 150 
 
 2 0.146 
 
 1 ... 0206 
 
 2 .... 0.202 
 
 I 1...J .256 
 
 1 2 ...1 .248 
 
 1 ... .328 
 
 2 324 
 
 1 .... 1.020 
 
 2.... 0 940 
 
 In another series sixteen samples of a very uniform and very rich soil 
 were determined independently and read twice as has been the general 
 practice for the season. These results appear in the next table: 
 
Development of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 45 
 
 Table showing variations in the readings of the amounts of nitric 
 nitrogen in a very rich soil where samples are made as close 
 duplicates as possible. 
 
 ■6 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 T3 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 a 
 
 
 o 
 
 cd 
 
 
 _o 
 
 as 
 
 
 O 
 
 Sh 
 
 CO 
 
 
 O 
 
 T5 
 
 
 3 
 
 H3 
 
 
 ■ — ; 
 
 TJ 
 
 
 —j 
 
 "d 
 
 
 ' 
 
 fl 
 
 ns 
 
 
 BP 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 cd 
 
 
 SP 
 
 w 
 
 
 o 
 
 U W 
 
 W ' 
 
 
 n £ 
 
 w 
 
 
 u w 
 
 CO 
 
 
 . o 
 
 e* w 
 
 *o 
 
 o3 
 
 be 
 
 a) . 
 a C 
 
 0 
 
 0) 
 
 be 
 
 0) . 
 
 o 
 
 <D 
 
 fcfl 
 
 1 O) ^ 
 
 O 
 
 O! 
 
 be 
 
 a> . 
 
 ft Q 
 
 w 
 
 5 s 
 
 WHQ 
 
 w 
 
 cfl 
 
 w-o 
 
 w 
 
 cd 
 
 wt3 
 
 CO 
 
 03 
 
 
 'a 
 
 <D 
 
 > 
 
 « O 
 
 ’a 
 
 03 
 
 S' O 
 
 ’3 
 
 <D 
 
 > 
 
 S3 o 
 
 ’a 
 
 O) 
 
 
 P 
 
 ◄ 
 
 Pm 
 
 P 
 
 
 PM 
 
 p 
 
 <Tj 
 
 PM 
 
 P 
 
 < 
 
 CM 
 
 60 ( 
 621 
 
 61 0 
 
 305.0 
 
 59 j 
 58 1 
 
 58.5 
 
 292.5 
 
 61 ) 
 611 
 
 61.0 
 
 305.0 
 
 60 < 
 621 
 
 61.0 
 
 305.0 
 
 59 3 
 60 1 
 
 59 5 
 
 297.5 
 
 59 ( 
 58 1 
 
 58.5 
 
 292.5 
 
 50 j 
 60 | 
 
 59.5 
 
 297.5 
 
 58 S 
 601 
 
 59.0 
 
 295.0 
 
 62 ( 
 601 
 
 61.0 
 
 305.0 
 
 59 j 
 58 1 
 
 58,5 
 
 292.5 
 
 60) 
 63 1 
 
 61.5 
 
 307,5 
 
 61) 
 
 611 
 
 61.0 
 
 305.0 
 
 59 J 
 591 
 
 59.0 
 
 295.0 
 
 60 l 
 60| 
 
 60.0 
 
 300.0 
 
 59 ( 
 621 
 
 60.5 
 
 302.5 
 
 60 ) 
 58 i 
 
 59.0 
 
 295.0 
 
 The mean error in this series is 5.59 parts per million of the dry soil 
 or 1 . 87 per cent, of the nitric nitrogen present. 
 
 POSSIBLE ERROR IN RESULTS DUE TO THE METHODS. 
 
 There are several sets of observations made by each author of this 
 paper in his own line which suggests that there is a source of error due 
 to a fundamental principle which present practice can not avoid and 
 which affects the accuracy of both methods tending to give results too 
 small. 
 
 Textural Equilibrium of Soil. — Soils have a tendency to come into a 
 condition of textural equilibrium and in doing so various salts appear 
 to have been thrown out of solution. Whenever this equilibrium is dis- 
 turbed in the presence of a soluble salt in solution some of this salt goes 
 out of solution with the re-flocculation and re-granulation of the soil 
 particles. The results we give below appear to indicate that whenever 
 a turbid solution is cleared by adding a salt to it to produce flocculation 
 a part of this salt is precipitated or if not precipitated then occluded so 
 as to leave the solution more dilute. As a consequence of this when a 
 sample of soil is worked up in water a portion of the nitrates, at first 
 taken into solution, and of other salts also are taken out of solution 
 with the clearing of it and if the long-fixed textural equilibrium is 
 greatly disturbed a large amount of the normal soluble salts may be ab- 
 sorbed, thus causing a given sample to appear to contain less soluble 
 salts than it did contain before its textural equilibrium had been de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 Apparent Source of Error in the Electrical idethod. — In attempting to 
 procure a stronger soil solution without evaporation, for the construc- 
 tion of our solution curve, drain water was used instead of distilled 
 
46 
 
 Bulletin No. 85. 
 
 water to dissolve out other soluble salts from fresh samples of soil but 
 it was found both by electrical observations and gravimetric that a 
 drain water so used contained less salts after using it to wash with than 
 it did before. When a soil solution is used to make the soil into a 
 paste for the filling of the cell salts are again precipitated or occluded 
 in such a way as to prevent them from influencing the conductivity of 
 the paste. 
 
 This was proven in the following manner: 
 
 A quantity of surface soil was thoroughly mixed and the salt content 
 determined, several times, in three ways: 
 
 Series I. Soil worked to a paste with distilled water. 
 
 Series II. Soil worked to a paste with distilled water containing 100 
 parts per million KN0 3 . 
 
 Series III. Soil worked to a paste with drain water containing 195 
 parts of soluble salts per million. 
 
 Parts per million 
 of dry soil. 
 
 Series I. gave the mean salt content 41.172 
 
 Series II. gave the mean salt content 46.10 
 
 Series III. gave the meaa salt content 69.72 
 
 There was added to the soil in Series II. with the solution 17.2 parts 
 per million of the dry soil and in Series III. 38.82 parts. The amounts 
 which should have been found therefore, were as given below. 
 
 
 Amount 
 in soil. 
 
 Amount 
 
 added. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Amount 
 
 found. 
 
 Amount 
 
 taken 
 
 out. 
 
 Series IE 
 
 44 172 
 
 17.2 
 
 61.172 
 
 46.10 
 
 15.072 
 
 Series III 
 
 44.172 
 
 38.82 
 
 82.992 
 
 69.72 
 
 13.272 
 
 These results indicate that the making of the soil paste with dilute 
 soil solutions resulted m fixing some of those salts in an insoluble form. 
 Anoiner set of observations in clearing turbid solutions gave similar re- 
 sults both with nitrates and with other salts, which makes it appear 
 that breaking down the soil texture will throw out of solution soluble 
 salts already contained in them. 
 
 Possible Error in Results of the Nitric Nitrogen Determinations Due 
 of the Method. — It will be seen from the data in the table, page 44, 
 that not all of the nitric nitrogen known to be in the solutions was re- 
 covered by the method, there being the largest deficiency in the most di- 
 lute solution and the closest agreement in the strongest solutions. This 
 will appear from the figures below: 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Nitric nitrogen present iD solution 
 
 Nitric nitrogen found in solution 
 
 Average per cent, of loss 
 
 0.030 
 
 .025 
 
 16.7 
 
 0.060 
 
 .055 
 
 8.3 
 
 0.120 
 
 0 079 
 34.2 
 
 0.240 
 
 0.196 
 
 23.8 
 
 1.200 
 
 1.158 
 
 3.5 
 
Develovment of Nitrates in Cultivated Soils. 
 
 47 
 
 A reptition of this whole series of observations gave the following 
 losses: 1.3 per cent., 26.7 per cent., 23.5 per cent., 22 per cent., 35 
 per cent., respectively. .. 
 
 If these deficiencies are due to the method itself they may result from 
 larger amounts of nitrogen being lost in evaporating dilute solutions 
 than when they are stronger. It does not appear to result from evap- 
 orating different quantities of water. 
 
 Again in the soil series whose results are given in the table on page 
 44, cue amounts of nitric nitrogen recovered do not agree with those 
 known to be present as shown below: 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Nitric nitrogen in soil and solution 
 
 Nitric nitrogen recovered from soil and 
 
 
 .207 
 
 .266 
 
 .382 
 
 1.324 
 
 solution 
 
 Per cent, of loss 
 
 .148 
 
 .204 
 
 1.45 
 
 0.252 
 
 5 26 ) 
 
 .326 
 
 14.17 
 
 .980 
 
 25.98 
 
 In these cases the largest losses of nitrates have occurred where the 
 strongest soil solutions existed to exert their influence in restoring the 
 textural equilibrium to the soil -particles. 
 
 It may be that in using alum to clear our solutions at the time the 
 textural equilibrium was being destroyed only this salt was used in 
 'restoring it again. If so, then the nitric nitrogen method would give the 
 full amount of nitrates present in the soil. 
 
 In studying the processes with the electrical method it was found 
 that where the solution of nitrates was too dilute to produce evident 
 flocculation and clearing of the solution; there was little loss of nitrates 
 but wherever the turbid solution became clearer there the loss was some- 
 what in proportion to the clearness of the solution resulting. 
 
 Error Due to Denitrification . — Before using formalin to prevent deni- 
 trification in the soil solutions, while standing over night to clear, a 
 preliminary test of its action was made. In this test it was found that 
 the solutions to which formalin had been added lost none of their ni- 
 trates in four days, while duplicate solutions to which no formalin had 
 been added, lost from 12.2 to 71.6 per cent, of their nitrates in that time. 
 
 Since the close of the season’s work another more extended test of 
 the efficiency of formalin in preventing denitrification has been made 
 on solutions of clay loam, black marsh soil and sandy soil. In this 
 test three duplicate samples were made of the first foot, of the second 
 foot and of the third foot of each of these soils. The determinations 
 were made in from 2 to 5 hours or as soon as they were clear and again 
 after standing about 16 hours longer. In the following table are given 
 the colorometric readings of both determinations of each solution and 
 the per cent, of change indicated by them: 
 
•48 
 
 Bull din No. 85. 
 
 Table giving the determination of nitric nitrogen in soil solutions as 
 soon as clear and after standing sixteen hours longer , with the 
 per cent, of change. „ 
 
 D«"PTH of 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Clay Loam. 
 
 Clay Loam. 
 
 Black Marsh 
 Soil. 
 
 Sandy Soil. 
 
 Readings. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 cnange. 
 
 Readings. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 change . 
 
 Readings. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 change. 
 
 Readings. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 change. 
 
 Standing 
 2-5 hrs. 
 
 18-21 hrs. 
 
 to j 
 
 PI u 
 
 a “? 
 
 CO 
 
 18-21 hrs. 
 
 . 
 
 Standing 
 
 2-5 hrs. 
 
 18-21 hrs. 
 
 Standing 
 
 2-5 hrs. 
 
 18-21 hrs. 
 
 1st foot : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 53 
 
 — 1 8 
 
 78 
 
 75 
 
 —3 8 
 
 b 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 +2.0 
 
 49 
 
 45 
 
 -8.1 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 —2.2 
 
 77 
 
 75 
 
 -2.6 
 
 c 
 
 54 
 
 53 
 
 —1.8 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 -8.1 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 +2.2 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 —1.4 
 
 2d foot : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 +1.3 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 0.0 
 
 77 
 
 77 
 
 0.0 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 +2 2 
 
 b 
 
 77 
 
 79 
 
 +2 6 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 0.0 
 
 77 
 
 77 , 
 
 0 0 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 +2.2 
 
 c 
 
 81 
 
 81 
 
 0.0 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 0.0 
 
 78 
 
 75 
 
 -3.8 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 0.0 
 
 3d foot : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 +1.5 
 
 73 
 
 70 
 
 —4 1 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 0.0 
 
 b 
 
 68 
 
 68 
 
 0.0 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 -1.3 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 0.0 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 +4.0 
 
 c 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 —1.5 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 0.0 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 +3.3 
 
 51 
 
 51 
 
 0.0 
 
 This protection of the formalin against denitrification is not perma- 
 nent and in some cases samples rich in nitrates have lost the whole on 
 standing five weeks. In other cases we have observed notable losses 
 on standing 2 to 3 days, this being greater than 50 per cent, as a mean 
 of five cases. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 86. 
 
 ANALYSES OF LICENSED COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. 
 
 1901. 
 
 MADISON , WISCONSIN . MARCH. 1901. 
 
 Th e Bulletins and A.nnual Be 
 v 
 
 /*fj POrt £ °f this Station are sent free to all 
 esidents of this State upon reauest. 
 
 So^bl^Salts’il 5 F^eldSoiK^^v^^V - 11 * 1 distribution of Nitrates and other 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 ACTING PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HX-OFFICIO. 
 State-at-large, GEORGE W. PECK, Milwaukee. 
 
 8tate-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, GEORGE F. MERRILL, Ashland. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 GEORGE H. NOYES, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-officio Treasurer. 
 J. H. STOUT, Vice-President. | E. F. RILEY, Secretary, Madison. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regent? CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and ACTING PRES. 
 BIRGE. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY Director 
 
 8. M. BABCOCK, . . . Assistant Director and Chief Chemist 
 
 F. H. KING Physicist 
 
 B. S. GOFF, 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, 
 
 F. W. WOLL,* 
 
 R. H. SHAW, 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON, 
 
 A. R. WHITSON, 
 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, 
 
 H. G. HASTINGS, 
 
 R. A. MOORE, 
 
 U. S. BAER, 
 
 FREDERIC CRANEFIELD, 
 
 F. DEWHIRST, 
 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, 
 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE 
 
 . . . Horticulturist 
 
 . . Animal Husbandry 
 
 . . . Chemist. 
 
 . . Acting Chemist 
 
 . . . Bacteriologist 
 
 . Dairy Husbandry 
 
 . Assistant Physicist 
 . . Assistant Chemist 
 
 Assistant Bacteriologist 
 . Assistant Agriculturist 
 . . . . Dairying 
 
 Assistant in Horticulture 
 . Assistant in Dairying 
 . Farm Superintendent 
 
 Clerk 
 
 Librarian and Stenographer 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and Joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
 •Absent on leave. 
 
ANALYSES OF LICENSED COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS, 
 
 1901. 
 
 R. H. SHAW and ALFRED VIVIAN. 
 
 Tne present bulletin is published in accordance with Wisconsin stat- 
 utes of 1898, sec. 1494d, and gives the results of the analyses of fer- 
 tilizers licensed to be sold in this state during the current calendar 
 year. The general subject of commercial fertilizers has been discussed 
 in some detail in earlier publications of our Station, and the explana- 
 tions tnere given as to the main principles governing the application 
 of fertilizers, will doubtless be of service to those unfamiliar with this 
 subject. It has been thought well to repeat in this place a few explana- 
 tory remarks concerning technical terms met with in statements of fer- 
 tilizer analyses, and to say a few words about the fertilizing elements 
 on which we have to depend for maintaining or restoring the fertility 
 of our land. 
 
 The main fertilizing ingredients which it may be essential to supply 
 in crop growing, are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. 
 
 Nitrogen may be present in fertilizers in three different forms, as 
 nitrates , ammonia , or organic compounds. The first two forms of ni- 
 trogen are of immediate value to crops, since they are easily soluble and 
 may be readily assimilated by plants. Organic nitrogen is the form of 
 nitrogen found in fertilizers of vegetable or animal origin. Some of 
 these, like leather or woolen scraps, hoofs, horn shavings, etc., possess 
 very little value as fertilizers, being insoluble and but slowly decom- 
 posed in the soil. The fertilizer laws of many states do not recognize 
 nitrogen contained in materials of this kind as of any value. Available 
 nitrogen means nitrogen supplied in nitrates, ammonia salts, and or- 
 ganic compounds of easily decomposable character, like dried blood, 
 tankage, cotton seed meal, etc. 
 
 The nitrogenous fertilizers met with in this state are nitrate of soda, 
 tankage, and dried blood. The first mentioned fertilizer is mostly used 
 by market gardeners and florists, and is of great value in stimulating 
 plant growth. Nitrogen is the most costly ingredient of artificial fer- 
 tilizers. Certain kinds of plants, like the clovers, alfalfa, vetches, and 
 other species of the legume family, are able through the agency of 
 microscopic organisms, to transform the free nitrogen of the air to or- 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 86. 
 
 ganic nitrogenous compounds, which may be used for the nutrition of 
 farm animals and thus indirectly, or indeed directly, contribute to the 
 supply of nitrogenous plant food in the soil. The farmer adopting a 
 system of crop rotation in which some clover or other legumes are in- 
 ■eluded may therefore avoid a cash outlay for nitrogenous fertilizers, 
 ^and need only see that the potash- and phosphoric-acid contents of his 
 land are not unduly reduced through continuous cropping. 
 
 Phosphoric acid is found in different forms in the commercial fertil- 
 izers offered for sale in this state, viz.: in combinations with calcium, 
 iron, or aluminum, some of which are soluble, and some insoluble. We 
 ■distinguish in fertilizer analysis between soluble , reverted and total 
 .phosphoric acid. Mono-calcium phosphate (containing soluble phos- 
 phoric acid) is soluble in water; di-calcium phosphate (containing re- 
 verted phosphoric acid) is insoluble in water, but soluble in a strong, 
 hot solution of ammonium citrate, while the tri-calcium phosphate (con- 
 taining insoluble phosphoric acid) is insoluble in either of these liquids. 
 The phosphoric acid contained in raw animal bones, or bone meal, is 
 in the form of tri-calcium phosphate. When applied to the soil in a fine 
 ground condition, it is gradually dissolved by the juices of the plant 
 roots and thus rendered available to plants. Coarse-ground bone, on 
 the other hand, is but slowly decomposed in the soil and therefore of 
 less value for crop production. Superphosphates contain both water- 
 soluble and citrate-soluble phosphoric acid. Broadly speaking, the 
 water-soluble and the citrate-soluble phosphoric asid are of about equal 
 value to plants. The phosphoric acid in basic slag (odorless phos- 
 phate) is largely soluble in ammonium-citrate solution. Available phos- 
 phoric acid means the sum of the water-soluble and the reverted phos- 
 phoric acid, and represents the pnosphoric acid of immediate value to 
 plants. The results of the analyses are calculated on a basis of the 
 phosphoric anhydrid (P,0 5 ). 
 
 Potash is freely soluble in water in the compounds used as potassic 
 fertilizers. There are several kinds of potash fertilizers, as potassium 
 sulfate, muriate, silicate, and potassium magnesium carbonate and sul- 
 fate, etc. Since muriates (chlorids) have an injurious effect on the 
 quality of certain crops, notably tobacco and potatoes, the use of potash 
 salts free from muriate is in some cases desirable or even essential. 
 Wood ashes contain potash mainly in the form of carbonate. The re- 
 sults of the analyses are figured on a basis of the content of potassium 
 oxid (K 2 0). 
 
 The methods of analysis followed in the chemical work of our Station 
 are those adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists; 
 the methods are revised from year to year at the annual conventions of 
 this Association. 
 
Commercial Fertilizers, 1901. 
 
 5 
 
 VALUATION OF FERTILIZERS. 
 
 The cost of commercial fertilizers in the market is governed by the 
 laws of supply and demand, as is that of all other commodities. Raw- 
 materials and chemicals containing one or two fertilizing ingredients 
 furnish data for the calculation of the average cost of these ingredients 
 in commercial fertilizers. Since the prices of the different fertilizing 
 materials vary somewhat from time to time according to the condition 
 of the market, the calculations must be revised at intervals. The aver- 
 age retail prices of raw-materials and chemicals in the large eastern 
 fertilizer markets for the six months preceding March each year are 
 calculated by a number of eastern experiment stations, and the cost of 
 the different fertilizing ingredients which commercial fertilizers on the 
 market contain, is obtained on the basis of these figures; these values 
 will nearly correspond with the prices of fertilizing materials in our 
 main fertilizer markets, and may be used for the purpose of comparing 
 approximately the value of the various fertilizers offered for sale in 
 this state. 
 
