L 1 D K A K I OF THE U N I VERS ITY Of I LLI N O I 5 From the Library of Prof. Arthur Newell Talbot Mun. and San. Engineering Theo. and App. Mechanics Faculty 1885-1942 Presented by his Family cas.s F\Gs . 2 . coi The person charging this material is re¬ sponsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN V L161 —0-1096 Street Railways; THEIR Construction, Operation and Maintenance. (TRHMS) A Practical Handbook for Street Railway Men. G. 33. FAIRCHILD, Editor or the Street Railway Journal. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY THE STREET RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY, WORLD BUILDING. 1892. Copyright, 1892, by THE STREET RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY. F.EB 3 1943 1 0 85 z PREFACE. The following pages represent an earnest effort to present in convenient form many of the facts bearing on that wonderful industry which has for its object the transportation of urban and suburban dwellers quickly, cheaply and comfortably to and from their homes. The work is not based on theory, but is the outcome of actual practice, and is designed to ^e helpful to street railway men and engineers in every department, whether mechanical or financial, and also to be of interest to the student of economic subjects, who may wish to inform himself regarding this particular industry, for it is the first and only work that covers the entire field. The book is not to be read through and laid aside ; but as its name implies, it is designed as a handbook for those building or operating either electric, cable, horse or elevated lines, to which reference can be had as occasion demands. To all who wish to study electric traction, the first chapter presents the essential features of the service, or at least gives such aid as one needs to form an acquaintance with the subject, and the subsequent chapters will be found rea¬ sonably complete regarding the special subjects treated. The writer has endeavored to treat each topic in a simple manner, having in mind the needs of new men who may engage in the service, and who must necessarily learn the business by first studying the alphabet in about the same manner as the veterans when they learned the rudiments of the business. For this reason, especially in the first chapter, many old and familiar illustrations have been employed ; but these, it is hoped, will not give offense to the veterans and provoke criticism, but will rather remind them pleasantly of the steps by which they attained to their present eminence. The author has avoided affixing a positive endorsement of certain devices and methods, thinking it better to furnish the inquirer with the means of doing so for himself by showing the origin of the design, how it is constructed and how it has behaved in actual service. In like manner, the different chapters have not been written with a view of advocating any particular system of traction, but rather with a view of leading to free inquiry, extended inspection and careful selection as to the surest course for determining the system best suited to particular conditions. Besides being directly helpful to men actually engaged in this business, it is hoped that the work will be of service in elevating this particular industry, and the men engaged in it, to a higher rank in public estimation. Any one who scans these pages must be convinced that to become a successful man¬ ager or engineer in street railway affairs one must be possessed of talents of no mean order, and be ? thoroughly informed on a multitude of mechanical details ranging from the qualities of a horseshoe nail up to the particular merits of L he two machines which represent the best inventive thought of the 2 'T^net E Sh ° E (Fig. 2). Polarity: The mariner’s compass was founded precisely on the discovery that a piece of lodestone or of magnetized steel, when freely suspended, assumed a definite position. It is now understood 2 STREET RAILWAYS. that the earth itself is a „iarge magnet and induces this definite position by attracting the free extremi¬ ties or “ poles” of the “ magnetic needle” in the mariner’s compass. All magnetized substances, whether permanently or temporarily magnetized, have what is called polarity. The pole which tends to point northward, when free to move, is called the north pole. The other is the south pole. Elec- Fig. 3.—Lines of Force of Bar Magnet Marked by Iron Filings. tricians'irtdicate the polarity by the letters N and S. When two magnets are placed near to each other the N pole of one is found to repel the N pole and to attract the S pole of the other; and recip¬ rocally. It is precisely by this attraction and re¬ pulsion that motive power is produced by the agency of electricity. It is now understood that the phenomena of mag¬ netism are due to an atmosphere of magnetic influ¬ ence which surrounds the poles, and to a lesser extent, the whole of the magnet. This atmosphere is termed the “ magnetic field.” If a piece of thin paper is placed over a bar magnet and fine iron filings are sprinkled over it the particles of iron will arrange themselves in regular curves between the poles and so map out, or define, lines in the magnetic field which scientists call “ lines of force.” See Fig. 3. Fig. 4 exhibits the manner in which the filings arrange themselves about the poles of a horse-shoe magnet. The forms of the curves show not only the direction of the magnetic force but they also help us to draw conclusions as to its intensity. When the force is great the curved lines are thick and sharply defined, and when it is weak the lines are thin and less plain. The lines of force ’are also to be found in the neighborhood of wires through which electric cur¬ rents are passing. They are the outward effect produced by the passage of an electric current, but the most singular fact is that they can also be the cause of an electric current. When a loop of wire is moved in the magnetic field, crossing the lines of force, a current of electricity is generated in the wire composing the loop. The elec¬ tricity thus generated in the wire is called an induced current and con tinues as long as the motion lasts, the direction, however, of the current generated in the wire while it is en¬ tering the field is opposite to that of the current which is generated when it is leaving the field, or is reversed when the motion is reversed. The current ceases when the wire is at rest. Just here we learn that motion or power will produce electricity, and it will not be difficult to mount our wire loop on a shaft, and, by means of a crank, cause it to pass in both directions through a magnetic field. Every time the loop crosses the lines of force in cither direction there will be a cur¬ rent induced in the wire, and if the shaft be turned Fig. 4.—Lines of Force of Horse Shoe Magnet Marked by Iron Filings. very fast these currents or beats of electricity will follow each other quickly in a stream; then, by means of springs or brushes resting on the ends of the revolving wire, we can conduct the currents through a wire circuit from one brush back to the ELECTRIC TRACTION. I 3 other. Such a machine, Fig. 5, is the simplest form of a dynamo-electric machine or “dynamo,” and it consists of a single loop of wire having its ends connected with the two parts of a split metallic tube, shown In Fig. 6, and so mounted that the two parts of the ring embrace the shaft which must be of hard wood or other insulating material, and by means of which it is made to rotate between the poles of a large magnet, the poles of which have concave faces in order that the wire may revolve as closely as pos¬ sible to them. Referring t o Fig. 5, if the loop Fig. 5.—Simple Form of Dynamo. or wire ( to w hi c h the name of “ armature ” has been given by the French) has its ends connected to the parts of the split tube (called a commutator) and be rotated in the magnetic field between the poles N and S, in the direction of the large arrow, currents will be generated which are said to flow from back to front (in the direction indicated by the small Fig. 6.—Simple Loop Armature. Fig. 7.—Commutator and Brushes. arrows) during its motion past the north pole from the top to the bottom, but in the opposite direction (from front to back) during its motion past the south pole, or from the bottom to the top. In reality no one knows in which direction, if any, electric currents flow in a circuit; the expression “direc¬ tion” is a conventional one, as are also the terms “positive ” and “negative,” but they are convenient expressions and are universally used. In Fig. 7 the letters B and B' show the metallic springs or brushes on the two halves of the com¬ mutator, which are so arranged that one part of the split tube slides out of contact with a brush and the other part slides into contact the moment when the loop passes through the vertical positions where the current reverses itself. By this arrange- Fig. 8.—Simple Rectangular Coil. Fig. 9.—Loop Arma ture of Two Turns. ment the alternating currents or beats induced in the loop are “commuted” and caused to flow in one and the same direction through the circuit That is, the brush B will receive all the currents flowing from back to front, or, as we will now call them, the “ positive ” currents and B' will receive all that flow from front to back or the “ negative-” currents, so that by completing the circuit the cur¬ rent will seem to go out through B and return through B'. It w'll be noticed in Fig. 7 and some of the sub¬ sequent figures that the point where the brushes rest does not exactly coincide with that of the gap between the poles, but that it is slightly displaced in the direction of rotation or in the line D D. This dis¬ placement of the brushes is called the “ lead ” and is neces¬ sitated, in some classes of dynamos, for reasons that will appear later on. In place of the single loop a coil consisting of many turns of wire may be substituted, Fig. 8, in each of which an inductive action will be simul¬ taneously going on, making what may be termed the total induced electro-motive force proportion- Fig. 10.—Four-Part Ring Armature. 4 STREET RAILWAYS. ately greater, because the electro-motive force depends on the number of turns of wire in the coil, and the speed at which it is driven. This form, with the addition of an iron core, Fig. ii.—Drum Armature and Brushes. was given to the magneto-electric machines of the old pattern, and is still used in tele¬ phone call ma¬ chines. The same split tube or two - part commutator will answer if a loop of two or more turns be substi¬ tuted, as shown in Fig. 9. In this case the coils of wire must be separated from each other by being covered with fibres of cotton, silk or some other insulating or non-conducting material, so that the current will not jump across, but will follow the entire length of the wire. We may also substitute for the loop one small coil consisting of several turns wound upon an iron ring, but there must be another coil placed at the opposite side of the ring and connected to the same com¬ mutator. Fig. 13.—Permanent Magnet Dynamo. It will be noted in Figs. 10 and 11, that each section of the coil is connected to the next, as well as to the commutator, so that the whole constitutes one single closed coil. The col¬ lector, or commutator, seg¬ ments are not always slices of metal tubing, but are made up of a number of parallel bars of copper, gun metal, or phosphor bronze, insulated from each H other and arranged around a shaft from which they are sepa¬ rated by some insulating sub¬ stance. (Fig. 12.) In order to produce a con¬ tinuous current, the coils on the armature are divided into a very large number of sections, so that they will come in regular succession into the position of maximum induction. The above figures are types of closed-coil arma¬ tures, the coils being connect¬ ed in series, and there must be as many segments to the collector as there are sections in the coils of the armature. So far we have described a dynamo machine having very simple parts and one em¬ ploying a permanent magnet to excite the induced cur- This is an old type of Fig. 12.—Commutator. There may be placed in the same ring rents, as shown in Fig. 13 two or more sets of coils at right angles to each other, and, in order to give continuity to the cur¬ rents, the commutator must have a larger number of parts. (Fig. 10.) Fig. 11 is a sketch of a drum armature with two pairs of coils at right angles to each other and connected to a four-part commu¬ tator. machine and is not generally employed. In order to understand the construction of the modern machines we must retrace our steps. We have seen how magnetism will produce a current of electricity and have stated that electricity will pro¬ duce magnetism. If a current of electricity, generated by a chemical battery or any other means, be sent through a coil of insulated wire surround¬ ing a bar of soft iron, the bar for the time being Fig. 15.—An Electro- Magnet with Arma¬ ture or Keeper. ELECTRIC TRACTION. 5 becomes a magnet with a north and a south pole according to the direction of the current, but, un¬ like the steel bar, it instantly loses its magnetism Fig. 16.—Electro-Magnf.t Dynamo. dependent source, either a battery or another dy¬ namo, as showrn in Fig. 16. The arrows indicate the course of the current through the wires of the field magnet and also the current gener- erated in the armature as it completes the cir¬ cuit. Dynamos were, in fact, made this way for Fig. 19.—Complete Armature. many years, until the astonishing fact was dis¬ covered that the current from the armature could be led around the arms of the field magnet, and on the cessation of the current (Fig. 14). The coils of wire may be wound about each pole, or on spools and then placed over the poles (Fig. 15), Fig. 17.—Series Wound Fig. 18.—Shunt Wound Dynamo. Dynamo. This is called an electro-magnet, and is employed in electrical machines, such as telegraph instru¬ ments, electric bells and signals, as well as in the construction of dynamos. In dynamos this mag net, from the fact that it supplies the magnetic field in which the armature revolves, is called the field magnet, and in practice it is made in a great variety of forms. A little thought will show that in place of the permanent steel magnet in Fig. 13 there may be substituted an electro-magnet excited from an in¬ Fig. 20.—Edison Dynamo or Generator. thus the machine be made to excite its own field magnetism. Such a machine is called a “ series,” wound dynamo (Fig. 17). Instead, however, tak¬ ing the entire current around the field magnet, its 6 STREET RAILWAYS arms may be wound with many turns of fine wire which will convey only a small portion of the whole current generated in the armature. These coils being connected to the brushes of the machine constitute a by-pass circuit and is called a “ shunt ” wound dynamo. (Fig. 18.) The two methods of winding may be combined and the machine is then termed types, depending upon the shape of the core and method of winding as already shown in Figs io and ii The first is termed ring armature and the other drum armature The core of the latter con¬ sists of a cylinder of iron, either plain or having lengthwise grooves in which the wires are wound, and the other of an iron ring usually with notches Fig. 21.—Thomson-Houston Generator. “ compound ” wound. Other methods of governing the current are also introduced in some machines and will be readily understood when we study the practical workings of a dynamo. Before making a practical machine it will be necessary to study a little more closely the organs of the armature, of which there are a number of cut in the edges to receive the winding. These armature cores are not usually made of solid iron, but of slit or laminated pieces, in order to prevent the generation of eddy or parasite currents which would cause them to heat. The drum armature cores are usually built of thin plates of sheet iron,-insulated from the shaft and ELECTRIC TRACTION. 1 separated from one another by paper or mica. They are held together by two end plates screwed to the shaft. The cores of the flat ring type are Figs, i g and 20 illustrate the armature and com¬ pleted dynamo of the Edison type, and Fig. 21 illustrates a dynamo or generator of the Thomson- Fig. 22.—Thomson-Houston Four Pole Generator. built up of consecutive hoops of sheet iron, sepa¬ rated from each other by paper, mica or some other insulating material. Instead, however, of winding the drum armature with wire, metal rods are sometimes substituted, but arc suitable for electric light work only. Houston type; while Fig. 22 shows a multipolar machine manufactured by the same company. An armature core of the ring pattern is shown in Fig. 23. The ring is usually made, as before stated, of thin plates wound concentric, like a roll of ribbon, but has spaces or grooves planed or 8 STREET RAILWAYS milled out of the edges in which the wires are wound Some makers, however, build up the ring with sections of sheet iron previously stamped out with a die, in each of which the groove is cut, and when laid up in regular order the completed ring has a groove across the entire face. All the iron parts which adjoin the wire of the “ bobbins," as the coils of wire are now called, are covered with an insulating material consisting of a layer of strong, heavy canvas saturated with shellac varnish. A sheet of strong cloth inserted, occasionally, separ¬ ates the layers of wire from each other in the bob¬ bins. All the bobbins are wound in the same direc¬ tion artd the inner ends of opposite bobbins are soldered together. Fig. 24 illustrates a dynamo or generator manufac¬ tured by the Short Electric Railway Co. in which the ring type of armature is employed Other forms of core, armature and dynamo are shown in Figs. 25, 26 27 and 27A. The question may arise, where does the electricity come from ? No one knows. We do know, however, that pieces of iron and copper wire placed in certain re¬ lations to each other, some fixed others moving, produce an inexhaustible supply of electricity, although the parts are insulated from the earth and all surrounding objects; and we know that this elec¬ tricity may be changed into power, heat and light. Having learned how electricity may be produced by the application of steam or other power to the shaft of a dynamo, we have next to learn how it is made to do effective work by being conducted through a motor. THE ELECTRIC MOTOR. This is a device for transforming electrical power into mechanical power; and, strange as it may seem, this machine is nearly like a dynamo in all its parts ; in fact a good dynamo is usually a good motor and will act as a motor when a current of electricity is sent through its armature. The practical motor, however, depends for its operation more upon magnetic attraction and repulsion than does the dynamo, and the shape and weight of its parts are modified to suit the class of work it is required to perform. A motor will convert into useful work a large percentage of electricity, under conditions depending somewhat on the kind of work it is required to do, but no motor succeeds in turning into work all the electricity conducted to it. We have learned that a magnet will attract the opposite pole of another magnet and will pull it around. It is also true that a coil of wire, carrying a cur¬ rent, is acted upon when placed in a mag¬ netic field, and is pulled around as a magnet is. For these reasons the dynamo may be chang¬ ed into a motor by directing a part of the current through the coils of the field mag¬ net to produce the poles of the magnetic field and another portion of the current into the separate coils of the armature through the brushes and commutator. The effect of this current is to produce magnetic poles on each side of the armature core directly under the coil through which the current is passing, and also poles in the coil itself. Now, if the brushes are so arranged on the commutator that these poles, formed in the armature, are at right angles to the poles of the field magnets, each pole of the latter will attract the unlike and repel the like poles of the armature, so that the latter is pulled and pushed around. As the armature revolves, however, the brushes transfer the current to the Fig 24.—Short Electric Railway Companys Generator IO STREET RAILWAYS. next coil ; new poles are formed at the same point, which in turn try to climb up to the unlike poles of the field magnets, but never reach them, for, by the rotation of the commutator, the armature poles are set back and remain stationary relatively to a fixed point, while at the same time they traverse the entire circumference of the armature. When the dynamo is run as a generator poles are formed in the armature in the same way, but, in such a position that the field magnets are all the time pulling back ; hence it is that the faster the armature of the generator is revolved the more power it requires to keep it in motion. We have learned that the shape and weight of the parts of the motor are modified to suit the class of work it is re¬ quired to perform ; hence it is that, for street car work, where the motor is to be placed on the truck under the car body, it is usually constructed in a very compact form, as will be seen from the accompany¬ ing illustration, Fig. 28, which is known as the Thomson-Houston type of motor and is in use on many electric railways. Fig. 29 shows a dissected motor of the same type, and on the left of the same figure is shown a current controlling device or rheostat. Flaving described in a general way the operation of a motor, we have now to see how it is utilized for the propulsion of street cars. The mechanical methods of connecting the motor to the wheels of the car are among the important points first to be considered. In the early experiments of electric traction, the motor was mounted on the front plat¬ form or on some portion of the car body, and the power produced by the rotation of the armature was transmitted to the car axles by means of belts, sprocket chains, or rope gearing. These methods having developed some difficulties in operation, direct gearing was substituted and has met with quite general approval. Still other methods, such as friction, worm and differential gear are employed. Some motors are gearless, the armature being mounted on the car axle, and will receive attention farther on. SELF CONTAINED MOTOR TRUCKS. These consist of a rigid framework resting upon the journal boxes and carrying a portion of the weight of the motor, the other portion being borne by the axles. The car body rests upon the frame and is so connected that it may be readily attached or removed. The important features to be noted in this arrangement are : To provide for an elastic gear connection, to always maintain the journals parallel with each other, and a proper proportion- Fig. 27.—The Weston Generator. ELECTRIC TRACTION. 11 ing of the gear wheels, so that the rapid rotation of the armature—2,500 revolutions per minute in some classes—is reduced so as to maintain a suitable car speed. It has been found expedient in practice, in order to secure sufficient adhesion between the wheels complete metallic circuit must extend to the car, and back from the car to the generator. As we have already stated, that portion of the circuit leading out from the generator is supposed to con¬ vey the " positive ” currents and the return the “ negative " currents. Fig. 27A.—The Rae Generator. and rails, to mount two motors on each truck, each being geared to an axle independently of the other. The accompanying illustration, Fig. 30, is a type of motor truck that has met with quite general approval and is equipped with the above described motor. CONDUCTING CURRENT TO CAR. In order to transmit the current from the dynamo or generator to the motor on the car, a Many experiments have been tried to determine the proper location of these conductors and the best means of securing a movable contact with them. On some of the early roads the conductor was placed on the surface and consisted of a third rail mounted on some insulating material through which the positive current was transmitted, and from which, by means of a brush or wheel, the current was taken up, passed through the motor, STREET RAILWAYS. 12 thence, by means of the car wheels, to the rails of the track through which it was returned to the generator. An underground method has also been tried. This consists of mounting two wires or metallic rods, one for the positive and the other for the neg¬ ative current in a shallow conduit between the rails or at the side of the track. Con¬ tact with the con¬ ductors so mount- FlG ' 28-— Thomson- ed is obtained by means of brushes or plows sup¬ ported by a thin iron plate or finger hung to the truck of the car and moving along the narrow slot in the top of the conduit. cised in insulating the conducting wires from the sides of the conduit and also from contact with the slot rails. The overhead system is the one that has come into the most general use, and includes the methods of sup¬ porting one or both conductors and making con¬ tact with them above the car. Of these two meth¬ ods the single wire under - con- Houston Motor. tact arrangement is the most popular. In this case the positive wire is supported over the centre of the track by means of cross wires attached to poles at the side of the street, Fig. 31, or by means of cross arms Fiu. 29 .—Dissected Motor and Rheostat. One brush takes up the current from the positive on poles placed between the tracks. For single wire and conveys it to the motor, whence it is track roads a side pole with brackets is used, as returned to the negative wire through the other shown in Fig. 32. Figs. 33 and 34 show methods brush. In this system great care has to be exer- of bracing the trolley wires on the curves. ELECTRIC TRACTION. 1 3 In the single trolley construction the track rails are utilized for the return or negative current, and for this purpose the ends of the rails are wired together (Figs. 35 to 38), and the rails are usually supplemented by one or more return wires which are buried under the pavement and to which each section of rail, frog or casting is connected by means of branch wires as shown in Figs. 39 to 42. The bonds are connected with the rail by means of rivets which must pass through holes, drilled in the web or base of the rail for the purpose, and be upset into a countersink on one side. The joints of wire is reduced, resulting in an economy of power and an efficient service from the motors. In some classes of soil the resistance of the rail return may be reduced and leakage avoided by driving metal rods or pieces of gas pipe ten or fifteen feet down into the ground, and connecting these rods with the rails or a supplementary wire. In place of rods, copper ground plates having a surface of from thirty to forty square feet, may be placed at intervals of 1,000 ft. and of a depth sufficient to insure their being always in moist ground. should be well wrapped and soldered, or the wires may be connected by a metallic coupler. Fig. 43. Where a drawbridge is crossed the rails on either side should be connected by an armored wire, weighted to the bottom of the water with the necessary automatic connections for the rails on the drawbridge. Galvanized iron wire is recommended for rail bonds and track wiring, for the reason that copper wire, although a better conductor, deteriorates rapidly from electrolysis. In making the track connections the aim should be to return the current to the generator in a direct path and one having as little resistance as possible. By reducing the resistance in the return circuit tlie total resistance POLES. The poles for supporting the overhead wires may be made either of wood, iron or steel, and should be from twenty-six to thirty feet long. Whatever material is used, they should be made strong enough to stand the strain of the cross suspension wire, and, at the curves, the side strain of the con¬ ducting wire, or, as it is called, the trolley wire The side poles should stand a direct strain of at least 800 lbs. without deflecting more than four or five inches, and should be capable of standing up under a strain of from 1,200 to 1,800 lbs. without being bent beyond the elastic limit. The strength should be sufficient not only to carry the weight of the suspension and trolley wires but the addi- 14 STREET RAILWAYS. tonal weight imposed in case the wiring should be covered by an accumulation of ice and snow. straight lines should be from seven to eight inches in diameter at the top when finished, and not less In case wooden poles are adopted, the best tim- than from ten to twelve inches at the base. Larger ber is chestnut, cedar or Georgia pine. They may poles should be provided at the ends of the line, be left natural round, or sawn into ornamental and also for standing the extra pull at curves. Fig. 33. —Overhead Curve Wiring for Single Track Construction, Fig. 34. —Overhead Curve Wiring for Double Track Construction. shapes and dressed smooth. The top should be coned; and it will be found to be economical to keep them well painted. Wooden poles for use on Wooden poles should be straight, free from shakes, checks, or large knots. (Fig- 44-) Iron or steel poles are more desirable, for many ELECTRIC TRACTION. *5 Fig. 35.—Rail Bond with Girder. Rail. Fig. 36.—Rail Bond with Tram Rail. fnj (r ^\. *==- fol foi ^ <-^4 -- 'C* l=s 1 Fig. 37.—Rail Bond with “ T ” Rail. reasons, than wooden poles and may be made more Centre poles, Fig. 48, which are designed for use in or less ornamental according to taste. For subur- the centre of the street between the tracks are made like the side poles—except that the lacing is omitted—as they are not subject to a side strain. To prevent the bending of the cross arms in this type of centre poles a bracing, Fig. 49, is provided which is a combination of bars and angles. An extra heavy pole is provided for supporting the trolley at the end of the line. This type of end centre pole is illustrated in Fig. 50. In addition to the cross arms the end pole is braced from the back, and the arms are provided with loops for securing the end of the trolley line, in place of the usual hanger connection. Other desirable types of poles are shown in Figs, 51 to 54. ban lines wooden poles will answer, but the orna- Poles are usually placed 125 ft. apart. This dis- mental type of iron or steel poles is preferable for tance will depend somewhat upon the size and city streets. A very neat pole is made of three sec- material of the trolley wire, but it will usually be tions of heavy pipe which may be painted an attractive color. The lower section should be from five to eight inches in di¬ ameter and the other two sections suc¬ cessively one inch smaller and telescoped from eighteen to twenty inches into the larger. (Fig. 45.) Round iron poles are sometimes reinforced by a truss rod on the outside. This arrangement should be avoided when possible, but in case it is used the lower end of the truss should be anchored to the base of the pole below the surface of the ground and not at the surface. Round poles are sometimes made with an internal web or flange for giving them additional strength on the outside. Such a construction is shown in Fig. 46. Fig. 47 illustrates a patented form of ornamental pole of lattice work. This type of pole has a very large amount of spring or elasticity and will return to its | original position after being subject to a severe strain. These poles have the ad . ~ :i -UHls? Fig. 38.—Rivets Holding Rail Bond. Fig. 39.—Solder Connections for Return Wire. BY'THE-USE'OF "CHANNEL PINS" Fig. 40.—Method of Connecting Rails to Supplementary or Return Wire. vantage of being open and free for inspection or painting and can be climbed when necessary. found the most satisfactory, as the wire should not be allowed to sag over fifteen or eighteen inches. i6 STREET RAILWAYS. The pole should be set at least six feet deep in the ground and surrounded by a foundation of con¬ crete, the walls of which should be from twelve to fifteen inches thick; and for straight line work the above the surface. These stubs should be at least eight inches in diameter and should rake well towards the pole top or point directly to it. (Fig. 55.) Care should be taken that there be no metal- Fig. 41.—Method of Connecting Three Supplementary Wires. top of the poic O nould have about three per cent. of rake away from the street. Where concrete is not used, large stones should be tamped hard against the butt of the pole at the bottom of the foundation at the side away from the rail, and when set on the curb line should bear at the surface of the ground against the curb stone or have a space between it , Fig. 43.—Coupler for and the curb stone filled with stone. Where there is no curb it is best to place a four by eight stick of timber about three feet long against the rail side of the pole, six inches below the surface. In place of timber, stone may be used. In any event the ground should be solidly tamped. • lie contact with a pole or other wires which lead from it. Guys may be made of twisted (double) No. 6 galvanized wire or some equally strong and durable wire. Near the top of the pole should be provided a device admitting of the most perfect in¬ sulation for the sus¬ pension wires, and, if guard wires are to be used, with an exten¬ sion for the guard suspension wires at least ten inches above the trolley suspension wire. There should also be provided ap¬ pliances for holding the span wire taut. Figs. 56 and 57 show forms of brackets for iron and wooden poles. Those for iron or steel poles have a plug of wood which is inserted in the top of the pole as a Connecting Wires. Fig. 42.—Supplementary Wires and Cross Connection. Poles which support the extra strain on curves should be head-guyed, providing guying will be allowed by city authorities. Guy stubs, or out¬ riggers, should be anchored at least five feet in the ground and the top allowed to extend six feet means of insulation. This plug is made in a shape to protect from moisture and usually carries a ratchet arrangement for holding the span wires taut. For round wooden poles the bracket may be provided with a clamp as shown in Fig. 57. Lat- ELECTRIC TRACTION. 17 tice side poles are usually provided with an eye bolt and a nut for adjusting the slack of the span wire. Figs. 58 to 59D illustrate valuable types of trolley supports, which are suspended from the span wire, as indicated, and support the trolley wire from above without offering any obstruction to the pass¬ age of the under running trolley wheel. Figs. 60 to in position so as to have a sag of not more than three per cent, of their length, and should be in position to support the trolley wire at the height of eighteen or nineteen feet from the ground. In no case should they be attached to the pole in such a manner that the slack cannot be readily taken up, and all hangers and eye bolts should have sufficient strength to stand a heavy strain without breaking, and yet should be as light as possible. Fig 44.—Plain Fig. si-” - O rnamental Wooden Pole Centre Pole. Fig. 44A.—Standard Octagonal Wooden Pole. 6ob give views of different types of pull-off brackets, while Figs. 61 62 and 62A are forms of strain insu¬ lators, and Fig 63 is a trolley wire current breaker. These should be of the best insulated material and of a shape to shed moisture, prevent leakage and in all cases should be of a material that will not rust The span wires may consist of stranded wire or of single galvanized steel wire of the size not smaller than No, 5 B & S gauge They must be secured The trolley wire should not be smaller than No. o ( 325 of an inch in diameter), and of hard drawn copper wire or silicon bronze wire. The size, how¬ ever, depends upon certain conditions which include the number and size of the cars, condition of the track and the magnitude of the grades; hence it is impossible to designate a size of trolley wire which would be just right to meet all requirements Usually, however, it will be found i8 STREET RAILWAYS. economical to use a small wire, and put it up in sections, to each of which the current should be Fig. 45.—Wrought Iron Pole with Telescoped Joints. line, and will be treated in connection with feed wires. Strain wires or pull-off wires should be provided to relieve the strain on the trolley wire at each approach to a curve and also at the divisions of the trolley section. They should be of the same mate¬ rial as the span wires, and attached to the trolley by a pull-off bracket midway between the poles, and should lead off through the diagonals of the oblong formed by the four corner poles. Guard wires should m Fig. 46.—Round Iron Pole with Internal Wee. Fig. 52.—Ornamental Pole. supplied by a feed wire. The frequency of the be provided in crowded streets where there is divisions of the trolley will depend largely upon danger of foreign wires such as telephone, tele- ihe peculiarities and situation of each individual graph or light wires coming in contact with the ELECTRIC TRACTION 19 Fig. 47. —Ornamental “ Patented ’* Side Pole. 20 STREET RAILWAYS. trolley in case they should fall The guard wires twenty inches above the trolley wire, should be in- should be of No. 8 galvanized wire and supported sulated from the span wires and from the poles, and Fig. 50.—Patented End Centre Pole. by a span wire of the same material as the trolley on single track roads there should be two over the span wire They should be supported from ten to trolley wire, two or three feet apart, with the trolley ELECTRIC TRACTION. 21 midway between them. On a double track road plane as the trolley, its weight would be likely to de- three guard wires properly arranged are sufficient fleet the guard wire sideways so as to bring the for- lo protect the two trolley wires. The necessity of eign wire in contact with the trolley. Guard wires Tubular Pole for Single Track, two guard wires or more, in case any are used, will be apparent from the fact that should a foreign wire fall across a single guard wire, in the same vertical are likely to be a source of trouble, and should only be used in cases where it is absolutely necessary. Fig. 64 illustrates the usual or “Western Union" 22 STREET RAILWAYS. method of splicing overhead wires. This method of splicing is open to objection in trolley wires, and contact. Fig. 65 shows one method of splicing, which consists of bringing the chamfered ends Section. Section. Fig. 54A. Fig. 54B. Light Ornamental Steel Poles Without Horizontal Joints. various other methods have been proposed, the together and wrapping the joint with fine wire and object being to provide as smooth a surface as pos- then pouring melted solder into the interstices, sible to the passage of the trolley wheel or sliding Another method which meets with quite general ELECTRIC TRACTION. favor, consists of inserting the ends in a thin cap or tube and then twisting, as illustrated in Figs. 66 and 67. In some methods of splicing the joint is covered with a brass taper sleeve or pieces of brass tubing cone shaped. These tubes are slipped over the ends of the wire before the splice is made, then the large ends are brought together over the splice and held in place by solder, which is in¬ troduced through a small opening made in the side See also Fig 67A. One method of arranging the overhead switches for turnouts or branch lines is shown 111 Fig 68. The switches proper, or frog, usually consist ol triangular Fig. 57.—Bracket for Wooden Poles. shaped pieces of metal (Fig 68a) having flanges or webs on the under side, placed at the junction of the wires, and so arranged that the trolley wheel, follow¬ ing the car, will take the desired direction without any attention from the conductor. The arrangement i of the switch is a very simple and satisfactory one for a single overhead wire, but the switches for double trolley construction are quite complicated; still some have been devised which work very satis¬ factorily on such lines as employ the double con¬ struction. FEED WIRES. Ordinarily the trolley wire is not large enough to transmit the power to a long distance without undue loss, hence it is found advantageous to supply the current to the trolley wire at intervals Fig. 56.—Bracket for Iron Poles. by means of auxiliary insulated feed wires. By this arrangement a nearly uniform potential can be maintained at all points of the 1 ' The advantage of feed wires is graphically illustrated by Fig. 69. In the first diagram a numb' 3 "as burners appear on a single supply pips$|. - supply is very small at the last light; but in the second, in which a supple¬ mental pipe is used to feed the pipe supporting the burners, the flame is uniform at every point. The same is true w r ith an electric supply to the various cars upon the line. of the tube for the purpose. 24 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 58.—Trolley Wire Hanger. Fig. 59D —Bracket Arm Fig. 59D.—Bracket Arm Insulator Insulator. for Curves. Fig. 60 —Pull-off Bracket, Section Trolley Support MHSj Fig. 6ob.—Pull-off Bracket, Section, Fig. 59A —Trolley Support, Fig, 59D, —Box Line Insulator, Fig. 5qb.—Trolley SurroRT, Fig. 6oa.—Pull-off Bracket Fig, 62a —Strain Insulator ELECTRIC TRACTION. 2 5 The feed wires should possess large capacity, and may be carried on the side or centre poles or Jed through subways between the tracks; when convenient, through cross streets over the short- Fig. 6i.—Bridle Insulator. est route between the power station and the section to be fed. When it becomes necessary to lead the feed wires under water the best armored cables should be used. Connection may be made from the feed wire with the trolley over the span wires by means of insulated hangers. In case the feeder is laid in a subway it may be led up to the trolley by the side of a pole, or if a metal pole is used it may be placed within the pole. Fig. &2.—Strain Insulator. Subways or electric conduits for feed wires are preferably constructed of non-conducting tubing through which the bare conductor can be led. The tubing should be enclosed in a creosoted plank casing, with manholes three or four hundred feet apart. The tubing being laid, there are different methods by which the conductor may be intro¬ duced into them; one consists in introducing a light wood or bamboo rod which is inserted in sections, and feruled together, and by means ot which a strong rope or cable may be drawn in to be followed by the conductor of any de¬ sired length. A second consists of introducing a light cord into the tube by means of a small Sturtevant blow¬ er operated by man power. The cord first being wound on a reel is placed in a casing at the end of a hose leading from a blower. To one end of the cord is attached a small leather bag, or the thumb of an old glove, which being introduced into a tube with the closed end forward is readily blown through to the next manhole carrying the cord with it. By means of the cord a heavier cord or rope is drawn in and finally the copper conductor. Contact of the moving car with the overhead wire, for the purpose of conducting the current through the controlling mechanism on the car to the respective poles of the motor, is made by means of a trolley pole and stand, and the rela¬ tion of the cars to the circuit is illustrated by the conventional dia¬ gram, Fig. 70, from which it will be noted that the current seems to start from the positive brush of the generator G and along the overhead conductor in the direction of the arrows, until it reaches the trolley T of one of the motor cars, which is in contact with the conductor. Here a portion of the current passes down through the trolley to the motors M M, as shown by the dotted lines. Having done its work in the motors it goes on to the rails through the wheels, and by the rails and return wire W, back to the negative brush of the generator. The main portion of the current, which divides at T, passes on to feed other cars upon the line in the same manner, each car taking from the conductor only the necessary amount of rr* . — p -- 11 1 ~ Fig 63. —Trolley Wire Circuit-Breaker. current to develop the required power, while the entire return current is carried by the rails and the supplementary wire. The trolley stand consists of an upright, firmly attached to the roof of the car and a long wooden or iron arm or mast, pivoted near one end upon the top of the upright. The STREET RAILWAYS Complete Ear Body or Trolley Support. Strain Ear. Straight Line Ear Method op Cutting in Ear Body. ELECTRIC TRACTION. 27 long arm of the mast carries a metallic trolley wheel which is held firmly up against the under side of the conductor by strong springs attached to the short end of the arm and connected with the base of the standard. The mast, springs and attachments are all free to swivel upon the upright. An insulated wire imbedded in the mast con¬ ducts the current from the trolley wheel to the Glass Insulation. Feed Wire Insu- "Method ok Cutting in lator. Side Feed. controlling switches on the car. In place of a trolley wheel, however, a sliding contact may be obtained by means of a carbon lined metallic brush at the end of the trolley pole and shown in Fig. 71. Figs. 72 and 73 illustrate different types of trolley wheel, pole and stand. Instead of the single overhead wire and rail con¬ nections for the return current, the necessary metallic circuit is sometimes formed by two over¬ head wires placed five or six inches apart. In this case two trolley wheels or two masts, each carrying a wheel, are required. One wheel is run in com tact with the positive wire and the other with the negative, and by this means the current is con¬ ducted from one wire to the motors and back to the other wire. We have now to consider the wiring of the car and learn just how the wires are to be connected with the switches and with the poles of the mo¬ tors. Usually a switch on each platform directs the Method of Anchoring Single Line. current to both motors, and controls the speed and direction of the car. In addition to the switch, how¬ ever, it is necessary to provide means for control¬ ling the flow of the current through the motors, and this is one of the most important factors in the operation of electric cars. A great many schemes have been proposed, but on this point there is a radical difference among electricians. One of the most prominent systems effects the controlling influence by a peculiar wind¬ ing of the field magnets, and will be described later on. In other systems the control of the cur- 28 STREET RAILWAYS. rent is made through what is known as a rheostat or resistance box; this prevents an abnormal flow of current through the armature and enables the motor to start up gradually. (Fig. 74.) Fig. 64.— Telegraph Joint. 0 LENGTH OF 8CARF NOT LE$8 THAN 0 INCHES* JOINT BEFORE BEING WRAPPED. Fig. 65.—Trolley Wire Joint. JOINT BEFORE BEING TWISTED. Figs. 66 and 67. —Feeder and Trolley Wire Joint. As will be seen from the figure, the rheostat is constructed in the form of a half circle and is mounted under the floor of the car, as shown in Fig. 75. The resistance consists of small pieces of thin sheet iron cut in the form shown in Fig. 76. These pieces are placed side by side, separated by mica, and are so arranged that they are connected in series throughout the rheostat. At proper intervals contact pieces of heavy sheet iron are provided, as shown in Fig. 77, and the whole is secured in a semi¬ circular iron case thoroughly insulated with mica throughout. At the centre of the semi-circle a vertical shaft is placed, having an arm which carries a contact brush. This brush is made of in dependent iron fingers pressed down by springs. By means of a pulley and a wire rope or link belt connecting with the switch stand on the platform the shaft is turned and the brush is made to slide in either direction over the corrugated surface. It will be seen that if the positive wire is connected to one side of the rheostat, and the wire leading to the motor is at¬ tached to the brush when the latter touches the 1 opposite side of the rheostat all of the resistance is introduced and the motor starts up slowly. To increase the speed the brush is moved along over the surface of the rheostat cutting out one section after the other, thus decreasing the resistance, j so that when full speed is attained all the sec¬ tions of the rheostat are cut out, leaving no idle resistance in the circuit. The peculiar construction ana arrangement of the brush insures good contact; and to prevent the formation of an arc when the brush is thrown entirely off the rheostat, a magnet is sometimes provided which auto¬ matically blows out the arc. In order that ^ an exceptionally high speed may be attained, the last segment of the rheostat is so connect¬ ed with a part of the field coils that when the brush is in contact with this section the latter are cut out, thus reducing the strength of the field and causing the armature to revolve faster. The speed which will be attained by the car when the brush is in contact with the last segment, depends upon the winding of the motors, which is usually gauged for about twelve miles per hour. Fig. 67A. —Splicing Ear. Fig. 68.—Overhead Wiring for Single Track Turnouts. Fig. 68a.—Frog for Overhead Switch. We have previously stated that a motor is put in operation by conducting a part of the current through the coils of the field magnets and another portion into the armature. This is true in case of ELECTRIC TRACTION. 29 a “ shunt ” wound motor, but with a series wound This is just what it does do, and as soon as it is motor, which seems best adapted for street car set in motion it begins to work as a dynamo on its work, all of the current may be directed through own account and sets up a current in the circuit in tne armature and then through the coils of the the opposite direction to that which is driving it, field magnets or vice versa. and this counter electric action is proportional to The question has doubtless occurred to the the velocity of rotation and the magnetism of the Fig. 70.—Diagram of Railway Circuit. reader, If the revolution of the armature in a dyna- magnets. Hence it is that the efficiency of a motor mo produces an electric current why does not the in utilizing the energy of the current depends spinning round of the armature of a motor, which largely on the relation of the electro-motive force is like a dynamo, also generate a current? which itself generates when rotating, and the elec- 3 o STREET RAILWAYS. tro-motive force or pressure at wmch the current is supplied to it. This fact, however, does not detract from the efficiency of the motor, as might be sup¬ posed, but it is an absolutely necessary factor in the output of the motor; it furnishes, so to speak, a foothold or rest against which the current can brace in its efforts to push or pull. A motor may be reversed by reversing the current through the armature or through the field magnets ; usually it is done through the armature and is accomplished by means of the controlling device. In the early experiments with electric traction two methods of arranging the cars in a circuit were employed; they are known as the “ series” and the Fig. 72.—Trolley Stand. This reaction of counter force generated in the motor is also utilized as an automatic regulator of the motor, for, as stated above, this counter force depends upon the field and the speed of the arma¬ ture; therefore, it follows that if the field magnet is under proper control this counter force is also under control and can be made greater or less in relation to the driving force, and, consequently, the motor can be made to do whatever work is required of it. Fig. 71.—Trolley Pole and Stand with Sliding Contact. “parallel” systems, but the latter has come into universal use. In the series system, two overhead wires are re¬ quired and all the current of the circuit is sent through the first motor, then on to the second, and through this to the third, and so on to the end; but in the parallel system only a portion of the current is sent through each motor. These terms “ series” and “ parallel” will be better understood by reference to a familiar figure. Let ELECTRIC TRACTION. 3 i a dozen people take hold of hands and be placed in an electric circuit, the person on the right hand and on the left each holding an end of the wire in his free hand; now, it is evident that all of the cur¬ rent must pass through the arms and hands of each person, and they are said to be arranged in “series.” Now, let the parties stand in line one behind the other facing in the same direct tion,and let each take hold of the positive wire of the circuit with the right hand and hold the negative wire with the left hand; it is evi¬ dent that only a part of the current will pass through each person, and they are said to be arranged in “parallel.” A type of motor which has been extensively adop¬ ted is illustrated in Fig. 78 and is manufactured by the Edison General Electric Co., of New York. A fully equipped truck for this type of motor is shown in Fig. 79. The peculiarity of this motor consists in the method of regu¬ lation which is accomplished with the use of very little resist¬ ing medium, by the peculiar winding of the field magnets, and will be understood by the study of Fig. 80 which represents a detached field, and by studying Fig. 81 which also illustrates the wiring of a car and shows how the current is conducted Fig. 73. —The Boston Trolley. K—Pole complete with wheel. H—Wheel complete, with bushing. C D—Flanges for wheel. J—Contact washer. R—Base complete with springs. from the trolley through the switches to the motor or lamps, and, by means of the wheels, to the rails. It will be noted by reference to Fig. 80 that each of the field magnets is wound with three separate coils. This provides for governing the motor by the method known as “commu¬ tated fields.” In starting the motor these three coils are placed in series with each other ; this will be better understood by reference to Fig. 82; that is, the switch operated from the platform is so placed that all the current goes through the first coil, then through the second, then through the third to the armature. This gives, with comparatively small current, a very strong field and comparatively high resistance. When fields are arranged in this way, the energy, it is claimed, is not a dead waste, as is the case where resisting media are in¬ troduced, for a considerable portion of this energy goes to magnetize the field mag¬ nets, and by this means increases the start¬ ing effort of the motor. In the second posi¬ tion, Fig. 82, one of the coils is cut out. This gives a resistance of about two-thirds of the first ar¬ rangement, and with a given current has a somewhat less magnetizing force. In the third arrange¬ ment, two of the three coils are in parallel and in series with the third. By this ar¬ rangement the current splits be¬ tween two coils so that each gets approximately one-half of it, then enters the third coil and thence through the arma- ure. This gives, approximately, half of the resistance A—Frame for holding wheel. F—Spindle for wheel. E—Raw hide bushing for wheel. S—Contact springs or brushes. G—Contact ring for wheel. 3 2 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 74.—Rheostat. of the first position. The fourtn arrangement cuts out this single coil so that the current divides between two coils. This position gives compara¬ tively small resistance, so that with moderately heavy loads the heat waste in the magnet is small. In the fifth position the three coils are placed in multiple arc ; that is, the cur¬ rent divides between all three, each coil taking its own part. This gives a low resistance, and is suit¬ able for working under heavy loads. The resist¬ ance in this position is about one-tenth that in the first posi¬ tion. It will thus be seen that the first po¬ sition en¬ ables the motor to ter, in many respects, than that just described. These motors are generally used two in series, and by this arrangement they are self equalizing and do not require equalizing coils, as the former type does, and being subject to a low pressure only are not liable to burn-outs. In several other points this motor is an improvement over the former; for instance, in the armature bearings, lubricating ap¬ pliances and method of attaching the brush holders. Fig. 81 is a conventional diagram showing the number and the relation of the wires to the switch and motor. The switch stand proper consists of a cylinder made of hard wood, having copper cast¬ ings of peculiar shape attached to it, and so ar¬ ranged that when the cylinder is rotated these copper forms are brought in proper contact with studs con¬ nected to intdooiA (ftaoC Fig. 75.—Car Platform with Electrical Equipment. the differ¬ ent wires. These cyl¬ inders are housed in against the dash on work with a small load but with a strong field, and the last position enables it to work under a very heavy load with a field of equal strength and with no greater heat waste than in the first position. The intermediate positions are used for moderate loads. It may be noted that the combination of these coils can be varied to give any speed with a given load. That is, suppose there is a given load in the first position. In order to increase the speed it will be necessary to increase the electro-motive force at the armature, and this can be done by turning the switch in such a position as will put the magnets in multiple arc. This makes the drop in the magnet smaller, but gives a corres¬ ponding increase of speed. Fig. 83 illustrates another type of double reduc¬ tion motor, which is manufactured by the same company as above, but which is stronger and bet¬ both platforms and are so connected that the motion of the car is controlled from either end. A motor employing an armature of the ring type is illustrated in Fig. 84. This is known as the Short motor, and was introduced by the Short Electric Rail¬ way Co., of Cleveland, O. In this particular motor four Fig. 76.—Sheet Iron Resistance. field magnets, abed, are employed, which are wound in series and are so mounted that their poles, which are crescent shaped, are presented to the sides of the armature instead of being placed out¬ side the circumference, as is usually the case. The diameter of this armature being larger than the drum type of armature usually employed, the armature necessarily does not revolve as fast as Fig. 77.—Section of Rheostat. ELECTRIC TRACTION. 33 the latter, 1,000 revolutions per minute being the maximum. This motor is regulated by a resisting medium frame, where they are properly bolted. The wooden blocks render the frame particularly rigid and serve to insulate the motor proper from the Fig. 78.—Edison Railway Motor. or rheostat of a type somewhat different from that car axle. Wooden web gear wheels are also em- previously described, but employs the same princi- ployed which render the operation of the motor pies. Still other peculiar features may be noted in noiseless and also assist in the insulation. A com- Fig. 79.—Truck Equipped with Edison Motors. its construction. The frame is cast in two parts plete truck equipped with this motor is shown in which are joined together by means of wooden Fig. 85. blocks, xy, which fit into sockets in each part of the The general design of still another motor and 5 34 STREET RAILWAYS. truck is shown in Fig. 86. It consists of a single Wc come now to describe a radical departure in powerful motor mounted on a frame independent the method of mounting the motor on the truck of the truck frame from which it is insulated by and in the method of gearing, wood strips and by having the armature pinion built up of gun metal and fibre. The power is transmitted to both axles by means Fig. 8o.—Detached Field of Edison Motor. of a countershaft and bevelled gears, the latter being of the “shrouded' pattern, thus securing the maximum, amount of traction. The fields are of wrought iron and the Fig. 82.—Commuted Field of Edison Motor. Fig. 87 illustrates a type of single reduction gear armature is of the ring type, but is so wound that motor manufactured by the Thomson-Honston the terminal wires connecting with the commutator are brought on top of the armature, thus simplify¬ ing commutator repairs. The tendency to heat Electric Co., of Boston. It is nearly iron clad, hav¬ ing two internal pole pieces carrying the field spools which partially surround the armature. The arma- and barn out is reduced to a low point by a pecul- ture is of the ring type and the bobbins are wound iar arrangement from which the name " heat proofclose together around a smooth rim, no chambers motor, which has been given it by the manufact- being milled out for receiving the wires. The dif- urers, the Detroit Electrical Works, is derived. erent parts of the motor are shown in Fig. 88. The ELECTRIC TRACTION. 35 gears are enclosed in dust tight and oil tight cases provided with hand holes with spring covers through which lubricants may be introduced. The bottom and sides of the motor are protected from dust, snow and water by a sheet iron pan illustrated in Fig. 89. The reduction of speed between the armature and the car axle is about 4.8 to 1, so that when the car is running at the rate of even ten miles per hour the armature makes only about 538 revolutions per minute. By this arrangement of gear the operation is practically noiseless and the item of gear repairs is greatly reduced. iron plates so that the completed core has slots to receive the wiring, and the wires are completely imbedded below the surface. The speed of the armature is comparatively slow, as the wires move only about 1,250 ft. while the cars pass over 1,000 ft., which is about one-fourth the velocity of the armature in the high speed type of motors. The field castings are hinged and can be readily swung back, giving access to the fields and the armature. (Fig. 92). The ratio of gear reduction is only 3.3 to 1. The gears are encased in cast iron housings partially filled with oil. Fig. 83.—Improved Edison Motor. Another single reduction motor is illustrated by Fig. 90, this particular type being manufactured by the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., of Pittsburgh, Pa. By reference to the figure it will be seen that the general form of the motor is cylindrical, and it is of the multipolar type, there being four poles, which gives an advantage, it is claimed, over two pole machines in the line of slow speed, greater simplicity and, most important of all, greater heat radiating surface for the field coils and reduction of loss from the radiation of the lines of force. (Fig. 91). The armature is of the drum type and the core is built up of laminated, grooved Another multipolar type of motor is shown in Fig. 93. This is known as the Baxter motor, and is manufactured by the Baxter Electric Motor Co. of Baltimore. The fields are formed in a peculiar shape, as will be seen from Fig. 94, and although there are eight poles they are placed in such a posi¬ tion that the vertical diameter of the motor is only a trifle greater than the armature. The armature is of the ring type and is about eighteen inches in diameter. The armature shaft carries pinions at both ends, four and a half inches in diameter, which mesh into split gears eighteen inches in diameter, keyed to the car axle. The motor is Fig. 84.— Short Electric Railway Company's Standard Motor ELECTRIC TRACTION. 37 regulated by a rheostat of a peculiar type, consist- by the Short Electric Railway Co., of Cleveland, O. ing of numerous spools of sheet iron wound like a The electrical features of this motor are essen- Fig. 85.—Truck Equipped with the Short “Standard" Motors. roll of ribbon. The gears are encased and run in oil. Fig. 95 shows a truck fully equipped for ser¬ vice with the above described motor, tially the same as those of the “ Standard ” motor manufactured by the same company, but, by a peculiar method of mounting, all gears are elimi- Fig. 86.—Detroit Electric Works’ Motor and Truck. A radical change from the types of motors pre- nated and the speed of the armature is reduced to viously described is shown in Figs. 96 and 97. This that of the car wheel, which is, usually, not more is known as the gearless motor and was introduced than 100 to 150 revolutions per minute. 33 STREET RAILWAYS. By reference to Figs. 96 and 97, it will be seen that the armature and commutator are mounted on a hollow steel shaft, which surrounds the axle of the car wheel. The brushes in the eight pole machine are placed ninety de- g r e e s apart. The hollow shaft being larger than the axle, there is left an air space of an inch or more between the axle and the inside of the shaft. The Fig. 87. —Thomson-Houston S. R. G. Motor. journal bearings of the armature shafc are formed in casings, to the sides of which the field magnets are bolted. The casings are supported by cast iron truck frame. A three armed casting called a “spider” is keyed to the hollow armature shaft just outside the bearings, by means of which power is transmitted to the car wheels, the arms of the spider being provided a t their ends with rubber cushions which rest against lugs cast in the face of the car wheels. The power is trans mitted without shock or jar, and the wheels turn in the same direction as the armature. The motors are so mounted that the opposite Fig. 88.—Dissected S. R, G. Motor. arms of peculiar shape, extending forward and diagonal wheels drive in the same direction, so that backward, which at their ends are cushioned upon the rubber cushions are constantly held in contact channel bars extending from side io side of the with the lugs of the car wheels and insure easy ELECTRIC TRACTION. 39 starting in either direction. The construction of the casing admits of its being readily opened for in¬ spection, and when necessary to make repairs the lower half may be removed, the car body jacked Fig. 89.—Dust Pan and Oil Tight Casing of up, the armature and axle rolled out, and another equipment put in its place with the shortest possi¬ ble delay. The bobbins, in case of a burn-out, can be re-wound in a few hours without taking the motor apart or off the car axle ( Fi g- 99 -) Some of the advantages claimed for this motor are as follows : In the method of mounting the weight of both motors is distributed over the entire truck, and no part of the weight is carried directly on the car axle. Being flexibly suspended, the motors can play up and down without coming in contact with the axle ; hence, it is easier upon the rails and joints than when hung in the ordinary manner, and the crystallization of frames, axles and wheels is avoid¬ ed. The absence of gears reduces to a minimum the power necessary to propel a loaded car, and eliminates the noise. The low speed also avoids the squealing of commutator brushes. The com¬ mercial efficiency of the motor is increased about twenty-five per cent, above that of the “Standard,” and the cost for repairs and maintenance is re¬ duced about seventy-five per cent. An improved single reduction motor for street car service worthy of mention is that made by the Edison General Electric Co., and illus¬ trated in Figs.100 and 101. The motor, as will be seen, is of the iron clad type with two poles, and the frame, which is of cast iron, is constructed in two halves, which ar¬ rangement facilitates the removal of the armature for examination or re¬ pairs. The armature is of the Gramme ring type S. R. G. Motor. with Paccinotti teeth. The two field spools are each wound in three sec¬ tions, and the speed is regulated by a commutation of the sections, an arrangement peculiar to the Edison system, and which has been previously Fig. 90.—Westinghouse Four Pole Motor. described. Among other advantages, this arrange¬ ment provides that the car may be started with the lowest possible waste of power, as the initial torque in the armature is greatly increased, having a strong field due to the first commutation. The 40 STREET RAILWAYS. speed of the armature In the twenty H. P. motor is 440 revolutions per min¬ ute, and according to the gearing employed gives a heavdy loaded car a speed of from eight to ten miles per hour. With an ordinary load the speed is from twelve and a half to eighteen miles. The motors are manu¬ factured in two sizes, rated at twenty and thirty H. P. Other sizes, suitable for narrow gauge roads and other peculiar conditions that are sometimes met with in street railway prac- Fig. 9 1 * — Side View of Westinghouse Motor and Transparent View of Fields tice, are also made. The twenty H. P size meas- a half inches, and weighs complete with gears, ures over all (along armature shaft) thirty-eight and covers, etc., 1,950 lbs. The thirty H. P. motor, which is similar to the above, has an armature speed of 330 revolutions per minute, and measures over all forty-one and one-sixteenth inches, and weighs complete 2,800 lbs. Fig. 102 illustrates an electric locomotive de¬ signed for towing one or more cars. This particular machine was designed for freight service, but, in a modified form, is adapted to street car work. The motor is of the “C” type, manufactured by the Thomson-Houston Electric. Co., and transmits its power to the rear axle by means of double reduction gear, the drivers being coupled by parallel rods. The pinions are of aluminum bronze and the gears of wrought metal, and run in oil tight casings. Two rheostats are employed, and so arranged that no reversing switch is required. The motor is thoroughly waterproof, the fields being enclosed in canvas cases coated with mineral paint. The object of using an electric locomotive is to save the expense of providing an electrical equipment for both open Fig. 92.— Framing and Field Castings—Westinghouse Motor. and closed cars. ELECTRIC TRACTION. 