C(31JRSE OF LECTURES 
 
 ON 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
SYLLABUS 
 
 OF 
 
 A COURSE OF LECTURES 
 
 ON 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 by 
 
 L. D. WOODBRIDGE, A. M., M. D. 
 
 NORTH ADAMS, MASS: 
 
 WALDEN’S BOOK AND JOB PRINT, 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2016 
 
 https://archive.org/details/syllabusofcourseOOwood 
 
<B // 
 W 
 
 ^ 1 - 
 
 % 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 A single word of explanation is due to those under whose observation this 
 Syllabus may come in reference to the very meagre treatment which many topics, 
 especially in Anatomy, have received. The limited time assigned to the course 
 rendered a satisfactory and exhaustive discussion of many points impossible. 
 
 My constant aim has been to bring out in clear outline the most essential facts. 
 Where omissions and partial statements are found this must be my apology. 
 
 
 
 Ps 
 
Note. The student is referred to the Appendix for a supplementary statement in refer- 
 ence to absorpiion, for a tabular statement of the process of digestion, for a statement of the 
 course of the blood in the circulation, and of its changes in passing through the princijjal 
 organs, and for the discussion of the larynx. 
 
 Errata. For “Lencin” on pages 21 and 22, read “Leucin.” 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Bona' Sa'stem, . , . . . . . • .7 
 
 Joints, ........ 10 
 
 Muscles, . . . . . . . .11 
 
 Integument, ....... 12 
 
 Mucous MEMBRANE, . . . . . . .13 
 
 Serous membrane, . . . . . . . 14 
 
 SvNOVIAL membrane, . . . . . . .14 
 
 Alimentara' substances, . . . . , . 17 
 
 Glands, . . . . . . . .17 
 
 Digestion and its organs, ...... 17 
 
 Stoaiacii, ........ 1!) 
 
 Pancreas, ........ 20 
 
 Liver, . . . . . . . .21 
 
 Intestines, ........ 2:> 
 
 La'aiphatic systeai, . . . . . . .2(5 
 
 Absorption, ....... 27 
 
 Blood, . . . . ■ . . . .27 
 
 Circulation and its organs, ..... 30 
 
 Respiration, . . . . . . . .34 
 
 Animal heat, ....... 3(5 
 
 Excretion, ...... . . 37 
 
 Kidnea, ........ 37 
 
 Ductless glands, ....... 30 
 
 Xera'ous systeai, ....... 40 
 
 Senses, ........ 43 
 
 Eye, ........ 44 
 
 Ear, ......... 47 
 
 Spinal nerve roots, ...... oO 
 
 Spinai> cord, ........ 50 
 
 Medulla oblongata, ...... 53 
 
 Pons Varolii, . . . . . . . •, .54 
 
 Cerebrum, . . . . . . . . 54 
 
 Cerebellum, . . . . . . . .5(5 
 
 Syaipathetic system, ...... 5(5 
 
BONY SYSTEM OR SKELETON. 
 
 STRUCTURE OF BONE. 
 
 Periosteum. 
 
 — Vascular fibrous membrane. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Nourishment of bone. 
 
 — Substitution of cartilage at joint surfaces. 
 
 COxMPACT Layer. 
 
 — Composition. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — Haversian canals, j 
 — Lamellae. j 
 
 — Lacunae. j- Making up Haversian system. 
 
 — Canaliculi. j 
 
 —Bone corpuscles. J 
 —Function. 
 
 — Chief source of strength. 
 
 Cancellous or Spongy Portion. 
 
 —Structure. 
 
 — Bony spicules. 
 
 — Red marrow. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Adds to scrength with little added weight. 
 
 — Red marrow a blood former. 
 
 Medullary Canal ; only in Long Bones. 
 
 —Contents. 
 
 — Endosteum. 
 
 — Yellow marrow. 
 
 — Blood vessels. 
 
 — Nerves. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 --Pathway for blood vessels and nerves. 
 DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 Two Methods. 
 
 — From cartilage. 
 
 — From periosteum. 
 
 PROVISION FOR GROWTH. 
 
 Peri o STE u . 
 
 Osteoblasts. 
 
 Osteoclasts. 
 
 Nutrient Artery. 
 
8 
 
 FUNCTION OF BONES. 
 
 SUPPOKT. 
 
 Protection. 
 
 — Firm point of attachment for muscles. 
 
 Aid in blood formation. 
 
 NUMBER 200, Varying with Age. 
 
 In Groups. 
 
 — Cranial. 
 
 —Face. 
 
 Skull. 
 
 — Spine. 
 —Ribs. 
 
 — Pelvis. 
 
 — Upper extremity. 
 — Lower extremity. 
 Cranium— 8. 
 
 —Function. 
 
 — Protection chiefly. 
 
 — Adaptation by — Arched form. 
 
 —Buttresses. 
 
 — Two tables and diploe. 
 
 — Suture joint. 
 
 — Foncanelle. 
 
 — Time of closing. 
 
 — Foramina. 
 
 — Individual bones. 
 
 (' — Occipital. 
 
 — Foramen mugnum. 
 
 — Condyles. 
 
 — Grooves. 
 
 — Frontal. 
 
 — Supraorbital foramen. 
 
 — Superciliary ridge. 
 
 — Frontal sinuses. 
 
 — Relation to nose. 
 
 —Sphenoid. 
 
 —Sinuses. 
 
 — Ethmoid. 
 
 [ — Sinuses, 
 
 f — Parietal. 
 
 ^ j — Temporal. 
 
 ^ 1 — Mastoid cells. 
 
 —Middle and internal ear. 
 
 -Face.— 14. 
 
 \_Notc specially.^ 
 
 — Superior iMaxillary. 
 
 — Supraorbital foramen. 
 — Antrum. 
 
9 
 
 — Inferior Maxillary. 
 
 —Mental process. 
 
 — Mental foramen. 
 
 — Only detached bone of skull. 
 
 Spine. 
 
 —Vertebras, 
 
 — Number. 
 
 — Sub-divisions. 
 
 -7-12-5-0-4, 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Body. 
 
 — Canal. 
 
 — Articular surfaces, 
 
 —Spines. 
 
 — In cer vertebral notches. 
 
 — Intervertebral cartilages. 
 
 — Peculiar Vertebrae. 
 
 — Atlas. ') 
 
 — Axis. I 
 
 I 
 
 — 7tb Cervical. Peculiar characters of each. 
 — Sacral. 
 
 — Coccygeal. 
 
 — Adaptation to protect brain from concussion. 
 — Curve. 
 
 —Intervertebral cartilages, 
 
 Ribs. 
 
 — Number. 
 
 — Attachment, 
 
 — Floating. 
 
 — Grooves. 
 
 — Sternum. 
 
 — Three parts. 
 
 Upper Extremity. 
 
 ( Clavicle. 
 
 -Circle of support. { 
 
 — Not Complete. 
 
 — Humerus. 
 
 — Ulna and Radius. 
 
 — Requirements in forearm. 
 
 —Firmness in flexion. — Ulna. 
 
 — Free rotation. — Radius. 
 
 — Carpus, (8) Metacarpus and Phalanges. 
 
 — Difference between thumb and finger, 
 
 Lower Extremity. 
 
 — Circle of support 
 — Pelvis. 
 
 — Ilium. 
 
lO 
 
 — Pubes. 
 
 — Ischium. 
 
 — Sacrum. 
 
 — Difference between male and female. 
 
 — Complete. 
 
 — Femur = Humerus. 
 
 — Tibia = Ulna. 
 
 — Fibula = Radius. 
 
 — Patella = Olecranon. 
 
 — Tarsus (7) and Metatarsus == Carpus and Metacarpus. 
 
 — Phalanges = Phalanges. 
 
 Resemblances in Upper and Lower Extremities. 
 
 — Circle of support. 
 
 — Correspondence of number of bones in corresponding parts. 
 Contrasts. 
 
 — In completeness of circle of support. 
 
 — Olecranon attached — Patella detached. 
 
 — Relative size of Radius and Ulna : Tibia and Fibula. 
 
 — Relative mobility of Radius and Ulna : Tibia and Fibula. 
 — Number of bones in Carpus and Tarsus. 
 
 JOINTS. 
 
 ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 Two OR MORE CONTIGUOUS BONY SURFACES. 
 
 — Covered with cartilage. 
 
 Ligaments. 
 
 — External. 
 
 — Capsular. 
 
 — Lateral. 
 
 — Internal. 
 
 — In few joints. 
 
 Synovial membrane, (if joint cavity.) 
 
 — Covers only internal surface of ligaments. 
 — Secretes lubricating fluid. 
 
 — Synovia. 
 
 KINDS. 
 
 Fibro-cartilage plate. ) 
 
 Hinge. 1 - 
 
 Pivotal. [-Perfect. 
 
 Ball and socket, j 
 
 FORCES RETAINING IN PLACE. 
 Form of bones. 
 
 1 
 
 Character and example of each. 
 
 Ligaments and muscles. 
 
 Atmospheric pressure — Hip. 
 
IXDIVIDQAL JOINTS. 
 
 [^Xote Specially 
 
 Occipital and atlas. 
 
 Atlas and axis. 
 
 Radius and ulna. 
 
 Hip. 
 
 Knke. 
 
 KINDS. 
 
 Striped. 
 
 Un STRIPED. 
 
 Mixed. 
 
 STRIPED. 
 
 MUSCLES. 
 
 RELATION TO WILL. 
 
 Voluntary. 
 
 Involuntary. 
 
 Inyolu NT ary. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 — Sheath. 
 
 — Fasciculi. 
 
 — Fibres with sarcolemraa. 
 
 — Semifluid. 
 
 — Nuclei within sarcolemina on surface of fibre. 
 — Fibrlllge. 
 
 — Discs. 
 
 — Sarcous elements or rods. 
 — Krause's mend)rane. 
 
 Electric current. 
 
 Chemical reaction — alkali or neutral. 
 
 Phenomena of contraction. 
 
 — Shortening, (undiminished Amlume.) 
 
 — Dark discs active agents. 
 
 — Changes in rods. 
 
 — Altered electric current. 
 
 — Diminished. 
 
 — Altered chemical reaction. 
 
 — Sarcolactic acid. 
 
 — Carbonic acid developed. 
 
 — Oxygen consumed. 
 
 —Heat. 
 
 — Sound. 
 
 Method of blood supply. 
 
 Method of nerve supply. 
 
 Tendinous att achm ent. 
 
 — Method of union. 
 
 Burs.®. 
 
 Rigor mortis. 
 
 Where found. 
 
 ACTION. 
 
 Rapid. 
 
 Slow. 
 
 Rapid. 
 
12 
 
 Individual muscles. 
 
 — Masseter, - - - Guide to facial artery, 
 
 — Sterno-mastoid, - - - Guide to carotid artery. 
 
