THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 630.7 M70b mo. 169-185 cop. 2 ibfilCULTUiUl IHW NON CIRCULATING CHECK FOR UNBOUND CIRCULATING COPY, Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/profitabletomato1691rosa to'bO.'J *no~C~ UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION . BULLETIN 169 - PROFITABLE TOMATO FERTILIZERS Tomatoes on stony Ozark soil: On left, no fertilizer; on right, 125 lbs. per acre 5-8-0 fertilizer applied COLUMBIA, MISSOURI MARCH, 1920 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL THE CURATORS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY SAM SPARROW, Chairman, C. B. ROLEINS, Kansas City Columbia JOHN H. BRADEEY, Kennett ADVISORY COUNCIL, THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF March, 1920 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, A. M. Emory M. Roller AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING E. H. Lehmann, B. S. in A. E. Mack M. Jones ANIMAL HUSBANDRY F. B. Mumford, M. S. E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. A. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. Ray E. Miller, B. S. in Agr. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. J. H. LonGwEll, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. E. Maneval, Ph. D. W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale, B. S. in Agr. A. C. Dahlberg, M. S. W. W. Swett, A. M. Percy Werner, Jr., A. M. W. H. E. Reed, B. S. in Agr. C. W. Turner, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. E. M. McDonald, B. S. C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. R. M. Green, B. S. in Agr. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. D. Hooker, Ph. D. H. F. Major, B. S. A. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. H. H. G. SwartwouT, B. S. in Agr. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L. Kempster, B. S. G. W. Hervey, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. R. R. Hudelson, A. M. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connoway, D. V. M., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crisler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, B. S. in Agr. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer J. G. Babb, A. M., Secretary E. H. Hughes, A. M., Asst, to Dean O. W. Weaver, B. S., Agricultural Editor George Reeder, Director Weather Bureau Miss Bertha Hite , 1 Seed Testing Laboratory J. F. Barham, Photographer Hn service of U. S. Department of Agriculture. jam 2 6*29 Anelt b-Bo.f 77] 7o / AOO . i */L** Profitable Tomato Fertilizers J. T. Rosa, Jr. About 10,000 acres of tomatoes are grown for canning pur- poses in Missouri each year, and many more are grown for mar- ket and home use. The larger part of the acreage grown for can- ning is on the gravelly loam soils of the “Ozark” region in the southern part of the state, where there are many canning factories. In this region, tomatoes of the finest canning quality are pro- duced, being unexcelled in color, flavor and solidity of fruit. How- ever, the yields have been in many cases too small to be profit- able, ranging from one to three tons to the acre, depending upon the season. In the belief that use of commercial fertilizers might be the means of growing larger and more profitable crops, the tests reported in this bulletin were undertaken in the spring of 1919, in cooperation with ten tomato growers, seven of whom were located on typical Ozark soils. The objects were to deter- mine the effect of different commercial fertilizers and mixtures of the same, as well as of stable manure, on the yield and time of maturity of the tomato crop. Much credit is due the growers who carried out these tests, for their careful work in handling the plots and harvesting the fruit. DESCRIPTION OF THE TESTS l One test was located in Livingston County, two in St. Louis County, one in Green County, three in Newton County, and three in Howell County. Each test consisted of a series of eight plots which received the same treatment in each test. Each plot con- sisted of one hundred plants, or* about one twenty-fifth of an acre, except in the case of the three tests in Howell County, in which the plots were one-eighth acre in size. The fertilizers used were prepared by the Department of Horticulture and distributed to the growers early in the spring. The site of each test was se- lected with a view to uniformity of soil, being in each case lo- cated in a large field of tomatoes. The fertilizers were applied and plants set under the personal supervision of the writer. Fer- tilizers were applied just before setting the plants, by drilling into the row and mixing the fertilizer with the soil. Notes were taken on the plants in each test the latter part of July, just be- fore the fruit began to ripen. The fruit was gathered regularly 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 169 by each grower, the weight of fruit at each picking being recorded for each plot. FERTILIZERS USED The first and last plots in each test were checks, no fertilizer or manure being applied to them. The composition of the fertili- zers used, and rate of application were as follow : Plot 1. — 'No fertilizer. Plot 2. — 250 pounds to the acre: 4.6% Nitrogen, 8% phosphorous, 7% potash, made up of 500 pounds dried blood (11% N), 250 pounds nitrate of soda (15% N), 1000 pounds acid phos- phate (16% P), and 276 pounds sulphate of potash (51% K). A total of 2026 pounds. Plot 3. — 250 pounds to the acre: 5% Nitrogen, 8% phosphorous, made up of 500 pounds dried blood (11% N), 300 pounds nitrate of soda (15% N), 1000 pounds acid phosphate (16% P), 200 pounds filler, a total of 2000 pounds. Plot 4. — 150 pounds to the acre: Nitrate of soda (15% N). Plot 5. — 150 pounds to the acre: Sulphate of potash (51% K). Plot 6. — 250 pounds to the acre: Acid phosphate (16% P). Plot 7. — 8 tons to the acre: Rotten stable manure. Plot 8. — No fertilizer. FIELD NOTES ON TESTS Phillip Lochhaas, Valley Park, St. Louis County. — Plants were set May 12 on poor, sticky, red clay soil on which mulched Irish potatoes were grown last year. The variety used was June Pink. On June 25 the plants in Plots 1, 4, and 8 were rather small and spindling with no fruit set, while in Plots 2, 3, 6 and 7 the plants were large, dark green, and full of green fruit. In Plot 5, which received potash, the plants were intermediate in size. Charles N. Daub, Valley Park, St. Louis County. — Plants were set May 12, on rather poor clay loa^m hillside, previously in black- berries. The variety used was Livingston’s Beauty. On June 25, the plants in the two unfertilized check plots, 1 and 8, were only me- dium sized, as compared to plants in the fertilized plots, 2, 3, 6 and 7. Plants in plots 4 and 5 were only slightly better than the checks. Henry C. McElhaney, Brookline, Green County. — Plants were set May 29, a week after the fertilizers had been applied. A sep- arate test was made of 2-12-1 fertilizer, applied (a) five days be- fore setting plants, and (b) as a top dressing ten days after set- ting. On July 16 there was a marked difference in the plants on these plots, the plants being thirty-three per cent larger and hav- Profitable Tomato Fertilizers 5 ing a larger set of fruit in the case where fertilizer was applied five days before setting. The following gives a summary of the yields of fruit from these two plots. Fertilizer Applied Yield per Gain over Percent acre unfertilized check gain 5 days before setting 14,860 lbs. 3,820 lbs. per acre 34.6 10 days after setting 12,200 lbs.. 1,260 lbs. per acre 11.4 The soil in this test was red clay loam, free from rock. Clover sod and stable manure had been plowed under the preceding fall. The soil was thoroly prepared, and the crop well cultivated. It is noticeable from Table 1 that the per cent of increase in yields caused by the various fertilizers was less in this test, where the soil was well manured and cultivated, than in the case of some other tests on poorer soils. The variety used was Greater Baltimore. On July 16, the plants in the check plots were of medium size and were medium green in color, with no fruit set. The plants in plots 2, 3 and 6 were fairly uniform, being 150 per cent larger and much stockier than the plants in the check plots. Plants in plots 4 and 5 were very slightly superior to the checks. C. R. Epperson, Neosho, Newton County . — This test was lo- cated on poor, gravelly loam soil which was quite stony, and had been in tomatoes the preceding year, with no manure applied for several years. Plants were set May 13 ; Livingston Stone was the variety used. On July 14 the plants in the check plots were small and weak, with little fruit set. In plots 2 and 3, plants were about one hundred per cent larger, and there was considerable fruit set. Plots 4 and 5 wre little better than the checks while plots 6 and 7 were considerably larger and more vigorous than the check plots. F. E. Wuerzberger, Neosho, Newton County . — This land was quite stony and rough, having been recently cleared of trees. Fer- tilizers were applied May 24 as a top dressing to plants set sev- eral days before. The variety used was Stone. On July 14, the plants in the check plots were rather small, erect, spindling, with no fruit set. Plots 2 and 3 bore large, dark green plants, well branched and heavily set with fruit. Plants in plot 4 were larger than those in plots 2 and 3, but had less fruit set. Those in 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 169 plot 5 were medium-sized plants with no fruit set. In plot 6, the plants were almost as large as in plots 2 and 3, and had a large number of fruit set. William C. Grimes, Nezvtonia, Newton County. — This soil was a medium sandy loam in fine condition, free of stone, had been in tomatoes last year, and the plants had been rather seriously af- fected with wilt. The fertilizer plots were set on May 24, to plants of the Arlington and New Century varieties, which have been de- veloped for their resistance to the wilt disease. The rest of the six-acre field was set to plants of ordinary varieties. By August 17, a large proportion of these plants had died from the wilt dis- ease, while the plants in the fertilizer plots which were of the wilt- resistant varieties were ninety-five per cent healthy. It was a good demonstration of the value of wilt-resistant varieties on in- fected soils. One variation in this test was that of a light ap- plication of poultry manure instead of stable manure to plot 7. This plot produced the largest per cent of increase in yield in this test, 124 per cent. On July 15, the plants in the check plots were only medium in size, with little fruit set. In plots 2, 3, 6 and 7 the plants were quite uniform in size, all being relatively much larger, more fruitful and more vigorous than the plants on the check plots. The plants in plots 4 and 5 were only slightly larger than those in the check plots. W . J. Rhodes, Brandsville, Howell County. — The soil was a gravelly loam, quite stony in spots, but fairly fertile. The fertili- zers were applied on May 24, and plants set a few days after- ward. The variety used was Red Rock. On July 17 the plants in the check plots were medium in size, rather straggling and weak, with little fruit. Plots 3, 2, 7 and 6 were relatively much larger and more fruitful than the check plots. The size and fruitful- ness of the plants in these plots was in the order mentioned. Plots 4 and 5 were slightly superior to the check plots. J. W. Pierce, West Plains, Hozvell County. — The soil was a clay loam, free of stone and gravel, in a fair state of fertility. Fertilizers were applied and the plants set May 21 ; the variety used was Matchless. On July 17 the field was found to be in very good condition, and striking differences were exhibited by the plants in the various fertilizer plots. The plants in the check plots were medium sized, rather weak and spindling, with no fruit set. On the other hand, the plants in plots 2, 3, 6 and 7 were Profitable Tomato Fertilizers / very dark green and vigorous, and 200 per cent larger than plants in the check plots. Plots 4 and 5 appeared to be somewhat in- ferior to the check plots. James Spence, Burnham, Howell County . — The soil was -a light gravelly to stony loam. Fertilizers were applied and plants set June 6, which was rather late. The variety used was Red Rock. On July 18 the plants in the check plots were decidedly weak and small, while the plants in plots 2, 3, 6 and 7 were relatively much larger and more fruitful than the plants in the check plots. The plants in plots 4 and 5 appeared somewhat inferior to the checks, and considerable difficulty had been experienced in securing a stand of plants on these plots. Mrs. Blanche Reeder, Girls Reform School, Chillicothe, Liv- ingston County . — This test was located on black silt loam, the typ- ical “corn-belt” prairie soil of north Missouri. This test is particu- larly interesting in that the trend of the results produced by the various fertilizers here was the same as that secured on the rocky and gravelly clay loams in the Ozark region of the state. The fer- tilizer was applied with the fertilizer drill on a corn planter, which also served to mark off the rows. Plants were set on the same day, May 2, but many had to be reset afterward due to injury by rains and cool weather. The variety used was Bonny Best, which is an early type of tomato. On July 11, the plants in the check plots were of medium size, and bore a fair quantity of half-grown fruit. Plants in the fertilized plots, 2, 3 and 6, were all about the same, being relatively much larger than those in the check plots, and bearing a heavy crop of fruit which was beginning to ripen. Plot 7, receiving stable manure, was not quite so good as the best fertilized plots, yet was much superior to the checks. Plots 4 and 5 were somewhat better than the check plots. RESULTS Table 1 presents a summary of the yields secured from each plot in each of the ten tests, expressed in terms of pounds per acre. The first column gives the total yield for each plot, the second column gives the number of pounds increase or decrease over the adjacent unfertilized check plot, and the third column gives the per cent gained by the fertilized plot over the unfertilized check plot. It will be noticed that the yields produced on differ- ent plots receiving the same kinds and amounts of fertilizer vary considerably, as well as the percentage of increase. The first point Table 1. — Yields oe Tomatoes on Fertilizer Plots — 1919. Expressed in Pounds per Acre Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 169 cn O £ Ph C 14-1 vo O 2 rt . T3 ^ is o PU ^ -M ^ o o to CO O CM VO eg o\ eg v c’S CO CNJ »o Crv rt ^ o inoo^ ^ g 60 O vo <7 ' 2 O oo C 1 r “l xj- VO NOVOO t-T ' CO CM CO co 2 o o O o O o vo o 2 ° vo 13 00 CM O CO Ov vo CM OS' 0 ON CO eg VO Ov^i-i^vo ov r-l CN *, l> ' oo vcT OS cm" cm" w-T ^ oo” vo" Per cent gain 4.5 31.7 CM Vt C fv to •cj- C\ ig ^ ir) H • T3- -7.6 10.7 00 o vo vo o O O O * VO ON 00 .5 ^ eg *— < o on io L>s • oo vo > ¥• O o o VC ro w o eg H ' H CO CO • G\ CO o o vo o m VO VO O O O 00 O ^ m- O w -M.g £ § 3, vo oo o Ov rf- ' vo VO 00 1-1 CvO\ CM^ ,-i" CO VO <*0 o oo o VO vo VO co vo O OO ooooo ooo 1-10 to CV] N O O O CM CO Ov O vf VO^OOO to K CO Tf t'C ro K VO n K 00 VO of O £ 00 I ^ ’rt 60 OO vo O vo vo O OOt VO O It K O if O 00 CM CM 00 vo VO oo CM i—i i— > i— ' OO OOtMOO VO Ov O oovo oo M- VO to vo to 00 -i vtov 00 00 co vo vo 00 CO Ov CM VO 'O CM ^O vy-j to co 2 1! oo ooooo ooo VO VO o o o M- — ' CM CM VO i— * Ov vo vo vo M" CM 00 to VO vo N M- VO "l vo i-H (M 3 * rh ' v u QJ w H • 3 o «> fc £ 2 6 3 ij ^Q' a £uw ajs-L rtpL,c/)p^ •- Teie w- > rt «JT3 o. . o <5 l Profitable Tomato Fertilizers 9 may be explained by the fact that better land was used in some cases than others, the season was more favorable, or the picking season was longer. The second point, that of variation in per cent of increase produced by the same fertilizer, may be explained by the fact that on the poorer lands fertilizers produce a greater per cent of increase in yield than upon fairly good land. The tests ~z £ •a £ be c B 8. •c O Cl I C o o .JS t o S bn W of H. H. McElhaney and W. C. Grimes illustrate this point, for these tests were located on very good land in the best of physical condition. The increases produced by fertilizers on these soils were not so great as upon some of the poorer and more rocky soils. Yet the general trend of the results secured in all ten of these tests is about the same, despite the differences in soils and other factors. 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 169 Taking the average of the ten tests as a basis, well rotted stable manure at the rate of eight tons to the acre caused the greatest percentage increase in yield, followed closely by the 4.6-8-7 and the 5-8-0 mixture. The average difference in yield caused by these two mixtures is insignificant, indicating that the omis- sion of potash from the fertilizer did not seriously affect the yield of tomatoes, generally speaking. In six cases the mixture contain- ing potash caused a greater percentage increase, and in four cases the “no-potash” fertilizer caused the greater percentage of in- crease. Nitrate of soda caused practically no increase, on the average. In four tests, nitrate of soda caused a slight increase, and in five tests the nitrate caused a decrease in yield. This decrease was probably due to injury to the plants soon after setting, by the strong salt coming in contact with the roots of the tender plants. Sulphate of potash alone caused a slight increase in yield on the average of the ten tests, producing an increase in seven tests and a decrease in three. This indicates that on the soils used in these tests, potash is not likely to be an important element in fertilizing tomatoes. Acid phosphate produced a substantial increase in every test except one, where a small decrease resulted. This decrease was probably due to the proximity of trees as the plot in question ap- peared very promising when noted in July. The indications are that phosphorous is the most important single element of plant food in fertilizing* tomatoes in Missouri. COST OF FERTILIZERS AND NET PROFIT It has been shown in the preceding pages that commercial fer- tilizers may markedly increase the yield of tomatoes. What does it cost to produce the larger crop, and does it pay to grow a larger crop with the aid of fertilizers? The extra expense includes the cost of the fertilizer, the cost of application, and the cost of pick- ing the extra quantity of fruit produced. These items are esti- mated on the basis of 1920 prices for fertilizers as furnished by the Department of Agricultural Chemistry and allowing 5 cents a bushel for picking. The price of the fruit is placed at $15 a ton. The results are shown in Table 2 . Profitable Tomato Fertilizers 11 Table 2. — Extra Cost of Growing Tomatoes with Fertilizers, and Net Returns Based on Average oe Ten Tests in 1919 . Plot No. Fertilizer used Amt. ap- plied per acre Cost of fertilizer per acre Cost of appli- cation per A. Extra cost of picking increased yield Total extra expense by using fertilizer Yield, Tons per *acre Value of the yield per acre Net gain per acre from use of fer- tilizer 1 & 8 2 None 4. 