 The trade values of fertilizing ingredients in raw-materials and chem- 
 icals adopted for the current year are given in the following schedule: 
 
 NITROGEN— Cents per lb. 
 
 in ammonia salts 17 
 
 in nitrates 13 V 2 
 
 ORGANIC NITROGEN— 
 
 in dry and fine-ground fisb, meat, blood, and in high-grade mixed fer- 
 tilizers 
 
 in fine bone and tankage 
 
 in coarse bone and tankage 
 
 PHOSPHORIC ACID- 
 
 soluble in water 
 
 soluble in ammonium-citrate solution 
 
 in dry fine-ground fish, bone and tankage 
 
 in coarse bone and tankage 
 
 in cottonseed meal, linseed meal, castor pomace and wood ashes 
 
 insoluble (in ammonium-citrate solution) in mixed fertilizers 
 
 151/2 
 
 15% 
 
 ioy 2 
 
 41/2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 POTASH— 
 
 as high-grade sulfate, and in forms free from nuriate 5 
 
 as muriate 4% 
 
 In order to obtain the valuation prices of 100 lbs. of the fertilizers li- 
 censed for sale in our state, the percentages of valuable fertilizing com- 
 ponents are in each case multiplied by the prices given in the preceding 
 schedule; to this actual cost of the fertilizing ingredients contained in 
 each fertilizer should be added the expense of placing the fertilizers on 
 the market; this expense will vary considerably according to local and 
 other conditions; the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture esti- 
 mates the expense as follows: 
 
 Mixing $1.00 per ton. 
 
 Bagging 1.00 per ton. 
 
 Agent’s commission '.20 per cent, of retail cash value of ingredients. 
 
 Freight $2.00 per ton. 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 86. 
 
 The approximate value of the various licensed fertilizers may be as- 
 certained by this method of calculation, and the purchaser may thus 
 learn whether or not the price asked for a certain fertilizer is about 
 what it is worth. 
 
 It must be remembered, however, that the valuation placed on the 
 various fertilizers by this method is a commercial , and not an agricul- 
 tural one. It shows the average retail cash price of the different fer- 
 tilizing ingredients plus the cost of placing the fertilizer on the mar- 
 ket; the agricultural value of a fertilizer depends on a number of con- 
 ditions beyond the control of the seller, such as the need of the soil or 
 the crop, of the particular fertilizing ingredients or ingredients in ques- 
 tion: the judgment used in applying the same, as to methods, time and 
 quantities; conditions of weather, etc.; the agricultural value of a fer- 
 tilizer, in other words, will vary according to the season and according 
 to the intelligent application of the fertilizer; one farmer may derive 
 full benefit from the use of a fertilizer, while to another it may be 
 money thrown away. It is therefore evident that only a commercial 
 valuation of fertilizers is ever possible; this will enable persons to com- 
 pare the different fertilizers offered for sale, and will assist them in 
 deciding which are the most economical ones for their special purpose. 
 
 ANALYSES OF LICENSED FERTILIZERS IN WISCONSIN DURING 1901. 
 
 The following manufacturers have taken out a license for the sale 
 of the brands of fertilizers given, in this state during the current year, 
 in accordance with Wisconsin statutes of 1898, sec. 1494c. 
 
 Sta- 
 
 tion 
 
 No. 
 
 Name of Manufacturer. 
 
 Name of Brand. 
 
 41 
 
 Darling & Co., Chicago, 111 
 
 Darling’s Tobacco Special. 
 
 42 
 
 Currie Bros., Milwaukee, Wis 
 
 Currie’s Complete Fertilizer for 
 for Lawns, Hay and Pasture. 
 
 43 
 
 Milwaukee Tallow and Grease Co., Milwau- 
 
 
 
 kee, Wis 
 
 Milwaukee Tallow and Grease Co.’s 
 Bone Meal. 
 
 44 
 
 Armour Fertilizer Works, Chicago, 111 
 
 Bone Meal. 
 
 45 
 
 Armour Fertilizer Works, Chicago, 111 
 
 Ammoniated Bone and Potash. 
 
 The Station analyses of the brands given are shown in the following 
 table. According to Wisconsin statutes of 1898, section 1494c, each 
 manufacturer “shall affix to every package of fertilizer sold ... a 
 statement of the following fertilizing constituents, namely: The per- 
 centage of nitrogen in an available form, of potash soluble in water, and 
 of available phosphoric acid, soluble and reverted, as well as total phos- 
 phoric acid.” The guaranteed composition of the licensed fertilizers is 
 given in the table in connection with the results of our analyses of the 
 samples furnished by the manufacturers in compliance with the state 
 fertilizer law. 
 
Analysis of licensed commercial fertilizers in Wisconsin. 
 
 Commercial Fertilizers , 1901. 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 86. 
 
 The mechanical analysis of the samples of bone meal included among^ 
 the licensed brands of fertilizers gave the following results, the portion 
 passing through a sieve of ^ inch mesh being designated as fine- 
 ground, and that remaining on such a sieve as coarse. 
 
 Mechanical analysis of hone meal. 
 
 Sta- 
 
 tion 
 
 No. 
 
 Brand. 
 
 Fine- 
 
 ground 
 
 Coarse. 
 
 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 Pr. ct. 
 
 43 
 
 Milwaukee Tallow and Grease Co.’s Bone Meal 
 
 89 
 
 11 
 
 44 
 
 Bone Meal 
 
 59 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 Fertilizer inspection . — It is impossible to tell from the appearance or 
 odor of a commercial fertilizer whether it contains a large amount of 
 valuable fertilizing ingredients or only a very small amount. There is 
 therefore a strong temptation for irresponsible parties to make and sell 
 inferior or even valueless goods as standard fertilizing articles; sa 
 much so, that it has been found necessary in all states where the fer- 
 tilizer business has grown to be of any importance, that the state should 
 in some way supervise their sale. Laws regulating the sale of commer- 
 cial fertilizers are at the present time in force in a large majority of the 
 states of the Union. The Wisconsin fertilizer law which was passed 
 by the legislature in 1895 is given in full in the following pages. Ac- 
 cording to the provisions of the law, all commercial fertilizers sold in 
 this state at a cost exceeding $10.00 per ton are to be licensed. They 
 must be sold on a guarantee of certain amounts of valuable fertilizing 
 ingredients contained therein, and the director of the experiment sta- 
 tion, on whom is laid the duty of seeing to it that the law is enforced, is 
 authorized, in person or by deputy, to take samples of all commercial 
 fertilizers sold in this state which come within the scope of the law. In 
 case of licensed fertilizers it may thus be ascertained whether these 
 come up to the guaranteed composition, and when it is found that par- 
 ties are selling fertilizers without complying with the provisions of the 
 law, the offenders may be brought before the proper legal authorities 
 and convicted according to section 1494d of Wisconsin statutes of 1898. 
 This section imposes a fine of $100.00 for the first offense and $200.00 
 for each subsequent offense. 
 
 It is hoped that all dealers in commercial fertilizers in the state will 
 comply with the law in all particulars, and that they as well as pur- 
 chasers of such fertilizers, will assist m the enforcement of the law by 
 giving notice of violations of the same. A strict compliance with the 
 law is for the best interests of all honest dealers and consumers alike. 
 Only firms that live up to the requirements of the law and have taken 
 out licenses for the sale of their brands of fertilizers should be patron- 
 ized; the law does not offer purchasers any protection against dealers 
 in other states who sell inferior or fraudulent goods. 
 
Commercial Fertilizers , 1901. 
 
 9 
 
 THE WISCONSIN FERTILIZER LAW. 
 
 [Sections 1494c, 1494d and 1494e, Wisconsin Statutes of 1898.] 
 
 Section 1494c. Every person who shall, in this state, sell or expose for 
 sale any commercial fertilizer or any material used for fertilizing purposes, 
 the price of which exceeds ten dollars per ton, shall affix to every package 
 of such fertilizer or material, in a conspicuous place on the outside thereof, 
 a plainly printed statement clearly and truly certifying the number of net 
 pounds therein, name or trade-mark under which the article is sold, name 
 of the manufacturer or shipper, place of manufacture, place of business 
 of the manufacturer and of the following fertilizing constituents, namely: 
 The percentage of nitrogen in an available form, of potash soluble in water 
 and of available phosphoric acid, soluble and reverted, as well as total 
 phosphoric acid. Every such person shall also file with the director of 
 the agricultural experiment station of the university of Wisconsin, in the 
 month of December in each year, a certified copy of such statement for 
 every such fertilizer or material bearing a distinguishing brand or trade- 
 mark and which he sells or exposes for sale, which copy shall, when re- 
 quired by such director, be accompanied by a sealed glass jar or bottle 
 containing at least one pound of such fertilizer or material, and an affi- 
 davit that such sample corresponds, within reasonable limits, to the fer- 
 tilizer or material which it represents in the percentage of the aforesaid 
 constituents, which affidavit shall apply to the remaining portion of the 
 then calendar year. Additional brands of such fertilizer or material may 
 be offered for sale during the year, provided samples and affidavits are so 
 filed at least one month before they are offered, in which case an analysis 
 fee of double the usual amount must be paid. A deposit of the sample of 
 fertilizer shall be required by said director unless the person selling or offer- 
 ing for sale a fertilizer or material within this section shall certify that its 
 composition for the succeeding year is to be the same as given in the last 
 previously certified statement, in which case the furnishing of a sample 
 shall be at the discretion of said director. 
 
 Section 1494cZ. Said director shall analyze or cause to be analyzed all 
 such samples and publish the results of such analysis in a bulletin or re- 
 port on or before the first day of the next succeeding April. Every manu- 
 facturer, importer, agent or seller of any such fertilizer or material shall 
 pay annually to said director for each brand thereof sold within this state 
 the sum of twenty-five dollars, and upon doing so and complying with the 
 other provisions of law shall receive from him a certificate of such com- 
 pliance which shall be a license for the sale of each brand thereof within 
 the state for the calendar -year for which such fee is paid. All moneys re- 
 ceived by said director pursuant to this section shall be paid into the 
 treasury of said station. Any person who shall sell or expose for sale any 
 •commercial fertilizer or material used for fertilizing purposes which is 
 within the provisions of the preceding section without complying with the 
 foregoing provisions or which contains a substantially smaller percentage 
 of fertilizing constituents than are indicated by the printed statement 
 thereon shall be punished by a fine of one hundred dollars for the first 
 offense and of two hundred dollars for each subsequent offense. 
 
 Section 1494e. Said director shall annually analyze or cause to be ana- 
 lyzed at least one sample of every fertilizer or material used for fertilizing 
 purposes sold or exposed for sale under the two preceding sections and en- 
 force their provisions by prosecuting or causing the prosecution of every 
 person who shall violate them. He may in person or by deputy, on tendering 
 the value thereof, take a sample, not exceeding two pounds, for said analysis 
 from any lot or package of fertilizer or any material used for fertilizing 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 86. 
 
 purposes which may be in the possession of any manufacturer, importer, 
 agent or dealer in this state; said sample shall be drawn in the presence 
 of the person from whom taken or his representative, be taken from a par- 
 cel or a number of packages which shall not be less than ten per centum 
 of the whole lot sampled, be thoroughly mixed and divided into two equal 
 samples, placed in glass vessels and carefully sealed and a label placed on 
 each, stating the name or brand of the fertilizer or material sampled, the 
 name of the party from whose stock the sample was drawn, the time and 
 place of such taking; said label shall be signed by the director or his 
 deputy and such person or his representative at the drawing and sealing 
 of said samples; one of said duplicate samples shall be retained by the di- 
 rector and the other by the party whose stock was sampled; the sample 
 retained by the director shall be for comparison with the certified state- 
 ment named in section 1494c. The result of the analysis of the sample or 
 samples so procured shall be reported to the person requesting the analysis 
 and be published in a report or bulletin to be issued within a reasonable 
 time. 
 
Agricultural Experiment Station 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 Madison, March, 1901. 
 
 SPECIAL BULLETIN. 
 
 THE PREVENTION OF OAT SMUT. 
 
 E. S. GOFF. 
 
 It is often said that farmers pay more than their just share 
 of taxes. However this may be, most farmers submit to some 
 taxes that they might readily avoid. One of these is the smut 
 tax on grain which usually amounts to from 3 to 20 per cent, of 
 the value of the crop. Ordinary taxes are not a total loss, for 
 they return in value nearly or quite as much as they cost. But 
 this smut tax is a total loss. The smutted plants grow from 
 good seed, and take good plant food from the soil, returning a 
 crop of spores to infect the s'eed grown by the healthy plants, 
 and thus to predispose the following crop to smut. 
 
 In this bulletin we offer to the farmer an effectual, cheap 
 and easily applied preventive of smut in oats, barley and 
 wheat.* 
 
 The amount of damage from the smuts . — On this point we 
 have little accurate data for our own state, but this little is suf- 
 ficient to show that, where seed is not treated, the amount of 
 smut varies greatly in different fields and in different seasons. 
 During the season of 1900 the average per cent, of smutted 
 oat heads in four fields, located in Columbia, Dane, Iowa and 
 Walworth counties respectively, was 6.2 per cent. In other 
 words something over six heads out of each hundred were de- 
 stroyed by smut. 
 
 ♦There are two smuts of wheat, one of which is known as the “stinking’' smut 
 and the other as the “loose” smut. The first-named disease is prevented by the 
 treatment prescribed in this bulletin. 
 
A count made at our Station in 1807 showed 10.2 per cent, 
 of smutted oat heads and a count made in 1889 showed .055- 
 per cent, of smutted oat heads. An average of the six counts, 
 made in three different years and from four different counties 
 shows with untreated seed a trifle less than 6 per cent, of smut- 
 ted oat heads. It is well known, however, that the loss is often 
 much greater than this — sometimes amounting to more than 20' 
 per cent, of the whole crop. 
 
 T1 le Wisconsin oat crop of 1808 was estimated by the IT. S. 
 Department of Agriculture at 64,000,000 bushels, valued at 
 $15,500,000. Allowing an average loss from smut of five per- 
 cent., which is probably not. an excessive estimate, the smut tax 
 of 1808 in our state amounted to about $775,000. 
 
 The nature of the smuts . — The smuts of the small grains are 
 due to fungous parasites, i. e., minute plants that grow and 
 
 multiply inside of the grain 
 plantu, coming to maturity 
 in the kernels. The soot-like- 
 dust forming the so-called 
 smut is composed of the 
 spores of these minute 
 plants, and these spores prop- 
 agate the disease as the seeds 
 of weeds propagate weed 
 plants. The spores cannot 
 live through the wdnter in or 
 upon the ground, hence a 
 crop can only be infested 
 with smut from live spores 
 that adhere to the seed 
 grains and are sown with 
 them. It follows that if we 
 treat the oats used for seed 
 before sowing with some sub- 
 stance that kills the smut 
 spores upon them, our crop 
 will be free from smut. 
 
 Preventive methods . — V a- 
 rious methods have been 
 used to jmevent smut in the 
 small grains but the method 
 now acknowledged to be best is that known as the “formalde- 
 hvd” treatment. This consists in sprinkling the seed with a 
 40 per cent, solution of formaldehyd gas, according to the di- 
 rections given on the next page of this bulletin. 
 
EormaTdehyd is a colorless, pungent gas obtainable from 
 wood alcohol and readily soluble irr water. It may be pur- 
 chased at drug stores in liquid form, that is, dissolved in water. 
 Its property of destroying the spores of fungi was discovered 
 by the German scientist Loew, in 1888. It is not poisonous in 
 moderate amounts, even when taken internally. In 1895 Prof. 
 II. L. Bolley, then of Indiana but now of the North Dakota 
 Experiment Station, began making experiments with a solu- 
 tion of formaldehyd for the prevention of grain smuts, and 
 potato scab. His results were so satisfactory that the formalde- 
 hyd treatment has come to be regarded as the standard pre- 
 ventive for these diseases. 
 
 Does it pay to treat grain to prevent smut ? — Suppose a far- 
 mer raises 25 acres of oats, and receives a yield, without treat- 
 ing the seed, of 40 bushels per acre. His crop would be 1,000 
 bushels. Suppose 5 per cent, of the heads in this crop were 
 destroyed by smut. His crop would have been a fraction over 
 1,052 bushels had he prevented the smut. In other words, he 
 would have received 52 bushels of oats for treating the seed. 
 If oats are worth 25 cents per bushel, the gain would have been 
 $13.00. How much would it have cost to treat the seed? The 
 account would stand about as follows : 
 
 Dr. 
 
 • 
 
 Or. 
 
 
 To one pound formaldehyd . 
 
 .. $.60 
 
 By 52 bu. oats at 25c 
 
 ... $13. OO 
 
 To 4 hours work at .15 
 
 .60 
 
 Less cost of treating 
 
 ... 1.20 
 
 Total 
 
 .. $1.20 
 
 Net profit 
 
 .... $11.80 
 
 How to treat the seed. — Buy, at a drug store, one pound of 
 40 per cent, formaldehyd for every 50 bushels of grain it is 
 desired to treat. Ascertain at once if your druggist has it, to 
 give him time to procure it if he has not. Pour one pound of 
 the formaldehyd solution into a barrel containing 45 gallons 
 of clean water. Then place a layer of grain three or four inches 
 thick on the barn floor and sprinke this with the solution until 
 all the grains are entirely wet. A garden sprinkler is good for 
 this work. Then place another layer of grain on the first layer 
 and sprinkle as before, repeating the process until all the seed 
 has been sprinkled. Leave the grain in the pile two hours, then 
 spread out thinly to dry. It should be shoveled over once or 
 twice a day until dry. If it is to be sown broadcast it is not 
 necessary to dry it. 
 
 Corn smut cannot be prevented by treating the seed corn, as 
 the disease is of a different nature from the other grain smuts. 
 
— 4 — 
 
 In case more grain is treated with the formaldehyd solution 
 than is needed for sowing, the excess may be safely used for 
 feeding by mixing it with ten times its bulk of untreated grain. 
 
 Formaldehyd for potato scab . — Formaldehyd may also be 
 used to lessen damage from potato scab. Immerse the un- 
 sprouted and uncut seed potatoes for two hours in a solution 
 made by adding one-half pound of 40 per cent, formaldehyd 
 to 15 gallons of water. If the tubers are deeply scabbed, ex- 
 tend the time to three or four hours. After treatment, cut the 
 tubers in the usual manner. They mlay he handled freely with- 
 out danger. The same solution may be used five or six times 
 in succession if the treatment is continued a little longer each 
 time. 
 
 Do not use the potato solution for grain smut, as it is too 
 strong, nor the grain solution for potatoes, as it is too weak. 
 
 The bulletins of the Agricultural Experiment Station will 
 be sent to all residents of the state free of charge upon request. 
 
 Address: W. A. IIenky, Director , 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 
 Madison, Wis. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 87. 
 
 NATIVE PLUMS. 
 
 MADISON , WISCONSIN. APRIL. WOK 
 
 tW^Tlie bulletins and Annual Reports of tins Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 ACTING PRESIDENT of the UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, ex-officio. 
 State-at-large, GEORGE W. PECK, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, OGDEN H. FETHERS, Janesville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, JOHN E. MORGAN, Spring Green. 
 
 Fourth District, GEORGE II. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, JOHN R. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 Sixth District, C. A. GALLOWAY, Fond du Lac. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, ORLANDO E. CLARK, Appleton. 
 
 Ninth District, GEORGE F. MERRILL, Ashland. 
 
 Tenth District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 GEORGE H. NOYES, President. j STATE TREASURER, Ex-offlcio Treasurer. 
 J. U. STOUT, ViCB-rRESiDENT. | E. F. RILEY, Secretary, Madison. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents CLARK, STOUT, FETHERS, RIESS, MORGAN and ACTING PRES. 
 BIRGE. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, .......... Director 
 
 S. M. BABCOCK, . . . Assistant Director and Chief Chemist 
 
 F. H. KING, 
 
 E. S. GOFF, 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, 
 
 F. W. WOLL,* 
 
 R. n. SHAW, 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON, 
 
 A. R. WHITSON, 
 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, 
 
 E. G. HASTINGS, 
 
 R. A. MOORE, 
 
 U. S. BAER, 
 
 FREDERIC CRANEFIELD, 
 
 F. PEWHIRST, 
 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, 
 
 EFFIE M. CLOSE 
 
 . . . . Physicist 
 
 . . . Horticulturist 
 
 . . Animal Husbandry 
 
 Chemist. 
 