 — Biceps, ‘ . Guide to brachial artery. 
 
 UNSTRIPED. 
 
 Structure differs in 
 
 — No sarcolennua. 
 
 — Central nucleus. 
 
 — No striation. 
 
 — Method of nerve ending. 
 
 — Rarely tendons. 
 
 Where found. 
 
 — Chiefly in — Respiratory tract. 
 
 — Circulatory tract. 
 
 — Alimentary tract. 
 
 — Genito-urinary tract. 
 
 MIXED. 
 
 A CROSSING OF PRECEDING IN ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FEATURES. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 — Striped. 
 
 — No sarcolemrna. 
 
 — Nucleus. 
 
 — Fibres branch and anastomose. 
 
 Where found. 
 
 — Heart. 
 
 COVERINGS OF FREE SURFACES OF BODY. 
 
 THESE SURFACES ARE OF THREE KINDS. 
 
 Exxr:RNAL surface. 
 
 — Covered by integument. 
 
 Internal surfaces continuous with external. 
 
 — Covered by mucous membrane. 
 
 Internal closed surfaces not continuous with external surfaces. 
 
 — Covered by — Serous membrane. 
 
 — Synovial membrane. 
 
 INTEGUMENT— Definition. 
 
 Three laaers. 
 
 — Epidermis. 
 
 — Epithelium. 
 
 — Many layers. 
 
 — Forms of different layers. 
 
 — Rete mucosum. 
 
 — Pigment. 
 
 — Method of increase and renewal. 
 
 — Dermis. 
 
13 
 
 — Fibrous tissue. 
 
 — Papillie. 
 
 — Capillaries. 
 
 — Nerve eiuliugs. 
 
 — Subcutaneous areolar tissue. 
 — Connective tissue. 
 
 — Fat. 
 
 Gl.vxi).s. 
 
 — Sweat "lands. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — Location. 
 
 — Secretion. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Excretion. 
 
 — Heat regulation. 
 
 — Sebaceous glands. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Relation to hair follicles. 
 — Function. 
 
 — Lubrication. 
 
 — Protection, — Ear. 
 
 Fuxctioxs of Skix. 
 
 — Protection. 
 
 — Excretion — Sweat glands. 
 
 — Respiration. 
 
 — Secretion — Sebaceous glands. 
 — Heat regulation. 
 
 — Sensation — Nerve endings. 
 
 A n P K X 1 ) .\ G E s . 
 
 — Hair. 'I 
 
 — Method of growth. I 
 
 — d'urning gray — Gradually. | 
 — Rapidly 
 
 ^Nails. 
 
 — Method of growth. 
 MUCOUS MEMBRANE.— Defixition. 
 
 Stp.uctuue. 
 
 — Epithelium. 
 
 — \'’arieties. 
 
 — Pavement. 1 
 — Globular. 
 
 — Columnar. 
 
 — Ciliated. 
 
 — Layers, — one or many. 
 
 — Corium. 
 
 — Fibrous tissue. 
 
 Belong to Epidermis. 
 
 General statement of s])ccial functions. 
 
— Papillae. 
 
 — Capillaries. 
 
 — Submucous areolar tissue. 
 
 (Jlands. 
 
 — Mucous — ( ’ouimoii to all. 
 
 —Form. 
 
 — Secretion. 
 
 — Mucous ; also from goblet cells of surface. 
 
 — Office— Lubrication. 
 
 — Special — Differing in different parts according to function. 
 
 SFHOIIS MEMBRANE. 
 
 -7 StKI'CTUKK. 
 
 — Epithelium, (or endothelium.) 
 
 — Elat, (variation at stomata.) 
 
 — Single layer. 
 
 — Stomata. 
 
 — Fibrous basement membrane. 
 
 — No glands. 
 
 Secretion. 
 
 — Serum. 
 
 — Source. 
 
 — Lymph vessels. 
 
 — Blood vessels, possibly in small part. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Lul)rication. 
 
 Keeation to Lymphatics. 
 
 Chief Serous Me3ip.ranes. 
 
 — Arachnoid. ) 
 
 — Beculiar position of secretion. j 
 
 I Closed sacs except peritoneum in female. 
 
 [ Not generally so classed, though covered bv definition. 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 SYNOVIAL MEAIBRANE. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 — Single layer of connective tisssiie Avith blood vessels and nerves. 
 
 — No true epithelium. 
 
 —No glands. 
 
 S E c R E T I o N . 
 
 — Synovia. 
 
 — Pleura. 
 
 — Pericardium. 
 
 — Peritoneum. 
 
 — Tunica Vaginalis. . 
 
 — Lining ]\lembrane of 
 — Heart. 
 
 — Blood vessels. 
 
 — Lymph vessels. 
 
 — ^Membranous labyrinth. 
 
15 
 
 — Source. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Lubrication. 
 
 Location. 
 
 — Joints, — Covering only lateral walls. 
 — Lursie. 
 
V 
 
ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES. 
 
 KINDS. 
 
 Inorganic. 
 
 — Changes during stay in body, 
 
 Organic. 
 
 — Nitrogenous. 
 
 — Source. 
 
 — Chief office. 
 
 - Kenewal of tissues. 
 
 — Nonnitrogenous. — elements C. H. O. 
 — Fat. 
 
 — Characterized by 
 
 — II, in excess of amount to form water. 
 — C. in large proportion. 
 
 — Starch, C . 6 H. 10 0.5 
 — Sugar, a hydration of starch, i 
 — Glucose, C .6 H.12 0.0 
 —Lactose, C.12 H.24 O.i? 
 
 — Saccharose. C.12 II. 22 ().n 
 — Glycogen, C.e H.10 O.s 
 — Sourire. 
 
 — Chief function. 
 
 . — Heat and force production. 
 
 in proportion to form water. 
 
 GLANDS. 
 
 ESSENTIAL STRUCTURE. 
 
 Folding in of epithelial surface. 
 
 Network of capillaries. 
 
 Modified epithelium. 
 
 — Peculiar selective power. 
 
 DIGESTION AND ITS ORGANS. 
 
 MOUTH. 
 
 Walls. 
 
 Teeth. 
 
 — Temporary. 
 
 — Number. 
 
 — Time of coming 
 — Permanent. 
 
 — Number 
 — Time of coming. 
 
— ^Method of growth. 
 
 - — Structure. 
 
 Tongue. 
 
 — Muscular organ. 
 
 — p]pithelium. 
 
 — Fraenum. 
 
 — Papillae. 
 
 — Taste buds. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Aid in — Mastication. 
 
 — Deglutition. 
 — Speech. 
 
 — Taste. 
 
 j- Location of each. 
 
 Stimulus to secretion. 
 
 — Parotid, — movement of jaws. 
 
 — Others, — taste. 
 
 Secretion. 
 
 — Saliva. 
 
 — Amount. 
 
 — Alkaline. 
 
 — Different viscidity. 
 
 — Ptyaline. 
 
 — Phinction. 
 
 —Mechanical. 
 
 — Moistening food. 
 
 — Solution, for taste. 
 
 — Lubrication. 
 
 — Digestive. 
 
 — Changes cooked starch to sugar. 
 
 — By ptyaline ferment. 
 
 — Requires alkaline reaction. 
 
 — By alkaline reaction, stimulates stomach secretion. 
 — Mechanical chiefly. 
 
 — Proof. 
 
 — lilxperiments. 
 
 — Carnivora. 
 
 SALIVARY GLzVNDS. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 Number. 
 
 — Parotid 
 — Submaxillary. 
 — Sublingual. 
 
 — Buccal. 
 
 Ducts. 
 
 — Steno’s. 
 
 — Wharton’s. 
 
19 
 
 PHAKYNX. 
 
 Form. 
 
 Muscular m alls — Invoh ntahv movements begin. 
 
 Openings. 
 
 Simple passage m ay 
 
 (ESOPHAGUS. 
 
 Muscular Tube. 
 
 — Direction of fibres. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Position. 
 
 Si.MPLE passage ^ y \ Y . 
 
 PROCESS OF DEGLUTITION. 
 
 Action of — Tongue. 
 
 — Soft palate. 
 
 — Epiglottis. 
 
 — Muscles of pharynx. 
 
 — Muscles of oesophagus. 
 
 STOiMACH. — Active digestion begins. 
 
 Position. 
 
 Form. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Coats. 
 
 — Mucous. 
 
 — Cylindrical epithelium ; goblet cells. 
 
 — Rugae. 
 
 — Glands — T mu) kinds. 
 
 — Muscular. 
 
 — Pylorus. 
 
 — Serous. 
 
 Method of studying physiology. 
 
 -Dog. 
 
 — Man. 
 
 Secretions. 
 
 — Mucous. 
 
 — Constant. 
 
 —Alkaline. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Lubrication. 
 
 — Gastric juice. 
 
 — Intermittent. 
 
 — Causes determining. 
 
 — Acid. 
 
 — Amount. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Digestion of nitrogenous food. 
 
 — Three agents. 
 
20 
 
 — Nameless ferment. 
 
 — F unction. 
 
 — Coagulation of milk. 
 
 — Hydrochloric acid. 
 
 — Produced by surface cells. 
 
 — Intermittent. 
 
 — Source. 
 
 — Chlorides. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Changes nitrogenous food to parapeptone. 
 — Characteristic of parapeptone. 
 
 — Precipitates in alkaline solution, 
 — Process. 
 
 — Swelling. 
 
 — Softening. 
 
 — Liquefying. 
 
 — Pepsin. 
 
 — Produced in peptic glands. 
 
 — Constant. 
 
 — Storage till use. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Changes parapeptone to peptone. 
 
 — Characteristic of peptone. 
 
 — Not precipitated by acid or alkali. 
 
 — Is a hydration. 
 
 — Temperature essential. 
 
 — Processes going on in stomach during digestion. 
 — Congestion of walls. 
 
 — Secretion of gastric juice. 
 
 — Peristaltic action. 
 
 — Changes in food. 
 
 — Sugar dissolved. 
 
 — Nitrogenous to — Peptone 
 
 — Parapeptone. 1 
 
 — Unchanged. | 
 
 — Fats. 1 Released from nitrogenous | 
 
 — Starch. / envelope. J 
 
 — Autodigestion. 
 
 — Occurs when. 
 
 — Why not in life. 
 
 Chiefly absorbed from stomach. 
 
 •’Chyme” which passes on to bowel. 
 
 PANCREAS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Form. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 Duct. 
 
 — Method of penetrating intestinal Avails. 
 

21 
 
 Skcretiox. 
 
 — Pancreatic juice. 
 
 — Intermittent. 
 
 — Alkaline. 
 
 — Amount. 
 
 — DigestiA'e ferments. 
 
 — Pancreatine. 
 
 — Trypsin. 
 
 — Steapsin. 
 
 — Curdling ferment. 
 Paxcueatixe. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Changes starch, cooked or uncooked, to sugar. 
 