6-8-7 250 $9.00 $1.00 $5.62 $15.62 2.86 5.67 $42.50 85.00 $26.48 3 5-8-0 250 7.00 1.00 5.08 13.08 5.40 81.00 25.02 4 Nitrate of soda 150 6.50 1.00 .18 7.68 2.93 44.00 -5.78 5 Sulphate of potash 150 11.50 1.00 .30 12.80 3.1 46.50 -9.26 6 Acid phos- phate 250 2.75 1.00 4.75 8.50 5.29 79.40 28.00 7 Stable manure 8 tons 12.00 2.00 5.82 19.82 5.77 86.60 23.88 NOTE: — ” indicates loss. It is seen from this table, that after deducting the cost of the fertilizer, cost of application, and cost of picking the extra amount of fruit produced by the fertilizer, that the acid phosphate, the 4. 6-8-7 mixture, the 5-8-0 mixture and the stable manure plots af- forded substantial net gains per acre, in the order named. Nitrate of soda alone, and sulphate of potash alone, resulted in a loss. It seems that high-grade acid phosphate (16%) is the most economi- cal fertilizer to use, altho a complete mixed fertilizer may produce larger yields. EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON EARLINESS One of the most important effects of fertilizers observed in these tests on tomatoes is the rapid early growth of the plants, and the early date at which fruit begins to ripen on the fertilized plots. This was very noticeable in every series of fertilizer tests made in 1919, as the fruit began ripening on the plots fertilized with the 4. 6-8-7 and 5-8-0 mixtures, as well as acid phosphate, long before the check plots came into bearing. The difference in total yield and earliness of fruit are shown graphically in the figure. This is based on the average weekly yields of the check plots, the complete fertilizer and the acid phosphate plots, in the Pierce, McElhaney and Grimes tests. It is seen from this chart that the check plots did not begin heavy bearing until the week of August 23-30, while the complete fertilizer plots came into bearing the week of July 26-August 2, or four weeks earlier than the checks. The acid phosphate plots came into heavy bearing about August 9, three weeks before the check plots. Both the complete fertili- 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 169 zers and acid phosphate plots reached the peak of their bearing season a week before the checks. After September 6, there is little difference between fertilized and check plots, as both de- clined rapidly. It may be readily seen how important this increased earliness of the crop w'ould be in case of the market grower, for the early fruit has a higher market value than does that produced later in the season. In the case of the cannery grower, the increased earli- ness is an advantage, for it distributes the season of heavy pick- ing over a period of about six weeks, instead of three weeks in the case of the unfertilized crop. This would permit both the grower and the cannery to handle more tomatoes. SUMMARY The complete fertilizer produced a marked increase in yields of tomatoes, and the per cent increase is greater on the poorer soils. In these experiments, a mixed fertilizer containing no potash produced practically as good yields as the complete fertilizer. Acid phosphate alone produced a good increase in yield, but not as much as the mixed fertilizers. Nitrate of soda alone and sulphate of potash alone, did not produce a larg-e increase in any of these tests, and in some cases decreased yields thru injury to young plants. Stable manure and poultry manure were found to be excel- lent fertilizers for tomatoes, altho these materials did not stimu- late early maturity to as great an extent as did the 4. 6-8-7 and 5-8-0 commercial ferilizers. Mixed fertilizers, and acid phosphates alone, produced a strik- ing increase in the amount of early fruit, the plants reaching quan- tity-production four weeks earlier than plants on unfertilized check plots. It seems that fertilizers stimulate plants to rapid growth during the early part of the season, resulting in a large plant, capable of bearing many fruits. This is particularly important in Missouri, where the latter part of the summer is usually unfavor- able for plant growth. As a result of the tests reported in this bulletin, it would appear that tomato growers could profitably increase the yield and earliness of the crop, by the use of at least 250 pounds to the acre of a commercial mixed fertilizer. It is suggested that a fertilizer analyzing 3 or 4 per cent nitrogen and 10 to 12 per cent phosphorous be used for tomatoes. UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170 INSECT PESTS OF FIELD CROPS Army Worm Moth, twice natural size COLUMBIA, MISSOURI APRIL, 1920 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL the: curators of the: university of Missouri EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY C. B. ROEEINS, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Columbia Kansas City JOHN H. BRADLEY, Kennett ADVISORY COUNCIL TEIE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF April, 1920 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, A. M. Emory M. Roller AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING E. H. Lehmann, B. S. in A. E- Mack M. Jones ANIMAL HUSBANDRY F. B. Mumford, M. S. E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. A. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. Ray E. Miller, B. S. in Agr. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. J. H. Longwell, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. E. Maneval, Ph. D. W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale, B. S. in Agr. A. C. Dahlberg, M. S. W. W. Swett, A. M. Percy Werner, Jr., A. M. W. H. E. Reed, B. S. in Agr. C. W. Turner, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D E. M. McDonald, B. S C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. J In service of U. S RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. R. M. Green, B. S. in Agr. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. horticulture V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. D. Hooker, Ph. D. H. F. Major, B. S. A. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. H. H. G. SwarTwouT, B. S. in Agr. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L. Kempster, B. S. G. W. Hervey, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. R. R. Hudelson, A. M. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connoway, D. V. M., M. D. L- S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crisler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, B. S. in Agr. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer J. G. Babb, A. M., Secretary E. H. Hughes, A. M., Asst, to Dean O. W. Weaver, B. S., Agricultural Editor George Reeder, Director Weather Bureau Miss Bertha Hite , 1 Seed Testing Laboratory J. F. Barham, Photographer Department of Agriculture. Insect Pests of Field Crops* Leonard Haseman Insect pests have done more damage in Missouri during the last few years than in any equal period in the history of the state. In 1916 the Hessian fly, in a dozen counties of Missouri, cost the farmers more than did all hog cholera outbreaks thruout the entire state. In Missouri the two most important field crops, corn and wheat, suffer most, tho other crops come in for their share of dam- age. In this report only the most important insect pests of the different crops will be discussed. Where necessary the records of other workers will be made use of, tho as far as possible original records will be given. INSECT PESTS OF CORN Corn pests usually feed on grasses but very seldom on leg- umes. An effort should therefore be made to rotate crops so that the same or similar crops will not follow each other. If a rotation of this kind cannot be practiced land should be fall or winter plowed. In the control of insect pests of field crops it is seldom ad- visable to use spray mixtures. Most of the pests can be more effectively and economically controlled by following proper farm practices. Where it is necessary, spray solutions and other arti- ficial remedies should be used as cures, but prevention is always better than cure. Crop rotation, clean culture, fall and winter plowing, time of sowing and cutting of crops, are all of value in the campaign against insect pests and cost nothing to apply. Corn Root Louse ( Aphis maidi-radicis Forbes). — The corn root louse is largely a pest of corn in bottom land where the soil is loose and sandy, tho it may be destructive in prairie sections of the state. Description. — The pest is one of the sap-sucking plant lice which lives largely underground on roots of corn and related plants. It is grayish-green in color and about the size of a pin- head. By pulling up infested plants hundreds will be found at- tached to the roots. *A reprint of Bulletin 134 by the same author. A few sections have been revised in keeping with more nearly complete information developed thru later observations. 4 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 Life History. — The corn root louse winters in the egg stage in the nests of the small cornfield ant. The ants collect the eggs in the fall and store them with their own eggs in their nests under- ground. In the spring when the eggs hatch the ants carry the young lice to roots of grasses and weeds where they feed and in- crease until the corn crop comes on. The ants then transfer them to the roots of corn. During the summer there are no males, neither are there true females, but an asexual form, stem-mother, gives birth to the living young. The ants continue to herd the lice all summer and in return feed on a sweet discharge from tubes on the backs of the lice. The underground forms are without wings, but from time to time winged forms emerge and fly to other fields and spread the infestation. In the fall true males and fe- males appear and eggs are laid which pass the winter. Injury. — The injury is first noticed before the corn is knee high. The lice suck the sap from the roots of the corn causing it to turn yellow and stop growing where the attack is severe. In less severe cases a partial crop matures tho the root system is al- ways more or less destroyed. Remedies. — This pest may breed on the roots of grasses and weeds so crop rotation will give only partial relief. Winter plow- ing of infested cornfields or sod will destroy the ant nests and along with them their eggs and those of the lice. This is the most effective remedy. Fertilizers may help to mature a crop in spite of the pest and close and continuous cultivations when the corn is small will help to aggravate the ant and check the pest. Get rid of the ant and the louse is helpless. Corn Root Worms ( Diabrotica longicornis Say and D. duo- decimpunctata Oliv.). — There are two forms of root worms, the so- called western and the southern form. They are the grubs of small beetles and as the name implies they feed in the roots and base of the corn plant. Description. — The root worms are small, whitish grubs. They are very slender and from one-half to nearly three-fourths of an inch long. When feeding they will be found partly or entirely bur- ied in the roots or base of the young corn plant. The parent beetle of the southern form is yellowish-green with twelve black spots and looks much like a lady beetle. The parent of the western form is smaller than the southern form and light green in color. Fife History. The parent of the western form lays eggs large- ly in cornfields in the fall. In the spring these eggs hatch and the Insect Pests of Field Crops Wingless viviparous female or stem-mother; about sixteen times natural size; a, tip of abdomen still more enlarged. (After Forbes) Fig. 2. — Corn Root-louse: Winged migratory stem mother; sixteen times natural size. (After Forbes) Fig. 3. — Corn-field Ant: The worker ant which is the true shepherd of the root-louse; eight times natural size. (After Forbes) Fig. 4. — Western Corn Root-worm: Grub in tip of corn root showing the way it feeds; about three times natural size. (After Forbes) Fig. 5. — Western Corn Root-worm: Adults bee- tle; ten times natural size. (After Forbes) 6 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 : Parent ‘ Click-bee- Fig. 7. — Southern Corn Root- four times natural worm: Adult beetle; about six (After Forbes') times natural size. (After Forbes) Insect Pests of Field Crops 7 grubs attack the corn. There is but one generation a year. The southern form attacks various plants and the beetles hibernate in protected places and appear early in the summer to lay eggs. Injury. — The injury to corn is done entirely by the grubs un- derground. This injury may completely destroy the crop. The injury to the root system saps the vitality of the crop and later causes it to fall badly. During the summer the parent beetles may attack the blossoms of various plants causing considerable injury in case of melons and similar plants. Remedies. — The western form is controlled by crop rotation. Most of the eggs are laid in the fall in infested cornfields. If corn is not planted in the same field the next year the pest is starved out. The southern form is less easily controlled. Crop rotation com- bined with winter destruction of harboring places and late planting of corn will usually control the pest. Wire Worms ( Elatcridae ) . — There are a great many kinds of wire worms but their habits are similar and may be considered as a single pest. Description. — The wire worms are the grubs of small, oblong, brownish beetles known as click-beetles or “snapping-bugs.” The grubs are brownish in color and as the name implies are hard and and as large around as a small straw. They have legs but crawl wiry. They vary in size, but are usually an inch or less in length with difficulty. Life History. — This pest may require from one to three years to mature. The eggs are deposited largely in sod and the grubs feed on the roots of grasses until mature, unless the sod be plowed under and some other crop such as corn or wheat follows to be in- jured by the grubs. The parent beetles do not injure field crops. Injury. — The injury to corn is usually done just as the corn is sprouting or soon thereafter. The grub may bore into the soft sprouting* grain destroying the germs or it may eat off the roots or bore into the base of the stalk after the plant has started. The in- jury to wheat and other crops is of a similar nature. Remedies. — The wire worms are rather difficult to control tho by following out a careful system of crop rotation combined with fall or winter plowing the pest can be kept in check. A field should not be kept in sod too long and such crops as wheat and corn should not follow sod if it is known to be infested. The pest does not seem to thrive in fields when legumes are grown, so it is usually 8 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 Fig. 11. — Whitegrub: a, Adult June beetle; b, egg; c, whitegrub or grub worn e, corn plant with roots injured and grub and pupa in earthen cells ; d, pupa; Insect Pests of Field Crops 9 safe to follow clover with corn or wheat. Treating the seed corn to protect it from the pest is not effective. White Grubs or Grub Worms (Lachnosterna spp.) . — These are the young of the brown May beetles or so-called “June Bugs” and, like the wire worms, usually breed in sod where they may become so abundant as to destroy much of it. When the sod is plowed un- der in the spring and is followed by corn, that crop also suffers. Description. — This pest is best known in the grub or larval stage and is commonly called the grub worm. There are many species, but all have similar habits. When found they are usually curled up, whitish or yellowish in color with a brown or black head and with dark food usually showing thru the body. The parent beetles are brown or blackish and are common in May and June, com- ing into lighted rooms at night, buzzing about until they strike some- thing and fall heavily to the floor. Life History. — This pest may also require from one to three years to mature depending upon the species. The eggs are laid in the soil, usually in pastures and meadows. On hatching these eggs produce the grubs which feed until mature. They pupate in May and June and come out as beetles to lay eggs for the next gener- ation. Injury. — The grubs feed underground on the roots of grasses and various other crops often completely eating away the root sys- tem. We have found the injury to be so great that in many cases the sod could be stripped from the ground and rolled up like a carpet where the grubs have eaten off the root system. When such infested fields are plowed and corn is planted they completely destroy the corn crop. Remedies. — The remedies suggested for the wire worms are also helpful in controlling the gi ubs. Hogs are fond of the grubs