 Acting Chemist 
 . . . Bacteriologist 
 
 . Dairy Husbandry 
 
 . Assistant Physicist 
 . . Assistant Chemist 
 
 Assistant Bacteriologist 
 . Assistant Agriculturist 
 .... Dairying 
 Assistant in IIoriiculturh 
 . Assistant in Dairying 
 . Farm Superintendent 
 
 Clerk 
 
 Librarian and Stenographer 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, ....... Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, . . . . . . Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 ne^r University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and Joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone tq Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
 •Absent on leave. 
 
NATIVE PLUMS. 
 
 E. S. GOFF. 
 
 This bulletin is intended as a supplement to our Bulletin No. 63, 
 entitled, “The Culture of Native Plums in the Northwest,” and issued 
 in October, 1897. It gives the results of our experience in the culture 
 of native plums since that date and of such investigations as have 
 been completed up to the present time, but repeats no information 
 given in our former bulletin. Copies of our Bulletin No. 63 may still 
 be had on application. 
 
 The matter presented in this bulletin is arranged under the follow- 
 ing heads: 
 
 I. Cultural notes. 
 
 II. Notes on varieties. 
 
 III. Culinary uses of native plums. 
 
 IV. Investigations and experiments. 
 
 CULTURAL NOTES. 
 
 Mulching versus cultivation . — Three years ago we commenced the 
 experiment of mulching a small plum orchard with marsh hay. The 
 ground was then in sod and the mulch was applied during the winter 
 to the depth of about six inches after it had been packed by rain. The 
 result has been very satisfactory. The sod was killed completely, ex- 
 cept in some places where it contained quack grass. Very few weeds 
 grew through the mulch the first season. The effect upon the trees 
 was soon manifest by their more healthy foliage and the in- 
 creased size and quantity of the fruit. The following spring the mulch 
 was not renewed, and as the season advanced weeds grew up freely 
 through it making it necessary to hoe the ground occasionally. A thin 
 mulch was added in the fall of 1899 and the spring of 1900, which 
 proved sufficient for the past summer. The mulch not only saves the 
 labor of cultivation and the damage that cultivation causes to the 
 trees, but it forms a clean and agreeable cover for the ground, that 
 is very desirable during the picking season. It also supplies all 
 needed fertilizing materials. Where kept four inches thick it is an 
 effective preventive of most weeds, and it keeps the soil in an excellent 
 condition for the trees. It is doubtful, however, if the mulch aids t&e 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 87 . 
 
 trees much to endure the winter, for it induces the roots to grow 
 almost on top of the ground. During the severe winter of 1898-99 
 several mulched trees of the European plum, a few of the Japanese and 
 Chicasaw plums, and a single one of the Americana class were root- 
 killed. 
 
 The cost of the mulch will of course depend much upon the price 
 at which the material may be obtained. Clean wheat, rye, or oats 
 straw would answer the purpose well, and in many localities would 
 be cheaper than marsh hay. In some seasons oats sown as a second 
 crop would grow fast enough to make mulching material by the time 
 of frost. In the vicinity of marshes the coarser marsh grasses that 
 have no value as hay may be cut after the ground freezes in autumn 
 and would make excellent material for mulching. Cornstalks have 
 been suggested, but they are probably too coarse to keep down weeds. 
 
 It has been suggested that by sowing rye in September, and harvest- 
 ing the crop the following June, and then sowing the same ground to 
 millet, the rye straw with the millet would mulch an area of plums 
 equal to that on which the two crops were grown, and would leave 
 the threshed rye to compensate for the labor. This is certainly 
 worth trying by those who have no better source from which to ob- 
 tain mulching. 
 
 The chief value of the mulch is in the superior quality and size of 
 the fruit grown on the mulched trees. This fact was well shown tlie 
 past season where a part of our trees were mulched while others were 
 not. There is, however, a drawback to mulching that may not at first 
 occur to the reader, viz., the danger it involves from fire. In dry 
 weather a lighted match or cigar dropped upon the mulch may easily 
 start a conflagration that is may be impossible to stop until the orchard 
 is destroyed. It gives disaffected trespassers in the orchard an excel- 
 lent opportunity to take vengeance upon the owner. 
 
 Experience with the curculio . — Since the season of 1894 our plum 
 trees have been treated regularly for the curculio at the proper time 
 by the “jarring process” which was fully described in our bulletin 
 No. 63. The number of curculio found has never been large, rarely 
 more tnan half a dozen at a single tree at one treatment, while few 
 trees have yielded more than three. The number does not percep- 
 tibly increase and the damage wrought by them, while very consider- 
 able in the Aitkin and Cheney varieties, is in most others comparative- 
 ly small. What the result would have been had we not given the 
 treatment systematically it is impossible to say. We only know that 
 until we adopted the treatment we succeeded in growing very few 
 plums, and since adopting it we have had a crop every year. Some 
 claim that the curculio is the cheapest agent for thinning the fruit, 
 but; this plan will not satisfy a thorough plum grower in a region 
 
Native Plums. 
 
 
 •Where the insect is as disastrous as in our orchard. The past season 
 the plum gouger has proved nearly as destructive as the curculio. 
 
 In addition to the home-made apparatus described and illustrated 
 in our bulletin No. 63, we have used a patented apparatus, mounted on 
 a wheelbarrow, purchased of an eastern firm. It has proved much 
 more convenient than the home-made apparatus. By the use of small 
 cloth-covered frames, we find it possible to successfully combat t*ne 
 curculio in our densely-planted seedling orchard. 
 
 Systematic thinning of the fruit in which the specimens stung by 
 the curculio are removed will undoubtedly aid in keeping this in- 
 sect in subjection. We endeavor, also, to pick up and destroy all 
 plums that fall prematurely as the result of injury from the curculio. 
 
 Pruning the native 'plums . — Trees of the Americana varieties of plum 
 seem to require more pruning than those of the European or Japanese 
 varieties As the trees acquire age the tops in many varieties of 
 the Americana class become very dense unless pruned frequently. 
 The Americana trees in our oldest orchard were v rather severely pruned 
 the past spring and the fruit produced the past season was finer than 
 ever before. Part of this improvement may have been due to the fact 
 that the fruit was more severely thinned than usual, but thinning 
 out the branches is one way of thinning the fruit. 
 
 Thinning the fruit . — Our experience has shown that in most va- 
 rieties of native plums thinning is necessary to secure the finest fruit 
 and to prevent deterioration of the size of the fruit from year to year, 
 especially in the Americana varieties. Thinning does not increase the 
 total yield of plums, as has sometimes been claimed. On the contrary, 
 heavy thinning reduces the total yield materially. Where the market 
 does not discriminate in price between medium-sized and large plums, 
 thinning will not pay unless the trees decidedly overbear. In this case 
 it will pay for the benefit of the trees. 
 
 We find that while early thinning is to be preferred, late thinning 
 is far better than none. The past season, it was impossible to begin 
 the systematic thinning of our plums until the fruit was more than 
 half grown, but even then the effect on the, size of the fruit was 
 marked. Even after the plums begin to ripen, the picking of the 
 ripest specimens has a visible effect in increasing the size of those 
 that are left. The best time to thin is undoubtedly as soon as the 
 plums that are stung by the curculio can be determined. The amount 
 of thinning to be practiced will of course depend on the profusion 
 of bearing. If the work is done early, the plums should not be left 
 nearer than one and a half to two inches apart. Of course the plums 
 that have been stung by the curculio or plum gouger should always 
 be removed. In early thinning the stung plums may be dropped, but 
 if the fruit is nearly grown they should be deeply buried or burned 
 to prevent the escape of the larvae of the curculio and gouger. 
 
^ ' Bulletin No. S 
 
 Pig. 1 is from a photograph of the Speer plum and illustrates thd 
 extent to which some varieties of the Americana plum will overbear, 
 if permitted to do so. Fig. 2 shows the effect of thinning on the size 
 of the Burbank (Japanese) plum. The upper row shows six fruits 
 from a tree that bore but a small number of plums, and which in con- 
 sequence grew to a very large size, as appears from the rule placed 
 above them. The second row from the top shows six specimens that 
 had oeen thinned to two inches apart; the third row had been thinned 
 
 Fig. 1 — Fruiting branch of Speer plum, showing the tendency of some varieties 
 
 to overbear. 
 
 to one inch apart and the bottom row 1 was not thinned at all. The 
 thinning was done the first week in June and the unthinned branches 
 bore so heavily that it was necessary to prop them to prevent breaK- 
 ing down. All except the top row were from the same tree, on which 
 different branches had been differently thinned. 
 
ive Plums. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 FROM TREE T 
 
 BUT FEVA PLUMS 
 
 PRODi. 
 
 NOT THINNED AT ALL 
 
 TH I MISTED TO TWO INCHES APART 
 
 THINNED to one incPf^part 
 
 Fig. 2— Showing effects of thinning upon the size of Burbank plums. 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 87. 
 
 In order to express more accurately the difference in the size of 
 the various lots, the volume and weight of the fruits are given as 
 follows: 
 
 
 Volume of the 
 
 Weights of 
 
 
 fruits in cubic 
 
 the fruits in 
 
 
 centimeters. 
 
 grammes. 
 
 Top row 
 
 335 
 
 318.5 
 
 Second row 
 
 235 
 
 296.7 
 
 Third row 
 
 210 
 
 218.8 
 
 Bottom row 
 
 190 
 
 191.6 
 
 It is of interest that the specific gravity of the fruit increased with 
 the size of the fruits, which probably indicates higher quality for the 
 larger specimens. 
 
 From the above table it is easy to calculate the effect of the thinning 
 on the weight of fruit harvested. The fruits on several branches that 
 had not been thinned were counted and about 24 fruits to the foot ap- 
 peared to be a fair average. Where the fruits were thinned to one 
 inch apart there could not have been more than 12 left to the foot, and 
 where they were thinned to two inches apart there could not have been 
 more than 6 left to the foot. By computation it is readily ascertained 
 that where the fruits were thinned to 2 inches apart, the maximum 
 yield could not have exceeded 296.7 grammes (10.41 ounces) per foot of 
 branch; where they were thinned to one inch apart the maximum yield 
 could not have exceeded 497. G grammes (17.47 ounces) per foot of 
 branch, and where they were not thinned at all the actual yield was 
 766.4 grammes (26.9 ounces) per foot of branch. It appears then that 
 thinning the fruits to one inch apart decreased the yield about 35 per 
 cent, and thinning them to two inches apart decreased the yield about 
 61 per cent. Leaving the effect of the thinning upon the tree out of 
 the problem for the present, it appears that to make the thinning pay 
 expenses when the lower sample of fruit would bring in market $1.00 
 per bushel, the second sample from the bottom would need to bring 
 $1.35, and the third sample would need to bring $1.61 per bushel. 
 
 It may be questioned if thinning the Japanese plums as they grow 
 with us will pay from the increased value it gives to the fruit. But it 
 should be remembered that this is only one of the benefits conferred 
 by thinning. The destruction of insects and the relief it gives to the 
 tree are probably of greater value than the increased value given to 
 the fruit. 
 
 It is doubtful if the size of the fruit can be maintained up to a mar- 
 ketable standard in trees that habitually overbear without thinning, 
 especially in the Americana plums, in which small size is the thing 
 that it is most important to eliminate. 
 
Native Ptum&. 
 
 0 
 
 Marketing the native plums. — Our best Americana plums, put up in 
 ten-pound “Climax” grape baskets, sold readily at the stores in Madi- 
 son the past season at 20 to 30 cents per basket. This is equivalent 
 to about $1.50 per bushel. These plums retailed ac the same prices that 
 were received for fair-quality Michigan peaches. The smaller plums 
 sold readily for preserving at $1.00 to $1.25 per bushel. One hotel- 
 keeper ordered six bushels of these. The demand for native plums has 
 been excellent, especially for the medium-season and later varieties and 
 we have not yet had enough to test the capacity of our local market. 
 Our experience indicates that there is little danger of overstocking the 
 market with the choicer varieties, neatly packed in clean, handled 
 baskets. 
 
 Fig. 3— A market load of native plums. 
 
 Growing seedlings of the native plums . — Our custom has been to save 
 a quantity of pits from our finest native varieties, mixing these witli 
 sand at once, keeping them in a cool place until October and then plant- 
 ing them about half an inch deep, and four inches apart, in rows three 
 and a half feet apart. The only difficulty we have found with this 
 method is the taking out of the pits by gophers after planting. We 
 have covered the planted rows with narrow boards but this has noc 
 wholly prevented the trouble. To avoid this loss we decided the past 
 autumn to leave the pits in the sand until spring. The sand and pits 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin Bio. 87 . 
 
 are in tightly-covered greenhouse pots which are placed in ah out-doof 
 pit where they are fully exposed to frost. 
 
 We find that seedling trees that are not transplanted sometimes bear 
 freely the third season after planting. Where transplanted the third 
 spring they do not bear until the season following. Our plan has been 
 to thin out the trees in the nursery rows the third spring after plant- 
 ing, leaving them about four feet apart in the row. This permits the 
 fruiting of a part of the trees on the nursery ground. They should, 
 however, be given more room than this. We find that the trees that 
 were removed from the nursery and planted five feet apart both ways 
 have yielded much finer fruit the first year they bore than the trees left 
 in tne nursery. 
 
 By this method, many seedlings may be tested sufficiently to deter- 
 mine which are the promising ones in three or four years. Some trees, 
 however, will not Lear until the fifth season. The worthless trees can 
 be cut out as they are known, to give those left more room. We find 
 that the fruit borne by seedling trees their first two bearing years will 
 largely pay the cost of growing them. 
 
 NOTES OxV VARIETIES. 
 
 Our Station has undertaken to test varieties of the native plum that 
 offer promise of value for the northwest. As the varieties are quite 
 numerous, the describing of them is necessarily somewhat voluminous, 
 and the descriptions will prove of interest only to persons who are 
 making a special study of the subject. Yet we feel that these data 
 should be put on record. We therefore present them in small type m 
 order that they may be available for reference. 
 
 The varieties of which the name is printed in Italics were described 
 in our Bulletin No. 63, and the notes here given are supplementary to 
 those published in that bulletin. Those who are making a study of 
 the native plum will find it to their advantage to cut out the descrip- 
 tion of the different varieties from this bulletin and that from our 
 Bulletin No. 63 and then paste the notes of the same variety on a card 
 for reference. We will supply duplicate copies for this purpose on ap- 
 plication. 
 
 Varieties of which the names are printed in common type were not 
 included in our Bulletin No. 63. The date of ripening given in the 
 descriptions is usually the date when the descriptions were made, hence 
 the varieties were usually fit to harvest a little before this date. The 
 notes were mostly made by Mr. uranefield. 
 
 There is some doubt as to whether illustrations of the fruit of the na- 
 tive plums add sufficiently to the description to justify their cost. The 
 stable characters are not numerous and are mostly of a kind that can 
 
Native Plums . 11 
 
 be conveyed by verbal descriptions about as well as by pictures. On 
 this account few illustrations are inserted. 
 
 The varieties that appear to us most promising for market are, in al- 
 phabetical order, Aitkin, Barnsback, Bomberger, Brittlewood, DeSoto 
 and Japan Cross, Diana, Etta, Freeman, Hammer, Haag (when sprayed 
 for rot), Hart’s De Soto, Nellie Blanche, North Star, Ocheeda, Piper, 
 Poole’s Pride, Quaker, Silas Wilson, Springer, Surprise and Wyant. 
 These varieties have been large in size, productive and, with few ex- 
 ceptions, excellent in quality. 
 
 Aitkin. — Tlie tree has proved productive and the fruit when free from injury 
 by the curculio, to which it is extremely subject, is very salable. It does not 
 keep well after picking and the tree is somewhat subject to “plum pockets.” 
 Fruit ripe in 1809 about Aug. 12; in 1900 on July 30. The earliness of this 
 variety will make it profitable to grow. 
 
 American Eagle. — Fruit slightly flattened, apex truncate, suture indistinct ; 
 skin thick and tough, sprinkled with numerous large dots ; color dull purplish- 
 red, quite unattractive when fruit is fully ripe ; flesh coarse, not rich ; stem 
 medium, stout ; stone oval, slightly pointed at ^pex. Ripe Sept. 11, 1899. 
 
 Not productive, too poor in quality and in color to be recommended. Ripe 
 Aug. 15, 1900. 
 
 Annual Bearer Prunus Americana . — Fruit large to very large, oblong, suture 
 distinct ; purplish-red on yellow ground with numerous small dots and heavy 
 bloom, skin thick, tough ; stone rather strongly flattened, oval, pointed, sharp 
 both sides, margined ; flesh rich, . good in flavor but too soft for market ; ripe 
 Aug. 25, 19u0. From Edson Gaylord, Nora Springs, Iowa. 
 
 Apricot. — Round* sh-oblonj*, suture indistinct ; purplish red with very slight 
 bloom ; skin thick, tough ; stone large, oblong, smooth, margined ; flesh coarse, 
 acerb near stone ; lacks richness, poor. Fruited first with us in 1900 ; ripe Aug. 
 28. 
 
 Baraboo. — With us this was ne’ther as large nor as firm as DeSoto ; quality 
 average ; fruit drops early and does not keep well. Fruited first with us in 
 1900. 
 
 Barnsback Prunus Americana. — Fruit large to very large, with a minute point 
 at apex, a little one-sided, suture distinct, but not depressed ; roundish, slightly 
 flattened ; a yellowish ground two-thirds covered with light red, sparsely dotted, 
 with abundant bloom ; stem medium ; stone oval, pointed at ends smooth, mar- 
 gined, grooved on back ; skin medium, harsh and sour unless fully ripe ; flesh 
 pale yellow or reddish, juicy, s’weet, nearly free* from the stone, flavor excel- 
 lent. Fruit ripe Sept. 11, 1899, and in 1900 on Sept. 5. A good plum, worthy 
 of trial for market. 
 
 Bean. — Fruit medium to small, decidedly oblong, apex, flattened, suture slightly 
 depressed ; pale yellow, tinged with crimson in sun, dots scarcely visible, bloom 
 medium to heavy ; skin thin, tender ; flesh sweet, rich ; stone large, oblong, 
 rough, pointed, slightly grooved on back. Ripe in 1899 Aug. 23 and in 1900 
 Aug. 30. 
 
 Worthy of growing for family use, but not large enough for market. 
 
 Beatty Prunus Americana . — In our bulletin No. 63 we confused two varieties 
 under this name. There is a Beaty plum from Texas which belongs to Prunus 
 angustifolia, but the one from Iowa, to which we appended Prof. Budd’s de- 
 scription, is spelled with two t’s and belongs to the Americana class. There 
 also seems to be obscurity as to the origin of the Iowa variety, for Prof. Budd 
 reported it as grown by Snyder & Son of Center Point, while Dr. Dennis reports 
 it as grown by Mr. Beatty of Shellsby, la. Dr. Dennis reports the Iowa Beatty 
 as “very large, and the very best quality, in fact there are none I know that 
 excel it in quality, and about the size of Hawkeye.” Not yet described from 
 our specimens. 
 
 Black Hawk has proved productive with us, but not above average in quality, 
 Ripe Aug. 31, 1899. 
 
12 
 
 Bulletin No. &*t. 
 
 Bomberger. Prunus Americana. Fruit large to very large, nearly round, sU* 
 ture indistinct ; yellow, more or less covered with red ; skin thin, tender, free 
 from harshness, may be eaten with impunity; flesh tender, sweet, moderately 
 rich, above the average in quality ; stone roundish, smooth, obscurely pointed ; 
 ripe Aug. 20, 1900. 
 