 — Very rapidly. 
 
 Trypsix. 
 
 — Functions. 
 
 — Change of niirogenous food and parapeptone to peptone. 
 — Differs from stomach digestion. 
 
 — Requires alkaline reaction. 
 
 — Intermediate step of alkaline albumen. 
 
 — Direct liquefaction without previous swelling. 
 — Also a hydration. 
 
 — Change of nitrogenous excess to waste products. 
 
 — Leacin. 
 
 — Ty rosin. 
 
 — Autodigestion. 
 
 — Steapsix. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Acts upon fat. 
 
 — Emulsioning. 
 
 — Aided by alkaline reaction. 
 
 — Decomposes fat into 
 — Fatty acids. 
 
 — Combine with alkali salts to form soap. 
 
 — Glycerine. 
 
 — Also a hydration. 
 
 So protects against excessive absorption. 
 
 LIVER. 
 
 -POSITIOX. 
 
 -Size. 
 
 LoP.ES. 
 
 Gall hladoer. 
 
 Ducts. 
 
 — Hepatic. 
 
 — Cystic. 
 
 — Common. 
 
 Peculiar ix 
 
 — Double source of blood supply. 
 
22 
 
 — Hepatic artery. 
 
 — Su])plies blood for nourishment of liver. 
 
 — Portal vein. 
 
 — Supplies blood. 
 
 — From 
 
 — Stomach. 
 
 — Bowel. 
 
 — Spleen. 
 
 — Pancreas. 
 
 — For 
 
 — Secretion. 
 
 —Bile. 
 
 — Changes in composition of the blood. 
 
 — Removal of sugar and its change to glycogen. 
 — Leocin and ty rosin to urea. 
 
 — Destruction of red blood corpuscles. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — Arrangement of cells. 
 
 — In lobules. 
 
 — Arrangement of ducts. 
 
 — Method of penetrating bowel. 
 
 — Arrangement of blood vessels. 
 
 — Interlobular. 
 
 — Intralobular. 
 
 -Secretion. 
 
 — x\mount. 
 
 — Alkaline. 
 
 — Place of discharge into the bowel. 
 
 — Constant, but varying in 
 — Formation. 
 
 — Most, some hours after eating. 
 — Discharge into bowel. 
 
 — Most, soon after eating. 
 
 — Constituents, — chief. 
 
 — Biliary salts. 
 
 — Soda glycocholate. 
 
 — Soda taurocholate. 
 
 — Biliary coloring matter. 
 
 — Bilirubin. 
 
 — Biliverdin 
 
 — Oxidation of previous. 
 
 — Cholesterin. 
 
 — Found also in blood and nerves. 
 — Form of crystals. 
 
 — Nameless ferment. (?) 
 
 — Changes starch to sugar. 
 
 Derived from hemoglobin of red blood corpuscles. 
 
23 
 
 -Fuxctioxs of liver. 
 
 — Secretion of bile. 
 
 — Discharged through bile ducts. 
 
 — Secretion of glycogen. 
 
 — From sugar brought by portal A'ein. 
 
 — Discharged by blood vessels, iji form of 
 — Glycogen chiefly. 
 
 — Sugar in small amount. 
 
 — Glycogen changed to sugar by ferment derived from destruction of red 
 blood corpuscles. 
 
 — Changes leucin and ty rosin to urea. 
 
 —Destruction of red blood corpuscles. 
 
 Functions of bile. 
 
 — Aids in digestion of fat. 
 
 — Emulsioning. 
 
 — By alkaline reaction, derived from biliary salts. 
 
 — By soap-formation. 
 
 — Combination of soda with fatty acid. 
 
 — Absorption. 
 
 — Moistening mucous membrane. 
 
 — Exciting muscular action in villi and intestinal wall. 
 
 — By biliary acid released from soda. 
 
 — Digestion of starch (slight) by nameless ferment. 
 
 — A natural piirgatiA^e. 
 
 — Increases peristaltic action. 
 
 — Supplies abundant moisture 1 k) fieces. 
 
 — An antiseptic. 
 
 — Prevents flatulence. 
 
 — Precipitates parapeptone. 
 
 - — By alkaline reaction. 
 
 — An excrement. 
 
 — Cholestrin and pigment, excrementitious. 
 
 — Not mainly an excrement. 
 
 — Effect of withdrawing it by fistula. 
 
 — Bile salts traced to thoracic duct. 
 
 — Therefore conclude that there are three main functions. 
 
 — Aid to digestion and absorption. 
 
 — .\n excrement, in part, 
 
 — Thrown into bowel for preparation for some farther use in system. 
 
 INTESTINES. 
 
 Two PORTION.^. 
 
 — Small intestine. — 20 ft. 
 — Large intestine, — 5 ft. 
 
 Sm.vll intestine. 
 
 — Subdivisions. 
 
 — Duodenum. 
 
24 
 
 — Jejunum. 
 — Ileum. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — Coats. 
 
 — Serous. 
 
 — Mesentery. 
 
 — ^Muscular. 
 
 — Longitudinal fibres. 
 
 — Circular fibres. 
 
 — INIucous. 
 
 — Cylindrical epithelium. 
 
 — Projected into folds. 
 
 — Valvulae conniventes. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Location. 
 
 — Functions. 
 
 — Increase absorbing surface. 
 — Retard flow. 
 
 —Villi. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Contents. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Increase absorbing surface. 
 
 — Glands. 
 
 — Brunner’s. 
 
 — In duodenum only. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Secretion. 
 
 — Intestinal fluid. 
 
 — Small amount. 
 
 — Lieberkuhn’s. 
 
 — Large and small intestine. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Secretion. 
 
 — Intestinal fluid. 
 
 — Lymphatics. 
 
 — Terminals in villi. 
 
 — Plexuses beneath surface. 
 
 — Solitary glands. 
 
 — Peyers patches. 
 
 — Mesenteric glands. 
 
 — Methods of studying physiology. 
 
 — Functions of intestinal fluid. 
 
 — Lubrication, by mucous contained. 
 
 — Moistening of fieces. 
 
 — Digestive; — slight power, chiefly from Brunner’s glands. 
 

 f — Changes maltose to sugar. 
 
 All doubted by j — Nitrogenous matter (some kinds) changed to peptone, 
 some. First chief- — Fats slightly affected, 
 
 ly important. 1 — Emulsioned. 
 
 [ — Decomposed. 
 
 Large intestine. 
 
 — Subdivided into 
 
 — Caecum; — with vermiform a])pendix. 
 
 — Colon. 
 
 — Ascending. 
 
 — Transverse. 
 
 — Descending. 
 
 — Sigmoid flexure. 
 
 — Rectum. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — Coats. 
 
 — Differ from small intestine in 
 
 — Serous coat absent from rectum. 
 
 — Muscular coat gathered into sphincter at anus. 
 
 — Mucous coat. 
 
 — No valvulae conniventes. 
 
 —No villi. 
 
 — Semilunar folds of rectum. 
 
 — Glands. 
 
 — Lieberkuhn’s. 
 
 — Ileo-caecal valve. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Digestion ; — in upper part only. 
 
 — Soon arrested by acid fermentation. 
 
 — Cause. 
 
 — Fungi. 
 
 — Absorption. 
 
 — In excess of secretion. 
 
 — Hardening of faeces. 
 
 — Reservoir action. 
 
 — Support of fecal mass. 
 
 — Sigmoid flexure. 
 
 — Semilunar folds. 
 
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 Lymph glands. 
 
 Lymph vpissels. 
 
 LYMPH GLANDS. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 — Envelope. 
 
 — TrabeculiB. 
 
 — Cells. 
 
 — Entrance and exit of .vessels. 
 
 Position. 
 
 — Groups. 
 
 — Neck. 
 
 — Axilla. 
 
 — Elbow. 
 
 — Groin. 
 
 — Knee. 
 
 — Mesentery. 
 
 Function. 
 
 — Form white blood corpuscles. 
 
 — Aid in emulsioning of fat. 
 
 — Mesenteric glands only. 
 
 LYMPH VESSELS. 
 
 Method of origin. 
 
 Relation to capillaries. 
 
 Valves. 
 
 Muscular fibres in walls. 
 
 Center in thoracic duct. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — Receptaculum chyli. 
 
 — Opens into subclavian vein. 
 
 Function. 
 
 — Gather up surplus overflow from blood vessels. 
 — Gather up waste from tissues. 
 
 — Carry emulsioned fat during digestion, 
 
 Forces maintaining current. 
 
 — Vis a tergo. 
 
 — Muscular fibres of vmlls. 
 
 — Pressure from surrounding parts. 
 
 — ^Vis a fronte. 
 
 — Valves preventing return. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 — Lymph, always. 
 
 — Chyle, during digestion. 
 
 Relation to serous membranes. 
 
SOLITARY GLANDS. 
 
 Position'. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 — Like lymph glands, except that no lymph vessels enter. 
 
 — Lie in lymph spaces. 
 
 Fun'ction*. 
 
 — L'nknown. 
 
 PEYER’S PATCHES. 
 
 Aggregation' of glands like previous. 
 
 ABSORPTION. 
 
 PURPOSE OF DIGESTION. 
 
 To reduce food to. 
 
 — Solution. 
 
 — Emulsion. 
 
 PURPOSE OF ABSORPTION. 
 
 To BRING FOOD SO PREPARED INTO BLOOD. 
 
 TWO AVENUES OF ABSORPTION. 
 
 Capill.vries. 
 
 — Receiving that in solution. 
 
 — Peptone. 
 
 — Sugar. 
 
 — Soaps. 
 
 — Carrying them to liver. 
 
 Lacteals 
 
 — Receiving all in emulsion. 
 
 —Fats. 
 
 — ^By aid of 
 -Bile. 
 
 — ^Epithelial rods. 
 
 —Protoplasmic movement of epithelium. 
 
 • — Carrying it to heart. 
 
 {For tabular statement of process of OAgestion see Appendix.) 
 
 BLOOD. 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 Opaque, scarlet to purple fluid. 
 
 Specific gravity, lOo.o. 
 
 Alkaline. 
 
 CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 Corpuscles. 
 
 —Red. 
 
 — Color due to these. 
 
 — White. 
 
28 
 
 Blood plaques. 
 
 Plasma. 
 
 — Nearly colorless fluid. 
 
 RED BLOOD CORPUSCLES. 
 
 Form . 
 
 Size. 
 
 Consistency. 
 
 — Nearly fluid. 
 
 Homogeneous. 
 
 — No membrane or nucleus. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 — Albuminous base. 
 
 — Haemoglobin, — ^the coloring matter. 
 
 — Percentage of corpuscles. 
 
 — Amount of iron. 
 
 — Avidity for oxygen. 
 
 — Ease with wdiich it gives up oxygen. 
 
 — Oxy haemoglobin. 
 