4 1 STORAGE BATTERIES. This term and that of accumulators or secondary- batteries has been applied to a class of chemical bat - teries in which chemical action, primarily induced by the application of a current of electricity, sup¬ plied from a primary battery or from a dynamo, enables a strong current to be given back any time after cutting off the charging current. This derived current is the product of a certain chemi¬ cal re-action taking place between the materials of which the battery is composed. In our previous study we have seen how an electric current is mechani¬ cally produced, transmitted and applied to the movement of the cars. We have now to learn about the chemical produc¬ tion of a current and how it is ap¬ plied to the move¬ ment of cars by placing the batteries directly upon them, making a self contained motor car, which is a very desirable method of traction. In order to understand the action of storage bat¬ teries it will be necessary to study briefly the old time chemical battery. As is well known, chemical batteries were the first sources of continuous electric currents, and of these the simplest form and best known are those in which a plate of zinc and a plate of copper are immersed in a vessel containing dilute sulphuric acid. Such an arrangement is called a galvanic cell or element. (Fig. 103.) The circuit is said to be closed when the wires attached to the plates touch each other, and open when the wires do not touch each other. When the circuit is closed a current of electricity flows through it. Apparently, the positive current flows, in the cell, from the zinc through the fluid to the copper, but out of the cell it flows from the copper to the zinc, thus completing the circuit. The current is produced by the consump¬ tion, or eating up, of the zinc by the acid, the copper plate being but slightly af¬ fected. When several galvanic elements are connected together, in the manner shown in Fig. 104, they form a galvanic battery, and, as indicated by the arrows, the current from the first zinc passes through the first liquid to the copper of the first element and on to the zinc of the second element Then element No. 2 sends what it has received and its own on to No. 3, so that the pressure of current, sent forward increases with the number of elements, and in the battery shown, where the elements are connected in series, it is fives times as great as it would be with only one element. Batteries con¬ sisting of two different metals and a liquid are not Fig. 94.—Dissected Baxter Motor. 4 STREET RAILWAYS very efficient, however, owing to the rapid decom¬ position of the liquid by the current, and because of the oxidization of the zinc, and also from the fact that the surface of the copper plate soon becomes covered with a layer of hydrogen gas, causing a current counter to that generated by the two metals and the liquid. To prevent rapid deterioration and to add to the life of the battery, various means have been proposed. One is the not collect on the copper plate, but pass through the pores of the porcelain cup and replace copper in the solution. The result is that pure copper instead of hydrogen is deposited on the copper plate. This type of primary battery is used exten¬ sively in telegraphy, also for call bells and signal¬ ing purposes, but is too expensive to be practically applied to power purposes. Now, we have seen that the primary battery is Fig. 95.—Truck Equipped with Baxter Motor. use of amalgamated zinc, or zinc covered with mercury. This prevents the too rapid oxidization of the metal; another is to form the element with an inner and an outer cell separated by a porous partition made of unglazed porous porcelain. The amalgamated zinc is placed in the outer cell con¬ taining dilute sulphuric acid, and the copper is in the inner cell containing a saturated solution of copper sulphate or blue vitriol, as illustrated in Fig. 105; or the relation may be reversed. With this construction the freed atoms of hydrogen do formed by placing two dissimilar metals in a liquid and connecting them with a conductor outside of the liquid. If two pieces of the same metal be used no action will take place ; but, strange as it may seem, a secondary battery is usually formed by using two plates of the same metal. The simplest storage cell for a secondary battery consists of two plates of lead immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, and chemical action is induced by causing an elec¬ tric current from a dynamo to pass through the liquid from one lead plate to the other. This ELECTRIC TRACTION. 43 application of the current to the cell is termed charging, and it effects the decomposition of the liquid, or electrolyte as it is called, and positive and negative radicals are deposited on the plates, or unite with them, so that, on the cessation of the charging current, there remains a cell capable of generating an electric current. If, now, the charged plates be connected with a conductor outside the liquid, a current is produced which flows through the liquid in the opposite direction to that of the charging current. On the passage of the charging current the positive plate is found to be covered with lead peroxide and the negative plate with finely divided spongy lead. To produce the discharging current the peroxide gives up its oxygen to the spongy lead ; and after the discharge the active matter in both plates is found to contain lead sulphate. When this change is thoroughly effected the cell becomes inert and will furnish no further current until again charged by the passage of the current from some external source. In order to increase the capacity of the storage cells, and thus prolong the time of their discharge, the coat¬ ing of lead sulphate left on each of the plates when neutral is made as great as possible. To effect this, two processes called forming the plates are employed; one consists in first charging the plates as already described, and then reversing the direc¬ tion of the charging current. This is repeated until a considerable depth of the lead in the plates has been acted upon; but this process takes time, and in order to shorten the time for for?ning y another process has been resorted to which consists of covering the plates with red lead, and by this means their capacity is very much increased. From the above it will be seen that a storage battery does not store electricity, but does store such materials as may be decom¬ posed by the action of the charg¬ ing current, and which will pro¬ duce a current of their own on the removal of the charging cur¬ rent. A general distinction be¬ tween primary and secondary batteries and that which gives value to the latter, lies in the fact that, in the former, the cur¬ rent is produced by the con¬ sumption of one or both of the elements composing the cell; while, in the latter, the elements retain their form as such, and merely pass from one state of combination to another. Many electricians have made a study of this sub¬ ject, and have endeavored to improve secondary batteries in different ways, the first object being to enlarge the surface of the two leaden plates ; the second to so apply the red lead or active material to the plates that it shall not fall off ; and the third to find some other metal that can be used instead of lead, in order to reduce the weight of the battery. In one class of batteries the lead plates are in the form of a grid, and are simply thin castings of lead having a large number of holes in them, as shown in Fig. 106. The holes are made tapering from each surface to the centre of the plate, so that when the red lead, used in the form of a dry powder or paste, is pressed in, it becomes a plug and is not lia¬ ble to fall out, even though it should contract slightly after a certain period of use. The grids or plates are not necessarily lead cast¬ ings, but are preferably made by machinery. Ma- Fig. 97.—Short Gearllss Motor. Fig 98.—Short " Water Tight ” Single Reduction Motor. ELECTRIC TRACTION. 45 chines have been devised which press or stamp out the plates very rapidly, the metal first being heated till it becomes plastic and about the consistency of putty. The machine made grids are lighter, much more durable and less likely to contain blow holes than those formed by casting. In order to get as great a surface as possible in contact with the liquid or elec¬ trolyte, it is customary to arrange alternately in a glass cell or a case made of vulcanized rubber, a cer¬ tain number of plates, placed close together without touching. For instance, there can be put together ten negative and nine positive plates in one cell, the plates being separated by rubber bands or strips of vulcanized rubber about an eighth of an inch thick. Such an arrangement of cell and plates is termed an element (Fig. 107) and when a number of elements are connected, either in series or paral¬ lel, they form a secondary battery. Another form is shown in Fig. 108. In this particular system the grids are about six inches square and one- eighth of an inch thick, and are composed of an alloy of lead (ninety-five per cent.), antimony and mercury. The cavities of one plate are plugged with litharge and those of the other plate with minium, or red lead. This material is termed the active matter, and is applied mechanically to the grids, or supporting plates, which act simply as conduc¬ tors. On being placed in the electrolyte, the litharge, by the action of the charging current, is converted into re¬ duced or spongy lead and be¬ comes a negative plate, and the red lead is converted into lead peroxide and becomes the positive plate of the com¬ pleted element. The positive plates are also made by pressing a number of sheets of lead-foil, covered with graphite, between two plates of sheet lead, which are then per¬ forated and bound together with lead rivets placed about an inch apart (Fig. 109). The electrolyte is an acid solution of zinc sulphate, and the plates are rendered active by the process employed with plain Fig. ioo.—Edison Twenty H. P. Improved Single Reduction Motor. Fig. ioi.—Edison Twenty H. P. Improved Single Reduction Motor. 46 STREET RAILWAYS. lead plates. By this treatment the leadfoil is changed into an active material, and, from the con¬ struction, a very large surface is presented for the action of the acid. The negative plate, tor use with the above, is made of zinc about an eighth of an inch thick and is perforated with large holes, as shown in Fig. no. In the construction of the cell the zinc plate rests on a plate of copper, perforated to match the holes in the zinc plate, and all the plates are arranged horizontally, like shelves, one above the other. The copper plate acts only as a conductor, and the zinc plate, it is claimed, does not waste away, the chemical changes restoring it to its pure condition. It will be observed that each plate has a notch at one corner; this is to provide space for the conductor which connects all the plates of the same polarity in a cell together. The operation of charging storage batteries from dynamos requires two to six hours. Care must be taken to have the batteries rightly “ poled" with the dynamo, /. e., to connect positive to positive and negative to negative poles. Otherwise the battery will continue to discharge instead of being charged. The same thing also occurs even when properly “poled," if the potential of the dynamo is allowed to fall below the total potential of the battery cells. When discharged to the proper limit, a lead storage battery has a potential of about 1.8 volts per cell. This is independent of the size or form of cells, which latter affect only the internal resistance of the cell. When fully charged the potential per cell may reach 2.15 volts, or as high as 2.4 volts should the circuit be suddenly broken. Hence, a battery of xoo cells would, when discharged, exert a counter potential of about 180 volts, and when fully charged about 215 volts, against the charging dynamo. The charging dynamo must always give a potential sufficient to overcome this back press¬ ure or “counter electro-motive force,” and besides, it must give enough additional potential to over¬ come all other resistances of the battery cells and connections. ELECTRIC TRACTION 47 Fig. 104.— Galvanic Battery. Fig. 105.—Porous Cup—Galvanic Battery. Fig, 107.—Storage Battery, Cell and Case. Fig. 108.—Single Element Storage Battery. 48 STREET RAILWAYS. When only one set of batteries is charged, the potential of the dynamo is itself suitably varied to give the proper charging current. When two or more sets are to be charged simultaneously the po¬ tential of the dynamo is raised to the highest point ever likely to be required, allowing sometimes as much as 2.4 volts per cell connected in series. A resistance coil is then put into circuit with each set of batteries. At the beginning of the charge the resistance is greater, so as to reduce the charging Current to the proper value. As the “ back pres¬ sure,” or “ potential,” of the battery rises, in con¬ sequence of the charge, the current becomes re¬ duced, and some resistance must be taken out of circuit to bring the charging current to the proper value again. It is found that batteries can stand a heavier charging rate at the beginning than toward the close of the operation. An excessive rate is al¬ ways indicated by the “ boiling ” of the cells, in consequence of the rapid evolution of gas. When the charging has proceeded sufficiently long the “ boiling ” occurs even with a weak charging cur¬ rent. The cells are then said to be “full.” The rise of counter electro-motive force is also used as an indication of the extent of charge, especially when the cells are sealed, and the evolution of gas cannot be so easily observed. The electro-motive force of an ordinary lead cell is between two and two and a half volts, and the weight of the average lead accumulator is about 100 lbs. per H. P. hour stored. On account of their excessive weight other types of batteries have been devised, one of which, known as the alkaline accumulator, employs copper and zinc as the metallic elements, while the electrolyte is caustic potash. In a modified type of this battery the cop¬ per electrode is made with a dense copper coil sur¬ rounded by porous copper, and inclosed in a textile covering, while the other electrode is of iron which forms the walls of the cell itself, or retaining vessel, and becomes part of the negative pole. The elec¬ trolyte becomes potassium zincate. This battery weighs about fifty-five or sixty pounds per horse power hour stored, and is claimed to have an efficiency about equal to that of lead batteries. The former, however, are more generally employed. The deterioration of lead storage batteries occurs from both chemical and mechanical action. The chemical reaction not being complete, the active material disintegrates, and the swelling of the plugs or plates of the active material causes the positive plates to buckle or warp, producing a short circuit; and this tendency is increased by any at- Fig. iio.—Copper Shelf for Supporting Grid. tempt to force the output of the battery in order to meet the demands of grades or heavy loads. The life of the ordinary battery, if well made, is about six months, depending, of course, on the service re¬ quired of it and the care it receives. ELECTRIC TRACTION. 49 In the application of secondary batteries to the require the use of batteries having a larger capacity propulsion of street cars, the cells are usually and, consequently, more weight, arranged in trays, and these are placed upon the The arrangement of the wires and connections in Fig. iii.—Storage Car, with Batteries in Place. car by pushing them from the outside through the the car is such that, when the batteries are in place, open panels under the seats, as in Fig. hi, or these automatic connections are made with the circuit batteries may be introduced from the end of the leading to the regulating switch and motors. Any car, an opening being provided in the end panel of the well known types of motors may be used with and also in the dash. Lead batteries for a sixteen- the secondary batteries, and the same methods foot car to be operated on a road with no long of regulation may be employed as when using the grade exceeding five per cent., usually weigh, with direct current. It is customary, however, to regu- the containing trays, 3,800 lbs. Very long grades late the flow of the current by changing the group- or grades steeper than five feet in one hundred, will ing of the batteries. In one system the 108 cells 7 5 ° STREET RAILWAYS. used are coupled in four groups, which allows for four different speeds. Fig. 112 shows the method of arranging the wires for a certain group¬ ing of batteries. All the wires of the various group¬ ings are connected to the switch stands, by means of which, from either end of the car, the various tions ot the armatures will indicate the propulsion of the car toward the right, i. e., the car is pro¬ pelled forward from either end. Besides grouping the batteries as explained above, the motor may be regulated by utilizing the current of one group by itself for energizing the field mag- Fig, i 14.—Carbon Points— Arc Light. Fig. 113.— Electric Arc Light. Fig. 115. — Double Carbon Arc Light. groupings are coupled in and the speed and direc¬ tion of the car are regulated. By tracing the path of the current over the full lines from the left hand regulator the revolutions of the armatures will propel the car to the left. From the right hand regulator trace or follow the dotted lines until they meet the full lines leading to either the batteries or motors, and the revolu¬ nets. In this case the motor may be employed as a brake for checking the speed of the car, and on down grades may be operated as a dynamo and made to restore energy to the batteries. In the operation of street cars by storage bat¬ teries it is necessary to provide two sets of batteries, so that one set can be charged while the other is in service, and in addition to the usual equipment ELECTRIC TRACTION. 5-i of generating machinery and batteries, a shifting device should be provided to facilitate the placing of the batteries upon the car and their removal therefrom. ELECTRIC LIGHTING. The practice of lighting electric power stations and cars by electricity having become general, it is highly necessary that enployes should be familiar with the principles and mechanical details of this branch of the service. trodes. Now, if these electrodes be brought in contact for a moment and then drawn apart to a short distance, a kind of electric flame called the voltaic arc is produced between the carbon rods, and a brilliant light is emitted by their white hot points. The arc is called “ voltaic ” because it was first obtained by the use of a battery invented by Volta; and from the bow or curve shape of the flame between the carbons, when in a horizontal position, the term “ arc,” which is French for bow, has come. Fig. 116.—Standard Incandes¬ cent Lamp. Fig. i i 7.—Incandescent Lamps. Fig. 118.—Graphic Illustration of Potential. To produce electric light, electric energy has to be converted into heat, and this is accomplished by introducing into a circuit, at suitable intervals, conductors offering a high resistance to the pass¬ age of the current. There are two methods of arranging the resisting medium, and the lights thus produced thereby have given their names to the two general classes of electric lamps, “ arc ” and “ incandescent.” The arc lamp, Fig. 113, is formed by breaking the circuit and attaching to the terminal wires carbon rods or pencils of small cross section called elec- As the electrodes are consumed carbon vapor is formed, which, being a partial conductor, allows the current to continue to flow across the gap, pro¬ vided it be not too wide; but as this vapor has a very high resistance it, as well as the carbon points, becomes intensely heated by the passage of the current. It is noticeable in Fig. 114 that as a result of the heat and current a cavity or tiny crater is formed in the end of the positive carbon, and that the end of the negative carbon becomes pointed from a deposit of particles torn away from the other. The rounded masses or globules that 5 2 STREET RAILWAYS. appear on the surface of the electrodes are due to deposits of molten foreign matters contained in the carbon. To prevent the gap between the carbons from becoming too wide, arc lamps are constructed with a mechanism which automatically feeds one or both of the pencils into the arc as fast as they are consumed, and also serves to bring them together for an instant to start the arc again if by any chance it should go out. A great many devices have been invented to accomplish these results, but among them all one of the most simple is a are usually in contact with one another. In addi¬ tion to the regulating mechanism, arc lamps, which are usually placed in series in a circuit, are pro¬ vided with a safety device operated in much the same manner by a magnet which automatically provides a path for the current around a lamp, in case it should get out of order, and thus prevents the failure of the other lamps. Carbons for arc lamps are generally made of powdered coke mixed into a stiff dough and then moulded into rods by hydraulic pressure. After drying they are placed in crucibles and, being Fig. 119.—Hand Resistance Box. Fig. 121.—Ampere Meter. lamp where the carbons are placed in a vertical position one above the other, the lower one remain¬ ing fixed, while the upper or positive carbon is placed in a holder which is held up by a clutch. The clutch is operated by means of an electro¬ magnet, through which all or a part of the current passes, so that in case the lamp goes out the clutch is released and the carbon falls by its own weight till it touches the lower one. Again the arc is formed'and the clutch raises the carbon to the requisite distance. It also adjusts the carbons as the resistance increases by the burning away of the electrodes. When the lamp is not in operation the carbons covered with powdered plumbago, are subjected to an intense heat for several hours, and then are copper coated. In order to prolong the life of arc lamps they are sometimes constructed with two or more carbon couples so arranged as to be brought alternately into the current. A lamp of this Kind is shown in Fig. 115. The incandescent or glow lamp, Fig. 116, is made by introducing into the circuit a filament of car¬ bonized fibrous material, which by the passage of the current becomes heated to luminosity, but is not consumed because of being placed inside a glass vessel from which the air has been exhausted. The filaments are usually bent into the form of a ELECTRIC TRACTION. $3 horseshoe but may be made in any form. The ends of the carbon strip are attached to platinum wires a o o Pi c4 W H O g H •4 W CQ H O w c 4 5 l o P < H c/) ctf « * O a. < o ►-« Ph >« H ri M o Ph which pass through the glass walls of the chamber and are fused therein by melting the glass around them. To prevent the platinum wires from melting at high temperature the filaments are considerably thicker at the end connected with the wire, so as to offer less resistance to the current. The free ends of the platinum wires are connected with a double metal ring forming the base, and by screwing this into a socket con¬ nected with the circuit contact is made and the current passes through the lamp. A key is also provided for each lamp or for a number of lamps, by means of which the current may be turned on or off. Incandescent lamps for house and street lighting are gen¬ erally connected to the circuit in parallel or multiple arc, by which arrangement, as explained for cars in parallel, only a portion of the main current passes through each lamp. But in street car lighting it is necessary to connect the lamps in series and to place a certain number on each car. The number depends upon the voltage of the current in the line and the candle power of each lamp. Ordinarily five lamps are used on each car, and the necessity of such an ar¬ rangement will be fully explained below as we study the value of electric terms. Incandescent lamps assume a variety of forms, as shown in Fig. 117. The position of lamps in the car, the switch and wire connec¬ tions were shown in Fig. 81. The light emitted by an incan¬ descent lamp varies, according to the size, from two to fifty candles. The standard candle is one which burns two grains of spermaceti wax per minute. Well made lamps have a life of several thousand hours and the usual market price is from seventy-five cents to one dollar each. Fig. 122.—Electric Power Station—Direct Belting—Rochester, N, Y., Railway. ELECTRIC TRACTION. 55 Fig. 124.—Railway Power Station Employing Counter Shaft. mate its kind, character and amount. Electricity being- a comparatively new science, new units and new names have been given because none of the existing units, such as feet, pounds and gallons fitted the case. The following practical units volt , ampere, ohm and watt are, however, based on cer¬ tain abstract units derived by mathematical reason¬ ing from the fundamental units, length, mass and time. Unfortunately the words themselves have no meaning, for they are all proper names anglic- The ohm is the unit of electric resistance in the conductor, and resistance is that which tends to stop the flow of electricity. The watt is the unit by which to express the rate at which electric power is absorbed or developed in an electrical system, stated in terms of any two of the preceding units. It serves as a means of comparison between electrical and mechanical power. Thus, to measure the power exerted by a cur. Failure may result either from the disintegration or rupture of the carbon filament, or because the vacuum of the lamp chamber is not perfect. ELECTRIC TERMS AND UNITS. Every system of measurement is based upon some experimental fact or law. We can only measure an electric current by the effects it pro¬ duces, and must use units adapted to its nature and properties in order to weigh, measure and esti- ized and given in honor of certain scientists who have distinguished themselves by their researches in the field of electricity or steam. The volt is the unit of electro-motive force, writ¬ ten E. M. F. and this is only another name for the force which drives electricity through the circuit and is sometimes called the electric pressure. The a?npere is the unit of current and measures the rate at which electrical current is transmitted through the conductors forming the circuit. STREET RAILWAYS. rent in a wire, both the volts of electro-motive force and the amperes of current are measured and the two numbers are multiplied together, or the same result may be obtained by multiplying the square of the current in amperes by the resistance in ohms. The product is the same in either case, and gives the rate of doing work or the watts. It has been found by calculation that a watt is equal to one 746th part of a horse power. Hence if the watts developed in any circuit be divided by 746 the quotient will be the number of horse powers to which it is equivalent. This does not include the losses which occur in conversion from electrical to mechanical energy or conversely. These must be determined separately, and this is usually done by the manufacturers of electric appliances who rate the efficiency of their goods accordingly. In connection with the term “ volts” the term potential or difference of potential is often used. This means that the voltage, or in other words, the number of volts at that particular place is, strictly speaking, the difference between the highest and lowest points of the circuit. The potential , the power of doing electric work, as well as the other terms used can be best understood by comparison with the case of a liquid. It is well known that the ability of a water supply to do work depends both on the quantity of water and also on the level or “head” of the source of supply as compared with some other level. Take the case of a water power and a turbine wheel, where there are a thousand gallons of water falling per given time from the height of one foot on the wheel; there is produced, it is assumed, one horse power; the rate of flow symbolizes amperes ; it might be called a thousand amperes, and the height from which it falls might be called a volt, that is for pressure. If, now, the one gallon of water—or one ampere—be placed a thousand feet high, it will then have a thousand feet fall, or a thousand volts, and instead of a thousand amperes or a thousand gallons, there will be only one gallon or one ampere, and that small amount of water—a thousand times less—falling from a point a thousand times higher, will develop the same power on the turbine. The height from which it falls represents volts, and the amount of water is represented by amperes, and it is the com¬ bination of the two that produces useful work. In like manner the ability of electricity to do useful work depends upon the quantity and on the differ- erence of potential between the place where the electricity is produced and some other place on the circuit. The same and other analogies between liquids and electricity may be shown by the accompanying diagram. Fig. 118 shows a reservoir, or source of water, at C, communicating with the horizontal pipe, A B, furnished with open vertical tubes, a to g, and B. If the outlet at B were closed the water would stand at the same level as the source in all the tubes; but if it be allowed to escape freely from B, the level of the water in the branch pipes will be found on the inclined dotted line at a' to g’. It will be noted that the pressure per square inch becomes less or suffers a loss of head, or difference of potential, at any two points along the pipe, but at the same time the quantity which passes at any cross section of the pipe, in a given time, is the same. That is, it will be the same at B as at A. The same rule holds true in the case of electricity; the quantity — u amperes”—flowing through any conductor is the same at any cross section. If, how¬ ever, the pipe conveying water should be opened at A the flow would be increased in proportion to the pressure at that point. It is very plain that the loss of pressure in the different sections of the pipe is due to the friction of the liquid against the inter¬ nal walls of the pipe or resistance offered by the pipe, which in the case of electricity is measured by “ ohms.” The quantity of water flowing through a pipe during a given time will be increased when the pressure is increased, or under the same pressure the quantity will be increased by substituting a larger pipe. Similarly, the strength of the electric current under a given pressure depends upon the size of the connecting wires, and it also depends upon the material of which the wire is made. The resistance of conductors is governed by ELECTRIC TRACTION. 57 three laws: First.— The resistance of a conducting wire is proportional to its length. II the resistance of a mile of wire be thirteen ohms, that of twenty miles will be twenty times thirteen ohms, or 260 ohms. Second.— The resistance of a conducting wire is inversely* proportional to the area of its cross section , and, therefore, in the usual round wires, is inversely proportional to the square of its diameter. A wire of twice the diameter and equal length would have only one-fourth the resistance, or would conduct four times as well. A wire three times the diam¬ eter would have only one-ninth the resistance and The resistance of most metals is increased by raising the temperature ; on the other hand, the resistance of carbon is diminished by heating. The analogy of the flow of water in a pipe does not hold in all cases in explaining the laws of electricity. Take the case of a pipe of small area connecting two larger pipes; the quantity of water flowing through the pipes will be governed by the resistance or capacity of the smaller pipe. In the case of electricity, however, it will be governed by the total resistance of each section, or the resist¬ ance of the entire circuit. Boiler Room. Fig. 125.—Railway Power Station Employing Counter Shaft. would conduct nine times as well. Third.— The resistance of a conducting wire of given length and thickness depends upon the material of which it is made —upon the specific resistance of the material. The following table gives the relative resistance and conductivity of different metals in ohms, in a wire one foot long weighing one grain, silver being taken as 100. CONDUCTING POWER SUBSTANCE Silver 100 Copper 99.55 Iron 16.81 Lead 8.32 German silver RESISTANCE 0.2421 0.2 106 1.2425 3 - 2 3 6 2.652 *Inverse means contrary or opposite. To square a number multiply it by itself. The following law, which may be used as a rule in determining the number of amperes of current in a circuit, is true in a circuit where there is no counter electro-motive force : The number of amperes of current flowing through a circuit is always equal to the number of volts of electro-motive force , divided by the number of ohms of resistance in the entire circuit , and the number of volts divided by the number of amperes gives the number of ohms. The voltage or pressure in a circuit may be increased by driving the armature of the generator faster. We are now able to understand why, in car 58 STREET RAILWAYS lighting, at least a certain number of lamps must be employed. The ordinary sixteen candle power lamp cannot be easiiy built to be operated on a potential of more than ioo volts, and as the voltage for operating electric roads is usually 500, it will require five ioo-volt lamps to offer sufficient resist* ance for this voltage. A large number of smaller lamps could be substituted, provided that they be so grouped that the total amount of current flow- passage of the current is very considerable (from 800 to 1.800 ohms), and it may be compared to a pipe 100 ft. long, having a hole through it as small as a point of a needle Very little water would pass through the hole without great pressure Like the water fall, a thousand gallons might fall from a height of one foot upon a person’s head and not hurt him, but one gallon falling 1,000 ft. would have sufficient impact to kill. Fig. 126.—Power Station with Cotton Rope Drive. ing through each lamp is no more than that for which it was constructed. We may consider briefly the danger element in connection with the operation of electric roads No matter what the quantity of electricity is, the resistance of the human body is so great that a person could not receive enough current to kill him unless there was a great amount of pressure. It requires a certain amount of amperes of current to pass through the human body to kill a person ; but the resistance of the human body to the The records show that a purely continuous current of less than 2,000 volts pressure has never killed a human being. An alternating current, however, is more dangerous, and people have been killed with alternating currents of lower voltage. But as the alternating current is not used for street railway purposes, it is not necessary to consider it in this connection, except in the possi¬ bility of a broken electric light wire, carrying an alternating current, falling across a trolley wire, in which case it would not be safe to receive the 1 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 59 current. About the only element of danger, besides that noted above, is the possibility of a person making contact with the current generated by a self-exciting continuous-current dynamo just at the instant that the field magnets were dis¬ charged. The extra current thus produced might be severe. This small possibility of danger can f however, be removed by the use of separately excited dynamos. By reference to the above table, it will be seen that silver wire is the best conductor, but, it being too expensive, the next in the list, copper, is gener- and are made by employing resistance coils or by other means. That for measuring amperes is called an atnperemeter or ammeter , and is constructed with a very low resistance. In practice it is placed directly in the circuit. The voltmeter is made of high resistance, and is placed at the terminals or between the positive and negative wires. These instruments are so constructed as to read off the amperes and volts directly. See Figs. 120 and 121. THE POWER STATION. Here are located the boilers and engines or other ally used for conductors. German silver wire, being a poor conductor and requiring a high tem¬ perature to melt it, is usually employed in making resistance coils, and these coils are an important factor in the operation of electric lines. Fig. 119 represents one form of resistance box. The galvanometer is an instrument used for measuring the strength of an electric current, and depends for its operation on the fact that a con¬ ductor through which an electric current is flowing will deflect a magnetic needle placed near it. These instruments assume a variety of forms and names source of power, the dynamos for generating the current, also the switch boards, including the instruments for measuring the current and the appliances for dividing the current and feeding the circuit. The proper location for the power station is one of the most important questions to be decided in the installation of an electric plant, and in this matter the skill and good judgment of the engineer may save to a company several thousand dollars in first cost, a large amount in operating expenses and in cost of future developments. The main factors do STREET RAILWAYS. of economy to be considered are the arrangement of feed wires, as before stated, a central location being desirable; ready access to fuel and water, the latter being very important in case condens¬ ing engines are employed. Of course, all these considerations may be ruled out by the high price of property or by local prohibitory legislation, in which case it will be necessary to locate in a less advantageous position Where water power is to be employed, the natural location of the latter will preclude very much being gained by the skill of the engineer. The location will also have much to do with the design of the building with reference to its architectural effect. If it is to be in the settled or growing portion of a city, the good taste and wishes of the com¬ munity, by whose favor the line exists, should be regarded, and con¬ siderable attention should be given to ex ternal beauty. Fig. 122A is a fair specimen of pleasing architecture. The boilers and engines play an important part in the production of the electric current, and the points of excellence in the various types of engines which engineers have devised for electric railway work will be treated in a separate chapter; in making a selection, however, care should be taken to secure economy, steady motion and high efficiency. Not less than two units of steam power should be provided in electric railway power plants, and as few as is consistent with safety and economy. En¬ gines for this class of work should be built very heavy and have ample fly-wheel capacity to pro¬ vide for the excessive strains due to violent changes in load. The amount of steam horse power to be provided per car will depend somewhat upon the grades in the line, the amount of traffic and amount of snow fall. It is safe to say that not less than twenty-five to thirty or even forty H. P. per car should be provided for roads operating a large number of cars. Small roads should have a larger aver¬ age ; not that this amount of power would be required for ordinary operations, but it should be in reserve. A car uses, under ordinary conditions, one H. P. per car mile per hour. That is, a car running at a speed of five miles per hour requires five H. P., at seven miles seven H. P. The relative position of the engines and gener¬ ators in the power sta¬ tion is a matter to be regulated by the install¬ ing engineer. In some cases the engines are belted directly to one or more generators, as shown in Figs. 122 and 123. In other cases a counter shaft is employ¬ ed and through this power is transmitted to a number of generators. (Figs. 124 and 125 ) The counter shaft should be provided with suitable clutches so that any of the engines or generators may be cut out. The selection and care of belts is an important factor in the economical operation of the power plant of an electric street railway. In the early history of the service it was difficult to get just what was required, but now there are various makes that fill, in all respects, the requirements of electric service. It is not our province to discuss the merits of the different makes of belts that are in the market, nor to supply data and formulae for ascertaining the width and strength of belts for a definite ser¬ vice. These matters are fully treated in works on belt transmission, and in the many admirable cata¬ logues with which the trade supplies its customers. Suffice it to say that in order to secure a long life Fig. 122A.—Electric Power Station. ELECTRIC TRACTION. 61 and satisfactory service in any business, a belt must be of ample width and substance to perform the work required of it, have proper care and be mounted with sufficient length to secure elasticity and adhesion. A record should also be kept of the performance of each belt to serve as a guide in placing future orders. For driving street rail¬ way generators, however, a belt having a capacity of one and a half times that for ordinary work of the same horse power is recommended, for the reason that the load varies suddenly and to great extremes on account of grades and the cutting in or out of cars. One school of prac¬ tice favors the direct coupling of engine and generator, in which case no belting is re¬ quired; this is usually accomplished by mounting the arma¬ tures directly upon the engine shaft which may be extended in both directions for the purpose. Friction coupling may also be employed. Cotton rope belting is also em¬ ployed to a limited ex¬ tent (Fig. 126). The cost of steam plant complete, including building and smoke stack, is, for high speed and non-condensing engines, from $45 to $60 per H P.; for compound engines, $60 to $75 per H. P., and for electrical equipment, from $35 to $45 per H. P. Eight square feet of heating surface, evaporating thirty pounds of water per hour, is the usual unit of H. P. for sectional or water tube boilers, and fifteen square feet the unit for tubular boilers, Among the electrical devices which it is neces¬ sary to understand, one of the most important is the method of coupling two or more dynamos together, so that they may supply to a circuit a larger quantity of electric energy than either could do singly. This has to be done in a particular manner so that the machines will not interfere with each other; for, if not properly arranged one ma¬ chine would absorb energy from the other and be driven as a motor instead of add¬ ing anything to the energy of the circuit. The method of coup¬ ling depends upon the construction of the ma¬ chine, and especially upon the way the field magnets are excited. Compound wound dy¬ namos, in which the self regulating powers are perfect, may be coupled in parallel in a circuit without much difficulty, as shown in Fig. 127. AAA rep¬ resent the armatures of two or more dynamos, connected in short shunt. By these means the two or more dynamos will exercise a con¬ tinual mutual adjust¬ ment, resulting in an equal division of the work between them, Not only may similar compound dynamos be coupled, but, by additional precaution, those of different size, power and speed may be used together. In adding another machine, how¬ ever, to those already in operation it is necessary to run it up to a proper speed and equal potential before attaching its terminals to the main con¬ ductor. 62 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 128 further illustrates the relation of dyna¬ mos, switches and meters. These diagrams are conventional; in practice however, a switch board is employed (Figs. 129 and 130) to which are attached the switches, meters, rheostats and safety devices in position to be readily inspected and adjusted. These switch boards are made more or less ornamental accord¬ ing to taste, the material being wood, marble or slate. In case a number of feed wires lead out from the same switch board, it is a good practice are applied, from excessive strain by an overplus of current. They depend for their action upon the fact that a current of electricity develops a certain amount of heat in its passage through a conductor, the amount of heat depending directly upon the amount of resistance of the conductor and the square of the volume of current. If a metal, fusi¬ ble at a low temperature, is inserted in the circuit and all the current allowed to pass through it, and its size is so proportioned that the amount of heat generated by the passage of the normal Fig. 129.—Railway Switch Board Adapted to the Thomson-Houston Electric System. to so connect them with a nest of push buttons located near the centre of the board, that by press¬ ing any one of the buttons the meter will indicate the voltage of either line. A valuable type of in¬ dividual switch is illustrated in Fig. 131. A drop switch or circuit breaker is also employed. This is constructed with an electro-magnet, and is de¬ signed to automatically break the circuit in case a dangerous current is generated. In place of the drop switch, or in connection with it, safety fuses are employed. The use of fuses in electrical engineering is anal¬ ogous to safety valves in steam engineering. They are intended to protect the devices to which they amount of current will not melt it, such a device constitutes a safety fuse, and any increase in the volume of current will develop an additional heating effect which will melt the fuse and break the circuit at this point. In practice fuses are used on both bus bars of a switch board, on the car to protect the motor and in the feed wires. Solder is usually employed for fuses, although any metal easily fusible can be adopted. In all cases the fuse should be easily accessible, so that in case it melts from a temporary short circuit or overload, it can be replaced by another fuse when the danger has passed. For this reason, when in use to connect two sections of a trolley wire, the ELECTRIC TRACTION. 63 fuse, instead of being inserted directly in the over¬ head line is placed in the box, or one of the poles and wires are carried from each side of the fuse to each end of the trolley line section. Care must be taken, in electric circuits in which high potentials are used, to have the fuse of such a length that when it melts the line terminals shall not be so near that the space can be bridged by a voltaic arc To prevent the space from being bridged by the current the fuses may be bent over been actually melted, being held in shape by an ozydized film on the outside. LIGHTNING ARRESTER. Another adjunct of the switch board is a “light¬ ning arrester,” one of which should also be placed on each car, and also at intervals in the trolley and feed wires The object of the arrester is to protect the generators, motors, meters and other apparatus in the circuit from the destructive effects of a bolt kuciw- rauL 1 Fig. 130.—Railway Switchboard Adapted to the Short Electric Railway System. a board partition as shown in Fig. 132. The cross section of the fuse can easily be calculated accord¬ ing to the ampere carrying capacity desired. A margin of safety is generally allowed in figuring the size of fuses; that is, a fuse is made somewhat larger than would be sufficient to carry the nor¬ mal maximum current in order to avoid frequent stoppages. While fuses are an important and, perhaps, essential part of an electric transmission system, they are not infallible, since a fuse will sometimes hold its position and carry the current after it has of lightning or discharge of atmospheric current The term “lightning arrester” is a misnomer, how¬ ever, for it does not arrest the current, but serves to change its direction and lead the surplus directly to the earth; it is, therefore, more in the nature of a safety valve. Lightning arresters are dependent for operation on the tendency of a disruptive discharge to take a short cut across an intervening space rather than through a longer, though better, conductor. A simple form of arrester, and one which will help us to understand the more complicated devices in 64 STREET RAILWAYS. practical use, is illustrated in Fig. 133. This device consists of two sets of serrated metallic plates placed near each other, one of which is connected Fig. 131.—The Ajax Switch. with the line wire and the other by wire with the ground, so that, should a bolt strike the line, the current jumps the space and is discharged into the earth. This type of arrester is not suitable for use with heavy currents, owing to the fact that an arc once formed across the space, would be continued by the line current which would soon melt the serrated plates. This tendency is overcome by the use of carbon disks which are placed about one-sixteenth of an inch apart, one of which is connected to a ground wire, and the other, by a brass wire of small capaci¬ ty, with the line. The lightning having bridged the space be¬ tween the carbon disks, the line or quantity current follows the arc thus formed and instantly melts the small wire, and cuts off the ground. By an ingenious arrangement of disks, supernumary wires and levers the machine again sets itself, like a trap, and is ready for a second discharge. Lightning arresters assume an almost endless variety of forms. In practice it is observed that Fig. 133.—Ordinary Lightning Arrester. the arresters on the cars or on the line operate before those at the power station, which indicates that the atmospheric current is not inclined to travel against the line current. A second form of arrester is shown in Fig. 134 and is known as the swing ball arrester. This is placed upon the pole and is connected to the line wire by means of a tap shown at the base which is connected in the arrester to a dis- charge terminal. Above the terminal a metallic ball is sus¬ pended by a rod which is free to swing V , # I in any direction. The | rod being connected * ^ to the ground, when¬ ever the atmospheric discharge jumps from the terminal to the ball the arc causes the ball to swing out, and as soon as the arc ceases the ball returns to its original position and is then ready for a second discharge. THE CAR BARN. This is an exceedingly important part of the equipment for electric lines, and its construction Fig. 132.— Double Fuse Block. ELECTRIC TRACTION. 65 and arrangement should have careful considera- > tion. The building should be roomy and suf¬ ficiently high between joints to allow for wiring, so that cars can be shifted by means of the current. Fig. 134.—Pendulum Lightning Arrester. In addition to the tracks, offices, wash room, ele¬ vators and transfer cars of ordinary barns, there should be provided a sufficient number of pits, over which the cars can run to facilitate repairs to the motors. These pits should be provided with steam pipes for warming, and with portable elec¬ tric lights. MACHINE SHOP. The machine shop should be a part of the car barn or loca¬ ted near it, and should be equipped with a suitable number of iron - working tools, The power for these tools may be sup¬ plied by a small steam engine or by a stationary electric motor Facilities should be provided for winding and mak¬ ing all necessary repairs to armatures. The repair shop is the first and most important consideration in the building and operating of an electric line, and should be built and equipped before any part of the line has been put in opera tion; and, as stated above, the power to operate it may be derived from a stationary motor, deriving its current from the line, or by a steam engine. The tool equipment of the machine shop for the repairs on from twenty to sixty cars should consist of a lathe, a shaper, milling machine, drill press and emery wheel. One or more wrecking wagons or patrol wagons are indispensable adjuncts to the repair equipment of an electric line. These should be provided with ladders, jacks and all necessary tools for making trolley repairs and for replacing or removing a derailed car. Powerful and well trained horses should always be at hand to haul such wagons at a moment’s notice. A complete system of electric signals should be put in, with alarm boxes at suit¬ able intervals along the line Appliances of this kind are really economic factors in the operation of any line A tower wagon should be provided as part of the equipment for line repairs and overhead work. This may be home made, with an adjustable ladder or one of the more pretentious wagons, such as are illustrated in Figs 135 and 136, may be employed These wagons have an adjustable plat¬ form and are of a gauge of sufficient width to stand astride the tracks, and when it is necessary to change position, the platform and ladder are readily dropped, when the vehicle assumes the appearance of an ordinary wagon. Beneath the seat is provided a box for the storing of the neces¬ sary tools. A full complement of tools for a gang of five Fig. 135—Tower Wagon for Overhead Work. 66 STREET RAILWAYS. men, including foreman, for overhead construction and repairs, would comprise the following; not that all would be absolutely required, but it will be found convenient to have them, and the list will form a basis for the organization of the differ¬ ent gangs. Besides the tower wagon there should be provided one light wagon and one reel wagon, two twenty-two foot ladders and one tool box, two sets each of large and small tackle, one dozen hauling clamps, two hauling clamp wrenches, four straps and vises, six pair six- inch gas pliers, six eight-inch side pliers, one bolt cutter, two twelve - inch monkey wrenches, six twelve- inch, flat, bastard files, two fourteen - inch, round files, two fire- pots, two railway soldering irons, two blacksmith hammers, one ratchet brace and three bits, two cold chisels, one hand saw, one twelve and one six¬ teen-inch screw driver, one wood mallet, one ioo-foot tape line, one hack saw and blades, one acid jug with brushes, one fourteen- inch Stillson wrench, two ioo-foot hand lines, one small soldering ladle, one hatchet, six lanterns, one bushel charcoal. ROAD BED AND TRACK. The greater weight and higher speed of electric cars as compared with horse cars, has given rise to new problems in track construction. No railway official, in the light of the experience already gained, would any more think of putting in the old time stringer and tram construction for an electric line than he would for a cable line. The requirements now are a rail of great vertical stiffness, a perman¬ ent track and durable material. The experience of the electric roads that have attempted to operate the cars over the old construction, has shown that there is more delay and a higher figure of operat¬ ing expense arising from the faulty roadbed than from the electric appli¬ ances. (For detail of suitable track con¬ struction see a subse¬ quent chapter.) OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE. A large per cent, of the operating expenses of an electric line is found in the repairs to trucks and motors, and in proportion as this expense is reduced, dividends increase; hence it is that this part of the work re¬ quires special attention from the management. It is not the prov¬ ince of this chapter to treat of all the details regarding inspection and care of motors, for the reason that each particular type of motor requires some special instruction as to repairs and means of detecting faults. These will be found in books of instruction usually furnished by the promoters of each particular system, while a code of special rules for the guidance of conduc¬ tors and motor drivers will be found in a separate chapter, all of which should be carefully studied both by the management and by the employes whose duty it is to handle the machines. There are some general instructions, however, which will Fig. 136.—Tower Wagon in Position. ELECTRIC TRACTION. 67 apply to every class of motors, which we compile from the knowledge that has been gained by the experience of oractical engineers connected with the work. These a»e given as suggestive, and any manager can determine for himself how far they are applicable to his particular equipment and how far he can neglect, adopt or improve upon them with a view of reducing the repair account. It is safe to say that in no line of business and with no other machine is the old adage, “A stitch in time saves nine,” more applicable than in the oper- tion of an electric railway motor. It is never econ¬ omy to run a car until something gives out, but there should be constant, intelligent and rigid inspection which will usually remedy the trouble before a breakdown occurs. Any defect, no mat¬ ter how slight, whether it be a loose bolt or a worn bearing, will quickly generate other defects which will multiply in an alarming degree, but which, if promptly remedied, will avoid the necessity of taking the car to the repair shop. A proper system of inspection requires that cars be run over a pit each trip and examined as to brushes, commutator, brush and field terminals, pinions, gear wheels, etc In addition to trip in¬ spection the motor should be run over the pit and inspected and cleaned every night, and all bolts, nuts and gears should be tightened up, special at¬ tention being given to wipe clean the gears, rocker arms, commutator and oil cups, also the switch stand and all switch connections. The fact should never be lost sight of that dust, dirt and water are the great enemies of an electrical machine for they aid in starting short circuits which result in serious burn-outs. For night inspection one man will be required for every ten or fifteen cars, depending somewhat upon the type of motor used. Of course with the use of gearless motors the inspectors’ work will be very much reduced, and a larger number of cars can be inspected. The light tools with which an inspector should be provided comprise three mon¬ key wrenches (from six to fourteen inches in size), one pair of six-inch pliers, a hammer, cold chisel, soldering furnace and iron and one ten-pound sledge hammer. In addition to the night inspection, as often as once a week, the car should be run over a pit, and all pans, casings and screens removed and cleaned and the car thoroughly examined from below. Particular attention should be given to see that the connecting cables are in good condition and that the insulation is not chafed or broken. Enough extra cars should be provided to allow of such weekly inspection without reducing the number of cars in service. As faults can usually be more readily located when the car is in motion the in¬ spector should occasionally run the car and should also watch the motor while it is being run. Repairs to motors also depend largely upon the care exercised by the motor driver; and to secure good men requires an equal degree of care on the part of the management. As a general rule, it will be found that old horse car drivers make the best motor drivers. They should be men who are always clear headed and cool in emergencies. Before being assigned to the new duty, however, they should be required to gain some slight knowl¬ edge of mechanics, and it is a good plan to give them three or four weeks’ training in the repair shop, and such shop experience will be found to be worth to the management all it costs. Drivers and conductors should not be allowed to take charge of an electric car until they have been carefully instructed and are able to pass an exami¬ nation on their instructions. They should be assigned to duty with an experienced crew during a number of days of regular work, and then should be allowed to handle the car for three or four days under the immediate direction of an experienced instructor. In addition to the training given on the cars, a set of motors should be mounted in some convenient place about the repair shop or barn where both drivers and conductors can have access to them and be taught how to operate and inspect them, how to adjust brush holders and brushes, and to properly handle the cut-out and controlling switches, and also how to disconnect the motors. They should learn how, by sound, to detect loose bolts, and also how to detect and locate electrical troubles. It is 68 STREET RAILWAYS. not enough to tell men that a switch moved in a certain direction produces certain results; they must be required to move the lever and practice all the details over and over again until they are famil¬ iar with the mechanism, and, after receiving their instruction, should be frequently examined as to their knowledge of the matter contained in their book of instruction. The matter of inspecting employes can no more be neglected with safety than can that of the motor. The life of gears and pinions on double reduc¬ tion motors varies, with many different conditions, from one to four months for pinions and from three to nine months for gear wheels. Where dust boxes are used the life of gears and pinions is materially 'lengthened. A great deal of experi¬ menting has been made with the material for both gears and pinions, and after a great deal of money spent in this direction, the following two combina¬ tions are recommended : Cast iron for the split axle gear, wood-filled gear for the intermediate, cut steel for the intermediate pinion and cast iron for the armature pinion. By the use of this combina¬ tion, with the axle and intermediate pinion run¬ ning in an oil-tight casing a very long life is obtained. Where the factor of noise is considered, a combination of rawhide pinions with metal gear is found to give the best results. Raw hide pinions, however, must be of thoroughly seasoned material and carefully put on to produce the best results. The use of an inferior article is an expensive luxury. The elimination of all gears, however, is a result confidently looked for in the near future of electric traction. The brake equipment of electric cars varies largely with the grades in the line and the weight of the car operated. From the experience of roads that have been the longest in operation and have tried various means of brakes, it is found that automatic air brakes of some of the well known types give by far thq best satisfaction, provided the expense of first equipment is not pro¬ hibitory. It is not only recommended that motors, cars and overhead work receive frequent, regular and care¬ ful inspection in order to secure economy in opera¬ tion, but the power station should also be included. The engines, boilers, generators, belts, switch board, shafting, pulleys, pipes, heating apparatus and all the light machinery, need the inspector’s attention. The very fact that an inspection is regularly made and expected will compel employes to greater effort in their several duties. The care of track and appliances for the removal of snow and sleet both from the roadway and over¬ head wire will be treated in a separate chapter. CHAPTER II. CABLE traction. Having studied the essential points relating to electric traction for street cars, we have next to learn the mechanical details of some of the leading cable systems. By “cable haulage” we mean the working of street or other railways by the employ¬ ment of a continuously moving, endless, wire rope carried on pulleys within a slotted tube placed be¬ low the surface of the street, or between the rails of a surface or elevated road; this rope to be driven by means of a stationary engine, or other power, situated at a suitable point near the line, and the motion of the cable to be intermittently communicated to the cars by means of a suitable gripping device attached to the car. Let it be understood that we are not to attempt an exhaustive treatise on cable traction, one that will embrace all the various systems so far pro¬ posed, for such a work would exceed the limits of this volume, as will be readily understood when we state that we have in our office a list of 1,000 patents, issued in the United States alone, relating to this subject. Nor are we to give all the technical de¬ tails relating to the cable road construction, for we do not propose to invade the province of the con¬ structing engineer, but we shall try to present some of the plans employed in the construction of the more prominent lines that have been long in opera¬ tion, with enough of data to enable engineers to compare notes, and from which street railway managers, stockholders, and local authorities can learn the essential points when they wish to investi¬ gate the system with a view to its adoption. We shall also have in mind the ordinary street railway employe who must know enough of the relation of the various parts to be able to operate a line suc¬ cessfully and safely, and lastly, the unprofessional reader who simply wants to inform himself regard¬ ing the different methods of mechanical traction, that he may be abreast of the times. It is eminently proper, whenever treating of cable railways, that the early workers in this field should receive due credit for the ingenuity manifest in adapting the principles of cable traction to street railways, and the courage displayed in making a practical trial in the face of the many obstacles which beset their first project. While the mere idea of cable traction was not new at the time these men began their work, the principle, as is well known, having been successfully employed upon cer¬ tain railways and in mines for many years, and the essentials of the present system having been sug¬ gested some years before by E. S. Gardiner, of Philadelphia, and others, there is no evidence that the men who made the first practical test in San Francisco, Cal., in 1873, had any previous know¬ ledge of such suggestion or description; hence we are bound to recognize Andrew S. Hallidie, of San Francisco, and his associates, Asa E. Hovey, William Eppelsheimer and Henry Root as pioneers in the business of operating street cars by means of a cable, slotted tube and grip. Although the plan itself has involved much ingenuity, still the grip in its relation to the cable is a most unmechanical de¬ vice. It has served its purpose well, however, and still holds the field against all competitors. The idea itself, as well as the fact, has served a purpose, for it became a seed thought which has found lodg¬ ment in the brain of many an inventor, and in this line during the last few years human genius has won most signal victories (on paper). THE STREET CONSTRUCTION. This is the most important factor in a cable sys¬ tem, since it is the chief item of expense in build¬ ing. It embraces the slotted tube, with carrying pulleys, vaults for same and drain pipes, also the pavement, track rail, etc. The required dimensions and strength of this tube depend upon many con- 7o STREET RAILWAYS. ditions. It will be observed by reference to the accompanying figures that it is virtually an arch with the keystone left out, hence it must be constructed with sufficient strength to resist the side pres¬ sure due to the packing of the soil by heavy wagon traffic, and, in cold climates, the enormous pres¬ sure due to the expansion of the soil by freez¬ ing. In the construction of almost any grip system it is first necessary to excavate a trench along the line of the road bed, about four feet deep and three feet wide, with side chambers every four or five feet, of sufficient width to receive the iron yokes which form the frame work of the tube or conduit; or the excavation may be made the full width of the track or of both tracks. If the formation is of rock the trench must be formed by blasting. In case the line is to be built upon made ground, or where the soil is light and porous, it is necessary to provide, as a support for the conduit, concrete foundation piers placed at suitable intervals and of sufficient depth to insure a firm foundation. In ex¬ treme cases it may be necessary to drive piles as an auxiliary support to the piers. The yokes may be made of cast iron rolled or steel, the choice of which depends largely upon the cost of the material at any particular locality and also upon climatic conditions. It has been found that yokes made of cast iron generally resist frost pres¬ sure better than those made of wrought iron, doubt¬ less because they are made heavier, and have there¬ fore greater compression strength. In case wrought iron yokes are employed they should be entirely embedded in concrete, to prevent their too rapid disintegration in the soil, a tendency to which wrought metal is more subject than cast. In the early construction of cable roads both cast and wrought iron yokes were employed, and, also, the sides of the conduit were formed of plank; in fact, wood entered largely into the construction, as will be seen by reference to the accompanying figures. As shown in Fig. 137, the tube was placed cen¬ trally between the rails, and was formed by the cast iron yokes H, placed about five feet apart; these carried the parallel slot rails J J, leaving a slot about seven-eighths of an inch wide, through which the shank of the grip could pass into the tube. C is a grooved pulley supporting the cable B, these pulleys being placed along the line at intervals of about forty feet. The internal dimensions of these first conduits were, below the slot rails, about twelve by fifteen inches, or twenty-two inches in depth from the sur¬ face of the street. It will be observed that the slot was placed to one side of the conduit, while the cable and supporting pulleys were mounted in the centre ; this was done to accommodate the pe¬ culiar form of the grip then employed, and also to prevent dirt and water from falling upon the cable and the pulleys. This method of mounting the cable and pulleys to one side of the slot is gener¬ ally followed in cable road building, except on lines where a bottom grip is used, in which case it is customary to mount the cable directly under the slot. Following the development of cable road con¬ struction we find, for a time, that wrought iron or steel yokes were substituted for those of cast iron, and in the earliest types these were made of old railroad rails bent in the form as shown in Fig. 138, with horizontal T iron braces to support the slot rail. Fig. 139 shows a form of construction in which inverted T rails were also used for forming the slot rails. Fig. 140 represents a form of wrought iron yoke having members specially rolled for the purpose, and which has been extensively employed. This construction gives a conduit of sufficient depth to provide for quite an accumulation of dirt and snow without interfering with the operation of the carrying pulleys, and in which the carrying pulleys may be mounted without a specially prepared pul¬ ley vault. There is one serious objection to this construction, however, and that is, the braces inter¬ fere with the work of cleaning the conduit, which is usually done with shovels having long, thin handles, which are thrust into the conduit through the slot, and the workman by bracing the handle against his foot, placed over the slot, scrapes the accumulation from one section to the other till a CABLE TRACTION. 