 This was rated as one of the most promising of the newer plums. It has 
 fruited with us but once, but we regard it worthy of trial for market. It orig- 
 inated with H. A. Terry, of Crescent, la., from seed of Harrison’s Peach ; fruited 
 first with Mr Terry in 1897. The tree is described as an upright, strong grower 
 and quite productive. 
 
 Brittlewood. Prunus Americana. Mentioned but not described in our bulle- 
 tin No. 63. Fruit very large, roundish, slightly flattened, truncate at both ends, 
 very dark-red when fully ripe, with slight bloom, dots numerous, small; skin 
 medium, tender ; flesh somewhat coarse, but rich, quality excellent ; stone nearly 
 free, oval, grooved, strongly margined, sharp on the back ; ripe Aug. 25, 1900. 
 
 This was the largest plum we have grown. The tree prom'ses to be produc- 
 tive and the high quality of the fruit will doubtless render it very valuable both 
 for home use and market. Mr. Kerr catalogues a Brittlewood No. 1 and a Brit- 
 tlewood No. 3, of which the only difference is a week's variation in the time 
 of ripening. Both were grown by Theodore Williams, of Benson, Neb. We do 
 not know to which number ours belongs. 
 
 California. Fruit medium to large, apex truiicate, suture slightly depressed, 
 bloom heavy, dots large, conspicuous ; flesh firm, meaty, not rich, somewhat 
 astringent and sour ; ripe Sept. 20, 1900. 
 
 Charles Downing. — Fruit large for its class; bright-red with very slight bloom, 
 dots large, conspicuous, irregular in outline, forming in many cases irregular 
 lines; skin thin, tender; flesh rich, firm; stone oval, pointed at apex, strongly 
 margined, with a very prominent, sharp edge ; ripe Sept. 1, 1900 — two or three 
 weeks later than Wild Goose and of better quality. 
 
 Chengy- Fruit ripened in 1900 about two weeks later than Aitkin ; in 1899 
 it was not so far behind Aitkin ; size medium to large. The tree does not fruit 
 annually with. us; quality only fair. 
 
 Chop lank.- The fruit of this is described by Mr. Kerr as “oblong,” but with 
 us it was decidedly roundish ; suture distinct ; skin sparsely dotted with large 
 dots, thin but tough with very scanty bloom ; flesh yellow, a trifle richer than 
 Wild Goose ; above the average of its class in quality ; stone small, with pointed 
 apex, cling ; ripe Aug. 25, 1900. 
 
 Col. Wilder. (The Wilder of Kerr). — Fruit with us small to medium, round, 
 dull purplish-red with conspicuous dots and very light bloom ; flesh juicy, rich ; 
 stone small. Season early. Originated with H. A. Terry, of Crescent, Iowa, 
 from seed of the Wild Goose, fruiting first in 1885. 
 
 Cottrell. — This fruited in 1900, but the fruit was a total loss from cracking 
 and rotting. 
 
 De Soto and Japanese Cross. — Fruit large to very large, oblong, slightly point- 
 ed, resembles Abundance in shape, pale-red, with numerous small dots ; bloom 
 medium ; skin thick but tender ; flesh orange, crisp, tender, juicy, rich with a 
 perceptible flavor of the Japanese plums, free from the oval, pointed, margined 
 and grooved stone ; ripe Aug. 10, 1900. The tree appears to be a weak and 
 drooping grower, but very productive. The size, appearance and quality of this 
 plum make it well worthy of a trial for market. From Prof. Budd of Ames, la. 
 
 Deep Creek . — Fruit small, slightly oval, round in transverse section, suture 
 distinct ; skin deep purplish-red, sprinkled with minute yellowish specks ; flesh 
 tender, rich-yellow, sweet, firm and good, scarcely adhering to the very thick, 
 small, margined and creased stone ; ripe Aug. -26, 1899, and Aug. 25, 1900. Ours 
 appears to be different from the one of this name described by Bailey in Cornell 
 Bulletin No. 38. This plum is good in quality, but its small size is objectionable. 
 
 Diana. Prunus Americana.- — Fruit large, slightly oblong, somewhat flattened, 
 with truncate ends, suture distinct, greenish-yellow, washed and spotted with 
 purplish-red over two-thirds of the surface, the purplish color assuming the form 
 of irregular dots in some places, in others irregular lines — no whitish dots vis- 
 ible ; skin thick and tough, but peels well ; flesh firm, meaty, sweet and rich ; 
 stone very large, oval, slightly pointed at apex, broadly margined with very 
 sharp edges. 
 
Native Plums . 
 
 13 
 
 Dunlap. — Small to medium, oblong, distinctly flattened, apex slightly pointed, 
 suture marked by a darker purplish line ; skin greenish-yellow obscured with 
 pale purplish-red, thick and tough, with heavy bloom ; flesh tender, juicy, fairly 
 sweet and rich, entirely free from the oval, thick, very smooth, blunt, margined 
 stone. This may be the “Dunlap's No. 1,” of Kerr. 
 
 Etta. Prunus Americana . — Fruit large, nearly round, yellow, striped and 
 splashed with pale red, suture distinct ; skin medium, tender ; flesh sweet and 
 rich ; stone oval, smooth, grooved on back ; ripe Aug. 29, 1900. Originated with 
 II. A. Terry, Crescent, la. ; parentage unknown, fruiting first in 1895 ; tree de- 
 scribed as a slow grower. A fine plum, attractive in appearance, high in quality, 
 and promises to be very productive. Worthy of trial for market. 
 
 Freeman. — Fruit medium to large, apex blunt, suture distinct ; color bright 
 shining crimson, very rich and striking, lower half of surface sprinkled with 
 numerous small dots ; skin thin, tender, not in the least harsh, peels very read- 
 ily ; flesh very tender, juicy, rich, with a peculiar sprightly flavor ; ripe Aug. 
 10, 1900. Grown by Mr. Terry from seed of Wild Goose in 1885. “Tree a 
 vigorous grower and fairly productive of fruit of fine quality and large size.” 
 Terry.— A choice plum, worthy of trial for market where the hortulana plums 
 succeed. 
 
 Gale Seedling . — Has been abandoned as unworthy of cultivation. 
 
 Gaylord . — Seems very productive ; the flesh is rather soft, but of excellent 
 flavor, the skin is thick, tough and harsh unless the fruit is fully ripe ; tree 
 appears to be a weak grower. 
 
 Haag . — -Fruit medium to large, dark purplish-red, thickly dotted with minute 
 dots, roundish, slightly oblong, apex truncate ; stem stout ; suture distinct ; skin 
 medium, not harsh, peels readily ; flesh greenish-yellow, tender, sweet and rich ; 
 stone oval, much flattened toward apex, not margined ; ripe Aug. 25, 1900. The 
 tree is vigorous and very productive and the fruit is above the average in quality, 
 but rotted quite badly in 1900. 
 
 Hammer . — Bloom on fruit moderate, suture distinctly marked but not de- 
 pressed ; stem long, slender ; flesh yellow with a slight reddish tinge, juicy, 
 sweet, fine ; skin not as thick as in most Americana' plums, peels rather readily ; 
 stone oval, smooth, not margined or creased ; fruit ripened first week in Septem- 
 ber in 1899 and in 1900. An excellent plum, worthy of trial for market. 
 
 Hart’s De Soto . — Fruit medium to large, roundish, slightly flattened, apex 
 truncate, suture distinct ; yellow, partly obscured by crimson which changes to 
 purplish-red when fully ripe, dots small and numerous, bloom heavy ; skin thick 
 and tough ; flesh moderately rich ; stone oval, thick, smooth, pointed, strongly 
 margined, grooved on back : ripe Sept. 1, 1900. Closely resembles De Soto, but 
 slightly better in quality and about a week earlier. 
 
 Hawkeye . — The tree has proved productive, and the fruit large and attractive, 
 but the latter is too poor in quality to recommend for culture as compared with 
 the many better varieties we now have. It cracked and rotted among the worst 
 in 1 900 ; the latter half of the crop, however, ripened well. 
 
 Hilman. — Fruit small to medium, oblong, yellow about two-tliirds covered with 
 purple, sparingly dotted with large, conspicuous dots ; stem long and slender ; 
 skin medium, not harsh, peels readily; nesh yellow, firm, sweet; stone small, 
 oval, not pointed or margined ; ripens with Rollingstone, which it resembles in 
 quality ; ripe Aug. 24, 1899. 
 
 Homestead . — Fruit too small — discarded. 
 
 Honey. Prunus Americana . — Fruit small, roundish, slightly pointed at apex, 
 greenish-yellow with many large, purplish dots and washed with purplish-red, 
 suture scarcely visible ; skin medium, not very tough ; flesh sweet but only fair 
 in quality ; stone small, thick, widely margined. Fruit too small to have value. 
 
 Hunt . — Fruit large to very large, oblong, flattened, slightly pointed, suture dis- 
 tinct, somewhat depressed ; yellow, largely covered with bright red : flesh greenish 
 yellow, firm but not rich or sweet, harsh next to stone. The stone of this vari- 
 ety suggests Americana parentage, but the leaves seem pure hortulana. 
 
 Illinois Ironclad . — Fruit large, very irregular in form, mostly roundish-oblong : 
 dark purplish-red, very thickly dotted with minute whitish dots and covered 
 with thick bloom ; flesh firm, meaty, rich orange-yellow, fair in quality ; stone 
 large, oval, smooth, indistinctly margined. The fruit keeps firm longer after 
 picking than that of any other variety tested : the curculio and plum-gouger were 
 paore troublesome than on many other varieties, 
 
14 
 
 Bulletin No. 87. 
 
 James Vick. Prunus hortulana. — Fruit roundish-oval, with numerous dots, 
 distinct suture and very light bloom ; skin thin, but tough ; flesh yellowish-green, 
 tender ; stone small, oval, thick, rough and wrinkled, pointed at apex, distinctly 
 margined. The fruit was medium to small, and of fair to good quality. H. A. 
 Terry (with whom this plum originated from seed of the Wild Goose, bearing 
 first in 1885), describes the tree as “a spreading, straggling but vigorous grower, 
 quite productive,” and the fruit as “of large size, round, bright red, good 
 quality.” 
 
 Jewell . — Fruit bright, shining-red, with numerous inconspicuous dots, suture 
 indistinct ; skin thin, peels readily ; flesh greenish-yellow* ; lacking in richness 
 and flavor ; stone very small, roundish, thick ; ripe Aug. 25, 1900 ; ripened slowly 
 and unevenly. 
 
 Jones. — Fruit oblong-oval with roundish apex, dark purplish-red, with indis- 
 tinct suture and light bloom ; skin thick, tender ; flesh firm, meaty, adhering to 
 the stone, which is oblong, smooth, rather thick and hot margined ; quality 
 scarcely average. 
 
 Knudso'nts Peach. — Fruit too small to have value ; w*ill be discarded. 
 
 Late Rollingstone. — With us, this has proved little if any later than the 
 Rollingstone, and not superior to the latter in any respect. 
 
 Luedloff’s Seedling. Prunus Americana . — Fruit medium, bright-red on yellow 
 ground, sprinkled with small dots, suture distinct ; skin very thick and tough ; 
 stone nearly free, oval, sharply pointed, distinctly margined with sharp edge, 
 grooved on back. With us this plum has been too small and too poor in quality 
 to have value. 
 
 Manlmto. — This 5 s a choice plum in quality, but the tree is only moderately 
 productive and drops its fruit quite badly ; ripe Aug. 14, 1899. 
 
 Maquolceta. — Has proved a reliable late plum, of fair size and quality ; ripe 
 Sept. 11, 1899. 
 
 Melon. Prunus Americana.^- Fruit small to medium, round, dark-red with 
 indistinct suture and heavy bloom ; skin thin, tender, peels readily ; flesh firm, 
 meaty, rich, fx*ee from the small, oval, widely-margined stone'; ripe Sept. 3, 
 1900 ; origin unknown ; from Chas. Luedloff, Cologne, Minn. This variety ap- 
 pears to have merit for its high quality and small, free stone. 
 
 Nellie Blanche. Prunus Americana.— Fruit large, roundish-oblong with dis- 
 tinct suture, yellow, mottled with crimson and sprinkled with inconspicuous 
 dots ; skin thick and tough, does not peel readily, somewhat harsh ; flesh very 
 sweet and rich except near the stone, which is very large and thick, oblong, 
 pointed at apex and widely margined. This variety is promising for its large 
 size, productiveness and fine color ; worthy of a trial for market. 
 
 Newton Egg . — Fruit dark purplish-red when fully ripe, thickly sprinkled with 
 nrnute dots, suture distinct ; skin medium, peels readily ; flesh light yellow, me- 
 dium to poor in quality ; stone oblong-oval, smooth, not pointed or margined. 
 
 New Ulm . — Our trees of this variety limited well in 1900, but the fruit w r as 
 wholly destroyed by rot before maturity. 
 
 North Star. — With us this plum has proved similar to the Surprise in size, 
 quality and general appearance ; ripe Aug. 24, 1899. Originated by Martin Pen- 
 ning, Sleepy Eye, Minn., from seed of the Surprise. 
 
 Noyes. Prunus Americana . — Fruit large to very large, roundish, truncate at 
 apex, suture distinct, slightly depressed ; dark red, closely dotted with large, 
 yellowish dots, bloom medium ; skin thick, tough and harsh ; flesh reddish-green, 
 rich and sweet : stone oval, roughened, strongly margined ; ripe Sept. 7, 1900. 
 
 Ochecda . — This continues to be one of our most reliable varieties. It has not 
 failed to fruit since 1894 and the fruit has always been of good size and quality; 
 ripe Aug. 31, 1899. 
 
 Odegard. Prunus Americana (Nigra group). — Fruit large to very large, ob- 
 long, regular with distinct suture, bright crimson, thickly dotted over whole 
 surface, without bloom ; skin medium, tender ; stone flattened, distinctly pointed ; 
 ripe Aug. 25. 1899. Showy, but poor in quality. 
 
 Old Gold. — Fruit small to medium, oblong, or sometimes roundish, light, clear 
 yellow during early stages of ripening but changes to dark-red over two-thirds of 
 its surface at full maturity, with rather conspicuous dots ; skin thick, tough, 
 very harsh ; flesh lacking in texture and richness ; stone large, roundish-oval, 
 smooth, not pointed, prominently margined. The foliage was injured in 1900 by 
 sliot-ftoJe fungus, and the fruit rotted quite badly. 
 
Native Plums. 
 
 15 
 
 Owatonna. — Fruit medium in size ; flesh yellow, tender, slightly bitter ; skin 
 does not peel well ; ripe Aug. 20, 1899. This has not proved productive with 
 us, but it is top-worked on a Wyant which has overgrown it somewhat. 
 
 Pilot. — Fruit large, oblong-oval with rounded apex and distinct suture, green- 
 ish-yellow, partly obscured with light-red on sun-side, mottled with red in shade, 
 dots small, numerous ; skin thick and tough ; flesh firm, rich and sweet ; stone 
 long-oval, moderately thick, pointed, margined, shallow-grooved on back. This 
 plum is above the average in quality, but the fruit cracked and rotted badly in 
 1900 ; the trees appear to be poor drooping growers. 
 
 Piper. Primus Americana . — This is the “Piper's Peach” of our Bulletin No. 
 63. The fruit is large, roundish, bright-red ; skin rather thick ; flesh sweet and 
 rich, nearly free from the roundish, slightly margined stone ; ripe Aug. 25, 1899 ; 
 tree a free grower with short-jointed wood, quite productive, but is apparently 
 rather slow in coming into bearing. Received in the fall of 1889, from J. S. 
 Harris, of La Crescent, Minn., who procured it in the vicinity of Mankato, 
 Minn., about two years previously. The tree has proved so productive with us 
 as to suggest its value for market. See Fig. 4. 
 
 Poole’s Pride. — Fruit medium to large with distinct suture, bright red, sparsely 
 dotted with large, white dots and covered with heavy bloom ; skin medium, 
 tough, peels readily ; flesh medium Arm, sweet and rich, much higher in quality 
 than that of Wild Go'ose or Pottawattamie : stone small, oval, thick, sharply 
 pointed at both ends, distinctly margined. If tfie flower-buds prove sufficiently 
 hardy, this will doubtless prove a valuable market variety. 
 
 Pottawattamie . — One of our two trees of this variety was root-killed during 
 the winter of 1898-9 and the other was seriously injured. The Wild Goose and 
 Robinson survived. 
 
 Prairie Flower. Prunus hortulana (Miner group). — Fruit medium, roundish- 
 oblong, dark-red with conspicuous dots and distinct suture ; skin thin, tender ; 
 flesh firm, meaty, rich, sugary, clinging to the short and broad, thick stone ; re- 
 sembles Miner in appearance but higher in quality ; keeps well. Introduced by 
 Stark Brothers, of Louisiana, Mo. 
 
 Quaker . — This continues to be one of our most satisfactory plums in hardiness, 
 productiveness, size and quality ; ripe Aug. 24, 1899. 
 
 Quality. Prunus Americana . — Fruit small to medium, round, dull purplish-red 
 with numerous small, white dots and heavy bloom ; skin thin ; flesh soft ; stone 
 medium, thick, margined. This plum is only average in quality and does not 
 keep well ; not valuable with us. From Edson Gaylord, Nora Springs, la. 
 
 Robert’s Free Stone. Prunus Americana. — Fruit med’um to large, oblong, flat- 
 . tened, of a peculiar shade of light, greenish-yellow, partly obscured with purplish 
 red and sprinkled with many small, whitish dots and also with large purplish 
 spots ; suture uist’nctly marked by a band of dark-red ; skin thick, tough, not 
 peeling readily ; flesh moderately firm, very sweet but not very rich, stone oval, 
 thick, smooth, slightly margined, almost free ; ripe Sept. 3, 1900. 
 
 Robinson. — This is the most reliable of the Chickasaw class that we have test- 
 ed. The tree is uniformly productive : the fruit is excellent for jelly and attrac- 
 tive in appearance ; ripe Aug. 21, 1899. 
 
 Sada. Prunus Americana. — Fruit large, showy, round, sparingly dotted, with 
 indistinct suture; stem long; skin thick, harsh and sour; flesh dark-yellow, mod- 
 erately rich, “mushy” and of poor flavor when ripe ; stone oval, strongly mar- 
 gined, slightly pointed ; ripe Sept. 5, 1899. Grown from seed of Van Buren by H. 
 A. Terry, of Crescent, la., bearing fruit first in 1893. “Tree a strong grower of 
 spreading habit, and a heavy bearer.”- — Terry. 
 
 Silas Wilson. Prunus Americana.-— Fruit meduim to large, roundish-oblong, 
 flattened, truncate at both ends, yellow, washed with bright red, with large 
 irregular dots ; suture marked with a heavy line of purplish-red ; skin thick but 
 not tough ; flesh tender and rich, meaty, sweet, of excellent flavor ; stone very 
 large, alm'ost circular, smooth, widely and sharply margined ; ripe Sept. 3, 1900. 
 The fruit rotted badly the past season. This plum is promising for market. 
 
 Sixby. Prunus Americana . — Fruit small to medium, bright red, sprinkled over 
 whole surface with conspicuous dots ; suture distinct, depressed ; stem slender ; 
 skin thick, rather tender, does not peel readily ; flesh deep-yellow tinged with 
 red, crisp, rich ; stone oval, smooth, slightly margined. From Edson Gaylord, 
 Nora Springs, la. Fruit not large enough to give much promise, 
 
Bulkliu No, 87. 
 
 1G 
 
 
 Fig. 4— Piper plum— natural size. 
 
Native Plums, 
 
 17 
 
 Fig. 5— Springer plum— natural size. 
 
18 
 
 Bulletin No. 87, 
 
 Smith. — Fruit medium to large, roundish, inclined to oblong in some speci- 
 mens, very dark, dull-red, thickly dotted with heavy bloom ; skin thick, tough 
 and harsh, does not peel readily ; flesh greenish-yellow, juicy but lacking in rich- 
 ness and flavor ; ripe Aug. 25, 1900. Attractive in appearance but of only aver- 
 age quality. 
 