 — Reduced haemoglobin. 
 
 — The oxygen carrier. 
 
 — In chemical combination. 
 
 Function. 
 
 — To carry oxygen and distribute it to the tissues. 
 
 — Greater affinity of the tissues for oxygen. 
 
 Source. 
 
 — Liver, in fcetal and very early life. 
 
 — Red marrow of bone. 
 
 — Spleen. (?) 
 
 — Blood plaques. 
 
 — White blood corpuscles. 
 
 Where destroyed. 
 
 — Liver. 
 
 — Spleen. 
 
 — Haemoglobin changed to biliary and urinary coloring matter. 
 WHITE BLOOD CORPUSCLES. 
 
 Form. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Colorless. 
 
 Granular. 
 
 Nuclei. 
 
 Amieboid movements. 
 
 — Enabling them to pass through walls of capillary vessels. 
 
 — Proportion to red. 
 
 Function. 
 
 — Growth of tissues. 
 
 — Repair of injured part. — Remarkable power of transformation. 
 
 — One source of red corpuscles. 
 

9 
 
 — Production of 
 
 — Filirinoplastin. 
 — Fibrin ferment. 
 
 SorncE. 
 
 — Lymphatic glands 
 — Spleen. 
 
 — Marrow. (?) 
 BLOOD PLAQUES. 
 
 Form. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Colorless. 
 
 Homogeneous. 
 
 Changes observed mmien avitiidrawn from system. 
 
 Proportion to red. varied by 
 
 — Age. 
 
 — Disease. 
 
 — 1 1 e m o rr h a ge . 
 
 Function. 
 
 — Aid in formation of 1 
 — Red corpuscles. 
 
 — Fibrinoplastin. 
 
 — Fibrin ferment. 
 
 Source unknoavn. 
 
 PLASMA. 
 
 As yet conjectural. 
 
 — Constituents. 
 
 — Serum albumen. 
 
 — Supplies most nourishment to the tissues. 
 — Paraglobulin. 
 
 — Closely allied to albumen. 
 
 — Transitional form. 
 
 — Fibrinogen. 
 
 — Factor in coagulation. 
 
 — Fats. 1 
 
 — Sugar. F A trace. 
 
 — Glycogen. J 
 
 F unction. 
 
 — Nourish tissues. 
 
 — Carbonic acid carrier. 
 
 — Aid in coagulation. 
 
 COAGULATION. 
 
 Process. 
 
 Method. 
 
 — Three fibrin factors. 
 
 — Fibrinogen. 
 
 — Always in blood. 
 — Fibrinoplastin. 
 
30 
 
 — Formed at time of coagulation. 
 
 — From white blood corpuscles. 
 
 — From blood i)laques. 
 
 — Fibrin ferment 
 
 — Formed at time of coagulation. 
 
 — Same sources as fibrinoplastin. 
 
 Occuus DURING LIFE (>NLY IN 
 
 — Blood escaped from the blood vessels. 
 
 — Blood vessels wbicb have been injured. 
 
 Why not in living, uninjured blood vessels. 
 
 — Theory of inhibiting intiuence of walls of blood vessels. 
 
 Product. 
 
 — Fibrin. 
 
 — Method of procuring. 
 
 — Physical features. 
 
 — White, elastic threads. 
 
 — Tendency to contraction. 
 
 • — Different proportions in different blood vessels. 
 
 (;ases in blood. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 — 20 per cent, by volume in arterial blood. 
 
 — 8-12 per cent, by volume in venous blood. 
 
 — Combined chemically with liaBinoglobin. 
 
 Carbonic acid. 
 
 — IG per cent, by volume in venous blood. 
 
 — 39 per cent, by volume in arterial blood. 
 
 — Chiefly as sodic carbonate, in solution in plasma. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 — 1.5 per cent. 
 
 CmCULATION AND ITS OEGANS. 
 
 HEART. 
 
 Form. 
 
 Position. 
 
 Covering. 
 
 — Pericardium. 
 
 A DOUBLE ORGAN. 
 
 — Right and left heart. 
 
 — Necessitated by two systems of vessels. 
 
 — Systemic vessels. 
 
 — Carrying blood for 
 
 — Nourishment of tissues. 
 
 — Collection and removal of their waste. 
 
31 
 
 — Force supplied by left heart. 
 
 — Pulmonary vessels 
 
 — Carrying blood to lungs for 
 
 — Kliiniuatiou of carbonic acid. 
 
 — Absorption of oxygen. 
 
 — Force su])plied by right heart. 
 
 — Each has capillary vessels. Avhose weak walls forbid pressure sufticieut to can 
 
 through second set. 
 
 — Exception in portal circulation. 
 
 — Explanation. 
 
 Two CAVITIK.S IX EACH IIEAUT. 
 
 — Auricle. 
 
 — Peservoir function. 
 . — Ventricle. 
 
 — Force pump. 
 Struc ti re of heart. 
 
 — Auriculo-ventricular ring. 
 
 — Muscular fibres. 
 
 — Of ventricles. 
 
 — Three sets. 
 
 — External spiral. 
 
 — Internal spiral. 
 
 — Papillary muscles and chordae tendineae. 
 — Middle, circular. 
 
 — Of Auricle. 
 
 — Two sets. 
 
 — Looped. 
 
 — Circular. 
 
 — Thickness of walls in proportion to work required. 
 
 — Ventricular thicker than auricular. 
 
 — Left ventricular thicker than right ventricular. 
 
 — Valves. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — Relation to heart disease. 
 
 — .Vuriculo- ventricular. 
 
 — Three folds in right heart. — Tricusi)id. 
 
 — Two folds in left heart — Semilunar. 
 
 — Papillary muscles and chordie tendineae. 
 
 — .Vid to action of valves. 
 
 — Drawing out into current. 
 
 — Limiting their action. 
 
 — Arterial. 
 
 — .\ortic. 
 
 — Pulmonary 
 — Endocardium. 
 
 — Capacity of each cavity. 
 
 Three pocket-like sacs. 
 
 Automatic action. 
 
32 
 
 — Order of contraction. 
 
 — Kate of contraction. 
 
 — Varies with 
 —Age. 
 
 — Prenatal. 
 
 — At birth. 
 
 — Three years. 
 — Adult. 
 
 Prenatal determination of sex. 
 
 — Sex. 
 
 — Male. 
 
 — PVmale. 
 
 — Impulse of heart. 
 
 — Kecoil. 
 
 — Twisting forward. 
 
 — Hardening of fibres. 
 
 — Sounds of heart. 
 
 —Two. 
 
 —First. 
 
 — Muffled and prolonged. 
 
 — With contraction, 
 
 — Causes. ' 
 
 — Closure of auriculo-ventricular valves. 
 — Vibration of chord* tendine*. 
 
 — Muscular contraction. 
 
 — Second. 
 
 — Short and sharp. 
 
 — Cause. 
 
 — Closure of arterial valves. 
 — Proof. 
 
 ARTEKIES. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 — Coats. 
 
 — Phidothelial. 
 
 — Elastic or muscular. 
 — Fibrous tissue. 
 
 Individual arteries. 
 
 ■ [Note specially.^ 
 
 — In trunk. 
 
 — Aorta. 
 
 — Iliacs. 
 
 — In neck. 
 
 — Carotids. 
 
 —In face 
 — Facial. 
 
 I 
 
 [ Location of each. 
 
■V 
 
33 
 
 — Temporal. 
 
 — In upper extremities. | 
 — Brachial. | 
 
 — Ulnar and radial. 
 
 — In lower extremities. [ 
 — Femoral. [ 
 
 — Popliteal. I 
 
 — Anterior tibial. I 
 — Posterior tibial. j 
 — Peroneal. i 
 
 Location of each. 
 
 Forces proreleixg reood in arteries. 
 
 — Contraction of heart. 
 
 — Elasticity of arteries. 
 
 Convenient points for determining pulse rate. 
 
 VEIXS. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 — Three coats. 
 
 — Endothelial. 
 
 — Elastic or muscular. 
 
 — Less than in arteries. 
 
 — Fibrous tissue. 
 
 — More than in arteries. 
 
 — Walls thinner than in arteries. 
 
 — Valves in most. 
 
 Frequent anastomoses. 
 
 Position. 
 
 — Superficial. 
 
 — Deep. 
 
 — Relation to arteries. 
 
 Forces propelling rlood in veins. 
 
 — Vis a tergo. 
 
 — Muscular contraction. 
 
 — Aspiration of chest. 
 
 — Current. 
 
 — Nearly uniform. 
 
 Lymphatic vessels are accessory to veins. 
 CAPILLARIES. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 — Endothelium. 
 
 — Reasons for single thin coat. 
 
 — To allow 
 
 — Escape of serum into tissues. 
 
 — Escape of white coriiuscles into tissues. 
 
34 
 
 — Interchange of gases between blood and tissues. 
 — Frequent anastomoses. 
 
 — Forces propelling blood. 
 
 — Cardiac and arterial contraction. 
 
 — Compression of tissues. 
 
 — Current uniform. 
 
 METHOD OF DETERMINING WHICH VESSELS ARE WOUNDED. 
 
 Arteries. 
 
 — Bright red blood. 
 
 — Issues in jets. 
 
 — From single points. 
 
 Veins. 
 
 — Dark blood. 
 
 — Issues in steady stream. 
 
 — From single points. 
 
 Capillaries. 
 
 — Bright blood. 
 
 — Uniform oozing. 
 
 — F'rom whole surface of wound. 
 
 Time required for complete circulation of blood. 
 
 EESPIRATION. 
 
 ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 
 
 Nose. 1 
 
 Pharynx. Considered elsewhere. 
 
 I 
 
 Larynx. j 
 
 Trachea. 
 
 Bronchi. 
 
 Lungs. 
 
 TRACHEA. 
 
 Position. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 — Cartilaginous rings. 
 
 — Incomplete posteriorly. 
 
 — Purpose. 
 
 — Fibrous and muscular tissue which connect rings, and form posterior wall. 
 
 — Mucous membrane. 
 
 — Ciliated columnar epithelium. 
 
 BRONCHI. 
 
 Position. 
 
 Str uct ure. 
 
 — Closely allied to that of trachea. 
 
 — Varying with size. 
 
 — Bronchioles have columnar, changed to pavement, epithelium and no cartilage. 
 

 
 Jr, ^ i -p i^.'’;.;:.. r^ ' \ T ^*',.'I'|. ' , ■ '^^ii■<' 1 ?f^ 1 l•^ ' '--r^ .' ». I’V-i 
 
 ■ - • ^ fh^ _ . . ._. „„.,>;• ...*: ^. 
 