and are often of help in cleaning up the infested fields. Sod Webworms ( Crambus L — There are several species of sod webworms. They are small caterpillars which breed abundantly in sod. When the sod is plowed in the spring and corn is planted they turn to the corn. Description. — The sod webworms are about an inch long when full grown and usually reddish-brown in color. The body has numerous rather conspicuous tubercles from which project short bristling hair. The worm is very active. The moths vary in color but are easily distinguished from others by the habit they have of folding the wings down along the sides of the body so as to resem- 10 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 ble a portion of bleached grass blades more than a moth. The moths are the common light colored ones which fly up ahead of one while walking in pastures. Life History. — There seems to be but two broods a year. The winter is passed by the partly grown caterpillars in the ground and these are the ones which destroy the young corn. They mature by June and the moths usually fly to sod to lay eggs for the sum- mer brood which matures and lays eggs for the brood which again passes the next winter. Injury. — The injury to grasses in pastures and meadows is Insect Pests of Field Crops 11 great but usually entirely overlooked. It is the injury to corn which attracts attention. Corn planted on sod land spring-plowed often suffers severely. In some cases three or four plantings are necessary before a stand is obtained. The worms injure the corn by feeding on the roots, cutting plants off like cutworms, by eating gashes in the sides of the stalk near the ground or they may work down in the growing tip. The injury usually results in the loss of the plant. Remedies. — Late summer or fall plowing is the only practical Fig. 13. — Corn Bill-bug, S. aequa- lis, adult beetle, back and side view; enlarged. (After Forbes) Fig. 14. — Corn Bill-bug, S. parz'ulus, adult beetle, back and side view; enlarged. (After Forbefe) method of reaching the pest. This deprives the fall brood of young worms of food and usually cleans up a field sb that there are few to pass the winter and attack the corn crop. When the pest shows up and injures the first planting, replant a couple of weeks later or until a stand is secured. Corn Bill-beetles ( Sphhenophorus aequalis and parvulus ). — These beetles have their mouth parts at the tip of a drawn-out 12 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 snout, as the name implies, and by means of the snout, the beetle is able to eat holes into the young corn plants thereby injuring or completely destroying the plants. Description. — There are two very common species of these beetles in the state, besides other less common ones. The one is grayish in color and from one-half to thee-fourths of an inch long, while the second is black and less than one-half the size of the other. They are oblong in shape and the body is very hard. When disturbed they feign death and drop from the plant. Life History. — The pest breeds largely in low pastures where- wild grasses and sedges abound. The grub stage of the pest feeds in the bulbs of such plants and when mature comes out and feeds on grasses and other crops. There is but one brood a year and the beetles appear about the time corn comes up. Injury— The injury to corn, wheat and similar crops is due to the feeding of the mature beetle. The mouth parts are at the tip of the bill and by eating holes into the developing stalk of corn the growing bud may be destroyed. Later, as the leaves expand where the plant is not completely destroyed the effects of the work of the beetles appear as rows of holes in the leaves. Remedies. — The injury from this pest is most effectually pre- vented by plowing infested fields in the summer or fall, thereby killing or driving out most of the beetles before the corn is planted the next spring. When they appear in a cornfield there is no way of destroying them except by hand picking. Chinch Bug ( Blissus leucopterus Say). — This pest is perhaps most destructive to the wheat crop, tho corn is seriously injured and the injury to grasses is also very considerable. The pest appears as a scourge more or less periodically. For a series of years there are few chinch bugs and no damage is done, but all of a sudden a visitation of the pest occurs and then for four or five years they may be abundant and destructive. Description. — The chinch bug is so well known that a descrip- tion of it is hardly necessary. The very young bugs are red but as they pass thru the different stages of development they turn dark. The mature winged bugs are black with whitish spots on the wings. They are about the length of a wheat grain. When crushed they give off the characteristic, penetrating bug odor. Life History. — In this state there are two generations each year. The pest winters in the mature winged stage in dead grass, under rubbish, and in other similar protected places. Early in the Insect Pests of Field Crops 13 Fig. 15. — Chinch-bug: a , Egg; b, c, d, e, four nymphal stages; f, mature chinch-bug; g, wheat plant showing a number of eggs natural size. (Original) 14 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 spring, the bugs fly in search of wheat and other crops, where their eggs are deposited. These hatch and the young bugs are nearly mature at wheat-cutting time, when they migrate to corn and other green crops. This generation is soon mature and the second crop of eggs is laid. These hatch and the second generation of bugs feed on the sap of corn and other green plants maturing before frost when they fly in search of winter quarters. Injury.— This pest injures the plant largely by piercing and extracting its sap, tho along with this it seems to inject a certain amount of poison somewhat similar to other sucking insects, as for example the mosquito. Early in the season the injury to wheat, due to the work of the millions of tiny bugs, begins to appear as a stunt- ing of its growth. Later the wheat turns yellow and may be com- pletely killed, tho more often it heads out and matures a small quantity of inferior grain. Where grass and clover seed is sown in wheat fields, the pest destroys the wheat and then turns to the grass, leaving the clover alone. After the summer migration the corn suffers most. The bugs may kill the first few rows of corn during the migration. After they get wings they fly all over the field and may seem to do no further injury, tho in fact they multiply one hundred fold and while their work is scattered, it is greatly increased and the damage is far greater than the farmer supposes. Legumes of all sorts are left strictly alone. Remedies. — There are various means of attacking this pest and each farmer should make use of the method which best suits his particular conditions. The most effective work can be done during the winter and just at the time the summer migration occurs. Between fall and early spring the winter-over bugs are all harboring in protected places. If these places are burned over or treated so as to kill or expose the bugs, the number of bugs can be so reduced that few will come out in the spring to start the trouble. In the summer, if the pest is prevented from migrating from wheat fields to corn or other crops by means of barriers, it can be starved out. The dust barriers are most practical during the dry weather but in case of rain a chemical barrier is necessary. The simplest dust barrier is made by plowing one or more parallel ditches and dragging a log or trough back and forth in the ditches so as to keep a fine mulch of dust in them and grind up the hordes of bugs as they fall into them. A plowed strip, which is carefully pulverized and kept stirred by means of a harrow or weighted Insect Pests of Field Crops 15 brush is also effective. The bugs migrate from about eight o’clock in the morning until sundown so the dust must be kept stirred dur- ing this time. The migration period seldom lasts more than two weeks. When it is not possible to maintain a dust barrier, some chem- ical repellant must be used. Several materials have been tested and of these coal-tar, heavy road oil, crude carbolic acid and cre- osote have proven most effective. Some one of these materials should be on hand or the grower should know where he can get them without delay. Before applying, first smooth down a narrow path with a hoe or shovel. Then run a narrow line of the mate- rial. By driving a nail thru the side of a powder can or other cheap pail the material can be easily and quickly distributed without w r aste. The line must be renewed to keep it fresh so that the bugs will not cross. Postholes dug every ten feet to trap the bugs, •«•:> they crawl along the barrier in search of a place to cross, are also helpful. Besides these two methods of attack the use of oil sprays where the bugs get over before the barriers are formed, and a dozen other simple treatments can be used to reduce their number. Keep cornfields as far from wheat fields as possible so as to prevent the summer migration. The fungus disease which attacks the pest and which was much exploited in former years has not been able recently to develop and help control the pest. The fungus spores are distributed in all fields and will sprout and develop when the weather conditions are entirely favorable, but not until then. Farmers must, there- fore, depend on their own efforts to check the pest and when weather conditions, over which they have no control, are right the disease will spring up and help destroy the pest. The past winter has been rather severe but there w'as an un- usually large supply of bugs which went into winter quarters and, where they w r ere not destroyed by burning over their harboring places, they have come out in countless swarms and much injury may be expected this summer. Corn Ear-worm ( Heliothis obsolcta Fab.). — For the last few years this pest has probably destroyed more corn in Missouri than any other single insect pest. It is a very general feeder and is not confined to corn tho that crop suffers most. Description. — Everyone is familiar with this caterpillar. Like the army worm, which it somewhat resembles, it varies in color but 16 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 is usually greenish or blackish with light stripes. The worm com- monly found in ears of corn, in green tomatoes, bean pods, etc., is the corn ear-worm. It is closely related to the cutworms but is seldom found feeding exposed. The parent moth is brownish, variegated with black, expands about an inch and a half and may be seen about flowers in the daytime, which is unusual of moths. Fig. 16 . — Corn Ear-worm: a, Moth; b, egg enlarged; c, larva; d, pupa in earthern cell; e, larva feeding on corn ear. (Orig- inal) Life History. — The pest winters underground as a brown pupa and in the spring the moth emerges. In Missouri there seem to be two generations before corn “shoots” and seemingly a number of summer and fall broods. This has not been carefully worked out but caterpillars in all stages are to be found until frost. The rest- ing or pupal period of a few days in the summer is passed in the ground where the full-fed caterpillar goes when it leaves the corn. Insect Pests of Field Crops 17 Injury. — The injury to corn is due to the fact that much corn is eaten and an entrance is provided for smuts and other plant diseases, some of which seem to be responsible for part of the stock poisoning where smutty corn is fed. The pest is always more troublesome when the summer is dry and is followed by a rainy fall. The last two years have been especially favorable for the pest and the injury has been unusually severe. The corn ear-worm is primarily a pest of field and sweet corn, but it may also do much damage to other crops, such as tomatoes, cotton, beans, cowpeas and may do considerable injury to young alfalfa in the fall. It feeds largely as a borer within the plant where it is difficult or impossible to reach it with poison. Remedy. — Since the pest winters as a pupa underground, win- ter plowing of infested fields will expose the pupae to the winter and few will live to give off moths in the spring. If it were pos- sible to winter plow all fields where the pest is wintering this alone would prove effective, but the pest is such a general feeder that it is not possible to reach all of them in this way. The parent moth lays its eggs largely on the corn silks. After hatching from the eggs the caterpillars must enter the corn-ear and it may be possible to devise some practical method of destroying the eggs or caterpillars before they enter the ears. This is being investigated at the Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, but as yet no treatment has been found which is both practical and effective. Army Worm ( Leucania unipuncta Haworth). — The army worm is discussed with the grass insect pests. Cutworms (Noctuidae ) . — The cutworms are discussed with the grass insect pests. INSECT PESTS OF WHEAT The greater part of the insect injury to wheat is due to the work of a half dozen insects, tho there are a great many of less importance. The insect injuries to wheat have been unusually great in recent years and in view of present demands and prices it is important that these pests be controlled. Hessian Fly ( Cecidomyia destructor Say). — This is perhaps the most destructive wheat pest in Missouri. Fortunately this pest confines its injury to the wheat crop. Description. — The Hessian fly gets its name from the fact that is supposed to have been brought into this country from Europe 18 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 Fig. 17. — Hessian Fly: a, Egg; b, larva; c, flaxseed; d, pupa; e, fly depositing eggs; f, female fly; g, male fly; h, flaxseed stage in wheat plant. (After U. S. Department of Agriculture) in straw by the Hessian soldiers. Farmers speak of it as the “fly" but very few of them have ever seen the pest in the mature fly stage. It is better known in the soft maggot stage or in the brown Insect Pests of Field Crops 19 flax-seed stage. These can be readily found in the base of injured plants. The fly itself resembles a small black mosquito somewhat and is not easily seen or caught in the field. The large long-legged crane-flies are often mistaken for the Hessian fly. Life History. — The development of the pest is greatly influ- enced both by temperature and moisture. Normally there are two broods a year in Missouri, one fall and one spring brood. Some years, however, there may be two or even three light supplemen- tary broods. Beginning with the fall brood, the flies begin to appear by the middle of September and but few continue to appear after the mid- dle of October in a normal fall. Each fly lives but a few days and each female lays one hundred or more eggs. On hatching, the maggot works down between the leaf and the stem of the young plant where it irritates the plant and feeds on the escaping sap. When full grown the maggot passes to the flax-seed stage which is merely the full-fed maggot protected by the maggot skin which turns brown. Early in the spring the maggot transforms to the resting stage within the brown case and later the winged fly escapes to lay egg's for the spring brood of maggots. These maggots mature and pass the summer largely in the stubble in the flax-seed stage and the adult flies from these are the ones which come out in the fall to lay the eggs for the fall brood of maggots. When the spring is unusually warm and moist a partial sec- ond brood may develop. In like manner when the fall is unusually rainy and warm, as in 1914, an additional partial fall brood may appear about the first of November. A partial summer brood may also develop. Injury. — The injury is done entirely by the maggot feeding in the base of the wheat plant. The hard, brown flax-seed stage, often called the “egg,” does not feed, neither does the winged fly. The fall injury may be so severe that the entire field turns yellow and dies tho more often “tillers” are formed to replace the injured cen- tral plant. The maggot does not eat the plant off but merely irritates the tender stem causing the sap to flow, which it uses for food. The spring injury, similar to the fall injury, causes the wheat to dwindle and turn yellow. The maggots feed higher up on the plant but are largely confined to the first two joints. The lodging of wheat is due to the fact that the maggot feeds at the joints and causes the stem to become brittle and deformed so that heavy winds cause it to bend or break after it heads. 