7* '•SLOT' IJ^OUT OF CENTER Fig. 141.—Yoke Employed in Rebuilding a San Francisco Line. Fig. 138.—Original Construction—Market Street Line. Fig. 140.—Original Construction—Chicago City Cable Railway—Depth of Conduit 36 Inches. Fig. 137.—Original Construction—Clay Street (San Francisco) Line. Fig. 139.—Original Construction—Geary Street Line. Fig. 142.—Cable Construction—Melbourne, Australia. 72 STREET RAILWAYS. manhole is reached, where it is removed to the surface. Another form of wrought metal yoke is shown in Fig. 141. This pattern was used in rebuilding one of the old lines in San Francisco, the work being done while the road was in operation. The plan followed was to make an excava¬ tion at night when the road had stopped running, and place as many yokes as possi¬ ble in position, resting on wooden string¬ ers, as shown in same figure, and then con¬ nect up the rails. Next day the concrete and pavement were added. Fig. 142 illustrates the construction of a road in Melbourne, Australia, in which the yokes are made of old rails. Cast iron yokes, however, have come into the most general use in this country, and have been designed in various forms, the idea being to provide great lateral strength with as <» • • * «> Fig. 146.—West Chicago Cable Line. little metal as possible, and at the same time provide suitable lugs to which to anchor the slot rail braces. Figs. 143 to 149 illustrate various patterns of cast iron yokes, weighing from 300 lbs. to 400 lbs. designed for conduits of different depths. There is a great diversity of opinion among engineers as to the proper depth of a conduit. In practice the depth varies from nine to forty-two inches, the type of grip used, the climatic conditions and the depth of gas and water pipes in the streets governing. CABLE TRACTION. 73 74 STREET RAILWAYS. Most engineers prefer to make the conduit deep enough to accommodate the drainage, so that it will not be necessary to sink the pulley vaults or pockets below the level of the conduit This arrangement avoids the necessity of an auxiliary drain pipe, which, when employed, is liable to become choked by solid matter. Fig 150 illustrates a yoke made with both rolled and cast metal, the base being a rolled section in the form of a steel I beam, to which the cast sides are riveted. This yoke gives excellent service, but is an expensive one. Another composite yoke is illustrated in Fig IS 1 - This yoke has a body of cast iron, giving it great strength, and has wrought Fig. 148.—Yoke with Cast Braces—Third Avenue, New York, Line. Fig. 148A.—Yoke with Flat Steel Braces, Keyed to Lugs— Third Avenue, New York, Line. iron arms designed to provide an elastic rail support. Figs. 152 to 158A illustrate different pat¬ terns of wrought and cast yokes, each of which has been subject to a reliable test to determine its relative strength and ability to resist side pressure. A record of the test follows each figure and will be found of great value in designing new yokes for any special purpose.. The various methods of bracing the slot rails are clearly shown in the cuts illustrating the yokes, the growing tendency being to ar¬ range the braces so that they may be adjusted without dis¬ turbing the pavement to any extent. The different forms of slot rails are also clearly shown in the same figures. Though the slot rails perform very slight service in the running of trains, they are required to have great vertical and lateral strength, and they are made nearly as heavy as the track, in order to support the heavy Fig. 150.—One Hundred and Twenty-Fifth Street, New York, Cable Line. Fig. 151.—Composite Yoke. CABLE TRACTION. 75 TEST OF ROLLED STEEL CABLE YOKE, GRAND AVENUE CABLE CO., KANSAS CITY, MO. Fir. 152.—Yoke on Grand Avenue Cable Line, Kansas City. Load lbs. Deflection. Inches. Permanent Deflection. Inches. 200 .02 200 • 045 300 .125 .OO 2000 .27 •03 1500 •44 2000 .62 3000 •93 Force applied as indicated by arrows. Approach- ment of points A, A, measured and called Deflection. TEST OF CABLE RAILWAY YOKE, ST. LOUIS CABLE & WESTERN RAILWAY. Load lbs. Deflection. Inches. Permanent Deflection. Inches. 200 •05 500 .115 800 .185 4000 I .01 .l6 4800 2.13 Compression applied as indica¬ ted by arrows in sketch. Distance A measured and its diminution called Deflection. Weight of rail, knee castings, and chairs, 241 lbs. Fig. 153.— St. Louis Cab ei,& Western Line. TEST OF CABLE RAILWAY YOKE, CHICAGO CITY RAILWAY. Fig. 154.—Chicago City Cable Railway. P, F s Load lbs. Deflection. Inches. Permanent Deflection. Inches. Deflection. Inches. Permanent Deflection. Inches. 200 .OI .02 400 IOOO •045 .OO . 12 .OO 1600 .075 . iq 1 ; 2000 .09 .OO .27 .025 3000 •145 . •515 •17 Two tests were made. First pressure was applied as indicated by arrows P t P x . After applying 3,000 lbs. load this way, pressure was applied at P 8 P 3 . Weight of yoke 164^ lbs. Distance A gauged and its diminution is called Deflection. 76 STREET RAILWAYS. TEST OF CAST IRON YOKE, NORTH CHICAGO CABLE RAILWAY. Fig. 155.—North Chicago Cable Yoke. Load lbs. Deflection. Inches. Permanent Deflection. Inches. 400 .015 IOOO .03 .OO 2000 •055 .OO 3000 .085 .OO 4000 . 12 .005 5000 • 155 ,OI IOOOO • 355 .04 Pressure applied as indicated by arrows in sketch. Distance A gauged and its diminution is called Deflection in report. Weight 416 y z lbs. Casting not broken. TEST OF CAST IRON CABLE YOKE, KANSAS CITY PATTERN. Load lbs. Deflection. Inches. Permanent Deflection. Inches. 200 .01 IOOO .04 .OO 1400 .06 2000 .085 .OI 3000 • 15 4000 .20 .OX 8000 .44 .04 I OOOO • 56 • 05 Fig. 156.—Kansas City Pattern of Yoke. Pressure applied as indicated by arrows in sketch. Distance A gauged and its diminution measured, which is called De¬ flection in report Weight of casting 380 lbs. Casting not broken. J Fig. 157.—Johnson Company s Steel Yoke. Plates one-quarter inch thick. Load lbs. Closure. Inches. Permanent Closure. Inches. 200 -OI 400 .02 IOOO .065 1600 .IO 2000 • 125 24OO • 145 3000 .185 .OO 4000 ■ 255 5000 • 355 6000 .46 .08 7500 .28 CABLE TRACTION. 77 COPY OF OFFICIAL TEST MADE AT WATERTOWN ARSENAL LABORATORY WITH TWO YOKES. CALLED RESPECTIVELY NO. r AND NO. 2. Loaded in Direction of Arrows B B. Loaded in Direction of Arrows C C. Movement at A. Movement at A. Applied Applied Load. Remarks. load. Remarks. Yoke No 1. Yoke No. 2. Yoke No. 1 Yoke No 2. Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. 200 .O .O 200 O .0 400 .0040 600 .0017 .0020 600 .0078 .0080 IOOO .0017 .0050 800 .0112 1400 .0057 .0065 1000 •0153 .0140 1800 .0088 .0084 1200 .0202 2200 .OIOO .OOgO 1400 .0230 .0183 2600 .0198 .0132 1600 .0270 3000 .0241 .0160 1800 .0309 .0270 3500 .0217 .0170 2000 .0342 4000 .0275 .0220 2200 .0387 .0336 4500 .0300 .0220 2400 .0425 5000 .0447 .0220 2600 •0459 .0380 6000 .0488 .O29O 2800 .0490 7000 •0547 .0370 3000 .0538 .0440 8000 .0618 .0420 200 .0068 Permanent set of 10000 .0747 .0520 3000 •0559 .0440 No. 1. 14000 .1027 .0765 3500 .0645 16000 • 1157 .0875 4000 •0745 .0625 18000 .1290 . 1040 4500 .0847 .0710 200 • 0157 .0120 Permanent set. 5000 .0945 .0788 8000 No. 2 retained under 5500 ■ 1050 .0900 18000 Yoke re- . 1022 this load fifteen hours. 6000 .1160 .0990 20000 moved from .IIIO 6500 . 1270 . 1060 22000 machine and .1230 7000 • 1385 . 1162 24000 auxiliary bar .1370 7500 • 1495 .1270 26000 at top remov- .1540 8000 .1617 .1364 28000 ed and yoke . 1640 9000 .1847 .1560 30000 replaced i n . 1805 IOOOO . 2060 .1720 Permanent set here 32000 machine and • 1951 12000 .2549 Yoke re- of No. 2. .0198. 34000 pressure ap- .2070 14000 .3050 moved from 35000 plied in di- .2140 16000 .3566 machine and 37000 rection of ar- .2350 18000 .4120 auxiliary bar 40000 rows C C. .2700 20000 .4700 at top ap- 42000 Net Strength—Frac- 22000 . 5330 plied, replac- Snapping Sounds. ture sound and of 23OOO • 57 e d in m a - .1. strong granular ap¬ pearance. 24000 .6l chine and 24900 pressure ap- Net strength—Frac- plied in di- ture in a direction near rection of ar- base of yoke. rows B B. 7 8 STREET RAILWAYS. street traffic and preserve the slot to an exact width, which is usually about three-fourths of an inch. Load lbs. Closure. Inches, Permanent Closure. Inches, 200 .OI . 800 .055 IOOO .07 1200 .085 2000 •15 .005 2600 . 20 3000 • 235 .015 Fig. 159 illustrates a somewhat different meth¬ od of bracing the slot rail, in which it will be Fig. 159.—Street Construction Between Yokes—Third Avenue, New York, Cable Line. noted, a flat brace is employed, having two bolts by which it is attached to the slot rail: this is to prevent the tilting of the slot rail, as sometimes happens when the tie rod is attached to the middle of the rail. The same construction also provides for an adjustable slot, as the space between the slot rail and the arched support can be filled with asphalt or some material that can be melted, and the slot widened should it become necessary. The object in this particular construction, of giving the slot Fig 160.—Edinburgh Northern Tramway. rails so wide an arch is to provide for running the grip jaws very near the surface, thus allowing for a more shallow conduit, rendered necessary by the presence of innumerable pipes in the streets. Fig. 160 illustrates a method of construction adopted by the Edinburgh Northern Cable Tram¬ way of Scotland, that can be built for a mod¬ erate cost. The cast iron yokes weigh 135 lbs. each. They have a web one inch thick and are spaced three feet six inches apart. The slot rails are of steel and weigh thirty-nine pounds per yard. They are of peculiar design and are intended to lessen the cost of construction by reducing the depth of tube and providing a guard for the grip on curves. This is done by setting back the lower member, which forms a lower vertical plane, against which a Fig. i6i.—Edinburgh Northern Tramway. friction roller on the grip rests in rounding curves. The conduit is nineteen inches deep from the surface and nine and a half inches wide. The pul¬ ley vaults are connected with a six inch drain pipe. CABLE TRACTION. 79 The inner faces of the slot rails should be ver¬ tical to prevent horseshoe calks from becoming Fig. 162.—Pulley Vault—Lane Sys¬ tem, Providence, R. I. *wedged in the slot. The practice of rounding the edges is objec¬ tionable for the reason that it becomes a trap for horse shoes. In case the slot closes a trifle from Drain pipe frost pressure or heavy traffic, it is sometimes necessary to force it open by means of iron wedges driven in with heavy hammers; and in some cases it has been found necessary to chip off the inner surfaces of the slot rails by means of a cold chisel. Roads have been constructed with the slot rail two inches higher than the track rails. See Fig. 143. This construction is objection¬ able where it is necessary to operate cars by horses over the same line, as the slanting pavement makes an unsuitable track for horses, and it is also difficult for other lines to cross such a construction. It is desirable, how¬ ever, to have the slot rail elevated from a half inch to an inch above the track rail to prevent water and dirt from entering the slot. In the early construction, as before stated, the walls of the tube or conduit were made of plank. Concrete, however, has been generally sub¬ stituted in later construction, with the exception of a few lines which employ both concrete and wood, as shown in Fig. 162, the foundation being of con¬ crete and the sides of four inch creosoted plank. In this system the conduit is reduced in depth to twenty-one inches and the drainage is made independent instead of along the bottom. With this construction, it is claimed, a road can be built at less cost than those with a deep conduit, but there is a good deal of objection to the shallow conduit construction, except in favored localities. As to the quantity of concrete to be used and the thickness of the walls of the tube, practice dif¬ fers. In localities where, on account of the high price of iron, light steel yokes are used, it is a growing practice to use large quantities of con¬ crete, and to depend entirely upon the strength of the concrete walls to resist the side pressure. (Fig. 141.) In other localities very heavy yokes are used, and the concrete side walls are made only three or four inches thick, but, of course, with a heavy foundation. Figs. 163 and 164 illustrate a type of construc¬ tion known as the Isaacs’ concrete road bed, in which no yokes are employed, the tube being con¬ structed entirely of concrete. The conduit is twenty-four inches deep. The walls on the bot- -22^- Fig. 163.—Light Section—Isaacs’ Concrete Road Bed, Oakland, Cal. tom are about fourteen inches thick, and the lateral thickness at the top is about two feet. It is claimed that on lines constructed in this manner the ability 8o STREET RAILWAYS of the concrete to withstand the action of external forces tending to slot closure is equal to that of iron yokes, and that there is a saving of from $15,- 000 to $20,000 per mile in cost over yoke construc- -- 1 -2214- the bottom (Fig. 165), and when placed in position, and slightly wedged apart, have the exact form of the conduit through which the cable is to run. These forms are made in sections of four or five feet, and as soon as the wall has set the wedge is removed when the forms collapse and are readily moved further on by means of hooks introduced through the slot, or Fig. 164. —Heavy Section—Isaacs’ Construction. Fig. 166.—Folding Form with Trolley Support. tion. Tests show that concrete, made of the best materials, properly mixed, is capable, when set, of standing a compressive strain of 200 tons to the square foot, and a tensile strain of fifteen tons. Following the steps of ordinary construction, the yokes having been arranged in the trench, the slot and track rails are next bolted in place, when the entire iron work is moved to line and grade, and is Fig. 165.—Folding Form. supported in place by being suspended from tem¬ porary cross timbers, which rest on the sides of the trench. The concrete is next put in and tamped solid under the yokes and around the wooden folding forms or templets, which are made in two pieces and commonly hinged together at by being suspended from a trolley running on the slot rail. (Fig. 166.) Some engineers prefer to provide concrete foun¬ dations or piers for the yokes, and place them to grade before attaching the rails. This practice is Fig. i66a.—Enlarged View of Trolley Wheel. followed usually where the streets are narrow, in order that the street traffic may not be interrupted. Instead of employing wooden templets to form a backing for the concrete, the practice is quite com- CABLE TRACTION 81 mon of employing oblong steel tubes made of rolled plates, about one-fourth of an inch in thickness, which are bolted to the yokes and form a lining to the conduit. This arrangement is shown in Figs. 146 and 174. The dotted lines show the thickness of walls. Engineers do not agree as to the advantage gained by the use of the steel lining. The metal corrodes, it is claimed, and forms no support for the concrete peditiously performed, however, by means of con¬ crete mixers, types of which are shown in Figs. 167 Fig. 167.—Concrete Mixer. and 168, but in quality this is not considered equal to that mixed by hand. The first of these machines Fig. 168.—Cockburn Concrete Mixer. after it is set. Others hold that there is a saving of time in construction by the use of the lining, for it is not necessary to wait for the concrete to set before beginning a new section, as is the case when forms are employed. This saving, however, would seem to be balanced by the extra time required for fitting the lining and bolting the sections in place. The materials—best Portland cement, one part ; sand, three parts; broken stone, five parts—of which the concrete forming the tunnel is com¬ posed, may be mixed upon a platform of boards or in a box, and water being added, it may be thrown in place from the box by means of shovels and then firmly tamped. This work is more ex¬ consists of a long box having a spiral conveyor running from end to end, which is revolved rapidly Fig. 169. by a stationary engine, and discharges the mixture into the proper place between the tracks, water be¬ ing added from an overhead supply pipe. The en- 82 STREET RAILWAYS. tire mechanism being mounted upon wheels, it is readily moved ahead on the track as a given por¬ tion of the trench is filled up. The second is made with an iron tubular casting open on the top, and the spiral has paddles set in opposite directions, the greater number pushing toward the delivery, so that ultimately the material finds its way out. Sand is then placed upon the concrete, forming a bed for the pavement. The top of the con¬ duit next to the slot rails is sometimes formed by steel paving plates, extending from yoke to yoke, and resting with one side on the concrete and the other on the lower edge of the slot rail, as shown in Fig. 140 The patterns of carrying pulleys and the methods of mounting them in the con¬ duit vary about as much as the different types of yokes. They are usually placed from thirty to forty feet apart except on the crowns of hills where the grade suddenly changes; and here they should be placed very close together to support the down pull of the cable, or a forty inch crown sheave may be substituted. Fig. 169 is an illustration of a common cast iron groove pulley about twelve inches in diam¬ eter, mounted with its journal boxes on an iron frame, which in turn rests on a wooden frame, and being placed in the conduit is supported between the two yokes. (Fig. 140.) In most systems, however, a chamber or pulley vault is provided in the side of the conduit, having a manhole with cover flush with the pavement, through which access is had to the pulley for oiling, inspection and renewal, and through which any accumulation of dirt and snow may be re¬ moved. This is shown in Figs. 170, 171, 172. In the construction of some lines a very large pulley vault is provided, made of cast iron plates or with concrete walls, sometimes four feet long and four feet deep. In the side of this the carrying pulley is mounted on a suitable frame, while the iron cover full length of the vault has in the middle a small hand hole with separate cover through which the bearings may be oiled. One objection to large manhole covers is the difficulty of fitting them accurately to the frame so that they will not tilt and rattle when vehicles pass over them. Peo- Fig. i 71.—Pulley Vault for Duplicate Cables, Tenth Avenue, New York Line. pie living along lines constructed with the large covers, sometimes complain of being disturbed at CABLE TRACTION. 83 night by the sounds produced in the manner above described. Fig. 162 illustrates a very compact pulley vault of cast iron, circular in form, and only about eighteen inches in diameter. With this con¬ struction the pulley is mounted on an adjustable and pulley may be lifted out at the manhole. In a double track road the opposite vaults are some¬ times connected by a cross vault with one manhole between the tracks, as illustrated by Figs. 173. Figs. 150, 171, 173, 174 are designs of yoke, con¬ duit vault and cover for a duplicate cable system in which two ropes are operated in the same conduit, each entirely independent of the other, and so Fig. 172A.—Manhole and Grip Hatch Cover— Broadway, New York, Line. arranged at the driving station that if one rope or its machinery should become disabled the second rope can be brought into immediate use. By this arrangement a road can be operated continuously day and night, and ample time can be had for in¬ spection and for making needed repairs to the idle cable and machinery. In this system the carrying pulleys are mounted in pairs, the grooves support¬ ing the cables being slightly on each side of the PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE CONCREjj ^ORTCA’ Fig. 173.—Cross Vault with Single Manhole—Third Avenue, New York, Line. triangular frame, overhanging, both the bearings slot. (Figs. 173 and 176.) These particular wheels being on one side. The frame is held in place by are made with six light, round, wrought iron arms a cam lever, and by releasing the lever the frame which render them light and durable. It is custom- 8 4 STREET RAILWAYS. ary, when it is found necessary to change from one cable to another in the dupli¬ cate system, to start up the idle cable and keep both in operation long enough for all the cars to reach the terminals of the line, and, by changing a single sheave at the end of the line, each car as it starts on the return trip will be transferred to the other rope without any attention on the part of (he gripman. There are numerous patterns of carry¬ ing pulleys in use, varying in diameter from nine to twenty-two inches, some made of solid cast iron, others of a com¬ bination of wrought iron and cast iron Fig. 173A.—Third Avenue, New York, Cable Line. as above. Another pattern of the latter is shown in Fig. 177 which represents a pulley this type of pulley is used the spindle should be fourteen inches in diameter, having wrought pressed in, otherwise it is liable to work loose, spokes, cast hub, and a cast rim chilled through, rendering it necessary to remove the pulley before Fig. 174.—Sheave Pits and Grip Hatch, Broadway, New York, Cable Line. The spindle is of hardened steel and the bearings are turned down to eleven sixteenths of an inch. The weight is about twenty-two pounds. In case it is worn out. Fig. 178 illustrates an adjustable chilled rim pulley, in which the rim may be renewed when worn. Another adjustable pulley having three parts, is shown in Fig. 179. The parts of sectional pulleys require to be accurately fitted to prevent their working loose and rattling under the peculiar forces acting upon them. Fig. 180 illustrates a cast pulley with chilled face. Chilled rim pulleys will last from six to eight times as long as ordinary cast pulleys. The Fig. 174A. — Conduit, Sheave Pit and Grip Hatch—Broadway, New grooves of chilled pulleys should be York. Cable Line. smoothed up on an emery wheel be- CABLE TRACTION Fig. 175.—Carrying Pulleys for Duplicate Cables. Fig. 180.—Chilled Cast Pulley. Fig. 179.—Three Part Adjustable Pulley. Fig. 176.—Carrying Pulleys for Duplicate Cables. Fig. 177.—Combination Pulley, Fig. 178.—Two Part Adjustable Pulley. 86 STREET RAILWAYS fore they are put in service. It is the practice on some lines to line the groove of the carrying pul¬ leys with babbit or other soft metal, the design being to protect the cable and to deaden the sound Li Jr Fig. 181.—Journal Box for Carrying Pulleys. or hum of the cable and pulleys in the conduit. It is a question in the minds of engineers whether by lining the sheaves there is really any saving in operating expenses. It undoubtedly adds to the life of the cable, but this is offset by the expense of renewing the lining and the liability of the soft metal taking the lay of the rope, so that the matrix formed in the surface cuts the dressing out of the rope between the strands. By com¬ parison of the wear of the groove and that of the cable the advantage is, in point of economy, in favor of the chilled groove. The diameter of the carrying pulley has little to do with the power necessary to drive the rope. The best practice favors twelve inches. The diameter of the bear¬ ing, however, is an important consideration and should be made as small as possible, consistent with safety. Care should be Carrying pulleys should be mounted in a suitable journal box having ample oiling facilities. A pat¬ tern of box that is extensively used is illustrated in Fig. 181. It is hung on trunnions and has an end chamber, which, being packed with waste, prevents the escape of oil at the spin¬ dle. With this box a pulley will run several months with¬ out attention. The curve construction for a cable road has taxed the ingenuity of engineers more than any other part of the work, and here again we find a great diversity of practice. A special pattern of yoke is required for curve construc¬ tion, and the pulleys are, usu¬ ally, placed near together in a horizontal position as in Fig. 182 the side pressure of the cable, between 600 and 800 lbs. on each pulley, being sufficient to hold it firmly against the pulleys. A guard rail is, usually, placed just above the curve pulleys which, following the contour of the slot, provides a rest for the grip on which it slides in passing, and holds the taken that the pulley be made perfectly round, otherwise a disagreeable pounding will occur. The noise of the running cable which, in some instances, is so annoying to the residents along the line, may be greatly reduced by resting the pulley frames on some fibrous material or by mounting the spindles upon lignum vita bearings. cable out from the pulley. (Figs. 183 and 184.) In some cases the slot rail is so arranged as to perform the functions of a guard rail also. (Figs. 185 and 160.) The curve pulleys are, usually, made with a wide face and bottom flange upon which the cable rides. Fig. 186 illustrates box and bearing for curve pulleys having a set screw for adjusting the pulley CABLE TRACTION. 87 and taking up the wear from the end of the shaft. 188, are sometimes employed on curves in place of A beveled babbit bearing supports the shaft. In vertical faced pulleys. some cases the curve pulleys are made without a The diameter of curve pulleys varies from fif- flange and a long carrying pulley is placed between teen inches to four feet, depending somewhat upon Fig. 183. —Curve Pulley and Guard Rail. Fig. 188. —Method of Mounting Cone Shaped Curve Pulley. Fig. 184.— Curve Pulley. Fig. 186. —Bearing for Curve Pulley Spindle. Fig. 185. —Curve Pulley Mounted from the Top—Providence, Fig. 187. —Curve and Carrying Pulley R. I., Line. Combined. two curve pulleys to support the cable and prevent its being chafed and worn by the flange, Fig. 187. Where the horizontal pulleys are placed close to¬ gether the intermediate carrying pulley is not required. Vertical cone pulleys, illustrated in Fig. the radius of the curve. Practice has established the fact that it requires less power to operate a cable around an ordinary curve upon large pulleys than on small ones, and that with the large pulleys the cable has a much longer life. The power 88 STREET RAILWAYS. required to drive a curve pulley is in about the same proportion as its. peripheral diameter is to the diameter of the spindle. A large pulley also lasts much longer than a small pulley. In either Fig. 189.—Curve Construction—Baltimore Passenger Railway. self explanatory. Fig. 191 illustrates a form of curve pulley designed for use on the duplicate system. It really consists of three wheels on the same shaft. The upper one is thirty-two and the lower one forty inches in di¬ ameter. The top wheel has a flat face, against which the grip takes bearing in passing. The inner cable runs against the single groove sheave be¬ tween the top, flat faced wheel and the lower wheel. The latter is conical in form, and has a spiral groove for guiding the outer and lower rope (when in use) down to its proper line after the grip has passed. Curve pulleys may be cast in sec¬ case the pulleys should be placed as close together as possible, except on curves of very long radius. The power required to operate a cable on a curve is not by any means all absorbed by the mere turn¬ ing of the pulleys upon their bearings, but it is largely required for bending the cable an indefinite number of times as it passes the pulleys. If the curve pulleys are of the proper size and placed near together, the cable is not injured as much as it is likely to be over small pulleys placed too far apart. Fig. 185 shows a novel method of mounting a curve pulley. In this system the pulleys are nearly four feet in diameter, extending under the rail, but so mounted in a sus¬ pended trunnion bearing that, by releasing the cam lever which anchors them to the slot rail, they can be tilted up and removed through the opening between the slot and track rail. It will be noted in the same figure that the bottom of the conduit is lined with wood coming close up to the flange of the sheave. This is designed to prevent the cable from ever being drawn under the sheave in case it should become slack and drop below the flange. The cover is also provided with a hand hole through which the oil box at the top of the bearing may be filled. In Figs. 189, 190, 190A are shown approved forms of curve construction, which are tions the same as carrying pulleys, and so arrang¬ ed that the portion worn by the cable can be re¬ newed without renewing the entire pulley. Curves are the bane of cable construction. Their first cost is enormous; they consume power, ma¬ terially shorten the life of the rope, and area source Fig. 190.—Position of Curve Pulley- Railway. Street Aaiiwa Baltimore Passenger of endless care and anxiety to the management. So many difficulties attend the operation of cables around curves that several roads have abandoned the pulley construction, where the grades are suita¬ ble, and turn the rope by means of one large sheave. In this case the grip is released, and the car is float- ted over the curve by momentum or gravity, when CABLE TRACTION. 89 the rope is again picked up. In our opinion a sliding contact could be provided for the rope on curves in place of the usual pulley construction. This might consist of an endless belt, composed of tion, the rope is placed between the grip jaws. Depression pulleys, as illustrated in Figs. 193 and 194, are used to keep the rope down in its place where there is a sudden change of grade upon a line, as when crossing a level street on a steep grade, or at the foot of a narrow valley. These wooden blocks, each about a foot long, slightly rounded at the ends, bored out lengthwise, and strung like beads on a small wire rope or chain, which, being mounted in a concave curved bearing facing the conduit, would provide a suitable rest for the rope, and being properly lubricated would easily slide around the curve, completing the circle through a blind conduit or tube, under the pavement. With this device the rope would bend easily to the arc of the curve, and less power would be consumed. In this connection we illustrate a set of elevating sheaves, Fig. 192, which also have been designed for use with duplicate cables. These are placed at the point where the rope passes into the conduit from the power house, or near the end of the line, and are used to elevate the ropes to a line where they may be received by the grip. Ordinarily, ele¬ vating sheaves arc set in a line with the slot, and the grip is guided around them by short reverse curves made in the slot and track rails. To ob¬ viate- the necessity of these curves, the tilting sheaves were designed. These are placed ii\ a frame having trunnions at the ends on which the wheel tilts, and are in a line with the travel of the grip, but, by means of a long horizontal lever oper¬ ated by the grip as it approaches, they are tilted to one side, and, as they assume their former posi¬ are usually small sheaves arranged near together on each side and underneath the slot. Against these pulleys the rope rides when the strain over¬ comes the sag due to its own weight, and they pre¬ vent it from being chafed and worn by bearing against the under side of the slot rail. The grip Fig. 191.—Spiral Groove Curve Pulley—Tenth Avenue, New York, Line. in passing depresses the rope enough to clear the pulleys. There are other devices for this purpose in which the pulleys are carried by counter weighted levers, or upon vibrating frames which move to one side as the grip passes and return to their former position before the rope rises. It is usually the practice in cable road construc¬ tion to pave all or a portion of the surface between the slot and track rail on the inside of a curve with iron plates having corrugated surfaces. These 9 ° STREET RAILWAYS. plates make a durable pavement, and they may be readily moved for inspecting the pulleys beneath. Fig. 192.—Tilting Sheaves for Placing Rope in Grip. (See Fig. 195.) Sometimes, however, oak planks are used for this purpose, and also for pulley vault covers, but are not very durable. Roads have been constructed with a subway be¬ tween the tracks deep enough for a person to enter, and from which curve pulleys can be renewed or adjusted. This is a con¬ venient and not very costly arrangement. In this case the surface is paved in the ordinary manner. Proper drainage is an important factor in cable construction. This may be pro¬ vided for by connecting the conduit by drain pipes to the sewer at suitable inter¬ vals, or a line of sewer pipe may be laid along the street between the tracks, con¬ necting a series of pulley vaults, which in turn may empty into the sewer or other channel. (See Figs. 160, 161, 162.) In case the line is built upon streets having no system of sewers, it is necessary to lead drain pipes into cesspools from which the water must be removed by pumping. See Figs. 171 and 173. Great care should be exercised to prevent an accumulation of water, or sand in the pulley vaults, for if the sand should block the pulleys, or if they should be stopped by the freezing of the water, the cable would soon cut them out or pro¬ duce flat spots that would render them unfit for further service. It is not usually found necessary to trap the sewer connections of a cable con¬ duit. In some large cities, however, it is required. The cars may be transferred from one track to the other at the terminals of a cable road by a switch, a turntable or by means of a loop. In case a switch or turntable is provided, the cable passes around a large horizontal sheave mounted in a pit near the end of the line, as shown in Figs. 196,197 and 197A. On the incoming line the cable is deflected to one side of the slot which releases it from the grip, and an opening or grip hatch is provided through which the grip may be lifted from the conduit. (See Fig. 174.) These hatches are also provided at inter¬ vals along the line, having hinged covers, so that a grip may be removed in case it should become dis¬ abled cn route , or it becomes necessary to switch from one track to the other. When a turntable is employed it is usually operated by means of friction gear and clutches connected with the terminal sheave. The loop construction may be laid in the street, or the line may be led around a block. In either case the ordinary curve construction is em- CABLE TRACTION. 9 1 ployed, as shown in Fig. 198, which is known as the balloon loop. It will be noted, by reference to this figure, that the second pulley at the beginning of each curve is omitted; this is done in order that the cable may exert sufficient side pressure on the first pulley to cause it to turn. Ordinarily the side pull of the cable on the first pulley of a curve is only half as much as on each of the others where they are equally spaced. The choice between a switch, turntable or loop at the terminals of a cable line is determined, usually, by the amount of traffic, the width of the street, and the type of grip car in use. On lines operated with the ordinary open grip car or dummy, and on some lines with a double grip on an ordinary car, that can run either end forward, the ordi¬ nary cable switch is employed. This is so arranged that not only the rail but the grip slot as well is provided with a movable switch point or tongue for diverting the car from one track to the other (Fig. 197B.) If possible, the switch should be constructed on a slight grade, so that the car can be transferred by gravity, thus saving the expense of a horse for the purpose. The crossover may be arranged for either the incoming or outgoing car. In the former case the cable is dropped on approaching the switch, and the grip car, being uncoupled from the trailer, passes over and couples on to another trailer already in waiting on the end of the return track, the grip car being in position to pick up the cable and start on the return. In the second case the cable is held till the crossover is passed and the trail car is uncoupled and passes the crossover, first coming in behind a grip car already in wait¬ ing and in position to pick up the cable. The last grip car in then drops over and remains in waiting for the trail car of the next train. These switch combinations for a dummy and trailer may be varied to suit the grades and conditions of traffic. In case the trailer is a horse car which must continue over a con¬ necting line, the grip car only makes the switch, and remains in waiting for the arrival of its return tow or trailer. A very good con¬ struction for a flying switch for a grip car only is made with the rails of the crossover elevated two or three inches above the track rails, and the wheels of the grip car being pro¬ vided on their inner faces with a second tread of less diameter than the rail tread, take this elevated rail and transfer the car without the intervention of tongues or frogs. Trains or long cars may be transferred by means of a turntable, provided it is made large enough. There are some in use thirty feet in diameter. The tracks on the table must be provided with slot and tube way for the grip, forming a continuation of the conduit on the incoming and outgoing tracks. On approaching the table the rope is dropped and the car is run upon it by momentum, and after being turned it may be hauled to position on the outgoing track by means of a rope wound upon a windlass placed under the surface of the street and Fig. 194.—Depressing Pulleys. Fig. 195—Curve Paved with Iron Plates—125TH Street, New York. 92 STREET RAILWAYS. driven with power derived from the cable by means quickly, without special attendants. The loop may of friction gear which is set in motion by a hand be operated at full speed by the main cable, or an Fig. 196. —Terminal Sheave and Pit. lever. Another hand lever serves to set the table in motion by means of friction gear, as before noted. Fig. 197. —Terminal Sheave. auxiliary cable may be provided, which is operated at a slower speed by means of gears and drums driven from the main cable. When the loop is in the vicinity of the power house the auxiliary cable may be driven by special machinery in the power house and conducted to the curve through a blind conduit. While the loop is the ideal method for turning cars it is expensive in first cost, absorbs power and is very hard on the rope. Other things being equal a cable line should be so designed that the rope will be required to do the least possible In order to provide for the dispatch of cars in rapid succession the turntable may be provided with two sets of tracks so disposed that when one car is turned and headed for its return track the other set of tracks on the table is in position to receive another incoming car from the main track. Two or more outgoing tracks or special sideways may also be provided, which converge into the main line at a suitable distance and thus facilitate the dispatch of cars. This is a valuable feature, especially where the cars of various lines have a common terminal. In some cases both switches and hand turntables are provided at the terminals. The ideal terminal, however, is the loop which provides for turning cars or trains of any length work. Curves, loops and auxiliary machinery should, if possible, be avoided. 1 CABLE TRACTION. 93 Fig, 197B.—Crossover Switch—Broadway, New York, Cable Line. Whenever a loop is employed it will be found of great advantage to operate some portion of it through a building on the company’s property, where the tracks can be led over open pits, thus providing facilities for inspecting and oiling the grip at each trip if necessary. These pits are usu¬ ally provided with steam pipes or stoves for warming, with electric or other lamps, and with suitable elevating sheaves for removing and re¬ placing the cable in the grip. Various devices are used for replacing the cable in the grip after dropping it at the ter¬ minals, when passing the power house or at cross¬ ings. The device usually depends upon the pat¬ tern of grip in use. In some cases a slight bend in the track and slot rails, or in the slot rails only, serves to swing the grip to one side, and the jaws being open the cable passes out, and is returned in the same way. The same thing may be accomplished by means of a wheel and lever called a “gipsy.” This lever is, preferably, con¬ structed of inch and a half gas pipe supported by trunnion bearings be¬ tween two yokes. The lever extends across the conduit and carries a conical roller six inches long, six inches in di¬ ameter at one end, and two and a half inches at the other. By means of a chain attached to the end of this lever and coming up through a hole in the sur¬ face of the street, the roller is lifted andi striking against the rope, not only raises it, but causes it to describe a half circles drawing it out to one side, and when at a proper height it slides down to the small end of the roller and into the side of the grip. The chain may be operated by an attendant or by the conductor who leaves his car for this purpose. 100 ft Fig. iq8.—Baloon Loop. 94 STREET RAILWAYS. On some foreign lines an automatic rope lift¬ ing device is employed, which is illustrated in Figs. 199 and 200. A lever with which the grip shank comes in contact is hung just beneath the 1 StrccFliaihcay Jti -' Fig. 199.—Automatic Rope Lifting Gear. slot and being swung around by the passing grip, lifts the rope into place. With some patterns of bottom grips the cable is picked up by depressing the grip; others are pro¬ vided with special hooks for this purpose, while another picks up the cable, as the car passes a slight vertical dip in the tracks. In connection with the ordinary tube switch for branching lines, automatic safety appliances are sometimes provided which reset the switch and prevent the car from starting around the curve while the cable holds the grip to the straight line in cases where the gripman fails to drop the cable in time. This device usually consists of a long shaft, hav¬ ing a roller at one end and connected with the switch lever by bell cranks. This shaft being mounted to one side of the conduit, is revolved when the switch lever is moved, and the roller is brought on top of the rope in position to be lifted in case the grip fails to let go of the rope. In case it is lifted the switch is closed and the car keeps on the main line. It can then be stopped, backed up and moved around the curve without injury to the rope or g ri P- In place of safety appliances, some lines station a watchman at all points where the cable is dropped, whose duty it is to watch the cable through an opening in the pavement, and to notify the grip- man in time to prevent accidents in case the grip fails to let go of the rope. At all points where the cable is to be dropped and picked up a sign of some kind should be placed to notify the grip driver where to manipulate the grip or brakes. A durable sign for this purpose may be made of sheet iron and should be properly lettered with the words “ Let go ; ” “ Take up ; ’’ “ Stop,” At night the signs should be provided with signal lanterns. As there are always new men being employed, safety devices of this kind should never be dis¬ carded. Where lines are operated in snow regions it is found to be of advantage to place a line of two-inch steam pipes in the bottom of the conduit, with valves and connections at suitable intervals, through which live steam can be admitted from a portable boiler, for the purpose of melting any accumulation of snow that may drift through the slot, and which would interfere with the free move¬ ment of the cable or pulleys One of the difficult problems to solve in cable construction is to provide suitable support for the 1 fi Mi 'Jm ! I I Plan i Fig. 200.—Automatic Rope Lifting Gear. rails at crossings, especially where the line to be crossed is a steam road, and to make at such cross¬ ings a comparatively smooth track for the cars. Most steam roads will no; allow their rails to be notched for the flange, and if the track and slot rails are placed higher than the steam rails they CABLE TRACTION. 95 are liable to be broken by the wide tread of the locomotive drivers. In case the rail of the steam line cannot be notched for the passage of the flange of the cable car, wedge shaped pieces are sometimes riveted to the tram rail as shown in Fig. 201, upon which the flange rides at crossings. Special yokes, castings and angle plates are re- Fig. 201.—Steam Crossing. cement, tar or other waterproof material, to prevent the water from percolating into the soil beneath, where it would be liable to freeze and close the slot. One objection to this method of paving is the dif- Fig. 202.—Single Track Cable Construction. quired for crossings, differing in form in nearly Acuity of removing the blocks for the necessary re- every instance. Fig 201A illustrates a three track pairs. The same objection may be urged against diagonal crossing for a street car line. asphaltum, but where a road is so constructed that Granite blocks, brick or asphaltum are the best the slot rails do not need to be adjusted, nor the materials for paving cable lines. Wood is not track joints raised, this material makes a very de- Fig. 201A.—Cable Crossing for a Street Car Line. suitable on account of its liability to swell or ex- sirable pavement, for it is not affected by tempera- pand in wet weather, producing sufficient pressure ture, is waterproof, has an even surface, allowing to close the slot. It may be used, however, be- the car fender to run low, and possesses many other tween the tracks, as illustrated in Fig. 143. In case advantages. granite blocks are used on lines operated in cold The different types of track rail in use on cable regions the interstices should always be filled with lines are shown in connection with the yokes. The 9 6 STREET RAILWAYS. best practice inclines to a heavy girder having great vertical stiffness In some cases local regula tions require the adoption of a grooved girder rail. This type of rail, doubtless, interferes as little as any with wagon traffic, but it requires more power to operate the cars upon such a track than with other types. The joints should be supported upon the yoke, the rail being cold sawed when necessary to bring the joints in position. We are aware that many good engineers favor suspended joints ; prac¬ tice has demonstrated, however, that supported joints are the most durable. The above covers the essential points of the street construction for a cable line, although there are many other adjuncts which have been proposed, and on which patents have been granted, among these are methods for closing or covering the slot, none of which have come into extended use, how¬ ever. A few single track lines have been built with turnouts on which the' rope runs in both directions in the same conduit The general con- Fig. 203.—Turn Out on Curve—Single Track Construction. tion of carrying pulleys of a single track line that operates very successfully. Both carrying pulleys are mounted in the same frame in position to pre¬ vent the two lines of rope from chafing together or against the sides of the conduit. Three forms of curve construction are admissible on single track lines. It being difficult to carry the two sections of rope which run in opposite directions around the same arc, double tracks may be employed which when properly located will serve as turnouts. (Fig. Fig, 204.—Grip Car, Showing Cable in Grip When Drawing a Train. 203 ) When this is not practicable and the curve must be made on a single track, one rope may be carried at a higher level than the other by placing the curve pulleys alternately for the high and low ropes In this case it is necessary for the car that is hauled by the lower rope to release the rope and round the curve by momentum or gravity. The second rope is sometimes carried outside the main curve in a separate blind conduit, and the car in one direction drops the rope as above Economy in cost of construction is the only advantage in the single track construction. It admits of the cable system being adopted in small cities and towns where the cost of a double track would be pro¬ hibitory. THE GRIP. This is the second important factor in cable trac¬ tion, and maybe described as a powerful vise, sup¬ ported under a car within the conduit by means of a thin shank, and operated by a lever or wheel through the medium of an eccentric toggle joint or equivalent device, and made to grasp the rope with pressure sufficient to Impart the motion of the rope to the car. It is shown in action under the car in Fig. 204. Fig, 205 shows a grip in detail, and the following letters refer to corresponding parts. A lever, B handle, C rod lor raising dog, D dog, E dog spring. F quadrant, G adjustable head, G' adiustable shoe H CABLE TRACTION. 97 set screw, I adjustable screw, J links, K beam, L shank, M movable plate, N upper jaw, O lower jaw, P spools, Q roller journals, R rollers, S cable. Fig. 206 is a modification of the same. The type of grip used on the early cable roads differed materially from the one above described, but has never come into extensive use. The jaws of this first grip had a horizontal motion and were supplemented by four inclined pulleys arranged in pairs which assisted in grasping the cable. The grip was operated by means of a hand wheel fixed upon a screw spindle, which worked in connection with a sliding piece supported by the shank. In the advance of cable prac¬ tice the grip has undergone a The grip jaws are usually from eighteen to twenty inches long and are lined with removable dies, to take the wear caused by the slipping of the rope when starting or running slower than the rope. The dies may be formed in short sections or the full length of the jaw, and should be of some durable metal. Phosphor bronze and other Fig. 205.—Cable Grip. Fig. 206.—Type of Grip in Use on Lines Fig. 207A.—Grip Employed in of the Chicago City Railway. New Zealand. great many modifications and hardly any two com¬ panies have adopted the same pattern. For convenience of description they may be di¬ vided into two types, the vise and the roller grips: the former may be subdivided into the side grip, top grip and bottom grip. Each of these may be operated by means of levers directly over the grip, as above described, or by of means of levers or hand wheels through the medium of rods or chains from the car platforms. The side grips usually have a pair of jaws on each side of the shank, and may take the rope on either side without the necessity of turning the car. composition dies give good service, but those of cast steel or tool steel are found to have the longest life. In the choice of material, however, the life of the die should not always govern; the effect upon the cable must also be considered. The dies are usually formed with a slight groove to fit the rope and are sometimes made reversible. In the grip above described the lower jaw is fixed and the upper one is movable. Other pat¬ terns have the upper jaw fixed, as illustrated in Fig. 207. It is claimed for this pattern that when the car is standing the rope is running nearer to its normal level, and the down pull 9 8 STREET RAILWAYS. upon the grip is not so great and, consequently, removed from the grip by passing a short bend in there is less wear and loss of power. This lifting the slot rails as before described, and it may be left CAST STEEu of the cable by the grip requires considerable power—more than is generally supposed. By reference to Fig. 207 it will be noticed that the spools for throwing the rope out of the grip differ somewhat from those I! " ► ] i to slide directly upon the lower die without injury. The difficulty of keeping the rollers properly lubri¬ cated and from becoming clogged by tar and dust, has caused them to be discarded on many lines. The grip illustrated in Fig. 207 is operated by Fig. 207.—Type of Grip—Tenth Ave¬ nue, New York, Line. shown at P in Fig. 205. In this case the rope is removed by throwing the lever clear over, which serves to lift the conical Fig. 200.—Top Grip. , , ,. , , , spools and dislodge the rope, but in Fig. 207 the spools are moved sideways by a second lever and connections. Some do not regard the spools or the rollers as essential attachments to a grip. The rope may be Fig. 210.—Type of Bottom Grip. drawing the two short arms together by means of rods, actuated from the platforms by a hand wheel or lever, as before stated. Figs. 208 and 20SA illus¬ trate a side grip which is operated from the plat¬ form through a connecting rod, as shown. This pattern was specially designed for a detachable grip, in order to readily convert a horse car into a grip car, and the reverse. The top of this grip has aT shaped head, and is supported in a housing CABLE TRACTION. 99 having a T shaped opening from end to end so that it may be easily slid out and dropped down to rest upon the slot, in which position the car passes over it. The housing rests upon a framework attached to the car axles, and is provided with all the devices for lateral motion, and the spring draught attachments common to other grips. Fig. 209 is an end view of the top grip, in which, it will be ob¬ served, the outer jaw has a side motion, and closes in upon the rope which is received from the top, as indicated by the arrow. The rope is readily removed from this grip by being slightly elevated, whereupon the grip passes under and away from it. It will return to the jaws when run¬ ning at its normal level. This grip is designed to be operated from the platform of either a four or eight wheel car. Fig. 210 illustrates a type of bottom grip, which is designed to work in a very shallow conduit. It has the advantage of being able to drop or pick up the cable readily. The rope may be lifted and placed between the jaws of a bottom grip by a hook, or the grip may be depressed, or it may be made to pick up the rope at suitable points by having a dip in the track rails. An upper jaw pattern of grip, and one operated by means of a screw spindle and hand wheel, is illus¬ trated in Fig. 2ix. This grip is adapted for use on open grip cars which do not turn at the end of the 4 Rq-tbroad ljoutaide diameter. Original 6 Nut j bolt k pipe filler I ^All $ bolts in hanger r ID - 42 - — — - 41 -—.- 00F O O Fig. 211.- line, as its workings and movements are the same with either end of the car forward. The screw rod is three-fourths of an inch in diameter, with four square threads to the inch, and it is turned by means of a twenty-inch hand wheel which, with seventy pounds exerted at the periphery, gives a maximum pressure of 17,590 lbs. on the rope. Grips are usually supported by frame¬ work from the axles of the car, and not from the car body, and there are various methods of mounting the grip upon its frame, but it is usually so hung that it may have seven or eight inches of lateral motion to provide for its conforming to the short bends in the slot, which are made at the curve approaches, or at points where the rope is dropped or picked up. The draught at¬ tachment to the frame may be rigid, or con¬ sist of springs to pre¬ vent the car from start¬ ing with a sudden jerk. The springs are not necessary, however, provided the gripmen exercise proper care at starting. Figs. 212 to 214 are views of a powerful roller grip, designed only for operating lines where the cable is above the surface, and is a modified form of the one long in use on the Brooklyn Bridge. It has two pairs of horizontal wheels, having grooves lined with rubber and leather, supplemented with short solid rubber lined jaws, the rope being lifted in place by external means. The pressure for holding it is transmitted to each wheel from the car plat- € % str^t-Railway Jn, Screw Spindle Grip—Providence, R. I., Cable Line. lOO STREET RAILWAYS. form by means of a hand wheel and rods through the medium of a wooden brake shoe, applied to the inside surface of the rim, which is flang¬ ed for the purpose. The brake shoe serves the double purpose of applying the pressure and of checking the motion of the wheels until they cease to turn, when the car will mounted on an ordinary car, or upon a combination double truck car, depends somewhat upon climate at the locality, the amount and fluctuation of the traffic, and the demands of the patrons. The open grip car is a favorite with the patrons in mild weather, and may be made to haul a long train when occasion demands. Fig. 212.—Roller Grip—Brooklyn Bridge Railway. travel at the same speed as the rope. This grip is admirably adapted for heavy traffic, and is usually attached to each car of a train. All the gripping faces being lined with soft material, this grip is very easy upon the rope. Fig. 215 represents the relation of car, grip, ropes and carrying sheaves of a duplicate system before mentioned, and Fig. 216 illustrates a combination eight wheeled car, which has the additional equip¬ ment of a track brake. The choice of operating a cable line with short open or dummy cars, capable of towing one or more cars, or with the grip The use of an ordinary car with the grip driver always on the front platform, is regarded as the safest method of operation. The combination car, has advantages not to be overlooked, and has come into extended use. On lines where there are nu¬ merous short curves the double truck cars are in special favor, for they take the curves at high speed with a more agreeable motion than cars hav¬ ing a rigid truck. THE CABLE. This is the name given to a steel wire rope used for the transmission of power in the operation of street railways. The majority of American roads employ a rope composed of six strands twisted around a heart of hemp rope (Fig. 217). Each strand is composed of nineteen wires, seven of them forming the heart Fig. 214. CABLE TRACTION. iox of the strand, around which the remaining twelve are wrapped. As these latter receive all the wear, they are sometimes made larger than the wires composing the core of the strand (Fig. 218), and the relative number of outside and inside wires may be varied. Ropes are also made with six strands of sixteen wires each, and others have seven strands composed of nineteen wires. In nineteen wire strands the wires are usually laid twelve over six over one. See Fig. 219. On straight lines the nineteen wire strand ropes give excellent service, but are not thought to be as serviceable on lines having curves. The size of a rope used in cable haulage varies, quarter rope is about eighty tons, and such a rope weighs about two and half pounds per running foot. Ropes are also made with a wire centre, and while it is claim¬ ed that they are stronger, they are not as flexible, and hence not adapted to street railway work. Foreign practice favors the employ¬ ment of a different pattern of rope which, it is claimed, has a much longer life than ropes ol ordinary make. This is known as the Lang lay, Albert lay, or long lay (Fig. 220), and its peculiar feature is that both the wires forming the strands and the strands themselves are laid in the same instead of opposite directions, subjecting a larger portion of each individual out- Fig. 2x5. —Relatxon of Car Grip and Carrying Sheaves— Duplicate System. according to the work to be done, from one inch to one and a half inches in diameter, the usual diam¬ eter being an inch and an eighth and an inch and a quarter. The breaking strain of an inch and a side wire to wear and making an exceedingly flexible rope. The result is that the wires after long wear do not break at the crown of the strand (Fig. 221), as is the case with ropes made with 1 02 STREET RAILWAYS. wires and strands in opposite directions, as shown in Figs. 222 and 223. A striking contrast, showing the effect of service on the two types of rope, is illustrated in Fig. 224, in which the section lying diagonally across the coil is the Lang lay. This section was spliced into the other and made the same number of miles, but, apparently, is good for still further service. This pattern of rope is manufactured by certain Pig. 220. firms in this country, and can be made by all rope makers. Its general adoption would, no doubt, work a large saving in the expense account of cable railways. Fig. 225 is a section of ordinary rope having an excellent record. The cut shows its condition after being in service on a heavy line for 419 days, and having made 100,560 miles. The average life of ropes by the same makers that have been used on one of the most extensive lines in this country has been twelve and a half months, with an average of 88,402 miles. Other types of ropes are made in which the strands are composed of special shaped wires (Figs. 226 and 227), but these have not come into extensive use. The second of these is known as the California cable, and from Fig. 227A, which shows a section of a strand, it will be noted that a centre round wire is covered with six round wires, and these again with six round and six broad, triangular shaped wires, laid alternately, with the broad faced wires slightly overlapping and protecting the adja- Fig. 222.—After Making 71,241 Miles. Fig. 223.—After Making 65,575 Miles. Fig. 221.—After Running 826 Days. cent round wires, so that most of the wear comes on the triangular wires, on account of the larger surface exposed. The other is known as the locked wire rope, and is composed of steel wires through¬ out, there being no hemp centres. It is claimed to have less weight than ropes of other patterns of corresponding strength. It cannot be spliced in the ordinary manner, however, but the ends are joined by electric welding, which is done without enlarging the diameter or diminishing its strength at the point of welding. Experiments with the locked wire rope on cable lines have not been attended with encouraging results. The life of the ordinary rope in service depends, i CABLE TRACTION. 103 usually, upon the quality of the metal, the method of driving, the length and speed of the rope, num¬ ber of curves and turns and amount of traffic. The general average in this country, including all lines and different makes of rope, is about eight months, while the mileage ranges from 40,000 to 150,000. The above conditions, however, do not always govern, for it is the universal testimony that while the rope makers, apparently, are doing pulley and chafe against the yokes or concrete. A case in point is where a rope cut through the side post of a yoke by chafing against it, and imbedded itself into several other yokes. By far the greatest abuse, however, that a rope receives is from care¬ less gripmen, who sometimes hold the rope too long on approaching a switch or other points where it is to be dropped, in which case the rope is cut or stranded. Fig. 224. their very utmost to produce the best rope for this business, yet the ropes from the same makers do not give uniform results as to wear, one rope hav¬ ing a long life, and the next, of the same make, lasting only a brief time, under the same conditions. What seems to be required is some improvement in the metal from which the wires are drawn. Ropes are frequently rendered unserviceable more from abuse than from use, which shows that they must have constant care and attention. A rope may be abused by allowing it to slip off a curve Samples of rope that have been damaged by this means are shown in Figs. 228 and 229. In the first case one strand was cut, which was unwound about fifty feet before it was discovered, and in the second, two strands were cut, which ran out about 150 ft. In neither case did the gripman report his mishap, but left it to be discovered at the power house. On lines where loop terminals are provided, the danger of cutting the rope at these points is avoided. For transportation a rope is usually wound on a 104 STREET RAILWAYS. large spool in the same manner in which thread is wound. (Fig. 230.) This, being delivered in posi¬ tion, and mounted on a shaft with suitable bear¬ ings, slowly revolves, unwinding the cable as it is shaft, a hollow cast iron shaft with journals is sometimes provided. In case a portion of a cable line is near the sta¬ tion of a steam line or crosses a steam line, a good Fig. 228. Fig. 227. California Rope. Fig. 227A. deal of trouble and expense may be saved in the handling of the rope, by having it shipped from the manufacturer, noton a spool, but coiled on the platform of one or more freight cars. It can then be uncoiled and introduced directly into the con¬ duit, through a pulley vault o'pening. A rope being shipped on a spool, and no vehicle of suf¬ ficient strength being at hand to transport it to the power house, if may be safely and quickly trans- strung along the line of the conduit. The shaft on which the cable spool is mounted is usually made of hard wood, from twelve to sixteen inches square, with journals turned at the ends. These revolve in bearings thoroughly lubricated, and mounted on a solid timber foundation. In some cases a frame is provided with metal journal bearings, always kept in a suitable position, with a new rope mounted ready to be put in service. In place of the wooden / CABLE TRACTION. ferred by rolling it on its own circumference by horse power, as shown in Fig. 231. For shipment by water, a heavy rope is often transported by coiling it into large wooden tanks placed in the hold of a vessel, and it may be delivered to the vessel or removed by coiling it upon a train of wagons. Great care, however, must be exercised in handling a rope in this man- 105 animals. Still another method is to provide a clamp having a thin, wide shank bent nearly to a right angle. This being fastened to the end o£ of the rope comes up through the slot and terminates in a suitable hook or ring for attaching the teams. When an old rope is to be removed, it is customary to cut this and splice the end of the new rope to it. The machinery is then started and Fig. 231.—Transporting Cable on Reel. ner lest half kinks be introduced which often de¬ velop as destructive factors. Several methods are employed for stringing a rope in the conduit. If it is a new line it may be done by holding the end of the rope firmly in a grip, mounted on a car, to which a sufficient num¬ ber of horses or mules are attached—from sixteen to thirty—to string it along the conduit. After half the length rs run out a second car may be added, and other teams attached. In place of the grip and car a piece of half inch rope may be fas¬ tened to the end of the main rope, and this, com¬ ing up through the slot, provides for attaching the the old rope as it runs out draws in the new one. For this purpose a dummy engine having a cap¬ stan is sometimes employed, and in a few instances small, special friction wheels are used for drawing out a worn rope. The old rope may be rewound upon a spool or, as is more frequently the case, allowed to coil itself in a heap in an open lot or yard. In this case it may be led out of the power house through a two or three inches iron pipe. Old ropes are usually sold to junk men and bring from six to eight dollars per ton. When a rope is to be placed on a new line the pre¬ caution should be taken to station signal men at io6 STREET RAILWAYS. suitable intervals along the entire line, who being provided with signal flags or lanterns, and in¬ structed in a signal code, are able to communicate with the head of the line, if it should be found necessary to stop for any purpose. The rope having been strung through the entire length of the conduit, the ends are brought together, usually, at the power house, and after the rope has been laid over the winding drums and tension carriage it is ready for splicing. The opera- completed will be sixty feet long. The hemp core is then cut out at the same point, and the solid ends of the core are brought together, the strands inter¬ locking as shown in Figs. 232 and 233. The ends of the rope being known as A and B, strand number one of A is unwound back from the point of union, and strand number one of B is laid firmly and tightly in its place, leaving eighteen inches or more of its end projecting. Strand one of A is then cut, leav¬ ing the same length of end projecting (Fig. 234). Fig. 232. tion of splicing a rope is one of the most important mechanical details connected with cable haulage, and an expert is usually employed for this purpose It is a very simple operation, however, but requires care and precision, lest some variation in the size of the rope prove an element of destruction. There are several methods of splicing a rope, each having special points of merit. The one most usually employed is known as the California splice and may be readily understood from the accom¬ panying illustration and description. After being stretched to a proper tension the rope is cut to a suitable length, and the strands of each end are unwound for about thirty feet, and bound at that point with pliable wire so that the splice when Number two of A is then laid in place of number two of B, and the ends left as before. The other strands are. then laid alternately in the same manner, but to a shorter distance, the ends being left equi-distant from start to finish, as shown in the ast figure. The next operation is to tuck the ends of the strands into the centre, a portion of hemp core being removed for the purpose To do this 011c end of the rope is clamped firmly in a vise and its strands are slightly separated, being untwisted by means of a small hemp rope and a lever, as shown in Fig. 235. A portion of the core being removed bi cutting with a sharp knife, the ends of the strands, having been straightened, are crossed, and CABLE TRACTION. 