 Snooks. Prunus Americana. — Fruit large to very large, oblong, slightly flat- 
 tened, apex somewhat pointed, of a dull, unattractive red color, sparsely sprinkled 
 with large dots ; skin thick but not very tough ; flesh tender, crisp, rather rich ; 
 ripe' Aug. 22, 1900. This plum resembles the Quaker in many respects but is 
 not quite equal to it in quality. Received from Prof. J. L. Budd, of Ames, 
 la. ; further than this its history is unknown. Prof. Craig rated it nearly or 
 quite identical with Ne^y Him. (Bull. 46, Iowa Expt. Sta.) . With us these 
 two did not appear to be the same. 
 
 Speer. — This plum is too small, and the tree is too much given to over-bearing 
 with us to have value. See Fig. 1. 
 
 Springer. Prunus Americana. — Fruit large to very large ; deep purplish-red, 
 shading to yellow on side away from sun, thickly sprinkled with yellow dots, 
 with moderate bloom, suture distinct ; skin thick, tender and free from harsh- 
 ness ; flesh rich-yellow, sweet and rich, adhering to the large, thick-margined 
 stone ; ripe Aug. 25, 1899, and first week in Sept., 1900. 
 
 This plum was sent to our Station in 1890 by the late Win. A. Springer, of 
 Fremont, Wis', and was found wild by him in the vicinity of his home. The 
 tree has proved uniformly productive, and the fruit, when properly thinned, is of 
 large size and fine appearance. I regard it well worthy of trial for market. Tne 
 plum had no name when received by us, and Mr. Springer did. not name it to 
 my knowledge. We have called it after him with the hope that it will prove 
 worthy of the name. 
 
 Surprise. — Fruit large, bright-red, densely sprinkled with yellowish dots, with 
 heavy bloom ; suture distinct ; skin peels readily from the ripe fruit : flesh pale- 
 yellow, very tender and rich, strongly adherent to the stone, which is oval, 
 double-pointed, thick, a little rough and very obscurely margined. When fully 
 ripe the color differs little from that of many Americana plums, viz., a purplish 
 red ; but before fully ripe it is a peculiar reddish-pink, that will help to identify 
 the variety. We rated this plum best in quality of those fruited in 1899, when it 
 was ripe Aug. 24 ; in 1900 the tree failed to bear. 
 
 Van Burcn.— Fruit small to medium, roundish, only slightly tinged with pur- 
 ple when fully ripe, dots indistinct, bloom light ; skin tough, flesh yellow, sweet ; 
 stone very large. This plum is of fair to good quality, but is too small with us 
 and the fruit rotted badly in 1900 : ripe Sept. 9, 1899. 
 
 Van Deman. — This bore heavily in 1900, but the fruit all cracked and rotted 
 before maturity. Grown by II. A. Terry, of Crescent, Iowa, from seed of the 
 Hawkeye in 1891. “Fru ; t very large, round, slightly inclining to oblong, dark- 
 red, of good quality. Tree quite upright until it bears fruit, when the branches 
 become depressed with the great weight, and it has the appearance of a weeping 
 tree ; ripe last of August.”- — -Terry. 
 
 Wolf Cling. Prunus Americana. — Fruit large to very large, oblong, suture in- 
 distinct ; dark purplish-red, thickly dotted and covered with heavy bloom ; skin 
 thick, tough and harsh ; stone small, oval, smooth. The tree appears to be 
 productive and the fruit is showy, but the quality is not above average. 
 
 Wragg Free Stone. — Fruit medium to small, roundish, dark purplish-red with 
 numerous elongated yellowish markings and heavy bloom : stem long, slender ; 
 skin medium-tender, not harsh ; flesh greenish-yellow, crisp, very rich but harsh 
 next the stone, which is not wholly free, round and -grooved on back. This plum 
 would rank very high in quality but for the harshness next the stone. Received 
 from Edson Gaylord, Nora Springs, la. 
 
 'Wyant. — —This continues to be one of our most reliable varieties, having not 
 failed to yield a crop since 1894 ; ripe Sept. 1, 1899. Introduced by Prof. J. L. 
 Budd, of Ames, Iowa, who procured cions of it from J. E. Wyant, of Shellsburg, 
 Iowa. The latter obtained it from his mother’s yard in Janesville, la. (Craig 
 Pull. 46, Iowa Expt. Sta.) 
 
Native Plums. 
 
 19 
 
 Cions and trees of the native plums . — Our Station receives numerous 
 applications for cions and trees of the native plums. We take this op- 
 portunity to announce that, as yet, we have no trees to offer. We have, 
 however, sometimes furnished cions to applicants. While we desire 
 to aid in the dissemination of the finer varieties of native plums, the 
 cost of cutting, labeling, wrapping and mailing cions is so great that 
 we cannot undertake- to furnish them gratis, nor would such a course 
 be just to our nurserymen. We, therefore, announce that hereafter 
 cions of named varieties, so far as we have them to spare, will be sent 
 postpaid at the uniform price of one cent each. We are always ready 
 to exchange cions for varieties which we desire to obtain. 
 
 CULINARY USES OF NATIVE PLUMS. 
 
 During the summer of 1898 a number of ladies residing in several 
 different states, who were kndwn to have had large experience in using 
 the native plums, were invited to contribute recipes for the preparations 
 they had found most satisfactory. Their response was generous, and 
 from the contributions sent in we compiled a list of approved recipes 
 which was published in a number of newspapers of our own and adjoin- 
 ing states. The interest manifested in these recipes then and since, war- 
 rants the reprinting of them here. 
 
 “The native plums, especially those with firm pulp, after being treated 
 by any of the methods mentioned below, are well adapted to all pur- 
 poses for which the foreign plums are used. As a rule, more sugar is 
 required for the native plums, but the preparations are richer in pro- 
 portion. The harshness in the skin and stone of some native plums is 
 readily removed by steaming them in an ordinary cooking steamer un- 
 til the skin cracks; or pour over them boiling water to which has been 
 added common baking soda in the proportion of half a teaspoonful to a 
 quart. The thicker-skinned varieties may be readily peeled by placing 
 them in boiling water 2 or 3 minutes. The recipes follow: — 
 
 “ Canning . — Pick the fruit when well colored but a little hard, steam 
 or cook in a porcelain-lined kettle until tender, put in cans that have 
 first been treated to boiling water and cover with boiling syrup maCe 
 of equal parts of granulated sugar and water, filling the can to the top; 
 then run a silver knife around the can inside and let out the air, and 
 seal at once. Plums cooked in the syrup are likely to be tougn. 
 Canned plums may be used for pies and for mixing with or flavoring 
 other fruits. Plums are often canned without sugar to be used in win- 
 ter for making fresh plum butter. The juice of canned plums makes 
 excellent jelly.” One lady recommends splitting native plums to thq 
 stone on one side before cooking, to avoid crumbling. 
 
20 
 
 Bulletin No. 87 . 
 
 “Drying. De Soto, Wyant and doubtless other varieties may be 
 pared, pitted, and spread on plates, lightly sprinkled with sugar and 
 dried, first in the oven and later in the sun. Cook like dried peaches. 
 
 “ Plum jelly . — The fruit should be gathered when only part ripe — 
 about half colored. This point is very essential. Put plums In a large 
 granite or porcelain kettle— the latter is best— with barely enough 
 water to cover them. Cook until tender but not until* they are in a 
 pulpy mass. Having previously covered a large jar with a cloth, strain 
 the fruit in and let the juice drop through, but do not squeeze. When 
 all has drained through, strain once or twice more through another 
 cloth, until the juice is perfectly clear. To one measure of juice pro- 
 vide one measure of granulated sugar, but do not put together at once. 
 A very important point in the making of all jelly is that only a small 
 quantity should be cooked at one time. Into a medium-sized kettle put, 
 say, 4 tumblers of juice; let it boil briskly 15 or 20 minutes, then add 
 the 4 tumblers of sugar, and in a very short time — usually from 3 to lu 
 minutes — the jelly will be finished, light, clear and delicious. To test 
 the jelly, dip a spoon into the boiling juice and sugar and hold it up; 
 when the jelly clings to the spoon in thick drops, take it off quickly and 
 put into jelly glasses. ‘The plum pulp which is left can be put through 
 a colander and used for plum butter.” 
 
 The following is regarded as important by one contributor: “The 
 earlier in the morning and the clearer the day the better will be your 
 jelly. A cloudy day makes dark jelly, and if not made early in the day 
 the juice requires boiling so much longer that tne jelly is dark, and 
 sometimes it is almost impossible to get it to jelly.” 
 
 “Another correspondent writes: ‘It is well to begin to test it after 
 boiling 15 minutes, putting a teasponful at a time in a saucer and set- 
 ting in a cool place for a moment; scrape it to one side with a spoon 
 and' if u is done, the surface will be partly solid; then roll the tumblers 
 in boiling water quickly and fill them with the jelly. On the top oi 
 each, while it is still hot, drop a lump of clean paraffin, which will melt 
 and cover the top quickly, preventing moulding. If prepared in tills 
 way it will not need to be tied with brandied paper or other special 
 care taken.’ 
 
 “ Plum Gutter, jam or marmalade . — Boil the fruit in clear water until 
 nearly done. Remove from the stove and put through a colander to re- 
 move the pits. Then rub through a sieve to make the pulp fine. Place 
 pulp in a kettle with about half as much sugar as pulp, or if you wisTl 
 to have it very rich, nearly as much sugar as pulp, and boil down to 
 the desired thickness. Stir almost constantly to prevent sticking to 
 the kettle. 
 
 “Another recipe. — To make very nice plum butter out of DeSoto, 
 Wyant or any other freestone plum, pare and take out the pits, put in 
 
Native Flams. 
 
 21 
 
 granite kettle or pan and sprinkle heavily with sugar, and let stand 
 over night. In the morning there will be juice enough to cook them. 
 Stir constantly while cooking and add more sugar if not sweet enough. 
 This way preserves the grain of the fruit and with the DeSoto plum 
 makes a butter equal or superior to peach butter. If put in glass and 
 canned, less cooking is required than if kept in open jars. A third cor- 
 respondent would add: Do not attempt to make a fine quality of either 
 plum butter, jam or marmalade without first steaming the fruit. 
 
 “ Plum preserves . — Use plums that will peel, like Wild Goose or Pot- 
 tawattamie. No water is required if the sugar is allowed to remain 
 on them long enough to draw out the juice. Boil until the syrup is 
 clear and as thick as honey. 
 
 “Another recipe. — Take equal weights of fruit and sugar; place in 
 stone jar a layer of fruit, then a layer of sugar — alternating thus until 
 quantity desired is reached. Let stand over night; in the morning 
 drain off the syrup that will have formed into a porcelain-lined kettle, 
 place same over the fire and let syrup come to a ooil; then pour it over 
 fruit in jar again; repeat this every day until the fourth heating, when 
 fruit and syrup are both put in kettle and boiled for a few minutes. 
 Place same in glass jars while hot, seal and put away in some cool and 
 preferably dark place. 
 
 “Still another recipe. — To each pound of plums add a pcuad or sugai ; 
 put the fruit into boiling water until the skins will slip; peel and 
 sprinkle sugar upon each layer of fruit in a bowl, allowing them to 
 stand over night; then pour off the juice, bring quickly to a boil, skim 
 and add the plums; cook very slowly till tender and clear, which will 
 take about one-half hour;, take them out carefully and put into a pan; 
 boil the syrup a few minutes longer till it thickens; pour it over the 
 fruit; seal or tie them up. 
 
 “Spiced plums . — Make a syrup, allowing 4 pounds of -sugar and 1 pint 
 of vinegar to each 7 pounds of plums; to this add a teaspoonful of all- 
 spice, 1 of cloves, 2 of cinnamon, and y 2 ounce of ginger root, tying 
 these spices into muslin, and cooKing them in the syrup. When it 
 boils, add the plums, bringing all to the boiling point, then simmer 
 slowly for 15 minutes and stand in a cool place over night. Next drain 
 the syrup from the plums, put the plums into stone or glass jars, and 
 boil the syrup till quite thick, pour it over the fruit and set away. 
 
 “Another correspondent recommends pouring the boiling spiced syrup 
 over the plums in a stone jar, drawing it off and bringing it to a boil 
 every other day and pouring over the plums again until it has been 
 heated 5 times, after which the fruit and syrup are placed in a kettle 
 and boiled slowly for 5 minutes, and sealed hot in glass jars. This is 
 said to preserve the plums whole. 
 
 “ Other ways of using native plums . — The choicest varieties, peeled, 
 and served fresh are equal to the finest peaches. By simply covering 
 
22 
 
 Bulletin No. 87. 
 
 the fresn plums with cold well water, they may be kept for 3 weeks or 
 longer, and the water removes all harshness from the sKin and pit. 
 They may be kept in good condition for use until winter or the fol- 
 lowing spring by placing in a barrel or jar and pouring boiling water 
 over them.” 
 
 The past autumn two one-quart cans were put up of each of the fol- 
 lowing named varieties, in one can of each sort the plums being peeled 
 and in the other unpeeled: Rollingstone, Hawkeye, Ocheeda, Poole’s 
 Pride, Robinson and Springer, with one can of the Wyant, of which the 
 fruit was not peeled. The cans were packed full of the fruit, and then 
 were filled up to the neck with a syrup made by adding just enough 
 water to granulated sugar to liquify it. The rubbers were then put on 
 the cans, after boiling them to remove the rubber taste, and the caps 
 were screwed on loosely and the cans were placed in a vessel of cold 
 water which was then brought to a boil as quickly as possible. After 
 the water had boiled one minute, the cans were removed and the tops 
 were screwed dov/n tightly. 
 
 On Dec. 1st last, these cans were opened and the fruit tested. The 
 plums in all of the cans remained whole. The unpeeled cans of the 
 Robinson and Poole’s Pride had fermented a very little; all the others 
 had Kept perfectly. With the exception of the two varieties named, in 
 which the sauce lacked character, the canned produ’ct was pronounced 
 delicious by all who tasted it. It was conceded that the sauce of the 
 peeled plums was more desirable than that of the unpeeled, but the 
 skin was tender and free from astringency in every case, and was far 
 less objectionable in the canned than it is in the fresh fruit. The skin 
 evidently tenus to redden the color of the fruit a little, especially in the 
 varieties that are pale in color when canned, as the Rollingstone. 
 
 Of the Americana varieties tested, the Hawkeye was pronounced least 
 desirable; the others were about equal. If we may judge from the 
 Robinson and Poole’s Pride, the Chicasaw and Hortulana plums are less 
 desirable for canning than the Americana sorts. On the whole, our 
 test of canned plums was very satisfactory, and we shall not hesitate to 
 recommend the best Americana plums as superior in quality for can- 
 ning. 
 
 INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 The self sterility of plums. — Prof. P. A. Waugh, of the Vermont Ex- 
 periment Station has made extended experiments to ascertain the va- 
 rieties of plums that are fertile with their own pollen: i. e., that can 
 bear fruit without receiving pollen from some other variety. His ver- 
 dict is that “In all the tests which we have made in three years, both 
 in Maryland and Vermont, practically all varieties of plums have 
 proved to be absolutely self-sterile. The only positive exception to this 
 rule is the Chicasaw variety Robinson.”* 
 
 *Eleventh Ann. Rep. Vt. Exp’t Sta., p. 240. 
 
Native Plums. 
 
 23 
 
 Prof. Waugh’s method was to inclose the blossoms before the petals 
 opened, in paper sacks, leaving the sacks on until the pollination season 
 had passed. As a proof that the pistils actually received pollen from 
 the stamens of the inclosed flowers “sacks were removed in many cases 
 and stigmas examined with a lens. In all such instances, quite without 
 exception, the stigmas were found to be liberally covered with pollen.” 
 To show that the lack of fecundation was not due to unnatural condi- 
 tions existing within the sack, he removed the sack in certain cases, 
 and applied pollen from another variety, and in such cases fruit almost 
 always formed; sometimes even when the rest of the tree gave no crop. 
 
 While the careful experiments of Prof. Waugh seem to leave no ques- 
 tion as to the correctness of his conclusions, it seemed to the writer 
 that one question had not been sufficiently considered, viz., that the 
 sacks shut out the direct rays of the sun. It has been found in the 
 greenhouse culture of tomatoes that partial shade often prevents fruit- 
 ing.* To eliminate this doubt, the following experiment was made in 
 the spring of 1898 and 1899. The end of a branch that gave evidence 
 of blooming freely on one tree each of the Springer, Rollingstone, 
 Maquoketa, Wyant and Ocheeda plums was inserted into a large glass 
 beaker, which \^as supported in a position slightly inclined toward the 
 open end by being securely tied to stakes driven into the ground. The 
 mouth of the beaker was then closed with two thicknesses of cheese 
 cloth which was tied about the rim of the beaker, and also about the 
 branch. In 1898, the inserted branches were left free, but as one of 
 them was forced through the bottom of the beaker by wind, the tree 
 was securely propped in 1899, to prevent the wind from moving the 
 trunk toward the beaker. The sun’s rays shone freely through the clear 
 glass walls of the beakers and the flowers opened in an apparently nor- 
 mal manner. Though muqh vapor condensed on the glass, pollen was 
 freely shed by the stamens of the inclosed flowers, and the moving of 
 the branch within the beaker by the wind, combined with an occasional 
 artificial shaking* insured distribution of the pollen. 
 
 In not a single instance was a fruit formed on a branch within the 
 beakers, though in every case but one the tree bore a good crop on the 
 other branches. Thus our work confirmed Prof. Waugh’s results, at 
 least for the varieties experimented with. We can hardly escape the 
 conclusion that the plums, except in a very few varieties, can produce 
 fruit only when the stigmas receive pollen from another variety. 
 
 The amount of 'pollen produced by different varieties of plums . — 
 Since inter-pollination between different varieties of plums has been 
 shown to be so important, the question as to the amount of pollen pro- 
 duced by the stamens of different varieties becomes of interest. To 
 throw light on this question, my assistant, Mr. Cranefield, investigated 
 the pollen of a number of varieties in the spring of 1898. It was pre- 
 
 *See “The Forcing Book,” Bailey, p. 154. 
 
24 
 
 Bulletin No. 87 . 
 
 sumed that the plumpness of the anthers, as between different varieties 
 of the same species, would be in proportion to the number of pollen 
 grains they contained, and that the plumpness of the pollen grains 
 would be in proportion to their virility. These presumptions were not, 
 however, demonstrated. The plan pursued was to weigh on a chemical 
 balance 100 anthers that were apparently full grown but that had not 
 yet burst, and to measure the greatest length and greatest diameter 
 of ten individual pollen grains. The pollen was gathered by placing 
 the flowers with their stems in water, over a sheet of white paper in a 
 still room. The stamens were also counted in several flowers of most 
 of the varieties. The data gathered appear in the following table: 
 
 Table showing the weight of anthers, dimensions of pollen grains and 
 number of stamens in different varieties of plum. 
 
 Variety . 
 
 Species. 
 
 Aitkin 
 
 Primus A mericana 
 
 
 do 
 
 
 do 
 
 Forest Garden 
 
 do 
 
 Hawkeye 
 
 do 
 
 Late Rollingstone. . . 
 
 do 
 
 Le Due 
 
 do 
 
 Mankato 
 
 do 
 
 North Scar. 
 
 do 
 
 Oeheeda 
 
 do 
 
 Piper . . 
 
 do 
 
 Quaker 
 
 do 
 
 Kockford 
 
 do 
 
 Rollingstone 
 
 do 
 
 Seedling, J. S. Wood. 
 
 
 Speer. 
 
 do 
 
 Smith’s Red. 
 
 do 
 
 Springer 
 
 do 
 
 Surnrise 
 
 do 
 
 Wolf 
 
 do 
 
 W vant 
 
 do 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Frotheringham 
 
 Prunus dnmestica. .. 
 
 Hungarian .. 
 
 do 
 
 Moldnvka 
 
 do . . 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Berckmans 
 
 Prunus triflora 
 
 Burbank . 
 
 do 
 
 Unknown 
 
 do 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Marianna 
 
 Prunus myrabolana 
 
 Forest Rose . 
 