20 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 Remedies. — There are two practicable methods of reaching this pest. After the wheat is cut the flax-seed stages are found in the stubble. If this stubble can be entirely destroyed, by plow- ing under thoroly, and cultivating the ground, few will survive to give off the flies in the fall. Then in the fall if it is possible to delay wheat sowing until all or nearly all the flies have come and gone the young wheat will come up and not be infested. The eggs are laid on the leaves of the wheat and if the seed wheat is still in the granary when the flies are out on wing in search of young wheat the wheat crop will be protected from the pest. For north Missou- ri wheat should not be sown before the first of October, for central Missouri the tenth of October and for southern Missouri the fif- teenth to the twentieth of October. Where wheat is sown according to these directions, there may be some infested wheat, especially if the season is a little late and the flies continue to emerge late, but the main injury will be avoided. By combining the work of destruction of stubble as soon as the wheat is off the field and the destruction of all volunteer wheat by cultivation with the sowing of wheat on the fly-free date, the pest can be effectively kept under control in any community, if all will cooperate in the work. Cooperation is essential and wheat should never be sown early for pasture in a community where the fly is bad and a campaign is being waged for its control. Volunteer wheat is just as bad as early sown wheat so keep it down and never sow a strip as a trap crop. It is unnecessary and dangerous, to say the least, when for one reason or other it cannot or is not plowed under before the main crop is sown. Wheat Joint-worm ( Isosoma tritici Fitch). — The joint-worm is fully as destructive as the Hessian fly in some places in the state. Description. — The parent of the joint-worm is a small, dark, wasp-like insect with four wings, somewhat resembling a small winged ant. The farmer is not familiar with the adult but has probably seen the gnarled or otherwise deformed places on wheat straws which are brittle and often break into pieces in the thresher and come out with the wheat. This injury is done by the grub stage of the pest. By opening these bits of deformed wheat straw the small white grubs will be found inside. Life History. — The joint-worm has one brood a year. The winter is passed in the stubble and straw and in the spring the adults emerge and deposit their eggs in the wheat near the nodes, where the grubs feed. Insect Pests of Field Crops 21 Injury. — The injury is something similar to that caused by the spring brood of the Hessian fly. The pest saps and kills the plant or weakens the straw, causing lodging. Joint-worm injury is often mistaken for fly work. Remedies.— The joint-worms are not difficult to control as a rule. By using up the infested straw and completely destroying all infested stubble before spring and rotating the wheat to other fields, this pest can be controlled. Fig. 18. — Wheat Joint- Worm showing injured straw with openings thru which the adults have emerged. a, Adult. (Original) Fig. 19. — Grain Plant-louse, on head of wheat enlarged. (After Weed) Grain Lice ( Macrosiphum granaria Bucton and Toxoptera grarn- inum Rond.) — There are two forms of green lice which have been known to do damage to wheat in Missouri. The common form is present every year but only occasionally does damage. The other form is known as the spring grain louse or “green-bug” and has vis- ited Missouri but once in recent years and then in very destructive numbers. Description. — These lice resemble the other green plant lice and will be found either on the wheat heads or on the leaves suck- ing the sap from the plants. 22 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 Life History. — The common form may winter on wheat in Mis- souri but the second form seems to winter in the southern states and migrates north in the spring. During the summer they repro- duce rapidly and when not checked by natural enemies often over- run the wheat and related crops. Injury. — The common form when destructive at all will be found covering the wheat heads when the grain is “in the milk.” few days of heavy feeding at that time will decrease the yield. The spring grain louse is destructive earlier in the spring when the wheat is yet small. When it gets an early start in the southern states and the northern spring is backward, the grain louse, which breeds freely in cool weather, migrates north and being unchecked by lady beetles and other natural enemies it is able to destroy much wheat. Remedies. — There is seldom any need of applying remedies for these pests. Only under exceptional conditions do their natur- al enemies, lady beetles, parasitic wasps, syrphid flies and aphis lions, fail to control them. Wheat Midge ( Diplosis tritici Kby.). — This is a close relative of the Hessian fly, but, unlike it, developes in the heads of the wheat, feeding on the soft developing grain. Description. — The injury is done by the small yellow or orange maggot, which is often called the “red-weevil,” when it is carried to the stack and comes out of the thresher with the grain. It is about the size of the maggot of the Hessian fly and the adult fly resembles the Hessian fly in general appearance. Life History. — There is seemingly but one brood a year. The pest winters in the ground in the pupa stage and the flies emerge to lay eggs in early summer. Before the grains become hard the maggots are full fed and most of them are washed to the ground by the rain. They enter the ground and prepare a cell in which to pass the winter. Injury. — This pest has not as yet attracted special attention in Missouri, tho it has already crossed the Mississippi River. The injury is done directly to the soft, developing grains. The maggot works on these and feeds on the escaping milky juice. This reduces both the quality and quantity of grain. In the last fifty years the pest has not been as destructive in this country as formerly. Remedies. — This pest is readily controlled by crop rotation and by deeply plowing infested fields in the fall and winter. Fall Army Worm ( Laphygtna frugipcrda S. and A.). — The pest Insect Pests of Field Crops 23 is somewhat similar to the army worm proper, tho its habits are different and it appears as a pest at a different season of the year. Description. — The parent insect is a dark, night-flying moth similar to the parent of cutworms but the farmer is more familiar with the caterpillar. The caterpillar somewhat resembles the gen- Fig. 20. — Fall Army Worm: a, Moth; b. caterpillar feeding on wheat; c, pupa; d, moth with wings closed as in rest Fig. 21. — Wheat-Head Army Worm: a, Larvae feeding; b, eggs in leaf sheath ; c, d, eggs much en- larged ; adult moth at top. (After Smith) uine army worm and the corn ear-worm in general markings, tho a careful examination will reveal differences. It is not quite as large as the army worm. Life History. — The pest winters just below the surface of the 24 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 ground as the pupa and the moths emerge in the spring. There are two summer broods in Missouri, which do slight injury, and the fall brood, which is often very destructive. The caterpillars of the fall brood enter the ground and pupate in the late fall. Injury. — The year 1911 was the real fall army worm year in Missouri. From a careful study of the work and distribution of the pest that year, it was found to be quite generally distributed over the state and damaged wheat, rye, clover, and alfalfa most. It com- pletely stripped thousands of acres of early sown wheat and rye that year and truly assumed the role of an important pest. The heaviest feeding was done before the middle of October, tho some were at work until frost. Like the army worm they literally de- voured everything green, eating wheat down to the ground, killing most of it outright. Remedies. — By discing infested fields late in the fall or early in the spring many of the pupae can be destroyed. When the cater- pillars are feeding us the bran mash recommended for the cut- worms and army worm. A weighted brush or roller will also help some. Wheat-head Army Worm ( Meliana albilinea Hbn.). — This pest has not done much damage in Missouri in recent years tho it has been destructive in Iowa. Description. — The parent moth is about the size of the moth of the real army worm but is of a pale yellow or straw-color. It flies only at night. The caterpillar varies in color, as is the case with other related caterpillars, but in general appearance it resembles the cutworms and army worms. Its peculiar habit of attacking timothy and wheat heads at once distinguishes it from them however. Life History. — The moths appear and lay eggs early in May. The caterpillers feed on the blades until the grains are “in the milk,” when they attack the wheat heads and first attract atten- tion. When these are full-grown they enter the ground to pupate and the moths begin to emerge the middle of July. These lay for the second brood of caterpillars which feed on grasses and other green crops in the fall. These pupate in the soil and pass the winter there. There are two generations a year. Injury. — The pest was formerly known as a pest of wheat but in recent years has proven to be a severe pest of timothy in Iowa. It attacks the blades of wheat and grasses when small and later, when half-grown, attacks the heads. Remedies.— F all plowing in September to destroy the fall Insect Pests of Field Crops 25 brood of worms or winter plowing to destroy the pupa seems to be effective where this pest causes trouble. The poison bran mash will also help. Army Worm. — Discussed with insect pests of grasses. INSECT PESTS OF LEGUMES Fortunately, the legumes are comparatively free from destruc- tive insect pests. There are a few forms, however, which need attention. Clover Leaf-weevil ( Phytonomus punctatus Fabr.). — This is most troublesome on red clover and alfalfa early in the spring. Fig. 22. — Clover Leaf -weevil: a, Mature beetle; b, grub; c, pupa; d, cocoon; e, clover plant show- ing pest at work. (Original) Its close relative the alfalfa weevil, which has recently been intro- duced in Utah, is a most destructive pest of alfalfa and we may some day have it to deal with in Missouri. Description. — The adult weevil is about the size of a large pea, slightly oblong, brownish in color and like most weevils or snout beetles, feigns death when disturbed. The grub, which does most of the injury, is about one-half inch long when mature, green or yellowish-green with a white line down its back. It has no true legs, tho it climbs readily, and when disturbed coils up. Life History. — It winters largely in the young grub stage, tho occasionally as the adult. The grubs begin to feed early in the 26 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 spring. They eat round holes thru the leaves and when mature spin frail lace-like cocoons at the base of the plant in which they pupate. The beetles emerge later and in the fall deposit eggs which produce the winter-over grubs. Injury. — ’Where the pest is abundant it may completely strip clover and alfalfa early in the spring seriously injuring the crop. It is seldom of importance on young clover and alfalfa. As the season advances the injury is less noticed. Remedies. — Remedies are seldom necessary for this pest. By following a careful system of crop rotation, which prevents the keeping of clover on the same land too long, the pest can be kept under control. The pest is also susceptible to a fungus disease which greatly reduces the number of grubs when warm weather arrives. Webworm ( Loxostege similalis Gn.). — This was formerly call- ed the garden webworm but in recent years the term “alfalfa web- worm” would describe it much better. Description. — The caterpillar is about an inch long when full- grown, slender, very active and yellowish green in color with rows of small black spots or tubercles. It spins considerable silk, tying* the leaves and stems together in which protected place it feeds. The moth expands a little more than half an inch, is light brown variegated with darker and lighter spots and patches. Life History. — The life cycle of the pest has not been com- pletely worked out. It probably passes the winter in the cater- pillar or pupa stage and the moths emerge in the early spring to lay eggs for the first brood of caterpillars. In 1914 these began to appear, feeding on weeds, about the last of June in central Mis- souri and were nearly full-grown by the fifteenth of July. During the summer and fall the pest requires about four weeks to mature so that there are probably four generations each year. Injury. — The injury is done by the caterpillar, which when abundant completely webs up and devours all the foliage on alfalfa, clover, and other field and garden crops. The pest was unusually destructive to young alfalfa during the summer and fall of 1914. Remedies. — Winter plowing and burning of weeds and other rubbish in infested fields will help control the pest. When the pest appears in an alfalfa field the crop should be cut at once so as to starve out the caterpillars. The use of a weighted brush, roller or disc on infested fields will also help to destroy the pest. The pest is likely to reappear again a second year where conditions Insect Pests of Field Crops 27 are favorable, but if the first broods are controlled the later injury will be avoided. Clover-hay Worm ( Hypsopygia costalis Fab.). — This is large- ly a pest of clover hay in the stack and to a less degree in the mow, tho it has done some injury to growing clover in Missouri where the crop was unusually heavy on the ground. Description. — The pest is a small, active, reddish-brown cater- pillar which when full-grown is nearly an inch long. It is usually found associated with silk which it spins in the clover hay. The small moth expands nearly an inch and its wings are tinged with purple and marked with golden blotches. Life History. — The full-fed caterpillers pass the winter, pupate, and the moths begin to emerge in June. In two months the moths of the second brood begin to emerge and the caterpillars which hatch from their eggs are full-fed before winter. Injury.— This pest does not actually eat a great deal of the clover hay but it webs up the hay so that stock will not feed on it. Fig. 23. — Webworm: a, Moth; b, caterpillar: c, pupa; d, cocoon; e, portion of alfalfa plant attacked by the caterpillar. (Original) 28 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 Clover hay is most severely attacked where it is carried over a sec- ond year. Remedies. — The pest can be prevented from injuring hay if all the hay is fed out in the spring before the new hay is brought in. When the clover hay is stacked in the field, it should be kept off the ground so that it will remain dry. It has also been found that half a gallon of salt to a ton of clover hay will help to keep the pest out of it. worm. Clover-Seed Pests, — There are three insects which attack the clover seed. One is a gnat, the clover seed midge ; one a wasp, the clover seed calcid ; and one a caterpillar, the clover seed caterpillar. Where clover seed is grown extensively these pests may prove to be of very great importance by reducing the yield. In each case the young active feeding stage, maggot, grub and caterpillar, devours the seed or eats out the interior. The pests are exceedingly small and few growers are likely to see them, tho their effects are noted when the seed is threshed. Remedies. — Where one or more of these pests are abundant Insect Pests of Field Crops 29 and destructive, cut the first, the hay crop, a little early. This de- stroys the infested blossoms before the young pests are full-fed and it brings out the blossoms of the seed crop earlier so as to escape the next brood of the pest. Corn Ear-worm. — This has been discussed with the insect pests of corn. It is also a pest of legumes boring into the pods of cow- peas and other legumes, and at times it may feed on alfalfa. Fall Army Worm. — For a full discussion of this pest see insect pests of wheat. It often does much damage to young clover, and alfalfa in the fall and may, therefore, be a severe pest of legumes. Army Worm. — This pest ordinarily does not do much damage to legumes, but in some parts of the state in 1914 it completely strip- ped fields of alfalfa and clover. It will be discussed with the insect pests of grasses. INSECT PESTS OF GRASSES Many of the insects already discussed as pests of other crops may also attack grasses. In some cases they are pests of other crops only when infested sod is plowed under and those crops fol- low. This is true of white grubs, wireworms, cutworms, “bill- bugs,^ ” etc. The pests to be discussed here may also do much dam- age to other crops. Army Worm ( Leucania unipuncta Haworth). — This pest is more or less injurious in some parts of the state every few years, but seldom appears as a general scourge over the state. In 1914 it was unusually abundant and its destructive work was the great- est on record, with the possible exception of the outbreak in the early sixties. Destructive colonies of the caterpillars appeared over practically all of the farming sections of the state. Description. — The army worm is more slender than the cut- worms and far more active but in general appearance resembles the common cutworms. It varies in color but is marked with light and dark stripes which run lengthwise of the body. When full-grown it is nearly two inches long. The parent moth expands nearly two inches, is light brown in color with a single white spot in the center of each front wing. It flies at night and feeds on fruit juices and other liquids. Life History. — The pest seems to winter in different stages, tho largely perhaps as the moth or young caterpillar. The first brood, which begins to attract attention late in May. is the only one which does damage, tho it is claimed there are two later broods in 30 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 the summer and fall. The pest breeds very largely in meadows and pastures and, when not too abundant and dry weather does not set in, no migration occurs, but when food is scarce the caterpillars migrate. When the caterpillars are full fed they pupate in the ground or under rubbish. The moths appear in perfect swarnis by the middle of July and after a few days their numbers decrease, eithe" due to migration or normal mortality. In 1914 no further Fig. 25. — Army Worm: a. Moth; b, two eggs much enlarged, c, eggs on blade of grass; d, pupa; e, caterpillar or army worm; f, injured corn plant with army worms feeding injury was done by the pest during the summer, tho just before frost the moths were again quite numerous. Injury. — This pest is not a very general feeder. It depends largely on grass-like crops, truck crops, and occasionally legumes. The injury is done by the innumerable swarms of caterpillars which devour every oalatable thing in their reach. Wheat is largely headed and the injury to it is less than to grasses, oats, corn, and other immature crops. The pest breeds largely in meadows, and bluegrass pastures and injury