107 by a peculiar shaped tool or pair of tongs (Fig. 236) and a dexterous twist of the hand, the end of one strand is tucked into the centre, and occupies the place of the hemp core. Any slight inequality can be taken out by pounding the rope with a Fig. 233. wooden mallet. The same operation is performed for the end of each strand, and when properly done it is hard to detect the place of the splice. In order to increase the holding capacity of a splice it is a good practice to wrap the ends of the strands, before tucking, with small annealed wire, canvas or marline. This not only keeps the wires in the strands from opening out but gives to the strand the same diameter as the removed core, causing the outside strands to grip the inlaid one firmly, and prevents the rope from shrinking at that point. Some splicers before tucking the ends of the strands cut away a part of the wires and taper off the ends of others, to prevent an enlargement of the rope at the point where the strands cross; others make all the wires tapering before tucking, a prac¬ tice not recommended. Another method of splicing a rope is known as the Chicago or Nash splice, and in practice gives excellent results. It is not practical, however, with the long lay pattern of rope. By this method the strands of the two meeting ends of the rope are alternately unlaid back to different points in the same manner as before described, but the method of securing the ends is quite different. The first step in the tucking operation is to untwist the out¬ side wires of each strand and then to tie the untwisted ends of the strands in a single knot, as shown in Fig. 237, drawing it well down in the score of the rope, so that the knot will lie slightly below the regular circumference of the rope. The wires of the strands thus tied together are then untwisted back to the knot (Fig. 238), and the untwisted portions of each strand are passed under two of the strands of the rope at different points by means of a suitable tool (Fig. 239) ; the wires thus tucked and drawn through the rope are then cut off close to the surface, as shown in Fig. 240, and soon after the rope has been put in service it will appear as in Fig. 241. . A rope spliced by any method must be as strong as at any other point, but the operation must not increase its diameter. The operation being per¬ formed, the rope is endless and ready for service. The tools required for splicing a rope, as shown in Fig. 231, consist of a vise, marlin spike, wire cut¬ ters, pliers, cold chisel, hammers, wooden mallets, tongs and two rope nippers, with sticks to untwist the rope, etc. Fig. 234. The operation of splicing is usually performed in the night, without causing delay to the operation of the cars It is sometimes necessary in the oper¬ ation of a cable line to splice a section of new rope into an old one, but this should be avoided as far as possible, as it usually adds an element of danger. The strands of the new rope being slightly larger than those of the worn rope offer increased resist¬ ance in its passage through the jaws of the grip, especially if the grip happens to close, as the new Fig. 241. Fig. 242, CABLE TRACTION. portion of the rope approaches it. The increased pressure tends to draw out the tuck, and conse¬ quently, this strand will be slightly higher than the other for some distance. As this operation con¬ tinues, the accumulated slack of the strand will form a loop or short kink back ten or fifteen feet from the end, and half an inch high, perhaps. Should the-grip pass this point it would be likely to cut the strand, and the rope would have to be repaired. A section of rope thus affected is shown in Fig. 242. 109 of tar, oil, lime and mica. Suitable iron tanKs are provided at the station in which the mixture is kept at a proper temperature and a very small stream is allowed to run continually upon the outgoing rope. The coating soon fills up the spaces between the wires and strands so that a working rope looks like a smooth iron rod or pipe. This coating serves to protect the cable from wear and causes it to slide readily through the grip jaws. Various compounds for a rope dressing are uDon the market, Fig. 243.—Rope Hauling Drums, It is sometimes necessary when a cable is stranded to put in a single strand several hundred feet long. It is laid in and the ends are tucked in the same manner as described for splicing. As the rope becomes worn the danger of strand¬ ing increases and such a rope requires careful watching. In a few instances wrecks have been caused by a loose strand or wire fouling the grip so that the gripman could not release his hold upon the rope, and the car, being driven forward, colides with other cars. As soon as a rope is put in operation it should be treated to a coating of tar and oil or to a mixture S Drive.—Melbourne, Australia. but the best results are had with distilled tar with¬ out other ingredients. The special claim made for the patent dressings is that the material will not peel off during rain s-torms or in cold weather, with the rubber lined roller grips no lubrication of the rope is necessary. THE DRIVING MACHINERY. We find in the operation of cable roads that practice is by no means uniform in the devices em¬ ployed for driving a rope continuously in one direction. On some of the earlier lines and on a few lines still in operation in our own country, as well as on nearly all foreign lines, the method illus- I IO STREET RAILWAYS. trated in Fig. 243 is employed. Two large pulleys are provided having upon their peripheries V- shaped grooves in which the rope is made to take one or two wraps in the form of the letter S or figure 8, outlined in Fig. 244. These pulleys, in turn, are driven by means of suitable gear, as shown in Fig. 244.—Figure Eight or S Drive. Fig. 243, and the rope, being held firmly in the grooves by means of the tension weight, is hauled by the frictional contact. The V-shaped grooves are usually lined with wood or babbit, but are sometimes formed with chilled iron blocks or clips as shown in Fig. 245. This figure also shows the method of attaching the clips to the surface of the pulleys. Fig. 243 shows three sets of pulleys for driving three ropes from the same station. The most common method of driving, however, is shown in Fig. 246 and the following illustra¬ tions, Figs. 247 to 250, which are modifications of the general method employed in Fig. 246. This same figure also illustrates the relation of the driv¬ ing machinery to the track and cars By this system the rope is caused to make several direct wraps about two winding drums having in their faces shallow grooves of the same form as the rope. These drums are set slightly inclined to the right and left from the perpendicular, so that certain grooves on each are brought in line with each other, and as the rope leaves the groove of one it passes directly into the corresponding groove of the other. This arrangement of two drums set in line is re¬ quired from the fact that with only one drum the rope would wind on in the form of a spiral or screw thread and travel sideways off from the surface. With the above arrangement, however, the rope is led directly from groove to groove and always enters and leaves the drum at the same point. It will be observed from the accompanying illus¬ tration, except Fig. 249, that the winding drums are mounted overhanging at the end of a shaft, the outside bearing being supported by a truss merely. The object of this is to facilitate placing the rope upon the drums after it has been spliced, and also to provide for putting an additional wrap upon the drums as the rope stretches. The diameter of the winding drums is usually about twelve feet. It may be larger, but should not be much less, although, with the S drive, they are ordinarily only eight feet in diameter. A safe rule is to make the winding drums and all guide sheaves over which the rope bends at least times the diameter of the rope. It is 100 frequently necessary to drive a number of ropes at different speeds from the same shaft; this is accomplished by varying the diameter of the drums. Speed, however, is the only advantage to be gained by the employment of drums having a larger diameter than the minimum. No more force can be imparted to the rope by means of a larger drum, for it will require that the same num¬ ber of wraps be made about the larger drum to secure the required contact as about the smaller, as the co-efficient of friction depends not upon the length of the arc upon which the rope rests, but upon the pressure per square inch, the speed, and the material with which the grooves are lined. The frictional contact between the rope and driv¬ ing drums is maintained by means of a tension ap¬ paratus, illustrated in Fig. 251. This device con¬ sists, usually, of a large sheave mounted upon a car, which is arranged to travel back and forth CABLE TRACTION. hi upon a track laid over a long, narrow, pit. To this car is attached a tail rope or chain, which is led over a pulley suspended within a deep well, and fastened to a heavy weight. This car is free to move back and forth upon its track as the load upon the rope varies, and not only maintains the necessary tension, but also takes up the slack as the rope stretches, and provides, further, for the ex- upon another. The tension pulley is mounted upon the smaller car, which has a limited motion back and forth upon the larger car, controlled by the weight which in turn is supported upon the long car, and this car in turn is anchored in place by means of a hook and rack, or by means of a stout rope and tackle blocks. When the rope stretches so that the tension car runs back against the rear buffers Fig. 246. —Conventional Diagram of Cable Power Plant. pansion and contraction of the metal from heat and cold. The length of track to be provided for the tension carriage depends somewhat upon the length of rope operated, from 150 to 200 ft. on long lines. The car is usually provided with a windlass, oper¬ ated by a hand wheel and worm gear for adjusting the length of the tail rope. Other forms ot tension carriages, each having pe¬ culiar advantages, are shown m Figs. 252 to 256. The first consists of a double car, or one car resting of the long car, this, in turn, is moved back till the former assumes the position shown, and is free again to give and take. Both the cars are readily moved back while the line is in operation, by means of a block and fall. The power to do this is obtained from the moving rope by having a capstan on the end of the shaft of the tension car, around which the hauling rope of the tackle is wound, and then held fast. As the capstan revolves the rope is wound up, and the STREET RAILWAYS. ria stant there is any pull along the holding rod from the carriage (Fig. 204). Two of these dogs, being attached to the carriage, one on each rail, will hold it securely in place, and should it be and Rope Gearing— Los Angeles, Cal. which the necessity of a deep well is avoided. The same principle is employed in Fig. 256, which illustrates an interesting and practical type Fig. 248.—Winding Drums, Cotton Rope Drive Fig. 247.—Rope Winding Drums, Intermediate Gearing and Differential Rings. car moves back. Fig. 253 illustrates a second form necessary to back the carriage further away from of double car, admirably adapted for use on a light the winders, the cams free themselves, and the dogs are pushed along without attention. Fig. 255 illustrates one type of tension car which allows of the rope being opera¬ ted under a very light tension. A supple¬ mental weight is pro¬ vided as shown, and so hung that when an undue strain comes on the rope, it is lift¬ ed and adds its weight to that of the tail weight, and the higher it is lifted the greater becomes its line, by the use of which the expense of a long back pull upon the car. The same figure illus- pit is avoided. As will be seen from the figure, trates a method of suspending the tail weight, by this double carriage travels on an ordinary track, and carries the tension weight en¬ tirely in the carriage body, and is thus in¬ dependent of a pit. In connection with this same device the use of a rail dog for holding the carriage is recommended in place of the rack and ratchet arrangement usually employed. This dog consists of a cam arranged to bite the rail the in- CABLE TRACTION. ”3 of tension carriage in which the entire weight is suspended upon jointed arms, which are attached to rocker shafts, one being stationary and the other mounted upon a small iron truck to which the tension carriage proper is anchored by wire ropes. Fig. 256A is a diagram illustrating the value of the weight in different positions. In case it is desirable to graduate the weight on ordinary rope by gravity. This arrangement, however, is not as prompt in action as the other, and it is not often convenient to construct an incline of sufficient length to provide for the necessary slack. It is thought by some to be of advantage to supplement the station tension on long lines, by providing a tension carriage at one or both terminals, in which case inclines are generally employed, as they are V V Ti ' • .. t Fig. 249.—Rope Drive—Split Idler—Providence Tramway. carriages, it may be done by having projecting lugs cast upon the sides of the iron plates com¬ posing the tail weight; then as the weight de¬ scends, one plate after another rests upon shelves arranged in the sides of the well, relieving the rope of undue strain. As the rope again runs out and lifts the weight, one plate after another is added to it. Instead of a car controlled by tail weights, a weighted tension carriage is sometimes mounted upon an inclined track, so that it operates upon the a-lso in connection with the machinery for operat¬ ing an auxiliary rope. No definite rule can be given as to the amount of tension that should be put upon a rope to secure safe and economical driving. Generally speaking, only so much weight should be employed as will prevent the rope from slipping on the driving drums, as the less tension the less power it requires to drive the rope, and the longer its life. Some advocate a taut rope to pre¬ vent the surging motion of the cars, but this mo¬ tion is not very objectionable, and were the pro- STREET RAILWAYS. J14 posed remedy a sure one it would not compensate for the extra wear upon the rope. The type of winding drums, whether solid, differential or S, with one or both driven, and the number of wraps, influence the amount of tension. In settling the question as between extra tension and an extra wrap, to enable a rope to do its work without slip¬ ping, it will be necessary to consider the character of the line. On a comparatively straight road geared together so that each assists in driving the rope, have been quite extensively employed, but there is an objection to this method of driving, from the fact that the grooves in which the rope runs are liable to wear unevenly, in which case a given length of rope is required to cover arcs of different diameters. Still, practice demonstrates that soiid drums where properly designed and operated have performed great and continued .service with- Fig. 250.—Intermediate Gear on Main Shafts—Broadway Line, St. Louis, Mo. the advantage would seem to be in favor of an extra tension, but on a line with numerous curves it would be in favor of an extra wrap. The best practice favors as few wraps and as light tension as possible. Reverting to rope driving apparatus, we find, as before stated, a variety of methods. The S or Fig. 8 method, illustrated in Figs. 243 and 244, is objectionable because in making the wraps a reverse bend is given to the rope, tending to its ultimate destruction. Still, in some cases, very good results have been obtained by this method. Solid drums out wearing differently to a marked degree. Usually, the first groove or the one that receives the incoming rope wears the fastest; then in case the second groove has a larger diameter than the first, the rope must stretch or slip in order to cover it, and if the third is still larger there is a good deal of slipping, and the rope is injured both by the slipping and by the excessive strain, and as the action continues the grooves are worn still deeper, increasing the defects. This difficulty may be remedied in a measure by occasionally turning out the grooves, making the diameter of the second CABLE TRACTION. 1T 5 a little less than the first and the third less than the second, or by shifting the rope from one side to the other on the drums, so that the rope may enter the grooves in the reverse order. Sometimes the relation of the diameters is changed by an accumulation of tar and dust in the bottom Fig. 251.—Tension Car. of the groove. This may be prevented, however, by placing scraping tools to one side of the drums with their ends ground to nearly fit the form of the of the grooves. Besides the wearing action between the rope and groove due to the unequal diameters of grooves, both rope and groove are subject to wear from the creeping of the rope in the individual grooves, due to the unequal strain to which the different wraps are subject. Each section of rope leaves its individual groove, successively, under less strain than when entering, until the last, when it sustains only the strain imposed upon it by the tension weight. As the strain is gradually reduced the rope contracts, pro¬ ducing a slight creeping motion within the individual grooves. In order to obviate the difficulties attend¬ ing the operation of solid drums as above enumerated, devices of various kinds have been employed, one of the most popular of which is illustrated in Figs. 247 and 257, and con¬ sists in fitting to the surface of the drum loose rings in which the individual grooves are formed. The rings are held together with the required pressure by means of an adjustable flange, and the pattern is known as the “Walker differential ring drum.” With this device, in case the grooves have an unequal diameter or the wraps are subject to any unequal strain, the rings tend to slip upon the face of the drums and thus relieve the rope of any undue strain without chafing it. Provision is made for lubricating the surfaces between the rings and drum by oil cups placed under the rings as shown in Fig, 257. An attempt to produce the same results as are obtained by the use of the differential rings has been made by driving with one solid drum, and from this leading the wraps each over separate idlers, mounted loose on the same shaft so that they revolve indepen¬ dently of each other. (Fig. 249). Another method designed to correct the unequal strain put upon the different wraps is illustrated in Figs. 258 and 259, and although extensively used it does not, in the opinion of many engineers, accomplish what is intended. In Fig. 258 the arms of the drum are broken away showing only the differential mechanism. Each drum is cast in two parts with dishing arms or, rather, is made up of two sheaves having two or more grooves in each, mounted loose on the shaft, but in position to bring the inner faces of the rims together. These sheaves are driven from the main shaft by means of Fig. 252.—Double Tension Car. small horizontal beveled gears, journaled at right angles to the main shaft and meshing into gears on the inner faces of the sheaves. The wraps being equally divided on each side of the split rim the independent sheaves can change their relation to each other, depending upon the tensions of each set of wraps, the beveled gear turning slightly in STREET RAILWAYS. the direction of the hardest pull. A method of connecting the drums is illustrated in Fig. 260, the object being to get equal work from the drums without the intervention of rigid gear. Street.Ry. Jn. Fig. 254.—Rail Dog for Tension Carriage. sufficient space being left between the terminals, after the key is removed, for the passage of the rope when it is necessary to add an additional wrap. In this particular plant mortised gears are employed, and the teeth are set in echelon and the drums are equipped with the differential rings. Both drums, it will be seen, are driven by inde¬ pendent pinions which run loose on the main shaft, but are actuated by small horizontal beveled gear wheels, which are mounted on each side of the main shaft on bearings at right angles to it and mesh into the sides of the pinions in about the same manner as before described for the split drums. By this means one drum is at liberty to travel faster or slower than the other as the distribu¬ tion of the strains may require. In order that, under the usual conditions of service, the drums may perform equal work, deflection sheaves are placed to the left, as shown, upon which the incom¬ ing and outgoing ropes are led, the sheaves being mounted loose on the shaft so that they run in opposite direc¬ tions. The position of this shaft should be parallel to the main shaft in the same plane, and at a certain distance from it. Fig. 248 illustrates a novel method of driving, in which cotton ropes are employed for transmitting the power to the drums in place of solid gear, and in which the drums themselves are connected by means of cotton ropes. The cable drums, it will be seen, are mounted on the faces of large pulleys which have grooves for two cotton ropes. One of these rope pulleys is made a trifle larger in diameter than the other to make sure that the idler is driven by the cotton ropes and not by the cable. To provide for any unequal work that may come upon the cable drums, each is at¬ tached to the face of its rope pulley by means of a peculiar friction clutch, which is adjusted by small hand wheels shown on the face of the drum. The method of rope transmission renders the operation of the machinery noiseless, a very desirable object in any power plant. Fig. (250) illustrates a method of driving both drums by the employment of a single pinion and gear, the main shaft being placed as shown, between the drums with the engines at either end. By this arrangement the principle of the overhanging drums need not be sacrificed, even though several pairs of drums are driven from the same shaft. To accomplish this, however, it is necessary to mount the main shaft in sections with disks and key couplings to unite the sections, Fig. 253.—Double Tension Carriage—San Diego Cable Tramway. CABLE TRACTION. i 1 7 Other plants with the shaft in the same position, work is unusually heavy and duplicate cables are employ cut or cast gear with satisfactory results. employed, in order that the line may be operated A design which combines both rope transmis- day and night, without the necessity of interrupt- sion and intermediate gear, is illustrated in Fig. ing the traffic for repairs. The position of the en- Fig. 256.—Side Elevation and Plan of Cable Tension Apparatus. 261, the drums being connected by solid gear, gines and the arrangement of friction clutches in This arrangement is employed on a line where the the shafting are such that, either one, two or all STREET RAILWAYS. i iS the engines may be made to drive either set or all of the drums, the speed of the different cables being governed by the diameter of the drums. . LONGEST TRAVEL I / HIGHEST POINT REACHED TENSION. 13080^ ~f~ -CtpoiNT OF REST. WHEN CABLE STOPS TENSION 8225'^ LOWEST POINT REACHED TENSION 2215* Fig. 256A.—Showing Position and Value of Weight. A similar arrangement on a larger scale is shown in Fig. 262. Figs. 263 and 263A show a method of rope drive without intermediate gear, both drums being driven from the same pinion by means rims may be renewed without discarding the entire drum. The rims are cast in sections and are bolted together and to the face of the drum, as shown. In some cases where it is necessary to economize space the drums are placed one above the other, as shown in Figs. 266 and 267, which may be driven singly or coupled by gearing, as when in the or¬ dinary position. The incoming and outgoing ropes being led to and from the lower drum, the latter is readily conducted to the tension sheave, in the same manner as with the drums on the same level. If unfit tin 4001 $-2-Ds Fig. 257.—Section of Differential Ring Drum. of rope sheaves mounted on the shaft of each drum. The construction and arrangement of solid drums is frequently modified for economical pur¬ poses, or to conform to the conditions of limited space. Fig. 249 illustrates a wide faced drum hav¬ ing an extra set of grooves, so that when one set of grooves becomes worn the drum may be shifted sideways on its shaft and the rope transferred to the unused grooves, thus doubling the life of the drums. A removable rim containing the grooves is sometimes applied to the face of the drums (Figs. 264 and 265) so that when the grooves are worn the Fig. 258.—Whitton Compensating Gear. It is claimed, that with drums in this position the rope is less liable to slip in the grooves, as the weight of the rope tends to increase the frictional contact. AUXILIARY DRIVE. In some cases it is found necessary to operate a loop or some portion of the line by an auxiliary cable running at a slower speed than the main cable, in which case, when the section is too far aw ly to be operated from the power house, auxil- iaiy driving machinery, having drums similar to th jse used in the driving plant, is employed which CABLE TRACTION. ”9 may be located in a pit under the street (Fig. 268), the roof of which is supported by steel I beams covered with brick and cement. In the case illus¬ trated, the main cable running at twelve miles per hour, is led over the drums shown at the left of the figure, thence to a terminal sheave and i>ack to the power station conveying its power by means of the intervening pinions and gears (four and ten feet in diameter respectively) to the drums on the right, about which the auxiliary rope is led, thence to a tension carriage mounted on an incline at one end of the pit and thence into the conduit at a reduced speed. SELECTION. From the foregoing it will be noted that there is a great diversity of opinion among engineers as to the proper method of driving ropes for cable haul¬ age. Theory amounts to but little in this business where it is not confirmed by long practice. Each new line presents new problems and the judgment of the engineer must govern in the selection of the type of drum to be employed and the method of gearing, first having learned the true history of as many plants as possible, already in operation be used. The weight of testimony is the latter. In making a selection of drums and Fig. 259. While no standard can be given, the methods of gearing have been narrowed down to about two schools of practice. One employs F 26 single solid pinions and gear, with Rope Drive, Brooklyn the main shaft between the drums, Bridge Railway. when both are to be driven. The other employs ropes or belts for transmitting the power and connects the drums by means of solid gear or ropes, the former being generally preferred. In either case solid or differential ring drums may following questions stated in the order of their importance, must be considered : Reliability, dura- 120 STREET RAILWAYS. bility; power required, effect upon the rope, noise and cost. The employment of mortised or of helical gear, introduces an element of weakness that should be avoided. While the wooden gear is desirable, in that it is nearly noiseless in operation, the teeth are liable to shrink and break, requiring to be fre- rope has already been considered. It is important to eliminate the noise, and this may be accom¬ plished by the employment of ropes or belts, or by introducing into the foundations some non-vibra- tory material, and by cutting off the foundations from the avails of the building. The cost—within Fig. 261.—RorE Transmission with Intermediate Gear—Third Avenue, New York, Line. quently renewed, and not infrequently interrupting the traffic. The helical gear is undesirable, in that it communicates a shuttle motion to the shafts, causing the shoulders at the bearings to wear and imparting a vibratory motion to the foundations which tends to unsettle and destroy them. By reducing the number of gears, less power is required to operate the drums, and, other things being equal, the plant is more durable. The effect upon the reasonable limits—should not govern, provided a reliable plant is secured. HAULING POWER. The hauling power of a pair of winding drums depends upon the following conditions: Whether ' one or both drums are driven ; the tension on the outgoing line ; the friction of the rope, and the length of the arc of contact in the grooves. Since the total stress on the wraps about the CABLE TRACTION. 121 BOWERY * ~ ~ " Street RailwayJournal Fig. 262.—Rope Transmission with Intermediate Gear—Bowery Station, Third Avenue, New York, Line. 25 FT. FLY-WHEEL Fig. 262A.—Elevation of Rope and Cable Sheaves—Bowery Station. Third Avenue. New York. Line. 122 STREET RAILWAYS. drums and on the incoming line is directly in¬ creased by that on the outgoing line, the latter should be as small as will be efficient, in order to lessen wear and reduce friction. Hence, both drums should be driven when the work to be done approximates the hauling power of a single drum. It must not be expected, however, that by driv¬ ing both drums the total hauling power will be double that of one drum driven, for, in case solid drums are employed, the first drum, or the one that receives the incoming line, will do nearly eighty- seven per cent, of the work. In order to show more effectually the advantage of driving both drums and using several wraps to diminish the tension on the ropes, the fol- owing formulae and table are quoted from a re¬ liable authority. Let, in each drum of a pair (Fig. 269), the arc of contact of the cable with its grooves, be the same, and, with a radius of 1, equal a, the coefficient of groove friction be f, the tension on the incoming line of the cable be T , and the tensions on each outgoing line from its groove, in order, be /„ t 3 , / 3 , etc.; also let the corresponding haul of each groove be h t , h 3 , h 3 , etc. Then for the 1st driving groove, T=t l e aI , and h. for the 2d driving groove, t x —t 3 e &l , and h 3 =^ af -0; for the 3d driving groove, t 3 —t 3 e &l , and h 3 T = ^3ai(^ af — 1 )‘> an d similarly for the remaining driving grooves. The total haul, H=h k +* a +4+ etc.,= T(e* f - 1 ) (^f + ^F + ^r + etc.); a decreasing series never to equal T . With one drum driven alone H — h x -j- h 3 + h 3 -j- h t (see Fig. 269) in which each drum has four grooves), the driving grooves being from 1 to 4 in numerical order. With two drums driven the hauling power of the first drum will be H x = h x + h 3 + h b + //„ and the hauling power of the second drum will be — K 4 ^4 + ^6 + ^0 That the total hauling power H x H 3 shall equal on line Zf 3 , or twice that of one drum driven alone, it will be seen h b -f- /i 6 , -f- h 3 -f- h 3 must equal h x -f- h t , + h 3 , + h i ; only possible, as an inspection of the preliminary formulae will show, when T— t x = t 3 = t 3 etc., or h x , h 3 , h 3 , etc., each equals zero. THE MAXIMUM HAULING POWER OF CABLE WINDING DRUMS. Maximum Hauling Power of each Groove, in order. Tension on each incom¬ ing line, in Numerical Values: for a = i8o°,/=o.i5, T= i. c /5 terms of its outgoing. In terms of the tension on first in¬ coming line, or T. 6i> 2 c Both Drums Driven. > O O u O M c 1) 0 c > O'S TJ First Drum. Second Drum. X T— ,eH to r ° 375 2 Q- 375 2 t —t ) SUPERINTENDENT’S WEEKLY REPORT. For week ending Saturday.18 Corresponding Week Previous Year. I East Division. Cars run-( West Division ( One-Horse ... Cars rebuilt and painted. “ slightly repaired. “ with new wheels and brasses. No. of men in car and paint shop Cars broken on road. Horses—Whole No, Full work. Half work. Hospital.. For sale... Diseases—No. ... ( Hip. Lameri Shoulder ( Foot.... Conductors—Regular “ Extra.. Drivers—Regular ... “ Extra. SUPPLIES. Used during week, of Hay, . On hand, “ “ Straw. " “ Corn. " “ Oats. “ “ Bran. “ “ Salt, . Proportion of feeding . Pounds of hay and meal ) per horse, ) . Remarks. Required during week. Superintendent. which, being approved by him, is transmitted to the accountant, who copies it upon the books, and from it, once a month, computes and reports the daily 162 STREET RAILWAYS. stable and road average of miles travelled by the animals. Form C is for the weekly Saturday evening report which the stable foreman and superintendent may be required to make, and form D is for a second weekly report to be required of the superintendent on Monday. On the last Saturday night of each month the pond with the stalls in the stable, while small cubi¬ cal blocks may be used to represent the horses. The blocks, being of a different color on each face, may be so placed as to indicate the condition of the animals (Fig. 304). DISEASES AND TREATMENT. Although there has been a long felt need of a work treating especially on the diseases of street Fig. 304. —Mechanical Stable Check. superintendent may be required to count the animals in the stable to see that the total balances with the accountant’s books before the reports are filed for entry on the year’s accounts. A mechanical record is also sometimes made by the chief officer, which is changed each day to cor¬ respond with the daily reports. Such a record may be made by having a small table divided up to rep¬ resent the stalls, which may be numbered to corres- car horses, which could be recommended to mana¬ gers as a safe and scientific guide in the treatment of all forms of disease to which this class of ani¬ mals are subject, it is manifestly beyond the scope of this volume to cover this field, and there is little that can be said on the subject except to recom¬ mend to the intelligent manager the use of such veterinary works as treat the whole subject in lan¬ guage of a more or less popular style. HORSE TRACTION. i6 3 A regular veterinary doctor should be employed in all cases where the number of animals in the stable will warrant the outlay. Where this is not the case, the services of a resident veterinarian should be retained. There will be, however, too many cases in which the veterinarian cannot be called in time for success, if at all; hence, the manager or stable foreman who knows or has the means of learning the nature of the disease and the proper treatment may be able to save an ani¬ mal when otherwise it would die. The manager should not only be informed in or¬ der that he may in special cases treat his ailing animals or allow them to suffer without treatment, but he should have at his command the published advice of veterinarians eminent in their profession, in order that he may detect and prevent the absurd and often barbarous methods of treatment which an ignorant foreman or even a veterinarian who follows traditional rather than scientific methods, may at times introduce. Not only is it suggested that the manager should study works treating on this subject for the reasons above men¬ tioned, but also that he may instruct his stablemen and be able to recommend to them and to his vet¬ erinary the use of such medical literature as can be readily comprehended by an ordinary mind. Scientific medicine need no longer remain a sealed book to the stable employes as a class, for there are works that present the matter in language so simple that anyone may learn to practise hu¬ mane and scientific treatment in the diseases which afflict this most faithful and patient servant of man, “ the street car horse.” First in the short list of works treating on the diseases of the horse which are recommended, may be placed, the “ Special Report on Diseases of the Horse,” issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, which may be had on application to the Secretary of Agriculture. Although this work is issued for distribution to farmers it will be found exceedingly valuable to all who have the care of horses. “ Russell on Scientific Horseshoeing,” a work pre¬ viously mentioned, is placed second and is recom¬ mended, not only because it treats of horseshoe¬ ing and diseases of the foot, but also contains a chapter of useful prescriptions and remedies per¬ taining to the treatment of most of the diseases to which a street car horse is liable. Third on the list is placed, “ The Anatomy of the Horse,” by J. M. Fadyean. Although this work was specially designed for the use of veterinary stud¬ ents, it will prove exceedingly valuable to a veteri¬ nary practitioner and useful to the managers of horse railways. Should one wish to continue his studies farther and exhaust the subject, he will find that “ Youatt’s History, Treatment and Diseases of the Horse” fully covers the field. For such lines as employ mule power, “ Riley on the Mule ” will be found to be an exceedingly inter¬ esting work to study. Should it be found necessary to cultivate a kindly disposition among stable employes relative to their treatment of the animals under their charge, “ Black Beauty” is recommended as just the work for this purpose. CHAPTER IV. STEAM, AIR AND GAS MOTORS. Before the advent of cable and electric traction, in fact, in the early history of street railways, consid- able attention was given to the development of some means of mechanical traction. This effort grew out of an idea then, and still, prominent in the minds of many street railway men and others, that “ the employment of horses on tramways is a misfit and a barbarism,” and not only a misfit but an ex¬ pensive means also. Naturally enough, following steam railway experi¬ ence, the energies of engineers were first directed in the line of modifying the locomotive and adapt¬ ing it to the requirements of street railway service, and although they have succeeded, after long study and patient industry, in producing “a noiseless, vaporless, smokeless and handy machine,” one that can be operated more cheaply per car mile than animal power, they have never succeeded in over¬ coming the prejudice that exists everywhere against the employment of independent steam motors on city streets. The popular rivals of the steam motor (cable and electricity) have, however, done much to overcome prejudice and allay the fears of people in regard to the frightening of horses and liability to accident, as there are now, since the advent of safety boilers, no accidents peculiar to the use of steam that are not shared in or exceeded by the new comers. But in this connection it is gratifying to note that long service has proved that all classes of mechanically propelled cars are safer in operation than cars drawn by horses even though they are run at a higher speed. The theory is that people are not so apt to take their chances in crossing a street in front of mechanically propelled cars as they are with horse cars. Not only has the rival, electricity, assisted in overcoming prejudice, but it has demonstrated the possibility of climbing steep grades and combating with snow, and overcoming difficulties that had, heretofore, impaired the success of steam motors. From the above it will be seen that the steam motor, instead of retiring from the field, vanquished, as many predicted, can be improved along the lines indicated, and still find a large and inviting field of operation for which no other means of traction is so well adapted. We refer to suburban roads, hotel and excursion roads i'n places where the season is short and the business irregular, and to temporary extensions of electric or cable roads where the ex¬ pense of these systems and the amount of business offered would not justify their use. The following conditions, requisite to the suc¬ cessful use of steam on street railways, are quoted from reliable authority : “ ist. A tramway engine must be capable of com¬ ing to a dead stop within a short distance and start¬ ing again with the greatest facility. “2d. It must be able to run around very sharp curves. “ 3d. It must have a very wide range of power, adapted for taking very variable loads and ascend¬ ing the steepest gradients. “ 4th. Perfect safety must be secured both for passengers and for the general public. “ 5th. The dimensions must be moderate, particu¬ larly the width, and there must be nothing likely to cause horses to take fright. “ The secondary conditions which it is desirable to aim at fulfilling, may be stated as follows : “ ist. The engines should emit no steam or smoke, no water and no ashes or cinders. “ 2d. They should contain no liquid or gas at high temperature, which might, in cases of break¬ down, collision or overturning of the vehicles, scald or otherwise injure the passengers or others. STEAM, AIR AND GAS MOTORS. “ 3d. They should not require more attendants than the horse cars. '■ 4th. They should be capable of running back¬ wards, which cannot always be done on tramways, but is desirable as a provision against accidents. “ 5th. The working parts must be accessible and kept free from dust all joints and rubbing sur¬ faces should be easily and thoroughly lubricated.’' To these should be added that the rails should be heavy and of the most approved pattern, and the road bed_ con¬ structed in the most substantial manner. The motor should be adapted in power, weight on the driving wheels and speed of run¬ ning to the grades, traffic and other features of the line on which it is operated. While the above conditions are im¬ portant to the suc¬ cessful working of a steam motor, in¬ telligent management and an earnest, vigilant de¬ sire on the part of all in charge to keep down the expenses of running and repairs are of equal necessity ; to secure this the motors should be run by picked men, who will obey orders strictly; they should be inspected daily to seek out all needed adjustments and repairs, which should be made at once ; and the whole motive power should be in charge of a competent superintendent, whose whole interest it is to reduce the cost of successful operation to the lowest possible limit. The most important factor, after the above, for the successful operation of steam motors is a prop¬ erly equipped and properly manned repair shop. Many railway managers seem to think that a motor should run forever without any fixing beyond that Fig. 304.—Baldwin Steam Motor. furnished by the profanity of the engineer, but this is a mistake , a machine may run fifteen months without repairs, and it may not run fifteen min¬ utes. It is just as absurd to attempt to operate a mechanically propelled line without a machine shop and proper housing for the motors as it would be to open a horse line without first providing a stable for the animals Among the early types of steam motors the power was transmitted to the axles by means of gearing, but this proved to be a very unsatisfactory arrangement on ac¬ count of the loss of power by friction, the noise in opera¬ tion and expense from wear and tear. The use of crank axles has also been very generally dis¬ carded by the lead¬ ing manufacturers in this country, on account of their lia¬ bility to break, but they are still in favor with foreign builders. The essential principle of construction conforms closely to regular locomotive practice, but the objectionable features of the latter are elimi¬ nated as far as possible. A housing covers the en¬ tire machine, concealing the motion of the ma¬ chinery and giving to the motor much of the ap¬ pearance of an ordinary horse car. The locomotive type of boiler designed to work under a steam press¬ ure of 130 lbs. is usually adopted. The machinery usually consists of two outside horizontal cylinders, with the connecting rods taking hold of wrist pins on the outside of the driving wheels which are usually steel tired and coupled by side rods. The eccentrics, links and valve motion are modeled after locomotive practice. The wearing parts arc made of steel, case hardened iron or bronze metal, i66 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 306—Baldwin “Double Ender ” Motor. cupy no more room, while capa¬ ble of hauling from one to four cars. This type of steam motor and also that shown in Figs. 305 and 306, are manufactured by the Baldwin Locomotive one inches, wheel base five and a half feet, total weight 13,000 lbs., and load on level track 250 long tons; weight of largest size 26,000 lbs., and load and are constructed with special reference to durability. Works of Philadelphia, Pa. In the first the entire weight is carried on four driving wheels, which are coupled so that the motor is well adapted for service on steep grades. The tank is placed on the engine frame back of the cab, and is cut in the middle to allow entrance to the cab at the back. Hinged apron boards hide the side rods when in their lowest posi¬ tion. These mo¬ tors are made in four sizes having Steam and lever brakes are provided, and each cylinders from 8 ins.Xi2 ins. up to 11 ins.Xi6 ins. machine is supplied with all necessary tools. The minimum diameter of driving wheels is thirty- Coal or od may be used as fuel ; to avoid smoke the use of anthra¬ cite coal or coke is recommended. On ordinary grades it will re¬ quire from eight to twelve pounds of coal per mile. Fig. 304 illus¬ trates a type of motor designed to take the place of horses in city streets, and oc- Fig. 305.—Baldwin Pony Truck Motor. STEAM, AIR AND GAS MOTORS. 500 long tons. Fig. 307 is also a type of four wheel rear tank motor, with side flaps and pilot, built by II. K. Porter & Co., Pittsburgh, Pa., These are built in five sizes, the smallest having cylinders 6 ins. X 10 ins., diameter of wheels twenty-three inches, wheel base four feet, length over all fifteen feet, weight 14,000 lbs., capacity of tank 125 gals., hauling ca¬ pacity 250 short tons. Figs. 308 and 309 are two types of saddle tank motors built by the same firm, one with and the other without boards, pilots and side flaps. Another type of motor and one that is used more extensively than any other for street railway pur¬ poses, is illustrated in Figs. 305, 310 and 311. The Fig. 309. last two are also built by H. K. Porter & Co. These are designed for a higher rate of speed, and a pony or rear truck is added to obviate a tendency to¬ ward a galloping motion to which four wheel mo¬ tors are subject when running at a high speed. The pony truck has a swinging bolster and radius 167 bar, so that the motor is enabled to pass curves of short radius very easily. The pattern shown in Fig. 305 is built in seven sizes, the cylinders ranging from 8 ins. X 12 ins. to Fig. 310.—Pouter Pony Truck Motor. 14 ins. X 20 ins., the first having thirty-one inch driving wheels, driver wheel base four feet, total wheel base seven and a half feet, weight in working order 19,000 lbs., weight on drivers 15,000, load on level 290 long tons. Fig. 310 is built in four sizes, Fig. 311.—Porter Pony Truck Motor. minimum size of cylinder 7 ins. X 12 ins., diameter of driving wheels twenty-eight inches, truck wheels sixteen inches, rigid wheel base four feet eight inches, total wheel base eight feet five inches, length over all fifteen feet six inches, height nine Fig 312.—Porter " Douule Ender” Motor. feet five inches, total weight 19,000 lbs., weight on drivers 14,000 lbs.; weight on two wheel radial bar truck 5,000 lbs., capacity of saddle tank 200 gals. Figs. 306 and 312 are known as the “double ender" type, and are the most suitable designs for running both ways at high speed. Each pony i68 STREET RAILWAYS. truck of the first has swinging bolster and radius bar, one truck being centre bearing the other side bearing, giving the motor lateral stability. These motors will run smoothly over uneven track as all the wheels will find a bearing. Fig. 313 is a longitudinal section of a foreign tramway locomotive, which has established a repu¬ tation abroad for doing good and economical work. Fig. 314 is an end view, and Fig. 315 plan below they considerably overhang in the direction of the fire box. The guides for the valve spindles are car¬ ried by the same plate. “The link motion is of the ordinary shifting link type. The eccentrics and hoops are of cast iron The coupling rods are made with solid ends, hav¬ ing phosphor bronze bushings. The boiler is of the usual locomotive type, of Lowmoor iron throughout, doubly riveted in the longitudinal 0mnm ■9W93W39W0 iiaooooooooaaoooouoaooooaowsoioooaofi [193303000110300 0000099000909000099 90909909399310099009039099900909003900 00000090900090 0900099990009000000 90300090939990309000000309900030339950 U 09030900900309 fit- n 0309000039999000000 00300000800900099303003930009009903090 ) Fig. 313. —The Merryweather Engine. the foot plate,which plainly illustrates the difference between home and foreign practice. The plates and description are copied from the very excellent English work by D. K. Clark, entitled “ Tramways.” “ The cylinders are placed inside the framing, and are joined together at the middle, where they form the valve chest, whilst a saddle is placed on each half for the purpose of supporting the boiler at the smoke box. The grate bars are of steel, the cross¬ head is of cast steel and the crosshead slippers are of cast iron, having large wearing surfaces. The guide bars are supported by a cross plate which seams. The feed tank, holding 100 gals., is placed in front of the smoke box. A fender plate is fixed at each end of the engine to remove obstructions, and to obviate any chance of running over any person. The whole of the work is enclosed in a cab or casing of sheet iron on angle iron framing, twelve feet in length, six feet four inches in width and about eight and a half feet above the rails. “ The condenser, placed above the roof, consists of four horizontal layers, slightly arched, of thin copper tubes, laid transversely across the roof. The tubes are one inch in diameter outside, one fifty- STEAM, AIR AND GAS MOTORS. 169 fifth of an inch in thickness and are each six feet in length. There are sixty tubes in each layer, or 240 l Fig. 314. tubes in the four layers, coated with brown varnish to augment their radiating power. They are brazed at the ends into three inch longitudinal pipes, three inches in diameter outside, four on each side, eleven feet long. The exhaust steam is discharged by two copper pipes, one to each side into the upper¬ most longitudinal pipe, whence it circulates through the transverse tubes. The condensa¬ tion water and the re¬ maining vapor are conducted into a separator vessel at the front, whence the water runs down to the feed water tank, and the vapor passes away into the smoke box, where it is mixed with and disappears with the products of combustion. So efficient is the condenser that the engine can be worked all day with one charge of the feed water tanks. This tank holds only 100 gals., and the quantity consumed as uncondensed steam or other¬ wise does not exceed fifty gallons for the day. “ Steam levers and reversing levers are fitted in duplicate, one of each at each end of the engine, so that the driver may take his place at the leading end, whichever end goes first. There is a speed indicator and a bell governor for shutting off steam when the allowed speed—ten miles an hour —is reached. “ The fire box is one foot ten inches long by two feet wide inside, and is two feet one and a half inches high above the grate. The barrel of the boiler is two feet four inches in diameter inside. There are sixty-four flue tubes, one and three- fourths inches in diameter outside, and five feet in length. The grate area is 3.8 sq. ft. and the heat¬ ing surface is 169.2 sq. ft. “ The working pressure of steam in the boiler is 140 lbs. per square inch. The cylinders are six and a half inches in diameter with a stroke of ten inches. The wheels are twenty-six inches in diam¬ eter, placed at four and a half feet centres. The whole of the machinery is encased from below. Fig. 315. The weight of the engine, empty, is six tons ; and in working order with water and fuel, seven tons. It consumes 6.911 lbs of coal per mile.” I'/O STREET RAILWAYS. Another foreign type of steam motor, which has recently been introduced in this country is illus¬ trated in Fig. 316. The compound cylinders are placed below the floor and are coupled direct to the connected drivers. The exhaust passes to the series of con¬ denser pipes which are located on the roof. cars, we gain the following items of expense for operating: Average number of miles run per day, 100 ; aver- age grade, five per cent. ; fuel consumption in pounds per mile of anthracite coal, 15.6 lbs., cost¬ ing 4.1 cts. ; coke, fifteen pounds, costing 3.33 cts. ; soft coal, 28.3 lbs. costing 4.7 cts. Total cost of Fig. 316.—Steam Tramway Locomotive. The body of the motor is twelve feet long, seven feet eight inches wide, and nine feet high, and, com¬ plete, weighs about seven tons. The drivers are thoroughly housed in, and access is had to the journals by means of swing doors as shown. From the published reports of the operation of twenty-nine steam motors on as many different lines in this country, each hauling from one to four operating per mile run, including wages and re¬ pairs, 11.04 cts. Fig. 317, illustrates the general design of a steam car, having the boiler located in the front end sepa¬ rated from the passenger compartment. The cyl¬ inders are under the platform outside the car body, so that no heat or steam can be communicated from them to the passenger department. A com- STEAM, AIR AND GAS MOTORS. bined car and motor has the merit of taking up the least possible room, but is objectionable on account of the position of the machinery, it being unhandy for making repairs, and because an upright boiler is required and because the motion of the car is apt to be too rough, and the passengers are annoyed by me vibratory motion of the engine and the heat of the boiler and smell of the oil. Some of these ob¬ jections may be overcome by careful designing, but this type, although desirable for many reasons, has not become as popular for steam practice as the independent motor. 171 from the engines to the car. The tank is placed under the seats and the machinery is perfectly pro¬ tected from the dust by a suitable casing. On roads with many heavy grades this motor con¬ sumes seven pounds of anthracite coal per mile of travel. Some types of combination steam cars which are doing excellent service on several foreign lines are illustrated in Figs. 320 and 321. These cars are operated by the Rowan system of which many styles of bodies are constructed. Fig. 320 has an open platform and closed rear part, without class Fig. 317.—Baldwin Steam Car. Fig. 318 illustrates the machinery and framework of a steam car before the car body is placed in posi¬ tion. Fig. 319 is an illustration of the machinery and truck of another type of combined car and one that has met with considerable favor in operation. The forward end of the engine is suspended by a link. The engine frame is attached to the driving axle so that the working strain falls on the driving axle alone. Engine and drivers are one piece of machinery, and it will be noted that the cylinders are between the wheels, close together and con¬ nected directly with the driving shaft. By this arrangement no rolling motion is communicated distinction, and is a style employed on some of the lines in the vicinity of Paris. Fig. 321 is designed for suburban service, and has a compartment for baggage, and two class apartments. In the latest designs of engines for this system two vertical boilers are employed, which are usually connected above the water line; some, however, have two smoke stacks. Coke is burned for fuel, and in operation the engines are smokeless and noiseless. The cylinders are placed horizontally between the wheels to which they are connected in some cases by intermediate gear; in others they are coupled direct. The water tank has a capacity for five hours' run. The exhaust is 172 STREET RAILWAYS. led to the condenser which is located on the rool, and has 1,120 ft. of pipe surface. The motion of these cars is said to be very easy and free from vibration, owing to the method of spring hanging and to the design of the bogie truck and the method by which it is connected with the frame, also to the rear radial pony truck. The cars that are designed to seat fifty people have a total length of fifty and a half feet : and are seven feet wide; they weigh, in working order, 19,800 lbs., of Fig 318. —Truck and Engine of Steam Car, which 17,600 lbs are available for adhesion. A forty II P engine burns from five to seven pounds of fuel per mile run and the tractive effort is about 2,640 lbs Besides the above types, steam cars are made with double trucks (eight wheels), some having en¬ gines attached to each truck, others with only one engine. Double and triple compound engines arc also used on several types of steam cars. The different patterns of combined cars are almost endless so that it is impossible to illustrate all. The above cuts will serve to give a general idea of what has been accomplished in this direction STORED STEAM or hot water motors have re¬ ceived a great deal of attention from inventors at home and abroad, and many people are still working along this line with a com¬ mendable persistency, notwithstanding that the way is thickly strewn with the evidences of defeat. This type of motor is constructed on the princi¬ ple of “spontaneous evaporation;” that is, a body of water being heated under pressure generates steam when the pressure falls and the temperature and pressure correspond, the same as in an or¬ dinary boiler. Water heated to 445 degs. F. has a corresponding pressure of 400 lbs. per square inch; cooled to 281 deg. F. the pressure is fifty pounds, while more than one-fifth of the water has been converted into steam. Let the pres¬ sure be reduced from 200 lbs. to fifty pounds and one-ninth of the water will be evaporated. It will be seen that such boilers must carry a large quantity of water as compared with furnace boilers, as not more than twenty per cent, can be utilized as steam. There are three methods of working these motors ; in the first, the boiler is partly filled with water and then charged with steam from a stationary boiler ; in the second, a furnace is pro¬ vided which is fired up, and after the water is heated to the required temperature the draft and chimney are hermetically sealed ; in the third, the boiler is charged, as in the first case, and reinforced by a quantity of heated metal. The following are some of the claims made for these motors : The steam, being generated in a sta¬ tionary boiler with cheap coal, is produced at a low cost; no fuel being carried there is a reduction of dead weight ; a very high pressure of steam may Fig 319. —The Ransom Steamer. be used ; only one attendant is required. The res¬ ervoirs for storing the heated water are sometimes placed under the floor of the car, under the seats on the roof or in a separate compartment. The cylinders are about the same as those described for “ live steam ” motors, and are made to work upon an intermediate crank shaft, or may be coupled di¬ rectly to the drivers. STEAM, AIR AND GAS MOTORS. 03 A motor of this class is illustrated in Fig 322. Two cylindrical reservoirs located in a compart¬ ment crossways of the car, are charged with water at a temperature of 400 degs. Within each of these are two small cylinders eight or ten inches in diame¬ ter, which are provided with a rack or cradle on which red hot metal balls, six inches in diameter, are placed. On each reservoir is a dome flanked on each side by smaller domes, which are vertical flue condensers, the flues being surrounded by a spiral pipe. Vent pipes from each of the enclosed cylinders shaft beneath the platform, on which is an inter¬ mediate gear with a broad concave face, meshing into a second gear on the front axle ; the intermedi ate gear being curved concentric to the axis, about which the truck swivels, allows of the shorter curves being passed without disengaging the gears. The motor is operated with three levers, and the exhaust passes to the condensers, from which the water is returned to the reservoirs One of the latest motors of this class, is so de¬ signed that a small quantity of water is delivered direct to the cylinders. The car is provided with tiobadero Fig. 320.—Rowan’s Steam Car. pass through the steam domes and out at the roof, having air valves. The heads or doors of the en¬ closed cylinders are also provided with vent valves. The reservoirs being charged and the red hot balls in place, the vents are closed and the air sur¬ rounding the balls becomes dead air, so to speak, and a good non-conductor, causing the balls to re¬ tain their heat. The car is run for a time by the original charge of hot water until the gauge indicates too low a pressure, when the vents communicating with the enclosed cylinders are opened, a circulation of air about the hot balls is established, so that their heat is imparted to the water, quickly raising the pres¬ sure ; the vents are then closed, the air becoming dead as before, and opened when necessary. Two ten H. P. vertical engines located on the front platform, as shown, connect with a crank four storage cylinders located in pairs under the body in front and rear of the trucks. These cylin¬ ders are about a foot in diameter and are tested up to a very high pressure. These are stored with water at about 400 degs. temperature sufficient to operate fifteen H. P. hours, and they are expected to make twenty miles before recharging. The engine consists of four single stroke cylin¬ ders, Sins. X 16 ins., placed side by side under the car Dody between the axles, and connected by cranks at different angles with the main shaft which in turn conveys power by single reduction gear to the rear axle. The main shaft is connected by discs and connecting rod to a second shaft which in turn is geared in the same manner to the front axle. The valves are operated by two eccentrics. About two cubic inches of water are delivered to each cylin¬ der, the valves being cut off at a quarter of an inch. 174 STREET RAILWAYS The water, it is claimed, flashes into steam and ex¬ pands to nearly atmospheric pressure before the stroke is completed. The exhaust is led into a system of parallel pipes about two inches in diam¬ eter, placed upon the roof of the car from which it escapes without producing any noise or vapor. The power equipment adds about a ton and a half weight to the ordinary car COMPRESSED AIR MOTORS have allured many inventors and engineers into their development, but in almost every case the subject has been more fascinating than practical. to the generating force, less the losses by friction and clearance. But there are physical difficulties connected with the working of air expansively which entail a large extra expense to overcome and which militate against the use of air motors. When air is compressed by mechanical means the temperature is raised, and if none of the heat is allowed to escape it is said to be ;< adiabatically compressed, and in working by expansion back to atmospheric pressure, as when expanded behind a piston,, there is an extreme tali in the temperature, causing ice to form about the cylinder and valves, Fig 321. —Rowan’s Steam Tram Car, Air motors are usually constructed with storage tanks or reservoirs which are charged at a central station with a supply of air previously compressed by steam power and worked expansively in small engines on the car and from which the force is transmitted to the drivers in the same manner as on steam motors. Sometimes, however, the supply is conducted along the line of the road in pipes, from which the reservoirs are charged at frequent intervals, the motor being halted for the purpose. Attempts have also been made to draw a continuous supply automatically from the main by means of stand¬ pipes and valves. To the uninitiated it would seem to be a very simple and practical matter to compress air, store it in tanks on board a car and expand it in a pro¬ pelling engine so that the efficiency would be equal and so hardening the lubricant as to render the en¬ gine inoperative. For this reason, the working of air expansively is confined to narrow limits, and only by adopting some means for checking the fall in temperature, can it be used to advantage. The most efficient means adopted for this pur¬ pose are either to heat the air before expansion by passing it through a furnace, or by saturating it with vapor, in which case the vapor is condensed during expansion and its liberated heat is absorbed by the air, preventing freezing. To keep the rise of temperature during compres¬ sion within reasonable limits, the cylinders of the compressing pump must be jacketed with running water. Foreign engineers have succeeded in adapting air motors to tramway purposes, better than those of our own country, while in the use of compressed STEAM, AIR AND GAS MOTORS. 05 air, for working drills in mines and tunnels, our home engineers have had remarkable success. The most successful air motor of which we have Fig. 322.—Stored Steam Motor. any knowledge is the Mekarski, which is in use in the city of Nantes, France, and on several other lines in the same country, and is being experimented with in this country (Fig. 323A). The motor may be described as follows : The appearance is like an ordinary car, with reservoirs made of half inch steel plates, nine in number, placed under the floor of the car parallel with the axles, and which are tested to sustain a pressure of 900 lbs. per square inch. These reservoirs are div¬ ided into two groups ; the first group is composed of six reservoirs having a total volume of 536X gals. ; the second group or remaining three reser¬ voirs, called the reserve, contain 281 gals. ; total total capacity 817^ gals. This volume of air under a pressure of 675 lbs. per square inch, weighs 380 lbs. The reserve battery is made independent The different reservoirs are connected with a sys¬ tem of strong piping, and the pipes from both groups are led to the lower part of a cylindrical reservoir placed vertically on the front plat¬ form of the car (Fig. 323). This reservoir is made of steel, contains fifty-three gallons and is charged with water under pressure and at a temperature, at the outset, of 311 degs. F. The air passes through the water in the form of bubbles, becomes heated and at the same time saturated with vapor, and collects in the top part of the cylinder which serves the purpose of a steam dome in a boiler. On the top of the cylinder is a pressure regulator which the engineer operates to reduce the pressure of the air going to the cylinders to sixty or seventy-five pounds per square inch. There are also two manometers on the dome to indicate the pressures in the battery and in the reserve. From the regulator the air passes to the cylin¬ ders which are arranged in sets of two, each pair Fig. 324.—Cylinders of Mekarski Motor. Fig. 323.—Mekarski Air Motor. and always kept at a high pressure so that an extra forming a tandem double expansion engine (Fig. powerful effort may be given to the engine in case 324). The two cylinders of a set are of different of need on steep grades or at the end of the trip, diameters and are cast in one piece. The air is ad- STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 325.