 Prunus hortulana. .. 
 
 Maquoketa 
 
 , . . do 
 
 Moreman 
 
 do 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Pottawattamie 
 
 Prunus any ustifolia. 
 
 Weight 
 of 1(XJ 
 anthers 
 (grammes) 
 
 Length of 
 j lO pollen 
 grains 
 (milli- 
 meters.) 
 
 Diameter 
 of 10 pol- 
 len grains 
 (milli- 
 meters.) 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 stamens 
 
 .0081 
 
 
 
 99 _•« 
 
 .0119 
 
 .506 
 
 .231 
 
 27-28 
 
 .0091 
 
 .513 
 
 * .281 
 
 30-32 
 
 .0140 
 
 .457 
 
 .280 
 
 30-32 
 
 .0182 
 
 .492 
 
 .280 
 
 30-32 
 
 .0163 
 
 .443 
 
 .241 
 
 30 _ 
 
 .0139 
 
 .422 
 
 .211 
 
 30 
 
 .0081 
 
 .478 
 
 .233 
 
 30 
 
 .0093 
 
 .493 
 
 .280 
 
 30 
 
 .0182 
 
 .385 
 
 .211 
 
 90 
 
 .0113 
 
 .469 
 
 .260 
 
 27-29 
 
 .0150 
 
 .480 
 
 .266 
 
 30 
 
 .0152 
 
 .49 2 
 
 .281 
 
 28-30 
 
 .0199 
 
 .420 
 
 .233 
 
 30-32 
 
 .0079 
 
 .452 
 
 .214 
 
 28-30 
 
 .0140 
 
 .478 
 
 .291 
 
 30 
 
 .0202 
 
 .493 
 
 .148 
 
 32-37 
 
 .0114 
 
 .492 
 
 .231 
 
 90 
 
 .0170 
 
 .464 
 
 .239 
 
 25-28 
 
 .0155 
 
 .486 
 
 .228 
 
 25-30 
 
 .0141 
 
 .438 
 
 .240 
 
 30-34 
 
 .0137 
 
 .467 
 
 .245 
 
 
 
 
 
 A&t* 
 
 .0367 
 
 .470 
 
 .281 
 
 
 .0279 
 
 .508 
 
 .281 
 
 18-20 
 
 .0109 
 
 .479 
 
 .253 
 
 
 .0352 
 
 .492 
 
 .272 
 
 
 .0182 
 
 .345 
 
 .202 
 
 25-30 
 
 .0232 
 
 .426 
 
 .211 
 
 
 • .02/2 
 
 .394 
 
 .218 
 
 
 0229 
 
 .388 
 
 .220 
 
 
 .0081 
 
 .281 
 
 .152 
 
 20 
 
 .0133 
 
 .442 
 
 .242 
 
 22-26 
 
 .0154 
 
 .462 
 
 .217 
 
 25-23 
 
 .0122 
 
 
 
 20- 
 
 .0316 
 
 .452 
 
 .229 
 
 
 .0155 
 
 .422 
 
 .211 
 
 17-20 
 
Native Plums. 
 
 25 
 
 As appears from the table, the majority of the varieties investigated 
 were of the Americana species. It is evident that the anthers of the 
 domestica plums examined were decidedly larger than those of the other 
 species, and that those of the Japanese plums examined were larger 
 than those of any others, except the domestica varieties. The smallest 
 pollen grains were found in the Mariana, but with this exception the 
 difference between the other varieties was not marked. The lightest 
 grains, however, were from certain Americana varieties. The infer- 
 ence from the data would seem to be that the pollen-bearing capacity 
 of the different varieties does not vary much. We were able to trace no 
 relation between the productiveness of varieties and the size of their 
 anthers and pollen-grains, but as none of the varieties are self-fertile 
 we should hardly expect this. 
 
 The blooming period of the native plums . — Since it is well established 
 that the flowers of the native plums are, almost without exception, in- 
 fertile when self pollenized, it is evident that if two varieties are to 
 pollenize each other, they must be in bloom at the same time. For 
 some years past Mr. Kerr has published in his catalogue* a chart show- 
 ing the time of blooming of the varieties he lists, grouping those to- 
 gether that are in bloom simultaneously. But the climate of Mary- 
 land is quite unlike that of the northwestern states, and it may there- 
 fore be unsafe to use his bloom charts for our section. In the follow- 
 ing list the varieties that began to open their flowers and that reached 
 their period of full bloom on the same days at Madison the past season 
 are grouped together, and the list is so printed as to indicate clearly 
 the comparative earliness or lateness, the time of first bloom, and also 
 the time from the first bloom to the full bloom in the different varieties. 
 The trees were counted in full bloom when the first petals began to 
 fall. A few of the Japanese and European varieties are included for 
 comparison. Of these the names are printed in Italics. 
 
 A comparison of the records of blooming during the season of 1900 
 and previous years shows that the order of blooming of the different 
 varieties is fairly constant from year to year. 
 
 *Catalogue of Eastern Shore Nurseries, J. W. Kerr, Denton, Md. 
 
26 
 
 Bulletin No. 87. 
 
 Yosebe— April 28 to May 5. 
 
 Red June — April 29 to May 3. 
 
 Strawberry — April 29 to May 3. 
 
 Cheney— April 30 to May 4. 
 
 Aitkin— April 30 to May 5. 
 
 Manitoba No. 6— May 1 to 3. 
 
 Manitoba No. 4— May 1 to 4. 
 
 Manitoba No. 5— May 1 to 4. 
 
 August— May 1 to 5. 
 
 Odegard— May 1 to 6. 
 
 Pilot — May 1 to 6. 
 
 Gaylord— May 1 to 8. 
 
 Green Gage — May 2 to 6. 
 
 Hunt— May 2 to 6. 
 
 Marianna— May 2 to 7. 
 
 Mankato— May 2 to 8. 
 
 Speer— May 2 to 8. 
 
 Wragg Free Stone— May 2 to 8. 
 Penning’s Peach— May 3 to 5. 
 Tatge— May 3 to 6. 
 
 Apricot— May 3 to 8. 
 
 Comfort— May 3 to 8. 
 
 Deep Creek— May 3 to 8. 
 
 English Damson — May 3 to 8. 
 
 Fr other ingham — May 3 to 8, 
 
 Haag— May 3 to 8. 
 
 Gaylord’s Gold— May 3 to 8. 
 Lombard — May 3 to 8. 
 
 Mold ovka — May 3 to 8. 
 
 Piper— May 3 to 8. 
 
 Springer— May 3 to 8. 
 
 Weimetz — May 3 to 8. 
 
 Yellow Dame Aubert—May 3 to 8. 
 Annual Bearer— May 4 to 8. 
 Barnsback— May 4 to 8. 
 
 Bean— May 4 to 8. 
 
 Blackhawk— May 4 to 8. 
 
 Diana— May 4 to 8. 
 
 Hart’s DeSoto— May 4 to 8. 
 Hawkeye— May 4 to 8. 
 
 Hillman— May 4 to 8. 
 
 Luedloff’s Seedling— May 4 to 8. 
 North Star— May 4 to 8. 
 
 Robert’s Free Stone— May 4 to 8. 
 Rollingstone— May 4 to 8.\ 
 Surprise— May 4 to 8. 
 
 Nellie Blancli-May 4 to 10. 
 Wyant— May 4 to 10. 
 
 Bixby— May 5 to 8. 
 
 Dr. Dennis, May 5 to 8. 
 
 For. Garden— May 5 to 8. 
 Honey— May 5 to 8. 
 
 J. B. Rue-May 5 to 8. 
 Jones— May 5 to 8. 
 
 Marcus— May 5 to 8. 
 
 Melon— May 5 to 8. 
 
 Silas Wilson— May 5 to 8. 
 Sixby — May 5 to 8. 
 
 # Snooks— May 5 to 8. 
 Stoddard— May 5 to 8. 
 Wood— May 5 to 8. 
 
 Brittle wood— May 5 to 10. 
 
Native Plums. 
 
 2 
 
 California— May 5 to 10. 
 
 New Ulm— May 5 to 10. 
 
 Noyes— May 5 to 10. 
 
 Owatonna— May 5 to 10. 
 
 Peach (Knudson’s) — May 5 to 10. 
 
 Quaker -May 5 to 10. « 
 
 Robinson— May 5 to 10. 
 
 Sada— May 5 to 10. 
 
 Kieth -May 6 to 8. 
 
 Late Rollingstone— May 6 to 8. 
 Cottrel— May 6 to 10. 
 
 Hammer— May 6 to 10. 
 
 Le Due— May 6 to 10. 
 
 Nettie— May 6 to 10. 
 
 Rockford— May 6 to 10. 
 
 Smith— May 6 to 10. 
 
 Wilson— May 6 to 10. 
 
 Van Buren— May 6 to 11. 
 
 Dunlap— May 6 to 12. 
 
 Harrison’s Peach— May 6 to 12. 
 Illinois Ironclad— May 6 to 12. 
 
 James Vick— May 6 to 12. 
 
 Wilder— May 6 to 12. 
 
 Am. Eagle— May 7 to 10' 
 
 Decker’s Seedling— May 7 to 10. 
 Newton Egg — May 7 to 10. 
 Quality— May 7 to 11. 
 
 Baraboo— May 8 to 10. 
 Champion — May 8 to 10. 
 DeSoto— May 8 to 10. 
 
 Etta— May 8 to 10. 
 Homestead— May 8 to 10. 
 Jewell— May 8 to 10. 
 
 Louise — May 8 to 10. 
 
 Reel— May 8 to 10. 
 
 Smith’s Red— May 8 to 10. 
 Wild Goose— May 8 to 10. 
 
 W. J. Bryan— May 8 to 10. 
 Wolf— May 8 to 10. 
 
 For. Rose— May 8 to 12. 
 Freeman— May 8 to 12. 
 Galena— May 8 to 12. 
 Maquotata— May 8 to 12. 
 
 Old Gold— May 8 to 12. 
 
 Peach Leaf— May 8 to 12. 
 Prairie Flower— May 8 to 12. 
 Purple Yose mite — May 8 tol. 
 Rose A. — May 8 to 12. 
 
 Van Deman— May 8 to 12. 
 Hungarian — May 10 to 12. 
 
 Experiment with cuttings . — It is well known that the Marianna plum 
 is readily propagated from cuttings. The question arose if some of the 
 native varieties might not be propagated in the same way. To test 
 this point, cuttings were taken from all of our named varieties and 
 seedlings of the Americana, Chickasaw and hortulana species from 
 which any young wood could be obtained and placed in a propagating 
 bed in the greenhouse in the spring of 1899, and subjected to mild bot- 
 
28 Bulletin No. 87. 
 
 tom heat for several weeks. With the single exception of the Marianna, 
 all failed to root. 
 
 The skin of the native plums . — The thickness and harshness of the 
 skin that is characteristic of so many varieties of Americana plums are 
 undoubtedly the most serious drawback to the popularity of the fruit. 
 The harshness of the skin and stone can be largely eliminated by good 
 culture, but the thickness of the skin must be worked out chiefly by 
 plant breeding. Those who have made a study of the subject have ob- 
 served that there are two objectionable qualities in the skin of Ameri- 
 cana plums, viz., thickness and toughness. A skin may be thick, and 
 yet comparatively tender, as is shown by the fact that in many varieties 
 the skin when the fruit first becomes edible is extremely tough, while 
 it later becomes quite tender. 
 
 As a guide to breeding with the view of reducing the thickness of 
 the skin in the Americana plums, a brief study has been made of the 
 skin of sample varieties of the different cultivated plums growing on 
 our grounds. Our study includes but two varieties of the Americana 
 species (one each of the common and nigra groups), and one each of the 
 domestica (European), triflora (Japanese), hortulana and chicasaw 
 species. Varieties within the species may vary considerably between 
 themselves, especially in the' Americana species, but our study already 
 clearly points out a promising direction in which to work. 
 
 The accompanying illustrations show a thin cross-section of the skin 
 of the different varieties magnified about fifteen times. The skin was 
 peeled off from the ripe fruit, and no attempt was made to remove the 
 adhering flesh. The samples were placed in a fixing solution for a 
 time, after which the solution was washed out and the specimens were 
 slowly dehydrated in alcohol and were finally imbedded in paraffin. 
 They were cut with the microtome, stained with haematoxalin and 
 drawn through the camera lucida. 
 
 The Quaker plum (Americana) was selected because it is one of the 
 thicker-skinned varieties, and its reputation in this particular is cer- 
 tainly borne out by the drawing. The Aitkin on the other hand is 
 recognized as one of the thinner-skinned varieties of the Americana 
 class. It is evident that the epidermis of this variety is extremely 
 thick, but that inside of this the flesh becomes tender at once, as is 
 shown by the thinness of the cell-walls. The contents of the cells that 
 appear in the drawing were some substance that took the stain, but 
 added little or nothing to the tenacity of the skin. The Lombard (Eu- 
 ropean) has a thick layer of small thick-walled cells located just inside 
 the epidermis which is quite thin. The thick walls of these small 
 cells are evidently not very tough, otherwise this variety would rank 
 next to the Quaker in toughness of skin. The skin of the Burbank 
 (Japanese) and of the Robinson (chicasaw) appear to be about on a par 
 as regards thickness, while that ci the Wild Goose (hortulana) is evi- 
 
N alive Plums. 
 
 29 
 
 dently thinnest of all. As the latter species is now regarded as a 
 hybrid between the chicasaw and Americana species there is every rea- 
 son to hope that other hybrids between the chicasaw or hortulana spe- 
 cies and the Americana plums may produce the thinness of skin that is 
 so much desired. It is well known that these species readily hybridise 
 under culture, and some of our finest-flavored native plums have ap- 
 parently originated in this way. 
 
 Fig 6— Quaker. 
 
 Fig. 9— Burbank. 
 
 Fig. 10— Robinson. 
 
 Figs. 6-11— Showiug cross-section of the skin of 6 varieties of plum, X 15. [Original. 1 
 
 Suggestions for breeding in the native plums . — The rapid increase in 
 popularity of the native plums as a market fruit is unquestionable evi- 
 dence that these plums are to be a permanent addition to our cultivated 
 fruits. But it is what we may hope to produce from these plums by 
 breeding that renders them of greatest interest to the progressive horti- 
 culturist. When we consider the shortness of the time that they have 
 been under culture, their great value for culinary uses and the 'high 
 dessert quality and fine appearance of a few varieties, we have every 
 
30 
 
 Bulletin No. 87. 
 
 reason to hope that varieties may be developed that, while differing ma- 
 terially in their qualities from both the European and Japanese plums, 
 will prove quite as popular as the best of any class. The rapidity of 
 improvement in our native plums will doubtless be in proportion to the 
 number of those who are engaged in the work. As has already been 
 stated in this bulletin, the sales of the fruit from a plantation of seed- 
 ling plum trees, properly cared for, will repay the cost of cultivation, 
 while the chance of acquiring varieties of superior merit are sufficient 
 to make seedling growing a very promising work. 
 
 As a guide to those who feel an interest in breeding the native plums, 
 a list of varieties is offered that seem to us to possess qualities that 
 render them especially valuable for plant breeding. To those who de- 
 sire to pursue the work from a scientific standpoint, we suggest that 
 artificial crosses be made between such of these varieties as offer the 
 characteristics that seem most desirable. But those who regard im- 
 provement as the most important object to be attained, and are willing 
 to dispense with accurate knowledge of parentage will find much more 
 satisfaction in planting trees of the varieties named in groups suffi- 
 ciently remote from other plums to be free from contamination with 
 other pollen, and then planting all of the pits from this group, growing 
 all of the trees thus secured to fruiting size, under good culture. The 
 group of parent trees should also be given the highest culture. 
 
 The following list is offered for plum breeding with the belief that 
 the different varieties possess in a high degree the qualities assigned to 
 them : 
 
 Surprise for quality, Brittlewood for size, Freeman for color, Aitkin 
 for earliness, and Wild Goose for thinness of skin. 
 
 Longevity of the Americana plum . — How long does the Americana 
 plum tree live? It is difficult to answer this question, because few 
 specimens that have been planted in cultivated grounds have as yet out- 
 lived their usefulness. It is certain that the trees do not often succumb 
 to the conditions that render most fruit trees in Wisconsin so short 
 lived. 
 
 Fig. 12 shows a tree that is known to have been planted at least 
 forty years. It grows on a dry, gravelly knoll and has had very little 
 care, but has generally borne fruit, and bore a fair crop the past season. 
 As appears from the illustration, it shows no signs of failure, and to 
 all appearances is likely to continue yet many years. Those who con- 
 template planting this fruit need not fear that the trees will fail young. 
 
Native Plums . 
 
 31 
 
 Fig. 12 — An Americana plum tree that has been planted at least forty years 
 
 Dane Co., Wis. 
 
Wis. Bull. No. 88. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 88, 
 
 With Accompanying Wall Map Showing Distribution of 
 Creameries and Cheese Factories in the State. 
 
 DAIRY INDUSTRY IN WISCONSIN. 
 
 MADISON , WISCONSIN, SEPTEMBER, 1901. 
 
 %gT°The Bulletins and Annual Beports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 PRESIDENT OP THE UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, ex-officio. 
 State-at-large, GEORGE W. PECK, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, H. C. TAYLOR, Orfordville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, DWIGHT T. PARKER, Fennimore. 
 
 Fourth District, ALMAH J. FRISBY, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, GEORGE H. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Sixth District, JOHN H. RIESS, Sheboygan. 
 
 SeTenth District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, JAMES C. KERWIN, Neenah. 
 
 Ninth District, E. A. EDMONDS, .Oconto Falls. 
 
 Tenth District, GEORGE F. MERRILL, Ashland. 
 
 Eleventh District, J. II. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 J. H. STOUT, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-officio Treasurer. 
 
 B. J. STEVENS, Vice President. | E. F. RILEY, Secretary, Madison. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents STOUT, RIESS, KERWIN, TAYLOR, PARKER and PRES. ADAMS. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY, .......... Director 
 
 S. M. BABCOCK, . . . Assistant Director and Chief Chemist 
 
 F. H. KING, Physicist 
 
 E. S. GOFF Horticulturist 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, Animal Husbandry 
 
 F. W. WOLL,* ......... Chemist 
 
 R. H. SHAW, ........ Acting Chemist 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL, 
 
 H. H. FARRINGTON, 
 A. R. WHITSON, 
 ALFRED VIVIAN, 
 
 J. F. NICHOLSON, 
 R. A. MOORE, 
 
 U. S. BAER, 
 
 . . Bacteriologist 
 
 Dairy Husbandry 
 . Assistant Physicist 
 . Assistant Chemist 
 Assistant Bacteriologist 
 Assistant Agriculturist 
 . . . Dairying 
 
 F. M. McCONNELL, . . . Assistant in Animal Husbandry 
 
 FREDERIC CRANEFIELD, .... Assistant in Horticulture 
 
 F. DEWHIRST, ....... Assistant in Dairying 
 
 LESLIE H. ADAMS, ...... Farm Superintendent 
 
 IDA HERFURTH, Clerk 
 
 DAISY G. BEECROFT, .... Librarian and Stenographer 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT, ...... Clerk and Stenographer 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal Hus- 
 bandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in Agricultural Hall, 
 near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and Joint Horticulture-Physics Building, west end of Obser- 
 vatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and Experiment Farm. 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
 'Absent on leave. 
 
DAIRY INDUSTRY IN WISCONSIN. 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL. 
 
 Five years ago this Experiment Station issued a bulletin* calling par- 
 ticular attention to the cheese industry and the resources of Wisconsin 
 as a cheese state. Accompanying this was a small map showing the 
 location of the creameries and cheese factories as they existed at that 
 time. The data that served as a basis for this map was taken from the 
 published report of the State Dairy and Food Commissioner. The re- 
 cent rapid settlement of the state in the north central and northern parts, 
 ankl the marked development of portions of this region in dairying have 
 led us to prepare a new outline map of the state showing a similar dis- 
 tribution of cheese factories and creameries as they existed at the be- 
 ginning of this year. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 
 
 In the preparation of this map. the data have been gathered by per- 
 sonal correspondence with various parties situated in each county. 
 Newspapers, county officials, members of the legislature, and friends In- 
 terested in the cause of dairying have all contributed more or less to the 
 work, and while it is impossible to make personal acknowledgment of 
 our indebtedness to each of these, it is a pleasure in this connection to 
 recognize these gratuitous services, which in many cases have cost 
 considerable effort. 
 