to cultivated crops never occurs Insect Pests of Field Crops 31 until the grass is consumed and the immature caterpillars are forced to migrate. In 1914 the injury to grass and cultivated crops was enormous. Remedies. — In the control of this pest the farmer must be on his guard and ready to act promptly when the time comes. The caterpillars will be found working in meadows and pastures for about two weeks before migration begins. They hide during the day and begin active feeding just before sundown. The young caterpillars can be effectively and economically controlled by sow- Fig. 26. — Bluegrass pasture completely stripped of every blade of grass by the army worm ing broadcast poison bran mash made by mixing fifty pounds of bran, two pounds of Paris green, four quarts of sorghum and enough water to make a mash. Some recommend the addition of six lemons cut fine as a further appetizer. Before migration begins a weighted brush, drag, or roller will help reduce their numbers. After the migration begins, barriers are practical. These may consist of a furrow in which a log or trough is kept going, a deep ditch with postholes, greased railroad railings, greased planks on fence, a strip of bran mash, a strip of grass sprayed with poison and 32 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 other similar treatments. The furrow and log or trough is prac- tical and economical and during the outbreak of 1914 proved very effective. If the pest gets a start in a cultivated crop throw up' one or more barriers in advance of them and also maintain a bar- rier at the edge of the field where they continue to enter. While man is doing all he can to check these unnatural out- breaks he should not lose sight of the good work of his numerous friends, consisting of large and small ground beetles and their slender black grubs, parasitic wasps and flies, blood-sucking bugs,, birds, toads and other insectivorous animals. These, under normal conditions, keep down most of the pests of crops without man’s- help, and when man is obliged to lend a hand to save his crop, he should do so promptly and ungrudingly. Fig. 27. — Ditch barrier used in protecting wheat fields from the migrating army worms Cutworms (Noctuidae ) . — There are a great many species of cutworms but as their life habits and work are similar they will be considered as a single pest. They attack various crops but their work is most noticeable where corn follows infested sod plowed in the spring. Description. — The injury is done by the caterpillar and most farmers are familiar with the smooth dull-colored cutworms. They vary in size and color markings and when found their bodies are usually tightly stuffed with food and curled up. The parent moths vary even more than the caterpillar in size and general appearance. Insect Pests of Field Crops 33 Fig. 28. — Variegated Cutworm: a, Moth; b, cutworm feeding; c, cutworm in curled position; d, dorsal view of cutworm; e, egg en- larged; f, egg mass on twig. (From Howard, U. S. Dept, of Agri- culture) Fig. 29. — Greasy Cutworm back and side view enlarged. (After Forbes) Fig. 30. — Greasy Cutworm; adult moth natural size. (After Forbes) Fig. 31. — Red-legged Grasshopper; natural size. (After Forbes) 34 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 They fly at night and are usually dull-colored and expand from about an inch to an inch and a half. Life History. — The life cycle of the different species varies. They may pass the winter as the caterpillar, pupa, or adult moth. The caterpillars are most abundant and destructive in the spring. These are usually full-fed by summer and the moths emerge to lay eggs for the next brood. There is usually only one generation a year in Missouri. Injury. — After the cutworms are half-grown they are voracious feeders. They often cut off all the young corn, making it neces- sary for the farmer to replant. One caterpillar may cut off many plants and usually eats but a small portion of each plant. They feed at night and hide under clods or in the ground during the day. Remedies. — As a prevention, plan rotation so that hill crops will not follow sod, or if this is not possible, plow sod in the fall. As a direct remedy use poison bran mash. This can be sown broad- cast or distributed in patches or along a line, so that the cut- worms find it. It should be distributed late in the evening or dur- ing the night. Fig. 32. — Differential grasshopper natural size. (From Forbes) Grasshoppers ( Melanophas femur-rubrum and differ entialis ) . — The grasshoppers are pests of cultivated crops only when they migrate from meadows or pastures in the summer or fall. Description. — There are two forms which do most damage in Missouri. The one is the small very active red-legged grasshopper, and the other is the larger, heavier so-called “differential grass- hopper.” The large bird grasshopper seldom does much injury. Life History. — Normally these grasshoppers winter in the egg stage in packets underground, tho some eggs may hatch in the fall and the young hoppers live thru mild winters and be ready to feed in the spring. There is only one generation each year, the young hoppers maturing in the fall to lay eggs for the next year’s crop. Insect Pests of Field Crops 35 Injury. — Grasses and grass-like crops are the normal food of these pests and so long as the supply lasts they are not apt to mi- grate. When necessary they may feed on the foliage of corn, wheat, oats, legumes, truck crops, and fruit trees. On corn they eat off the soft parts of blades and ears weakening the plants and injuring the yield. Remedies. — In Missouri the grasshoppers are not likely ever to become a general scourge tho each year they do considerable dam- age. If it should ever be necessary, a systematic campaign to de- stroy the eggs in the fall by discing and plowing will control the pest. This together with poison bait early in the summer is the best means of keeping the pest under control. The “Criddle mix- ture” is made by mixing together a barrel of fresh horse manure, one pound of salt and one pound of Paris green. This is then sown broadcast over the infested fields in strips. The bran mash, however, is better than the “Criddle Mixture.” Grass Leaf-hoppers (Jassidae) . — There are a great many spe- cies of these small sap-sucking insects. Some of them may be quite destructive to wheat, rye, legumes and other crops as well as to grasses. They vary in size and color, tho most of them are of the same general wedge-shape. They are very active and, as the name implies, hop readily. They are not related to the grasshop- pers however. Life History. — But little is known of their development and life cycle, tho many are known to winter in rubbish, which makes it possible to reach them with winter burning of rubbish, dead grass, and other materials in which they may be harboring. Pas- turing, dragging, rolling, and discing of infested crops where pos- sible will also help to aggravate and drive out the pest. Better and more effective remedies are needed to control these. INSECT PESTS OF STORED GRAINS AND SEEDS There are two groups of insects which affect stored products, moths and beetles. In the first case the caterpillar does the in- jury while in the second case both the grub and the parent beetle may feed. All pests of . stored grain are commonly spoken of as grain “weevils.” Beetles. — In this state we have more or less trouble with the small, brown “saw-toothed grain-beetle” ( Silvanis surinamensis ) , the small, brown snout beetle or “granary weevil” ( Calandria granaria), and the “Cadelle” ( Tenebroides mauritanicus) , a flat 36 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 * Fig. 33. — Grain Weevil: a, Larva; b, pupa; c, adult all much enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept, of Agri- culture) Fig. 34. — Angoumois Grain Moth: a, Larva; b, pupa; c, adult moth; d, wings; e, egg; f, larva in grain. Fig- ures all enlarged except f. (After Howard, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture) Fig. 35. — Angoumois Grain Moth showing work of pest on ear of corn. (After Riley) beetle whose grub is milky white and when full-fed nearly an inch long. These beetles may all be found feeding in the same bin. Besides these there are also the bean and pea weevils (Bruchus) . Insect Pests of Field Crops 37 The bean and cowpea weevils continue to breed and feed in storage while the garden-pea weevil does not. Moths. — In this state the most important forms attacking grain are the small grayish “Angoumois grain moth” ( Sitotroga cerealella) and the slightly larger “Indian meal-moth” ( Plodia in- terpunctella) , tho in mills the “Mediterranean flour moth” ( Ephes - tia kuehniella) and the “meal snout-moth” ( Pyralis farinalis ) may do much damage. The caterpillar of the first moth bores into the grain while the caterpillar of the second spins some silk and feeds more on the surface, eating out the germ of the seed, especially wheat. The caterpillars of the last two moths ruin much grain and milling products besides clogging pipes with their silk webs. Remedies. — Fumigation is most effective for all these stored grain and seed pests. Carbon bi-sulphide is to be preferred where it can be placed in shallow vessels on the top of the infested grain so that its fumes, which are heavier than air, may pass down thru the grain reaching and destroying the pests. The eggs may not always be destroyed and a second fumigation may be necessary. From one to five pounds of carbon bi-sulphide are necessary for 1000 cubic feet of space, depending upon temperature and freedom of the bins from cracks. Where the granary or mill can be closed tightly hydrocyanic acid gas may be used. This gas is a deadly poison and must be used with care. In some cases heat can be used in mills and ele- vators in preference to gas. Insects cannot long survive when they are subjected to a temperature of about 120° F. INSECT PESTS OF COTTON Cotton growing is restricted to a few of the southern counties of the state and fortunately cotton there is not severely injured by many insects. The “cotton boll-weevil” has not yet reached that region and probably never will. The common pests such as grubs, cutworms, etc., which attack the crop can be controlled as describ- ed for other crops. Cotton Worm ( Alabama argillacea Hbn.). — This pest is more or less destructive every year in the cotton belt of the south and often the moths migrate northward when Missouri’s cotton crop suffers. During the northward migration of the moths they at- tack ripening fruit doing much damage to it. Description. The parent is olive brown with a purplish lustre and expands nearly one and one-half inches. Date in the fall these 38 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 170 Fig. 36. — Cotton Worm: a, Moth; b, larva; c, pupa; d, pupa in rolled leaf; e, injured cotton plant moths are attracted to lights along with the army worm moth. The stripped caterpillar is slender, very active and moves about by looping like a measuring worm. Life History. — In the south the moths pass the winter in pro- tected places and during the summer there are a number of genera- Insect Pests of Field Crops 39 tions. In this state most of their injury is done after August. The full-fed caterpillars pupate in a frail cocoon made by tying together a leaf with a few silk threads. Injury. — The caterpillars seem to feed entirely on cotton and when abundant may completely strip it of its foliage, greatly re- ducing its yield. They also attack the squares and blossoms. Remedies. — The pest can be controlled by use of arsenicals and when it begins to attack cotton arsenicals should be applied promptly. Cotton Boll-worm, ( Heliothis obsolcta Fab.). — This caterpillar is the same one which has already been discussed as the “corn ear- worm.” It is very destructive to cotton some seasons, and, as in case of corn, the pest is difficult to control. Winter plowing of in- fested fields, the use of arsenicals when the caterpillars are boring into the bolls and the use of corn as a trap crop seem to be the most practical methods of reaching the pest and protecting cotton from it. UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 171 AGRICULTURAL LIME / ; Ftg. 1. — A lime spreader at work COLUMBIA, MISSOURI JUNE, 1920 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL THE CURATORS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY C. B. ROLLINS, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Columbia Kansas City JOHN H. BRADLEY, Kennett ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D„ LL. D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF April, 1920 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, A. M. Emory M. Roller AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING E. H. Lehmann, B. S. in A. E. Mack M. Jones ANIMAL HUSBANDRY F. B. Mumford, M. S. E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. A. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. Ray E. Miller, B. S. in Agr. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. J. H. LonGwell, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. E. Maneval, Ph. D. W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale, B. S. in Agr. A. C. Dahlberg, M. S. W. W. Swett, A. M. Percy Werner, Jr., A. M. W. H. E. Reed, B. S. in Agr. C. W. Turner, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D E. M. McDonald, B. S C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. R. M. Green, B. S. in Agr. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. D. Hooker, Ph. D. H. F. Major, B. S. ‘ A. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. H. H. G. SwartwouT, B. S. in Agr. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L. Kempster, B. S. G. W. Hervey, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. R. R. Hudelson, A. M. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connoway, D. V. M., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crisler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, B. S. in Agr. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer J. G. Babb, A. M., Secretary E. H. Hughes, A. M., Asst, to Dean O. W. Weaver, B. S., Agricultural Editor George Reeder, Director Weather Bureau Miss Bertha Hite , 1 Seed Testing Laboratory J. F. Barham, Photographer *In service of U. S Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Lime M. F. Miller and H. H. Krusekopf Many Missouri soils are strikingly in need of lime. This has been shown by chemical tests and by field experiments. The removal of lime from the soil with the resulting development of acidity or sourness takes place sooner or later in all soils of the humid region which are sub- jected to constant cropping. This is because crops remove considerable quantities of lime and because there is always some loss thru the drainage water. In the eastern states liming has been practiced almost since the beginning of agriculture in that region. This has been due partly to the fact that many eastern soils were originally poorly sup- plied with lime and partly to the more intensive agriculture practiced. The soils of the corn belt were originally rather well supplied with lime, altho in recent years they have begun to show a need of it. As a result, liming is extending westward and it is now more or less common in all the corn-belt states. The extent of the interest in liming among Mis- souri farmers is shown by the number of inquiries which are being received by the Experiment Station. MISSOURI SOILS NEEDING LIME- The soil analyses which have been made at the Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station are not sufficient in number to make possible an accurate statement of the needs of all soil types in the state, but a suf- ficient amount of data is available to show that large areas of soil need liming. Of the total number of samples examined, representing in all 160 soil types, approximately two-thirds have shown some need of lime. This need varies from insignificant quantities, to five or six tons of ground limestone to the acre, considering the surface seven inches of soil as the basis for comparison. Approximately one-fourth of the samples have shown a lime need of two tons or more in this surface soil-layer. No very accurate statement can be made as to the lands needing lime most, since this varies materially in the same soil type. In general, how- ever the level prairies of northeast and southwest Missouri commonly need lime. Considerable areas of the rolling prairies in both north and south Missouri also need it, as well as much of the older farmed timoer lands. Many of the better limestone lands of the state need little lime, altho the poorer limestone lands often need it badly. The fact that a soil is derived from limestone does not necessarily mean that the surface soil or the upper subsoil is sufficiently supplied with lime, since it may have been removed almost entirely since the soil’s formation. Many farmers believe that bottom land soils are usually sour, but such is not necessarily the case. As a matter of fact the best bottom lands, par- ticularly the newer bottoms, subject to occasional overflow, rarely need lime. Bottom and second bottom soils of a gray color, especially where *A revision of Bulletin 146. 