 
 :iV 
 
 
 
 
 k :i /, 4 T' 
 
 
 TT 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '-■ ■ ■ ■ • ■ '.*' ■. ”"^i. , , -.. , ,- ,. 
 
 
 ir 
 
 
 
 j^l' - S: 
 
 i; i 
 
 1 > *■, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , ^4^- . , . V. . ^ .>.. . . ■■ - T , , 
 
 jLxi, 
 
 
 
 
 V '' '>jL. ' V-. -•- '• r‘ ■■ -^••jU^^'^'ji'* • ;i 
 
 
 
 
 
 -iNs r 
 
 
 ‘►^*1 *“V«''V'ir -.•‘4‘Jltft»IU 
 
 
35 
 
 Position. 
 
 Fok.m. 
 
 Plkuua. 
 
 Lohks. 
 
 — Two in left lung. 
 
 — Three in riglit lung. • 
 
 LonruEs. 
 
 — Bronchiole. 
 
 — Air cells. 
 
 — Pavement epithelium. 
 
 — Capillary vessels. 
 
 C.VI'ACITV OF LI NGS. 
 
 — 330 cubic inches. 
 
 — Complemental air. 100 cubic inches. ] 
 
 — Tidal air, 30 culiic inches. [- Piespiratory capacity — 230 cubic inches. 
 
 — Reserve air. 100 cubic inches. j 
 
 — Residual air. 100 cubic inches. 
 
 movi<:mexts of respiration. 
 
 InSFI RATION 
 
 — Descent of diaiihragm. — Structure and attachment. 
 
 —Increases depth of chest. 
 
 — Compresses gases in abdomen. 
 
 — Elevation of ribs. 
 
 — Increase in lateral diameter of chest. 
 
 — Conditions making this possible. 
 
 — .Vrticulation with spine. 
 
 — Oblique direction. 
 
 — Chistal cartilages. 
 
 — An active process. 
 
 Expiration. 
 
 — Elasticity of lungs. 
 
 — Elasticity of costal cartilages. 
 
 — Elasticity of gases in abdomen. 
 
 — A ]>assive ])rocess. 
 
 RAPIDITY OF RESPIRATION. 
 
 \'arying with a(;i-: 
 
 — d\) one year. per minute. 
 
 — At five years, 20 j>er minute. 
 
 — Adult life. lS-20 per minute. 
 
 A R T I F I C I A L R E S P I R . V T I O N . 
 
 CHANGES IN EXPIRED AIR. 
 
 .”) PKR CENT. LESS OXVI.EN. 
 
 4 PER GENT. MORE GAP.P.ONK; ACID. 
 
 Te.MPERATFRK INCREASED. 
 
 Moistgre increased. 
 
 Ani.mal i.mperities gained. 
 
CHANGES IN BLOOD BY BESPIKATION. 
 
 Gains oxygen. 8-12 per cent I’er voLr:ME. 
 
 — Fimctiori of oxygen. 
 
 — Provide for 
 
 — Oxidation of food. 
 
 — Oxidation of waste material of tissues 
 — Carried in chemical’ combination with ha3moglobin. 
 
 — Bright color of blood dependent solely upon this. 
 —Proof. 
 
 — Given up to tissues because of greater affinity. 
 
 Loses C. O.2, 7 pek cent per voeicme. 
 
 — Formed in tissues and taken up by blood. 
 
 — Carried, chietiy, as sodic carbonate dissolved in plasma. 
 
 Loses heat. 
 
 Loses watery vap<jr. 
 
 ANIMAL HEAT. 
 
 VAIHATION OF TEMPEKATUPvE OF WARM BLOODED ANIMALS. 
 
 NORIM AL TEMPERATURE OF MAN. 
 
 VARIATIONS CONSISTENT WITH LIFE. 
 
 S(JURCE OF HEAT. 
 
 Chemical changes. 
 
 — Chiefly oxidation of food. 
 
 . . — All chemical changes which leave chemical affinities more nearly satisfied. 
 
 — ^ — Physical processes. 
 
 — Transformation of motor force into heat. 
 
 — Occurs when u'ork done is not transferred outside the body. 
 
 — Heart’s contraction. 
 
 — Intestine forcing on its contents. 
 
 — Torsion of costal cartilages. 
 
 — Friction of muscles. 
 
 — Transformation of electric currents found in muscles, nerves and glands. 
 AIMOUNT PRODUCED. 
 
 WoPLl) REACH ROILING POINT IN THIRTY-SIX HOURS, IF NONE MERE LOST. 
 
 AVENUES OF LOSS OF HEAT. 
 
 — Radiation. 
 
 — Evaporation of SAveat. 
 
 — Evaporation of water of expired air. 
 
 CONDITIONS VARYING RATE OF LOSS OF HEAT. 
 
 Temperature of -surrounding media. 
 
 Time of day. 
 
 — Lowest during night. 
 
 equilibrium secured by 
 
 RiAiUl.ATlON OF HEA'l’ PRODUCTION. 
 
37 
 
 — \'ohuitarv. 
 
 — ^Muscular exercise. 
 
 — Amount ami kind of food. 
 
 — Involuntary. 
 
 — Heat center of braiti. 
 
 IxKCin.ATIOX OF IlKAT KXPKN DITf U K. 
 
 — Voluntary. 
 
 — CU)tliing. 
 
 — Involuntary. 
 
 — Su])erficial capillary circulation. 
 
 — Blood comes freely to surface if Avann. 
 
 — Free perspiration. 
 
 — Moist skin, better conductor. 
 
 — More heat required for evaporation. 
 
 — More rapid respiration. 
 
 — Greater cooling of blood in lungs. 
 SOURCE AND l)EVELOPI\rENT OF ENERGY IN THE BODY. 
 
 F( )TEKT I A L KXEK(i Y . 
 
 —Enters body through 
 — Stomach. 
 
 — (h and II. of food chietly. 
 
 — Lungs. 
 
 — ( )xygen. 
 
 — Stored in body. 
 
 — In atomical affiinities yet unsatisfied. 
 
 — Developed when needed l)y 
 
 — Chemical processes satisfying those affinities. 
 
 EXCEETION. 
 
 ORGANS OF EXCRETION. 
 
 Skin. 
 
 Li.xos. 
 
 Bowel. 
 
 Kidneys. 
 
 KIDNEY. 
 
 Position. 
 
 Foh.m. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Stki-ctfke. 
 
 — Cajisule. 
 
 — Fibrons tissue. 
 
 — Pelvis. 
 
 — Pyramids. 
 
 — Cortical substance 
 — Urinary tubes. 
 
 — Bowman’s capsule. 
 
38 
 
 — CouA'oluted tubes. 
 
 — Narrow tubes of Meule. 
 
 — Straif^ht tubes. 
 
 —Arteries. 
 
 — Course. 
 
 — Capillaries 
 
 — Two sets ^ 
 
 — Malpighiati tufts. 
 
 — In Bowman’s capsule. 
 
 — Surrounding cortvoluted tubes. 
 
 — Larger lumen than previous. 
 
 — Therefore pressure less, 
 
 Function. 
 
 — Secretion of urine. 
 
 — Amount. 
 
 — Intluenced by 
 
 — Perspiration. 
 
 — Stools. 
 
 — Drink. 
 
 — Nervous excitement. 
 
 — Specific gravity, 1020. 
 
 — Constituents. 
 
 — ( Irganic. 
 
 —Urea. 
 
 — Derived from 
 
 ' — Leucin, 1 
 
 . — Ty rosin. 1* Waste products of nitrogenous matter. 
 
 — Kreatinin. J 
 
 — Most poisonous when retained. 
 
 — Uric acid. 
 
 — Chiefly in chemical combination. 
 
 — Less perfectly oxidized than urea. 
 
 — Inorganic, 
 
 — Water. 
 
 — -Mineral salts. 
 
 — -Secretion occurs. 
 
 — In Bowman’s cajisule. 
 
 — Water and most soluble salts. 
 
 — Albumen in small quantity, possibly. 
 
 — In couA-oluted tubes. 
 
 — Less soluble constituents. 
 
 — Real)sorption of albumen. 
 
 — Favored by lower pressure in capillaries surrounding tubes. 
 
 ac(b:ss()by organs. 
 
 Urkteks. 
 
 — Position. 
 
39 
 
 — Arrangement of muscular fibres. 
 
 — Peristaltic action. 
 
 — ^lethod of penetrating wall of bladder, 
 
 Bladder. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Arrangement of muscular fibres. 
 
 — For expulsion of urine. 
 
 — For retention of urine. 
 
 Urethra. 
 
 — Length. 
 
 — Male. 
 
 — Female. 
 
 — Muscular apparatus. 
 
 DUCTLESS GLANDS, 
 
 SPLEEN. 
 
 Po.SITION. 
 
 Form. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 — Capsule and trabecul*. 
 
 — Elastic and muscular fibres. 
 
 — -Adenoid tissue. 
 
 —Pulp. 
 
 — White blood corpuscles. 
 
 — Red blood corpuscles. 
 
 — Transitional forms. 
 
 — Cells containing red corpuscles and pigment. 
 
 — Pigment. 
 
 — Malpighian corpuscles 
 — Structure 
 — Arteries. 
 
 — Larger included in trabeculae. 
 
 — Smallest open into pulp, or become fenestrated. 
 — Relation to Malpighian bodies. 
 
 Rythmical contraction. 
 
 — A leading cause of circulation in spleen. 
 
 Changes of hlood in transit. 
 
 — White blood corpuscles greatly increased. 
 
 — Red blood corpuscles destroyed. 
 
 Function. , 
 
 — Form white blood corpuscles. 
 
 — Destroy worn out red blood corpuscles. 
 
 — Repair and create new red corpuscles. (?) 
 
40 
 
 P^FFECT OF EXTIRFATTON. 
 
 — Lymphatic glands enlarge. 
 
 — Ked marrow more active in blood formation. 
 
 THYKOII) GLAND. 
 
 DosFrioN. 
 
 P\)K?.I. 
 
 Structure 
 
 — Closed, epithelium-lined sacs, filled with semi-fluid matter. 
 Fi’xction. 
 
 — Some relation to processes of nutrition and growth. 
 
 — Effect of extirpation. 
 
 THYMUS GLAND, 
 
 Position. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 — Glosely allied to lymphatic glands. 
 
 Period of activity. 
 
 SUP K A R E N A L C A PS U LE S . 
 
 Position. 
 
 Form. 
 
 Relation to pigment formation. 
 
 NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 SUBDIVISIONS. 
 
 C E R E n K O - S P I N A L . 
 
 S Y M PAT 1 1 ETIC . 
 
 E S SENT! AL E LEMENTS . 
 
 Nerve terminals. 
 
 Nerve fibres. 
 
 Nerve cells. 
 
 N ERVE TERMINALS. 
 
 Sensory. 
 
 — Plexuses. 
 
 — Bulbous terminals. 
 
 — Tactile corpuscles. 
 
 — Pacinian corpuscles. 
 
 — End bulbs. 
 