— Connelly Gas Motor. portion of expansion is about six volumes. The cylinders have outside connections and the two pairs of wheels are coupled, The machinery is and a half miles without recharging ; on grades nine miles. Stations are provided for compress¬ ing the air, and in the operation of charging the Fig. 323A. boxing. The car, it is on easy track of twelve mitted to both cylinders in succession by the means protected by sheet iron of the same compound slide valve. The total pro- claimed, will make a run STEAM, AIR AND GAS MOTORS. '77 cars are brought opposite the station reservoirs, and the air and the steam which heats the water are led by pipes to the corresponding tanks on the car. The duration of charging is about fifteen minutes. It is claimed for this system that about forty per cent, of the initial power is utilized for moving the car. The car makes a daily run of sixty miles at a total cost, including wages and repairs, of $6.50 per day, or ten to eleven cents per mile Referring to the phenomena of tem¬ perature in relation to compressed air; if air be subject to compression, so that the pressure be doubled, trebled, etc.,or so that, taking the initial pressure at 62 degs., as 1, the relative pressures as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 10, the final temperatures are 128 degs., 158 degs., 258 degs., 321 degs., 373 degs., 559 degs. It will be seen that air cannot be Dg. 326. — Connelly Gas employed at these high temperatures. Again, when the initial temperature is 62 degs. for ratios of “adiabatic' expansion, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, the final temperatures are —33 degs. —81 degs. —hi degs —133 degs —193 degs. So that it is clearly impracticable to work a compressed air engine in such low temperatures. GAS MOTORS have been brought out from time to time, and may be divided into three general types. Those that are operated by the expansion of gases generated by chemical action, those operated by steam gen¬ erated by the heat of chemical action, and others burning naphtha gas manufactured on the car. Experimental cars of the first type have a reser¬ voir of hot water placed on the roof of the car or in other positions, having an interior reservoir con¬ taining liquid ammoniacal gas, produced by heating sal ammoniac in the presence of hydrate of lime. The gas, being disengaged under the influence of the heat of the surrounding water, is passed to the cylinders which may be placed vertically at the end of the car, and connected to a crank shaft be¬ low. from which a link chain connects with a pulley on the axle of the car. The exhaust is led into the reservoir of water, where it is condensed, impart¬ ing its heat to the water. This process o f expansion and condensation, may be continued until Motor and Car Combined. the pressure of the gas in the interior reservoir becomes insufficient for keeping the piston in motion. When the water becomes saturated with gas it may be replaced, and the absorbed gas can be ex¬ tracted from the first charge for further use. No satisfactory results are reported. The second class, or soda motors, have not vet become a commercial success. Figs. 325 and 326 illustrate a promising motor of the third class, from which good results have been obtained. The fuel or expansion agent is naphtha 178 STREET RAILWAYS gas, manufactured on the car. A cylindrical tank enclosing a second tank is located in any conven ient position, shown, in the figure, under the hood. The inner tank contains naphtha and an absorbent material. The space between the shells is filled with water, which is connected by pipes with the water jacket of the gas engine, of which there are two cylinders, and is heated by the radiation from the cylinders. Air, being drawn through the inner tank, is thoroughly carbonated and passes to the cylinders, where it is compressed and exploded by an electric spark generated by a small dynamo at¬ tached to the machine, as shown in the figure. The pistons are attached to the crank shaft at different angles. A flywheel is provided (Fig. 326), having on its overhanging face a metal disc. A friction pulley twelve inches in diameter, supported on a vertical shaft, engages with the face of the disc, and may be moved up or down on its shaft by means of two screw rods shown in the figure. The engine being started, runs continually, and the speed and direction of the car are controlled by an ingenious arrangement of levers which move the friction pulley to or from or below the centre of the disc. In starting, rounding short curves or ascend¬ ing steep grades, the contact may be maintained near the centre, thus securing sufficient power for all purposes with an eight H. P. engine only. The vertical shaft transmits power to an intermediate shaft by means of beveled gear, and the interme¬ diate is connected by a sprocket chain with the axle. The engine may be mounted as an independent motor (Fig. 325), or a combined car be used. The engine emits little or no smoke or odor, and is op¬ erated with a very small outlay for fuel. CHAPTER V. INCLINED Inclined planes or, more properly, incline rail¬ roads, have a very early history, and were origi¬ nally designed for transporting passengers, freight and coal for short distances upon grades too steep to be surmounted by the ordinary methods of trac¬ tion, and are practical upon grades having a rise of from fifteen to seventy-five feet in ioo. The most important inclines and the most numerous, in this country, are located at Pittsburgh, Pa., and Cin¬ cinnati, O., while isolated plants are to be found in different localities. The T type of rail is usually employed, and the rails are laid on ties resting directly on the surface of the ground or, where the grade is not suit¬ able, upon viaducts constructed of wood, masonry or iron. In¬ clines are usually built in straight lines with double track having a gauge of from five to ten feet, but are sometimes operated around curves hav¬ ing a long radius on which horizontal pulleys about three feet in diameter are employed for de¬ flecting the rope. These roads are also constructed with three rails having a turnout midway between terminals, and a very few foreign lines have two rails with turnouts, while in one instance, that of the Mount Vesuvius incline, a single rail is employed, and the car runs on a centre wheel with two angle wheels (Fig. 327). Viaducts for inclines are most commonly constructed of steel, the plate type of girder being generally employed for short spans, while the spans range from thirty to 120 ft. The general features of an ordinary incline are illustrated in Fig. 328, in which it will be seen that PLANES. two cars of peculiar shape are operated and so ar¬ ranged that one ascends while the other descends, the speed being, usually, about 600 ft. per minute. The cars are moved, ordinarily, by being perma¬ nently attached to the terminals of strong wire ropes from one to two inches in diameter, of which there are generally two, one being employed as the naul ing rope, and moved by being coiled upon large drums located at the head of the in¬ cline, to which the power is applied; the other, known as the safety rope, which passes over a sheave at the top, and serves to balance the cars and to stop them, the speed being regu¬ lated by a band brake on the safety sheave. On very heavy lines two hauling ropes 5 are employed. The power equipment of an incline is usually located beneath the floor of the station at the up¬ per landing, on a direct line with the track, and the ropes are led in from the tracks to the drums over large pulleys (Figs. 329 and 330). In case the real estate at the head ot the incline is too expensive, the hoisting machinery may be located on the side of the plane, in which case guide pulleys are pro¬ vided to lead the ropes into position. In some in¬ stances, in place of wire ropes, the cars are hauled by means of flat, thin, steel strips, from three to six inches wide, welded or riveted into a continuous belt, which is moved by being coiled upon the winding drums like a spool of ribbon. The life of Fig. 327. —Single Rail Incline. i8o STREET RAILWAYS. wire ropes on inclined planes is, usually, from two to five years, depending upon the amount of traffic. The winding drums are from eight to eighteen feet in diameter, with a width depending upon the length of rope to be coiled. They are, usually, of cast iron having a wood lagged surface, but are sometimes provided with a metal surface having spiral grooves in which the rope rests. In some cases a sliding guide is provided to lead the differ¬ ent wraps into position, so as to prevent the incom- driving the winding drums of an incline; or, two engines may be employed, which should be attach¬ ed to the same crank shaft at different angles, from which the power is transmitted to the drums by means of pinion and gear. The ropes are usually supported in the bed of the track by carrying pul¬ leys made either of wood or iron. Pulleys made of the latter material are the most durable and do not wear the rope to any great extent. The position of the operating engineer for an in- Fig. 328.— Penn Incline. ing rope from chafing against the neighboring wrap. The hauling ropes may be attached to the opposite sides and ends of a single wide drum, so that as one rope unwinds the other will wind on in the same grooves; or, separate drums may be pro¬ vided for each rope, (Fig. 330). In some instances, where the line is an unusually long one, the rope is driven by a pair of winding drums in about the same manner in which the rope on a cable street car line is moved (Fig. 331). Double, reversible engines are best suited for cline road is, usually, in a cab located at the head of the incline, with sufficient elevation to overlook the entire line (Figs. 329 and 330), where, by means of levers attached to the throttle valves and brake appliances he controls the movements of the cars. In a few instances, however, where it is necessary to operate the incline with great economy, one man only is employed, who acts both as engineer and conductor, in which case the operator is provided with a cab on one of the cars and controls the engines from the car by means of a still, endless INCLINED PLANES. 181 manilla rope laid along the bed of the track which wraps a small sheave that is connected with the throttle valve in the engine room at the head of the incline, and also passes around a loose sheave at the foot. A loop from one arm of the manilla rope is brought up into the car between two guide sheaves located near the surface and over a sheave on the side of the cab near the roof. As the car moves up and down the rope passes over the loose the track can be built directly upon the surface (Fig. 332), the cost of construction will be much less than where the surface is irregular and it becomes necessary to provide viaducts. In order to give a general idea of the cost, the following particulars are given descriptive of lines in actual operation. No. 1. Duquesne Incline, Pittsburgh. The total length of this is 780 ft., the grade fifty-eight and Fig. 329. —Transporting Electric Car—Mt. Adams & Eden Park Incline, Cincinnati. sheave, the friction not being sufficient to impart any lateral motion to the rope. The operator, how¬ ever, by grasping either arm of the rope can cause it to move sufficiently in either direction to operate the throttle valve. In case this method of opera¬ tion is adopted, one of the cars is run simply as an idler to balance the weight, and passengers are al¬ lowed only on one car. The cost of constructing inclines depends largely upon the character of the surface over which it is to pass. In case the hill is a regular slope, so that a half per cent., and the total rise 400 ft. The lower portion of the bluff being very abrupt, and it being found necessary to cross the lines of a steam road at the foot of the bluff, the lower 300 ft. was built of five foot, riveted girders in spans of sixty feet, the remaining portion being constructed of twenty-four inch, riveted girders of thirty feet span. The gauge is five feet, and the track is laid with forty-five pound steel T rails. The hoisting and safety ropes are each one and one-quarter inches in diameter. The power equipment consists of a pair i8a STREET RAILWAYS of 14 X 25 ins. engines, and the ropes are driven by a single cast iron drum having a grooved sur¬ face, with the ropes so attached that they wind on and off alternately. The cars, which are designed for passengers only, have a capacity of carrying forty persons at a single trip. The entire cost of this plant was about $55,000. No. 2. St. Clair Incline, Pittsburgh. The tracks Fig. 330.—Power Station—Penn Incline. INCLINED PLANES. i8 3 are laid on the surface to the summit of the bluff, the entire distance being 2,060 ft., with a rise of 361 ft. The plane is not uniform, but the grades do not vary so much but that the weight of the ropes keeps them in position This incline is used for transporting both freight and passengers, and the ropes are one and three - quarters in¬ ches in diameter. The gauge is seven feet, and forty-five pound steel T rails, spiked to white oak ties, are employed. The lifting capacity of the incline is twenty- five tons per car. The power equipment con¬ sists of a pair of 14 X 36 ins. engines which operate the drums by means of an intermedi¬ ate counter shaft and gear. The single hoist¬ ing drum is sixteen feet in diameter, of cast iron, with grooves. This in¬ cline was built for about $60,000. No. 3. Penn Incline, illustrated in Fig. 328, is one of the most heavily built and expensive lines ever constructed, and was designed with suf¬ ficient capacity to haul twenty tons of coal at a single load. The total length is 840 ft. and the total rise 330 ft. the average angle being twenty-three de¬ grees. The road bed is carried the entire length on heavy riveted plate girders five feet in depth. The lower section consists of a single span of 232 ft., the second section of another span of 120 ft., while the remaining portion of the structure is in sixty foot spans. The rails are sixty pound T, spiked to 10 X 12 ins white oak ties, and the gauge is ten feet. The power equipment consists of a pair of 24 X 36 ins. engines, and the drums are of cast iron eighteen feet in diameter, with grooves for the ropes. The car platforms are 16 X 38 ft. and the truck is made of channel iron. Two hoisting ropes are employed, each two and a quarter inches in di¬ ameter. The carrying pulleys are ten inches in diameter, of cast iron, with groove. Over 750 tons of iron were used in the truss construc¬ tion, and the entire cost, including the power equipment, was$320,000. No. 4. Knoxville In¬ cline, Pittsburgh, illus¬ trated in Fig. 333, has a total length of 2,640 ft. and a rise of 375 ft. The lower section, for a distance of 980 ft., is built of iron work in spans of from twenty to seventy feet, the plate girders being from twenty - four to thirty- six inches deep. The re¬ maining portion is built on the surface. At about 1,000 ft. from the bottom the track makes an eighteen degree curve for the distance of 350 ft. The ropes are de¬ flected around the curve by thirty inch horizontal pulleys. The gauge is nine feet, and sixty pound steel T rails are employed. The power equipment consists of a pair of 18 X 36 ins. engines which are connected to the shaft of the drum by a pinion and spur gearing. Two drums are employed, one twelve and one half feet in diameter, and the other Fig. 332.—Inclined Plane—Johnstown, Pa. 184 STREET RAILWAYS. a trifle larger in order to compensate for the additional length of rope required for the outward track of the curve. The hoisting and safety ropes are one and three-quarters inches in diameter. The cars are 16X47 and are designed to carry fifty tons. The cost of this incline with equipment was about $190,000 Safety devices are the most important appliances connected with the operation of the inclines. To guard against the possibility of an accident, the fol¬ lowing devices or their equivalent are recommend¬ ed. Duplicate throttle valves should be provided, or, in place of one, a butterfly valve in the steam pipe may be substituted. This should be operated by a separate lever or cord extending to the cab in convenient position to be readily reached by the engineer. The butterfly valve should also be arranged to close with a spring or weight, and it should be connected with the brake device so as to operate in unison with it. This precaution is necessary from the fact that accidents on inclines have occurred from the inability of the engineer to stop the engines when the cars had reached the terminals, owing, in one case, to a small bit of metal becoming lodged in the valve seat. In this case the ropes were torn from the car, which allowed it to descend with fatal results. On some lines a lever mechanism is provided, by means of which the car as it approaches the upper landing closes the throt¬ tle and sets the brakes. This device is provided in case the operator should suddenly become incapac¬ itated from sickness or any other cause. Another means of providing against the possibility of the operator failing to perform his duty consists of an attachment to the throttle lever latch which closes the steam valve in case the operator should release his hold of the latch. Band brakes operated by a foot lever should be applied to the safety sheaves sufficiently powerful to stall the engine. Pneumatic brakes should also be provided to sup¬ plement the lever brake. The hauling and safety ropes are usually attached to separate cross beams on the truck so that in case one beam should be torn out, the car would be held with the other. In the bed of the track, or at the sides of the track near the landing, heavy automatic latches or hooks should be arranged which will close over a cross beam of the truck as soon as a car reaches the top landing, so that the car will be safely held should all the ropes be removed. Electric signals and telephones are important ap¬ pliances which will enable the operator in the cab Fig. 333.— Knoxville Incline—Pittsburgh, Pa. INCLINED PLANES. *85 to communicate with the guard at the foot of the incline and by means of which warning signals for starting may be given. It is the usual practice to give three separate signals before the cars are set in motion. Good practice requires that a careful inspection of the entire line be made each morning by the chief engineer before the line is started up surface and partly upon a viaduct. In this case there is also provided a way station at which the cars stop. Fig. 335 is an elevation of the power station and Fig. 334. Stri * 1 for the day. And the first trip each morning should be a trial trip with empty cars to make sure that everything is in working order. It is a rule on some lines to require that the chief engineer operate the cars for an hour or two each morning to make sure that all the appliances are working in a proper the car at the upper landing of the same line, and Fig 336 is a longitudinal section of the car pit at the foot of the incline. The cars for inclines, it will be noted from the illustrations, are usually supported on eight wheel, triangular shaped trucks, which are built of wood or of channel iron, the triangular form of the car being necessary to maintain the platform as near a level position as possible, so that it may be readily manner. To avoid heavy bumping at the lower landing the cars should be provided with spring or pneumatic bumpers, preferably the latter, which should have a stroke of about sixteen inches. The cars should also be provided with powerful head¬ lights, and there should be lights at the head and at the foot of the incline. Fig. 334 illustrates a section and the terminus of a long incline which is constructed partly upon the boarded at the landings. In some cases, where freight and passengers are both transported, the passenger apartment is arranged in the truck be¬ neath the main platform, and in others to one side of the platform, as in Fig. 328. Cars for inclines are usually from twenty to thirty feet in length, and from twelve to sixteen feet wide, and weigh from fifteen to twenty tons. They may be roofed or open, and are usually pro STREET RAILWAYS. 186 vided with strong iron railings with gates at the ends to prevent the possibility of wagons being crowded off the platform should the teams become Fig. 336. restless or unmanageable. On lines where electric street cars are transported, it is common to pro¬ vide an adjustable bumper, which can be swung into position when the car is loading, to guard against the danger of its running off the platform in case the brakes should not act properly (Fig. 337). This bumper maybe arranged to drop down beneath the platform when the car is to leave the incline. The platform of the incline car should also be provided with chains and blocks for locking the wheels of loaded.vehicles in position. Figs. 330 and 331 show the arrangement of the en¬ gine and machinery of a plant which is designed for operating a very long line, in which the rope is driven by making a number of wraps on a pair of winding drums in about the same manner as for a cable line. The boiler room for this plant is located to the right, but is not shown in the engrav¬ ing. In this particular plant the safety rope is led over four sheaves, two of which are provided with band brakes, as shown in the illustration, and by means of which the speed of the hauling rope can be quickly checked. A hydraulic tension device is connected with this plant, as shown, which is em¬ ployed for more readily adjusting the hauling rope. By means of a small force pump the tension sheaves are forced forward and the slack of the hauling rope is taken up. This is an important matter, from the fact that the cars must always land within an inch of the bumpers at either end of the plane, and as the length of the rope varies with the temperature, and is gradually elongated from wear, the adjusting mechanism is necessary. The same end may be accomplished by means of weighted sheaves, but these are not so prompt in their action as the hydraulic device. The slack in the safety rope may be taken up by means of an adjustable attachment to the cars. In some localities, mostly in foreign countries, however, where there is an abundant supply of water, inclines are operated, not by steam power but by the weight of stored water. The cars being provided with suitable tanks, a load of water is taken on to the car at the head of the incline, which causes it to descend with sufficient force to haul the other car up the grade. On reaching the bottom the water is discharged from the first tank while the one at the top is again filled. By alternately Fig. 337.—Electric Car Entering Incline Platform— Cincinnati Inclined Plane. filling and discharging the tanks the cars are kepi in operation. In case the building of an incline is contemplated, parties interested can learn full particulars by addressing the local engineers in the localities where such lines are in operation. CHAPTER VI. i RACK RAIIv INCLINES. Rack rail inclines are admirably adapted for transit over steep grades where the line is too long to be operated by the ordinary incline system. It Fig. 338.—Rack Rail. may be interesting to note that almost the first locomotives built were designed to operate on the rack system, and that as early as 1S12 a line for transporting coal was opened in England, and was operated by rack and pinion for twenty years, and in 1847 a bold attempt was made in this country to adapt the rack and pinion to the requirements of a regular railway line, and from that time to this the problem of how to climb long, steep inclines on railways has taxed the inventive genius of many clever engineers. Among the early devices for climbing steep grades was a plan for equipping the regular loco¬ motive with a pair of horizontal friction rollers arranged to press against a smooth centre rail and operated by a special set of cylinders; but in the system which first gained prominence in this coun¬ try the rack took the form of a narrow ladder, having angle iron sides and bar iron rounds one and one half inches in diameter, and placed four inches apart, which answer for teeth or cogs (Fig. 338). One of the most important lines constructed after this plan is that on the slope of Mount Washing¬ ton in New Hampshire (Figs. 339 and 340). This line is about three miles in length, with grades rang¬ ing from ten to thirty-seven and a half per cent., the average being twenty-five per cent. The rack and track rails are spiked to wooden ties which are securely anchored by straps and bolts to the solid rock formation. The low places are spanned by substantial trestle work. Although the ladder rack rail system has come into quite extended use it has serious inherent defects which incapacitate it for high speeds. The prime requisite for a smooth and quiet motion in all gearing is uniformity of pitch, especially at high speeds, and it is almost impossible to manufacture Fig. 339.—Mount Washington Rack Railway. a long ladder rack without introducing elements of error. Again, the diameter of the pinion, to secure proper contact with the teeth,is so large 188 STREET RAILWAYS. that the power from the steam cylinder has to be transmitted to it by multiple gearing. On account of the defects enumerated above and keep the bars laterally distant from each other, and also to secure the rack to the ties of the roadbed. At intervals, depending up¬ on the grades, anchor¬ ages are made by straps of iron fastened to the ties and carried up grade and fastened to eye bolts set in solid rock, or in blocks of masonry. The various bars of which the rack rail is composed are laid with Fig. 342.—Pinion—Rack , , . . . , Rail Locomotive. broken joints and the teeth are staggered, or in the form of steps which enable the simultaneous contact of several teeth of the pinion with different bars of the rack rail, thus Fig. 344.—Rack Rail—Curve Construction. others, the tendency of modern practice has been to abandon the ladder type and adopt a rack which is essentially built up of two. or more in¬ dividual racks placed side by side. This particular construc¬ tion is known as the Abt system and is employed to a con¬ siderable extent on lines in Switzerland and Germany and on a few lines in this country. The ele¬ mentary rack (Fig. 341) is a flat bar of given length, provided with teeth. These bars are connected together by steel chairs, which are placed at regular intervals, and serve to giving a contact and smoothness of motion that it is difficult to obtain with the ladder type, and offers increased security against the fracture of a tooth. The pinion (Fig. 342) is constructed of as many separate disks as there are separate bars in the rack rail, and the disks are shifted against each CJA (O) «?j • • Xllolus for h Bolts • • Flan • • U * *1 E l n P. • •[ St. Ky. Journal • - • » 3 / 5 -— Section of Top and Bottom Chords of Fig. 371. Fig. 378.—Plan of Track. Fig. 377. St, Hy. Journal Fig. 380.—Cross Section of Station. X9'»J-- r-*'Vr-* 20 4 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 379.— Kansas City Elevated Road Construction. Fig. 382. —Plan of Station Platform of Fig. 380. ELEVATED ROADS 205 tion the stations are built in the middle of the block, in buildings owned by the com¬ pany, leaving the sidewalks entirely free. In order that a better idea may be formed of the material and structure, illustrated in Fig. 285, we make the following extracts from the general specifications, upon which the contract for building this particular line was based. “ The structure is of wrought iron posts and girders ; the posts have a horizontal sec¬ tion of 14 X 15 ins., and are made by two channels fifteen inches wide, connected by lattice bars. The channels in the posts, de¬ signed to support girders of fifty feet span, weigh 139 lbs. per yard, and for the fifty-six feet spans 148 lbs. per yard “ Provision is made for the expansion and contraction of the longitudinal girders to the amount of three-quarters of an inch, by leav¬ ing one end free to move, the other end be¬ ing riveted to the cross girder. The clear span of the girders ranges from forty-five to sixty feet. The cross girders have upper and lower chords and web members, riveted up of plates and angles, and have a span from forty Fig. 384.—South Side Elevated Road—Chicago. Fig. 383.—Station—South Side Elevated Railroad, Chicago. 206 STREET RAILWAYS. to fifty-six feet, and weigh from 60,431 lbs. to 79,404 lbs. “ The web plates of the cross girders are seventy- one and three-quarters inches square, and vary in thickness from seven-sixteenths to nine-sixteenths -:! 11 *-fi n -4S-10 Gtrv-to-Gtr— of-columns— - 48 0 ^- i n Rtreei'gTa'cte St . ivy. Journal fir Fir.. 385. of an inch, the angles 6 ins. X 6 ins. X Jfs in. Seats for longitudinal girders for two tracks are riveted to the cross girder, and holes for similar seats for two additional tracks are punched and covered with plates, till such time as the additions are made. The longitudinal girders are generally similar to the transverse girders. The longitudinal flange Specifications for the structure, illustrated in Figs. 376 and 377, contain among others the fol¬ lowing provisions: “Rivets and bolts., connecting parts of any members, must be spaced so that the shearing strain per square inch does not exceed 7,500 lbs., or three-fourths of the allowed tension strain per square inch on the member. Iron in web ♦ plate not to have a greater shearing strain than 4,000 lbs. per square inch ; no web less than three- eighths of an inch thick. All wrought iron must have an elastic limit of not less than 26,000 lbs. per quare inch and be tough, fibrous and uniform in character. Full sized pieces of flat, round or square iron, not over four and a half inches in sectional area, shall have an ultimate strength of 50,000 lbs. per square inch, and stretch twelve and a half per cent, of their length. Tested in specimens of uniform sectional area of at least one-half square inch for a distance of ten inches, must show an ulti¬ mate strength of 50,000 lbs. per square inch and stretch eighteen per cent, in eight inches. All iron Longitudinal Span C to C of Supports. Maximum Bending Moment per Track Combined D and L Loads. Depth of Girders. Max. Chord Strain Com¬ bined L & 1 D Loads. Allowed Stress per sq. in 35 ft. to 40 ft. 484,195 ft. lbs. 42 in. 73.362 9,000 lbs 40 ft. to 45 ft. 586,655 ft. lbs. 48 in. 74.441 < ( <1 45 ft. to 50 ft. 701,765 ft. lbs. 48 in. 89,969 it « < 50 ft. to 55 ft. 838,677 ft. lbs. 48 in. 107,522 < i it 55 ft. to 60 ft. 987,146 ft. lbs. 54 > n - 114,784 it t < 60 ft. to 65 ft. 1,116,243 ft. lbs. 54 in. 129.795 <1 • i plates and the angle bars extend without joints Composition of Chords; Angles. 6 in. X 4 in- X -nr in. 6 in. X 4 in- X iir in- 6 in. X 4 in. X lir in. 6 in. X 4 in- X 1 i in. 6 in. X 6 in. X W in. 6 in. X 6 in. X ii in. Equiv’t Weight per lineal ft. per Girder. Max. Shear in Web. Thickness of Web. Equiv’t Distr. Load. r,2io lbs. 24,200 in. 48,400 1,158 lbs. 26,055 y& in. 52,110 1,122 lbs. 27.550 z /% in.’ 55.ioo 1,109 lbs. 30,497 y% in. 60,995 1,096 lbs. 32,880 * in. 65,700 1,056 lbs. 34,320 Iff in. 68,640 for tension to bend to an angle of ninety degrees from end to end of the girders. cold, around a curve whose diameter is not over “ The cross girders and columns are braced by twice its own thickness, without cracking. One knee pieces of 6 ins. X 6 ins. X Y& in. angles, riveted to the columns and bolted to the girder. “ Iron of an elastic limit of not less than 26,000 lbs. per square inch is required. “ As far as possible all riveting is by machine. No hand driven rivets, excluding seven-eighths of an inch in diameter, are allowed.” specimen in three to bend 180 degs. Nicked on one side and bent by a blow from a sledge, the fracture to be nearly all fibrous, with but few crystalline spots. Angle, plate and shaped iron to bend cold to ninety degrees around a curve whose diameter is not over three times the thickness.” The above table gives data of dimensions, strains and movements. ELEVATED ROADS. 207 TRACKS. The next step is to provide the track foundation and to place the rails (Figs. 386 and 387). The former illustrates the original form of construction t employed on the New York elevated roads and the latter the more recent practice of the same lines. The track material consists, usually, of yel- Owing to the difficulty of tightening up the bolts, it being necessary for the workmen to go be¬ neath the track, and for other reasons, the method of construction, as shown in Fig. 387, has been adopted, and provides that all bolts may be tight¬ ened from the top, and prevents the possibility of nuts and bolts becoming loose and falling to the street. The guard timbers in the new construc¬ tion, it will be noted, are placed farther from the rails than formerly, leaving room for the wheel between the rail and guard, and preventing its be¬ coming wedged in case of derailment. The strap low pine timber, except on curves, crossings and turnouts, where white oak blocks, cap stringers and shims are used ; steel T rails weighing from sixty to ninety pounds per yard; fish plates, screw bolts, lag screws, clips, angle bar and strap iron guard, blunt bolts, spikes and nails. In the earlier construc¬ tion to which the last clause refers, the heads and washers of the guard rail bolts were countersunk, and the augur hole cups were filled, a little crowning, with cement paste, to shed water. iron with which the guard timbers were formerly faced has also been omitted. It is usual to lay every third cross tie on the Fig. 388. —Fisher Rail -Joint. main line twelve feet long, to provide a support for the plank side walk. This, in turn, is guarded with 208 STREET RAILWAYS. a hand rail, made of one and a quarter inch piping, as shown in the last figure. In this connection it is interesting to note that a ninety pound rail is now employed on the New York lines, and the successive steps in the weight Fig. 389.—Weber Rail Joint. of rails employed, since the roads were built, have been as follows : Thirty-five, fifty, fifty-six, seventy and ninety pounds. Fig. 388 illustrates the Fisher rail joint, quite ex¬ tensively employed on the same lines, which gives fair results. The Weber joint, illustrated in Fig. 389 is also being tried. The Sends tie plate (Fig. 390) is an important appliance in elevated track construction, as it prevents the rails from Fig. 390. —Tie Plate. cutting into the ties, and being provided with points which prevent its com¬ plete contact with the surface of the tie, it allows of a free circulation of air and prevents decay. The following is the amount of material required for the construction of 1,000 ft. of single track, old style: 250 cross ties, 6 ins.x6 ins. X 12 ft.; 500 cross ties, 6 ins. X 6 ins. X 8 ft. ; 3,000 wrought iron clips, 5J4 ins. X 2 Y -2 ins. X in., 1,500 lag screws, 6 ins. X ^ in. ; 67 steel rails, 30 ft. long ; 67 fish plates, 20 ins. X 2 J4 ins. X K in. ; 268 fish plate bolts, 4 ins. X V\ * n - with nuts and washers ; 3,000 spikes, 7,000 lineal feet guard timber, 6 ins. X 8 ins. ; 1,500 guard rail bolts, nuts and washers, 14J4 ins. X V\ > n 150 lag screws, 12 ins. X H in. ; 2,000 lineal feet strap iron, 2J4 ins. X J4 in. section ; 300 strap iron bolts, 6 J 4 ins. X J4 in. with nuts and washers ; 300 blunt bolts for strap iron, 5 ins. X £ in.; Y\ barrel Portland cement. The actual cost of laying 1,000 lineal feet of straight single track will be about $300. A general plan for curve construction is illus¬ trated by Fig. 391. The outer rail is elevated about three inches, this elevation being gained in a dis¬ tance of about eighty feet on the tangent to the curve. The guard rail and method of brac¬ ing the guard timbers are clearly shown in the illustration. It is of the first importance that all surfaces of an elevated structure should be painted, and only the best material should be used. A metallic paint is recommended for the first coat and a white lead paint for the second. The following is a good formula for a metallic paint : Nine parts of boiled linseed oil, one part of turpentine, seven and a half pounds of ground iron ore, make one gallon of mixed paint, and sufficient to cover 256 sq. ft. White lead paint, olive color, in parts sufficient to make 751 lbs. of mixed paint, that will cover 512 sq ft., is compounded as follows : 325 lbs, white lead, 175 lbs. white lime, 75 lbs. French ochre, 3 lbs. Prussian blue, 1 lb. burnt amber, 21 gals, boiled linseed oil, i| gals, turpentine, 1 gal liquid driers. The iron work should first be thoroughly cleaned, rough spots scraped, and those with new rivets and other raw details covered with one coat of metallic paint. All seams and cracks should first be filled with linseed oil putty. All cracks, joints, sun checks in the timber, should be filled with putty, prior to painting with metallic paint, and again before applying the white lead paint. There should be two coats of metallic paint and a final coat of white lead paint, which should be laid on with great care. Fig. 391.—Curve Construction. ELEVATED ROADS. 209 enders,” but it was found that they operated better with only one truck, so the forward truck was re¬ moved, and in the new designs only the rear truck has been retained, and it is found that they oper- Fig. 392. —Standard Locomotive—Manhattan Elevated, New York. The rolling stock suitable for an elevated road de¬ pends upon the amount of traffic and the grades. Most elevated roads are operated by steam locomo¬ tives. A few have cable power. Doubtless the time Fig. 392A. —“ Douule Ender” Locomotive—Suburban Line, Manhattan Elevated. will come when all elevated lines will be operated by cable or electric power. ENGINES. The Forney type of locomotive engine with some modification, has been generally adopted for eleva¬ ted railroad service (Fig. 392). As originally de¬ signed for the Manhattan lines, they were “ double ate even better with the drivers ahead; that is, when derailments occur it is usually when the truck is running ahead. With the drivers ahead the flanges are cut somewhat faster, but this is not a serious defect. “ Double enders,” however, are employed on the suburban line (Fig. 392). These have a pony truck at each end fitted with swinging bolster and 210 STREET RAILWAYS. structs the view of the engineer somewhat, and makes the machine top heavy. This can be obvi¬ ated by placing the tank and fuel bo'x over one of tlae trucks. These two types of locomotive will meet nearly all the conditions of elevated service. The general dimensions of the locomotive “Sub¬ urban,” illustrated by Fig. 392A, which was manu¬ factured by the Baldwin Locomotive Works, of Philadelphia, are as follows: Cylinders, 14 x 18 ins.; drivers, forty-eight inches in diameter outside tire ; wheel base, five and a half feet ; boiler, forty- four inches in diameter and six feet ten and a quarter inches long, with 160 one and a half inch tubes. Fire box, 51 X 45 ins..nearly. Tank ca¬ pacity, 600 gals. Weight, including fuel and water, 60,000 lbs., with about 40,000 lbs. on drivers. These engines are designed to burn anthracite coal. CARS. The car bodies are usually of the same general type as for steam traffic, from forty-five to fifty feet over all, with double trucks (Figs. 393 to Fig. 399 in which details of framing are clearly shown.) radial bar so that they curve easily, and do not cut The drawbar should have sufficient swing to give the driver flange. The saddle tank, however, ob- clearance on short curves, and both continuous and Fig. 393. ELEVATED ROADS. 2 1 I Fig. 396.—Side Section, Passenger Coach—Manhattan Elevated. hand brakes should be provided. Iron gates and flexible guard gates are also necessary. The seats may be arranged along the sides of the car, or both side and cross seats may be pro¬ vided, as shown in Figs. 396 and 400. The cars should also be equipped with some of the well known systems of steam heating, and provided with fix¬ tures for lighting, either by gas, electricity or oil. COST. The cost of an elevated line will depend largely upon the type and weight of girder adopted, the height of the columns, price of the material and the character of the soil on which the substructure rests. The approximate cost of one mile of double straight track, including station for each track, without, any special construction, of the type of con¬ struction employed on Second Avenue, New York, (Fig. 358) may be stated as $600,000 ; that on Third Avenue (Fig. 360) as $500,000 ; Sixth Avenue (Fig. 365) $600,000. The type of construction employed on the eleva¬ ted lines of Brooklyn, N. Y. (Figs. 370 and 371), cost from $500,000 to $600,000 per mile, double track. The elevated line which has been in operation at Kansas City, Kan., for the past five years (Fig. 379), cost about $166,000 per mile without track rails, estimated as follows: Cost per pound, erected, five cents ; weight per lineal foot 478 lbs.; 212 STREET RAILWAYS. foundations, $6.00 per foot of structure ; stations $4,000 each. The engines operated on this line weigh about 34,000 lbs. As an aid in planning the members of an elevated structure, engineers would do well to consult a work recently issued by the Railroad Commissioners of the State of New York, entitled “ Report on Bridge Strains.” ELEVATED ROADS i3 Fig. 400.— Interior ok Elevated Cak—Manhattan Railway. CHAPTER VIII. OAK BUILDING. The present American styles of street cars are a natural and legitimate product of American ideas. They differ greatly from the passenger vehicles of the first street railroads, for these retained to some extent the form and arrangements as well as the name of the omnibuses and stage coaches which they superseded ; and, naturally, for the mechanics of that day were only familiar with the construc¬ tion of coach bodies. For instance : The form of the lower portion of the sides was made concave, a form necessary with an omnibus in order to pro¬ vide space for its large wheels ; but with the street cars having small wheels, which are placed wholly under the body, the concave form is found to be unnecessary, and the tendency now is to build with sides vertical or nearly so, the concave form of the lower panel being retained in some cases for the sake of strength and appearance, and because it al¬ lows of passing street vehicles more readily where those stand in close proximity to the track, for the hubs of the latter, in case they extend slightly be¬ yond the plane of the vertical sides, do not interfere with the concave panel. Notwithstanding the many changes in the styles of cars which have been brought about during the past few years by the change in motive power, the ideal car that will meet all the conditions of rapid transit under any one kind of motive power is not to be expected, for different lines need different equipments. For instance: The style of car best adapted for use on narrow streets, with large traffic, where passengers are continually getting on and off the cars, from one end of the line to the other, would in some points be unfitted for the business of a line in a city having a large suburban travel, where the passengers are mostly taken on and let off near the termini. Hence it is that vestibule and long cars, and those of the Accelerator type are in favor in some localities, while for other localities they are not so suitable. The time will come, doubtless, when the type of car best suited to the requirements of certain conditions of traffic can be named. This desirable result can be reached only after a large number of street railway companies in widely separated localities shall have each expressed an opinion as to what style or type of car would be best suited for their respective needs, when the car builders can put the suggestions into practical form. Thus, it is apparent at the outset that an attempt to describe in detail the different styles of street cars now in use, with particulars of construction and material, would swell this chapter into a vol¬ ume, or even many volumes. This is not desirable, but in order to supply a long felt want we shall at¬ tempt to give an outline of street car construction, noting here and there the essential points that must be observed in the making of any style of car, that the product may have the combined attributes of beauty, lightness and strength. Let it not be ex¬ pected that this chapter will prove instructive in all particulars to those who have long been engaged in street car building, either for the trade or for home use. It is not a treatise on the methods which will be employed in works devoted to street car building in the next century, but the practice of the present day, so that all the particulars must necessarily be familiar to some one somewhere. Different car works have each some special char¬ acteristics; not that they are larger, and differ in form, color or situation ; but, in the adaptation of means to ends, in the utilizing of labor saving ap¬ pliances in the styles of cars turned out, there are differences, and no one shop is so perfect that it cannot be made better by adopting some of the characteristics that are to be found in each of the others. CAR BUILDING. 2I 5 Form A. — yl . T few / Jo**ufar/ca*u, TTzo'-tf - f5/0/yZr/v Zj f //£ y 0 t*tytOc A/tUk/- f(Zr, fri t f t, 7 i\xles Brakes Iron Work d’<^< Platforms Grab Handles and Window Rods Dashers Draught Inside Doors Seats and Backs Mouldings Glass Fare Box or Register Lamps Bells Hand Poles Brackets Straps Sash and Blinds Lifts Poor Mats Roof Signs InsidevRnlsh Painting Diameter, '■ Maker, Material. ITi'Jty J < 2 f~' 7l/C7z-/ -fait** cf /s/, » /ZaTiyyrfTn 7Tirf/Sji. * 071/ yifc/yr? fmi-n/. ■A'f/ryfj , Wood 07 00-/^y (StdA/ 0770A- /04/fi, a^u-tes ,€UUH<*4£t ?f ’tUifcm7 '/! 7 * / iSi 1 f 7 TtM^7 71 r y, &7177:lj7//tf/tc/'y y’/ /ttApf-y g®/ 7ly>u 7(i£//tiyyi>~Gmy&Ky tH/ 7 %/ (70'ffA'fi a- _ TiiC/^yc^s S^fe Style finish, % •zytoA (A J aft7rAe V/rry^ 7 A " ~T - .... ^ -y " / ~iniy&S yp Al 7^007^706 yzttyzyis ’ 07/7771^71 Pffy/l/'MflU-l/, dce&AV tA/a /J7py 0£i Where huug, fttT. Over windows *tflU&f7?n0tfe&HjtJ End linings. C^cau^c^ <7, Thickoe*., //f ’ / Panels, ^0 ^ 7 ^ _ Kiud of 6lieaves and tracks, jea^d*/. /Zy7 // ’-70Z7T77. A^/yi /U7O//_C0l//ly Act//, 077/0 yOCe/7t777 /y j0'7///x/ ■//uo/-SW Drop sash in door. One door or two, -* ^2/0Sr /Zof-^y Quality hair. 710710 fS -<0 7 'M4^lt7c/t77 •d/wror SV/lL/- t*17 ci7rru/-y 6 * < 2 tt/C y/r ^//v/yy /L/ /.0'r77 77 0 7/1.77/ 71:7/ 77^07707 2- ' X ( ’ 0^777^0 eUimOTZ'rrO 77 v&JcJv Material, * Material^^^'Z Material. Materials, *s/?1-*t1sl*y1st4sl7- *i7t70^ee& T7 t0)/O.Uf7V TZyS7017/1/ -0to^7/f0 Aovi&ut : fiygy>. Finish Shape. No. — Pattern, j> £07070- 77/‘’./y.. Lining aaaHV^r -Hinged Sash. Cocoa. 9J. Cocoa fancy, 7f. Plain wood, 7?m* Style and number. 7 l 00 ~nO Gloss finish. / DuU finish. Top panels, color, Top panels lettering with tpalerlul and,shading. Centre panel color. Centre panel lettering, Concave color, '^ = X' (Z/yU-tT/O Concave lettering. * * End lettering, Dashers, colbring and lettering, RuOhing gears, .color and striping Numbers. y/ {Ac -dt/-f0L/Zj 770/4- y/Ofrj^ Space between centres, .c UtC •^77^107707 * , irrmjj d— __ . _ Kind of aests. Kind of panels. (^*'4 Material of buckp, Width of backs, CY£f. Material and pattern seat aimn k Material ond pattern levers J/& ^ L AtO 7 i 4 C& 0 Q fTTPtQp', . ^ y CwUlr.^/ y/*tuC 0/Ao>oi&o ^ 4 “- Jt/^t077O. JAjyrnM-T^i/ Azzd/^/ii) //i/Su, /rtfo/y/yyO70r0~/o /t-tv j0/rrrr*s- (Amu-i a' '%* 2 C~ ~jl a 40) u 4. ^x- 20 £ CAR BUILDING. 217 this line of decoration is plentifully and cheaply supplied. Not only should a reasonable amount of decoration be provided in cars which are patron¬ ized wholly by a cultivated class of people, but in all cars, for by this means the comforts and solaces )f fine art will be brought to a large number of lives and hearts that cannot afford to provide them n their own homes. This chapter, it is believed, will prove helpful, in some particulars, to the veterans in the business, to new men engaging in this line of work, and also Serve as a medium by which men engaged in the operation of street car lines may communicate in¬ telligently with commercial car builders, or with men employed in their own repair shops, while it gives to the general reader a “ speaking acquaint¬ ance ” with this particular industry. In present practice we find four distinct types or kinds of street cars, each of which may be subdi¬ vided according to the following diagram : (1) Horse (2) Cable Grip - Closed Open Closed Open Combination Double deck Vestibule One horse Two horse One horse Two horse Four wheel Eight wheel c/i < u H W w cu H c/) Trail Closed Open Closed ( Four wneel Six wheel radial ( Eight wheel (3) Electric Motor f Four wheel Open -I Six wheel radial ( Eight wheel Double deck j Four wheel ( Eight wheel Vestibule ~ ( Closed L Tral1 j Open End Side (4) Miscella- ( Steam neous. -j Air ( Gas It is important in order to secure a durable con¬ struction that the well defined laws of architecture —of which street car building is a branch—be not violated. For instance: The walls of a brick build¬ ing are not safe until the roof is put on, and yet, if the walls be not of sufficient strength, the roof will crush them or cause them to bulge, thus rendering the building unsafe. The same is true in car build¬ ing; the construction of the body to the top plate must be properly done, and supplemented by a roof properly put on. The frame and panels also bear a mutual relation to each other. It is practi¬ cally impossible to fit and set up the framework of a car so that it cannot be easily thrown out of position, causing a movement in every joint, but when the panels are properly put on, combining the different parts, the body becomes stiff, and capable of resisting severe shocks without injury. Some of the principles of construction may be noted as follows: Strong sills and bottom frame, proper mortising and tenoning of vertical frame¬ work, proper combination of panels and frame¬ work, a light roof (as light as possible), uniting the sides and ends, and these in turn carrying and sup¬ porting the roof. As it requires over 1,300 separate pieces of wood to build an ordinary sixteen foot electric car, it is apparant that great care must be exercised in combining these parts, lest some defect enter into the construction, and prove a destructive factor after the car is put in service. Hence, to properly construct the different kinds of cars it is necessary to consider the particular work they have to do, and where the principal strains will come, depending upon where the power is applied. The horse cars and trail cars should be light, strong and durable, with as little heavy lumber as possible, unless a change of motive power is con¬ templated, when they may be built heavier and so framed as to be readily changed and adapted for mechanical power. The cable car must have a strong under frame, put together with heavy timbers, and a neat and strong body, avoiding, as much as possible, a clumsy look. The electric car must have a strong under frame, with cross timbers so arranged that portions of the floor may be removed to give access to the motors, and, if it is operated by the overhead system, the 2l8 STREET RAILWAYS. roof should be specially strengthened to support the trolley stand and the weight of the workmen who are required to adjust or repair the same, INCEPTION. The purchasing officers of street railway compa¬ nies either furnish drawings and specifications of Fig. 403.—Truss Rod and Platform Sills. while the extra weight at the top, increased speed and lurching, require that the framing through¬ out be stronger and heavier than on other types of cars. the cars they may desire to have built, or they merely state the dimensions and general style of the car they desire, after having examined the drawings or photographs of different styles of cars CAR BUILDING. 219 that have been previously built, with which most shops are supplied, or after having visited the works of the manufacturer and studied the different types in process of construction, when the chief designer of the shops where the cars are to be built, after full conference with the parties desiring to purchase, makes detailed drawings and full specifications. After these have been approved and accepted, and the contract has been closed it is entered on the In addition to the general drawings, it is the practice in some shops to provide details for the different departments. These may be gotten out in plain style with free hand sketches on sheets which are pasted to thick cardboard, and shellacked to prevent soiling (Forms B and C). The general drawings usually show, first, an ele¬ vation of side and end of a car frame (Figs. 401 to 409), then, in detail, the sills and floor framing order list which gives, first, the number of cars, name of company ordering, date received and date for delivery. This is filed in a large envelope into which all papers pertaining to the order are placed. A large detail book is also provided, which is printed with headings having blank spaces into which the general details are entered (Form A). The manager of the shops then receives written directions quoted from the specifications, with drawings which are numbered and known as shop orders for a particular lot of cars. and all matters relating to the floor. The drawings of the side framing show the side posts and side bracing and side panels Another set of drawings exhibits the details for the deck, including every¬ thing above the side frame, such as carlines, deck posts, deck sills, deck plates, and side plates, begin¬ ning at the top of the posts. There are also draw¬ ings showing the ceiling finish or headlining. There are full detail drawings of hoods, platforms, carv¬ ings (Fig. 40713 and c), and even of the bronze trim¬ mings, however small. Some of these details rank as 220 STREET RAILWAYS. “ standard,” and go into all kinds of street cars built at the shops. The following are copies of actual shop orders, which will give some idea of the amount of detail incident to the business: DESCRIPTION OF ONE CLOSED ELECTRIC STREET CAR. Plan.310-U. Length over sills, sixteen feet. Width over sills, five feet eleven and one quarter inches; over all, seven feet ten inches. Height over all ten feet four inches. Roof.Three (five) iron carlines, strengthened and arranged for trolley. Hoods.Removable. Framing.Closed streetcar. Height from top of sill to under plate five feet ten inches. Outside.Panelled with white wood. Flooring.Yellow pine. Window sash.Mahogany. Blinds.Mahogany frames and basswood slats. Glass, windows.Crystal sheet. Glass, doors.Crystal sheet. Glass, decks.Embossed. Mirrors.Plate glass bevelled. Inside finish.Mahogany. Ceiling.Burl oak, decorated with gold. Lamps, centre.Two, one (1) light. Heater.One coal stove placed in a zinc lined box. Seats and backs.Spring placed longitudinally. Seat covering.Wilton carpet. Trimmings.Bronze. Bells.One at each end with leather bell cords. Gongs.One under each platform. Door catches.Placed on each door. Fare register.One. Lenses.Red glass at each end in upper deck. Change gates.In each door. Floor matting.Standard diamond. Body grab handles .... Bronze. Steps.Steel steps, Stanwood pattern. Platforms.Standard, open at sides. Dash boards.Iron, closed centres. Dash grab handles ... .Bronze. Brake handles.Bronze, adjustable. Brakes.Operated by hand on all wheels from platforms. Track brake.To be applied for use on grades and for sudden stoppages. Sand boxes.Four. Platform gates... Life guards. Track cleaners. . . Headlights. .... One arranged for electricity. Draw bars. Running gear. . . . chaser. Motors. Gauge. Wheel base. Wheels.., ... ... Cast iron, thirty inches in diameter, with two inch tread and five-eighths inch flange. Axles. • ameter. Painting. .... May be what is known as “ Standard Broadway.” which is a cadmium yellow. Decoration. Lettering. .“LIDGERWOOD” on sign board# “ WASHINGTON ” on main panels. Number. Electric light. .. . .Car to be lighted by electricity. SPECIFICATIONS OF A CLOSED, DOUBLE TRUCK ELEC¬ TRIC STREET CAR. Plan. and three quarters inches over body; twenty-nine feet two and one-half inches over car, and thirty feet five inches over all. Width, seven feet one and one-eighth inches over all. Roof. ....Strengthened with five iron carlines, and arranged for trolley. Hood . .... Detachable on rear end. Framing. ....With straight post. Height from top . of sill to under plate, five feet eight and one-quarter inches; over all, eleven feet two inches. Outside. Flooring. Window sash. Blinds. Glass windows. . . . . . . .Double thick French. Glass doors. . . . .Double thick French. Glass decks. . . . .Ruby colored glass. Mirrors. .. . . Bevelled plate glass. Inside finish. . . . .Cherry. Ceiling. . . . .Maple. Centre lamps. . . . .Two two (2) light. Seats and backs. . ....Ash and red birch slats, covered with Wilton carpet. Trimmings. . . . .Bronze. CAR BUILDING. 221 Bells.One at each end. Gongs.One under front platform. Door locks.One on cab door. Fare registers.One per car. Floor matting.Applied. Body grab handles. . . .Bronze. Steps.Stanwood steel, double tread. Platforms.Arranged with cab on front end and rear end, open on one side only. Dash boards.Iron, on rear end only. Brakes.Hand brdke on both trucks, operated from platform. Brake handles.Cast iron brake wheel in cab and bronze brake handles on rear end. Air brake.Sessions patent. Sand boxes.Two per car. Life guards.On front truck. Headlights. One, arranged for oil. Draw bars.Radial on rear end and buffer on front end. Running gear.Four wheel double trucks. Gauge.Five feet two and one-half inches. Springs.Coil. Wheel base.Four feet six inches. Wheels.Thirty inch steel, two-inch tread. Axles.Iron, three and three-eighths inches in diameter. Motors.Two fifteen H. P. Painting.Light yellow, with carmine panels. Lettering.“CENTRE & NEGLEY AVENUES ” on each side of car at centre. Number.55. Lamps.Two pilots and a three cluster electric. The above method of providing drawings and specifications is recommended for use in large shops, and in some modified form in all works, whether engaged in building for the trade or in constructing home-made cars, as it will be found to save time and insure the perfect fitting, when assembled, of such parts as are prepared by different gangs of workmen. It is the practice in some shops, how¬ ever, to make all the detail drawings full size on large boards, which are placed in a convenient posi¬ tion so that the workmen have access to them, and from which they make their own measurements. The full sized drawings, it is claimed, insure a bet¬ ter fitting of parts. Figs. 407 to 429 illustrate the leading types of cars as made by different builders. MATERIALS. Storehouses and yards are provided for the dif- erent classes of material which is usually kept in stock, and includes lumber, glass, wrought, cast, malleable and sheet iron, steel, paint, varnish, cloths, plush and other upholstery goods, nails, tacks, screws, hinges, catches, locks, and other small hard¬ ware and metal goods (trimmings) that are too numerous to mention. Some large car building establishments manufacture their own veneers, trimmings and, in fact, everything entering into the construction, even the paints and varnish. Others purchase from manufacturers trimmings, etc., ready finished for their place in the car; while a few street railway companies, which build their own cars, purchase everything, even woodwork, in which case the work of the car shops consists merely in fitting the parts, painting, furnishing and deco¬ rating. The number of tradesmen and mechanics who must have a hand in preparing material and finish¬ ing a street car is nearly a hundred. The list in¬ cludes the following: Car builder, Sawyer, Carpenter, Joiner, Cabinet maker. Turner, Veneerer, Carver, Machinist, Blacksmith, Iron founder, Brass founder, Engineer, Spring maker, Seat maker, Pattern maker, Upholsterer, Hardware dealer, Glue maker, Varnish maker, Paint maker, Lamp maker, Carpet weaver, Steel master, Stove maker, Plumber, Pipe fitter, Wheel maker, Glazier, Glass blower, Glass Etcher, Gilder, Painter, Ornamental painter, Tinsmith, Electrician, Electroplater, Wire drawer, Rubber manufact¬ urer, Engraver, Chaser, Mirror maker, Fresco painter, Letterer, Axle maker, Draughtsman, Gold beater. Plush maker, Silk manufacturer, Cotton manufacturer, Linen manufacturer, Woolen manufacturer, Thread manufacturer, Locksmith, Mat maker, Brush maker, Tanner, Rattan braider, Turpentine distiller, Oil cloth manufact¬ urer, Trimming manufact¬ urer, Burnisher, Sewing machine manu¬ facturer, Sewing machine oper¬ ator, Bookkeeper. Photographer. Armature winder. 222 STREET RAILWAYS. i Fig. 407.—Sixteen Foot Electric Car—Lewis & Fowler Manufacturing Co. LIST OF CAR PARTS. I. (Fig. 409.) Wheel. 22. Fender guard. 2. Axle. 23. Body truss rod. 4 - Journal box. 24. Body queen post. 6. Side journal spring. 35. Truss rod plate 8. (Fig. 407.) Sill. 27. Outside panel. 9 - End Sill. 28. Lower outside panel. 10. Transverse floor timbers. 29. Upper end panel. 11. Sill tie rod. 30. Lower end panel. 15 - (Fig. 407A.) Window post. 31. Inside frieze panel. 17 - Corner post. 32. Panel strip. 18. Door post. 33. Panel furring. 19. Belt rail. 34. Seat bottom. 20. Belt rail band. 35. Seat leg. 21. Fender rail. 36. Front seat rail. CAR BUILDING. 223 38. Back seat bottom rail. 39. Back seat rail. 40. Lower seat back rail. 42. Seat back board. 43. End seat panel. 44. Upper belt rail. 45. Window ledge. 47. Plate. 48. Eaves moulding. 49. Window blind rest. 50. Window sash rest. 73. Window blind lift. 77. Window guards. 78. Door stile. 79. Door mullion. 81. Middle door rail. 82. Top door rail. 85. Mirror. 86. Door case sash. 89. Fare wicket. 91. Sliding door handle. 102. Platform timber clamp. 122. Brake shaft. 123. Upper brake shaft bearing. 125. Brake ratchet wheel. 125. Fig. 409.—Side hand rail. 151. Revolving seat back. 152. Seat spindles. 153. Bracket. 158. Seat rail. LUMBER. The enormous strains to which the frames and covering of street cars are subject, make it abso¬ lutely necessary that they should be made of the 51. Outside window stop. 52. Inside window stop.^ 53. Carline. 56. Upper deck. 57. Deck bottom rail. 58. Deck post. 59. Deck window. 61. Deck end ventilator. 64. Window. 66. Window stile. 67. Sash lift. 68. Sash stop bead. 69. Window blind. 72. Window blind mullion. 103. Platform end timber or crown piece. 108. Platform post. 109. Platform post boss wash¬ er. no. Platform rail. 112. Dash guard straps. 113. Body hand rail. 114. Side step. 115. Hood. 116. Ilood bow. 117. Hood carline. 119. Hood moulding. 120. Brake shaft crank. best lumber prepared in the best manner. Hence, to insure durability and long life, great care must be exercised in the selection and seasoning of the lumber. In the selection of any particular wood its ap¬ pearance should not always govern, but the region in which it grew should also be considered, for the locality has much to do with the texture of woods of the same name. In some cases, however, the supply has been exhausted in the regions which pro- 224 STREET RAILWAYS. duce the most desirable qualities, so that in this re¬ spect no choice is left, and a change of wood for the same purpose is sometimes rendered necessary. The woods principally used in car building are of both native and foreign growth. The native woods include ash, white, Norway and yellow pine, hickory, basswood, poplar (whitewood), birch, but¬ ternut, cedar (both green and mined), cherry, cypress, gum, elm, white oak (second growth), burl oak, maple and sycamore. Of the foreign woods, mahogany, satin wood and teak constitute the prin¬ cipal kinds employed in this industry. The seasoning process should occupy two years or more, and much of it requires to be kiln dried in drying kiln;, for heavy sill timbers, from three to four months where the temperature, ranging from seventy-five to one hundred degrees, should be regulated to suit the conditions, care being taken not to destroy the life of the wood. In case, how- addition. The lumber having been purchased, it is piled with the ends toward the prevailing winds in open order in the lumber yard, or, better, under sheds when these can be provided. It is also of ad¬ vantage to cover the ends of all boards and sticks of timber, as soon as the lumber is piled, with some kind of heavy paint to prevent season checking. The kind, size and condition of the stock deter¬ mine the time the material should remain in the ever, the structure is designed for service in high and dry latitudes, it is often necessary to continue the seasoning process till all moisture is expelled, or otherwise checks will appear and the car will soon go to pieces. After leaving the kilns, the material, if not at once needed, should be stored in closed sheds. In large establishments, the work of car building is usually subdivided, and several gangs of men do the work in successive stages ; in some cases by CAR BUILDING. 225 contract in others by day work. The lumber, when ready, is delivered to the wood working shop, usu¬ ally on trucks, the yards and shops being provided with trucks for their accommodation. It is then cut into proper dimensions and passed to the planers, when the further work to be done upon material, and the nicety with which just the number of pieces of all kinds are made which are required for a given lot of cars, frequently covers the margin of profit in certain orders. As the work progresses through the different de¬ partments it should be carefully and continually in- it is laid out from templates by the foreman. It then goes to the shapers and mortising machines, and the small pieces are put through scrapers and sandpapering machines, and made ready for the blind builders and cabinet makers. The economy exercised by the manager or shop foreman in laying out and utilizing all the building sfected by the manager or a special inspector, to see that the work of each gang is properly done. Even with the most careful supervision it will sometimes be found that the different cars for the same order, when finished, vary in real value a good many dollars, owing to the superior skill, or want of it, or honor on the part of the individuals composing 226 STREET RAILWAYS. the different gangs of workmen, although the ma- the floor. In some cases this work is done by the terial for each was the same and prepared in the same men that construct the body. If it is a six- same manner. teen foot electric car that is being built, we have two The material ready prepared is now delivered to side sills, two end sills, two first crossings, centre the erecting shop. The sills, cross ties, bracing, crossings, four longitudes, two cross longitudes, flooring, iron tie rods and angle irons go to the two movable bars, eight platform knees and two gangs whose duty it is to frame the bottom and lay crown pieces or platform bumpers (Fig. 402) Yellow CAR BUILDING. 227 228 STREET RAILWAYS. pine is usually employed for the side sills and floor¬ ing. Oak is also used for side sills, and, usually, for the cross and end sills, although ash is sometimes of a thin steel plate bolted to the outside. The sills of open cars, when of yellow pine, are some¬ times veneered with a light colored wood which Fig. 413.—Two Wheel Shop Truck. Fig. 414.— Four Wheel Shop Truck. employed for cross sills, and the crown sill of the plat¬ form is sometimes made of elm. The side sills are usually 4X5 ins., and on long, open cars the sills are sometimes strengthened by the addition offers a better surface for paint. The end sills are of the same dimensions as side sills, and are laid flatways and framed to lap on the side sills or mortised in. All mortises and tenons should be STREET RAILWAYS. o iP. --J]o *■* of' :lo l ’° o; w * :o ** on--2LX 1QCT ^-----' -==4, 0 128456799 ip Scale of Feet. CAR BUILDING. covered with white lead to prevent the access of moisture. The cross or middle sills may be framed to lap the side sills or may be mor- with the longitudinal timbers. The platform knees, usually of ash or oak and strengthened sometimes with steel plates, should lap the first cross sill. Fig. 417.—Eight Wheel Open Car. tised. The middle crossing should be the heaviest Hickory is sometimes employed for platform knees, and have a tie rod through the centre. Tie rods but is not recommended as it is subject to decay, also connect the side sills at the intermediate and if bent by heavy loads will not resume its crossings, and short tie rods connect the side sills original form. The cross framing should be ar- 232 STREET RAILWAYS. ranged to provide for traps in the floor to give of the floor. It is quite important, before design- access to the motors. The traps may be hinged ing the floor framing for electric cars, that the so as to turn up or they may be lifted out alto- type of truck to be employed should be specified, as Fig. 419.— Eight Wheel Vestibule Car—Pullman’s Palace Car Co. gether. If built quite long the same form of trap the diameter of wheels, wheel base and dimen- will suit a number of different motors. If we were, sions of trucks vary so much, that the framing for building a long eight wheel car the framing would one will not suit another. be different, and the traps would come at each end For flooring, hard pine or maple boards may be CAR BUILDING. 2 33 employed. The material should be straight grain- a coat of white lead. It is also a good practice to ed and free from knots. It is usually dressed on give the under side of the floor a coat of mineral one side to about seven-eighths of an inch in thick- paint. The platform knees and end timbers or Scale of Feet, 12 3 4 Fig. 420.—Eight Wheel Vestibule Car. r jpr n T f Alrf’.' t /Rail W(iyfl:n iTrna t'y'Y Fig. 421.—Twenty-five and a Half Foot Double Deck Car—J. G. Brill Co. ness, tongued and grooved or jointed and fast- crown pieces are conveniently put on by turning ened with screws to the cross ties and braces, all the frame upside down. This is not necessary, how- the top surfaces of the latter having first been given ever. The crown pieces should be two or three 234 STREET RAILWAYS 0]2 Fig. 422.—Sixteen Foot Vestibule Electric Car. Fig. 423.—Eight Wheel Closed Car—Truss Rods Omitted, Scale of Feet. 91 3345 6 78 9 Ip Fig. 424.—Eight Wheel Closed Car—Puilman’s Palace Car Co. 2 3 6 STREET RAILWAYS. inches thick, and of sufficient length to come out as far as the side sills of the car, and the outside knees Fig. 426.—Combined Open and Closed Car.—Also Built with a Double Deck. should be set back far enough to make room for the side steps, and also spaced to provide for placing the rheos¬ tat under the platform if one is to be employ¬ ed. Fig. 407. The plat¬ form is usually so con¬ nected that it may be detached from the body. The platform floor is commonly laid with oak, but may be of the same ma¬ terial as the car floor. The platform is now delivered to the body build¬ ers where it is supported, preferably, under the middle by a low two or four wheel truck, (Figs. 413 and 414), upon which it can be moved about the shop as the work progresses. Low horses, a trifle higher than the truck, are placed under each end so that the frame will sag a little in the middle, as it helps to strengthen the car and prevent the ends when finished from drooping, as they are liable to do with heavy loads, if built straight and mount¬ ed upon trucks with a short wheel base. The side posts (pillars, Fig. 405), which have pre¬ viously been grooved by machinery to provide runs for the window sash and blinds, are next set up in mortises cut in the side sills, all mortises and joints being covered with white lead before the union is made. These posts are usually of asl\ (dark colors being employed for closed cars and light-colors for Fig 427.—Double Deck, Centre Aisle Car—J. G. Brill Co. CAR BUILDING. 