4 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 171 underlaid by a light gray layer just beneath the soil, practically always need lime. The rough to rolling brown loess soil (Knox and Memphis silt loams) bordering the bottom lands of the Missouri and Mis- sissippi rivers and found in largest aieas from the center of the state to the northwest corner needs little lime, especially in the western half. The foregoing statements are necessarily general. They do not apply to all soils in the regions mentioned but to the more important ones. A careful test is the only means of determining with a certainty a soil’s need of lime. It can be said with a reasonable degree of confidence, however, that where red clover grows well, little or no lime is needed. On the other hand, red clover failures are not always due to a sour soil. Poor drainage, a lack of fertility, unfavorable weather conditions or the lack of organic matter and available phosphates may cause a failure or a poor growth of clover even where a soil has sufficient lime. As a rule, liming is beneficial to clover where it is failing on well-drained land and it may sometimes almost insure a stand, altho manuring or the use of phosphates may often be necessary in addition. There is a general belief among farmers that the presence of red sorrel (rumex acetosella) indi- cates soil acidity. This plant thrives on a sour soil and often, where it has once been seeded on land which is very sour, it will grow luxuriantly, excluding more desirable plants. Patches of this plant are more or less common in all parts of Missouri but these usually come from the seed introduced with red clover and they may occur on any soil. It is only where this plant predominates to the exclusion of other plants, that soil acidity is indicated by its presence. TESTS FOR SOIL ACIDITY. Simple tests for soil acidity are often inaccurate or otherwise un- satisfactory. What is known as the muriatic- or hydrochloric-acid test is of considerable value. This test is made as follows: Take a small quantity (an ounce or two) of strong hydrochloric acid (sometimes called muriatic acid) and dilute with an equal amount of water. Take a handful of the soil to be tested, preferably wet and worked into a mud ball, and add a drop of this weakened acid. If an unmistakable and distinct bub- bling takes place, the soil is practically certain to need no lime; the more pronounced the bubbling, the more certain it is that no lime is needed. If no distinct bubbling takes place the soil either contains very small amounts of carbonate (the lime compound which keeps soils sweet) or it is in need of lime. While it may contain too small a quantity of lime carbonate to give an unmistakable showing, it may still contain enough that the soil is not markedly sour. Hence this test gives a conclu- sive result only when the soil contains considerable lime carbonate. The litmus-paper test, of which so much is said, is fairly satisfac- tory in the hands of one who has had experience with it, but it is very likely to give the wrong impression to one who is using it for the first time. The test is based on the fact that the chemically prepared paper, known as blue litmus paper, turns pink in contact with acid. The prin- cipal difficulty in using it is in knowing just what shade of pink really indicates soil acidity. The paper will lose its blue color even in a neutral Agricultural Lime 5 soil and turn a purplish color which may be mistaken for the proper pink color. Again, the length of time the paper is in contact with the soil influences the color. The paper should turn a distinct pink within ten minutes if the soil is very acid. The College of Agriculture has prepared a sheet of directions for the purpose of assisting farmers in making this test and this will be sent on application. A rather simple chemical test, known as the Truog test, has come into use recently, which farmers may use with a fair degree of satisfaction if they will supply themselves with the necessary apparatus and materials. The method is being used at the Experiment Station with good results. The standard chemical test known as the Veitch test is the one used in most laboratories. The Experiment Station is now making considerable numbers of the Veitch and Truog tests for farmers where the soil samples are carefully taken. A sheet giving directions for taking samples for such tests will be sent on application to the College of Agriculture. THE PURPOSE OF LIMING The primary purpose of liming is to supply sufficient lime for crop needs and to neutralize soil acidity. Certain crops require more lime than they are able to secure from a soil which is acid and which is, therefore, deficient in lime. Furthermore most of the important types of soil bacteria are injured by soil acidity. Consequently a very acid soil should be limed for best results. Among other effects of lime might be mentioned its action in making clay soils more friable. The ground limestone acts rather slowly in this respect, however, and it must be supplied in rather large quantities for a marked physical effect. Burned lime has the effect of increasing the amounts of available plant food in the soil, altho the effect of ground limestone in this respect is not so marked. Lime can scarcely be classed as a fertilizer in the common use of the term since a fertilizer is a substance added to the soil solely for supplying needed plant food. The action of lime is usually not so im- mediate as that of a fertilizer, and as it is applied in considerable quan- tities its effect extends over a longer period. Where the soil needs lime badly, however, and where a liberal application is given, the effect on such crops as clover and alfalfa may be immediate and very striking. THE RESPONSE OF DIFFERENT CROPS TO LIMING Considerable experimental work has been done at experiment stations 1 in determining the response of various crops to liming. The results se- cured are naturally influenced by the amount of lime needed by the soil, as well as by other factors, so that the evidence is rather conflicting in the case of certain crops. There is, however, a striking agreement in the case of some crops and a rather general agreement in the case of others. Among the legume crops, which respond best to liming, are al- 1 Hartwell, B. L. and Damon, S. C. The Comparative Effect on Different Kinds of Plants of Liming an Acid Soil. R. I. Exp. Sta. Bui. 160. Mooers, C. A. Liming fcr Tennessee Soils. Tenn. Exp. Sta. Bui. 97. 6 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 171 falfa, sweet clover and the common clovers. Canada field peas, gar- den peas and soybeans usually give a fair response. Alsike clover will do better than red clover on poor or wet land and an impression has spread among the farmers that it will do better than red clover on acid soil. The indications are, however, that it will respond to liming almost as well as red clover on either drained or undrained land which is very acid, altho it is probably not quite so susceptible to acidity as red clover. Alfalfa and sweet clover give the best response of any of the common leg- umes. They require much lime for their growth. Among the legumes which usually are little benefited by liming are Japanese clover, beans, cowpeas and peanuts. The common non-legumes which are more or less benefited by lim- FiG. 2. — Alfalfa on the Carthage experiment field. Two and one-fourth tons of ground limestone increased the yield of alfalfa on this field 3307 pounds per acre, as an average of two years’ cuttings. ing are corn, wheat, timothy, orchard grass, Kentucky blue grass and sorghum. Those giving little or no response to lime are rye, oats, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, cotton, strawberries and red top grass. Lime has been found directly injurious to watermelons. The foregoing statements have to do with the direct effect of lime upon the various crops. It must be understood, however, that crops which may give little or no direct response to liming may be greatly bene- fited thru growing clover or other legumes on land which is too acid to grow these legumes without lime. The results obtained by the use of lime on the various outlying soil experiment fields of the Experiment Station give an idea of the results to be expected from the use of lime in Missouri. These experiments have been in progress for a number of years and many of the important soil types in the state have been included. While the fields commonly rep- resent medium to poor lands, which in most cases are somewhat more in need of lime than are the better lands of the state, the average results give a good idea of what may be expected. The following table shows the aver- Agricultural Lime 7 age returns which have been secured on the crops commonly grown in these experiments. The increases given are the averages of all the trials for the various crops. The lime used has always been in the form of ground limestone. This has been applied at somewhat different rates, the first application usually being from one to two tons, followed by a second application of approximately one ton after six years of cropping. The average application during the twelve years included in these averages has been approximately three tons per acre or one ton per rotation of four years. The cost of the lime has varied, rarely reaching four dollars per ton applied to the land; but this figure has been used in the calcula- tions since at present prices it can usually be applied at a cost not ex- ceeding this amount. Fig. 3. — Clover on the Vandalia experiment field. A stand of clover secured by- liming, on the northeast Missouri level prairie. It will be noticed that the plots which received no lime (shown behind the man in the picture) have practically no clover. Effect of Limestone on Crop Yields and Net Returns Average from all Experiment Fields , 1907-19 Crop Average increase per acre due to limestone Value of increase per acre Annual cost of treatment per acre Annual net return per acre Corn 3.06 bu. $3.06 $1.00 $2.06 Oats —1.20 bu. —.78 1.00 —1.78 Wheat 1.13 bu. 2.26 1.00 1.26 Clover 443 lbs. 5.54 1.00 4.54 Soybeans 167 lbs. 2.08 1.00 1.08 Total return from one ton of limestone during rotation of corn, oats, wheat, clover — $ 10 . 08 . Net return (charging for limestone at the rate of $1 an acre a year or $ 4.00 a ton) — $ 6 . 08 . 8 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 171 Total return from one ton of limestone during rotation of corn, soy- beans, wheat, clover — $ 12 . 94 . Net return (charging for limestone at the rate of $1 an acre a year or $ 4.00 a ton) $ 8 . 94 . Crop values used are as follows: Corn $1, oats 65 cents, wheat $ 2 , clover $25 and soybeans $ 25 . Experiments in liming alfalfa have been carried on as a part of a series of cooperative experiments with farmers for a number of years, and in addition certain trials have been made on some of the regular out- lying experiment fields. These have been reported in previous publica- tions 1 from this station. While some of these experiments have given no return from liming, some have given very striking returns. Fig. 4. — This farmer limed a strip across the field and afterward sowed the field to clover. The lesult was excellent clover on the limed strip and little or none elsewhere. It will be seen from what has been said that lime cannot be used as a fertilizer is used, in small quantities or even in large quantities, and a remunerative return expected on the first crop of wheat, oats or corn, altho large returns may sometimes be secured on the first crop of clover or alfalfa. The effect of liming is rather that of a general soil improving agency for most crops, which raises the general level of yields. Its prin- cipal function is that of supplying lime and of sweetening a sour soil so that the very important soil building legumes may be more satisfactorily 1 Miller, M. F. and Hutchison, C. B. Cooperative Experiments with Alfalfa. Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bulletin 106. Hutchison, C. B. and Douglas, T. R. Experiments with Farm Crops in’ Southwest Mis- souri. Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bulletin 123. Agricultural Lime 9 produced. Liming may well be compared to drainage, in being one of the fundamental methods of soil improvement which, on sour soils, should precede fertilization and other methods of increasing yields. FORMS OF LIME There are three lime compounds which may be used for agricultural purposes. These are the lime oxide, commonly called burned lime or lump lime; the lime hydrate, usually called water-slaked lime; and the lime carbonate, such as ground limestone or old air slaked lime. The lumo lime which is commonly sold in barrels in this state cannot be ap- Fig. 5. — Young clover on the Hurdland soil experiment field. The plot shown above received no lime; the one shown below received ground limestone at the rate of 8000 pounds per acre or enough to sweeten the surface seven inches of soil. Otherwise these plots were treated exactly the same. 10 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 171 plied in this form without slaking. In the eastern states where lump lime is much used, it is often piled in the fields, covered with earth and allowed to slake by absorbing moisture from the earth or from tains, after which it is scattered and worked into the soil. In this slaked form the lime is largely in the form of the hydrate of lime. In some localities the lump lime is ground to about the fineness of corn meal, then scat- tered and worked into the soil, where it is allowed to slake. There is difficulty in handling it, however, because of its caustic nature and the danger of air-slaking during shipping. It must also be scattered some- time before a crop is put in because of the danger of injuring the seed. Water-slaked lime or lime hydrate is being sold, to a certain extent, for agricultural purposes. It is put out in bags by certain lime companies in a form convenient for distribution. Like the ground lump lime, water slaked lime should not be used in large quantities at the time of put- ting in the crop as it is somewhat caustic, altho much less so than the lump lime. The lime carbonate, represented on the market principally as ground limestone, is the most common form of agricultural lime in Missouri. It is being put out by a number of companies and is being ground to various degrees of fineness. This form of lime has no caustic properties and may be applied at any time. Old air-slaked lime is practically all lime carbo- nate and has therefore approximately the same composition as ground limestone. Fresh air-slaked lime contains large quantities of lime hy- drate, since it has taken up moisture from the air in slaking. Air-slaked lime from the kilns may contain considerable quantities of lump lime, cinders or trash and must usually be sifted if it is to be scattered with a lime distributor. The kind of lime to use should be determined almost entirely on the basis of the amount of active lime (calcium oxide) one can buy for a dollar. In order to determine this it should be remembered that approximately 2000 pounds of finely ground limestone, or old air-slaked lime, is required to equal 1100 pounds of lump lime, or 1500 pounds of fresh water-slaked lime, where all are made from a good quality of high calcium limestone. With a delivered price on each, one can figure the cheapest form in terms of active lime when hauled and spread. It will be found that in most localities, excepting those within wagon haul of a lime kiln, the ground limestone will be the cheapest form to apply. In buying such a stone it is always well to get a definite statement from the company as to the per- cent of carbonate it contains, since this varies considerably with dif- ferent quarries. Moreover, an analysis of the face rock of a quarry does not always show the composition of the ground limestone produced. This is due to the fact that the different ledges in a quarry will often vary in composition, and to the further fact that beds of flint or chert fre- quently occur which are not considered in the analysis of the quarry rock but which may be mixed with it in quarrying, thus giving the crushed stone a much lower content of carbonates than the limestone itself. Agricultural Lime 11 FINENESS OF GRINDING LIMESTONE There is considerable difference of opinion regarding the fineness to which limestone should be ground. The basis for comparison is that of the fineness of the sieve thru which it passes. For instance, a large part of the limestone on the market is ground fine enough to pass a ten-mesh sieve; that is, a sieve with ten holes to the linear inch or one hundred to the square inch. Some of the coarser of these commercial grades will pass a four-mesh sieve only, while some of the finer grades will pass a hundred-mesh sieve. The few experiments which have been made comparing limestone pul- verized to different degrees of fineness show that it is the fine dust which gives most immediate results in sweetening the soil. There is of course some immediate effect of the coarser material but this is slight. It has been shown also that the finer the material the more rapid is its loss from the soil, other things being equal. This fact is of importance in determin- ing the lasting effect of the limestone. From the experimental evidence at hand the indications are that it is fairly safe to estimate the proportion of limestone which passes the forty-mesh sieve as representing the approximate amount which is active in the soil the first year. The per cent of the different sized particles in ground limestone varies considerably. Sieve analysis indicates, however, that a product all of which will pass a ten-mesh sieve usually contains from 60 to 70 per cent passing a forty-mesh sieve. A ground limestone which is so coarse that it passes but a four-mesh sieve usually contains from 40 to 50 per cent that will pass a forty-mesh sieve; thus it would contain much less immediately active material than the ten-mesh stone. A number of companies are putting out an eight-mesh material. This being only slightly coarser than the ten-mesh stone, is quite satis- factory for agricultural use. All things considered it seems that the best stone to use is one ground fine enough to pass an eight-mesh or a ten-mesh sieve. However, where coarser material can be obtained at low cost, it may pay to use it, pro- vided larger amounts are applied so as to supply about the same amount of fine dust as when eight or ten-mesh material is used. This question must be decided, therefore, upon the relative costs of the different grades of mate- rial. It would rarely be wise to consider coarser material than that pass- ing a four-mesh sieve. COST OF LIMESTONE The price at which ground limestone is sold at the different commer- cial crushers in Missouri varies from $1 to $5 a ton. The material varies both in purity and fineness of grinding. The lower price named, in most cases, is for the product from crushing plants which crush rock for con- crete and road building purposes and sell the finer material for agricultural use. This product is usually the screenings which pass a four- or eight- mesh sieve. The higher price mentioned is for stone of a good grade which has been pulverized to a flour, in some cases all of it passing a 100- mesh sieve. Recently, some crushing companies have adopted the plan of quoting 12 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 171 prices on their product according to its degree of fineness and purity. In general, ground limestone all of which will pass an eight- or ten-mesh sieve and of satisfactory purity for agricultural use can be purchased in carload lots for $1.50 to $2.50 a ton, f. o. b. cars at crusher. Where limestone can be shipped direct to the user over one road, the freight rates are reasonable, so that the material can be shipped a con- siderable distance without excessive cost. However, when it is necessary to ship over two railroads, each road has a minimum charge, thus making the freight rather high, even for short hauls. SMALL GRINDERS FOR HOME GRINDING OF LIMESTONE Farmers remote from the railroad or from a satisfactory lime supply will doubtless find it more economical to grind their own limestone where a good rock is available. 