 — Modified epithelium 
 
 — In terminal nerves of 
 — Smell. 
 
 — Taste. 
 
 — Hearing. 
 
 — Rods and cones. 
 
 — In eye. 
 
 Motor 
 
 — End plates of striped muscle. 
 
41 
 
 — Nucleus of unstriped muscle. 
 
 F U>X'TIOX. 
 
 — Of sensory terminals. 
 
 — Transformation of stimuli from external world into form of stimulus that can 
 
 traverse nerve fibres. 
 
 — Of motor terminals. 
 
 —Transformation of motor impulse traveling from nerve cells into muscular con- 
 ’ traction. 
 
 NEKV^E FIBRES. 
 
 DiFFERKXT forms 'IX M'llICH THEY OCCUR. 
 
 — Primitive nerve fibrils. 
 
 — -Extremely delicate fibres without sheath. 
 
 — Axial cylinders. 
 
 — Several primitive fibrils bound together by cement substance. No sheath. 
 
 — Axis cylinders covered by Schwann’s sheath. 
 
 — Axis cylinders covered by a medullary sheath only. 
 
 — Axis cylinders covered by a medullary sheath and. externally, by Schwann’s sheath. 
 
 — Annular constrictions of Schwann’s sheath at regular intervals. 
 
 — Purpose of constrictions. 
 
 — To admit of interchange of plasma and waste material between capillaries 
 
 and axis cylinder. 
 
 — Third and fifth constitute great majority of nerve fibres. 
 
 Axatomical ceassificatiox. 
 
 — Medullated fibres. 
 
 — All having medullary sheath. 
 
 — Medullary sheath a homogeneous semi-fluid substance. 
 
 — Disappears as nerve approaches terminal or nerve cell. 
 
 — Predominate in cerebro-spinal system. 
 
 — Non-medullated fibres. 
 
 — All that lack medullary sheath. 
 
 — Predominate in sympathetic system. 
 
 Physiological ceassificatiox. 
 
 — Afferent fibres. 
 
 — Sensory. 
 
 — Reflex. 
 
 — Efferent fibres. 
 
 — Motor. 
 
 — Secretory 
 — Trophic. 
 
 — Inhibitory. 
 
 — Intercentral. 
 
 Fuxctioxs of several parts of xerve 
 
 — .Axis cylinder. 
 
 — Conduction of impression or impulse. 
 
 — VTdocity of conduction. 
 
 — About 100 feet per second. 
 
 — Membrane of Schwann and medullary sheath. 
 
42 
 
 — Protection, probably. 
 
 Physical chakactek of impulse traversing nerve fibres. 
 
 — As yet only conjectural. 
 
 — Probably some form of molecular motion. 
 
 — Probably not electrical. 
 
 — Nerves bad conductors. 
 
 — Impulse arrested by conditions not arresting electric current. 
 
 — Pressure on nerve. 
 
 — Section of nerve and careful readjustment of surfaces. 
 
 — Electric currents of nerves diminished during action. 
 
 Essential unity of afferent and efferent fibres. 
 
 — Can transmit stimulus either way. 
 
 — Direction of stimulus determined by relation to terminals and nerve cells. 
 
 — Proof. 
 
 Afferent and efferent nerve fibres mingled in most nerve trunks till they 
 
 APPROACH spinal CORD. 
 
 NEKVE CELLS. 
 
 Location. 
 
 — Gray matter of brain and spinal cord. 
 
 — Ganglia. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 — No capsule. 
 
 — Few exceptions in peripheral ganglia. 
 
 — Interlacing fibrils. 
 
 — Granular matter. 
 
 — Nucleus with nucleolus. 
 
 — Processes, one or many. 
 
 — One always continuous with axis cylinder. 
 
 — Others branch. 
 
 — Multiform shapes. 
 
 Function. 
 
 — -To interpret sensory impressions to consciousness. 
 
 — To originate efferent impulses. 
 
 — To transform afferent impressions to efferent impulses. 
 
 — To evolve thought processes. 
 
 — To judge afferent impressions and arrest or pass them on. (?) 
 

 
SENSES. 
 
 TOUCH. 1 Discharged only from skin, and mucous membrane of mouth, nose. 
 
 PKESSUKE. [ pharynx, lower part of rectum and genito-urinary tract. Internal viscera 
 
 TE]MPEK VTUKE. J these, but have sense of pain. 
 
 PAIN. 
 
 IMUSCULAK SENSE. 
 
 HUNGEK. 
 
 THIRST. 
 
 SMELL. 
 
 TASTE. 
 
 SIGHT. 
 
 HEARING. 
 
 TOUCH. 
 
 Ter:mixal organs. 
 
 — Tactile corpuscles. 
 
 — Probably others. 
 
 Different degrees of acuteness. 
 
 — Explanation. 
 
 — Sensation areas provided with single tactile terminals. 
 
 — Several must interveiie between points distinguished as separate. 
 
 — Tip of tongue most acute. 
 
 — Center of back least acute. 
 
 Explanation of linear impressions. 
 
 Explanation of perfecting tactile sense. 
 
 PRESSURE. 
 
 Distinguishes difference of one-thirtieth of weight. ' 
 
 Difference of pressure upon adjacent parts of skin essential. 
 
 Forehead aiost sensitive. 
 
 TEMPERATURE. 
 
 A DOUHLE SENSE. 
 
 — Heat sense. \ Areas of these upon surface distinct and separate. Probably sepa- 
 — Cold sense, i rate terminals. 
 
 PAIN. 
 
 Common to exterior and interior of p.ody. » 
 
 Theory of unity of touch and pain apparatus. 
 
 Evidence that these are distinct in 
 
 — Paths in cord. 
 
 — Perceptive centers. 
 
 MUSCULAR SENSE. 
 
 Partly of peripheral origin. 
 
 — Gives sense of 
 
44 
 
 — Fatigue. 
 
 — Cramp. 
 
 — Exteiit of muscular movement. 
 
 Partlv of central origin. 
 
 — laforms of amount of motor impulse originated by motor nerve cells. 
 —Informs of resistance met. 
 
 Proof of double origin. 
 
 Distinguishes difference of one-fortieth of weight. 
 
 Use in binocular vision. 
 
 HUNGER AND lAIlRST. 
 
 Both ferifheral and central in origin. 
 
 — Proof. 
 
 SMELL. 
 
 Org.\n. 
 
 Upper third of nose. 
 
 Nerve. 
 
 — Olfactory. 
 
 — Position in cranium. 
 
 — Cribriform plate. ’ ' ^ 
 
 —Terminals. ' ' 
 
 — Modified columnar epithelium. . ■ - ^ c, 
 
 Condition essential in perceived object. ' ‘ , 
 
 — Minute division, vapor or gas. 
 
 TASTE. 
 
 — —Organ. 
 
 — Tongue and part of soft palate. 
 
 Nerve Terminals. 
 
 — Taste buds. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 , — Location. 
 
 , — Probably other terminals. 
 
 Condition essential in perceived object. 
 
 — Solution. 
 
 SIGHT. 
 
 (^rgan. 
 
 —Eye. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 - Form. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — Coats. 
 
 — Sclerotic. 
 
 — White, fibrous envelope. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Protection and support. 
 
 — Completed in front by cornea. 
 
 — Transparent and more convex. 
 
 — Choroid 
 
45 
 
 — Pigmented vascular tissue. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Nutrition of eye through blood supply. 
 
 — Absorption of light, to prevent irregular diffusion. 
 
 — Continued in front by 
 — Ciliary processes. 
 
 — Folds of the choroid encircling the crystalline lens posteriorly. 
 — Iris. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Attachment. 
 
 — At junction of cornea and sclerotic. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — JNIuscular fibres. 
 
 — Kadiating. 
 
 — Circular 
 — Ijlood vessels. 
 
 — Pigment. 
 
 — Same in all eyes. 
 
 — Color. 
 
 — Depends upon depth to which pigment penetrates iris. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Cutting off marginal rays. 
 
 — Kegulaling amount of light admitted to eye, 
 
 — Contraction occurs. 
 
 — In a bright light. 
 
 — In accommodation for near objects.. 
 
 — Ill convergence of eyeballs. 
 
 •Ketina. 
 
 — Incomplete anteriorly. 
 
 — Contains all essential elements of nervous system. 
 
 — Nerve fibres. 
 
 — Nerve cells. 
 
 — Nerve terminals. 
 
 — First or inner layer. 
 
 — Nerve fibres. 
 
 — Derived from optic nerve. 
 
 — Radiate from point of entrance. 
 
 — Second layer. 
 
 —Nerve cells alternating with granular matter and mingled with 
 fibres. 
 
 \_Tkis layer is subdivided into Jive.~\ 
 
 — Third layer. 
 
 — Rods and cones ; terminals. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Distribution. 
 
46 
 
 — Rods predominate over greater part of retina. 
 
 — Cones predominate at macula lutea. 
 
 — Cones exclusively at fovea centralis. 
 
 — Point of most acute vision. 
 
 — Position of fovea centralis. 
 
 — Fourth layer. 
 
 — Pigmented cells. 
 
 — Processes project between rods and cones. 
 
 — Retracting in dark. 
 
 — Projecting in light. 
 
 — Movement of pigment granules in cells. 
 
 — Perceptive power lies in rods and cones, and is most acute in cones. 
 
 — Proof. 
 
 — Blind spot. 
 
 — Fovea centralis. 
 
 — Refracting media. 
 
 — Aqueous humor. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — Composition.. 
 
 — Crystalline lens. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — Consistency. 
 
 — Elasticity. 
 
 — Suspensory ligament. 
 
 — Vitreous humor. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Position 
 — Composition. 
 
 —Hyaloid membrane envelops it. 
 
 — Also envelops crystalline lens and forms its suspensory ligament. 
 — Ciliary muscles. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — (Jrigin. 
 
 — From junction of sclerotic and cornea. 
 
 — Insertion. 
 
 — Anterior part of choroid. 
 
 — Choroid attached to hyaloid membrane at this point. , 
 
 — Tavo sets of fibres. 
 
 — Radiating. ' 
 
 — Circular. 
 
 . — Function. 
 
 — Aid in accomodation. 
 
 Accomod.vtiox. 
 
 — Change in refraction of eye essential. 
 
 — Agents of accommodation. 
 

47 
 
 — Crystalline lens, by its elasticity. 
 
 — Tends to become more convex. 
 
 — Ciliary muscle. ' 
 
 — 13y relaxing tension of suspensory ligament. 
 
 — Associated movement of iris. 
 
 — Contracts pupil in accomodation for near objects. 
 
 — Dilates pupil in accommodation for distant objects. 
 — Purpose. 
 
 Theories of conversion of eight into nerve sti.mi eus. 
 
 — Mechanical irritation of vibrations. 
 
 — Visual purple. 
 
 — Fails because of absence from cones. 
 