237 open cars), one and one-eighth inches to one and one-half inches thick. Being set in the mortises they are firmly held in place by strap bolts which come up through the sills with the strap portion extending up several inches on the inside of the lower end of the post. The corner posts come next, and these should be 3^ X 5 ins. at least (Fig. 406). Door posts should be heavy enough to allow of a groove down the centre for a tie rod which fastens the head rail and pillars down to the end sills, and a groove for the electric wire which leads through to the roof. The end may be put together on the bottom of the car and then raised into position. wood and, having previously been bent to the proper shape and dried, are put in place and blocked, the lower outside first, after which the ends of the car are panelled up, care being taken that the pan¬ els are all up to the ribs. The whole inside is then covered with scrims put on with hot glue and painted, when it is left all night to set. Next morning the panels are all dressed off and sand¬ papered, when the painter gives them a coat of oil priming and the work is left to stand over night. The truss rods are now added, when the braces and stretchers are taken out and the car is ready for the roof. The truss rods may be anchored as shown in Fig. Erect temporary scaffolding on which to stand and put on the plate, and fasten stretchers across the top, making the sides the same width at the top as at the belt rail. Square everything true and put on the belt rails which are commonly halved on the posts. The work on the belt rail, if laid out from the mortises in the sills, will bring the space between the posts of the same width all the way up. Add the convex and concave ribs, according to the curv¬ ature of the sides, then the drip rail and the letter board. The sash rails, light rails, strainer rails, straight ribs and head rail of the ends are next added and primed, when the frame is made ready for the panels. These are usually made of white 403, or in Figs. 407 and 408. In some shops a dif¬ ferent method of construction is followed for long double truck cars, which is designed to do away with truss rods. As shown in Fig. 423, the bracing consists of angle pieces of boards (a) bearing partly on the side posts, sash rests and side sills, and secured by glue and clinch nails to longitudinal pieces ( b ) of the same material. The longitudinal pieces extend the full length of the car and have a shoulder rest on each post by means of a groove one-eighth of an inch deep. The outside sheeting (c) consists of narrow pieces of boards put on ver¬ tically, with white lead in the joints and glued and nailed to the longitudinal pieces. Before applying STREET RAILWAYS. 238 this trussing the middle of the car should be slightly arched, and when completed this construc¬ tion will have great strength. The roof, which may be made plain or . after some one of the monitor or Bom¬ bay types (Fig. 412), is usually prepared in the cabinet shop, or may be made by the body builders who work on it at in¬ tervals. The frame, which may be of ash or oak, depending upon the pro¬ posed inside finish, should be strong, with from three to five compound car¬ lines to support the weight of the trolley stand and prevent the sides from bulg¬ ing. Compound carlines are usually made of flat wrought iron or steel strips which, being reinforced on each side with half round wood, bolted through, or methods of roof framing, which make a very substantial construction, or remove the weight of the trolley from the central portion of the car roof. Fig. 429.—Open Grip Car—J. G. Brill Co. have the appearance, when finished, of the ordinary wooden carlines. Compound carlines do not in all cases prevent the roof from settling, or sides of the car from bulging; hence, certain builders adopt some of the well known patented devices One method employs a wide board, slightly arched, extending the length of the body, with the ends resting on metal straps, which are attached to the end of a tension rod, blocks being inserted to keep the compression and tension members of the CAR BUILDING. 239 Fig. 430.. —Electric Snow Sweeper—Lewis & Fowler Manufacturing Co. Fig. 431. —Enlarged Section of Fig. 430. Centre 1 ine 240 STREET RAILWAYS. truss at proper distance apart (Fig. 434). Another method consists in framing the ventilator rails and uprights in an arched form which is strengthened A. t= 1 ll II II 1 [_ ■ Fig. 432.—Inner Lining of Ceiling Before and After Moulding. by means of truss rods running from end to end of the car immediately under the bottom ventilator rails (Fig. 435). A third method which is designed to relieve the roof from the weight of the trolley is shown in Fig. 433, and con¬ sists in placing two thick planks parallel to each other above the roof and support¬ ing the ends on rub¬ ber bearings above the end framing. The roof covering may consist of half inch ash boards, bevelled or rounded on the under edges, or of three-ply veneer, depending upon the proposed inside finish. Oak or birdseye maple veneer, firmly fitted on top of the carlines, makes a very strong roof for carrying the trolley stand, and being deco¬ rated makes a fine inside finish, especially where oak carlines are employed to match the oak veneer. The roof being in place, it is slightly shored up in the middle, when the ends are fastened to the head rail, and the carlines to the eaves-plates which have been previously mortised to receive them. The edges are then dressed off, when the roof is given a priming coat, the nail holes filled with putty, and after drying, the roof cloth, which consists of heavy can¬ vas (laid in white lead), is put on, stretched very tight and tacked under the outer edges. The eaves moulding is then put on and the car is ready for the hood which is really an extension of the roof over the platforms, but so put on as to be readily removed, for convenience in shipping. In vestibule cars, however, the hood constitutes the roof of the cab and is framed with it. The hood is made on a form in the shop, and covered with a canvas the same as the roof, when it is put up and bolted to the head rail. The water table is then Street Railway Journal N.Y. added and the entire roof is covered with a coat of mineral paint or white lead. The scaffolding being removed, work on the body .A is resumed. A moulding of half oval iron is next put on over the top panel joint which extends around the corner posts to the door posts. This is usually put on with screws, and the heads being filed off it makes a neat looking job. Next, a fender CAR BUILDING. 241 rail is added, which is placed over the joint be¬ tween the upper and lower panels, and being fin¬ ished with an iron moulding as described above, Fig, 434. numbered, they are taken out and sent to the paint shop for finishing. To produce a carline finish, in case veneer is not employed for the roof, the ceiling between the carlines is covered with veneer. Oak, birdseye maple and birch veneer is employed, and may be left plain or per¬ forated and decorated. Matched roof boards of ■y Fig. 435.—Monito.r Framing—Brownell Car Co serves to protect the panels from coming in contact different colored woods make a tasty ceiling finish, with street vehicles. A plain flat band moulding Sometimes the entire heading consists of veneer, covers the end joint of the upper panel and a corner fastened to the under side of the carlines, and iron the joint of the lower or concave panel. One or two flat, vertical mouldings of wood or strap iron on a line with the side posts may be added, which divide the side into panels of different sizes and improve the appearance. The iron dash posts, dashers, brake staffs, bumpers and controlling stand are next put in place and all iron work given a coat of paint. The dashers are usually made of sheet iron or steel, but in some cases wire is employed. The sash doors and blinds, which have been made in the cabinet department, are next fitted, each to its place, num¬ bered and given the car num¬ ber, when they are sent to the paint shop for finishing, after which the glass is set and the sashes are rubbed down and varnished. The overhead and bottom Fig. 436.—Interior of Car—John Stephenson Co., Limited. tracks for doors are next laid down, door guards brought down to the top of the plates. Orna- put on, doors hung, head linings fitted, also end mental panels of different colored woods are fre- linings, heel boards, seat rails, stove box, mould- quently introduced into the ceiling with pleasing ings and curtain fixtures. Then, all parts being effect (See Fig. 432). 242 STREET RAILWAYS. The body now goes to the paint shop, where a rough coat is first put on, the entire surface scoured down, and the car is made ready for the electric wires which are put in by experts, which work should be done before the inside finish is applied to the car. The tinners also put in the end lamps and flues, stove pipe thimbles and the piping, if the cars are to be lighted with gas. The sash doors and blinds are now put back and the car is left with the painter to finish and decorate. PAINTING. The painting department should be assigned to commodious quarters, carefully partitioned off to exclude dust and insects, and the room should be constructed to provide ample light all around, and, in order to facilitate the work and cause the oil to penetrate deep into the wood, should be warmed in winter to an average temperature of seventy-five degrees. The method of mixing the paints and the time allowed for the different coats to dry, depend somewhat upon the time limit for filling the order and the climate of the locality where the cars are to be put in service. When durability and high finish are sought, time is an important factor. To meet the different conditions we give two methods of practice, the first when haste is important, as in filling large orders, and the second when time is not a condition. The foreman must keep a sharp lookout for all new work as it advances, and order the priming coat put on before the body leaves the erecting shop, which can be done in an hour, but will often ad¬ vance the work at least a day. A good priming coat consists of pure lead mixed with two parts boiled oil, one part raw oil, a little elastic japan, and sufficient turpentine to cause it to work freely under the brush. This should be thoroughly brushed into the pores of the wood, care being taken to introduce the color into the nail and screw holes, unless these are too large, in which case they should first be filled with wood buttons glued in, or with a mixture of sawdust and glue. When wood buttons or plugs are employed they should be formed so that the grain conforms to that of the surface filled. Where putty is employed for filling large holes, it is apt to crack and fall out after the car is put in service. After drying, the priming is sand¬ papered lightly, when the first coat is laid on. This may consist of pure lead (ten pounds) mixed with one pint of boiled oil, one pint of elastic japan reduced with turpentine. All nail and screw holes are now filled with putty, and in doing this care should be taken to so introduce the putty that all the air will be excluded, for should there be a bub¬ ble of air confined by the putty it will expand and bulge the surface. To produce a good job the puttying should be done at two operations. At the first, the hole is not entirely filled, but the putty is scooped out with the corner of the knife, leaving it rough and slightly below the surface, to give firm hold to the second filling which is added after the first is sufficiently dry, producing a smooth surface. When this is dry it is rubbed down, and then the second coat of paint (mixed the same as the first) is applied. Two or three coats of rough stuff, consisting of English or American filling, are next laid on, not over two coats a day, however, and better only one if there is time. When sufficently dry the entire sur¬ face is thoroughly rubbed down with pumice stone, or better, with Schumacker’s rubbing brick which is manufactured in different grades, fine, medium and coarse. Before rubbing, however, it is a good plan to add a coat of stain as a guide to a level surface. This may be made of varnish an-d japan, in equal parts, thinned with turpentine, or dry umber, ochre or lamp black may be used, depending upon the color of the rough stuff. After drying for an hour or two the rubbing may follow. After being sur¬ faced and washed, the body should be left at least twelve hours to dry, before the next coat is added. The surface is now ready for its final color. If this is to be a transparent color the surfaced panels must receive a preparatory coat which should be as near the desired color as possible. If it is to be finished in an opaque color this can be applied at once, and consists usually of a japan or quick dry¬ ing color which is laid on in two coats and fol¬ lowed with clear varnish, or color and varnish. CAR BUILDING. 243 The surface being flattened, it is prepared for striping, lettering and ornamenting. The designs for letters and outside decorating may first be drawn in outline, full size, on heavy manilla paper, which is then perforated with a pinking wheel or picker, care being taken to follow, every line of the pattern. The perforated sheet is then securely fastened to the surface to be decorated, when the designs are transferred by means of a pouncing bag, light or dark colored powders (gilder’s whit¬ ing, dry umber or charcoal) being used, according as the surface is dark or light. The colors or gild¬ ing then follow. After this work is done the body goes to the varnish room where two coats, one of rubbing one of finishing varnish, are applied, the first being carefully rubbed down ; all of which can be done in about sixteen days after the car reaches the paint shop. When the time is not limited the following for¬ mula and practice may be followed for a first class job: The priming coat may consist of keg lead with pure raw oil mixed to about the consistency of milk; this being well brushed into the pores, screw and nail holes, is left to dry three or four days, when it is sandpapered lightly. The first coat, con¬ sisting of keg lead mixed with raw oil two parts, japan one part, with enough turpentine to make it work easily, is next laid on, and after two days the holes are carefully filled with putty which is made of dry white lead mixed with equal parts of japan and rubbing varnish. After the putty is dry the surface is again sandpapered. The body is now ready for the second coat which may consist of one part keg lead, two parts raw oil mixed thick with japan and then thinned with turpentine. The rough places are now filled with soft putty, and after this becomes dry it is smoothed off and the sur¬ face is ready for the next coat which consists of keg lead mixed thick with turpentine, to which is added a little oil, japan and rubbing varnish to bind the coat well. After drying, three or four coats or enough to fill the work are next laid on. These coats consist of English filling three parts (light for light grounds, and dark for dark grounds) dry white lead two parts, keg lead one part, mixed with japan two parts, rubbing varnish one part, and turpentine to thin properly. This being rubbed down and cleaned, the colors are applied until the surfaces are properly covered. Rubbing varnish is next applied and being thoroughly rubbed down with pumice stone, the lettering and ornamenta¬ tion may follow, and this is usually done by another class of workmen. After being rubbed down well, finishing varnish is applied. If each coat has dried properly, paint applied in this manner will last for years without cracking, peeling or fading. To produce the smooth, ivory-like finish which some fine cars present, it sometimes requires as many as fifteen coats of paint and varnish. The outside dec¬ oration should be solid, plain and neat ; too many large scrolls sometimes spoil the beauty of a car. The inside finish is now put on by another class of workmen, and in some respects this is the most particular work on the car. The ornamentation may be plain or rich as the taste may demand. The headings are often finished in hand painted de¬ signs, including landscapes, figures of men and ani¬ mals, wreaths of autumn leaves, spring flowers and vines, or they may be ornamented with stencil work or covered with stucco. The woodwork is some¬ times finished dull and sometimes in bright colors. If dull finish is wanted, the surface should be flat¬ tened. All woodwork after filling may be treated with rubbing varnish. The above methods are subject to modifications depending upon conditions. For instance: For work that is to be put in service near the sea shore where the air is keen and salty, plenty of raw oil should be used in mixing the paints, while japan should be avoided, but in case a little must be used to hasten the drying, it should be mixed with gold size and spar varnish. The same is true for cold climates, in which case the primary coat may be pure raw oil. Both hard and soft putty are employed in car building ; the former is made by mixing, say, five pounds of dry white lead with japan and rubbing var¬ nish half and half, to which is added a little turpen¬ tine and a small quantity (half an ounce) of keg lead. Soft putty is made of dry white lead and gilder’s 244 STREET RAILWAYS. whiting, half and half, mixed with keg lead one- third, thinned with boiled oil, and about one gill of light brown varnish to five pounds of putty. Be¬ fore paint is applied to panels or sills all sap por¬ tions should receive a coat of white shellac. In case sills are season checked the checks should first be filled with a paste made of fine sawdust and glue and left to dry before painting. Before applying paint to old cars, such portions as have become covered with oil or grease should be carefully cleaned and covered with a coat of shellac. Rough stuff or filling-coat may be purchased from dealers ready prepared for use, or may be made in the shop as follows : For dark filling mix common yellow ochre with brown japan (one-half) and rubbing varnish (one- fourth), thin with turpentine. For white work, mix thoroughly ten pounds of dry, white lead, two pounds of ground pumice stone No. i y 2 , one quart of rubbing varnish, one quart of light brown japan varnish, two pounds of keg lead. Transparent colors should be handled quickly, and laps on large panels should be avoided. Lay off vertically and keep a cool edge (as the painters express it). Before applying the varnish the surface should be carefully washed, special attention being given to remove the pumice stone from corners and crevices, otherwise the work will be full of specks and look dirty. Fine rubbing powder, not coarser than No. i or Y-2, should be employed for treating the rubbing varnish coats, and the more time taken for this pro¬ cess the more satisfactory the job. Head linings, after being carfully sandpapered and cleaned, are treated first to a coat of filling, which may be made made of corn starch mixed as directed for soft putty. After this begins to stiffen and turn white rub thor¬ oughly against the grain with a bunch of Excelsior. When this is thoroughly dry apply one or two coats of shellac. If two are put on sandpaper the first carefully, then add rubbing varnish one or two coats, and follow with the ornamenting. After the ornamenting and striping is finished add one or two coats of varnish. To flat varnish rub with a piece of thick felt and ground pumice stone, then wash thoroughly, using a soft sponge and plenty of water, and dry off with a piece of chamois. To prepare old cars for repainting, if the paint is not badly cracked,rub the lettering and ornamenting to a close surface with rubbing brick, then apply a preparatory coat,*and when dry putty up dents and scratches. After three or four hours, put on with a broad knife a plaster putty coat, and when this has hardened, sandpaper. In case the paint is crack¬ ed it will be necessary to burn it off, which can be done with a Wellington lamp, using benzine for fuel (Fig. 437.) Begin on the right, so as to back away from the flame, and scrape off the paint with a broad knife or with a putty knife. After burning, sandpaper well and prime with keg lead, and plaster as before. It sometimes happens that the panels or sides of a highly finished and handsomely decorated car be¬ come broken or defaced soon after being put in service, in which case it requires great skill to re¬ pair and repaint so that the new work will corre¬ spond with the original designs. These may be copied, however, in the following manner : Trace over the outlines of the uninjured designs with a paint made of lamp black, raw oil and a little turpentine, using a fine camel hair pencil. Lay over this a sheet of heavy drawing paper, care¬ fully fitted, and hold in place and rub over the entire surface evenly with the flat of the hand. The sheet, on being removed, will have an exact copy of the design, when it may be secured to a flat board, and perforated as described above for original de¬ signs. Place this sheet over the new surface and pounce the same as for new work, when a dupli¬ cate copy of th'* original will be transferred to the CAR BUILDING. 2 45 Fig. 438. Striping and lettering in gold. Ornaments shaded with asphaltum. Striping and lettering edged. Fig. 439. Ornaments gold. Striping same. Lettering nickel edged and cast shadow. Natural tint for ground work on panel. Ornaments shaded or edged, or both, as desired. Fig. 440.—Ornamental Designs and Lettering for Half Main Panel. Ornaments gold, edged with neutral tint. Letters and broad line nickel edged. Fine line gold., Rosettes gold shaded and edged. 246 STREET RAILWAYS new work. Remove the perforated sheet, fasten it by the head painter in making the designs for letters again to a flat board, and with colored crayons and ornamentation, and in so blending the finishing copy the shades of the originals. This being put colors that they will harmonize. Care must also be Fig, 441. —Designs for Main Panel Ornaments. In a convenient position, will save time and aid the painter to produce an exact copy. The appearance of a finished car will depend large¬ ly upon the skill and taste that have been exercised exercised in selecting the colors, that, when faded even, some degree of harmony will be preserved. In the direction of outside ornamentation and let¬ tering there is a broad field in which a painter can CAR BUILDING. 247 exercise his ingenuity. No set designs for copying can be given, which will be suitable in all cases, but a few are presented in this connection which may suggest to the thoughtful painter other con¬ ventional forms which he can introduce with pleas¬ ing effect (Fig. 438). The seats may be upholstered with hair or rat¬ tan cushions, or seats and backs may be made of perforated veneer covered with Wilton carpet. In some cases builders have seat carpeting woven in special designs. If window curtains are employed, they should be of durable material (Russia leather) and mounted on self acting stop rollers with brass guide rods. In some climates, neither curtains, cushions nor carpeting can be employed, owing to their furnishing a harbor for insects. The floor may be covered with matting made of wood, wire or jute. A very durable floor finish, known as the Everett system, consists in reinforcing the plank with narrow wooden strips, about half an inch apart, laid lengthwise in closed cars, and cross¬ wise in open cars and fastened with screws. To prevent warping, the strips should be divided into sections of three or four feet. In some cases the floors are first covered with linoleum before the strips are put down. The bronze trimmings are next put on, and in¬ clude the end window guard rods, window lifts, strap pole brackets, bell bushings and bells, fare wickets, brake handles, etc. The body being sufficiently elevated the truck is run under, body lowered and sills attached to the truck. The spring box, radiating draw bar, and carriers are now added, all wires are connected, the trolley stand is put in place, when the car is run out and is ready for the road or for shipping. CAR TRUCKS. The advent of mechanical traction has necessi¬ tated the employment of an independent truck for supporting the motors, which would relieve the body from the weight and strain, and permit of its being readily removed. Truck building is made a business by itself, and it is not necessarily carried on where the coaches are made, although most car shops have a truck department, and make some special type of truck. Trucks are made in a great variety, adapted to the various forms of motors and power employed, and purchasers of street cars usually specify the style and make of truck upon which they wish their cars to be mounted. Trucks are not only modelled to suit the different types of motors employed, but also for use under long and short cars employing the same motors, while in the material used and in the method of construction we find a wide range of practice. This is not surprising, for in horse car practice we still find many forms of running gear, with no ap¬ proach to a universal standard, except it be in the matter of a journal box, which, fortunately, is ad¬ mirably adapted for use with mechanically propel¬ led cars. But the running gear of a four wheel horse or trail car cannot be regarded as a truck in the sense in which the term is applied to the com¬ bined appliances upon which the bodies of mechan¬ ically propelled cars are mounted. Hence, the self contained motor truck is of comparatively recent origin, and may be said to have had its birth with the advent of electric traction. It is true that rigid frames have been employed in the construc¬ tion of trucks for steam and gas motors and for grip cars, but nothing growing out of the experi¬ ence had with these trucks, nor, indeed, from steam railway practice, serves as a guide in the construc¬ tion of electric trucks so that they will meet the peculiar conditions under which electric railways are constructed and operated. Hence, it is not surprising that radical defects have heretofore en¬ tered into truck construction, attended with dam¬ aging and fatal results to motor, car body and track, as the scrap heap of many a street railway can testify. The cause of failure in some cases and of success in others is owing, no doubt, to the methods followed by the inventors. One class in¬ vented a theory, and then denied or ignored facts which demonstrated its fallacy, while the other class ascertained and studied the facts and worked along the line of scientific truth evolved from the plain teachings of experience. While gratifying success has crowned the labors of the latter class, 248 STREET RAILWAYS. Street Jtaflwan J mmual—NJ LIST OF PARTS OF THE TAYLOR TRUCK. 1. Corner casting. 2. Inside socket casting. 3. Half elliptic spring plate. 4. Body bearing on truck. 5. Body bearing on body. 6. Pedestal. 7. Brake hanger. 8. Pilot tie rod. 9. Bottom stay casting. 10. End coil spring plate. 11. Brake beam clevis. 12. Pedestal thimble. 13. Brake release spring. 14. Brake beam and clevis guide. 15. Brake hanger casting. 16. Brake rod. 17. Motor hanger casting. 18. Pilot hanger. 19. Pilot hanger casting. 20. End truss rod chair. 21. End *russ rod. 22. Elliptic spring. 23. Half elliptic spring. 24. End channel. 25. Adjustment bolt. 26. Brake head. Fig. 442.— Taylor Truck—Gilbert Car Manufacturing Co. CAR BUILDING. 249 27. End coil spring. 28. Journal brass. 29. King bolt. 30. Brake shoe. 31. Spring clevis. 32. Journal box packing. 33. King bolt key. 34. Cross bar. 35. Motor hanger. 33. Bottom stay. 37. Brake head key. 38. Pedestal brace. 39. Side frame. 40. Pilot. 41. Cross stay. 42. Brake lever. 43. Brake beam. 44. Brake adjustment. 45. Axle. 46. Wheel. T. B. Journal box. T. L. Journal box lid. suits and serve as a cure-all for the many minor evils in which the service abounds. The possibili¬ ties of making trucks better or worse are almost as wide as the range of human effort, for which rea¬ son it may not be idle to study the lessons that may be drawn from the logic of events and actual prac¬ tice, with the hope of a nearer approach to a satis¬ factory standard. By reference to the accompany- Street Railway Journal Ji , Y Fig. 443.— Independent Rigid Motor Truck—J. G. Brill Co. so that the market is well supplied with a great many models and designs that are used and ac¬ cepted as the best attainable under the circum¬ stances, no one claims that a standard truck has yet been devised, one that wi/1 give satisfactory re- ing illustrations (Figs. 442 to 459), it will be ob¬ served that an immense amount of mechanical genius has already been devoted to improvements in truck construction, and that important changes are still being made. 250 STREET RAILWAYS. Trucks are the fundamental features of an elec¬ tric car, and the details include many parts, some of the most important of which are wheels, axles, journal boxes, journal bearings, motor bearings, frame, springs, guards and brake appliances. The importance of the car truck arises from the fact cars are also employed, and w'.th these the wheels and other necessary appliances are combined in two sets of four wheel trucks, each of which helps to support the car body (Figs. 453 to 455). The primary object of this arrangement, and of the six wheel trucks, is to enable long car bodies to be Fig. 444.—Peckham’s Flexible Non-Oscillating Motor Truck with Radial Journal Box. that it combines these parts with the motor, gears and a large number of auxiliary appliances under such conditions that the aggregate combination forms, in a mechanical sense, a car ; for that which is above the truck is only the car body. There are four wheel trucks and six wheel trucks employed in electric traction, the latter being of a radial type, and chiefly employed under exceptionally long cars (Fig. 452). A large number of eight wheel conveniently moved around sharp curves. Various other purposes are to be served in the construction of an electric truck, each of which must be consid¬ ered in attempting to improve the details of con¬ struction, and to promote the ends of electric traction. The mutual relations of truck and track are an important consideration, for no amount of skill or material expended in the building of a truck will CAR BUILDING. 25 * produce a structure that will give prolonged serv¬ ice upon an uneven and badly constructed track. The essential features of an electric motor truck are strength and durability without too great weight. It should be so framed and braced at all points, as to prevent its getting out of square, and should not depend at all upon the car body, but should rather reinforce the body framing and pre¬ vent the racking of joints. It would seem to be as simple a matter to design a frame that would sup- for attaching the car body in such a manner that it may be readily removed ; while if a long body is to be mounted upon a truck with a short wheel base, provision must be made by extending the spring base and providing it with auxiliary gradu¬ ated springs to prevent side and end oscillation, both with light and heavy loads (Figs. 443 and 444). The latter requirement is quite important, not only on account of the comfort of the passengers, but be¬ cause of the destructive effect of the oscillation up- Fig. 444A. —Journal Box for Radial Gear. port the motors and maintain the gears in proper relation, as to set up any machine in which gears are employed, but service develops many difficul¬ ties that must be met. The motor must be prop¬ erly insulated, and one end must be flexibly sup¬ ported to relieve the gears from sudden strains at starting, and to relieve as much as possible the shocks due to its own weight. While these points cannot be ignored, the design must be such as to allow of ready access to the different parts of the motor, and to allow of the armature and wheels being readily removed. The brake mechanism must be provided for, both to insure reliable action and to admit of adjustment and repairs, and, as far as possible, so mounted as not to be subject to the spring motion of the car. Provision must be made on the wiring and the car body, and because it re¬ duces the tractive effort of the wheels and affects the life of the wheels. This point has been generally overlooked, but a case is cited where trucks of dif¬ ferent types are employed on the same line, both be¬ ing equipped with wheels of the same make and operated under the same conditions, but on the one in which oscillation is prevented and the weight equally distributed the wheels have a longer life ; and the car operates on a slippery track and through snow with much better results than the one lacking these provisions. In case double trucks are employed, which carry only one motor, it is desirable to so pivot the truck that the driving wheels will carry a large portion of the weight in order to secure the maximum 252 STREET RAILWAYS. amount of traction. In connection with such an arrangement the idle wheels are made smaller than the drivers so that the truck will swivel without inter¬ fering with the steps or the car framing, permit¬ ting of the body being mounted several inches lower than where the wheels are all of the same diameter. The use of the “waterproof” and other motors having the upper half hinged, make it nec- Two types of cable trucks are illustrated in Figs. 456 and 457. The axles of the first are provided with drums, on which the brake shoes act. This arrangement prevents the brake wear on the car wheels, and being usually dry and free from mud, they offer a better braking surface than the car wheel, and admit of the employment of a wooden brake shoe. essary to dispense with bolster and pivot and leave the truck entirely open in the centre, so that access may be had to them for repairs and inspection through the trap doors of the floor. Hence, side bearings must be provided, which shall correspond to arcs having their pivotal points at the centre (Fig- 453 )- Other types of motor trucks are illus¬ trated in the first chapter. In the manufacture and repair of car trucks, the requirements, as we have seen, are very exacting, and include a number of parts which must be spec¬ ially manufactured for their construction. Among the auxiliary industries which perform important service in this direction, are those which manu¬ facture wheels, axles and springs, and, although this work is usually conducted in independent es¬ tablishments, it is important that some general knowledge of the characteristics of these parts and details of manufacture be had to serve as a guide in their selection and prevent disastrous mistakes, for the fortunes of a company may be made or mar¬ red by success or failure in the selection of these three items alone. CAR BUILDING. 2 53 Fig. 446.—Stephenson’s Motor Truck. Fig. 447.—Dorner & Dutton’s Improved Motor Truck. Fig. 448.—Bemis Car Box Co.’s New Electric Truck 254 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 440.—Trti>p Electric Truck with Roller Bearings. $ * n Fig. 450. —McGuire Truck. CAR BUILDING. 2 55 WHEELS. Chilled cast iron wheels constitute the principal portion of all wheels manufactured for street rail¬ way service, but the manufacture of the various greater tractive force, and are safer under high speed electric cars. In regard to the relative economy, it is claimed for steel tired wheels that the extra amount of service which they are usually Fig. 452. —Robinson Radial Truck. types of steel and steel tired wheels for motor cars is a growing industry, and the demand for them arises chiefly from the belief that they are capable of performing a greater amount of service, have a capable of performing, and consequent diminution of the number of changes of wheels, compensate for the difference in first cost. This theory is ably ad¬ vocated on the one hand, and forcibly opposed on STREET RAILWAYS. 256 the other, by manufacturers of chilled wheels and some street railway managers. In order to deter¬ mine the relative value of each type of wheel under particular conditions, it will be necessary to make that are very creditable, and in some cases, under favorable circumstances, a degree of excellence has been attained that has fully met, or even exceeded, all reasonable expectations, but unsatisfactory re- Fig. 453.— Maximum Traction Pivotal Truck for Eight Wheel Cars— J. G. Brill Co. a trial of different wheels, and carefully watch their performance. It must not be concluded, however, that a poor result with one make of wheel proves that all others of the same kind are defective. There are records of the performances of both types of wheels, made by reputable manufacturers, suits have been reported in both cases where wheels were furnished at a price too low to afford compen¬ sation for the skill, care and labor necessary in the manufacture of a first class article. In making a choice between cast and steel tired wheels, one must be governed somewhat by the reputation of - 33 * CAR BUILDING, 257 Bottom of'Car Sill STREET RAILWAYS. 258 the makers, and by the peculiar conditions existing on the line where the wheels are to be put in service. For instance : If the conditions are such that the flange of the wheel will be worn out before the tread needs turning down, it will not be economical to employ steel tired wheels. The manufacture of chilled car wheels depends upon the principle that when certain kinds of cast iron are melted and poured against a metallic mould or “chill,” that portion of the iron next to the mould is suddenly cooled and becomes white and crystalline, while it is inseparably united to the inner portion which remains gray and more ploy a “chill” in which the expansion and con¬ traction are controlled by external means. One of the most popular chills of this type is cast with a hollow outer rim, having its inner face or chilling surface divided radially into inch sections by a saw cut, but further back by a wider opening to secure ventilation. The application is about as follows : The mould being prepared, live steam is passed through the outer hollow rim of the chill for a brief period, causing it to expand and carrying with it the chill segments, thus increasing slightly the diameter of the chilling surface. As soon as the pouring begins, the steam is shut off and cold or less tough and fibrous (Fig. 461). Hence, by plac¬ ing in the mould a metal ring having the form of the tread and flange, the molten metal surges against it as it is poured, causing the wearing parts of the wheel to become hard and very durable. Formerly the “ chill” consisted exclusively of an ordinary iron ring, but in order to take advantage of the laws of expansion and contraction, the “con¬ tracting chill ” has been devised, which, in some form, is now to a considerable extent used. In this type of chill the inner surface is divided into seg¬ ments by means of slots so small that the iron does not penetrate therein to any extent. As the metal is poured the segments become heated and expand inwardly, keeping the inner surface in con¬ tact with the metal. In order to increase the depth of the chilled sur¬ face and make it uniform, some manufacturers em- water is admitted to the chamber of the chill, caus¬ ing the rim to contract, thus holding the inner sur¬ face in contact with the metal as it shrinks in cool¬ ing. Another advantage claimed for this process is that the metal can be poured rapidly and while very hot, giving a more solid and uniformly round casting than with slow pouring. On the other hand, many wheel makers continue the use of the solid chill, claiming that, with proper care, the metal can be poured as rapidlyand as hot as with the contracting chill, and since the latter is liable to get out of order, no special benefit is obtained by its use. The question regarding quality, depth of chill, rotundity and strength, is one that the purchaser must decide by subjecting samples to suitable tests, some of which are suggested later on. The methods of manufacture and the use of different types of CAR BUILDING. 2 59 chill is an affair of the makers; the consumer is interested only in the product. As soon as the metal is set—with any form of chill—the wheels, while still red hot, are removed from the mould and immediately placed, by means of iron trucks, cranes and tongs, in the annealing pits, w T here they remain four or five days, and are allowed to cool gradually, a process necessary to prevent cracking from unequal contraction. The wheels, when sufficiently cooled, are removed to the scratching room, or placed under a sand blast where the moulding sand which may adhere to the metal is removed, when they are ready for shipment, unless their mechanical condition is to be improv¬ ed by further treatment. A number of manufacturers follow up foundry prac¬ tice by surfacing the tread of the wheels to remove any imperfections in rotundity and balance, or, in some cases, simply to remove the fins left by the slots in the contracting chills. Ow¬ ing to the hardness of chilled metal, ordinary tools are unavailable for this work, so it is necessary to employ emery; and for performing the work specially designed machines are required, and these are of three different types. The first machine (Fig. 460) is designed for grinding wheels before mount¬ ing them on their axles. Heavy expanding mandrels are provided, upon which the wheels are placed and centered after being carefully bored ; then, as they slowly turn upon the mandrel, swiftly revolving emery wheels are brought up against the tread and grind it perfectly true. It is not necessary with this machine that the wheels be bored to finished size to fit their axles ; this can be done afterwards in the purchasers’ shops, but it admits of making the wheels mechanically perfect at the foundry before shipment. A second machine grinds the wheels in a similar manner after they are mounted upon their axles. The third machine is constructed with two or three grooved rollers placed in triangular position to each other, on which the rim of the car wheel rests, one of which, being driven, causes the wheel to revolve slowly by frictional contact. An emery wheel placed in a suitable position, and hav¬ ing in addition to its rotatory motion a shuttle mo¬ tion equal to the width of the tread, grinds the chill fins from the tread and flange. It is highly important that the wheels be made perfectly cylindrical, for if the wheel is not true the brake pressure will be greater at one point of the circumference than at another, resulting in the skidding or slipping of the wheel upon the rail, thereby producing a flat spot upon the tread which is rapidly enlarged thereafter, soon rendering the wheel unserviceable. The process of manufacturing differs consider¬ ably in details in different establishments, special 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X ✓ 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 Fig. 457. —Robertson’s Cabi.e Truck with Brake Drums Attached to the Axles. 6 o STREET RAILWAYS, Fig. 458—Cable Truck for Eight Wheel Cars—Citizens' Traction Co.. Pittsburgh, Pa. Fig. 459.—Sheffield Equalizing Truck. CAR BUILDING. 261 care being devoted by some to the nature of the raw material or mixture of irons used, by others to secure a perfectly cylindrical shape, while still others give special attention to annealing. It is obvious that in a process based on such principles as are enumerated above, the qualities of the product depend largely upon the degree of care and skill exercised in the various stages of manufacture, ranking the business among the high est branches of the art of casting iron. There is a considerable diversity in the depth of are told, making more than twenty patterns of wheels for electric service. This is unfortunate, and it is hoped that a standard will be adopted in the near future. All wheels are, presumably, subjected to a severe test, either by the manufacturers or the purchasing companies, or both, before they are put in service. The tests, however, are not as severe as in steam service, and usually no guarantee is required of the maker. In case it is found desirable to exact a guarantee, the specifications as to the design, essen- Fig. 460. —Wheel Grinding Machine. the chill of wheels made by the different manufact¬ urers, the general range being from one-fourth of an inch, through the intermediate fractions to three- fourths of an inch, the latter depth being necessary for a serviceable motor wheel. The diameters of wheels for electric motors are thirty, thirty-three and thirty-six inches, and the weight varies from 300 to 425 lbs. For horse and trail car service the weight is from 180 to 200 lbs.; for cable service the diameters are twenty-two, twenty-four and thirty inches with the corresponding weights of 140, 160 and 240 lbs. The patterns of wheels vary through a large range to suit the fancy of the truck makers, one firm, we tial points, inspection and manner of testing, may be modelled after those employed on certain steam lines as follows : “ First that the wheel shall be truly cylindrical ; second that the body of the wheel shall be smooth and free from shrinkage, slag or blow holes, the tread from deep and irregu¬ lar wrinkles, and free from sand or slag. Wheels broken must show clear gray iron, free from noles containing dirt or slag more than one-fourth of an inch in diameter or clusters of such holes, and the depth of white or chilled iron must not vary more than one-fourth of an inch from the standard depth around the tread of the wheel.” 262 STREET RAILWAYS. The life of cast wheels in horse car service, under favorable conditions, fs about one year, and they are usually good for a mileage of from 25,000 to 40,000. In some cases, however, a mileage of 70,- Fig. 461. —Section of Wheel Cast in Contracting Chill. 000 has been obtained. Under trail cars the aver¬ age mileage is not quite so high, owing to increased speed. A good average for the driving wheels of motor cars is 30,000 miles. Wheels are scrapped when broken, when the flange is too much worn or broken, when the chill of the tread is worn through, or when slid flat. Steel tired wheels are manufactured in various styles, but the process in most cases is too complex to be readily described. The various types consist of a steel tire shrunk and bolted to a web or core made of paper, cast iron or corrugated steel plates having a cast hub (Figs. 462 to 464). The merits of this type of wheel are noted above. As in the case of cast wheels, there is a notable difference in the respective merits of the steel tired wheels made by different manufacturers. Solid steel wheels are cast from molten metal Fig. 463. —Steel Tired Wheel with Corrugated Plates. much in the same manner as iron wheels, except that chill rings are not employed. A peculiar method of pouring is adopted which insures a rim of uniform texture and entirely free from flaws or Fig. 464. —Steel Tired Wheel with Cast Centre. blow holes. After being cast the wheels are paired and the treads turned down to a uniform diameter. It is claimed for these wheels that they do not break or crumble, and that when slid flat or they CAR BUILDING. 263 begin to show wear, they may be “ turned up” or returned for a nominal sum and made substantially as good and serviceable as new wheels, thereby increasing the life and mileage to an indefinite de¬ gree. It is also claimed that better traction is ob¬ tained with these wheels than with iron wheels and that the brake grips the wheels much better and stops the car more quickly. Solid steel wheels cost somewhat less than steel tired wheels, but about double the price of cast iron wheels. AXLES. With few exceptions street railway practice has been uniform with that of steam railway in refer¬ ence to the mounting of wheels and axles, each pair of wheels and their axle being closely united and revolving together instead of the wheel turn¬ ing round on the axle as on other vehicles. Although a great deal of inventive talent has been expended in attempts to obviate the difficulties attending the operation of loose wheels, no substantial progress has been made, and the method of placing wheels upon their axles by powerful hydraulic pressure or by adjustable clamps still continues and is likely to be followed for an indefinite period. Many puzzling questions have arisen in steam railway practice in regard to the best methods of manufacturing axles, including the metal, shape and distribution of metal used, and much attention has been given to the subject, with great advan¬ tage, for a broken axle is one of the things most greatly to be dreaded in railway train movements. While the damage from a broken or bent street car axle is confined usually to the cost of replacing it and the time for which the car is out of service, it amounts to a large sum if breaks frequently oc¬ cur, which, unfortunately, has been the experience heretofore on most electric lines ; hence, the stand¬ ards adopted for steam practice may be closely copied for electric service, for practice demon¬ strates that this service is as hard, if not harder, on axles than steam service. Axle defects do not usually develop till after a certain period of service, but owing to the excess¬ ive weight and pounding and torsional strain, es¬ pecially if the track is inferior, the axles bend or the metal becomes crystallized so that after a year or a year and a half of service frequent failures occur, unless a large factor of safety is allowed in the design, and even then it will doubtless be found to be economical to order motor axles into trailer service after a certain period, following the prac¬ tice of some steam lines which direct that all axles, after eighteen months’ passenger service be trans¬ ferred to freight cars. In steam service both forged and rolled axles are employed, and the forged axles are hammered both from muck bar, scrap, and directly from the blooms, but scrap is not employed in the manu¬ facture of street car axles ; these are hammered direct from the ingots or blooms. Rolled axles are more generally employed in street railway serv¬ ice, although quite a difference of opinion exists among street railway men in regard to the relative merits of the forged or rolled article for motor serv¬ ice. Opinions in some cases have doubtless been formed because of experience had with an inferior article ; in one instance we are told “ that axles rolled from mild steel are more satisfactory to work than hammered axles because they are not as liable to have seams or flaws,” and in another, “ forged or hammered axles are preferable to cold rolled, for the reason that in a well hammered axle the fibres are closely welded, and when the jour¬ nals are turned down the surface is smooth and free from seams.” Axles rolled from open hearth steel with from fif¬ teen to eighteen per cent, of carbon, if given proper dimensions, will be found of sufficient strength for ordinary service, and are considerably cheaper than the forged article. The best axles, however, are doubtless made from crucible steel out of Swedish charcoal iron ; those made from Glendon steel are giving good results, and there are other mixtures that are recommended. The axle makers in some cases make their steel in ac¬ cordance with specifications received from the truck makers. It is often required that axles be surfaced down to the one-thousandth of an inch of the specified diameter, in order to provide a suitable support for the motors, and a proper seat for the gear wheels ; hence it is highly important that the metal 264 STREET RAILWAYS. be uniform and homogeneous. Axles should be rough turned all over before making any finishing cuts, as this will avoid the springing of the metal out of true, caused by releasing the strain which the skin exerts on the bar. In case one part is finished be¬ fore dressing the entire surface, the parts will be out of true with each other, and trouble will be ex¬ perienced from the heating of motor bearings. The ing axles upon a lathe as is ordi¬ narily done “die drawn” bars may be employed. These bars after , being rolled from the. ^ steel billets are drawn through a die, after the man¬ ner of making wire, -Roug-b- Xlr- Fig. 465.—Heavy Axles Suitable for Four, Six or Eight Whef.£ Cars. and it is claimed that by this process the transverse and torsional strength is greatly increased and, that it imparts to the axle a harder, better polished and better wearing surface than can be produced by any other method of dressing. The manufacturers guarantee their axles accurate in size to within one-thousandth of an inch. Because of the necessity of dressing motor axles, not so much attention can be given to the shape of the axles between the wheels as is done in steam service, but great attention should be given to the dimensions of the body and journals, as the mis¬ takes that have led to disaster in motor service have been in regard to dimensions rather than to the quality of the metal or method of manufact¬ ure. The severity of the service is very great, and while other parts of the equipment have been increased accordingly (the wheels, for instance, be¬ ing fifty per cent, heavier than formerly) the diame¬ ter of the axles remains about the same, and is en¬ tirely too small. While it is not possible to recommend a standard that will prove ser¬ viceable under all conditions, because the only test (long service) is wanting, still we can refer to the practice of some of the lines that have had several years’ ser- vice and are modelling their present designs (Fig. 465) for ad¬ ditional equip¬ ment after the r- plain teachings of (i .i experience. Others find that a journal three and one- half inches in diameter, with the wheel seat four % inches, gives generally better satisfaction (Fig. 466). Figs. 467 to 469 illustrate the dimen¬ sions of axles heretofore employed with dif¬ ferent types of motors. The present tendency is in the direction of increased size. Of course, the diameter of axles will be influenced some¬ what by the type of truck and motor employ¬ ed and the diameter of the wheels, the thirty-six inch wheels being more severe on axles at the point of greatest strain (just inside the hub) than on the thirty or thirty-three inch wheels, and the radial trucks also require a heavier axle. Not only does the diameter of the wheel influence the de¬ sign for the axle, but the type of wheel employed CAR BUILDING. 265 should also be considered. In steam practice it is found that axles of the same dimensions have a much longer life when employed with paper wheels than with cast wheels. This is due, doubtless, to the wheels being somewhat elastic, so that they do — 45 -e— Fig. 466.—Axle for Westinghouse Motor. not transmit the shocks to the axles. Similar claims are made for adjustable wheels that are cushioned upon the axle. The journals should be enlarged to correspond with the increased diameter of axles ; for sixteen foot bodies they should not be less than two and seven-eighths inches in diameter, and not less than three and a quarter inches for twenty foot bodies. The side edges of the brasses should be slightly rounded to allow for better lubrication, and the ends also, to prevent wearing a shoul¬ der on the journal. About one-fourth of an inch lateral motion of axle must be provided for, as this will give the best results in relation to the keyways. The journal boxes are usually so constructed as to be dust and oil tight and easy running, and it is vital to the success of any truck that they should be so, and that they should require oiling but once in six or twelve months. The brasses should last from five to ten years. In designing trucks, attention should be given to cushioning all the parts as far as possible. This will be apparent when we consider that the non¬ elastic or dead weight per wheel of a sixteen foot electric car is about 800 lbs., counting the weight of the wheel, journal box, axle gear and one-third the motor. The total weight per wheel, with 100 pas¬ sengers, would be in the neighborhood of 6,500 lbs. The force of a hammer blow increases directly as the weight; hence, it is easy to understand why the service of electric motors is much more severe upon the track and appliances than horse cars, and more severe even than steam locomotives. SPRINGS. Until recent years rubber was exten¬ sively used for all classes of railroad springs, but did not operate satisfac¬ torily in cold climates. Following this era, a spring composed of a steel coil, inside of which was placed a cylinder of rubber, was generally employed. This type of spring was quite effective, and produced at much less cost than the barrel shaped rubber springs formerly used. To prevent the chafing of the rub¬ ber by the coils, cone shaped pieces of rubber were fitted in at each end of the coil, which allowed of the rubber spreading out under compression with¬ out coming in contact with the coils (Fig. 470). ± ^ 5 “ 1 _ 1 _ Fig. 467. -- tm - -Axle for Edison Single Reduction Motor. Fig. 468.—Axle for 2 B. Gear. Size & location of key-way -w- -1-1- t—1 — H ir 11 -^—- CO II « IL UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ( _ > State of M. N. The X. Y. Z. Cross Town & Broomfield Railway Co. 20- Year 6 Per Cent. First Mortgage Gold Bonds. [Whole Issue, $20,000.] The X, Y. Z. Cross Town & Broomfield Street Railway Co. for value received, acknowledges itself to be indebted unto, and promises to pay to the holder of this bond on the first day of September, 1908, at the offices of the Central Trust Com¬ pany, in the City of New York, Five Hundred Dollars in the United States Gold Coin, and also to pay interest thereon at the rate of six per cent, per annum, payable semi-annually at the Central Trust Company, as before said, in like gold coin, on the first days of September and March in each year, after the surrender of the proper annexed coupons as they severally become due as provided therein, and in case of default in the payment of any of the interest coupons attached to this bond in the manner provided in the said trust deed or mortgage, then, and in that case, the principal sum of the bond shall be¬ come due in the manner and with the effect provided in the said trust deed or mortgage. This bond is one of a series of forty bonds numbered consecutively from one to forty, inclu¬ sive, of like date, tenor, amount and effect, and payment of them all equally is secured by a deed of trust or mortgage bearing date September 1, 1886, duly executed by said Com¬ pany, conveying to the Central Trust Company, of New York, trustee, the railroad and line of the Company located or to be hereafter located by said Company in the city of X. Y. Z. and the township of West X. Y. Z., in the county of E., State of M. N., and all other the property, rights, privileges, moneys, assets and franchises of said company, acquired or to be here¬ after acquired and more particularly therein. Such trust deed or mortgage is a first lien upon all the property, rights and estates therein described. This bond shall nbt bind the Com¬ pany until the certificate hereon endorsed is signed by the be¬ fore mentioned trustee. In Testimony Whereof, the said company has caused its corporate seal to be hereto affixed and these presents to be j No. 4- j signed by its "President, Secretary and Treasurer at the city of X. Y. Z. on the first day of September, 1886. Henry Martin, President. Alex. Hillhouse, Secretary. Wm. Jones, Treasurer. INTEREST COUPON. The X. Y. Z. Crosstown & Broomfield Rail¬ way Company will pay to bearer on the first day of March, 1889, Fifteen Dollars in gold coin at the office of the Central Trust Company, in the City of New York, being six months’ interest due that day on its Bond No. Wm. Jones, Treasurer. The following is endorsed on the back of the above bond: The X. Y. Z. Crosstown & Broomfield Railway Co. First Mortgage, Six Per Cent., $500 Gold Bond. Interest Payable March 1st and September 1st. Principal due September 1st, 1908. Trustees' Certificate.—It is hereby certified that the X. Y. Z. Crosstown & Broomfield Railway Company has exe¬ cuted to us a mortgage or deed of trust, as described in the within bond, and that no more of such bonds have been certi¬ fied by us than are authorized by said mortgage or deed of trust. Central Trust Company, Trustee, By Isaac Walton, President The directors of a corporation are usually re¬ strained by law from disposing of the shares of capital stock for less than their par value, but the bonds may be sold for any price or given away. The annual or semi-annual income to the hold¬ ers of bonds is a fixed and certain amount (interest), without regard to the success of the business, while the income to stockholders is uncertain, depending upon the paying or passing of a dividend. CHAPTER XII. BOOKKEEPING AND THE CEASSIPICATION OF STREET RAIEWAY ACCOUNTS. Whatever benefits may accrue to a community from the existence of a street railway, the prime motive with the projectors and operators is revenue , and every means that tends to increase the net in¬ come should be carefully considered. No depart¬ ment of the service is more important or more re¬ sponsible for securing this desired end than the accounting department. Any neglect in properly organizing or conducting this department will be as fatal to the financial success of a street railway company as would neglect in the operating depart¬ ment. Aside from matters relating strictly to the accounting for everything received, the accounting department incidentally gains considerable statisti¬ cal information relating to the exact nature and ex¬ tent of the numerous labors performed and the precise cost of movements, which furnishes the best obtainable data from which to rate the degree of skill and economy exercised in each department, and by each class of officials and employes. In order to properly conduct it, an efficient clerical force is necessary, and the work should be done in accordance with proper rules and regulations, and the items should be combined and condensed as much as possible. In order to assist in this direc¬ tion the following analysis of accounts is present¬ ed, (see next page), which is based on the require¬ ments of the Railroad Commissioners of the State of New York, under which all the street railway companies of the state are required to make annual reports to the Board. The requirements of other states may vary, but the same basis of division under different heads, and the same sys¬ tem of keeping accounts can be used, whatever the local requirement or personal fancy may be. The following notes may be added in explana¬ tion of the analysis. They indicate the individual accounts that should be carried to the various headings. 3. COST OF ROAD AND EQUIPMENT. 1 . Superintendence and General Expenses.— To include salaries and personal expenses of gen¬ eral officers and superintendents, with their respect¬ ive assistants and clerks, furniture, stationery, fuel and other office supplies. 2. Engineering.— To include wages of engineers, draughtsmen and assistants, with office and other expenses. 3. Right of Way. —To include cost of obtaining franchise, salaries and expenses of agents in secur¬ ing consents, with all payments for right of way. 4. Real Estate and Buildings.— To include cost of all real estate and buildings used exclusively for railroad purposes, together with all necessary furniture and fixtures. Note :— All real estate not so used should be charged , as an investment , to an account kept for that purpose. 5. Road Bed and Track.— To include the cost of preparing the foundation, cost of all material and labor of distributing and laying same, including paving and wiring. 6. Overhead Construction.— To include cost of poles, wire and insulating devices with expense of placing same. 7. Rolling Stock. —To include the cost of cars and trucks built or purchased, cost of grips, mo¬ tors, wiring, trolley, switches, furnishings, etc. 8. Auxiliary Appliances.— To include cost of snow plows and sweepers, with electrical equip¬ ment or grips for same, wagons and other vehicles. ANALYSIS OF ACCOUNTS. 360 STREET RAILWAYS. 1. History. 2. Capital Stock and Funded Debt. 2. 3 - 4- 5 - 6 . 7 - 8 . 3. Cost of Road and Equipment. 9 - ic. 11. 12. 4. Income. 5. Operating Expenses. 6. Fixed Charges. 1. 2 . 3- 4 - I. 7. Balance Sheet. Superintendence and general expenses. Engineering. Right of way. Real estate and build’gs. Roadbed and track. Overhead construction. Rolling stock. Auxiliary appliances. Power plant. Cable and carrying sheaves. Repair shops. Additions and better- ments. Earnings . Other sources , Miscellaneous. Transportation. 1. 2 . 3 - 1. 2 . 3 - 1. 2 . 3 - 4 - 5 * 6 . 7 - 1. 2. 3. 4 - 5- Maintenance of way and structures. 6 . 7 - 1. 2. 3 * Maintenance of rolling stock and power - equipment. 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 . Interest. Rent. Taxes. Franchise charges. Assets Liabilities 7 . 8 . . 9- ' I. 2. 3- 4 - 5- 6 . • 7 - 8 . 9- 10. 11. 12. A3- 1. 2. . 3- 4- 5 - 6 . Passengers. Express and mail. Advertising. Sale of manure, old material, and dis¬ abled animals. Interest and rents. Surplus of previous year. Salaries of general officers and clerks. Office service and supplies. Insurance. Legal Injury to persons and property. Contingent. Franchise account. Car service. Car barn. Lubricants and waste. J £, or cars - Supplies. ( 2 ‘ For P° wer house - Wrecking, sanding, sweeping and clean¬ ing of conduits. Stable and power house. Provender and fuel. Repairsand renewals of r’dbed and track. Repairs and renewals of overhead wire. Repairs and renewals of buildings, docks and wharves. Repairs and renewals of cars and vehi¬ cles. Repairs and renewals of cable sheaves and grip dies. Repairs of harness and stable equipment. Horse shoeing. Renewals of horses and mules. Repairs of electric car equipment. Repairs of power plant Tools and machinery. Miscellaneous. Motor armature. Gears and pinions. Trolleys. Miscellaneous. Steam. Cable. Electric. Cost of road. Cost of equipment. Real estate and buildings. Stocks and bonds. Franchise. Other permanent investments. Cash on hand. Bills receivable. Open accounts. Supplies. Sinking fund. Sundries. Profit and loss (surplus). Capital stock. Funded debt. Interest due and accrued. Dividends unpaid. Audited vouchers. Pay rolls. 7. Open accounts. 8. Bills payable, g. Sundries. 10. Profit and loss (deficit). 11. Deficit of previous years. BOOKKEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 361 9. Power Plant.— To include cost of engines, boilers, cable winding drums, pit machinery, ten¬ sion devices, generators, switchboards, shafting, belting, cranes, foundations, pumps, piping and labor of securing all in position, with heating and lighting appliances. 10. Cable and Carrying Sheaves. —To include cost of wire ropes, with carrying and terminal sheaves and placing the same ready for operation. 11. Repair Shops. —To include cost of iron work¬ ing and wood working machinery, tools and power, if it is independent of the power plant, and the ex¬ penses of setting the machinery and appliances. 12. Additions and Betterments. —To include such expenditures as actually increase the construc¬ tion or equipment, and such expenses for renewals or repairs as exceed what is necessary to make good any depreciation of road and equipment. 4. INCOME. I. EARNINGS. a. From Passengers. —To include cash receipts for fare and sale of tickets. b. From Express and Mail. —To include returns for transporting freight—express or mail. c. From Advertising. —To include receipts for ad¬ vertising in cars, buildings or on tickets. 2 . OTHER SOURCES. a. Sale of Manure, Old Material and Disabled Animals. —To include receipts from the sale of worn out animals, old materials and manure. Note. Receipts from these sources may be credited, if preferred, under “ Operating Expenses" to the account to which the new material purchased to replace the old is charged. If the old material is not sold or replaced it may be debited to the “ Supply” account and when used again or sold this account should receive credit for the same. b. Interest and Rents. —To include receipts for interest on securities or loans and receipts for build¬ ings, grounds, leased lines or tracks, and power leased to other parties. c. Surplus of Previous Years. —To include the net income, less the payments made therefrom on the business of the previous year. 5. OPERATING EXPENSES. 1. MISCELLANEOUS. t. Salaries of General Officers and Clerks.— To include salaries of general officers, heads of de¬ partments, division superintendents and wages of their respective assistants and clerks. 2. Office Service and Supplies. —To include the expense of heating and lighting the general offices, wages of porters, messengers, advertising, printing of blanks, tickets and circulars, stationery, blank books, tools, etc. 3. Insurance. —To include cost of insurance on any property used for railroad purposes, cost of guarantee against accidental bodily injuries or death of employes, passengers and the public, cost of conducting employes’ mutual aid association, in¬ cluding expense of collections. Note. Insurance on property other than that used for railroad purposes should be charged against the property insured. The cost of guarantee may be charged to “ Injuries to Persons and Property,” if preferred. 4. Legal. —To include salaries, fees and expenses of attorneys and all legal expenses of every kind. Note. A portion of legal expenses may be divided tip between “ Injuries to Persons and Property ,” “ Real Estate ” or “ Franchise ” as the services are rendered." 5. Injuries to Persons and Property. —To in¬ clude payments made for damages to or destruc¬ tion of property (not belonging to the company), for persons killed or injured, wages of the employes while disabled, medical attendance or any other ex¬ penses (except legal) incident thereto. 6. Removal of Snow and Ice.— To include cost of labor, salt and other expense incident thereto. 7. Contingent. —To include any miscellaneous expenses or rents incurred exclusively in the opera¬ tion of the road for which other provision is not made. 8. Franchise Account. —To include cost of re¬ paving streets, over and above the repairs to pave¬ ments, which are chargeable to maintenance of way. 2. TRANSPORTATION. i Car Service. —To include the wages of all men employed on or about the cars while in ser- 3 62 STREET RAILWAYS. vice, chief conductor, inspectors, starters, with their respective aids. 2. Car Barn. —To include wages of barn foremen and all persons employed for shifting, cleaning or inspecting cars, tools for same, cost of heating and lighting barns and sheds. 3. Lubricants and Waste. — To include oil, grease, tallow and other lubricants, and waste em¬ ployed on the journals of cars and motors, and on the engines, shafting, winding drums, generators and pumps in the power house, and on the rope and carrying pulleys. 4. Supplies. —To include such supplies as are not charged to repairs, such as conductors’ punches and portable registers, flags, lanterns, switch sticks, etc. 5. Wrecking, Sanding, Sweeping and Cleaning Conduit.