 The laborious duty of carrying on most of this correspondence, check- 
 ing up and confirming data of a doubtful character, has been performed 
 by my father, Dr. E. F. Russell, without whose unremitting efforts it 
 would have been impossible for us to present this summary of one of 
 Wisconsin’s greatest industries. It is my privilege to make special men- 
 tion of his aid in this work. Acknowledgment should also be made of 
 the aid we have received from the office of the State Dairy and Food 
 - Commission, under whose auspices an independent list of dairy factor- 
 ies has been compiled. 
 
 *Bulletin No. 60, entitled “The Cheese Industry: Its Development and Pos- 
 sibilities in Wisconsin.” 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 88. 
 
 While every effort has been made to perfect this map as much as 
 possible so that it represents the status, as to number and location, of 
 the various dairy factories within the state, it is hardly to be hoped that 
 the same has been made without some errors, but it is believed that the 
 data are substantially correct, as in most instances the number and lo- 
 cation of the various factories have been checked by two or more cor- 
 respondents. 
 
 DAIRYING IN WISCONSIN. 
 
 The commercial position occupied by Wisconsin is in large part at- 
 tributable to her dairy and stock interests. The rich rolling prairies in 
 the eastern and southern parts of the state that were prepared for the 
 hand of man by the ice sheets of the glacial epoch offered a soil of ex- 
 ceptional fertility, and it is not surprising that the early settlers in the 
 state turned their attention more particularly to grain raising. Dairy- 
 ing began to be practiced to some extent at an early day, especially in 
 the eastern counties, but it was not until many were driven to some 
 sort of a change as a result of diminishing prices and the frequent fail 
 ure of the wheat crop, due to the ravages of chinch bugs, that some por- 
 tions of the state began to pay special attention to the dairy business. 
 What was considered as a calamity at that time, however, was in reality 
 a blessing, as it forced a change in agricultural methods from the con- 
 tinual robbing of the soil to a method of practice in which not only was 
 the fertility of the land not diminished, but actually increased. 
 
 The enhanced profits of this type of intensive agriculture are seen in 
 the very material advance which these dairy and stock regions enjoy in 
 comparison with those that still persist in the growing of cereals alone. 
 The rapid amd continual advance in the price of farm lands Is Indicative 
 of the general prosperity of these regions. 
 
 ADAPTABILITY OF WISCONSIN TO DAIRYING. 
 
 Practical experience has* already shown the adaptability of this state 
 to dairy purposes, particularly in the southern and eastern parts. The 
 enormous development of the cheese industry in the lake-shore counties 
 on the eastern border, and more particularly, the rapid increase in the 
 output of foreign cheese in Green and adjoining western counties, attest 
 the suitability of Wisconsin to this phase of the dairy business. But 
 prominent as is the cheese industry in the state, butter-making is rela- 
 tively much more important, for in this phase of the dairy industry,, 
 private dairying was much more easily carried on. 
 
Dairy Industry in Wisconsin. 5 
 
 The following data derived from the census and other reports give hn 
 idea of the rapfd growth of dairying in Wisconsin: 
 
 * No. pounds of dairy products 
 
 made in Wisconsin. 
 
 Butter. Cheese. 
 
 1850 3,633,750 400,280 
 
 I860 13,611,328 1,104,300 
 
 1870 22,473,036 13,288,581 
 
 1880 33,812,336 19,535,324 
 
 1S90 60,355,499 51,614,861 
 
 1900 * 80,000,000 60,000,000 
 
 For successful dairying the natural conditions must be favorable for 
 the economical growing of cattle, but in addition to these, conditions 
 also should be suitable for the keeping of milk; for in the production 
 of the finest quality of dairy products, the quality of the milk with ref- 
 erence to its keeping quality is of major importance. 
 
 DAIRY ADVANTAGES OF THE NORTHERN COUNTIES. 
 
 Wisconsin, especially in the central and northern parts of the state, 
 is so abundantly supplied with these conditions that by nature this re- 
 gion seems predestined to be a great dairy center. 
 
 One great advantage which this region possesses that has been forci- 
 bly shown, especially in recent years, is that a clover crop is rarely sub- 
 ject to failure. In the southern counties the snow fall is often so light 
 that clover winter-kills, and it is therefore difficult at times to secure 
 luxuriant pasturage and maintain the fertility of the soil. In the cen- 
 tral and northern counties this has never yet happened, and the result 
 is that these highly nitrogenous forage crops can be raised in great 
 abundance. Tnis region is preeminently a grass region, wild grasses 
 growing in the greatest profusion, while the domesticated grasses, like 
 timothy, red top and Kentucky blue grass are introduced with the great- 
 est ease. This can be seen even in the primeval forests where timothy 
 and clover spring up in the “tote roads” whenever the sunlight Is let 
 in through the cutting of the timber. Not infrequently timothy reaches 
 a development of five feet in height. 
 
 On these relatively cheap lands that support such an abundance of 
 succulent forage crops, stock can be grown most economically and the 
 cost of milk production is thereby reduced to a minimum. 
 
 Many portions of this region are also abundantly supplied with 
 springs and flowing streams, the temperature of which is often as low 
 as 50 degrees F., and in some regions even lower. With these conditions 
 
 ♦Estimates furnished by State Dairy and Food Commissioner, H. C. Adams. 
 
6 
 
 Bulletin No. 88. 
 
 it is possible to keej> milk in a much better condition than in a hot dry 
 climate. 
 
 Proximity to the great lakes, such as Superior and Michigan, materi- 
 ally affect the temperature conditions. These large open seas temper 
 the climate, keeping it cooler in summer and warmer in winter, besides 
 materially affecting the moisture conditions of the atmosphere. All of 
 these factors are of moment in the development of dairying, particularly 
 in that phase of it that is related to the production of cheese. 
 
 The curing of cheese is a problem towards which but little Improve- 
 ment has been made until very recently. It is now a well ascertained 
 fact that the best quality of cheese is made where the curing change*? 
 go on slowly at considerably lower temperatures than has hitherto been 
 customary. This result can of course be reached in hotter regions, by 
 the use of artificial methods of refrigeration, but for some time to come, 
 the bulk of cheese will undoubtedly be cured under conditions where 
 the natural temperature environment approximates somewhat closely 
 that needed for the process. The ability to use natural ice in compari- 
 son with artificial refrigeration practiced in states further south renders 
 the control of this problem in this and similar regions comparatively 
 easy. 
 
 The possibilities for dairy advancement in these regions is therefore 
 very great. Whether agriculture will develop in this directon or not 
 as this country is opened up for settlement is a question for the future. 
 Surely the natural advantages of the region invite such a development. 
 
 It is not necessary for one to study this question to any great extent 
 In order to be convinced that the farmers of this region appreciate the 
 natural advantages offered in this phase of agricultural pursuits. 
 
 The rapid settlement of many portions of this region has occurred 
 within the last few years. Farmers in the southern counties and in 
 other states are disposing of lands that have become so valuable com- 
 mercially that they think they can no longer afford to till soils that 
 must carry a heavy charge in interest or rent. These, with others that 
 are perhaps less fortunate, are rapidly opening up this new north. And 
 although the subjugation of the forest is by no means complete, it is 
 surprising how , rapidly the introduction of creameries and cheese fac- 
 tories has taken place. 
 
 This wide-spread extension of factory dairying practically covers the 
 whole state wherever the cow population is sufficiently dense to support 
 a creamery or factory. Of course on the frontier of civilization, co- 
 operative or factory dairying cannot develop immediately, for the num- 
 ber of animals kept by the first settlers cannot of necessity be large. 
 
Dairy Industry in Wisconsin. 
 
 7 
 
 NUMBER OF FACTORIES IN INDIVIDUAL COUNTIES. 
 
 In order that the distribution of dairy factories may be studied by 
 counties, the following table is appended, giving the number of cheese 
 factories and creameries in each county of the state as determined by 
 our census taken this year. These are arranged geographically by coun- 
 ties in order to show the development of the industry in various por- 
 tions of the state. 
 
 Table II . — Distribution of cheese factories and creameries in Wis- 
 consin in 1901. 
 
 Group I. 
 
 Northern section , including: *! 
 as yet, counties practically I 
 undeveloped agriculturally. 
 
 I 
 
 r 
 
 Group II. 
 
 Northwestern section, in--j 
 eluding upper Mississippi and 
 adjoining counties. 
 
 I 
 
 Group III. 
 
 Central section, including] 
 recently developed counties j 
 in upper Wisconsin river val- 
 ley. 
 
 I 
 
 r 
 
 Group IV. 
 
 Eastern section , including-! 
 Lake Winnebago counties and 
 lake shore district. 
 
 I 
 
 
 Cheese 
 
 factories. 
 
 Cream- 
 
 eries. 
 
 Combined 
 
 factories. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bayfield 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vilas . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forest 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marinette 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 Langlade 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 Burnett 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 Polk 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 St. Croix 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 
 Pierce 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 
 Barron 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 
 Dunn 
 
 y 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 Pepin 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 
 Chippewa 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 l 
 
 Eau Claire 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 Trempealeau 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 Jackson 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 
 Taylor 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 
 Clark 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 Marathon 
 
 34 
 
 17 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 
 Portage 
 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 Juneau 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 
 Adams 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 Marquette 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 Green Lake 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 
 Waushara 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 Waupaca 
 
 28 
 
 17 
 
 
 Shawano 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 
 Door 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 
 Oconto 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 
 Kewaunee 
 
 66 
 
 
 2 
 
 Brown 
 
 47 
 
 5 
 
 
 Outagamie 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 Manitowoc 
 
 81 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 Sheboygan 
 
 112 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 Ozaukee 
 
 26 
 
 11 
 
 
 Calumet 
 
 53 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Winnebago 
 
 35 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 Fond du Lac 
 
 70 
 
 50 
 
 
 Washington 
 
 34 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 Dodge 
 
 102 
 
 46 
 
 2 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No. 88. 
 
 Table II. — Distribution of cheese factories and creameries in Wis- 
 consin in 1901 — Continued. > 
 
 
 
 Cheese 
 
 factories. 
 
 Cream- 
 
 eries. 
 
 Combined 
 
 factories. 
 
 f. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Group V. 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 Southeastern section, in--{ 
 
 Walworth 
 
 o 
 
 57 
 
 6 
 
 eluding lower lake shore and i 
 
 Waukesha 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 
 adjoining counties. 
 
 • L 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 12 
 
 72 
 
 3 
 
 Rock 
 
 12 
 
 43 
 
 
 r 
 
 . . i 
 
 Group VI. 
 
 Green 
 
 234 
 
 30 
 
 
 LaFayette 
 
 Grant . . 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Dane 
 
 59 
 
 37 
 
 77 
 
 40 
 
 19 
 
 33 
 
 21 
 
 76 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 l 
 
 Southwestern section, in-! 
 
 Colombia 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 
 eluding the counties in the] 
 lower valleys of the Mississ- 
 ippi and Wisconsin rivers. 
 
 Sauk 
 
 24 
 
 35 
 
 
 Richland 
 
 32 
 
 14 
 
 
 Crawford 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 
 Vernon 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 jaCrosse 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 [ 
 
 Monroe 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,540 
 
 1,086 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 A gtance at the map accompanying this bulletin shows that the dairy 
 industry of the state is more or less concentrated in certain regions, al- 
 though this concentration is relatively less marked at present than it 
 was a few years ago. 
 
 Group I. represents the undeveloped regions of the forested areas of 
 the state. In some cases, as in the Lake Superior counties, a consid- 
 erable urban population is to be found, but in the majority of these 
 counties, lumbering and mining still lead as industries, and agriculture 
 has not yet been developed to any considerable extent. In proximity 
 to the towns, the cow population is -often considerable but the milk sup- 
 ply is used in direct consumption rather than the manufacture of fac- 
 tory products. 
 
 Group II. includes the tier of counties embraced in the valleys of the 
 upper Mississippi and St. Croix rivers and tributaries. The river coun- 
 ties have been settled for a considerable period and those contiguous to 
 the St. Croix river have been developed agriculturally for years. Only 
 recently, however, have the relative advantages of dairying been appre- 
 ciated and a marked development in this region is now going on. This 
 is exemplified in some recently published statistics by E. L. Peet in the 
 Burnett County Journal, which shows that within the last year over 
 7,000 tubs of butter have been shipped from this county that five years 
 ago had only one creamery. This is more than a tub for every man, 
 woman and child in the county. The output for this' season will from 
 all appearances be considerably augmented. 
 
 Group III. includes a region in which the lumber interests no longer 
 control entirely the attention of the population and which is exception- 
 
Dairy Industry in Wisconsin. 
 
 9 
 
 ally rich from an agricultural point of view. This region is now toeing 
 rapidly settled, and in it associated dairying is making marked strides. 
 The very noticeable development of factories in western Marathon, 
 Clark and Wood counties gives promise of a new dairy center for the 
 state that may in time rival the lake shore or Green county districts. 
 
 It is noteworthy that the cheese industry is obtaining a strong foothold 
 in this region. 
 
 Group IV. This region has long been the seat of marked dairy activ- 
 ity, particularly in the manufacture of cheese. Originally confined to 
 the lake shore district, this phase of dairying is now spreading westward 
 and northward. 
 
 Group V. This section is the most densely populated of any region 
 of the state, and consequently the demand for milk for direct consump- 
 tion consumes a large portion of the product. Not only is this region 
 called upon to supply Wisconsin cities and towns but its southern bound- 
 ary is directly tributary to Chicago for similar purposes. Where factor- 
 ies exist, butter making almost exclusively prevails, the counties of Jef 
 ferson, Waukesha, Walworth, Rock and eastern Dane being the greatest 
 butter-producing region of the state. 
 
 Group VI. includes the most highly specialized dairy region of the 
 state. Green county is the home of the Swiss cheese industry, started 
 by the Swiss settlers in the Sugar river valley about 1870. From this 
 center, this type of cheese making has spread to the west and norths 
 embracing in part the counties of Dane, Iowa and La Fayette. 
 
 In Richland county the American or Cheddar method of cheese making 
 prevails, and the quality of the product produced has justly made this 
 region famous. 
 
 COMPARISON OF DAIRY DEVELOPMENT AT PRESENT WITH THAT OF 1896. 
 
 If one compares the map accompanying this bulletin, showing the dis- 
 tribution of factories within this state, with that prepared five years * 
 ago,* the remarkable development of this industry in the north-central 
 and northwestern portions of the state is strikingly evident. Five years 
 ago the dairy belt, as represented by factory dairying, was confined to 
 the eastern and southern counties. The great bulk of the industry lay 
 south of a line drawn from Green Bay to the mouth of the Wisconsin 
 river, mainly included in Groups IV, V and VI. Of course here and 
 there in isolated regions were to be found small groups of factories, es- 
 pecially creameries, hut the appearance of the map presented at that 
 time indicated that factory dairying had not obtained a foothold that 
 was at all comparable with the regions south of the line mentioned. 
 
 Today a comparison shows a marked change .While of course fac- 
 tories are by no means so numerous in this western and southern region 
 as they are in the older dairy settlements, yet the increase is so phe- 
 
 *See Bulletin 60, Wis. Expt. Station. 
 
10 
 
 Bulletin No. 88. 
 
 nomenal that it is destined unquestionably to .exert a profound effect 
 upon the industries of the state. In order to bring out this relation 
 more forcibly, a compilation of the number of factories (cheese and 
 butter) recorded in 1896 and 1901, is presented in table III. In this com 
 pilation the older dairy counties in the eastern and southern part of 
 the state are excluded for the reason that some of the data respecting 
 these counties taken from the Dairy and Food Commissioner’s Report 
 for 1896 is now known to be inaccurate. The apparent diminution In 
 number or' factories is due to the fact that some factories were dupli- 
 cated under owner’s and maker’s name; also to the fact that a consoli- 
 dation of small factories has in some cases taken place. In presenting 
 the tabular data comparing numbers of factories in 1896 with the past 
 year, two classes have been made as follows: 
 
 Class I including those counties (mostly northern) which have been 
 recently, or are now being rapidly settled. 
 
 Class II includes the older settle.d counties but not those that are dis- 
 tinctively dairy counties. 
 
 Table III. — Comparison of number of factories and creameries in 
 various Wisconsin counties in 1901 and 1896. 
 
 ) 
 
 Class I. 
 
 1901. 
 
 1896. 
 
 GAIN. 
 
 Cheese. 
 
 Butter. 1 
 
 1 
 
 Combined. 
 
 Cheese. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 Cheese. 
 
 m 
 
 ! Combined. 
 
 1 • 
 
 Burnett. . 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 
 Polk 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 "i’ 
 
 “Y 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 Washburn 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 Barron 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 
 St. Croix 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 Pierce • 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 
 Chippewa 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 Taylor 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 Clark 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 16’ 
 
 4 
 
 —l* 
 
 1 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 Marathon 
 
 31 
 
 17 
 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 Portage 
 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 Marinette 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 -1 
 
 
 
 Oconto 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 Langlade 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Shawano 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 —6 
 
 2 
 
 
 Class II. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pepin 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 —2 
 
 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 -8 
 
 
 Trempealeau 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Ban Claire 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Waupaca 
 
 28 
 
 17 
 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 It 
 
 
 Waushara 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 — 10 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 Green Lake . 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 
 5 
 
 ll 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Marquette 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 l 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 Adams 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Juneau 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 Jackson 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 _2 
 
 16 
 
 
 Monroe . . 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 —1 
 
 7 
 
 
 LaCrosse . . . 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 —4 
 
 
 Vernon 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 
 —5 
 
 1 
 
 Crawford . . . 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 
 -1 
 
 
 Sauk . . 
 
 24 
 
 35 
 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 6 " 
 
 22 
 
 
 Columbia 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 
 16 
 
 39 
 
 —6 
 
 —15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Loss is shown by — sign. 
 
11 
 
 Dairy Industry in Wisconsin. 
 
 It is evident from the above table that the most rapid development in 
 the dairy industry is now taking place in the north-central and north- 
 western counties rather than in the older settled regions to the south. 
 
 The distinctively dairy belt that was marked in the state five years 
 ago is now spreading rapidly to the northward and the westward, and it 
 seems quite probable that the industry will reach as marked develop- 
 ment in these portions as it has in the east and south. 
 
 Of course it should be remembered that the quantitative estimates of 
 this industry should be based on output of product rather than number 
 of factories occupied, but there are no available statistics that give the 
 individual output of the respective factories. It is to be hoped that 
 the graphical representation of the dairy industry that accompanies this 
 bulletin in the form of a large wall-map may serve to emphasize the pos- 
 sibilities that are in store for Wisconsin if she continues to develop her 
 natural resources in this direction. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY of ILLINOIS, 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 89. 
 
 THE LAW REGULATING THE SALE AND ANALYSIS OF 
 CONCENTRATED FEEDING STUFFS IN WISCONSIN. 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN, NOVEMBER, 1901. 
 
 %£T°The Bulletins and Annual Reports of this Station are sent free to all 
 residents of this State upon request. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 HOARD OF REGENTS. 
 
 THE ACTING PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY, ex-officio. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENT of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, ex-officio. 
 State-at-large, GEORGE W. PECK, Milwaukee. 
 
 State-at-large, WILLIAM F. VILAS, Madison. 
 
 First District, H. C. TAYLOR. Orfordville. 
 
 Second District, B. J. STEVENS, Madison. 
 
 Third District, DWIGHT T. PARKER, Fennimore. 
 
 Fourth District, ALMAH J. FRISBY, Milwaukee. 
 
 Fifth District, GEORGE IT. NOYES, Milwaukee. 
 