 — Optograms. 
 
 — Activity of pigmented cells and their processes. 
 
 — Chemical changes in pigmented cells. 
 
 Protective organs of the eye. 
 
 — Eyebrows and eyelashes. 
 
 — Eyelids. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — Integument. 
 
 — Cartilaginous plate. 
 
 — Conjunctiva. 
 
 — Meibomian glands. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 - — Lachrymal apparatus. 
 
 — Gland. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — Ducts. 
 
 — Constant secretion. 
 
 — Tear ducts. 
 
 — Course. 
 
 Muscles moving evehael. 
 
 HEARING. 
 
 Organ. 
 
 — Ear. 
 
 — External. 
 
 —Middle. 
 
 — Internal. 
 
 Extern A E ear. 
 
 —Pinna. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — Muscles. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Collect sound. 
 
 — Unimportant to man. 
 
 — External auditory canal. 
 
48 
 
 — Length. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — Cerumen. 
 
 — Fundamental note. 
 
 Middle ear or tympanum. 
 
 — Memhrana tympani. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — Fundamental note. 
 
 — Bones. 
 
 — Malleus. 
 
 — Incus. Points of attachment. 
 
 — Stapes. J 
 
 — Transmit vibrations to internal ear. 
 
 — Loss in extent of vibrations. 
 
 — Gain in power of vibrations. 
 
 — Muscles. 
 
 — Tensor tympani. 
 
 — Begulates tension of memhrana tympani. 
 
 — Adjusting it to different sounds. 
 
 — Protecting it from injury by loud sounds. 
 
 — Stapedius. 
 
 — Limits movement of stapes. 
 
 — Eustachian tube. 
 
 — Course. 
 
 — Closed, except in sv^alloAving. 
 
 — To prevent pressure in tympanum from varying with respiration. 
 
 — To prevent voice from sounding too loud. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — Equalization of external and internal pressure. 
 
 — Fenestrae. 
 
 — Ovalis. 
 
 — Closed by foot of stapes and a membrane uniting it to margin of fenestra, and 
 allowing some movement. 
 
 — Between tympanum and vestibule. 
 
 — Bo tun da. 
 
 — Closed by membrane. 
 
 — Betiveen tympanum and cochlea. 
 
 — Mastoid cells open into tympanum. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 Internal ear or laryrintii. 
 
 — Consists of 
 — Vestibule. 
 
 — Semi-circular canals. 
 
 — Cochlea. 
 
 — Vestibule. 
 
49 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — Fenestra OA\alis on outer side. 
 
 — Contents. 
 
 — I’erilyinph, 
 
 — Utricle. 
 
 — Menibranons sac lined Avitli epitlieliuin. 
 
 — Distribution and form of nerve terminals, 
 — Endolymph. 
 
 — Semi-circular canals given off from it. 
 
 — Saccule. 
 
 — Structure corresponds with that of iitricle. 
 — Membranous cochlea given off from it. 
 
 — Otoliths. 
 
 — Where found. 
 
 — F unction, 
 
 -Semi-circular canals. 
 
 — Xumber. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — In three planes at right angles. 
 
 — Course. 
 
 — Contents. 
 
 — Membranous semi-circular canals. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Ampullae. 
 
 -Cochlea. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — F orm. 
 
 — Spiral; two and one-half turns. 
 
 — Lamina spiralis. • 
 
 — Two membranous partitions springing from outer edge of lamina spiralis. 
 
 — Canals. 
 
 — Scala vestibuli above. 1 , • •, 
 
 > Contain perilymph. 
 
 — Scala tynipani beloAv. J 
 
 — Scala media. 
 
 — Continuous with saccule. 
 
 — Contains. 
 
 — Endolymph. 
 
 — Organ of Corti. 
 
 — Structure. 
 
 — Rods of Corti. 
 
 — Increasing in length from base to apex of cochlea. 
 — Nerve terminals. 
 
 — Modified epithelium with hair-like processes. 
 
 — Reticulated membrane. 
 
 — Overhangs nerve terminals. 
 
5 ^ 
 
 -Function of several parts of ear. 
 
 — External ear. 
 
 — Middle ear. 
 
 — Internal. 
 
 — Perilymph. 
 
 — To transmit vibrations to endolymph. 
 
 — Endolymph. 
 
 — To transmit vibrations to nerve terminals. 
 
 — Utricle and saccule. 
 
 — Probably perceive sound quantitatively. 
 
 — Organ of Corti. 
 
 — Probably perceives difference in quality and tone of sounds. 
 — Facts contravening this view. 
 
 — Semi-circular canals. 
 
 — Not for bearing, as nerve terminals exist only in ampulla?. 
 — Aid in maintaining equilibrium. 
 
 — Method. 
 
 —Effect of removal. 
 
 I Transmission of vibrations. 
 
 SPINAL NERVE ROOTS. 
 
 DIVISION OF SPINAL NERVES AS THEY APPROACH CORD INTO 
 Anterior root. 
 
 — Entering anterior portion of spinal cord. 
 
 — Containing efferent nerves. 
 
 — Source of its few sensory fibres. 
 
 Posterior root. 
 
 — Entering posterior portion of spinal cord. 
 
 — Containing 
 
 — Afferent fibres. 
 
 — Trophic ganglion for afferent fibres. 
 
 — Proof of function of ganglion. 
 
 SPmAL CORD. 
 
 POSITION. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Cervical and lumbar enlargements. 
 
 Cauda equina. 
 
 Fissures. 
 
 — Anterior. 
 
 — -Widest. 
 
 — Not extending through white matter. 
 — Posterior. 
 
 — Extending to gray matter. 
 
51 
 
 — T\vo shallow lateral fissures on each side. 
 
 ENVELOPES. 
 
 Dira mater. 
 
 — Dense fibrous outer membrane. 
 
 PlA MATER. 
 
 — Thin vascular membrane. 
 
 — Closely adherent to cord. 
 
 — Its blood vessels penetrate and supply blood to cord. 
 
 Arachxoid. 
 
 — A serous membrane covering adjacent surfaces of dura mater and pia mater. 
 
 — Subarachnoid space. 
 
 STRUCTURE. 
 
 Gray matter. 
 
 — Form of two crescents joined at center of convex surfaces. 
 
 — Occupies central part of cord. 
 
 — Cornua. 
 
 — Anterior. 
 
 — Connected with anterior roots of spinal nerves. 
 
 — Posterior. 
 
 — Connected with posterior roots of spinal nerves. 
 
 — Constituents. 
 
 — Nerve cells. 
 
 — In groups. 
 
 — In anterior cornua. 
 
 — Large multipolar cells. 
 
 — Function. 
 
 — ( )rigination of reflex motor impulses. 
 
 — -Transmission or modification of motor impulses originating 
 in brain. 
 
 — Some are trophic cells. 
 
 — In posterior cornua. 
 
 — Slender spindle-shaped cells. 
 
 — Supposed relation to sensory nerves. 
 
 . — Some without processes. 
 
 — In more central part. 
 
 — Clarke’s column of cells. 
 
 — Multipolar. 
 
 — Fibres connect them with cerebellum. 
 
 — Nerve fibres. 
 
 — Non-medullated, chiefly. 
 
 — Largely derived from processes of nerve cells. 
 
 WHITE MATTER. 
 
 Occupies peripheral part of cord. 
 
 Composed of medullated nerve fibres, connecting 
 
 — Drain with gray matter of cord. 
 
 — One portion of gray matter with another portion. 
 
 — Gray matter of cord with anterior and posterior roots of spinal nerves. 
 
5 ^ ■ 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL ALE AS OF CORD. 
 
 Direct pyramidal tract. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — Pathway for motor fibres which do not cross to opposite side in medulla. 
 
 Crossed pyramidal tract. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — Pathway for motor fibres -wliich cross to opposite side in medulla. 
 
 Direct cererellar tract. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — Pathway for tactile impressions. 
 
 Gray juatter about central canal. 
 
 — Pathway for pain and temperature impressions. 
 
 Column of coll. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — PatliAvay for pain and temperature impressions. 
 
 Column of burdach. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 — Patlnvay for commissural fibres of cord for ditferent levels. 
 
 Trophic center. 
 
 — Portion of large cells of anterior cornua. 
 
 COURSE OF FIBRES IN CORD. 
 
 Sensory. 
 
 — Enter posterior cornua. 
 
 — -Cross immediately to opposite side of cord. 
 
 — Proceed upward chiefiy in white portion. 
 
 AIotor. 
 
 — Enter anterior cornua. 
 
 —Proceed upward in white portion; direct and crossed ityraraidal tracts. 
 
 — Fibres of crossed pyramidal tract cross to opposite side in the medulla oblongata. 
 — Fibres of direct pyramidal tract are continued to brain without crossing. 
 
 Not all fibres entering cord are continued upward in it. 
 
 — Proof in form of cord. 
 
 FUNCTION OF SPINAL CORD. 
 
 Conducting medium of sensory* iyipressions and of yiotor and inhAiitory* impulses. 
 
 Co-ordinating center. 
 
 — Chiefly by means of fibres of Bttrdach’s column, connecting different levels of cord. 
 
 Trophic center. 
 
 — Large cells of anterior cornua. 
 
 — Effect of their destruction. 
 
 Reflex center. 
 
 — Mechanism of reflex action. 
 
 — Extent of movement depends upon the degree of stimulus. 
 
 — If moderate stimulus, 
 
 — Motion affects part from which stimulus is received. 
 
 — If excessive, 
 
 — ^Motion affects otlier parts, even to convulsions. 
 
 — Explication of area of reflex action varying with degree of stimulus. 
 
K, 
 
 S'. 
 
 

 — Proof tliat reflex action is not of cerebral origin. 
 — Inhibition of reflex action. 
 
 — Not absolute. 
 
 — Uriginating in higher centers. 
 
 BRAIX. 
 
 SUBDIVISIONS. 
 
 ^Mldull.v ouloxgata. 
 
 Poxs Vauolii. 
 
 CEKEmiU.M. 
 
 Cerebellum. 
 
 ENVELOPES. 
 
 Same a.s of spixal cord. 
 
 Dura mater modified ix beixg 
 
 — Adherent to inner surface of cranium. 
 
 — ThroM'ii into folds, vertical and horizontal, for support of brain 
 — Contains venous sinuses in its folds. 
 
 CONTAINS SAME ELEMENTS AS SPINAL CORD. 
 
 White matter. 
 
 — Medullated nerve fibres. 
 
 Gray matter. 
 
 — Nerve cells. 
 
 — Non-medullated nerve fibres. 
 
 MEDULLA OBLONGATA. 
 
 COXTIXUATIOX OF SPIXAL CORD MODIFIED IX 
 
 — Form; flattened. 
 
 — Arrangement of gray matter. 
 
 — Occupies posterior portion chiefly. 
 
 — Some additional masses of gray matter. 
 