— To include the cost of replacing de¬ railed cars and removing obstructions and wrecks, with the wages of men employed especially for this service, and cost of tools. Cost of sweeping track, cleaning conduit, sanding track from car or by special means. 6 . Stable and Power House. — To include the wages of foreman, engineer, electrician and all em¬ ployed in and about the stable or power house. 7. Provender and Fuel. —To include the cost of feed and the labor of grinding, cutting and prepar¬ ing for use, and cost of bedding, medicine and vet¬ erinary services. Cost of fuel employed in the power house, with freight charges on the same, water rates and cost of pumping. 3. MAINTENANCE OF WAY AND STRUCTURES. 1. Repairs and Renewals of Road Bed and Track.— To include cost of all material and tools (rails, ties, paving blocks, sand, etc.), with the cost of labor, (wages of roadmaster, foreman and labor¬ ers) in maintaining, repairing and placing new ma¬ terial for track, joints, switches, bonds and supple¬ mentary wire, and tracks in buildings. 2. Repairs and Renewals of Overhead Con¬ struction.— To include cost of repairs and re¬ newals of poles, all wires and all suspension and in¬ sulating appliances. 3. Repairs and Renewals of Buildings, Docks and Wharves.— To include cost of all material and expense of distributing same, and all labor perform¬ ed in repairs of offices, stables, stations, buildings, scales, car and repair shops, power house and any other buildings, turntables, cranes, pits and wharves. Note. Repairs to buildings or other property not used for railroad purposes are to be charged against the property. 4. MAINTENANCE OF ROLLING STOCK AND POWER 4 EQUIPMENT. 1. Repairs and Renewals of Cars, Sweepers, Snow Plows and other Vehicles. —To include cost of material and labor in repairing, renewing or rebuilding cars and appurtenances belonging there¬ to, such as trucks, grips, brakes, journal boxes, springs, scrapers, pilots, sand boxes, signs, wheels and axles. Cost of new cars purchased to make good any depreciation. 2. Repairs and Renewals of Cai les, Grips, Dies and Sheaves. —To include cost of ropes, splicing and placing the same in line ; cost of lining and renewing carrying pulleys and terminal sheaves. 3. Repairs of Harnesses and Stable Equip¬ ment. —To include cost of material and labor in repairing or renewing, or of new harness or stable equipment purchased to make good any deprecia¬ tion. 4. Horse Shoeing. —To include cost of material and labor and cost of adjustable shoes. 5. Renewals of Horses and Mules.— To include cost of horses and mules purchased to replace those worn out. 6. REPAIRS OF ELECTRIC CAR EQUIPMENT. a. Motor Armatures and Fields. —To include the cost of new material and the labor of removing, repairing, replacing and making all connections for these parts, and the cost of new armatures and fields purchased to make good any depreciation. b. Gears and Pinions. —To include the cost of re¬ pairs and renewals, with the labor of removing and replacing, and the cost of new' gears and pinions to take the place of those discarded. c. Trolleys. —To include the cost of repairs, re¬ newals, labor, and new trolley poles and wheels to replace those damaged or destroyed. BOOKKEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 363 d. Miscellaneous. —To include repairs of motors and fields other than those above noted, and re¬ pairs and renewals of all auxiliary electric appli¬ ances, such as switches, lightning arresters, rheo¬ stats, pans, brush holders, brushes and fuses. Note. — If preferred, the cost of brushes and fuses may be charged to supplies under the transportation ex¬ penses, as, strictly speaking, they are not repairs. 7. REPAIRS OF POWER PLANT. a. Steam Plant. —To include cost of repairs of engines, boilers, pumps, steam pipe, belts and shafting. b. Cable Plant. —To include cost of renewals and repairs to winding drums, gears and tension ap¬ paratus. c. Electric. —To include cost of renewals and re¬ pairs to generators and their parts, with the labor of removing and replacing ; also renewals of switch¬ board equipment and all connections. 8. Tools and Machinery. —To include cost of re¬ pairs and renewals of repair and car shop equip¬ ment. 9. —Miscellaneous. —To include all expenses of maintenance of equipment not provided for as above. 6. FIXED CHARGES. 1. Interest. —To include all payments made on account of funded or floating debts. 2. Rents. —To include rentals of leased lines and buildings, stables, power houses, sheds and build¬ ings for railroad purposes. 3. Taxes. —To include such as are assessed on property used in the operation of the road, on earn¬ ings, capital stock, and other than the foregoing. 4. Franchise Charges. — To include any pay¬ ments made to the city on gross earnings, in a con¬ sideration of franchise. BOOKS. Having properly analyzed the accounts, the bookkeeping becomes a comparatively simple mat¬ ter. Two principal books only are required; the number of auxiliary books, or report blanks, will depend upon the extent and number of depart¬ ments into which the business is divided. The principal books are known as Journal or Distribu¬ tion Book and Ledger. The Journal or Distribution Book may be kept in different ways. One form of ruling is shown in Form B, headed “ Operating Expenses.” This method requires that the pages of the Journal be about 28 X 17 ins., which is bound with a number of divisions to correspond with the number of ledger headings required. Each division is ruled to suit the number of sub-headings required, and a tag is inserted to mark the beginning of the divi¬ sions. By this method the sum total is carried to the debit of an account under “ Operating Expen¬ ses” in the ledger, so that the various charges under the several headings do not take up the room on the ledger, but are condensed under the one heading, the details appearing only in this dis¬ tribution book. The following embrace all the ledger headings that are employed in a set of books that represent the business of a very large system of animal traction : Capital Stock, Bonds, Treasurer, Profit & Loss, Passenger Earnings, Equipment, Real Estate & Buildings, Operating Expenses, Interest, Taxes, Miscellaneous Earnings, Accounts Payable, Supplies, Accounts Receivable. Construction, The same thing is done with the “ Equipment Account.” A division of the distribution book has a heading and under it the various columns show cost of cars, horses, motors, etc., and at the end of each month the sum total is carried to the account called “ Equipment” in the ledger. The same for “Construction;" the columns show¬ ing amounts expended for rails, road bed, etc. By this means the details of all expenses, whether on account of capital, operation, interest, taxes, etc., are entered in the distribution book, and each month the sums total are carried to these various accounts in the ledger, the items of which can be found in detail by reference to the distribution book. In keeping supplies, the purchases may be made and charged to the various operating accounts for a,Yvw& 364 STREET RAILWAYS. s <> P- 8 i £ O fi % r O \ 2 > —3 c «C CO *0 0 «* oc cO tf O' cJ if a CJ ^^■U.'Ag iyyo\$ V" V^Qf an VO t- d a § tv^cr v* g K a g k- «■ V^GT 5° «V»Mi O' OC >-£ O' cc i wj^wo c^uw^o^ (0 vtVojvk 3 O' «n 2 - 1 O' gr- ' 4 vi l '3 \ wo vv»i\JJ efe — g i 0 ci vS 0 CO VC cC u- cl o> rf> ? £ 1- J £ % m 'S 0 ? <=s 0 ) 01 ? < d «< O # un J.t •* <5 o£ S E p < ffl IA| '4 f-s -^ •*•* J > «o s i 0 »** 1 j O °* » -0 J il 4 •& u 7 « li ?! H 3 ! J , J •J l d <3 0® ! ii ?•> o> ^ « .s s G v| i I-; l *V^ •* * 4 J t j ft € G> OJ t « j ■5; => SJ 28,881 45.9 20,706 834,378 718.801 11.692 23.384 31,989 45.6 22 644 365.884 794.653 11.692 23.384 31 ,'089 46.3 22.291 360,068 927.339 11 692 23 384 33,670 45.2 23,006 373,048 959,810 12.407 24.814 33.466 45.8 21.612 369,987 979.723 12.407 24.814 35,029 45.4 22,993 393.101 1.039.362 12.407 24.814 34,958 45 22.533 385.835 1,024.325 12.407 24.814 34,202 43.8 21,021 360,240 1,028,523 12.407 24.814 35,325 43.8 21,451 367,304 1.126.949 12 407 24.814 33.793 41.3 19,300 331,823 830,566 12.407 24.814 35,214 41.2 10,910 342.005 871,967 12.109 24.218 399,542 44.6 259.993 4,348,713 11,128,021 EARNINGS. Car Fares_-........... Advertising ... .. *41,300.15 181.19 $35,940.05 182.15 $39,732.65 182.70 $46,366.95 * 181 25 $47,990.60 181.95 $48,986.15 184.80 $51,968 10 184.25 $51,216.25 185.00 $51,426;15 183.27 $56,347 45 182.85 $41,528 30 182.40 30.00 $13,599.35 181.65 15.00 $ 556,401.05 2.193.3T 45.00 Total Earnings... $41,481.25 $36,122.20 $39,915.35 $46,548.20 *48.172.45 $49,170.95 $52,152.35 $51,401.25 $51,603 42 $56,530.30 $41,740.70 $43,795.00 $ 558.639.42 OPERATING EXPENSES. Car {Service and Expense. Injuries to Persons and Property... Oar Licenses... Repairs of Cars.. Repairs of Grips .. Motive Power. Maintenance of Track and Buildlgs General and Miscellaneous. Advertising and Attractions. Taxes... Total Operating Expenses. PerCent. of learnings. $13,846.82 2,532.07 274.97 797.75 4.35.72 10,890.97 718.34 3,226.35 869.55 $12,831.95 1,722.86 285.41 727.68 421.10 11,566.46 716.76 2,337.16 36.40 1.048.10 $13,715.22 1,570.33 285; 41 861.49 541.04 10,640.03 534.35 2,703.91 406.90 884.58 $13,209.43 4,209.29 308.33 664.70 567.44 9.0SO.57 573.45 2,179.89 76.88 870.10 $13,000.71 2,804.10 304 17 680:89 552.59 10.032.50 571.73 1,996.73 129.59 873.46 $12,836.00 1,982.78 304.17 730.29 511.34 11.023.82 596.21 2,535.21 289.87 687.16 $13,097.42 2,013.23 306.25 677.49 387.79 11,224 05 1,134.89 1,132.54 349 54 1,178.84 $11,903.08 1,102.39 308 32 732.55 479.19 10,652.25 1,-94.42 2.260.04 325.11 707.45 $10,533 29 1.493.29 293.80 570.41 445.29 10.991.21 835.12 2,199.97 810.05 613 00 $11,083.05 1,031.82 308.42 729.97 418.23 12,143.95 736.40 2,296.72 733.08 67 54 $10,174.89 987.57 277 92 1,013.70 460.99 12,155 20 683.24 2,335.94 679.97 $10,735.45 3.058.94 241.65 835.78 512.19 12,174.85 803.62 2,481 67 166.11 * 146,947.31 24.503.67 .3.538.82 8,912.70 >0,732.71 132.475.86 9,198.63 27,709.13 .3,160.42 .8.645.85 $33,592.54 $31,693.88 $32,133.26 $31,740.03 $30,846.46 $31,696.65 *31.502.04 $29,664.80 *•18,685.43 $29,532.18 $28,689.42 $31,048.26 $ 370.825.00 80.98 87.74 80.50 68.19 64.03 64.46 60.40 67.71 65.53 52.24 68.73 70.89 66.38 Cost per Car per Mile. 9.2c 9.5c 8.8c 8.8c 8.3c 8.6c 8o | 7.7c 8c Sc 8.6c 9c 8,5o Net Earnings. 1891. $ 7,888.71 $ 4 428.32 $ 7.7P2 09 $14,808.12 $17,325.99 $17,474.30 $20,651.31 .*21,736.45 $22,923.99 $26,998.12 $13.05128 $12,746.74 $ 187,814.42 Net Earnings 1890. $ 3,924.27 $ 6,428.11 $ 8,566.19 $15,764.01 $24,034.54 $23,274.20 $21,845.93 j $20,997.25 $23,981.41 *22,212.06 $16,702.27 $14,641.19 $ 202.371.39 $ 739.20 $ 4,786.06 ■ Decrease...,, .... $ 1.999 79 $ 7<4 Oft $ 955.89 $ 6.708.55 $ 5.799.96 $ 1.195.621. $ 1.057 42 $ 3 650.99 $ 1.894.45 $ 14.556.97 Items that do not come under either printed head can be all carried into the sundries column and posted direct to the ledger. The ledger is ruled in the usual form, and does not differ from those used in ordinary bookkeep¬ ing. As an aid to forming the divisions and subdivi sions of the journal, the accompanying Form D is presented, which is a monthly statement made from a journal kept in the manner last described, and, it will be seen, is composed of five departments with their subdivisions. The analyses of accounts given in this form do not correspond in all respects with that given on page 360, but are very satisfactory. From Car No. —, 6. Motorman, 7. Repaired by -, 8. Time Consumed, 9. Placed in Car No. —, 10. Date Same was Replaced. Books for the daily and weekly horse report and power house reports with engineer’s log book and others are also necessary. Form E is offered as a desirable model from which a manager may make a summary of an annual report to his board of directors. The form is reproduced without altering the figures from the annual report of the manager of a large street railway system. The following statistical forms are self-explana¬ tory. 3 68 STREET RAILWAYS. STATISTICS. Earnings. Gross Earnings from Passengers. “ per Mile of Street. “ •* •• “ Track “ “ Car Mile....."!!; “ “ “ Capita served. “ “ “ Passenger Carried Other Income “ Car Mile. Operation. 1891. 1892. Car Miles Run. Passengers Carried. “ “ per Car Mile. Population Served. Area Served, Square Miles. Operating Expenses ; General Expenses per Car Mile. Transportation “ “ . Maintenance of Way “ “ . of Equipment per Car Mile. Total Operating Expenses “ “ . “ “ “ “ Passenger Carried Fixed Charges per Car Mile. “ “ Passenger Carried. Equipment. Capital Stock per Mile Track... Funded Debt “ “ “ Other Debt “ “ “ ... Cars in Service. “ per Mile Track. Repairs Roadbed per Mile Road “ Equipment “ “ ROAD AND EQUIPMENT. Roadbed : Miles of Single Track. “ of Double “ . Total Mileage of Track. “ “ of Street. Miles of Cable Conduit. Overhead Construction, Miles. Power Station. Horse Power Engines. “ “* Dynamos. Barns and Stables : Number of Horses. Rolling Stock: Number of Closed Cars. “ “ Open “ . " “ Motors. “ “ Grips. “ Snow Sweepers, etc CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT. Roadbed : New Lines of Double Track “ “ “ Single “ Second Track. “ Conduit Construction. “ Track Wiring. Overhead Electric Construction. Power Station : Additions to Steam Plant.. “ Electric “ .. “ “ Cable “ .. Barns and Stables : Increase of Horses. “ “ Equipment. Rolling Stock: Additions to Closed Car Bodies “ “ Open “ “ “ Trucks. “ “ Motors. “ “ Grips. Repair Shops : Additions to Plant. 1891. 1892. Totals RECAPITULATION. Gross Earnings. Operating Expenses. Earnings over Operating Expenses. Fixed Charges. Net Earnings. Construction Account. Surplus Applicable to Dividends. Dividends Paid. Surplus Account. PERCENTAGES. Percentage Operat’n Exp’n’es to Gross Earnings “ Fixed Charges “ “ “ “ Net Earnings “ “ “ Dividends on Stock. “ Interest on Bonds. RECORD BLANKS. The following forms, which are copies of those used on a well managed line, will be found admir¬ ably adapted for the purposes specified. RECORD OF EMPLOYES. The blank (form F, note size) should be handed the applicant when he is engaged, and he should also be furnished with a copy of the Rule Book, and with a copy of instructions to motormen if he is to operate an electric car. When this form is returned and the report is favorable, form G should be furnished, which, after it has gone its rounds, should be returned to the superintendent’s office, when the two forms should be attached to¬ gether and filed away alphabetically in a case pro¬ vided for the purpose. When an employe leaves the service he should be required to present to the secretary and treasurer, a note from the superin¬ tendent (form H) which, when it is returned, should be attached to the other slips relating to the case ; thus a complete record will be kept of the dates when a party entered or left the service, and which will show where the party may be found after leaving the service. BOOKKEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 3 6 9 ACCIDENT AND DAMAGE BLANKS. A book of blanks (forms I and I 1 ) should be pro¬ vided for the conductors, one of which he should be required to fill out in case of an accident to persons or damage to property, the same forms being used in both cases ; the two forms, however, may be printed on different colored paper. When filled it should be torn from the book and sent to the superintendent’s office. On being received at the office it should be filed away for reference, and a copy, if necessary, should be sent to the claim agent of the company, who should interview the witnesses at once. DAILY POWER HOUSE REPORT OR LOG BOOK. The power house daily report is shown in form J. The foreman should be also required to make a report of supplies drawn each day. A large sheet should also be provided (form K) on which should be printed the names of all elec¬ trical parts, classified, and small car parts, on which the storekeeper of the motor repair department should make his report to the superintendent. WINDOW AND DOOR GLASS RECORD. Form Lis a blank io X 12 ins., which is designed not only for keeping a record of broken glass, but also to prevent breakage ; for after the men are confronted a few times with this record they will learn to be more careful. ARMATURE REPAIRS. Form M is a copy of the front and reverse sides of the eyelet tag which should be provided, for use as per directions on the reverse side. At the office a book properly ruled should be kept, into which the contents of the card should be copied. By this means the cause of damage will be recorded, and an accurate account will be kept of all armatures repaired, and by whom made. (F) APPLICATION BLANKS. X. Y. Z. RAILWAY COMPANY. BROWNSTOWN, February 6th, 1892. jyjr. Samuel Jones, Foreman First Ave. Division. Place bearer Mr. Paul Geary, on with Peter James, John Smith, and Henry Robinson, for instructions in the duties of Conductor.. . B. G. Smith, Sup’t. To Sup’t X. Y. Z. Railway Company : Bearer. iW G eary, . has been under instructions with the undersigned for the num¬ ber of days set opposite our names. He is familiar with all rules and regulations, and with the streets along this route. He is also familiar with all switches, curves and turnouts about the station, and the various branches connecting with this division, and I recommend him. On with. P eter fames ., .2.days. << John Smith , 3 ■< <■ Henry Robinson , 2 ■< (G) Brownstown. February 13th, 1892. I, Paul Geary, Born in Brownstown, Age. 3 °. Married. Residence 2900 Hill Street, . Desire employment with the X. Y. Z. Railway Company as Conductor , at AtV- 5 ^.Avenue Division. I have been furnished with a printed copy of the rules and regulations governing motormen and conductors of this com¬ pany, have carefully read the same, and agree to cheerfully comply with all of said rules, regulations and conditions con¬ tained therein. Occupation during last two years as follows: Driver, Suburban & Eastern Railway Co., 8 months'. Con¬ ductor, People's Railway Co., 16 months. Respectfully, [Signed.] .A«/ Gea ry. _ Recommended by. Frank Brown of Sub. & E. Xy. Co. , Thomas Smith of People's Railway Co. Deposit made and badge furnished. Thomas Hall, Sec’y. Mi. Samuel Brown, Foreman: Please assign Mr. Paul Geary to a place on 1 he “ Extra ” List. B. G. Smith, Supt. Reported for duty, February 13th, 1802. Sam’l Brown, Foreman. (H) X. Y. Z. RAILWAY COMPANY. Brownstown,..1892. John Jones, Treasurer : Please pay (between the hours of 2 and 3 o’clock P. m.) Paul Geary the amount due him to date. />’. G. Smith, supt. Resigned to go to Chicago, III. Address, 541 Dearborn St. 37° STREET RAILWAYS. (i) ACCIDENT REPORT BLANK. Brownstowii, January 1st, iSgi. On our 7:40 P. M. trip going Past, at Broadway and Market Streets, a lady stepped off the car before the same was stopped. The bell was rung for the crossing, but she jumped off on the lVest side and fell. I stopped the car immediately and went back to her, but she was not hurt. Gave her name as Airs. A. S. Good min, No. 3490 Belton Ave. N. Robins, 70S N. John Street. G. J. Martin, 1240 Broadway. IV. Jones, Motorman Car No. 20. A. Smith, Conductor “ “ Witnesses : (ID DAMAGE REPORT BLANK. Brownstown, January 1st, i8gi. On our 8:10 A. M. trip going East, at Twelfth and Martin Streets, we collided with a wagon belonging to the Thompson Commission Co., of 1130 Jefferson Street, in charge of John Hopkinson, damaging the same slightly and bending the dash of our car, No. 84. The driver pulled directly in front of us, within ten feet of the car, not giving the motorman time to stop. ^ J as. Wright, 102 N. Fourth Street. } A. Peters, 4128 S. Broad Street. A. Wilkinson, Motorman Car No. 86. P. Herbert, Conductor Witnesses. << 11 (J) engineer’s log book. December , 1891. Generator No. i. Time. Generator No. 2. Time. Generator No. 3. Time. Voltage. Average Amperes. Average El. H. P. Remarks. On. Off. Run. On. Off. Run. On. Off. Run. i Engine No. i. Time. Engine No. 2. Time. Engine No. 3. Time. Steam Pressure. Average Eng. H. P. Pounds Coal Received. Remarks. On. Off. Run. On. Off. Run. On. Off. Run. (K) STOREKEEPER’S REPORT BLANK. Brownstown,.......189 B. G. Smith, Sup’t X. Y. Z. Railway Co.: I herewith report the following material furnished from storeroom.Avenue Division, this day and date. Material. Quantity. Size. Description. For Car No. For Car No. For Car No. For Car No. For Car No. For Car No. For Car N9. For Car No. To Whom Delivered. Quantity Old Materia\ Returned. (1) Armatures: “ Pinions. “ Pinion Keys etc. BOOKKEEPING AND ACCOUNTS. 37 1 (i*) GLASS RENEWAL SLIP. Day._.Date...189 Car No. Conductor. Door Glass. Side Windows. End Windows. Dome Glass. Cause of Breakage. Name. No. Remarks. —The foreman in charge must fill out car number and glass replaced, which information must be furnished him by the carpenter replacing same. This slip must then be posted in the conductors’ waiting room not later than 5 o’clock a. m., and must be left there until 9 o’clock P. M. Conductors must fill out their name and number and cause of breakage. ARMATURE TAG. (Front—M) (Reverse—M) o • 1. Armature No.___.6.342_ 2. Extent of Damage.A'a nds onoutside loose , also damaged commutator. 3. Date Damaged Feb. $th, 1892. 4. Cause of Damage IForn oui brasses. 5. From Car No._ 5 _ 6. Motorman.._ 7. Repaired by Thomas Brown. 8. Time Consumed.8__Hours. 9. Placed in Car No._6_ 10. Date same was replaced o o A tag must be attached to each Arma¬ ture taken out, by the Foreman or some person designated by him, who must fill out the first six (6) lines. The seventh and eighth lines must be filled out by Armature Winder repairing same, who must return the tag, securely attached, to the Armature. The tag must be left on the Armature until the same has been placed in some car. when the Shop Foreman must fill out the last two lines and return the tag to the Superintendent’s office. B. G. Smith, Superintendent. o 372 STREET RAILWAYS. (N) MILEAGE SHEET.* X. Y. Z. STREET RAILWAY COMPANY. Single. 1 Daily account of trips run and Monthly Report of Revenue Mileage of v Motor Electric Car No Double.) and Cars towed by it, for the Month of.189 REVENUE MOTOR TRIPS. • REVENUE TOWED TRIPS. CD © Date. p O 1 2 Motor trips on Route No. @ SUMMARY OF MILEAGE. = Towed trips on Route No. @ Total Motor Mileage, Total Towed Mileage, *To be compiled from the conductors’ reports. CHAPTER XIII HEADING TYPES OF' OAKS IEEUSTKATED. Fig. i.—S ix Wheel Radial Truck Electric Car. Fig. 2.—Long Eight Wheel Electric Car—Boston Type. 374 STREET RAILWAYS Fig. 3.—Vestibule Electric Car. Fig. 5.—Eight Wheel Electric Car with Cross Seats. LEADING TYPES OF CARS ILLUSTRATED 375 Fig. 7.—Side Vestibule Eight-Wheel Car. 376 STREET RAILWAYS. LEADING TYPES OF CARS ILLUSTRATED 377 Fig. i2 .—Electric Car. Fig. 14.—Street Railway Express Car, 378 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 15.—Double Deck, Side Vestibule Electric Car. leading types of cars illustrated. 3 79 Fig. 18.—Double Deck Trail Car with Canopy, 3 8 ° STREET RAILWAYS. Fig, 19.—Open Horse Car. Fig. 20.—Open Trail Cable Car. Fig. 21.—Open Car with Roller Curtains, LEADING TYPES OF CARS ILLUSTRATED. Fig. 22 .—Open Motor Car. Fig. 24.—Closed Cable Trail Car. 3 82 STREET RAILWAYS, Fig. 26.—Open Grip Car. BestM; LEADING TYPES OF CARS ILLUSTRATED 3«3 Fig. 27.—Closed Cable Car. Fig. 28.—Open Cable Trail Car. Fig. 29.—Combination Grip and Passenger Cable Car, 3 8 4 STREET RAILWAYS Fig. 30.—Combination Cable Car for Summer. Fig. 32.—Open Grip Car LEADING TYPES OF CARS ILLUSTRATED. 385 Fig. 34.—Bob Tail Car. Fig. 35.—Closed Trail Car. \ 3^6 STREET RAILWAYS Fig. 36. —Sixteen Foot Horse Car. Fig. 37. —Sixteen Foot Horse Car. LEADING TYPES OF CARS ILLUSTRATED. Fig. 40.—Funeral Car. Fig. 41.—Sixteen Foot Horse Car. 3 88 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 42.—Car Interior. Fig. 43.—SrucED Side Vestibule Electric Car, LEADING TYPES OF CARS ILLUSTRATED, 389 Fig. 45.—Closed Electric Car with Window Guard Rails. Fig. 46. —Combined Passenger and Freight Car 39 ° STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 47.— Eighteen Foot Electric Car. The cars shown in the foregoing illustrations were built by the following firms. The numbers after the name refer to the corresponding figures : American Car Co., St. Louis, Mo., Builders of Fig. 47. Brill Co., J. G., Philadelphia, Pa., Builders of Figs. 3, 5, 7, 9, 14, 18, 21, 22, 27, 31, 35, 38, 40, 45, 46. Briggs Carriage Co., Amesbury, Mass., Builder of Fig. 19. Brownell Car Co., St. Louis, Mo., Builders of Figs. 29, 30, 32, 34, 44. Ellis Car Co., Amesbury, Mass., Builders of Fig. 11. Gilbert Car Co., Troy, N. Y., Builders of Fig. 4. Jones’ Sons, J. M., West Troy, N. Y., Builders of Figs, r, 2, 20. Laclede Car Co., St. Louis, Mo., Builders of Figs. 24, 25, 28, 33. Lamokin Car Works, Chester, Pa., Builders of Fig. 8. Lewis & Fowler Manufacturing Co., Brooklyn, N. Y., Builders of Fig. 41. Lindell Railway Co., St. Louis, Mo., Builders of Fig. 43. Newburyport Car Manufacturing Co., Newburyport, Mass., Builders of Fig. 36. Philadelphia Traction Co., Builders of Fig. 23. Pullman's Palace Car Co., Pullman, Ill., Builders of Figs. 15, 16. Randall, I. H., Boston, Mass., Builders of Fig. 39. Sessions Passenger Car Co., Chicago, Ill., Builders of Fig. 17. Stephenson Co., John, Limited, New York, Builders of Figs. 6, 10, 13, 26, 37. St. Louis Car Co., St. Louis, Mo., Builders of Figs. 12, 42. CHAPTER XIV. AUXILIARY APPLIANCES. The following illustrations represent some of the leading articles that are employed either in the construction or operation of street railways, in addition to those illustrated in previous chapters. They are not given as the only models on the market for the purposes for which they were designed, but serve to show the character of the devices which are necessary to successful operation, and of whom such appliances may be purchased. Many of them will serve as patterns after which a company may make their own designs. In case other devices are required, or the names of other manufacturers, information can be obtained by addressing the Street Railway Journal The following firms are named as the builders of the different classes of tools and appliances. The numhers following the name indicate the figures illustrated. American Horse Protector Co., 430 West Fourteenth Street, New York, Fig 72. Bakeman & Co., Frank, 6 Rotunda, Rookery, Chicago, Ill., Fig. 77 - Beadle, Edward, 1,19s Broadway, New York, Figs. 3, 5,6, 14 . 15 - Brooklyn Railway Supply Co., Stamford, Conn., Figs. 66, 71. Brownell Car Co., St. Louis, Mo., Fig. 16. Chicago City Railway Co., Chicago, Ill., Fig. 67. Chicago Wood Mat Co., 247 North Wells Street, Chicago. Ill.. Fig. 17. Davis & Cook, Watertown, N. Y., Figs. 37, 38. Day, Augustus, 71 State Screet, Detroit. Mich., Figs. 43, 65. Dayton Manufacturing Co., Dayton, O., Figs. 42, 44 Dry Dock, East Broadway & Battery Railway Co.. New York, Fig. 99. Dudgeon, Richard, 24 Columbia Street, New York, Figs. 55, 58 , 59 . 61. Ellis Car Co., Amesbury, Mass., Fig. 64. Falls Rivet & Machine Co., Cuyahoga Falls, O., Fig 101, Frost Veneer Seating Co., 206 Canal Street, New York Fig. 102. Fulton Foundry Co., 202 Merwin Street, Cleveland, O., Fig. 39. Harris, Wn»., & Co., 44 Broadway, New York, Fig. 86. Hill Clutch Works, Cleveland, O., Fig. 100. Lewis & Fowler Manufacturing Co., Brooklyn, N. Y., Figs 2, 36, 40, 62. Lima Register Co., Lima, O., Fig. 4. Masson, Milton I., 109 West Twelfth Street, New York, Fig.n. Millers Falls Co., 93 Reade Street, New York, Figs. 96, 97, Meaker Manufacturing Co., Chicago, Ill., Fig, 7. Moseman, C. M., & Bro, 128 Chambers Street, New York, Fig. 74 New Departure Bell Co.. Bristol Conn., Fig. 41 New York Steel Mat Co., 234 Broadway, New York, Figs. 12, 13. Perfection Oil Purifying Co., 136 Liberty Street, New York, Fig. 79 - Pittsburgh Steel Hollow Ware Co. (Ltd.), Pittsburgh, Pa., Fig- 47 - Railway Equipment Co., Chicago, Ill., Figs. 76, 78, 80, 87, 88. 90, 92, 93, 95. Reliable Manufacturing Co. ,53 State Street, Boston, Mass. Fig. 35 - Ross, E. M. Co., Springfield, O., Fig. 82, 83. Smith, Josephine D., 350 Pearl Street. New York, Figs. 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 34. Standard Index & Register Co., New York, Fig. 8. Steam Gauge & Lantern Co., Syracuse, New York, Figs, 20, 21, 28, 32, 33. The Q & C. Co., 703 Phoenix Building, Chicago, III., Fig, 73. St. Louis Car Co., St. Louis, Mo., Fig. 9. Third Avenue Railway Co., New York, Figs. 69, 70. Thomson-Houston Electric Co., Boston, Mass., Fig. 63, Tilden, B. E., & Co., Cleveland O., Fig. 48. Toflfler. A., 211 East Twenty-second Street, New York, Figs 18, 19. Tucker, C H., Jr., & Bro., 129 Liberty Street New York, Fig. 75 - United Tramway Sprinkler Co., Louisville, Ky., Fig. 68. Wales Manufacturing Co., Syracuse N. Y. Fig. 10. Watson & Stillman, 204 East Forty-third Street, New York Figs. 49, 50, 51, 22, 53, 54, 56, 60. Wharton, Wm., Jr., & Co. .Twenty-fifth Street & Washington Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa., Figs. 1, 89. Wood & Fowler, Los Angeles, Cal., Fig. 45. White, Edward C., 556 West Thirty-fourth Street, New York, Figs, 64a, 98. 39 2 STREET RAILWAYS. AUXILIARY APPLIANCES, Fig. 4.—Stationary Register 394 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 8.—Stationary Register. Fig. 7.—Portable Register. Fig. 9.—Fare Box. Fig. 10.—Fare Box. FRONT VIEW. Fig. BACK VIEW. 11.—Fare Box. AUXILIARY APPLIANCES. 395 Fig. 12.—Wire Mat. Fig. 15.—Folding Wood Mat. Fig. 18.—Rolling Wood Mat. /flu ] 1 j] : t t : ti 1 T iTi in t nr 1 ■ 11 in inr 1 l "1 T j in t " r inr 1 1 r T "tttI mr ■ 1 rn ‘in T"“ _ inr s 1 v T limn" inr - ■ T ■iirr'i" inr T r " " T w ■ 11 ‘ ■' " ' 11 ' T - 1 1 ' ” - - = TV = T\ "IT r * -< THT’" II r "IT ' " r “CTj: 11 Trrrii]] Fig. 13.—Rubber Mat, Fig. 14,—Folding Wood Mat. / Fig. 20.—Head Light. Fig. 28.—Tubular Square Lamp. Fig. 32.—Head Light. Fig. 21.—Hanging Lamp. Fig. 33,—Lantern. Fig. 22.—Two Group Lamp. Fig. 23.—Three Group Lamp. Fig. 27.—Dome Light. Fig. 31.—Combined Orna- mentai Lamp. Fig. 34.—Head Light. AUXILIARY APPLIANCES. 3 97 Fig. 37.—Track Level. Fig. 40.—Car Heater. Fig. 38.—Track Level. 398 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 43.—Track Cleaner. AUXILIARY APPLIANCES. 399 Fig. 45.—Track Brake for Electric Cars. Fig. 46.—Track Brake Fig. 48.—Street Car Replacers. Fig. 47. —Rolled Steel Platform Gong. 400 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 49.—Hydraulic Web Punch. Fig. 50.—Spikb Slot Punch. Hydraulic Jack. Fig., 53. — Belt Power Wheel Press. AUXILIARY APPLIANCES 401 Fig. 55.—Hydraulic Spike Punch. Fig. 57.— Screw Jack. Fig. 59.— Fish Plate Punch. Fig. 60.—Horizontal Jack. Fig. 56.— Journal Box Jack. 402 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 62.—Electric Sweeper. Fig. 63.—Combined Electric Snow Plow and Sweeper, AUXILIARY APPLIANCES. 4°3 Fig. 66.—Walkaway Snow Plow. 404 STREET RAILWAYS, Fig. 67. —Wrecking or Emergency Wagon. Fig. 71.—Track Broom. Fig. 73. —Rail Saw and Samples of Work. 406 STREET RAILWAYS. r-Poirrc Fig. 77.—Ratchet Drile. Fig. 79.— 15 il Filter. Fig. 76.—“ Perfection ’’ Oil Can. Fig. 80.—“ Perfection ” Oil Can. Fig. 78.—Pipe Wrench. Fig. 75.—Track Light. Fig. 81.—Sand Drier. AUXILIARY APPLIANCES. 407 Fig. 85.— Grist Mill. Fig. 84.—Hand Hay Cutter. Fig. 86.—Rail Bending Machine. Fig. 83.—Power Hay Cutter with Conveyor. Fig. 82.—Power Hay Cutter. 408 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 89. —Gyrating Hoist. Fig. 87.—Geared Differ¬ ential Pulley Block. AUXILIARY APPLIANCES. 409 Fig. 94.—Combined Hand Hoist and Trolley. Fig. 95.— The Wason Lightning Arrester. (Described on page 64.) Fig. 91.— Hand Hoist. Fig. 92.—Lineman’s Vice. Fig. 93.— Combination Drill and Bit Brace. Fig. 97.—Hack Saw. 4io STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 99.— Automatic Switch. AUXILIARY APPLIANCES. Fig. ioo.—Friction Pulley. Fig. ioi.—Friction Pulley. Fig. io2.—Three Ply Veneer, APPENDIX TO FIRST CHAPTER. MOTORS. The street car motor equipment which the De¬ troit Electrical Works early put in practical opera¬ tion on a large number of street railways, and which consisted of placing one motor of ample ca¬ pacity longitudinally under the car and coupling it by means of bevelled gear with both axles (p. 37), has been followed by a design that differs mate¬ rially from the type formerly used by any system of motor equipment. From the accompanying en- cently devised, which consists of a solid sphere turned on the axle at its middle, and a shell fitting snugly around it, after the fashion of the well known ball and socket joint. The shell is secured to the sphere or ball by two or more driving studs, with an annulus or loose nut over each. This nut is carried in an opening or slot in the shell, of the same width as the nut, but long enough in line with the axle to permit of the necessary travel of the shell on the ball in the motion accompanying gravings (Figs. 1 to 3), it will be noted that the new principle consists in coupling a single reduction motor to the axles, permiting the latter to be per¬ fectly free to change their angular position with¬ out affecting the relation of the bevel gear and pinion, one to the other. The axles, although driven simultaneously from one armature shaft, are independent and free to adapt themselves to curves and uneven track, and even to run off the track without changing the mesh of the gears in the slightest particular. This flexibility, or universal movement, is accom¬ plished by means of a new mechanical joint re- any tendency for the car wheels to be thrown out of the same plane. The bevel gears for driving the axles are made in the form of a toothed rim, with¬ out centre or hub and are secured to the outside of the shell by bolts, but in such a manner as to re¬ ceive their motion only through coil springs that are always under compression. This resiliency of the larger gears fills the three-fold purpose of (a) lessening the wear of the teeth ; (£) relieving the teeth from shocks in starting the car or striking obstacles ; and (c) of accommodating any unequal wear of one pair of wheels over the other in the same truck, without subjecting the armature shaft APPENDIX TO FIRST CHAPTER. 4i3 to any strain other than its normal work of rota¬ tion. The gears and pinions are of the “shroud¬ ed ’ type, each pair being of sufficiently ample pro¬ portions and strength to transmit the full power of the motor should any accident happen to one pair of wheels or their axles. The shell surrounding the ball on the axle, and frrrift Fig. 2.—Flexible Gear Shaft—Detroit Motor. through which the motion to the axle is imparted by means of the stud and loose nut, is journaled at each end, through which the axle passes, in the frame supporting the motor and connecting the axles together ; the novelty being here introduced of permanently fixing the driving shaft, or shell in this case, and permitting the driven shaft, or axle, to change its relative position at will. All parts of this new joint are made of steel to secure re¬ quisite strength with minimum weight and size. The only wearing sur¬ faces are the journals of the shell in the frame and the loose nut on the driving studs, the shell not moving on the ball except to compensate for irregularities in track. The journals of the shell are, therefore, made very large ; and, as no pressure of conse¬ quence is brought on them, the wear, it is expected, will be very slight. The stud nuts are made of phosphor bronze, and can be readily slipped off from outside the shell when worn, and replaced by new ones in a few moments’ time at a trifling expense. The “ diamond” truck—so called from the figure formed by the truss rods—has been adopted for this motor which is carried in the frame, as shown in the cuts accompanying, but the weight is carried on the outside truck through coil springs placed in caps on top and bottom, so arranged as to permit the requisite weight to be received by the springs when the motor is placed, and securely fastened thereafter. The motor proper is of a double magnet type, used extensively heretofore by this company in all of its standard double reduction equipments. The size illustrated is of capacity sufficient, it is claimed, to develop forty mechanical H. P. continuously for eighteen hours without undue heating of wires or commutator, but it may be safely worked at fifty H. P. for short periods of time. The armature speed is 240 turns per minute, which not only allows of a very low ratio of gearing (three to one ordinarily), but also permits of a very slow car travel where conditions on city lines require it. The maximum speed attained with the use of the usual controlling arrangement for this motor, is twenty-five miles per hour. The fields are forged from the highest grade of scrap, and all the wire used on the armature and field coils is carefully insulated at the company’s factory. The armature itself is wound bv a Street Hail way Journal j -Diamond Truck—Detroit Motor. method patented and owned by the company. The removal of the armature from the motor is effected at the top by removing the upper field magnet. The electrical efficiency of the motor is claimed to be ninety-one per cent., and, as the gearing is simple in arrangement and all bearings are large, the resulting mechanical efficiency of the whole machine is said to be not less than eighty per cent. The weight of the forty H. P. equipment illus¬ trated is, approximately, 6,000 lbs. exclusive of the 414 STREET RAILWAYS. outside truck frame, but including wheels and axles. The company furnish these latter with the motor, and adapt the machine to any make of car truck desired by the street railway companies. The latest types of Eickemeyer-Field electric motor trucks for street railway cars are shown in Figs. 4 and 6. The first has a six foot wheel base, and is designed for a sixteen foot or single truck car, the second has a four foot eight inch wheel base, and is designed for a double truck car. As will be seen, the apparatus differs in many impor- has a resistance of less than one-half ohm. The ar¬ mature has a resistance of three-quarters of an ohm and is built up of wrought iron discs, and wound with coils of No. 9 B. & S. wire, so arranged that the separate armature coils do not cross each other, and any one can be removed. This arrangement secures perfect electrical and mechanical balance in all positions of the armature; each coil is of the same resistance, and every convolution in the same relative position with reference to its opposite con¬ volution. Fig. 4.—Eickemeyer-Field Electric Motor Truck. ant particulars from any heretofore described, and in both trucks consists essentially of a gearless motor mounted in a frame of special design, and arranged to drive both axles by means of parallel rods; thus, all the wheels move in unison, which wholly overcomes the tendency to slip on wet rails or curves. The motor is of the iron clad type; the cast steel casing which entirely surrounds the field coils and protects them from accidental injury also acts as a part of the magnetic circuit. The field coils are not mounted on pole pieces, but surround the armature, making the length of magnetic circuit as short as possible and utilizing all the lines of magnetic force. The field is commutated for speed regulation, and when the coils are in parallel The motor is mounted in the frame in such a manner as to permit of easy inspection or access to any part, a removal of but four bolts allowing the motor to be run from under the car body. The thirty-five H. P. motor, such as is used on the trucks shown has a speed of 150 revolutions per minute when the car is running at twelve miles per hour. The frame supporting the motor is a single nearly square casting, and is entirely closed under neath, so that no mud or moisture from the street can reach the electrical apparatus. It is spring supported on the axles, so that the motor is abso¬ lutely rigid in the direction of travel, while cush ioned vertically. To allow free movement of motor and car in every direction, the connecting APPENDIX TO FIRST CHAPTER. 4i5 rods are jointed and provided with swivel boxes at their extremities, so that, no matter what track ir¬ regularities are encountered, there is no consequent binding of parts or undue friction. The weight of the complete thirty-five H. P. motor truck, including wheels, axles and fittings is 9,000 lbs., and its total efficiency of operation is said to be eighty per cent. Owing to the location of the motor between the two axles where ample space is available, the car on rails of medium weight such as are found on existing horse car lines, thus avoiding the expen¬ sive re-equipment with heavy rails found necessary in the introduction of many other systems ; ( b ) that by the method of connection between the armature shaft and axles the loss of power by friction of gears is reduced, and the mechanism made abso¬ lutely noiseless; while at the same time (c) the mo¬ tor does not surround the axles, and all parts are wheels with this system are only twenty-six inches in diameter, the lowest part of the motor frame being four and a half inches above the ground. This not only makes the car easy of access for pas sengers, but also gives a low centre of gravity for the entire car and truck, with corresponding de¬ crease of any oscillating motion. Among the special advantages claimed by the manufacturers and proved by extended operations during the past year, are (a) that owing to the fact that no dead weight is carried on the axles the de¬ trimental effect to motor and rails from irregulari¬ ties of track is small, and the cars can be operated easy of access, and can easily be removed if nec¬ essary. Eig. 5 shows a sixteen foot Eickemeyer- Field car in operation, and Fig. 7 gives a view of a thirty-three foot car with swivel trucks. The Wightman electric railway motor shown in Figs. 8 and 9 is of the single reduction, iron¬ clad type, the field coils being entirely protected by the magnet frame. There are four poles, excited by two sets of field windings, each winding consist¬ ing of three separate coils. The armature is of the Gramme ring type. The commutator is cross connected, so that only two brushes are required, these being placed on the 416 STREET RAILWAYS, APPENDIX TO FIRST CHAPTER. 4i7 top of the commutator ninety degrees distant from each other. The crossing cables are formed into a flat disc which is firmly bolted to the head of the commutator, reducing the possibility of breakage from vibration or other cause. The commutator can be readily removed from the armature shaft, if necessary, since each bar is fastened to its own lead wire without screws, and in such a way that the two can be readily detached. The armature bearings are self oiling and dust proof ; and are mounted on a substantial frame forming part of the field magnet casting. Fig. 9 shows clearly the style of casing used with the motor, which, while practically dust and water proof, permits of ample ventilation. The casing is made of sheet steel firmly riveted to the motor frame, and so arranged as not to interfere with easy access to the motor. The gear case is of malleable iron in three parts, easy to attach and take off, and at the same time so fastened together that the parts cannot work loose. The motor is sleeved upon the car axle at one end and flexibly supported at the other end by Fig. 8.—Wightman Motor. The armature pinion has fifteen teeth and a diameter of five inches, the reduction in gearing being 4.4 to 1. This, with a car speed of ten miles per hour, gives 480 revolutions of the armature shaft per minute. A conspicuous feature of the motor arrange¬ ment is the ready access to every part. The top field pole is hinged at one end, so that by the re¬ moval of two bolts, which makes it possible to lift off this pole, one set of field coils can be removed without disturbing the other or the armature. The resistance of the armature is .75 ohm, and that of the main field coils .15 ohm, and the commercial efficiency of the motor is said to be as high as eighty-seven per cent. the use of a flat steel spring carried on the cross bar of the truck as shown. The weight of each motor, with casing and gears complete, is 2,200 lbs. The controlling switch has the speed controlling handle and the reversing handle combined in one, and regulation is obtained without the use of any external resistance above a car speed of three or four miles per hour. There are five speed con¬ tacts possible for each direction of operation. The tendency of the current to arc in the regulating device on breaking contacts is prevented by the agency of a magnet fixed on the back of the switch- base. The poles of this magnet come directly opposite the space between - the contacts, and it 418 STREET RAILWAYS. blows out any arc formed, by the well known ac¬ tion of a magnet pole upon an electric current. The rheostat is three inches in diameter by eight- Houston Electric Co., during the latter half of 1891, to manufacture a machine for this purpose, and the success of the motor has been so great that Fig. 9.—Wightman Motor Encased. een inches long, is fire proof, and has a resistance of twelve ohms. The special claims made for the motor are high economy with the varying speeds and loads met in street railway practice, and it has been employed on a number of standard gauge roads. The electrical parts of this motor are so carefully protected from mechanical injury,snow and water, Fig. 10.—Waterproof Motor. durability secured by having a motor of ample capacity for the work required. The wide demand for an electric motor adapted to a narrow gauge car induced the Thomson- that the machine has taken its name from this feat¬ ure, and is called W. P., or waterproof. The motor frame (Fig. 10) consists of two steel castings clamped together by bolts at the front APPENDIX TO FIRST CHAPTER. 419 and back, the axle brasses being held together be¬ tween the two parts. The lower casting is shaped somewhat like a boat, rounding up from a plow shaped bottom which will throw aside stones or other obstructions which may be encountered on relieve the bearings of its weight. There will, therefore, tinder ordinary conditions, be no tend¬ ency to undue heating at this point. The parts of the frame being hinged together at the axle end, the armature can be readily removed. The Fig. ii.—Direct Coupled Vertical Engine and Multipolar Generator. the track. The upper half meets the lower except upon the armature bearings where holes are left for access to bearings and commutator for ventila¬ tion. Only one field spool is used, and this sur¬ rounds the armature and upper pole piece, and is itself completely covered by the frame. A feature of this machine is the fact that it is so proportioned that at its normal load the solenoidal pull of the field is sufficient to lift the armature and motor being completely enclosed below, can be run in water up to the axle without injury. Not only is the motor, as a whole, iron clad, but the armature is also iron clad. The core is a ring with projecting teeth between which the coils are wound and held firmly in place by wooden wedges. No binding wire is used, and to replace the coil it is only necessary to draw out a wedge, and the coil can be rewound without disturbing the rest of the 420 STREET RAILWAYS. Fig. 12.—Improved Short Railway Generator. APPENDIX TO FIRST CHAPTER. 421 winding. Joints in the wire, when necessary, are electrically welded, no solder whatever being em¬ ployed. It will be noticed that practically all the metal in the machine is used in the magnetic circuit, thus making the weight of both iron and copper small. The air gap is also very small, so that the efficiency of the motor is high. nets, twelve in number, are bolted to the frame, and carry both shunt and series coils. The armature, which is mounted on a shaft thirteen feet in length, is of the well known ring type, built by this com¬ pany, and is fifty inches in diameter. The shaft runs in self oiling and self centering bearings. The centre bearing is provided with six thrust collars. The box in which this bearing runs is •gmunninnni 11ULU1 rnT 11111 . I f»i Mtu itux ■Street and Steam Railway Crossing Protected by the Hall Automatic Danger Signal, The gears are of steel and run in an oil tight case. The small size of the motor permits two of them to be mounted on a truck of five feet wheel base and three feet gauge. The nominal capacity of the motor shown in the view is fifteen H. P., but other sizes are manufactured. GENERATORS. Fig. 12 illustrates a 300 H. P. generator lately put on the market by the Short Electric Railway Co., Cleveland O. This generator is capable of delivering a current of 500 amperes at a pressure of 500 volts. The frame is of a new design, thirteen feet in length and weighs ten tons. The field mag- provided with a new device by means of which it can be easily adjusted. On the lower half of the box there is cast a feather which moves in a simi¬ lar groove in the frame, and is operated by a screw which extends through the frame. This screw is provided with a hand wheel and jam nut by means of which it can be easily held and ad¬ justed. The commutator is of large diameter (twenty-four inches) and contains 200 bars. The brushes are six in number and are carried and adjusted in a novel manner. A split wheel is pro¬ vided, in the lower side of which are gear teeth which mesh into a pinion mounted on the shaft 422 STREET RAILWAYS. which extends from the frame. On the outer end of this shaft are a wheel and jam nut by means of which the brushes can be easily and quickly ad¬ justed and held. This generator is designed to run at 300 revolutions belted, and 250 revolutions when connected direct to an engine. ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNALS. The Hall Signal Co., of New York, have devised a type of highway crossing signal which is es¬ pecially adapted for use on cable and electric lines Fig. 14.—Lightning Arrester Fuse. where there is a possibility of the power failing while a car is crossing a steam track (Fig. 13). The automatic signal may be used alone or in con¬ nection with safety gates operated by a gate tender. Ordinarily, an audible signal, A, is all that is neces¬ sary, and this usually consists of a signal stand, with a bell suitably housed, which is caused to ring by an approaching train, thus warning the car driver in time to prevent crossing in the face of danger. When used in connection with gates, B, it is arranged that a bell in the gateman’s cab, C, rings, giving notice of the approaching train in time for the gateman to close the gates before the crossing is reached. In case the gateman Fails to close the gates, a signal instrument, D, placet! at a suitable distance from the crossing, and which stands at danger when the gates are open, stops the train before it arrives at the crossing. The operation of the signal will be readily un¬ derstood by an inspection of the accompanying engraving. The principal, or track, instrument is shown at E and consists of a wooden lever prop¬ erly balanced and so placed that it will be de¬ pressed by the wheels of a passing train, its outer end at the same time forcing upward a piston which moves in a closed chamber, and communi¬ cates motion to a lever of the circuit closing appa¬ ratus. The piston operates in an air chamber having two apartments connected by a port, and so arranged that the confined air constitutes a cush¬ ion whicfi prevents the piston rod from being thrown forcibly against the top cap, and also re¬ tards its fall and prevents injurious shocks. The track lever is confined between two rubber springs which are so compressed that any weight less than that imposed by the car wheels fails to operate the piston. The circuit being normally open, the operation of the lever conducts the current by means of a wire to the bell, which starts it ringing, and at the same time locks the in¬ strument so that the bell continues to ring until the train shall have reached a second instrument on the other side of the cross¬ ing, which breaks the contact and silences the bell. The battery and interlocking instrument are usually located at the crossing. By a simple arrangement of interlocking and track instruments, the bell may be made to ring by the approach of a train from either direction on a single track. Fig. 15.—Fulmen Arrester. These safety appliances have been in successful operation on a number of lines and seem to pre¬ sent an effectual way of reducing a serious danger element. LIGHTNING ARRESTER. In addition to the lightning arresters described on pp. 63 and 64, attention is called to the Fulmen APPENDIX TO FIRST CHAPTER. 423 arrester, illustrated herewith (Figs. 14 and 15), which is constructed on the principle of providing a magazine of inexpensive discharge platds or fuses, so arranged that when one set of plates is destroyed, each set will successively become automatically connected to receive a lightning discharge. The stationary parts of the apparatus, or the case, which may be attached to the wall of the power station, car body, cross arm or other posi¬ tion as the case may demand, consists of a porce¬ lain base, having four channels, two of which are designed to receive the wire terminals, which con¬ nect the carbon rods in the other two channels, one to the line and the other to the ground, and a corrugated porcelain cover which contains a series of fuse arresters, and which is attached firmly to current jumps the space between the lapped ends of the fuse and starts a short circuit which instantly consumes the fuse, and allows the two carbon wedges to drop and adjust themselves to the next set, ready for a second discharge, and so on for ten consecutive discharges, which are considered more than sufficient for one storm. In replacing fuses the cover is detached, thus avoiding the possibility of a shock from contact with the wires. The destruction of a single fuse in circuit is complete when acted upon by the arc as described, but the other fuses and porcelain pieces remain unharmed. AUTOMATIC TRACK SWITCH. This is a type of railway switch designed for use with cars propelled by animal or mechanical power, Fig. 16.—Automatic Track Switch. the base by a simple lug and spring bolt, so that it can be readily removed. The arrester proper, constituting one set (Fig. 14) consists of two small brass wires, about two and a half inches long, with their inner ends lapping, but separated about one twentieth of an inch from each other. These form the discharge plates of the arrester, and are kept clean and dry by being sealed in a small glass tube, and are held in posi¬ tion properly spaced by means of rubber plugs which attach them to the porcelain cover. When in position the fuses approach, but do not touch the carbon vertical rods which form the line and ground terminals. The individual fuses are brought into operative position by means of two wedge shaped pieces oi ? carbon which rest against the ends of the top fuse and complete the connection between the ter¬ minal carbon rods. In operation, the atmospheric and is operated entirely by the car wheels, inde¬ pendently of any other mechanism attached to the car, or of any attention on the part of the driver. As will be seen from the accompanying illustration Fig. 16, the proper switching of the car is insured independently of the direction of the preceding car, or of any change of the switch by accident or otherwise, some of the cars having wheels with specially designed treads or flanges to secure that result. The operating mechanism consists of switch keys or levers, E, pivoted within openings in the rail, and so placed as to project slightly above the rail, and in position to the right or left of the track groove to engage with the tread or flange of an ordinary, or specially designed wheel, C and D, by which they are depressed, and which in turn operate the switch tongue, B, through the medium of connecting rods and bell cranks, A. Spiral 424 STREET RAILWAYS. springs are also provided for the adjustment of the levers and to prevent shock, and one is placed at the end of the tongue, which assists in throwing the tongue into position after passing the centre line, and holding it there. The mechanism is housed in a chamber beneath the rail, or in a specially constructed rail, having a removable side by which access can be had for the adjustment or repair of the parts. It will be seen that the device admits of any number of key .combinations For instance, the first key, which is operated alike by all cars, may be arranged to throw the switch in one direction, and provide for leading off such cars as are equipped with ordinary wheels, and two other keys located between the first key and the switch torgue in po¬ sition to be operated respectively by treads or flanges of greater width than required to operate the first key, and designed to throw the tongue in the opposite direction ; the keys and tongue being so located relative to each other and to the car wheels that the car may set the switch by the first key and reset it for itself by one of the last keys. The keys are so coupled together that the opera¬ tion of the second key sets the first one in position for the next car. This is one of the latest automatic switch de¬ vices that has been brought to the attention of the public, and although it has not had the test of long service to recommend it, it seems to possess con¬ siderable merit. The device was originated by C. E. Garey, master mechanic of the Dry Dock, East Broadway & Battery Railroad Co. of New York. COST OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. The following general estimates are submitted as a basis on which to compute the cost of build¬ ing and operating an electric trolley line in city streets under ordinary conditions. As was stated on p. 132, in connection with an estimate for cable construction, in order to make a close and accurate estimate of the cost of any particular line all the conditions must be known. Not so many conditions, however, affect the cost of electric construction. The substructures are not usually disturbed, and the character of the soil does not usually affect the cost, save in exceptional cases where rock formation interferes with the setting of poles. Under ordinary conditions one mile of double track, first class straight street construction, including iron poles, overhead wires, return wire rail connections, paving, etc., excluding engineer ing, will cost about $60,000. Approximate cost for building and equipping three miles of double track road for the overhead electric service, power station located near centre of line: ROAD BED. 15,840 lineal feet broken stone foundation, six inches deep, including sub-excavations for same, with stone ballast between ties, at go cents per foot. $14,256.00 15,136 ties (2 ft. centres) 5X7 ins. at 45 cents.... 6,811.20 1,056 double joint ties, at 75 cents. 792.00 31,680 ft. 78 lb. per yard steel girder rail, includ¬ ing splice bars, bolts, spikes, chairs, tie rods and all iron employed in the construction, freight,etc., at $1.42 per foot. 44,985.60 Six miles electrical construction, including one continuous copper return wire in each track thoroughly bonded to each rail, at $500 per mile. 3,000.00 Labor, teams, superintendence, etc., at 30 cents per foot. 9,504.00 28,158 sq. yds. granite block paving, including ma¬ terial, at $3. 84,474.00 Total. $163,822,80 SPECIAL STREET CONSTRUCTION. Two crossover switches at $525. $1,050.00 One double track crossing. 270.00 180 degs. of double track curve. 491-50 Total. $1,811.50 OVERHEAD STREET CONSTRUCTION. 270 iron pipe poles, ninety to the mile,extra heavy, 6X5X4 ks. 28 ft. long, including fittings, at $26. $7,020.00 8 iron terminal and curve poles at $50. 400.00 Setting 278 poles with concrete foundation within curb line and replacing flagging, at $7. 1,946.00 Painting 278 poles at $1.00. 278.00 6 miles No. o (B. &. S) gauge trolley wire, 10,224 lbs., at 15 cents per pound. 1,533.60 Span wire, (streets 50 ft. wide) 7 strand steel ga 1 - vanized 2,200 lbs., at 5)^ cents per pound_ 121.00 *4 miles feed wire, 15,600 lbs., at 17 cents per pound. 2,652.00 Strain and anchor wire, 270 lbs., at 4 cents per pound. ro.8o •With ordinary traffic no feed wire would be required for three miles of road, but with thirty cars it would be necessary. I APPENDIX TO FIRST CHAPTER. 425 3 miles line and insulating appliances, lightning arresters, etc., double track, at $300. 900.00 Labor, stretching trolley and feed wire and at¬ taching insulating appliances, 3 miles, at $500 per mile. 1,500.00 Total. $16,361.40 SPECIAL OVERHEAD CONSTRUCTION. 6 trolley switches at $3. $ 18.00 2 90 deg. double track curves, at $75. 150.00 Guard wire and guard span half the line, with con¬ nections. 250.00 « - Total. $418.00 POWER HOUSE AND PLANT. Real estate. $10,000.00 House 175 Xiooft. 25,000.00 Steam plant; two slowspeed, compound, condens¬ ing engines and boilers with their founda¬ tions, smoke stack, condensing apparatus, pumps, belting and countershaft, freight and labor, 35 h. P. per car, 1,050 H. P., including 20 per cent, reserve, at $65. 68,250.00 or ’. our high speed engines and boilers with their foundations, smoke stack, feed water heaters, pumps, belting (direct), 35 H. P. per car 1,050 H. p., including 20 per cent, reserve, at $55, $ 57 , 750 - 00 . Electrical equipment, including generators, switchboard and all appliances, 30 h. p. per car, including 20 per cent, reserve, 900 H. p.. at $35. 31,500.00 Total. $134,750.00 ROLLING STOCK AND EQUIPMENT. (Trains running on four minutes’ headway.) 15 sixteen foot motorcars at $1,000. $15,000.00 15 motor trucks at $275. 4,125.00 30 twenty H. p. motors (two to each car), all elec¬ trical appliances in position, at $1,250. 37,500.00 15 coaches (trailers) with trucks, at $1,200. 18,000.00 Total. $74,625.00 CAR BARN AND REPAIR SHOPS. Real Estate. $2,500.00 Car House, fire proof. 25,000.00 Pits, tracks and switches, with main track connec¬ tions. 4,000.00 Repair shops, equipment, (a) wood working de¬ partment. 4,500.00 ( 6 ) Iron working department. 4,000.00 Total. $40,000.00 AUXILIARY APPLIANCES. One electric snow plow and sweeper. $5,000.00 Other snow appliances. 1,000.00 One wrecking wagon, tools and team. 800.00 One high wagon, line tools and horse. 600.00 One light express wagon and horse. 350 00 One heavy wagon and team. 500.00 Two carts. 100.00 Track tools and other appliances. 300.00 Total. $8,650.00 SUMMARY. Road bed. $163,822.80 Special street construction. 1,811.50 Overhead construction. 16,361.40 Special overhead construction. 418.00 Power house and plant. 134,750.00 Rolling stock and equipment. 74,,625.00 Car barn and repair shops. 40,000.00 Auxiliary appliances. 8,650.00 Engineering legal and miscellaneous, at $5,000 per mile. 15,000.00 Total for three miles double track. $455,438-70 In comparing the above estimate with the cost of equipping a cable line of the same length, as given on page 134, a portion of the items for car barn, repair shops, auxiliary appliances and engi¬ neering should be added to the cable estimate. The cost for constructing a longer line will be in direct proportion to the number of miles, and the cost for power plant will increase according to the number of cars, but the cost of real estate, power and car house will remain constant for a consider¬ able increase of mileage or traffic. A road three miles in length, with fifteen trains (motor and trail cars) will cost, under ordinary conditions, about $478.50 a day to operate, allow¬ ing for depreciation. The type of motor, grades and character of the management will increase or decrease these figures, as the case may be. There are lines in successful operation which cost con¬ siderably more than this amount. The principal items of expense will be about as follows : Twelve tons of coal (2,240 lbs) at $2.50. $30.00 Water, oil and grease for engines, generators, cars and motors. 10.00 *Depreciation of plant and rolling stock. 38.00 Sixty-six motormen and conductors at $2.00. 132.00 Engineers, firemen and dynamo tenders. 25.00 Car house service, inclusive of cleaning, inspection, CtC... .. 20.00 •A sum which, if put out at compound interest at three per cent., at the end of each j ear. would provide, in twenty years, for renewing the material subject to depreciation 426 STREET RAILWAYS. Power and car house expenses.. 6.00 Track service. 8.00 Repairs engines, generators, line machinery electric power equipment and miscellaneous. 13.00 Repairs cars, trucks and motors. 78.00 Repairs track, overhead construction and buildings.. . 47.00 Track cleaning, train and shop expenses. 14.00 Injury to persons and property. 10.00 Legal, secret service and insurance. 8.00 Licenses and taxes. 7.00 General and miscellaneous expenses. 32.50 Total. $478.50 With trains on four minutes’ headway, each train would make no miles per day, and fifteen trains would make 1,650 train miles or 3,300 car miles. The total operating expenses would, therefore, be 14.5 cents per car mile. About one-third the cost of operating an electric line remains constant by a limited increase or de¬ crease in the traffic, while the other two-thirds varies as the traffic varies. The End. INDEX TO ADVERTISMENTS. Allis, Edward P., Co. Milwaukee, Wis. 456 Babcock & Wilcox Co., New York....... 451 Ball Engine Co., Erie, Pa. 455 Barbour, Stockwell & Co., Cambridgeport, Mass. 463 Bemis Car Box Co., Springfield, Mass. 469 Bickford & Francis Belting Co., Buffalo, N. Y. 454 Briggs Carriage Co., Amesbury, Mass. 472 Brill, J. G., Co., Philadelphia, Pa.481,482,483,484 Brownell Car Co., St. Louis, Mo. 473 Buckeye Engine Co., Salem, 0 . 456 Cambria Iron Co., Philadelphia, Pa.454 Christie & Lowe, New York. .452 Cooper, C. & G., & Co., Mt. Vernon, 0 . 457 Cradock, George, & Co., Wakefield, England. 460 Detroit Electrical Works, Detroit, Mich. 453 Dorner & Dutton, Cleveland, 0 . 471 Duplex Street Railway Track Co., New York.44S 449 Ellis Car Co,, Amesbury, Mass. 475 Falls Rivet & Machine Co., Cuyahoga Falls, 0 .446,447 Field Engineering Co., New York. 454 Fulton Foundry Co., Cleveland, 0 . 458 Hall Signal Co., New York and Chicago.: . . 479 Jewell Belting Co., Hartford, Conn. 461 Johnson Co., Johnstown, Pa. 459 Keasbey, Robert A., New York. 452 Laclede Car Co., St. Louis, Mo. 476 Lewis & Fowler Girder Rail Co., Brooklyn, N. Y. 436 Lewis & Fowler Manufacturing Co., Brooklyn, N. Y. .435,480 Little, F. P., & Co., Buffalo, N. Y. 462 Milliken Bros., New York and Chicago.458 New Process Raw Hide Co., Syracuse, N. Y. 454 New York Car Wheel Works, Buffalo, N. Y. 468 Okonite Co., The, Ltd., New York. 444 Peckham Motor Truck & Wheel Co., Kingston, N. Y. 467 Railway Equipment Co., Chicago. 430 Railway Register Manufacturing Co., New York. 465 Robinson Electric Truck & Supply Co., Boston, Mass. 429 Rochester Car Wheel Works, Rochester, N. Y. 466 Roebling’s, John A., Sons Co., Trenton, N. J. 460 1 St. Louis Car Co., St. Louis, Mo. 470 Saxton E., Washington, D. C.462 Schieren, Ghas. A., & Co., New York. 428 Sessions Passenger Car Co., Chicago, Ill. 474 Short Electric Railway Co., Cleveland, 0 .445,486 Smith, J. D., New York. 452 Smith, Thos. & Wm., Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England. . . . 464 Steam Gauge & Lantern Co., Syracuse, N. Y.470 Stephenson, John, Co., Ltd., New York.485,487 Street Railway Publishing Co., New York and Chicago.. . 477 Taylor Electric Truck Co., Troy, N. Y. 429 Thomson-Houston ElectricCo., Boston', Mass.443,450 Van Nuis, C. S., New York. 452 Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. 478 428 ADVERTISEMENTS. 4* PATENT LEATHER BELTING. THE BEST FOR ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. RUNS LOOSE WITHOUT SLIPPING. Adapts Itself to Uneven Strain of Railway Power. SEND FOR CATALOGUE TO Chas. A. Schieren & Co. PATENTEES AND SOLE MANUFACTURERS, -£7 tF’erx-y- Street, ■STOISIE- 226 N. Third St., Philadelphia. 46 S. Canal St., Chicago. 119 High St., Boston. ADVERTISEMENTS 429 ROBINSON RADIAL TRUCK. THE ONLY TRUCK SUITABLE FOR ELECTRIC RAILROADING. Hundreds in Successful Operation in ELEVEN STATES and Four Foreign Countries. OVER FIFTY ON WEST END RAILWAY, BOSTON. AND FORTY ON FIRST FORTY ELECTRIC CARS ORDERED FOR BROOKLYN CITY RAILROAD. PROVIDENCE ROADS EQUIPPED WITH RADIALS ONLY. “It lias always given US satisfaction.” —HENRY M. WHITNEY, President West End Street Railway Co., Boston. Mr. William Robinson, Superintendent’s Office, 191 Market St., Lynn, Mass , Sept. 11, 1891. Dear Sir :—We have in use four open cars 35 feet long, mounted on Robinson Radial Trucks. They have been in use all summer, and have given good satisfaction. We consider them the best and smoothest running Trucks in the market, following the track better than any Truck we have ever seen. Yours truly, Q. A. TOWNS, Pres. Lynn Belt Line Ry. The Traction of the Robinson Radial is Rouble that of the Eight-wheel Car. FO \ t ”' ROBINSON ELECTRIC TRUCK & SUPPLY CO., WM. ROBINSON, General Manager. ISO Summer Street, BOSTON, MASS. FOR ELECTRIC OR CABLE ROADS. SUPERIOR TO ALL OTHER TRUCKS IN SOLIDITY OF CONSTRUC¬ TION, DURABILITY, ECONOMY AND EASY RIDING. TAYLOR ELECTRIC TRUCK CO., 556 Fulton Street, TROY, IV. Y. TAYLOR IMPROVED ELECTRIC TRUCK SOLE MAN! FACTIIREIIS, 43 ° ADVERTISEMENTS. PULLMAN BUILDING, CHICAGO, ILL., U. S. A. MANUFACTURERS AND DEALERS IN •M£. SELLING AGENTS: Burton Electric Heater Co. Electric Car Heaters. Wisconsin Bridge & Iron Co. Latticed Steel Poles. Angle Brackets. ATKINSON & EMMET. ■ Overhead Switches. PRATT’S REGISTER. Best Street Car Register Manufactured. '*W ELECTRIC RAILWAY SUPPLIES EXCLUSIVELY. HAVING THE ENDORSEMENT OF ALL THE LEADING ELECTRIC SYSTEMS. _ STANDARD Trolley Insulators. Centre Curve Insulators. Pull-over Brackets. Pole Ratchets. Rail Bonds. Trolleys. Latticed Steel, Octagonal and Cedar Poles. Pole Brackets. Overhead Switches. Adjustable and Right Angle Crossovers. Gears. Pinions. Bearings. R. E. Improved Rawhide Pinions. Everything for Complete Equipment and Maintenance of Electric Street Roads of all Systems. THE ONLY HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES MAKING ELECTRIC RAILWAY SUPPLIES AN EXCLUSIVE BUSINESS. CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. CATALOGUIS FURNISHED. Office and Salesroom, Pullman Building, Chicago, III., U. S. A. W. R. .31A SO IV', General Manager. INDEX Account, Income, 361. “ Fixed charges, 363. “ Maintenance of rolling stock and power equipment, 362. “ Maintenance of way and structures, 362. “ Operating expenses, 361. “ operating expenses, Form of 364- “ transportation, Form of 365. Accounts, Analysis of, 360. Air, Law of temperature and compres¬ sion of, 177. Alkaline accumulator, 48. Arc lamp, 51. Armature, core, Ring. 7, 8. “ cores, 6. “ Drum, 4. “ Four part ring, 4. “ Simplest form of, 3. Asphalt, 309. “ cement, How made, 311. “ pavement, Concrete founda¬ tion for, 311. “ pavement, Paving mixture for, 3 11 - “ rock, Where mined, 310. “ Where obtained, 310. Auxiliary drive, 118. Axles, Die drawn, 264. “ Defects in, 263. “ Forged and rolled, 263. “ Importance of uniform metal for, 264. “ Journals for, 265. “ Life of, 265. “ Standard dimensions of, 264. Balance sheet, 360. Balloon loop, 91. Blacksmith shop, The 280. I Blank, Accident and damage, 369, 370. “ Armature repair, 369, 371. “ Daily power house report, or log book, 369, 370. “ Employe’s application, 368,369. “ Employe’s resignation, 368, 369. “ Mileage and revenue record, 372. “ Window and door glass record, 369. 