1 Various companies are now putting small porta- Fig. 6. — A portable limestone grinder in operation. ble limestone grinders on the market. The cost of these grinders depends principally upon their size, but those suitable for the use of individual farmers, or groups of farmers cooperating in grinding stone, will cost from $500 to $2,400. Such grinders have a capacity of from one to five tons an hour, depending upon the size of the machine, the kind and dryness of the rock and the fineness of grinding. A fair size for community work is a machine having a capacity of two. or three tons an hour, costing $1,200 to $1,500 and requiring a twenty to twenty-five horse power engine. The cheaper machines mentioned are mostly single action pulverizers. They are being used with satisfaction. 1 Those interested in grinding limestone should write the College of Agriculture with reference to having the quality of the stone tested before preparing to grind. Agricultural Lime 13 In selecting a grinder care should be taken to see that it will handle pieces of stone at least four inches in thickness. Some grinders will not handle rock which has not first been crushed by another machine or broken by hand. The best of these large-size, portable machines will take in stone measuring from four to six inches thick and eight to twelve inches wide. In estimating the cost of grinding limestone on the farm, the interest and depreciation on the outfit, the labor, fuel, oil, repairs and the cost of quarrying the stone must be considered. While the cost of quarrying varies widely under different conditions it seems that seventy-five cents a ton is about the average cost for this work. The cost of grinding varies in most cases from $1 to $2 a ton. In some localities a man owning a portable crusher goes from farm to farm and does grinding for farmers who have previously quarried the stone. The charge for this grinding, exclusive of quarrying, varies from $1 to $2 a ton. A group of farmers cooperating in buying a grinder with a capacity of two to three tons an hour might rea- sonably expect to get the stone quarried and ground to an eight- or ten- mesh fineness at a -cost varying from $2 to $2.25 a ton where the crew is efficient. It is not unusual, however, to have the cost exceed this amount. So much depends upon the accessibility and ease of quarrying the stone, the cost of power and the efficiency of the crew that the price is certain to vary widely under varying conditions. The limestone is often found in deep valleys, or rough country, so that hauling the stone becomes an im- portant item. A mistake is often made in not providing enough power for efficient grinding, which greatly increases the cost to the ton. It must be remembered too that the rock must be comparatively dry to grind readily and this often necessitates loss of time when the quarried stone is wet or covered with snow. An investigation has been made of the cost of producing ground lime- stone among the men who have used these portable crushers in this and other states. While the estimates vary widely, a fair average of the costs of the separate items, under what might be termed favorable conditions and efficient management, would be as follows: Cost for 20 tons Cost per ton QUARRYING STONE (20 tons)— (Drilling, shooting and sledging stone to proper size for crushing ing) 3 men, 1 day @ $5 $15.00 $0.75 GRINDING (20 tons) — Engineer and 25 H. P. Engine, 1 day @ $12 (including fuel and oil) 12.00 .60 One foreman, 1 day @ $4 4.00 .20 Two helpers, 1 day @ $3 6.00 .30 CHARGE FOR CRUSHER— (Based on crusher of 20 tons a day capacity, approximate present value $1,400) (a) 10% annual depreciation in value $140.00 (b) 5% annually for replacing worn parts 70.00 (c) 7% annual interest on investment 98.00 Total annual charge $308.00 Estimated annual run in average community, 60 days at 20 tons a day 1200 tons Charge for use of crusher on the basis of these estimates 5.00 .25 Total cost $42.00 $2.10 14 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 171 It will be noticed that labor for quarrying has been charged at $5 a day. This may seem too high. However, if three men quarry and prepare twenty tons of stone for the crusher daily for any length of time, they will need to be experienced and efficient in this work. Perhaps cheaper labor can be secured but in most cases the total cost of quarrying and preparing stone for the crusher will amount to seventy-five cents a ton. The charge for the use of the crusher is based on a $1,400 cru§her used for a 60-day, 1200-ton annual run. Should the annual tonnage vary, the depreciation in value and cost of replacing wearing parts would vary ac- cordingly without appreciably affecting the charge per ton. Whether it will be cheaper to grind the limestone in the neighborhood or buy it and ship it in, will depend upon the delivered price at the station, the length of the haul, the quality and accessibility of the limestone in the community and the cost of grinding. It would seem from the information available at this time that, generally speaking, the local grinding of stone will be limited to those communities in which good stone is readily ac- cessible and which are located at such a distance from the railroad that the cost of hauling becomes excessive. AMOUNT OF LIME TO USE The amount of lime to use depends primarily on the deficiency of lime in the soil and the kind of lime. As ground limestone is almost invariably the cheapest form to apply in Missouri, recommendations are usually based upon this material. The determinations which have been made as to the amount of ground limestone required for the surface seven inches of an acre of the various soils of Missouri show a variation from nothing up to five or six tons. A few have shown even higher lime requirements. These determinations are based on the surface seven inches of an acre because it is in this layer that plant roots and beneficial bacteria are most active. As a general rule it can be said that applications of one to two and one-half tons of a good grade of ground limestone would be likely to give good results. The amount to apply depends not only upon the lime need of the soil but also upon its fertility. Crops grown on fertile soils do not seem to be injured so much by lack of lime as when grown on poorer soils. Since lime is being continually removed from the soil it is necessary to lime at more or less regular intervals . Applications of one to one and a half tons of ground limestone once in four to six years would be considered reasonable rates on soils showing a need for lime seriously to affect the growth of clover. On very acid soils larger amounts may often be applied with profit. It is commonly recommended to make the first application heavier than the succeeding ones. An acidity test of the soil should be made and the need for lime determined before undertaking the matter of liming. 1 METHODS OF APPLICATION Lime should be applied on plowed land and worked into the surface three to five inches of soil with disk and harrow. It may be plowed under, J The College of Agriculture will give such assistance as is possible in determining the- acidity of soils. Agricultural Lime 15 particularly where the land is disked before plowing, but for most satis- factory results the lime should be well mixed with soil. Top dressing is recommended only in the case of permanent pastures or meadows in which case the loose, porous nature of the sod allows the lime to wash into the soil much better than on other lands. The fall season is usually the best time of year to apply lime since the roads are generally best at that time and the soil is not likely to be wet. There is also more leisure of men and teams at that season. Where wheat is grown, lime can well be applied on land prepared for this crop. Little return must be expected on the wheat but the clover crop following should be greatly benefited, assuming of course that the soil needs liming, that it is sufficiently fertile to grow clover and that it is well drained. It may be applied, however, at any time when the land is being prepared for a crop. If the land is plowed and then leveled by a disk or drag harrow before scattering the lime, the working in of the lime may serve as the final preparation of the seed bed. Lime is most readily applied with a lime spreader, several kinds of which are now on the market. 1 These spreaders broadcast a strip from six to ten feet wide depending on the size, and the spreading is done evenly. They may be hitched behind the wagon and the lime shoveled into the hop- per from the wagon box or they may be filled at intervals and handled as a drill. As this is an implement which is used but a very few days during the year it is best for several farmers in a neighborhood to buy one in co- operation. A manure spreader may be used for spreading lime by throwing some manure or dirt in the bottom or by tacking canvas over the apron to pre- vent the lime sifting thru. The apron must be run slowly in order to pre- vent too heavy spreading. The spreader may be set for a given number of loads per acre and the amount of lime for each load regulated accord- ingly. Endgate seeders are sometimes used, but they are not very satis- factory, particularly if the lime is fine and dry. A fertilizer attachment on a grain drill may be used for applying lime- stone but unless the amount to be applied to the acre is small, this method is slow. Few drills will handle more than 800 pounds to the acre so that the ground must be gone over more than once. Some drills having larger capacities have been placed on the market recently but where much lime is required a lime spreader is to be preferred. The drill has the advantage of drilling the limestone into the soil but further mixing is necessary if the work is properly done. It is possible to build homemade spreaders at a moderate expense. All that is necessary is a good-sized hopper mounted on substantial wheels with a shaft passing lengthwise thru the hopper. This shaft should bear agitators which stir the lime out of holes in the hopper bottom. The rate of spreading can be regulated with a slide which opens or closes the holes. It has been found that the work of practically all lime spreaders is in- fluenced by the wetness of the limestone. It is often very difficult to spread wet stone. Where farmers grind their own stone it is usually found advantageous to spread the limestone as fast as it is ground and not allow 1 Lists of companies handling ground limestone and lime spreaders will be furnished on application to the College of Agriculture. 16 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 171 it to get wet before spreading. Limestone which is shipped in is best han- dled in closed box cars and it should be spread as the car is unloaded. If possible the work should be arranged so that two or more teams haul while one spreads the limestone in the field. Lime may be scattered by hand satisfactorily if the area to be covered is small, but for large areas hand scattering is too expensive. It may be scattered with a shovel from a wagon if the limestone is not too fine and dry. It may be hauled to the field, dumped in piles then scattered from the ground. Piles of two hundred pounds approximately fifty feet apart each way, will give about two tons per acre. MISSOURI LIMESTONE SUITABLE FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES The increasing interest shown in the grinding of limestone for agri- cultural purposes, particularly by individual farmers and groups of farm- ers, makes it important that information be supplied as to the location in Missouri of suitable limestone outcrops. There is no doubt that the grind- ing of limestone is to become a very important industry. Missouri contains great deposits of high grade limestone which lend themselves ideally to grinding. The wide range of geological formations which have the proper chemical composition for making agricultural lime affords an inexhaustible supply of raw material so situated as to be avail- able for economic production. There are few counties in Missouri which are entirely lacking in limestone formations, altho many of the rock strata in the southern part of the state are not well suited for development. Mis- souri is the largest producer of lime among the states west of the Missis- sippi river, and the state is excelled in lime production by only five others. This large production indicates the possibilities in supplying ground lime- stone, for in general, limestone which is suited for the making of lime for the trades is also adapted for use in agriculture. The quality of limestone varies both chemically and physically, within wide limits. Consequently only those limestones should be used which are relatively pure carbonate. It is the lime and magnesium carbonates which possess the alkaline properties for neutralizing the soil acids. The impure limestones contain more or less material other than carbonates, such as iron compounds, silica and clay. These impurities when present in suffi- cient amounts give rise to cherty or flinty limestones, to argillaceous or clayey limestone, and others, depending on the amount and character of the impurity present. The composition which a limestone should have for making good ground limestone for agricultural purposes, depends somewhat on con- ditions, but in general it may be stated that more than ten per cent of im- purity is objectionable, except in special cases. The greater the proportion of impurity, the greater is the amount of stone required in order to pro- duce a given amount of calcium and magnesium carbonate. Thus, a ton of pure limestone will produce one ton of carbonate, but to produce a like amount from a stone only 80 per cent pure, would require the pulverizing of one and one-fourth tons of the material. The greater cost of quarrying, grinding, hauling and applying the impure stone is at once apparent. In Agricultural Lime 17 those regions where only the relatively impure limestones are available, however, their use even at the increased cost of handling may be more economical than the use of the higher grade material which must be shipped in at a considerable cost in freight. This is a matter which must be determined locally. High-grade stone contains 95 per cent or more of calcium carbonate, or its equivalent in combined calcium and magnesium carbonates; medium grade contains 85 to 95 per cent; low grade 75 to 85 per cent and inferior grade under 75 per cent. Fig. 7. — Face of quarry in Burlington limestone showing characteristic lenses and nodules of chert. This impurity should be discarded when limestone is used for agricultural lime. A large amount of limestone in Missouri is of high grade, and con- sidered from an agricultural viewpoint, it constitutes one of the most valuable resources of the state. While most limestones contain the car- bonate largely in the form of calcium carbonate, which is usually con- sidered the most desirable form for agricultural purposes, many of them contain greater or less quantities of magnesium carbonate also. The rocks 18 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 171 now being ground for agricultural purposes in Missouri are almost entirely high calcium stones but as shown in the accompanying map a large part of the limestones of south Missouri are high in magnesium. So far as soil sweetening is concerned, the magnesium carbonate is not objectionable 1 and limestones may contain almost one-half the carbonate in the form of magnesium carbonate, as in the case of the true dolomites, and still be ground for agricultural purposes. The application of very large quanti- ties (five tons or more) of magnesium carbonate is not considered desir- able on most soils, however, so that the high calcium stones are generally preferred, except on soils which are naturally low in magnesium. Fig. 8. — Map of Missouri showing the areas underlain by high calcium and by mag- nesian limestone. The white area shown in the central part of the state contains some -thin beds of limestone which occasionally outcrop along the streams. (From State Geologi- cal Map, published by H. A. Buehler, State Geologist, Rolla, Missouri.) As far as its physical properties are