 — Arrangement of white matter. 
 
 — Occupies anterior portion chiefly. 
 
 — Decussation of most of motor fibres. 
 
 — Central canal, Avhich opens upon posterior surface. 
 
 Fuxctiox. 
 
 —A conductor of afferent impressions and efferent impulses, by reason of being 
 
 tinuation of spinal cord. 
 
 — A nerve center, presiding over processes most immediately essential to life. 
 
 — Respiration. 
 
 — A double center. 
 
 — Insj)iratory. 
 
 — Expiratory. 
 
 — Heart’s action. 
 
 — A double center. 
 
 — Accelerating. 
 — Inhibitory. 
 
 — Deglutition. 
 
 / 
 
 a con- 
 
54 
 
 — Controls several minor proeesses. 
 
 — Sneezing. 
 
 — Coughing. 
 
 ' — Seeretion of saliva. 
 
 — Vomiting. 
 
 — Convulsions. 
 
 — Perspiration. 
 
 PONS VAKOLII. 
 
 Position. 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 — Nerve fibres. 
 
 — ^.Transverse. 
 
 — Commissural fibres of cerebellum. 
 
 — Longitudinal. 
 
 — Continued from spinal cord and medulla to cerebrum. 
 
 — Scattered nerve cells. 
 
 cp:rebrum. 
 
 Position. 
 
 Form. 
 
 jNIedian fissure. 
 
 Hemispheres. 
 
 Gray matter. 
 
 — Distribution. 
 
 — Covers surface of cerebrum ; 5 to ^ inch thick. 
 
 — Basal ganglia. 
 
 — Peripheral gray matter, or cortex. 
 
 — Thrown into folds; convolutions. 
 
 — Increases area of gray matter. 
 
 — Layers of cortex. 
 
 — Characteristics of cells of cortex. 
 
 — Pyramidal form. 
 
 — iVre larger in proportion to depth in cortex. 
 
 — Axis cylinder process from base. 
 
 — Many branching processes from sides of cells which connect with other cell 
 — Basal ganglia, 
 
 — Corpora striata, anteriorly. 
 
 — Connected with motor fibres from cortex. 
 
 — Optic thalami, posteriorly. 
 
 — Connected with sensory fibres entering hemispheres. 
 
 White matter. 
 
 — Occupies central portion of hemispheres. 
 
 — Physiological classification of fibres. 
 
 — Commissural. 
 
 — Connecting corresponding part of cortex of two hemispheres. 
 
 — Associating. 
 
 ^ — Connecting different parts of cortex of same hemisphere. 
 
 — i\Iedullary. 
 
55 
 
 — Connecting cortex with spinal cord. 
 
 Con non A u a d k ioi-:m in a . 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Location. 
 
 VeNTK ICLKS. 
 
 — Number. 
 
 — Location. 
 
 — Kelation to central canal of spinal cord. 
 
 CkUKA CKKKnUI. 
 
 — Two bands of fibres uniting cerebrum to lower nerve centers. 
 
 — Contains aiferent and etferent nerve libres in transit to and from the cerebrum. 
 
 PUOMINENT ANATO.MICAE EAND51AHK.S OF SEKFACE OF COKTEX. 
 
 — F'issiires of 
 — Sylvius. 
 
 — Kolando. 
 
 — Island of Keil. 
 
 Function of 
 
 — Cortex. 
 
 — Interpretation of sensory impressions to consciousness. 
 
 — A'oluntary motion. 
 
 — Inhibiiion. 
 
 — Mental processes. 
 
 — Optic thalamus. 
 
 — llelated to sensory processes, but not well understood how. 
 
 — Contains several special centers for dilierent senses. 
 
 — Corpus striatum. 
 
 — Related to motor ])rocesses. 
 
 — ^laintaining in automatic way movements originated by cerebral cortex. 
 — Aids in co-ordination. 
 
 — Corjiora quadrigemina. 
 
 — Related to sense of sight. 
 
 — Possibly to co-ordination. 
 
 Physiologicae areas of cekeuk-Vl cortex. 
 
 — Sensory. 
 
 — Sight. 
 
 — Occipital convolutions. 
 
 — Hearing. 
 
 — Temporo-S])henoidal. 
 
 — Taste and smell. 
 
 — (fyrns uncinatns. 
 
 — Motor. 
 
 — AVell defined area on bofh sides of fissure of Rolatido. 
 
 — Leg. — At upper part of this area. 
 
 .\rni. 1 central part of this area. 
 
 —Hand, i 
 
 — Face — xVt lower part of this area. 
 
 — Speech. 
 
56 
 
 — Third frontal convolution and Island of Reil. 
 
 — Generally of left hemisphere. 
 
 — Inhibition, — unknoAvn. 
 
 — Mental processes, — unknoAvn. 
 
 — Conjectured to be anterior portion of cortex. 
 
 — Either hemisphere sufficient. 
 
 — General statement, '' 
 
 — Posterior portion of cortex related to sensation. 
 
 — Middle portion of cortex related to motion. 
 
 — Anterior portion of cortex related to mental processes. 
 
 EaCIiAiEMISPIIEKE IIECEIA'ES SEXSORV IMPRESSIONS PROAI, AND ORIGINATES MOTOR IMPULSES 
 
 CEREBELLUM. 
 
 FOR, OPPOSITE SIDE OF RODY. 
 
 Position. 
 
 Eoiui. 
 
 Gray jiatter. 
 
 — Distribution. 
 
 — As in cerebrum. 
 
 — Superficially in convolutions or cortex. 
 
 — Finer and thinner than in cerebrum. 
 
 — Layers of cortex. 
 
 — Outer layer, 
 
 — Small cells. 
 
 — Branched fibrils from Purkinje’s cells. 
 
 — Middle layer. 
 
 — Single layer of Purkinje’s cells. 
 
 — Large flask-shaped cells, Avith long branched processes extend- 
 ing into outer layer, and axis cylinder process at base. 
 
 — Inner layer. 
 
 — Nuclei and granules. , 
 
 — Central mass. 
 
 — Corpus dentatum. 
 
 White matter. 
 
 — Central part. 
 
 — Peduncles. 
 
 — Superior : — fibres connecting cerebellum and cerebrum. 
 
 — Middle : — fibres connecting cerebellum and pons. 
 
 — Inferior : — fibres connecting cerebellum and spinal cord. 
 
 Function. 
 
 — A receiving depot for sensory impressions, (through direct cerebellar tract,) deter- 
 mining Avhich shall be sent on to cerebrum. 
 
 — Co-ordination in maintaining equilibrium. 
 
 — Maintaining muscular contraction originated by cerebrum. 
 
 — Each half of cerebellum stands related in its function to same side of body. 
 
 S Y M PAT 1 1 ET 1C SYSTEM . 
 
 Made up of 
 
 — Ganglia. 
 

57 
 
 — Arranged in pairs on either side of spinal column. 
 
 — Several special ganglia !or individual viscera. 
 
 — Nerve fibres. 
 
 — Cliieti}’ non-medullated. 
 
 — Distributed to 
 — Viscera. 
 
 — Glands. 
 
 — Blood vessels. 
 
 — Numerous connecting fibres between 
 — Different ganglia. 
 
 — Ganglia and spinal nerves, 
 
 Fu>'ction. 
 
 — Chiefly in controlling action of unstriped muscular fibre in organs above named. 
 
Mineral. 
 
 OniKF CUT A NOES TN m.OOD IN 
 
CHANGES EFFECTED IN FOOD BY DIGESTIVE FLUIDS OF 
 
 MOUTH. STOMACH. PANCREAS. LIVER. SMALL INTESTINE. 
 
 STARCH. Beginning change Freed from envelope Changed to sugar by Slight power to Slight power to change to 
 to sugar, by pty- of gluten. pancreatine. change to su- sugar, by secretion of 
 
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 completes the change from maltose to sugar. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 AYEXUE OF ABSORPTION OF DIFFERENT FOODS. 
 
 SUGAR.* Blood A'essels. 
 
 FAT. Lacteals. 
 
 PEPTONE. Blood vessels. 
 
 ♦Tills includes stared now changed to sugar. 
 
 changes in ABSOKBED MATEEIAL before entering GEN- 
 ERAL CIRCULATION. 
 
 SUGAR. To glycogen, in liver cells, where it is stored till given up gradually to blood in 
 
 form of 
 
 — Glycogen chiefly. 
 
 — Sugar. 
 
 FAT. Disappears in lungs. 
 
 PEPTONE. Changed to serum albumen before leaving liver. 
 

APPENDIX. 
 
 ABSORPTION. — SuppLEMEXTAEY Statement. 
 
 LATER CHANGES IN ABSORBED MATERIAL. 
 
 Peptone to serum albumen before leaving liver. 
 
 Leuctn. ) rr> 
 
 '' lo urea. 
 
 Tyrosin. J 
 
 Sugar to glycogen, stored in liver cells and released as needed, 
 
 — Question whether released as gl^^cogen or sugar. 
 
 — Ferment causing change derived from 
 — Destruction of red blood corpuscles. 
 
 — Derif»ged circulation. 
 
 Fat disappears in passing through lungs. 
 
 Soap, unknown. 
 
 FATE OF DIGESTIVE FERMENTS. 
 
 So CHANGED AS TO BE UNRECOGNIZABLE, 
 
 — Pty aline. 
 
 — By hydrochloric acid of gastric juice. 
 
 — Pepsin. 
 
 — By precipitation by alkaline fluids in duodenum, and digestion by trypsin. 
 — Pancreatic ferments. 
 
 — By acid fermentation of large intestine. 
 
 Probably ultimately absorbed. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 LAEYiNX. 
 
 FH.UIE-WORK OF CARTILAGES. 
 
 Cricoid. 
 
 — Form of signet ring. 
 
 — Position. 
 
 Thyroid. 
 
 — Broad, V shaped cartilage. 
 
 — Cornua. 
 
 — For articulation with cricoid. 
 
 Two ARYTENOIDS. WITH CORNICULA LARYNGIS. 
 
 — Pyramidal form. 
 
 — Articulation with cricoid. 
 
 Epiglottis. 
 
 — Form. 
 
 — Articulates with thyroid. 
 
 VOCAL CORDS. 
 
 Bands of elastic tissue. 
 
 Points of attachment. 
 
 — Anteriorly to angle of thyroid. 
 
 — Posteriorly to anterior point of arytenoid. 
 
 FALSE VOCAL CORDS. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 Position. 
 
 MUSCLES. 
 
 Effect. 
 
 -A tilting of thyroid upon cricoid. | Increasing tension of cords. 
 
 — A slightly backward movement of arytenoid. J 
 
 — A rotation of arytenoid upon cricoid. 1 ta j: i 
 
 ^ V Determining approximation of cords. 
 
 — A lateral movement of arytenoid upon cricoid- I 
 
■