 Sixth District, JOHN R. RIESS. Sheboygan. 
 
 Seventh District, BYRON A. BUFFINGTON, Eau Claire. 
 
 Eighth District, JAMES C. KERWIN", Neenah. 
 
 Ninth District, E. A. EDMONDS, Oconto Falls. 
 
 Tenth District, GEORGE F. MERRILL, Ashland. 
 
 Eleventh District, J. H. STOUT, Menomonie. 
 
 Officers of the Board of Regents. 
 
 J. H. STOUT, President. I STATE TREASURER, Ex-offtcio Treasurer. 
 
 B. J. STEVENS, Vice President. | E. F. RILEY, Secretary, Madison. 
 
 Agricultural Committee. 
 
 Regents RIESS, MERRILL, KER WIN , TAYLOR, PARKER, Acting Pres. BIRGE. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE STATION. 
 
 THE ACTING PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 W. A. HENRY Director 
 
 S. M. BABCOCK. . . . Assistant Director and Chief Chemist 
 
 E. S. GOFF 
 
 W. L. CARLYLE, 
 
 F. W. WOLL, .... 
 
 H. L. RUSSELL. 
 
 E. H. FARRINGTON, 
 
 A. R. WHITSON, 
 
 ALFRED VIVIAN. 
 
 J. F. NICHOLSON, 
 
 R. A. MOORE, . 
 
 U. S. BAER 
 
 t. f. McConnell, 
 
 FREDERIC CRANEFIELD, 
 
 LESLIE II. ADAMS, . . . 
 
 IDA HERFURTI1, . 
 
 DAISY G. BEECROFT, 
 
 . . . . Horticulturist 
 
 Animal Husbandry 
 Chemist 
 
 . . . . Bacteriologist 
 
 . . Dairy Husbandry 
 
 Physicist 
 
 . . . Assistant Chemist 
 
 . assistant Bacteriologist 
 Agriculturist 
 
 Dairying 
 
 Assistant in Animal Husbandry 
 Assistant in Horticulture 
 
 . . Farm Superintendent 
 
 Clerk 
 
 . Librarian and Stenographeb 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. 
 
 GEORGE McKERROW, ....... Superintendent 
 
 HATTIE V. STOUT. ...... Clerk and Stenographeb 
 
 General Offices and Departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Ani- 
 mal Husbandry, Bacteriology, Farmers’ Institutes and Library, in 
 Agricultural Hall, near University Hall, on Upper Campus. 
 
 Dairy Building and .Joint Horticnlt nre-Pliysies Building, west 
 end of Observatory Hill, adjacent to Horticultural Grounds and 
 Experiment Farm. 
 
 Telephone to Station Office, Dairy Building and Farm Office. 
 
THE LAW REGULATING THE SALE AND ANALYSIS OF 
 CONCENTRATED FEEDING STUFFS IN WISCONSIN. 
 
 W. A. HENRY. 
 
 The purpose of this bulletin is to call the attention of feed dealers, 
 stockmen and farmers to Chapter 377, Laws of 1901, entitled, “An act 
 to regulate the sale and analysis of concentrated feeding stuffs. ,, A 
 similar law is in force in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Con- 
 necticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Mary- 
 land. The necessity for such a law has grown out of newly formed 
 conditions arising in this country. In addition to flour and meal, a rap- 
 idly increasing variety of human food products, the quantity of which 
 is great in the aggregate, is now being manufactured from the leading 
 cereals. In the manufacture of these new food articles enormous 
 quantities of by-products are left over from the grains used and these 
 possess a high nutritive value for the feeding of domestic animals. 
 These newer by-products are being brought to the attention of stock- 
 men and farmers under unfamiliar names, or they come to them under 
 a name already known, but perhaps changed in character and composi- 
 tion because of changes in the process of manufacture, or for other 
 causes known to the producers. The stockman who buys a high-priced 
 concentrated feeding stuff generally does so for the purpose of secur- 
 ing the large percentage of protein which such materials are supposed 
 to contain. Protein is essential to the formation of the lean meat tis- 
 sues of the animal body, to the production of wool, to the formation 
 of the cheese part of milk, etc. In considering the purchase of these 
 newer forms of concentrated feeding stuffs the woiud-be buyer often 
 has no data for his guide as to their nutritive contents beyond what is 
 told him in the advertisements or by solicitors offering the goods for 
 sale. 
 
 Again, different lots of a feeding stuff bearing a certain name or 
 brand nave been found by the chemist to vary materially one from an- 
 other in the proportion and total of the several nutrients contained. 
 
 To illustrate this variation, the following data have been gathered 
 from the reports of other experiment stations: In 205 samples of cot- 
 
4 
 
 Bulletin No. 89 . 
 
 ton-seed meal sold in the. New England market between the years 1898 
 and 1900, the protein varied between the limits of 40.3 and 52.6 per 
 cent.; in 76 samples of Chicago Gluten Meal the protein varied from 
 30.7 to 41.3 per cent.; in Cream Gluten Meal the variation ranged from 
 30.1 to 41.3 per cent.; the Diamond brand of Gluten Feed contained pro- 
 tein ranging between 20.3 and 30.1 per cent.; Quaker Oat Feed showed 
 as little protein as 7.4 and as much as 12.8 per cent. 
 
 The oil contained in some of these feeding stuffs likewise varied 
 greatly, cotton seed meal showing a range of from 6.4 to 17.0 per cent. 
 Chicago Gluten meal showed a minimum and maximum of 1.4 and 7.4 
 per cent. Cream Gluten meal showed a range of from 1.4 to 6.1 per cent. 
 
 It will be seen that in the above examples the percentage of both 
 protein and oil varies materially in different samples of a given brand; 
 these variations represent a difference in feeding value of several dol- 
 lars per ton. The new Wisconsin law compels the manufacturer to 
 place on each package of all such feeding stuffs offered for sale in the 
 state a statement giving within reasonable limits the percentage of 
 crude protein and crude fat which the feeding stuff is guaranteed to 
 contain. 
 
 Again, there has been practiced in the west a form of adulteration 
 of feeding stuffs w r hich has worked much loss to purchasers. Great 
 quantities of oat hulls are turned out by the oatmeal mills. Unscrupu- 
 lous dealers have in some cases mixed these almost worthless hulls 
 with ‘corn meal, or corn and cob meal, selling the mixture as p.ure 
 ground corn and oats. The purchaser examining such material will 
 usually fail to detect its fraudulent nature. The law will tend to 
 prevent frauds of this character. One of the effects of similar laws 
 in the states previously named is to cause manufacturers to ship only 
 their best grades of feeding stuffs to such states in order to make good 
 high guarantees; an indirect effect is to cause the same manufacturers 
 to dispose of their low-grade products in states which have no such 
 laws. This makes it all the more necessary for Wisconsin, which buys 
 such large quantities of feeding stuffs, to fall in line with the more ad- 
 vanced states. 
 
 The bill which was enacted into a law by the last legislature did not 
 originate with the Wisconsin Experiment Station, either directly or 
 indirectly, but since its enforcement rests with the Station, this duty 
 will be assumed in the earnest effort to secure to all parties in interest 
 their equities. It was evident that the legislature did not intend that 
 the fees asked in the law should be onerous to those paying the same, 
 nor on the other hand did they intend that the law should bring in- 
 creased expense to the state. The income arising from the fees does 
 not accrue to the Station for general use, but must be expended in car- 
 rying out the provisions of the act. With this law in force the dealer 
 
The Wisconsin Feeding Stuffs Law. 5 
 
 In feeding stuffs will know just what he is selling, and the purchaser 
 will have knowledge of the composition and the probable feeding value 
 of the different feeding materials he may purchase. 
 
 All Wisconsin retail dealers in concentrated feeding stuffs are urged 
 to insist hereafter that each and every package of concentrated feed- 
 ing stuffs handled by them shall comply with the law as to label and 
 guarantee; they should not accept goods without such labels. The law 
 provides that when a manufacturer or general dealer has paid the li- 
 cense fee of $25 for a given brand of feeding stuff, all his sub-agents 
 and all dealers handling that brand are free to sell the same without 
 any further payment or fee being required. Each license granted is 
 for the calendar year and must be renewed before the end of the year. 
 Users of concentrated feeding stuffs in making purchases should insist 
 that each and every package purchased be labeled according to law, and 
 they are requested to report all delinquencies to the Director of this Sta- 
 tion. Where there is suspicion of adulteration, or where the goods of- 
 fered appear to be below grade, information should be sent at once to 
 the Director of this Station. Upon application, instruction blanks giv- 
 ing directions for taking samples will be furnished by the Station, free 
 of charge. No samples of such feeding stuffs should be forwarded to 
 the Station until the proper directions for taking samples and transmit- 
 ting the same have been secured from the Station. Samples properly 
 takeh and properly forwarded to the Station will be examined or 
 analyzed, if necessary, and the results reported with the least possible 
 delay, without expense to the person seeking the information. 
 
 For the assistance and guidance of those interested the following 
 digest of the law is given: 
 
 DIGEST OF THE WISCONSIN FEEDING STUFF INSPECTION LAW (CHAPTER 377, 
 
 LAWS OF 1901). 
 
 Section 1. The following feeding stuffs are subject to examination 
 and license under the law: 
 
 Linseed meal. 
 
 Cottonseed meal. 
 
 Oil meals of all kinds. 
 
 Peameal. 
 
 Cocoanut meal. 
 
 Sucrene feed. 
 
 Hominy feed. 
 
 Rice meal. 
 
 Ground beef. 
 
 Fish scrap. 
 
 Mixed feeds of all kinds. 
 Gluten meal. 
 
 Gluten feed. 
 
 Maize feed. 
 
 Starch feed. 
 
 Sugar feed. 
 
 Cerealine feed. 
 
 Oat feed. 
 
 Corn and oat feed. 
 Cond'mental stock foods. 
 
Bulletin No. Hi). 
 
 6 
 
 The following feeding stuffs are exempt from the provisions of the 
 law: 
 
 All forms of hay and straw. 
 
 Dried and wet brewers' grains. 
 
 Malt sprouts. 
 
 Broom-corn seed. 
 
 Sorghum seed. 
 
 Whole and ground seeds and grains , such as wheat, rye, barley, oats, 
 corn and buckwheat. 
 
 Meals made by grinding mixtures of pure grains, such as corn, 
 icheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat. 
 
 Bran and middlings made from wheat, rye and buckwheat, not 
 mixed with other substances. 
 
 Section 2 provides that every seller of feeding stuffs coming within 
 the law shall place on each package of feeding stuffs a printed state- 
 ment, giving the address of the manufacturer, the name of the article 
 contained, the net weight of the same, together with the percentage of 
 crude protein and of crude fat which the feeding stuff is guaranteed to 
 contain. 
 
 Section 3 provides that each manufacturer shall each year file a 
 statement of guarantee with the Director of the Wisconsin Experiment 
 Station, together with a sample of each brand of feeding stuff he in- 
 tends to sell in the state during the coming year. 
 
 Section 4 provides that the manufacturer shall pay to the Experiment 
 Station a license fee of $25 for each distinct brand of feeding stuffs he 
 intends to sell in the state during the coming year. The license fees 
 so paid shall constitute a special fund to be used for defraying the ex- 
 penses of inspection, analysis and otherwise carrying out the purposes 
 of the act. 
 
 On the payment by the manufacturer or dealer of a license fee of $25 
 for each distinct brand sold in the state, no payment or fee shall be re- 
 quired of any of his agents or of any dealers handling the particular 
 brand for which the license fee was paid. 
 
 Section 5 provides that the Experiment Station shall each year take 
 a sample of every brand of commercial feeding stuffs coming under the 
 provisions of the law and shall analyze the same and publish the re- 
 sults in reports or bulletins. 
 
 Section 6 provides that any company or person selling concentrated 
 commercial feeding stuffs within the state not complying with the law 
 or selling any feeding stuff which contains substantially a smaller per- 
 centage of constituents than certified, shall be fined not less than twenty- 
 five nor more than one hundred dollars for the first offense, and not 
 more than two hundred dollars for each subsequent offense. 
 
 Section 7 provides that any person who shall adulterate any kind 
 of meal or ground grain with milling or manufacturing offals, unless 
 they shall state the true composition of such mixtures or adulteration 
 on the labels, or any person who shall sell any meal or ground grain 
 which has been adulterated, and who does not give the true composition 
 of the mixture or adulteration, shall be fined not less than twenty-five 
 or more than one hundred dollars for each offense. 
 
 Section 8 provides that whenever the Director of the Station becomes 
 cognizant of violations of the law he shall report the same to the Dairy 
 and Food Commissioner, who shall prosecute the offender. 
 
The Wisconsin Feeding Stuffs Law. 
 
 7 
 
 THE LAW REGULATING THE SALE AND ANALYSIS OF CONCEN- 
 TRATED COMMERCIAL FEEDING STUFFS. 
 
 (chapter 377, laws of 1901.) 
 
 Section 1. The term “concentrated commercial feeding stuffs,” as 
 used in this act, shall include linseed meals, cotton seed meals, pea- 
 meals, cocoanut meals, gluten meals, oil meals of all kinds, gluten feeds, 
 maize feeds, starch feeds, sugar feeds, sucrene, hominy feeds, cerealine 
 feeds, rice meals, oat feeds, corn and oat feeds, ground beef or fish 
 scraps, mixed feeds of all kinds, also all condimental stock foods, 
 patented and proprietary stock foods claimed to possess nutritive as 
 well as medicinal properties, and all other materials intended for feed- 
 ing to domestic animals; but shall not include hays and straws, the 
 whole seeds nor the unmixed meals made directly from the entire 
 grains of wheat, rye, barley, oats, Indian corn, buckwheat, dried 
 brewers’ grains, wet brewers’ grains, malt sprouts, sorghum, and broom 
 corn. Neither shall it include wheat, rye and buckwheat brans or mid- 
 dlings not mixed with other substances, but sold separately, as distinct 
 articles of commerce, nor pure grains ground together. 
 
 Section 2. Every manufacturer, company or person who shall sell, 
 offer or expose for sale or for distribution 1 in this state any concen- 
 trated commercial feeding stuff, used for feeding farm live stock, 
 shall furnish with each car or other amount shipped in bulk and 
 shall affix to every package of such feeding stuff in a conspicuous place 
 on the outside thereof a plainly printed statement clearly and truly 
 certifying the number of net pounds in the car or package sold or of- 
 fered for sale, the name or trade mark under which the article is sold, 
 the name of the manufacturer or shipper, the place of manufacture, 
 the place of business and the percentages it contains of crude protein, 
 allowing one percentum of nitrogen to equal six and one-fourth per- 
 centum of protein and of crude fat, both constituents to be determined' 
 by the methods prescribed by the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. Whenever any feeding stuff is sold at retail in 
 bulk or in packages belonging to the purchaser, the agent or dealer, 
 upon request of the purchaser shall furnish to him a certified copy of 
 the statement named in this section. 
 
 Section 3. Before any manufacturer, company or person shall sell, 
 offer or expose for sale in this state any concentrated commercial feed- 
 ing stuffs, he or they shall for each and every feeding stuff bearing a 
 distinguishing name or trade mark, file annually during the month of 
 December with the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment 
 Station a certified copy of the statement specified in the preceding sec- 
 tion, said certified copy to be accompanied, when the Director shall so 
 request, by a sealed glass jar or bottle containing at least one pound 
 of the feeding stuff to be sold or offered for sale, and the company or 
 person furnishing the said sample shall also submit a satisfactory af- 
 fidavit that saia sample corresponds within reasonable limits to the 
 feeding stuff which it represents in the percentage of protein and fat 
 which i- contains. 
 
 Section 4. Each manufacturer, importer, agent or seller of any con- 
 centrated commercial feeding stuffs shall pay annually to the Director 
 of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station a license fee of 
 twenty-five dollars. Whenever a manufacturer, importer, agent or 
 seller of concentrated commercial feeding stuffs desires at any time 
 to sell such material and has not paid the license fee therefor in the 
 preceding month of December, as required by this section, he shall pay 
 the license fee prescribed herein before making any such sale. The 
 license fees received by such Director pursuant to the provisions of this 
 section shall be paid into the treasury of the university and shall con- 
 stitute a special fund from which to defray the expenses incurred in 
 making the inspections and analyses required by this act and enforc- 
 ing the provisions thereof, and he shall report annually to the regents 
 of the University of Wisconsin the amount received ahd the expense 
 
8 
 
 Bulletin No, 89. 
 
 incurred for salaries, laboratory expenses, chemical supplies, traveling 
 expenses, printing and other necessary matters. Whenever the manu- 
 facturer, importer or shipper of concentrated commercial feeding stuffs 
 shall have filed the statement required by section two of this act and 
 paid tne license fees as prescribed in this section, no agent or seller of 
 such manufacturer, importer or shipper shall be required to file sucn 
 statement or pay such fee. 
 
 Section 5. The Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment 
 Station shall annually analyze or cause to be analyzed at least one sam- 
 ple to be taken in the manner hereinafter prescribed, of every concen- 
 trated commercial feeding stuff sold or offered for sale under the pro- 
 visions of this act. Said director shall cause a sample to be taken, not 
 exceeding two pounds in weight, for said analysis, from any lot or 
 package of such commercial feeding stuff which may be in the posses- 
 sion of any manufacturer, importer, agent or dealer in this state, but 
 said sample shall be drawn in the presence of the parties in interest or 
 their representatives, and taken from a parcel or a number of pack- 
 ages which shall not be less than ten percentum of the whole lot sam- 
 pled, and shall be thoroughly mixed, and then divided into equal sam- 
 ples, and placed in glass vessels, and carefully sealed and a label placed 
 on each, stating the name of the party from whose stock the sample 
 was drawn and the time ahd place of drawing, and said label shall also 
 be signed by the person taking the sample, and by the party or parties 
 in interest or their representative at the drawing and sealing of said 
 samples; one of said duplicate samples shall be retained by the director 
 and the other by the party whose stock was sampled; and the sample 
 or samples retained by the director shall be for comparison with the 
 certified statement named in section three of this act. The result of 
 the analyses of the sample or samples so procured, together with such 
 additional information as circumstances advise, shall be published in 
 reports or bulletins from time to time. 
 
 Section 6. Any manufacturer, importer or person wno snail sell, 
 offer or expose for sale or distribution in this state any concentrated 
 commercial feeding stuff, without complying with the requirements of 
 this act, or any feeding stuff which contains substantially a smaller 
 percentage of constituents than are certified to be contained, shall, on 
 conviction in a court of competent jurisdiction, be fined not less than 
 twenty-five nor more than one hundred dollars for the first offense, 
 and not more than two hundred dollars for each subsequent offense. 
 
 Section 7. Any person who shall adulterate any kind of meal or 
 ground grain or other feeding stuff with milling or manufacturing of- 
 fals, or any other substance whatever, for the purpose of sale, unless 
 the true composition, mixture or adulteration thereof is plainly marked 
 or indicated upon the package containing the same or in which it is 
 offered for sale; or any person who sells, or offers for sale any meal, 
 ground grain or other feeding stuff which has been so adulterated, 
 unless the true composition, mixture or adulteration is plainly marked 
 or indicated upon the package containing the same, or in which it is 
 offered for sale, shall be fined not less than twenty-five or more than 
 one hundred dollars for each offense. 
 
 Section 8. Whenever the director aforesaid becomes cognizant of 
 the violation of any of the provisions of this act, he shall report such 
 violations to the dairy and food commissioner, and said commissioner 
 shall prosecute the party or parties thus reported; but it shall be the 
 duty of said commissioner upon thus ascertaining any violation of 
 sections two, three or four of this act, to forthwith notify the manu- 
 facturer, importer or dealer in writing and give him not less than thirty 
 days thereafter in which to comply with the requirements of this act, 
 but there shall be no prosecution in relation to the quality of any con- 
 centrated commercial feeding stuff if the same shall be found substan- 
 tially equivalent to the certified statement named in section two of 
 this act. 
 
 Section 9. This act shall take effect July 1st, nineteen hundred and 
 one. 
 
 Approved May 13, 1901. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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