371 - Bond, Form of, 357. Book of rules to be carried, 321. Bookkeeping and classification of street railway accounts, 359. “ Books required, 363. Bridge, or cross walk stones, 309. Brushes, 3. Cable, Chain pump, system, 131. “ grip, 96, 98. “ grip, Bottom, 99. “ grip, Top, 99. “ Ladder, system 131. “ line, Street construction of, 69. “ power house, 129. “ power house and plant. Cost of, 133 - “ rail supports at crossings. “ road, Approximate cost of build¬ ings and machinery per mile of, 133. “ road construction in Edinburgh, Scotland, 78. “ road construction in Melbourne, Australia, 72. " road, Daily operating expenses of, 134. “ Cost ot construction of, 132. “ Cost of rolling stock for three miles of, 133. “ Cost of special construction for, 133 - “ road drainage, 90. “ switch, 91. “ system, Modified, 131. “ The, 100. “ traction, 69. “ Twin, system, 132. “ yokes, 70-78. “ yokes, Tests of, 75-77. Cabinet shop, 279. Car barn, 64. “ building, 214. “ building, Inception of, 218. “ building, Inspection of, 225. “ building, Lumber for, 223. “ building. Materials for, 221. “ building, Number of mechanics, etc., employed, in connection with, 221. “ building, Seasoning of lumber for, 224. “ building, Woods principally used in, 224. “ Door and corner posts for, 237. “ erecting, 226. “ door, matting for, 247. “ Flooring for, 232* “ house, 155. “ house, Washing pit of, 155. Car painting, 242. “ painting, Formula for first-class work in, 243. “ painting, Formula for rough fill¬ ing, 244. “ painting, Priming paint for, 242. “ painting, Varnishing of 244. “ Platform for, 236. “ Renewing defaced ornamentation on, 244. “ repainting, 244. " Roof covering for 240. “ Roof of 238. Car shops, 269. “ Draughting department of, 271. “ Drying kiln for, 273. “ General office of, 271. “ “ Heating and lightingot/277 “ Lumber yard for, 272. “ Power for, 273. “ Safety of operatives in, 278. “ Store rooms for, 272. “ Transfer truck tracks for, 272. “ Wood working department of, 2^77. “ “ Wood working tools used in, 278. “ “ Side posts for, 236. “ trucks, 247. “ trucks, Essential features of, 251. “ Upholstering of, 247. Cars. Diagram of types of, 217. “ Leading types of, illustrated, 373. Carrying pulleys, 82, 84. pulleys, Lined, 86. Cement for iron work, 196. “ Portland, How made, 315. “ Roman, How made, 315. Channel bars, Curved, 296. Charters, 348. Circuit, “ Series” and “ Parallel ” ex¬ plained, 30, 31. Compressed air motor, The Mekarski, 175 . 176. “ air motors, 174. Commutator, 3. Concrete mixers, 81. Conduction of current, 11. “ of current, Third rail method of, 11. of current, Overhead, 12. of current,Underground, 12. 4 3 2 INDEX. Conductors and lost articles, 332. “ Appointment of, 323. “ Badge and uniform of, 324. “ Bonds of, 333. “ Care of car and furniture by, 329. Change and collection of fares by, 326. Deportment of, 324. Duties and position of, 325. " Duty of, at blockade, 332. Duty of, at crossings and switches, 330. “ Duty of, at fires, 332. “ Duty of, in case of damage to car, 332. Duty of, incase of disabled car, 332. “ Duty of, regarding acci¬ dents, 331. “ Duty of, regarding speed and headway of, 330. “ Duty of, to keep time, 333. “ Instructions to, 322. “ must make trip reports, 333. “ must report defects in equip¬ ment, 333. “ of electric cars, Duties of, 325 - " Penalties on, 333. “ Personal habits of, 324. “ Reporting for duty by, 323. “ Resignation of, 333. “ Responsibility of, 324. Rules for, 323. Rules for, concerning adver¬ tisements, etc., in car, 329. “ Rules for, concerning stops, 330 . Rules for, on carriage of parcels and freight, 327. Rules for, on transfers, 327. Rules for, regarding free passengers, 327. “ Treatment of passengers by, 328. Conductors’ receipt form, 365. Consent to the building of a street rail¬ way, 350, 351. Contracting chill, Claims for and against the, 258. Corporate charter, What it is, 348. Corporations, Consolidation of, 350. New York law of, 349. “ State tax on, 349. Cotton rope driving, 116. “ or belt drive, 125. Crossing of steam roads by street rail¬ ways, 352. Curb stones, 309. Current, Rail return of, 13. Curves, Adjustable guard rails for, 303. Curves and their construction. 3015 Electric girder rail for, 303. Description of closed electric car, 220, Details of order for car, 215. Difficult track constructions, 305. Disbursements form, 365. Discipline and rules, 319. Drivers, Appointment of, 334. Badge and uniform for. 334. Deportment of, 334. Duties and position of, 334. Duty of at crossings and side¬ walks, 341. Duty of concerning stops, 341. Duty of during blockades, 341. Duty of in accidents, 341. Duty of in case of fire, 341. Duty of, regarding dangerous track, 342. Duty of, to maintain time, 342. grip, Rules for, 336. grip, Rules for, regarding speed, 339. motor, 337. of storage battery cars, rules for, 334. reporting for duty, 334. responsibility of 342. '* Rules for, 334. Rules for, regarding care of equipment, 346. Rules for, regarding parcels, etc., 340. Driving machinery, 109. Drums and gearing, selection of, 119. “ Differential ring, 115. “ Formulae and table of hauling power of, 122, 124. “ Hauling power of. 120. “ Solid, 114. Winding, no. Dynamo, “ Compound” wound, 6. “ Development of the, 1. “ “Series ” wound, 5. “ Shunt ” wound, 6. Simplest form of,3. “ Coupling of, 61. Electric car, Dead weight of, per wheel, 265. “ car. Wiring of, 27, 32. “ Conduits for feed wires, 25. “ Current, how dangerous to life, 58. “ line, Operation and mainte¬ nance of, 66. “ fight carbons, 52. fight carbons, Automatic ad¬ justment of, 52. “ lighting, 51. terms and units, 55. ‘ track, Ballasting of, 285. track, Best type ot rail for, 289. Electric track, Concrete in lieu of bal¬ last for, 286. “ track. Foundation for, 285. “ track, Rail fastenings for, 288. “ track, Rail spikes for, 288 “ track, Survey for, 284. “ track, Tie plates for, 288. Electric traction, 1. Electricity and water Analogy be¬ tween, 56. Electro-magnet, The, 4 Electro-magnetism, 4, 5. Elevated road, Amount of material re¬ quired for x,ooo ft. of, 208. “ Cars for, 210. “ Columns and girders for, 195 . “ Cost of, 211. “ Engines for, 209. “ Plate girder construct¬ ion, 198. “ Side walk piers for, 193 “ Single column construc¬ tion, 197. “ “ tracks, 207. “ “ Weights of rail for, 208. “ “ Details of construction of, 192. “ structure, Datr of dimensions, strains and movements of, 206. “ structure,Metallic paint for,208. “ structure, Specifications of contract for, 205, 206. Employes, Selection of, 320. Engines and boilers for cable traction 130. Erecting shop, 27S. Flat rail construction, A new metho, of, 295. Form of statistics, 36S. “ of summary of annual report, 367, Foundry, 279. “ pattern shop, 280. Franchises, 348. Fuses, Safety, 62. Galvanic battery and cell, 41. Galvanometer, 59. Gas motor, The Connelly, 177. “ motors, 177. Gears and pinions, Life of, 68. Girder rail, A high, 293. “ “ Best width of head of, 290. “ “ Flange of, 291. “ “ Forms of, 289, 290. “ “ The box or double web, 293. “ The duplex, 294. “ The grooved, 292. “ “ Web of, 291. “ “ Width of base of, 292. Glass, Bevelling of, 268. INDEX. 433 Glass Embossing of, 267. “ Ornamentation of, by sand blast, 267. Government, Essence of, 319. Grip, roller, 99. Grinding room, 280. Harness room, 156. Hillmen and tow boys, Rules for, 342. Horse power per car on cable lines, 131. Horse shoe, Bar or round for foundered horse, 142. “ shoe nails, 144. “ shoe, Hot and cold fitting of, 143 - Horse shoes, Machine made, 143. “ traction, 135. Horses, Bedding of, 141. “ Diseases and treatment of, 162. “ Feed of, 136. “ Metal feed boxes for, 139. “ Mileage made by, 141. Pasture for, 151. “ Selection of, 135. “ Shoeing of, 142. “ Treatises on, 163. “ Unhitching device for, 151. “ Various methods of feeding, *37- “ Watering of, 140. Horseshoeing, Flat, 143. Incandescent lamp, 52, 53. Incline, Arrangement of engine and machinery for, 186. “ Duquesne, Pittsburgh, 181. “ Knoxville, Pittsburgh, 183. “ Penn, Pittsburgh, 183. “ St. Clair, Pittsburgh, 182. Inclined Planes, 179. Inclines, Cars for, 185. “ Cost of construction of, 181. “ Engineer’s position on, 180. “ Operated by water, 186. “ Power equipment of, 179. “ Safety devices on, 184. Winding drums for, 180. Incorporation, Form of, for a railroad company, 349. “ laws vary, 348. Iron shops, 279. “ working tools, 280. Isaacs’ concrete road bed, 79. Lightning arresters, 63. Lock nuts, 297. Locomotive, Electric, 40. Machine shops, 65, 280. Magnet, Lines of force of the, 2. “ Polarity of the, r. “ Properties of the, 1 Magnetism, x Management of horse car lines, 159. Mirrors, How made, 268. Motor, Commutated field of, The, 31. Motor, Counter electro-motive force of the, 30. “ Operation of the, 29, 89. “ Single reduction, 39. “ The, as a brake, 50. “ The Baxter, 35. “ The Detroit Electrical Works, 34 - “ The Edison, 31. “ The gearless, 37. “ The Short, 32. “ The steam, 165. “ The Thomson-Houston, 34. “ The Westinghouse, 35. “ trucks, 10. Motors, Steam, air and gas, 164. Motormen and conductors, training of, . 67 - Paint shop. 379. Paving, 306. Pavement, Belgian, 307. “ Brick, 313. “ Cobble, 306. “ Essential requisites of a good, 306. “ Concrete foundation for, 308. “ Gravel foundation for, 307. “ Laying the blocks, 307. “ Size of blocks, 306. “ Stone block, 306, 307. Stone block, foundation for, 307. “ Vitrified brick, 313. Wood block, 312. Wood block, the Nicholson method, 312. Pavements, Cost of construction of, 314. Paving and care of tracks, Municipal requirements concerning, 356. " cement, 309. “ cement or mastic, How made, 309 - Penalties to be at discretion of mana¬ ger, 321. Percentage of income to be paid to city, 351. Pinion and gear drive, Single, 116. Pit pulleys, 127. Poles, 13. “ Centre. “ Distance apart, 15. Poles, Elastic limits of, 13. “ Foundation for, 16. “ Insulation of, 16 “ Metal, 15. “ Wooden, 14. Power required to move cable, 131. " station, 59. “ station, Belts for, 60, 61. “ station. Engines and boilers for, 60. Power, station, Location of, 59. Price railway construction, 295, 296. Pulley Vaults, 82. Pulleys, Curve, 86, 88. Rack rail inclines, 187. “ rail locomotive, 189. “ rail locomotive, Pinion for, 188. “ rail system, Abt, 188. “ rail system, Agudio’s, 190. “ rail, The ladder, 187. Rail, Expansion and contraction of 296. “ joint, 296. “ joint, boxes, 297. “ joint, Curved channel bar for, 296. “ joint, Repairs of, 297. “ joint, The continuous, 299. “ joint, The girder, 298. “ joint, The Samson bridge chair, 299. “ Joints, Relative position of, 298. “ Joints, Supported or suspended, 298. Rates of speed of street cars, 352. Record blanks, 368. Repair shops for horse cars, 156, 158. Repairs of streets by street railroads, 352. Report forms for horse car lines, 161. Rheostat, 28. Road bed and track, 66. Rope, abuse of, 103. “ and gear transmission combined, 117. “ Coating the, 109. “ Danger of stranding the, 107. “ Drives, no. “ Entering of, in conduit, 105. “ Life of the, 102. “ lifting devices, 93. 94. The Albert or Lang lay, 101. “ The California, 102. “ The locked wire, 102. “ Splicing the, 106, 107. “ transmission with intermediate gear, 116. “ transmission without intermediate gear, 118. “ Transportation of, 104. Switch boards, 62. Sheaves, Elevating, 89. Shipping of cars, 283. Signal appliances on cable lines, 128. Special track construction, 300. Specifications for a closed, double truck, electric car, 220. Splicing of cotton ropes, 126. Springs, 265. “ Graduated, 266. Manufacture of, 267. Rubber cored, 265. Spiral and elliptical, 266. Standard gauge of track, how meas¬ ured, 305. 434 INDEX. Stable, 144. “ Cleanliness in, 153. “ Construction of, 147. “ disinfectants, 142. “ Drainage of, 148. “ Feed grinding mills in, 153. “ Feed loft of, 153. “ Fire drills in, 152. “ Fire extinguishers in, 152. “ floors, 147. “ hospital, 148. “ Manure pit for, 150. “ Medicine department of, 155. “ Offices in, 154. “ Protection against fire in, 151. ‘‘ run, 151. “ Ventilation of, 145. State and municipal regulations, 353. Steam car, The Baldwin, 171. “ car, The Ransom, 171 “ car, The Rowan, 171. “ motor, The, 170. “ motor, Fuel required per mile for the, 166. “ motor, The Baldwin, 166. “ motor, The Merry weather, 168. “ motor, The Porter, 367. Stock certificate, Form of, 357. Stocks and bonds, 048. Slone roads, The Macaaam and Telford methods, 014. Storage batteries, 41. “ batteries, Arrangement of, for street cars, 49. “ batteries, Charging, 46. “ batteries, Deterioration of, 48. “ batteries, Wiring of car for, 50. " battery, Construction of, 42. Storage battery, Negative plates of, 45. “ battery, Positive plates of, 45. • Stored steam, 172. “ steam, motor, 173. Street car license, 356. Street railway ordinance, Copy of, 353. Stringer construction, 305. Successful disciplinarian, The, 319. Successful manager, The, 320. Switch pieces, 303. Switches, Overhead, 23. Table of resistance and conductivity of metals, 57. Taxation of street railways, 355. Tension apparatus, no, 114. Tie plate, The Servis, 208, 288. “ rods, 300. “ rods, Spacing of, 300. Tin shops, 283. Tower wagons, 65. Turn-outs, 303. Track construction for electric traction, 284. “ laborers, Drilling of, 285. Transfer of cable cars, 90-92. “ table, 155. Trimmings, metallic, 268. metallic, How made, 268. Trolley, Contact, 27. “ Double, 27. “ pole and stand, 25. Veneer, Three ply, 269. Warnings and notices to passengers, 344 - Wheels, 255. “ Annealing of cast, 259. *• Cast chilled, 258. “ Cleaning of cast, 259. Wheels Contracting chill for casting, 259 - “ Diameters of, 261. “ Grinding of cast, 259. “ Importance of perfectly round, 259 - “ Life of, 262. “ Relative value of different types of, 256. “ Requirements of a perfect, 261. " Solid steel, 262. “ Steel tired, 262. “ Variety of patterns of, 261. Wires, Feed, 23. “ Guard, 18. “ Splicing, 22. “ Span,17 “ Strain, 18. “ Trolley, 17. APPENDIX. Electric Crossing Signal, 422. “ Railway Construction, Cost of, 424, 425. Generator, New 300 H. P. Short, De¬ scription of, 421. Lightning Arrester, The Fulmen, 422, 423 - Motor, Detroit Electrical Works, De¬ scription of the, 412,414. Motor, Eickemeyer-Field, Description of the, 414, 415. Motor, Thomson-Houston W. F., De¬ scription of the, 418, 421. Motor, Wightman, Description of the, 415, 418 Track Switch, Automatic, 423, 424. ADVERTISEMENTS. 435 John W. Fowi.er, President. Daniel F. Lewis, Treasurer. Albert H. Dollard, Secretary. -—THE : :- LEWIS & FOWLER MFG. CO. BROOKLYN, N. Y. BUILDERS OF STREET RAILWAY CARS SUITED TO EL6CTRIC, CHBL6, OR HORS6 RO W e R. PATENTEES AND SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF The Improved “Alarm” Fare Register. •MS. GUARANTEED To be the Best and Most Reliable Register in the United States for Registering Fares on Street Cars. -MANUFACTURERS^ . REFERENCE: NEARLY EVERY STREET RAILROAD COMPANY IN THE UNITED STATES. Yi'F STREET RAILWAY SUPPLIES OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. SB1TD DBOIR. O ATA L O GF TT IE £5. ADVERTISEMENTS. 4 3 6 John \V. Fowtf.r, President. Dantki. F. I.KWlS, Treasurer. Ai.iikri' H. Doi.j.ard, Secretary. T IEEE IE LEWIS & FOWLER GIRDER RAIL CO. BBOO ILT, 2ST_ "ST- PATENTEES AND SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF THE ONltY GIRDER RAIL CONSTRUCTION -INSURING- Secure Joints and Permanent Fastenings. AI 4 THERE ARE NO SPIKE OR BOLT HOLES IN OUR RAIL. Rail presents a smooth vertical face against which to lay paving. OUR SPECIAL WORK, II* *********** * ar II ***** * * * * ****** ° •tv- A SUCH AS SWITCHES, MATES, FROGS, CROSSINGS, &C ARE MADE OF THE SAME RAIL, THUS MAKING 7X ••• COMPLETE •• SYSTEM, SIEHSHD FOR C A.TA^LOGTJE. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ELECTRIC TRACTION. PAGE. Bar Magnet. i Horse Shoe Magnet*. i Lines of Force of Bar Magnet Marked by Iron Filings. ... 2 Lines of Force of Horse Shoe Magnet Marked by Iron Filings. 2 Simple Form of Dynamo. 3 Simple Loop Armature. 3 Commutator and Brushes. 3 Simple Rectangular Coil. 3 Loop of Armature of Two Turns. 3 Four Part Ring Armature. 3 Drum Armature and Brushes. 4 Commutator. 4 Permanent Magnet Dynamo. 4 Magnetism Produced by an Electric Current. 4 Electro-Magnet with Armature or Keeper. 4 Electro-Magnet Dynamo. . 5 Series Wound Dynamo. 5 Shunt Wound Dynamo. 5 Complete Armature. 5 Edison Dynamo or Generator. . . .. 5 Thomson-Houston Generator. 6 Thomson-Houston Four Pole Generator. 7 Ring Armature Core. 8 Short Electric Railway Co.’s Generator. 9 Drum Armature Core. 10 Ordinary Drum Armature. 10 The Weston Generator. 10 The Rae Generator. 31 Thomscm-Houston Motor. 12 Dissected Motor and Rheostat. 12 Thomson-Houston Motor Truck. 13 Section of Street Showing Poles and Span Wire. 14 Side Pole and Bracket for Single Track. 14 Overhead Curve Wiring for Single Track Construction. .. 14 Overhead Curve Wiring for Double Track Construction. . 14 Rail Bond with Girder Rail. 15 Rail Bond with Tram Rail. 15 Rail Bond with “ T” Rail. 15 Rivets Holding Rail Bond. 15 Solder Connections for Return Wire. 15 Methods of Connecting Rails to Supplementary or Return Wire. 15 Method of Connecting Three Supplementary Wires. 16 Coupler for Connecting Wires. 16 Supplementary Wires and Cross Connection. 16 Plain Wooden Pole. 17 Standard Octagonal Wooden Pole. 17 Ornamental Centre Pole. 17 PAGE. Wrought Iron Pole with Telescoped Joints. 18 Round Iron Pole with Internal Web. 18 Ornamental Pole. 18 Ornamental “ Patented” Side Pole. 19 Ornamental “ Patented” Centre Pole. 19 Centre Pole Brace. 19 Patented End Centre Pole. 20 Tubular Iron Centre Pole. 21 Tubular Pole for Single Track. 21 Light Ornamental Steel Poles without Horizontal Joints. . 22 Guy Stub. 23 Bracket for Iron Poles. 23 Bracket for Wooden Poles. 23 Trolley Wire Hanger. 24 Trolley Supports. 24 Pull-off Brackets. 24 Bracket Arm Insulator.— 24 Bracket Arm Insulator for Curves. 24 Box Line Insulator. 24 Bridle Insulator. 25 Strain Insulators. 25 Trolley Wire Circuit Breaker. 25 Method of Cutting in Ear Body. 26 Glass Insulation . 27 Feed Wire Insulation. 27 Method of Cutting in Side Feed. 27 Method of Anchoring Single Line. 27 Method of Anchoring Double Line. 27 Method of Setting Frog. 27 Telegraph Joint. 28 Trolley Wire Joint. 28 Feeder and Trolley Wire Joint. 28 Splicing Ear. 28 Overhead Wiring for Single Track Turnouts. 28 Frog for Overhead Switch. 28 Diagram Illustrating the Advantages of Feed Wires. 29 Diagram of Railway Circuit. 29 Trolley Pole and Stand, with Sliding Contact. 30 Trolley Stand. 30 The Boston Trolley. 31 Rheostat. 32 Car Platform with Electrical Equipment. 32 Sheet Iron Resistance. 32 Section of Rheostat. 32 Edison Railway Motor. 33 Truck Equipped with Edison Motors. 33 Detached Field of Edison Motor. 34 Diagram Showing Edison Method of Wiring Electric Cars'. 34 Commuted Field of Edison Motor. 35 Improved Edison Motor. 35 43 8 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PACF. Short Electric Railway Co.'s Standard Motor. 36 Truck Equipped with the Short" Standard ” Motors. 37 Detroit Electrical Works’ Motor and Truck. 37 Thomson-Houston S. R. G. Motor. 38 Dissected S. R. G. Motor. 38 Dust Pan and Oil Tight Casing of S. R. G. Motor.. 39 Westinghouse Four Pole Motor. 39 Side View of Westinghouse Motor and Transparent View of Fields. 40 Framing and Field Castings—Westinghouse Motor. 40 Baxter Multipolar Motor. 41 Dissected Baxter Motor. 41 Truck Equipped with Baxter Motor. 42 Section of Four Pole (Short) Gearless Motor. 43 Short Gearless Motor. 44 Short ‘' Water Tight’’Single Reduction Motor. 44 Truck Equipped with Short Gearless Motor. 44 Edison Twenty H. P. Improved Single Reduction Motor. . 45 Electric Locomotive Truck. 46 Porous Cup—Galvanic Battery. 47 Cast Grid for Storage Battery. 47 Storage Battery, Cell and Case. 47 Single Element Storage Battery. 47 Composite Grid. 48 Copper Shelf for Supporting Grid. 48 Storage Car, with Batteries in Place. 49 Method of Coupling Batteries and Wiring Car. 49 Electric Arc Light. 50 Carbon Points—Arc Light. 50 Double Carbon Arc Light. 50 Standard Incandescent Lamp.. . 51 Incandescent Lamps. 51 Graphic Illustration of Potential. 51 Volt Meter. 51 Hand Resistance Box. 52 Ampere Meter. 52 Electric Power Station—Direct Belting—Rochester, N. Y. Railway. 53 Typical Power Station. 54 Railway Power Station Employing Counter Shaft. 57 Power Station with Cotton Rope Drive. 58 Conventional Diagram, Showing Power Station Wiring. . 59 Electric Power Station. 60 Relative Position of Generator, Meters and Switches. 61 Railway Switch Board, Adapted to the Thomson-Houston Electric System. 62 Railway Switch Board, Adapted to the Short Electric Rail¬ way System. 63 The Ajax Switch. 64 Double Fuse Block. 65 Ordinary Lightning Arrester. 64 Pendulum Lightning Arrester. 65 Tower Wagon for Overhead Work. 65 Tower Wagon in Position. 66 CABLE TRACTION. Original Construction (San Francisco) Lines. 71 Original Construction—Chicago City Cable Railway— Depth of Conduit Thirty-six Inches. 71 Yoke Employed in Rebuilding a San Francisco Line. 71 Cable Construction—Melbourne, Australia. 71 PACE. Kansas City Cable Railway Construction. 72 Pennsylvania Avenue Cable Line, Washington. 72 West Chicago Cable Line. 72 Yoke Used on the Broadway, New York, Cable Railway.. 73 Yoke with Cast Braces—Third Avenue, New York, Line. . 74 Yoke with Flat Steel Braces, Keyed to Lugs—Third Ave¬ nue Line. 74 Cleveland City Cable Railway Yoke—Weight 360 lbs.... 74 Yoke, 125th Street, New York, Cable Line. 74 Composite Yoke. 74 Yoke on Grand Avenue Cable Line, Kansas City. 75 Yoke on St. Louis Cable & Western Line. 75 Yokeon Chicago City Cable Railway. 75 North Chicago Cable Yoke. 76 Kansas City Pattern of Yoke. 76 Johnson Company’s Steel Yoke. 76 Proposed Yoke. 77 Street Construction Between Yokes—Third Avenue, N. Y., Cable Line. 78 Edinburgh Northern Tramway Construction. 78 Pulley Vault—Lane System—Providence, R. 1 . 79 Light Section—Isaacs’ Concrete Road Bed, Oakland, Cal. 79 Heavy Section—Isaacs’ Construction. 80 Folding Form. 80 Folding Form with Trolley Support. 80 Enlarged View of Trolley Wheel. 80 Concrete Mixer. 81 Cockburn Concrete Mixer. 81 Section at Pulley Pit. 82 Pulley Vault for Duplicate Cables—Tenth Avenue, New York, Line. 82 Surface of Street, Showing Manhole Cover. 83 Manhole and Grip Hatch Cover—Broadway, New York, Line. 83 Cross Vault with Single Manhole—Third Avenue, New York, Line. 83 Sheave Pitsand Grip Hatch, Broadway, New York, Cable Line. 84 Conduit, Sheave Pit and Grip Hatch, Broadway, Cable Line. 84 Carrying Pulleys. 85 Journal Box for Carrying Pulleys.•. 86 Position of Curve Pulleys. .*. .. 86 Curve Pulley and Guard Rail. 87 Curve Pulley Mounted from the Top—Providence, R. I., Line. 87 Bearing for Curve Pulley Spindle. 87 Curve and Carrying Pulley Combined. 87 Method of Mounting Cone Shaped Curve Pulley. 87 Curve Construction—Baltimore Passenger Railway. 88 Position of Curve Pulley—Baltimore Passenger Railway.. 88 Proposed Arrangement of Curve Pulleys for Duplicate Ropes. 89 Spiral Groove Pulley—Tenth Avenue, New York, Line. .. 89 Tilting Sheave for Placing Rope in Grip. go Depressing Pulleys.90,91 Curve Paved with Iron Plates—125th Street, New York... 91 Terminal Sheave and Pit. 92 Terminal Sheaves. 92 Crossover Switch, Broadway, New York, Cable Line. 93 Balloon Loop. 93 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 439 PAGE. Automatic Rope Lifting Gear. 94 Steam Crossing. 95 Cable Crossing for a Street Car Line. 95 Single Track Cable Construction. 95 Turn-out on Curve—Single Track Construction. 96 Grip Car, Showing Cable in Grip, When Drawing a Train. 96 Types of Cable Grip.97.98 Screw Spindle Grip—Providence, R. I., Cable Line. 99 Roller Grip—Brooklyn Bridge Railway. .. 100 Relation of Car Grip and Carrying Sheaves—Duplicate System. 101 Combination Car—San Diego Cable Tramway. 101 Patterns of Wire Rope. 102 Worn Ropes.102,103 Damaged Ropes. 104 Locked Wire Rope. 104 Shipping Reel.•. 104 California Rope. 104 Transporting Cable on Reel. 105 Rope Splicing.106,107,108 Rope Hauling Drums, S Drive, Melbourne, Australia. .. . 109 Figure 8 or S Drive.t. no Rope Groove. no Conventional Diagram of Cable Power Plant. in Rope Winding Drums, Intermediate Gearing and Differ¬ ential Rings. 112 Winding Drums, Cotton Rope Drive and Rope Gearing— Los Angeles, Cal. 112 Rope Drive—Split Idler—Providence Tramway. 113 Intermediate Gear or Main Shafts—Broadway Line, St. Louis. 114 Tension Cars. 115 Double Tension Carriage, San Diego Cable Tramway. ... 116 Rail Dog for Tension Carriage. 116 ■ Cable Tension Apparatus. 117 Section of Differential Ring Drum. 11S Whitton Compensating Gear. 118 Position and Value of Tension Weight. 118 Rope Drive—Brooklyn Bridge Railway. 119 Rope Transmission with Intermediate Gear—Third Ave¬ nue, New York Line. 120,121 Elevation of Rope and Cable Sheaves—Bowery Station, Third Avenue, New York, Line. 121 Rope Drive, Both Drums Driven—Cable Power Station, Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D. C. 123 Drums with Removable Rims. 123 Drums in Vertical Positions—Philadelphia Traction Co... 124 Side Elevation of Drums. 124 Pit Machinery for Driving Auxiliary Cable—Cleveland City Cable Railway. 125 Drums Using Several Wraps. 126 Cotton Rope. 126 Proper Form of Groove for Cotton Rope. 127 Cotton Rope Splice. 127 Plan of Power Station Pit—People’s Line, St. Louis, Mo. 128 Cable Power House of the Cleveland City Cable Railway. 129 Power House—Baltimore Traction Co. 130 HORSE TRACTION. Cross Gangway, Showing Watering Trough and Filter.... 139 Stables, Drying Rack and Tools. 140 Interior of Blacksmith Shop. 141 PAGE. City Stable—Belt Line, New York. 142 Plan Showing Car House and Stall Arrangement in City Stable. 144 Mechanical Floor Ventilation.145,146 Hospital, Stalls and Sling for Disabled Horse. 147 Cross Section, Stalls and Catch Basin in Stable. .. .. 14S Cross Section of Catch Basins. 148 Section of Vault, Trap and Reservoir. 149 Plan of Vault, and Flushing Reservoir. 149 Plan and Cross Section of Manhole. 149 Relative Positions of Stables and Outbuildings. 150 Combined Stable and Car Barn. 151 Stable and Car House—Albany Railway.152,153,154 Stable—Union Railroad Co., Providence, R. 1 .155,156,157 Car Barn—Union Railroad Co., Providence, R. 1 . 158 Blacksmith Shop. 159 Transfer Table. 159 Floor Turntable. 160 Plan of Repair Shop. 160 Mechanical Stable Check. 162 STEAM, AIR AND GAS. Baldwin Steam Motors.165,166 Porter Steam Motors. 167 Merryweather Engine.168,169 Steam Tramway Locomotive. 170 Baldwin Steam Car. 171 Truck and Engine of Steam Car. 172 The Ransom Steamer. 172 Rowan’s Steam Car. 173 Rowan’s Steam Trarp Car. 174 Stored Steam Motor. 175 Mekarski Air Motor. 1.175,176 Connelly Gas Motor. 176 Connelly Gas Motor and Car Combined. 177 INCLINE PLANES. Single Rail Incline. 179 Penn Incline. 180 Transporting Electric Car—Mt. Adams & Eden Park In¬ cline, Cincinnati. 181 Rope Drive—Duluth, Incline. 182 Inclined Plane—Johnstown, Pa. 183 Knoxville Incline—Pittsburgh, Pa. 184 Section, Terminus and Power Station of Long Incline. .. . 185 Electric Car Entering Incline Platform—Cincinnati In¬ clined Plane. 186 RACK RAIL INCLINES. Rack Rail. 187 Mount Washington Rack Railway. 1S7 Engine and Car—Mount Washington Railway. 188 Rack Bar. 188 Entering Rack Rail. 188 Pinion—Rack Rail Locomotive. 188 Rack Rail—Curve Construction. 188 Rack Rail Locomotive—Abt System. 189 Locomotive and Car—Pike’s Peak Rack Railway. 1S9 ELEVATED ROADS. Street Pier, Plan and Elevation.:.192,193 Concrete Pier. 192 44° LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE. Sidewalk Pier.'.. 193 Pier with Pile Foundation. 194 Base Fender. 194 Special Construction. 194 Transverse Girder. 194 Travelling Derrick. 195 Elevated Railway Constructions.196,197,198,199 Manhattan Elevated—Eighth A\enue and mth Street.. . 200 Manhattan Elevated—Suburban Line. 200 Elevated Railway Constructions, Brooklyn. 201 Appearance of Elevated Station from Cross Street. 202 Station at Twenty-third Street—Sixth Avenue Elevated Road, New York. 202 Section of Top and Bottom Chords. 203 Plan of Track..,. 203 Alley Road, Chicago. 203 Cross Section of Station. 203 Kansas City Elevated Road Construction. 204 Side Elevation and Plan of Station Platform. 204 South Side Elevated Road—Chicago. 205 Distinct Type of Column and Girder. 206 Original and Recent Track Constructions. 207 Fisher Rail Joint. 207 Weber Rail Joint. 208 Tie Plate. 208 Curve Construction. 208 Locomotives—Manhattan Elevated, New York. 209 Passenger Coach—Manhattan Elevated.210,211,212 Interior of Elevated Car, Manhattan Railway. 213 CAR BUILDING. Fac-simile of Detail Order..-. 215 Details of Construction of Car..218,219,222,223,224,225,226,227 Sixteen Foot Electric Car—Lewis & Fowler Manufactur¬ ing Co. 222 Sixteen Foot Horse Car-—John Stephenson Co., Limited. 226 Open Car—Pullman’s Palace Car Co. 227 Car Frame on Stocks. 227 Bombay Roof. 228 Shop Trucks. 228 Eight Wheel Closed Car—Lewis & Fowler Manufactur¬ ing Co. 229 Thirty-five Passenger Open Car—Lewis & Fowler Manu¬ facturing Co. 230 Eight Wheel Open Car. 231 Standard Sixteen Foot Car—J. G. Brill Co. 232 Eight Wheel Vestibule Car—Pullman’s Palace Car Co. .. . 232 Twenty-five and a Half Foot Double Deck Car—J. G Brill Co. 233 Sixteen Foot Vestibule Electric Car. 234 Eight Wheel Closed Car—Truss Rods Omitted. 234 Eight Wheel Closed Car—Pullman’s Palace Car Co. 235 Eight Wheel Grip Car—Citizens’Traction Co., Pittsburgh 235 Combined Open and Closed Car. 236 Double Deck, Centre Aisle Car—J. G. Brill Co. 236 Closed Car. 237 Open Grip Car—J. G. Brill Co. 238 Electric Snow Sweeper—Lewis & Fowler Manufacturing Co. 239 Inner Lining of Ceiling Before and After Moulding. 240 Trolley Stand. 240 PAGE. Interior of Car—John Stephenson Co. 241 The Wellington Lamp. 244 Ornamental Designs and Lettering for Half Main Panel. . 245 Designs for Main Panel Ornaments. 246 Taylor Truck—Gilbert Car Manufacturing Co. 248 Independent Rigid Motor Truck—J. G. Brill Co. 249 Peckham’s Flexible, Non-Oscillating Motor Truck with Radial Journal Box. 250 Journal Box for Radial Gear. 251 Manier Truck. 253 Stephenson’s Motor Truck. .... 253 Dorner & Dutton’s Improved Motor Truck.253 Bemis Car Box Co’s. New Electric Truck. 253 Tripp Electric Truck with Roller Bearings.254 McGuire Truck. 254 Electric Truck, Westinghouse Motors—Baltimore Car Wheel Co. 254 Robison Radial Truck. 255 Maximum Traction, Pivoted Truck for Eight Wheel Cars— J. G. Brill Co. 256 McGuire Truck for Eight Wheel Cars. 257 Truck for Eight Wheel Cars, Designed for One or Two Motors—Bemis Car Box Co. 258 Truck for Eight Wheel Cars—I. H. Randall. 259 Robertson’s Cable Truck with Brake Drums Attached to the Axles. 259 Cable Truck for Eight Wheel Cars—Citizens’ Traction Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. 260 Sheffield Equalizing Truck. 260 Wheel Grinding Machine. 261 Section of Wheel Cast in Contracting Chill. 262 Steel Tired Wheel with Corrugated Plates. 262 Steel Tired Wheel with Cast Centre. 262 Paper Steel Tired Wheel. 262 Heavy Axles Suitable for Four, Six or Eight Wheel Cars. 264 Axle for Westinghouse Motor. 265 Types of Axles. 265 Graduated Springs. 266 Circular Re-sawing Machine. 270 Self Feed Saw Table. 270 Combined Scroll and Re-sawing Band Saw. 270 Power Feed Railway Cut-off Saw. 270 Automatic Cut-off Machine. 270 Double Adjustable Cutting Up and Ripping Saw Bench. . 270 Swing Saw. 271 Patent Adjustable Saw Dado Heads. 271 Double Iron Adjustable Saw Table. 271 Variety Saw Bench. 271 Four Sided Planer—Fast Feed Floorer. 272 Buzz Planer. 272 Pony Planer for Light Surfacing. 273 Cabinet Surfacing Planer. 273 Panel Raising Machine. 274 Seven Inch Moulding Machine. 274 Moulding Machine. 274 Carver and Moulder. 274 Band Saw. 274 Double Spindle Variety Moulder and Shaper. 274 Shimer’s Matcher Heads. 275 Single Spindle, Horizontal Boring Machine. 375 Heavy End Tenoning Machine with Double Heads and Copes..... 275 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 441 PAGE. Double Dowel Borer. 275 Blind Stile Mortiser and Borer. 275 Hollow Chisel Mortising Machine. 275 Relishing and Mortising Machine. 276 Shimer Head Grinder. 276 Wood Lathe. 276 Dowell Machine. 276 Sanding Machine. 276 Band Saw Brazing Lamp. 276 Band Saw Filing Vise. 276 Automatic Knife Grinder. 277 Hand Mitre Machine. 277 Door and Cabinet Clamping Machine. 277 Grindstone. 277 Wheel Grinding Machine. 280 Sellers Steam Hammer. 281 Power Punch. 281 Engine Lathe.. 281 Plate Bending Machine. 281 Single Axle Lathe. 281 Slotting Machine. 281 Car Wheel Boring Machine. 281 Double Axle Lathe. 282 Wheel Press. 282 Radial Drill. 282 Vertical Drill. 282 Power Shears. 282 Journal Box Grinder. ;. 283 Iron Planer. 283 TRACK CONSTRUCTION. Cross Section of Track on Ballast Foundation—Girder Rail Spiked to Ties. 285 Cross Section of Steam Railway Construction with Stone Ballast. 285 Cross Section, Girder Rail on Concrete Foundation. 285 Birmingham, Dunedin, Edinburgh, Southport and Bristol Tramways Construction. 286 Manchester, Wirral and Glasgow Tramways Construction 28" Three Tie Joint. 287 Suspended Joint. 287 Tie Plates. 287 Cross Section Street Construction, Girder Rail, Wrought Brace Chair, Marshall Clips. 288 Clip Tie Chair. 289 Rolled Steel Chair. 289 Rail Spikes. 289 Girder Rail with Stringer Support. 289 Tee Rail—Pennsylvania Standard cf 1889. 290 Grooved, Centre Bearing and Side Bearing Girder Rails.. 290 Box Girder Rail. 291 Duplex Rail. 291 High Girder Rails—Boston and Philadelphia Types. 292 Box Girder Rail in Macadam and Stone Pavements. 293 Box Girder Rail Spiked to Tie. 294 I'ACR. Duplex Construction. 294 Tram Rail with Dependent Flange Supported on Rein¬ forced Sleepers.... . 294 Channel Bar Connection. 295 Grip Bolt with Recessed Nut. 295 Joint Box. 295 Combined Joint Box and Chair. 296 Standard Girder Joint for High Rail. 296 Standard Girder Joint. 296 Bridge Joint. 297 Samson Joint. 297 Bridge Joint Chair. 297 Continuous Rail Joint. 298 Nine Inch Joint Chair for Box Girder. 298 Brace Joint Cha;r. 298 Long Joint Chair—Box Girder Rail. 299 Extra Joint Tie Employed with Box Girder Rail. 299 Tie Bar. 300 Guard Rail for Curves. 300 Double Track Through Y Curve. 300 Switch Pieces. 301 Double Track Crossing and Curve. 301 Electric Girder Rail for Curves. 301 Barn Curves and Switches. 302 Double track Through Three Part Y Curve,with Crossing. 303 Four Track Through Single Curve, with Crossing. 304 Stringer Construction with Side Bearing Tram Rail. 305 Stringer Construction with Centre Bearing Tram Rail. . . . 305 Gauge Standard. 305 Grade Paving. 307 Vitrified Paving Brick. 313 LEADING TYPES OF CARS.373-390 AUXILIARY APPLIANCES.392-4x1 APPENDIX. Improved Detroit Motor. 412 Flexible Gear Shaft, Detroit Motor. 413 Diamond Truck, Detroit Motor. 413 Eickemeyer-Field Electric Motor Truck. 414 Sixteen Foot Cars Equipped with Eickemeyer-Field Motors 415 Eickemeyer-Field Bogie Truck for Long Cars. 416 Eight Wheel Car Equipped with Eickemeyer-Field Mo¬ tors. 416 Wightman Motor. 417 Wightman Motor Encased.418 Waterproof Motor. 418 Direct Coupled Vertical Engine and Multipolar Generator 419 Improved Short Railway Generator. 420 Street and Steam Railway Crossing Protected by Hall Au¬ tomatic Danger Signal. 421 Lightning Arrester Fuse.422 Fulmen Lightning Arrester.422 Automatic Track Switch. 423 ADVERTISEMENTS. 443 THE Thomson - Houston V__/ SERIES PARALLEL CONTROLLER S' W \ A TREMENDOUS ADVANCE TOWARD THE PERFECTION OF THE THOMSON - HOUSTON SYSTEM OF PROPULSION. ACTUAL RESULTS FROM CARS EQUIPPED WITH THIS METHOD OF CONTROL SHOW A SAVING OF POWER OF ABOUT 35 PER CENT. OVER THE RHEOSTAT OR COMMU¬ TATED FIELD METHODS. THOMSON-HOUSTON ELECTRIC CO 620 Atlantic Avenue, Boston, Mass. 44 Broad Street, New York, N. Y. 173 and 175 Adams Street, Chicago, 111. 401 to 407 Sibley Street, St. Paul, Minn. 1 5 First Street, 264 West Fourth Street, Cincinnati, Ohio. 509 Arch Street. Philadelphia, Pa. Gould Building, Atlanta, Ga. Masonic Temple, Denver, Col. San Francisco, Cal. 444 ADVERTISEMENTS. WILLARD L. CANDEE, H. DURANT CHEEVER, Managers. GEO. T. MANSON, Gen’l Supt. FEED WIRES AND CABLES, With, the OKOHITE Insulation, • ARE THE BEST in the MHRKET. THEY ARE SPECIA LLY ADAPT ED FOR S TREET RAILWAY WO RK, WHERE THEY ARE SUBJECTED TO SUDDEN AND SEVERE CHANGES OF WEATHER, AS THEY REMAIN INTACT WHERE ALL OTHER INSULATIONS GIVE OUT. THE INSULATION RESISTANCE OF OKONITE DOES NOT DECREASE UNDER THE SEVERE TEST OF CLIMATE AND TIME. THE OKONITE FEED WIRES AND CABLES ARE IN USE BY The Leading Electric Street Railway Companies. THE OKONITE COMPANY, Limited, 13 PHRI< ROW. N. V. ADVERTISEMENTS. 445 ry- CT-pn SHORT ELECTRIC RAILWAY CO., ci_.EiArEii_,^nsriD, ohio. ELECTRIC RAILWAY GENERATORS, 75 TO 500 HORSE POWER. PERFECTLY ADAPTED TO THE DEMANDS OF STREET RAILWAY SERVICE. SELF-ADJUSTING. SELF-OILING. RAILWAY SUPPLY DEPARTMENT. COMPLETE APPLIANCES FOR OVERHEAD LINE CONSTRUCTION. SEND FOR CATALOGUES AND TRICE LISTS. MILLS BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY. PENN MUTUAL BUILDING, PHILADELPHIA. KITTREDGE BUILDING, DENVER. 227 STEVENSON STREET, SAN FRANCISCO, 225 DEARBORN STREET, CHICAGO. 515 WALNUT STREET, ST. LOUIS. MALLERS’ BUILDING, SEATTLE, OLD CAPITOL BUILDING, ATLANTA. 44 6 ADVERTISEMENTS. THE FALLS RIVET & MACHINE C0„ CUYAHOGA FALLS, OHIO. MANUFACTURERS OF Friction Clutch Pulleys AND CUT-OFF COUPLINGS. Porner Transmitting (Daehinerv of all Hinds. SPECIAL ATTENTION GIVEN TO THE MANUFACTURE OF FRICTION CLUTCHES, SHAFTING, &c., FOR ELECTRIC RAILWAY, ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER STATIONS. 8 So. Canal St., CHICAGO. BRA1TCH OrriCES: 520 Olive St., ST. LOUIS. 18 Cortlandt St., NEW YORK ADVERTISEMENTS. DESCRIPTION OF SHAFTING FLOOR OF THE LARGEST ELECTRIC LIGHT STATION IN THE WORLD. ERECTED FOR THE MUNICIPAL ELECTRIC LIGHT & POWER CO., ST. LOUIS, MO., BY THE FALLS RIVET and MACHINE CO. CUYAHOGA FALLS, OHIO. There are 3,800 arc lights, 10,000 incandescent. More to be put in as fast as the dynamos can be made. “ The second floor is equipped with 400 feet of 6-inch Hammered Iron Shafting, ground and polished, divided into eight sections of 50 feet each, and set up in four parallel lines on floor stands, which are bolted to double I beams below. The bearings of the shafting are self-aligning and adjusting, and vary in length from iS to 32 inches. Each shaft is driven by a 48-inch double leather belt, running over a Steel Rim Pulley 56 inches in diameter X 52-inch face. On each shaft is placed seven double crown Friction Clutch Pulleys, 52 inches in diameter, with 22-inch face, from which lead fourteen 10- inch belts to the floor above to drive the dynamos. The clutch mechanism is operated from the dynamo floor by a simple lever device that lies in a cavity in the floor made to receive it when not in use. Each engine belt has a patent Steel Rim Tightener Pulley 36 inches in diameter with a 52-inch face, which is operated from the shafting floor to tighten or loosen the belt. All the castings are exceptionally smooth and well made, all collars and couplings being well turned and polished giving the whole a finished appearance. The boxes are lined with babbitt metal, reamed and bored, with deep oil grooves running backward and forward that insure perfect lubrication. The necessary oil is fed to each bearing by a system of pipes and carried thence by drain pipes to the oil filter in the basement, from which it is pumped to the fourth story to be used again. All the transmitting machinery on this floor was made and set up in place in a most thorough and workman¬ like manner by THE FALLS RIVET AND MACHINE COMPANY, of Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, and the best evidence of its satisfactory character is that, while only one man is required to care for all of it during operating hours, not one minute’s time has been lost from any mechanical defect or cause since the plant was started, Feb. 1st, 1890. 448 ADVERTISEMENTS. GEORGE COPPELL, President. WM. H. MALE. Treasurer. CARL SCHURZ, Vice-President. JOHN D. ELWELL, Gen’l Manager. DUPLEX STREET RfllbttlflY TRACK CO. tieue DUPLEX STREET RAILWAY TRACK, ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO THE HEAVY SERVICE OF ELECTRICAL LINES, After careful examination of its merits the Committee of the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania, recommended THE SCOTT MEDAL r ' w THEIR SPECIAL AWARD FOR THE MOST DESERVING INVENTION OF THE YEAR. THE DUPLEX STREET RAILWAY TRACK IS IN USE OR UNDER CONTRACT ON THE FOLLOWING ROADS AND CITIES: New York & Harlem R. R. Co., Fourth Avenue, New York. New Orleans & Carrollton Railroad Co., New Orleans, La. Rochester Railroad Co., Rochester, N. Y. Camden Horse Railroad Co. (Electric Division), Camden, N. J, Atlantic Avenue Railroad Co., Brooklyn, N. Y. Lakeside Electric Railway Co., Fort Wayne, Ind. Steinway Railway Co., Astoria, L. I. Lake Roland Elevated Railroad Co., Baltimore, Md., And in Kansas City, Mo. CORRESPONDENCE INVITED. GENERAL OFFICES, 51 WALL ST., NEW YORK. ADVERTISEMENTS. 449 From the Journal of the Franklin Institute , June , i8q2. DUPLEX STREET RAILWAY TRACK. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. [No. 1,643.] Hall of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, April 6, 1892. The Sub-Committee of the Committee on Science and the Arts, constituted by the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania, to whom was referred for examination THE DUPLEX STREET RAILWAY TRACK, report , That the system embraces a form of construction for street railways that dispenses with wooden sills and crossties, and substitutes therefor metal chairs and tie-bars as supports and braces, for a system of double rails of peculiar construction, in which the head and flange rails are separate, each having a wide depending web directly under the load bearing surface. These two sections, when united, form a complete rail, making a very stiff longitudinal stringer, laid to break joints, so that when the head sections meet they are supported by the solid portion of the flange section, and where the latter join they are covered partially by the solid head section, thus practically forming a jointless track of uniform strength and elasticity throughout its entire length. THE CLAIMS OF SUPERIORITY ADVANCED FOR THIS SYSTEM, BRIEFLY STATED, APPEAR UNDER THE FOLLOWING HEADS : ( 1 ) “ Durability and permanence, inherent to an all-metal system.” This claim passes without question. (2) “ Smoothness and stability of the track, which is absolutely free from weak points.” When a track is constructed so that the ends of the rails cannot yield to the passing load, the worst of all track- destroying causes is removed, and such a road must retain its smoothness and stability until the rails are entirely worn out throughout their length. (3) “Increased vertical and lateral strength without increase of metal.” (4) “ Freedom from torsional strain, the bearing surfaces being directly supported by the vertical webs.” (5) “ Increased wearing capacity of head rail.” On tracks constructed so that wagons cannot travel upon them, or where the wagon travel is much lighter than the car service, the head of the rail will wear out most rapidly ; when this occurs upon a single girder rail the entire rail must be discarded as scrap, while with the Duplex system, only the head rail need be renewed, and the discarded part is but half the weight of the single girder. (6) “ In renewal, the discarding Of the worn portion only is necessary.” The advantage of retaining either half of the rail in service until it is worn out, adds greatly to the life and economy of such a track. (7) “Perfect alignment and accurate maintenance of gauge with requisite freedom for expansion and contraction.” The union of the rails with the tie-bars and keys at the chairs is such that, while the rails are firmly seated in the chairs and securely held down by the keys, the eyes in the rail-webs being longer than the width of the keys, ample play for expansion is provided. (8) “ Simplicity Of construction which expedites the track laying and reduces the disturbances of the public streets.” Every piece of the Duplex track is of the simplest form and inexpensive to make, and in the construction of a mile of track but 7,850 pieces are required, while some of the permanent single girder tracks are made up of over 26,000 pieces, and the common tram rail uses 17,406 pieces per mile. In excavating for these tracks the quantity of earth to be removed bears about the same ratio, viz.: for the Duplex track 300 cubic yards, and for the others 1,064 cubic yards and 932 cubic yards, respectively. These advantages bring the cost of the superior all-metal Duplex track within the cost of the ordinary tram track. (9) “Maintenance of absolute contact Of metal, which obviates the necessity of ‘bonding joints’ for electrical traction.” This claim is doubtless well founded ; the method of connecting the rails at their ends is such that for electrical service the track is found to be practically and permanently as one continuous rail. (10) “A reasonable first cost, and great saving in maintenance.” For reasons above stated, this claim must be conceded. From a. careful examination of this system and an inspection of tracks in practical use, it is evident that much that has long been desired in the direction of a better and more lasting construction, permanent smoothness and strength equal to the heavy traffic that they are subject to, lias been carefully and ably worked out upon a thor¬ oughly practical and economical line, in every detail. The special requirements of electrical traction and cable service appear to be fully met, so that we have an excellent substitute for every objectionable form of track now commonly used. We therefore respectfully recommend the grant to the inventor of the award of the John Scott I.egncy Pre¬ mium and Medal. H. R. Hf.yi., Chairman. Spencer Fullerton, J. M. Emanuel, G. Morgan Eldridge, Arthur Beardsley, Chas. E. Ronaldson, L. L. Cheney Adopted, May 4, 1892. Arthur Beardsley, Chairman of the Committee on Science anti the Arts. 45° ADVERTISEMENTS. THOMSON -HQUSTO N —-— ---— ELECTRIC COMPANY HAVING EQUIPPED WITH ITS SYSTEM OF ELECTRICAL - ~^— * * * * STREET CAR * * * * > —= PROPULSION MO RE STREET RAI LWAYS THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY IN T HE WORLD, POINT S TO ITS PAST RECORD AS EVIDENCE OF THE SYSTEM’S SUPERIORITY, AND TO T HE FACT THAT AMONG THE STRE ET RAIL WAYS USING THE Thomson-Houston System, ARE THE LARGEST AND MOST IMPORTANT RAILWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES. SEND FOR RAILWAY BULLETINS OF INFORMATION. Thomson-Houston Electric Co., 620 Atlantic Avenue, Boston, Mass. 44 Broad Street, New York, N. Y. 173 and 175 Adams Street, Chicago, 111. 401 to 407 Sibly Street, St. Paul, Minn. 1 5 First Street, 264 West Fourth Street, Cincinnati, Ohio. 509 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Gould Building, Atlanta, Ga. Masonic Temple, Denver, Col. San Francisco, Cal. ADVERTISEMENTS. 45' BABCOCK * WILCOX BOILERS ARE IN USE IN THE FOLLOWING PLANTS IN THE STREET RAILWAY FIELD. ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. WEST END STREET RAILWAY CO., Boston, Mass. THE MERRIMAC VALLEY STREET RAILWAY CO., Lawrence, Mass. THE PORTLAND STREET RAILWAY CO., Portland, Me. GLOBE STREET RAILWAY CO., Fall River, Mass. LYNN & BOSTON RAILROAD, Lynn, Mass. ** 14 4 * ChdscE, IVlciss. ... HARLEM BRIDGE, MORRISANIA & FORDHAM RAILROAD, New York City.. ! BROOKLYN CITY RAILROAD CO., Brooklyn, N. Y. ATLANTIC AVENUE RAILROAD CO., Brooklyn, N. Y. THE ALBANY RAILWAY, Albany, N. Y. TROY & LANSINGBURG RAILROAD CO., Troy, N. Y. ROCHESTER RAILWAY CO., Rochester, N. Y. CROSSTOWN STREET RAILWAY CO., Buffalo, N. Y. SEA SHORE ELECTRIC RAILWAY CO., Asbury Park, N. J. PITTSBURGH & BIRMINGHAM TRACTION CO., Pittsburgh, Pa. BRADDOCK ELECTRIC RAILWAY CO., Braddock, Pa. ECKINGTON & SOLDIERS’ HOME RAILROAD CO., Washington, D. C. GLEN ECHO RAILWAY CO., Washington, D. C. ROCK CREEK RAILWAY CO., Washington, D. C. THE CINCINNATI STREET RAILWAY CO., Cincinnati, O. COLUMBUS CONSOLIDATED STREET RAILROAD CO., Columbus, O. CITIZENS' STREET RAILWAY CO., Indianapolis, Ind. AURORA STREET RAILWAY CO., Aurora, Ill. STREATOR RAILWAY CO., Streator, Ill. NEGAUNEE & ISHPEMING STREET RAILWAY CO., Negaunee, Mich. THE DOUGLAS COUNTY STREET RAILWAY CO., Superior, Wis. ST. PAUL CITY RAILWAY, St. Paul, Minn.'.. DULUTH STREET RAILWAY CO., Duluth, Minn. ST. PAUL & WHITE BEAR RAILWAY, North St. Paul, Minn. PEOPLE'S STREET RAILWAY, St. Joseph, Mo. THE NORTHEAST RAILWAY CO., Kansas City, Mo. THE AUGUSTA RAILWAY CO., Augusta, Ga. THE COAST LINE RAILWAY, Savannah, Ga. CITIZENS’ RAILWAY CO., Waco, Tex. TACOMA RAILWAY & MOTOR CO., Tacoma, Wash. BILBAO ELECTRIC TRAMWAYS, Bilbao, Spain. EAGLEHAWK ELECTRIC TRAMWAY CO., Sandhurst, Victoria, N. S. W. CABLE AND TRACTION TRAMWAYS. NEW YORK & BROOKLYN BRIDGE, Brooklyn, N. Y. WASHINGTON & GEORGETOWN RAILROAD, Washington, D. C. CLEVELAND CITY CABLE RAILWAY CO., Cleveland, O. THE VALLEY CITY STREET & CABLE RAILWAY CO., Grand Rapids, Mich. CHICAGO CITY RAILROAD, Chicago, Ill. ST. PAUL CITY RAILWAY CO., St. Paul, Minn. MINNEAPOLIS STREET RAILWAY CO., Minneapolis, Minn. GRAND AVENUE RAILWAY CO., Kansas City, Mo. METROPOLITAN STREET RAILWAY CO., Kansas City, Mo. INTERSTATE CONSOLID’T’D RAPID TRANSIT RAILWAY CO., Kansas City, Mo. PEOPLE'S CABLE RAILWAY CO.. Kansas City, Mo. HOLMES STREET RAILWAY CO., Kansas City, Mo. DENVER CITY CABLE RAILWAY CO., Denver, Col. HOUSTON CITY STREET RAILWAY CO., Houston, Tex. MARKET STREET CABLE RAILWAY, San Francisco, Cal. PIEDMONT CABLE CO., San Francisco, Cal. CALIFORNIA STREET CABLE CO., San Francisco, Cal. PATENT CABLE TRAMWAY CORPORATION Highgate, London, England. EDINBURGH NORTHERN CABLE TRAMWAY, Edinburgh, Scotland. COMPAGNIE DES LOCOMOTIVES SANS FOYER, Courbevoie, France. “ “ “ Nord de la Seine, St. Germain, France. COMPAGNIE DES TRAMWAYS DU DEPARTEMENT DU NORD, Roubaix, France. COMPAGNIE DES OMNIBUS ET TRAMWAY, Lyons, France. THE MELBOURNE TRAMWAYS, Richmond Line, Australia, Melbourne. “ “ “ Fitzroy Line, “ “ . Boilers. h. r. 3 orders, 1889-1890, 26 6,500 2 “ 1891-1892, 3 480 April, 1891, 2 250 1892, 3 675 Jan., 1892, 6 1,500 ‘ * 6 1,500 ‘ ‘ 4 1,000 2 orders,’ 1891-1892, 16 5,000 April, 1892, 6 1,500 2 orders, 1889-1892, 6 750 3 “ 1889-1891, 5 864 2 “ 1891-1892, 2 ■ 808 Aug., 1890, 4 1,000 March, 1892, 2 640 July, 1890, 4 1,000 July, 1891, 1 164 Jan., 1889, 1 136 2 orders, 1890-1891, 3 312 Sept., 1890, 3 375 2 orders, 1890, 5 1,500 2 1890-1891, 6 1,076 Aug., 1891, 2 600 2 orders, 1890-1891, 4 832 April, 1890, 2 208 Sept., 1891, 2 208 June, 1891, 3 445 April, 1890, 8 2,176 3 orders, 1890-1892, 7 1,072 March, 1892, 2 184 May, 1889, 4 832 Sept., 1889, 2 250 March, 1890, 1 150 March, 1892, 2 500 Aug., 1890, 2 240 May, 1890, 4 656 Feb., 1889, 0 146 April, 1889, 3 90 Boilers. H. P. 3 orders, 1S82-1S91, 12 1,248 3 “ 1889-1891, 13 1,956 March, 1890, 3 1,086 April, 1891, 4 781 April, 1881, 4 1,000 2 orders, 1888-1890, 11 2,800 Sept., 1889, 5 1,360 2 orders, 1886-1888, 4 800 3 1886-1888, 9 1,800 Aug., 1887, 2 400 Aug., 1887, 3 600 Feb., 1889, 2 350 2 ' orders, 1889-1891, 4 1,600 2 1890-1892, 3 492 2 “ 1882-1887, 6 1,500 July, 1889, 3 438 May, 1890, 3 360 2 orders, 1883-1884, 3 153 2 “ 1886-1891, I 400 fan., 1889, 2 156 May, 1889, 2 171 June, 1886, 3 135 2 orders, 1887-1888, 3 152 Nov., 1884, f July, 1885, \ 6 1,040 THE BKBCOGK CO • 9 30 Oortlanclt Street, N ew Y or It. Sd WILCOX 45 2 ADVERTISEMENTS. Geo. B. Christie, C. E. Jesse Lowe, C. E. CHRISTIE St LOME, CABLE ROAD ENGINEERS AND CONTRACTORS, 45 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, BUILT .A.S Cleveland City Cable Railway Co.’s Denver City Cable Railway Co.’s. Brooklyn Heights Street Railway Co.’s Brightwood Street Railway Co,’s. CONTEACTOnS : ( Superior Street Line.-—Cable. .( Payne Avenue Line.—Cable. f Larimer Street Line.—Cable. . J. Welton Street Line. ( Larimer Street Extension Line.—Cable. .Montague Street Line.—Cable. ....Washington, D. C., Seventh St. Pneumatic Road, MAGNESIA SECTIONAL COVERINGS. The Most Economical Steam Pipe and Boiler Covering used, because it is the best fire proof non¬ conductor of heat. Correspondence solicited. THE APPROVED COVERING FOR ELECTRIC STATIONS, ROBERT A. KEASBEY, 119 FRANKLIN ST., BUFFALO, N. Y. 58 Warren Street, New York. PROTECT YOUR MOTORS AGAINST LIGHTNING. FULMEN ARRESTERS C. S. YAN NTTIS, 136 Liberty Street, New York. S7VTITH OF NEW YORK, MANUFACTURER of RAILROAD CENTRE CAR LAMPS AND REFLECTORS. No. 30 is our latest production in the way of a double Centre Car Lamp, intended to meet the growing demand for something handsome and artistic. For beauty of design, finish, utility and price, it can not be surpassed. J. D. S7W1TH, NO. .30. 350 & 352 Pearl St., IVEJW YORK, [ADVERTISEMENTS. 453 v DETROIT, ELECTRIC RAILWAY SYSTEM. SIMPLICITY, STRENGTH AND ECONOMY WON’T BURN OXJT. MANUFACTURED BY DETROIT ELECTRICAL WORKS, DETROIT, MIOH. BRANCH OFFICES : CHICAGO, NEW YORK, BOSTON, CHATTANOOGA 917-918 Monadnock Bldg. 18 Cortlandt Street. 89 State Street. F. I. Stone. GSN6RHTORS OF ALL SIZES. MOTOR EQUIPMENTS TO SUIT ANY WORK. LIN6 HPPLIKNC6S OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. STANDARD EQUIPMENT. ONE MOTOR GEARED TO BOTH AXLES. 454 'ADVERTISEMENTS. FIELD ENGINEERING COMPANY, CONSULTING AND CONTRACTING ENGINEERS. COMPLETE EQUIPMENT OF ELECTRIC STREET RAILWAYS. ALSO ALL KINDS OF ^ POLES FOR Electric Light, Telephone and Telegraph Line Work. These poles are Standard for Electric Street Rail¬ way work, and are the type of pole adopted exclusively in the City of Buffalo, also in many other large cities. DESIGNERS AND BUILDERS OF IRON & STEEL ROOFS for POWER STATIONS. Estimates and Information furnishdd on application. Send for Catalogue. FULTON FOUNDRY CO., Cleveland, 0. Manufacturers and Dealers in all kinds of —AND— STREET RAILWAY SUPPLIES, INCLUDING STEEL TIRED WHEELS for Cable or Electric Cars CAST CHILLED WHEELS FOR ALL KINDS -OF SERVICE, {Any Size and Weight desired .) Railroad Crossings, Switches, Turnouts, Crossovers, all kinds of Castings necessary for Track Work, Haycox Patent Door Fasteners, Haycox Patent Brake Shoe, Gears and Pinions of all kinds, Electric Trucks, Turn Tables and Transfer Tables, Steel Rails, Spikes, Splices and Track Tools. ADVERTISEMENTS. 459 JOHNSON COMPANY, Rolling Mill, Switch Works and Steel Foundry, New York Office: Mutual Life Blog.. New York City. Philadelphia Office ; Bullitt Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa. Central Office : Mitchell Bldg., Cincinnati, O. JOHNSTOWN, PA. MANUFACTURERS OF Western Office : Bank of Commerce Bldg., St. Louis, Mo. Northwestern Office: Ph H (/) > Z < o H Q UI h d < Q < pp C/3 pd Oh W PD C/3 CaP C/3 <*=*3 Cp> 2 CO p=g C/3 *a 3 PD CO PD Cu ■C co co PD C_D PD e-< CO P>P DP B-i OS < UI o p < M Q < OS c/T W £ < OS Un UI Q h < 0u c n m ui X o OQ P < z os p o •“> h X Q UI HH tL, HH U UI Ou P o w h w r < h in w P -j Q W in Z o HH in Z ui H Cf 2 X 2 •* UI r K H c OS < t UI u <■ > UI p HH H Z < OS OQ P J 1 u* J u w h w m w " UI UI o z < ffi < X X u UI OU X h Q UI Oh Oh OS O h O S P p P Q Z UI Oh P O' UI a ex rt c/f tn J 0) u C rt (A c u a. a; x 5 p o a -*-» cn 0) h p u 0) > o w HI Q o tx o o )-—I w w « w o & Pi E—< p^i o E—< o a w o w Ph w w H &' r> & 0 b (0 d) H M > < £ Q < O os ffl LD uf u hH X Uh o X X o > 5: X z 468 ADVERTISEMENTS. MACHINED” STREET CAR WHEELS -FOR- HORSE, CABLE AND ELECTRIC STREET RAILWAY SERVICE. T^HESE wheels, as indicate by the name, are treated mechanically after they leave the foundry. They are first accurately bored, then placed in grinding machinery on self¬ centering mandrels, and turned absolutely true and round. They are then tested for balance, and if necessary, are made perfect in that respect. TX 7 HEELS for the above service are made under this Company's well known System of " ' Comparative Tests, which insures absolute knowledge as to character of each individual wheel before shipment. Users can thus be assured that they will receive only such wheels as are known to be fit for the service intended. These tests cover strength of metal, quality and depth of chill, &c., &c. • T)ROPER results in any service, in point of mileage or any of the many details of operation in which wheels play a prominent part, can only be obtained through the medium of me¬ chanical principles governing each feature of the whole, and the more important any one detail of construction, in a like proportion is it important to have the same mechanically perfect. No practical street railway man underestimates the opportunities for poor results made possible by the use of inferior wheels r T , HAT these wheels are appreciated, and that street railway managers recognize the results *• obtained from their use, is most eloquently vouched for by orders received for them. Upwards of 200 of the leading railways, representing every kind of traction, are now using them regularly WHEELS LOOSE OR FITTED TO AXLES FOR ANY TRUCK OR MOTOR. OLD AXLES RE-FITTED WITH NEW WHEELS AT REASONABLE RATES. WHEELS SLID FLAT RE-GROUND AND FITTED FOR FURTHER SERVICE, OUR FACILITIES ARE UNSURPASSED AND FULLY ADEQUATE FOR THE PROMPT FILLING OF ORDERS. New York Car Wheel Works, buffalo, n. y. -AND-- . CORNER BANK AND WEST STREETS, NEW YORK CITY. ADVERTISEMENTS. 409 THE BEMIS CAR BOX CO., MANUFACTURERS OF THE BEMIS PATENT TRUCKS, FOR CABLE AND ELECTRIC CARS OF ALL KINDS. Thoroughly and Substantially Built. OUR NEW ELECTRIC TRUCK No. 27, FOR USE WITH ONE OR TWO MOTORS FOR EIGHT-WHEEL CARS Special attention in construction is paid to the easy removal of all parts subject to wear, and which require replacing. SPRINGFIELD, MASS 470 ADVERTISEMENTS. ST. LOUIS CAR COMPANY, MANUFACTURERS OF ALL KINDS OF MOTOR CARS. ELECTRIC CARS, AND TRUCKS Ff SPECIALTY. Office : 3023 N. Broadway, St. Louis. STEAM GAUGE AND LANTERN CO., SYRACUSE, N. Y. MANUFACTURERS ELECTRIC CAR ANU CABLE CAR HEAD LIGHTS, TUBULAR LAMPS ADVERTISEMENTS. 47 1 DORNER 3t DUTTON. %. MANUFACTURERS OF STReeT OMR WH66LS, FORGED AND ROLLED AXLES, ROLLER AND BRASS BEARING JOURNAL BOXES, DU PONT PATENT MOTOR TRUCK, MANUFACTURED BY DORNER & DUTTON, CLEVELAND, O. Electric Motor Trucks, Gears and Pinions, TRACK CLEANERS, TURN TABLES, TRANSFER TABLES AND STREET RAILWAY CASTINGS. FRONT VIEW. Our New Dust Tight Self-Oiling Journal Box, PARTICULARLY ADAPTED TO CABLE AND ELECTRIC CARS. CLEVELHND, OHIO 472 ADVERTISEMENTS. ESTABLISHED 1859. BRIGGS CARRIAGE COMPANY, BUILDERS OF ALL KINDS OF Street Railway Cars, FINISHED CARS IN STOCK. ORDERS FILLED PROMPTLY. HAAeSBVRY. MHSS. CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. B. K. BRIGGS, Manager. ADVERTISEMENTS. 473 THE ACCELERATOR (F. B. BKOWNEI.L, PATENT NOV. 3, 1891.) IS THE MOST IMPORTANT IMPROVEMENT IN STREET CARS UP TO DATE. QUICK ACCESS AND EGRESS RESULTS IN RAPID TRANSIT. Time saved from stops is as valuable as that gained by faster running, and costs nothing. Notice how little space of platform is used when passing from inside of car to step and how quickly it can be done. Crowded platforms no longer a nuisance to ladies, or annoyance to other passengers on platforms. BROWNELL CAR COMPANY, S’T. LOUIS, 7VYO. stee:gt cla.ks- AJL.31. STYLES. 474 ADVERTISEMENTS. THE SESSIONS OAR -FOR- STREET RAILWAY SERVICE. CARRYING CAPACITY DOUBLED. Thus dispensing with excessive equipment on crowded lines. Entire space utilized at a decrease in height and weight of cars. Cost but little more than the ordi¬ nary car of one-half capacity. Attractive in appearance ; there¬ fore invites patronage. Offers to the passenger all the combined comforts of modern invention. 14 FT. SESSIONS CAR SEATS 44 PASSENGERS. 16 24 it if ft it if etc., 48 76 f i ii etc. SESSIONS PASSENGER CAR CO., 45 Lake Side Building, Corner Clark and Adams Sts. CH1CHGO, ILL. DETAILED INFORMATION ON APPLICATION, CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. ADVERTISEMENTS. 475 THE ELLIS CAR COMPANY, AMESBURY, MA.SS. BEST CAR IN THE WORLD FOR THE MONEY. YOU WILL SAVE MONEY BY GETTING OUR PRICES BEFORE YOU BUY. CURS OF ALL KINDS FOR ELECTRIC OR HORSE POWER. SEND AND GET OUR PRICES AND PHOTOS. CALL ON US OR WRITE AND WE WILL SEND A REPRESENTATIVE TO TALK WITH YOU. DON’T FORGET THE PLACE, AMESBURY, MASS 476 ADVERTISEMENTS BUILDERS OR STREET RAILWAY CARS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. ELECTRIC CARS, MOTOR CARS, HORSE CARS AND SPECIAL TRUCKS. Orders Quickly and Carefully Filled Correspondence Solicited ■9 ADVERTISEMENTS. 477 THE STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL. PUBLICATION OFFICES, WORLD BUILDING, NEW YORK. WESTERN OFFICE, 535 THE ROOKERY, CHICAGO, ILL. AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, Deyoted Exclusively to the Interests of Street Railways of all Classes. PRACTICAL, SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL. The Street Railway Journal is the Oldest, Largest and Leading Publication in the world Devoted to the Street Railway Industry and kindred interests. It is HAND¬ SOMELY AND PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED, and is acknowledged as an authority upon all matters pertaining to Street Railways of all kinds. The Street Railway Journal has made a most remarkable record in trade journalism. It is an essential factor in the building and economic operation of street railways. It treats of the road bed and line construction, and the daily operating routine of the business. It investigates all the economic problems that are apt to puzzle the management. It illustrates everything that is new and of value to the business. It inquires into all the different methods of mechanical traction and publishes actual results. IT SHOULD BE READ BY EVERY ONE INTERESTED IN THE SUBJECT. WHAT IS SAID OF IT BY SUBSCRIBERS AND ADVERTISERS. “ You don’t know how much I appreciate your Journal." Chas. H. Avery, Sec’y and Supt. Brush Electric & Power Co., Geneva, N. Y. * * * "We have to congratulate you on the steady improvement made in the Journal from the first number.” H. Hurt, President. Washington & Georgetown Railroad Co., Washington, D. C. * * * "Accept my congratulations on the fine appearance and the substantial and valuable matter contained in your recent is sues.” J. C. Shaffer, President. Richmond City Electric Street Railway, Richmond, Ind, * * * " I have given particular attention to your paper during ihe past few months and desire to congratulate you on the marked improvement of the character of the articles and the practical information contained therein. I think the periodical is be¬ coming to be a very valuable technical journal.” J. H. Vail, Assistant Engineer-in-Chief, Engineering Department, Edison General Electric Co., " Referring to our advertisement in the Journal, we notice that the original contract has expired, and we wish to say in this connection that we would like to have you extend our old contract indejinitely. We have had too good results from our advertisement in your paper to think of making any change just now." Charles E. Newton, Sec., Jewell Belting Co., Hartford, Conn. “ This paper is practically indispensable , as we use it for ref¬ erence of all kinds. We also find it extremely instructive in its reading matter, much more so than the general run of pa¬ pers of this class. “As an advertising medium, we assure you that it has been very remunerative to ourselves, as we have received many orders through its medium. We wish you all the success you can possibly obtain.” R. D. Nutt all Co., Allegheny, Pa. * * * " The Journal commends itself to every one interested in the important question of street railways, and we wish you every success in your management.” Frank G. Washburn, Contracting Engineer. Third Avenue Cable Construction, New York. * * * "We have always found your publication to be one of con¬ siderable value to us in our work.” Gaynor Electric Co., Louisville, Ky. * * * " The fact that we have advertised with you from the start¬ ing of our business, and that we continue to give you such ad¬ vertising, proves that we believe your columns to be a valuable means of reaching the buying public. We are constantly in re¬ ceipt of orders from parties who refer to our advertisement in your paper in sending such orders. "Assuring you of our appreciation of many tavors. and wish¬ ing you continued success, we are, Sincerely yours.” W. R. Mason, Gen. Man. Railway Equipment Co., Chicago, Ill. SUBSCRIPTION, $4.00 PER YEAR. FOREIGN COUNTRIES, $6.00. POSTAGE PREPAID. We shall be pleased to forward specimen copies and quote rates for advertising space upon application Address all communications STREET RAILWAY PUBLISHING CO., World Building, New York. 535 THE ROOKERY. CHICAGO, ILL. 178 ADVERTISEMENTS. WESTIN GHOUSE STREET RAILWAY GENERATORS AND MOTORS. FHE MOST IMPROVED STATION APPLIANCES FOR STREET RAILWAY WORK. IN ECONOMY OF OPERATION, OUR SINGLE REDUCTION MOTORS Have no rivals in their class, combining the feature of Complete Protection of the Armature with a design securing easy accessibility. WRITE US AND SEND FOR LATEST CATALOGUE. RAILWAY DEPARTMENT. Westinghouse Electric & fdanafacturing Go., PITTSBURGH, PH. ADVERTISEMENTS. 479 A FTER the most thorough investigation ever made into the subject of block signals THE ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD COMPANY HAS ADOPTED THE HALL SYSTEM OF AUTOMATIC ELECTRIC SIGNALS for the protection of their entire WORLD’S FAIR TRAFFIC on their eight tracks from CHICAGO to GRAND CROSSING and four tracks from GRAND CROSSING to KENSINGTON. THE CHICAGO AND NORTHWESTERN RAILWAY COMPANY HAS ADOPTED THE HALL SYSTEM for the block signaling of their Galena, Milwaukee and Wisconsin divisions, 87 miles of double track, 201 block signals, and also providing protection for 188 switches. THE HALL SIGNAL COMPANY, WILLIAM P. HALL, President. W. S. GILMORE, Treasurer. MELVILLE P. HALL, Secretary, S. MARSH YOUNG, General Agent. C. W. BREWSTER, Sales Agent. HENRY BEZER, Mechanical Signal Engineer. A. J. WILSON, Sup’t Electrical Construction. W. W. SALMON, Signal Engineer. GENERAL OFFICES, 5o BROADWAY, NEW YORK. WESTERN OFFICE, 34o THE ROOKERY, CHICAGO, ILL. 480 ADVERTISEMENTS, ELECTRIC SNOW SWEEPER, MANUFACTURED BY The Lewis & Fowler Mfg. Co., BROOKLYN, N. Y. SIMPLE IN CONSTRUCTION. ALL PARTS EASILY REACHED AND ADJUSTED. The only Snow Sweeper that is acknowledged to be a thorough success. They are now used by nearly all of the Electric Railways and give complete satisfaction. One of the great advantages of this sweeper, driven as it is by separate motors, is that the sweeper can be run through snow banks very slowly, while the brooms can be revolved at their greatest speed. This advantage will be readily appreciated. FURTHER INFORMATION FURNISED UPON APPLICATION. THE LEWIS & FOWLER MANUFACTURING CO., BROOKLYN, IV. Y. ADVERTISEMENTS 481 J.G. BRILL COMPHNY, PHILADELPHIA, BUILDERS OF RAILWAY AND TRAMWAY CARS. STANDARD CLOSED ELECTRIC MOTOR CAR ON BRILL’S NO. 13 PATENTED INDEPENDENT RIGID MOTOR TRUCK. EIGHT SEAT OPEN ELECTRIC MOTOR CAR ON BRILL’S NO. 13 PATENTED INDEPENDENT RIGID MOTOR TRUCK. SPECIFICATIONS AND PRICES FURNISHED ON APPLICATION 482 ADVERTISEMENTS J.G. BRILL COMPHNY, PHILADELPHIA, BUILDERS OF RAILWAY AND TRAMWAY CARS. ‘TT 1 > COMBINATION OPEN AND CLOSED ELECTRIC CAR ON EUREKA MAXIMUM-TRACTION PIVOTAL TRUCKS. TOP SEAT CAR ON BRILL’S EQUALIZING TRAIL CAR GEAR. TRAIL CAR RUNNING GEAR AND ALL STREET CAR SUPPLIES A SPECIALTY. ADVERTISEMENTS 483 J. G. BRIL_L_ COMPANY, PBIILADE LPHIA, BUILDERS OF RAILWAY AND TRAMWAY CARS. STANDARD 25 FT. CLOSED ELECTRIC MOTOR CAR ON EUREKA MAXIMUM-TRACTION PIVOTAL TRUCKS. TWELVE SEAT OPEN ELECTRIC MOTOR CAR ON EUREKA MAXIMUM-TRACTION PIVOTAL TRUCKS. WESTERN OFFICE : i criiL,3Di2src^, cmc^ao 484 ADVERTISEMENTS. J. G. BRILL COM PH NY, PHILADELPHIA, BUILDERS OF RAILWAY AND TRAMWAY CARS. BRILL’S NO 13 PATENTED INDEPENDENT RIGID MOTOR TRUCK. ADOPTED AS STANDARD BY- THE LEADING ELECTRIC RAILWAYS IN AMERICA. EUREKA MAXIMUM-TRACTION PIVOTAL TRUCK. Increased Traction. Easy Running. Low Car Body. SPECIALLY CONSTRUCTED FOR ACCESSIBILITY OF MOTORS. ADVERTISEMENTS. 485 •aw* STREET CARS. JOHN STEPHENSON COMPANY, LIMITED, nsTETxr toek. 4 S6 ADVERTISEMENTS. Flexible Suspension Around Car Axles. Three (3) Wearing Parts. Very High Efficiency. Expense of Repairs Nominal, SINGLE REDUCTION MOTORS. V ^4 By Actual Test in Daily Ser¬ vice Show a Higher Effi¬ ciency THAN ANY OTHER Geared Motors Man¬ ufactured to-day. EASILY INSPECTED. EASILY REPAIRED. ~7 - -SEND FOR CATALOGUES.- THE SHORT ELECTRIC RAILWAY CO. CLEVELAND, OHIO. Short Electric Railway Co. SHORT GEARLESS MOTORS. A\Ln ■■ ■ r-'"£ i ■ ' fe-': . '^*^k(. IkwK,, M& r & ■■'• Wmrnim ' s n ••« <> icsVi >. ... .-Ztp'K b-%v>K y./f, ►V>TjW , (•. ^ #,-'V ._„ m^Mci m 5* / r*-rr^-. • \ Je*'/ -■ " ft. . '- /#M*\ 1 ; pY' 5 - •••.. . „• hg -‘-. tlr'V '• V vw ,0\jg; <-^v , V'-V.' : ?>' ; N 4 <; m%r^r I3,slJ 7» ^^'?>7r'4-v2i,v , £ '■v.',r ,; ■ - "5. ' - £- ^f;-. - ~-' ;v "f^r :c- \ u V . -zwmi ~~ '■ -;^KC' .'-if t; Kpr^r^^f-<> *■•■■ .._ /1, .*■. y >- '.',.- -■• y y - fw , V ,\X/' • ’ ' % A,V-b r ISsaf? Safe* «p;p: A' rTM £ .•.->