concerned, any kind of limestone is suitable •for agricultural lime. Fine-grained, dense stone is as valuable as the coarsely crystalline stone, provided the purity is the same. Evidently one of the first points to be considered in the manufacture of ground lime- 1 Chemically considered, magnesium carbonate is slightly more effective than calcium carbonate as a neutralizing agent, one part of magnesium carbonate being equivalent to one and nineteen hundredths parts of calcium carbonate. One hundred pounds of stone con- taining sixty-five per cent calcium carbonate and thirty per cent magnesium carbonate with five per cent impurity would actually have a neutralizing power equal to one hundred pounds of pure calcium carbonate. If it contained less than 5 per cent of impurity its neu- tralizing power would equal more than one hundred pounds of pure calcium carbonate. Agricultural Lime 19 stone is the selection and opening of a suitable deposit. It should be ascertained that the quality is reasonably uniform thruout the deposit and that a sufficient quantity of stone is above drainage level, so that the quarry floor will not be continually under water. Transportation facilities and other details of similar importance should be carefully considered. The various limestone formations occurring in this state differ widely in chemical composition and physical characteristics. Their value, how- ever, depends not only upon their chemical composition, but upon their thickness, location, the quantity of stripping necessary and their general accessibility. In the succeeding paragraphs is given a general description of the major groups of limestones occurring in Missouri, which are suitable for agricultural purposes. No attempt is made to describe each forma- tion occurring in the several groups, and only such characteristics are given as will assist in determining the general utility of the strata under con- sideration. For a detailed report on the limestone resources of Missouri the reader is referred to Volume II, Second Series, of the publications of the Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines, Rolla, Missouri. Figure 8 shows the general distribution of the major groups of lime- stone formation suitable for the manufacture of agricultural lime. LIMESTONE OF NORTHWEST MISSOURI THE UPPER COAE MEASURES The Upper Coal Measures (Missourian) of the Pennsylvanian series contain very large quantities of high grade limestone. This formation underlies the greater part of northwest Missouri, including all the territory west of a line drawn from near the central part of Cass County to the northwest corner of Mercer County. The strata composing it have a total thickness of more than twelve hundred feet, and consist of interstratified limestone and shale, with occasional beds of sandstone. The beds of the former vary in thickness from a few inches to fifteen or twenty feet, with occasional beds of greater thickness. In general, the thicker beds under- lie the shale and sandstone and are most exposed in Jackson, Platte, Clay, Buchanan, Clinton, Caldwell, Daviess, and Mercer counties. Only a few of the more important and thicker beds have been named. Of these, the most widely exposed is known as the Bethany Falls limestone. It can be traced from Cass County north to the Iowa line. It is rather pure and well suited for group limestone. The Iola, Dennis and Mound Valley lime- stones, exposed in Jackson County, and numerous other limestone ledges outcropping thruout the northwestern part of the state, have sufficient thickness, as well as the correct composition, for use in the manufacture of agricultural lime. More than one hundred limestone quarries are found in the region of the Upper Coal Measures in northwest Missouri. The greater proportion of these are producing stone of such purity that it would be well adapted for agricultural lime. The thick deposits of glacial drift and loess occurring in this region often make good stone inaccessible. In general, it is in the bluffs bordering the larger stream valleys and the Missouri river in the southern part of the Upper Coal Measure area, that the limestone ledges are exposed. 20 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 171 Where no bluffs occur, the necessity of removing (stripping) the thick beds of soil overlying the limestone adds so much to the cost of quarrying usually to make it impracticable. LOWER COAL MEASURES The region occupied by the Lower Coal Measures is a rather irregular belt of varying width, extending from Jasper County in a northeasterly direction to the Iowa state line. It consists mainly of shale and sandstone with comparatively thin and unimportant interstratified beds of limestone. The latter are rarely exposed and with few exceptions are too thin and impure to warrant exploitation. LIMESTONES OF SOUTHWEST, CENTRAL AND NORTHEAST MISSOURI The most extensive and by far the most important region of high grade limestone in Missouri extends from the southwestern part of the state in a northeasterly direction to the Missouri river, where it turns east- ward and finally spreads out covering the eastern portion of the state both north and south of the river. (See Fig. 8). The several formations occur- ring in this region consist mainly of limestone and are known as the Mis- sissippian series. A small disconnected area occurs along the eastern edge of St. Genevieve and Perry counties. The Mississippian limestone is mostly high calcium stone and is the most suitable for the manufacture of ground limestone to be found in the state . Much opportunity exists for developing local crushing plants. The most important formation of this series is known as the Burling- ton limestone. It has a maximum thickness of 350 feet and is the surface rock over the greater part of the area occupied by the Mississippian series. It is identified by its coarsely crystalline and fossiliferous texture and white to buff color. Varying amounts of chert (often incorrectly called flint, which is black) occur thruout the formation, either in layers or scat- tered thru the rock, but when quarried this is easily separated from the limestone. This stone is exceptionally free from impurities, and the ledges which are quarried contain from 90 to 99.5 per cent of calcium carbonate. 1 Excepting in portions of northeast Missouri, this limestone is usually cov- ered with a slight amount of stripping and can be quarried with compara- tive ease. The St. Louis limestone has its maximum development in St. Louis County, but it also occurs in the northeastern part of the state and in St. Genevieve County. The formation consists of thin to heavily bedded, fine grained, white to gray-colored limestone. The content of calcium car- bonate varies from 70 to 95 per cent, which would indicate that much of this formation is suitable for use in the preparation of ground limestone. Several other formations of the Mississippian series, such as the Chou- teau and Louisiana limestones consist dominately of calcium carbonate, but on account of their limited distribution, and because they are generally associated with the Burlington limestone, they are of comparatively little 1 Buehler, H. A. Lime and Cement Resources. Missouri Geological Survey, Vol. VI. Second Series, pp. 233-239. Agricultural Lime 21 importance. For the most part these formations outcrop in the eastern part of the state and along the Missouri river between Warren and Cooper counties. On account of their varying thickness and irregular distribution their fitness for utilization must be determined locally. Thruout the region .of occurrence of the Mississippian limestones, out- crops of ledge rock are numerous, and as a rule are accessible and easily quarried. In fact, in the more broken parts of this region there is hardly a square mile of territory that does not have ledges of stone that could be utilized for manufacturing agricultural lime. Even the development of the many quarries, now used for the production of coarse building stone, could be made to produce an unlimited supply of crushed limestone. Large quarries are located in Lincoln, Greene and Jasper counties, but possibili- ties for similar development are found thruout the belt of Mississippian rock. LIMESTONES OF SOUTHEAST MISSOURI The relatively pure limestones of the extreme eastern part of the state south of St. Louis County can supply an unlimited amount of ma- terial for ground limestone. They belong to a wide range of geologic ages — Cambrian to Pennsylvanian — and embrace strata that are especially well suited for the production of agricultural lime. Their total thickness is several hundred feet, and they are therefore present in sufficient quan- tity, wherever they occur, to warrant working. Moreover, the prevailing hilly topography in the region of these rocks provides extremely favorable conditions for the location of quarries. These formations lie along the eastern edge of the Ozark region ex- tending from the Missouri river, in the western pact of St. Louis County, southward to the lowlands of Cape Girardeau County. The majority of outcrops occur in the eastern third of the counties bordering the Missis- sippi river. These same formations also are exposed in the eastern parts of Lincoln, Pike and Ralls counties in the northeastern part of the state, and the southern parts of St. Charles and Warren counties. In color the limestones vary from gray to blue, and in texture from coarse grained to fine grained. Probably the most important formations of this region are the Kimmswick and Plattin formerly called the Trenton limestone. They vary from coarsely crystalline to fine grained, while oc- casional beds contain chert nodules. The purity of the formations and the thickness of the exposed ledges fit them for the manufacture of ground limestone. They are extensively quarried in St. Louis, St. Genevieve and Cape Girardeau counties for the manufacture of lime and building stone. Fhe Spergen limestone, of remarkable purity occurs in St. Genevieve County and outcrops at various places in the river bluffs. To the west of the river counties, in St. Francois, Madison and Washington counties, ex- tensive beds of dolmitic limestone of Cambrian age occur. The most im- portant of these is the Bonne Terre, a rather pure magnesium limestone, between 500 and 600 feet thick in places. It contains no chert, and is well suited for agricultural lime. The chat of the lead mines is largely from this formation. In general, the southeastern part of the state contains inex- haustible beds of high-grade limestone, easily accessible for quarrying and well suited to the manufacture of ground limestone. 22 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 171 Location and Composition op Some Missouri Limestones County City Geol. Horizon Calcium Carbon- ate Magne- sium Carbon*- ate Location Andrew Amazonia Upper coal measures 84.11 8.74 Lower bed in Atwood quarry Bates Worland Lower coal measures 89.45 0.27 Heavy bed opposite K. C. S. depot Benton Warsaw Jefferson City 47.01 38.86 Cotton Rock Boone Roeheport Burlington 97.60 0.75 Buchanan St. Joe Upper coal measure 95.11 1.59 17 foot ledge, St. Joe, north of city Caldwell Preeken- ridge Bethany Falls 94.60 0.31 Complete ledge Breckenridge Stone Co. Cape Gir. Cape Gir. Kirr.mswick 99.52 0.50 Cape Lime and Marble Co. Cass Greenwood Bethany Falls 94.69 0.61 Ledge south of city Christian Republic Burlington 99.07 .05 Rogers White Lime Co. Clinton Platts- burg Upper coal measures 89.30 1.30 Plattsburg limestone, south of city. Cole Jefferson City Jefferson City 41.84 37.44 Cooper Chouteau 96.38 0.76 Lower beds at Chouteau Springs Crawford Cambro Ordovician 95.23 1.31 Marble Daviess Jameson Bethany Falls 84.00 6.93 A. B. George Quarry Douglass Ava Cambro Ordovician 53.76 44.69 One-half mile east of city Franklin Port Royal Kimmswick 98.50 0.50 Greene Phenix Burlington 99.06 0.58 Phoenix Stone & Lime Co. Harrison Bethany Bethany Falls 94.64 0.35 Ledge exposed just west of city. Howard Glasgow Lower coal measures 93.02 0.50 From ledge in rail- road cut north of city Iron Jackson Independ- ence Cambro Ordovician Iola 89.07 97.42 3.75 0.52 K. C. Portland Cement Co. Jasper Carthage Burlington 98.57 0.65 Carthage Marble & White Lime Co. Jefferson Byers Station Kimmswick 97.70 0.51 Union Sand and Material Co. Lafayette Lexington Lower coal measures 86.38 0.15 Ledge below coal one mile west of city Lawrence Pierce City Burlington 99.28 0.16 Pierce City Lime. Co. McDonald Noel Burlington 94.54 1.32 Hughes Stone Co. quarry above lower bed Marion Hannibal Burlington 98.87 0.62 Hannibal Lime Co. Mercer Princeton Bethany Falls 93.40 0.94 T. W. Ballew, quarry lower ledge. Newton Grand Falls Burlington 98.18 0.65 Nodaway Skidmore Upper coal measures 71.59 0.36 Ledge one-half mile west of city. Perr> Wittenburg Mississippian 95.36 2.85 Four miles south of city Pettis Sedalia Chouteau 49.21 31.57 Rymer Bros. Quarry Pike Louisiana Burlington 97.80 0.47 Marble Head Lime Co. Platte Weston Upper coal measures 87.86 4.82 18 foot ledge Ralls Ilasco Burlington 97.99 0.42 Agricultural Lime 23 Location and Composition op Some Missouri Limestones County City Geol. Horizon Calcium Carbon- ate Magne- sium Carbon- ate Location St. Clair Osceola Burlington 98.59 0.09 Hallewell Cement Co. St. Francois Desloge Cambrian 55.41 39.54 Ste. Ste. Genevieve Lime Ste. Genevieve Genevieve Spergen Hill 98.80 0.53 & Quarry Co. Glencoe Lime & St. Louis St. Louis Kimmswick 98.96 0.52 Cement Co. White Ledge, Stolle St. Louis St. Louis St. Louis 96.09 0.90 Stone Co. One-half mile north- Saline Gilliam Burlington 98.67 0.04 west of city Eldorado Vernon Springs Burlington 94.54 0.65 Two miles N. W. of city Cambro Washington Ordovician 53.50 42.30 Upper Worth Denver coal measures 96.16 0.49 Ledge south of mill. Cambro Wright Ordovician 53.72 40.97 From Table No. XVII, page 233-239 ‘ Lime and Cement” Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines Vol. 6, second series. LIMESTONES OF THE OZARK REGION The limestones of the Ozark region are almost entire magnesian stones, the amount of magnesium carbonate varying from a few per cent to as high as forty per cent. They are available at almost any place along the streams or by stripping the overlying material which varies in thickness according to the region. In most places away from the streams the covering is too thick to warrant stripping. The varying composition of closely associated beds makes it impossible to state the value of these stones for agricultural purposes, without an examination of the individual ledges. A source of limestone which might be utilized are the large piles of chat at the lead and zinc mines. Analyses show them to vary in composi- tion from less than ten per cent to more than eighty-five per cent carbonate so that an analysis is always necessary to determine the value of individual chat piles. SUMMARY 1. Approximately two-thirds of the samples of Missouri soils exam- ined have shown a need of lime. About one-fourth of these have shown a lime need of two tons or over in the acre seven inches. 2. The satisfactory production of red clover or alfalfa may be taken as an indication that a soil is in no serious need of lime, altho not all clover or alfalfa failures are due to a lack of lime in the soil. 3. The kind of lime to apply depends principally upon the cost. In determining this matter it must be remembered that it is the applied cost per unit of calcium (CaO) applied that is the important consideration. As a rule in Missouri ground limestone is the cheapest form to apply. 24 Missouri Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 171 4. Limestone can be ground by portable grinders at a moderate cost. In regions so far removed from the railroad that the cost of hauling be- comes excessive, this means of securing ground limestone is often eco- nomical. 5. The finer a limestone is ground the more active it is in the soil, but since the cost increases with the fineness of grinding, a fineness that will allow the material to pass an eight-mesh or a ten-mesh sieve may be considered a good grade. The coarser the material the larger the ap- plication required for immediate results. 6. The amount of limestone to apply depends primarily upon the needs of the soil and crop and upon the quality and fineness of the stone, but the usual application is from one and one-half to two and one-half tons to the acre. Applications of one to one and a half tons of a good grade of stone once in four to six years would be considered reasonable, on soils showing enough acidity to affect seriously the growth of clover. 7. Lime is best applied with a lime spreader on land plowed for a crop, allowing the preparation of the seed bed to work it thoroly into the surface four or five inches. It may be plowed under if it is disked into the surface soil before plowing. 8. Missouri has much limestone suitable for agricultural purposes. The most extensive region of high-grade, high calcium stone extends from southwest Missouri in a northeasterly direction to the Missouri river, spreading out and covering the eastern part of the state both north and south. The Ozark limestones contain much magnesium and while thes are not usually considered quite so desirable as the high calcium stones they are very satisfactory for agricultural purposes. UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 172 WORK AND PROGRESS OF THE Agricultural Experiment Station For the year July 1, 1918, to June 30, 1919 Average results of 25 years’ cropping on Missouri experiment station field. From left to right the treatments are: corn continuously, no treatment; corn, oats, wheat, clover rotation, no treatment; corn, oats, wheat, clover rotation, manure. COLUMBIA, MISSOURI JUNE, 1920 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF. AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL. THE CURATORS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY SAM SPARROW, Chairman, C. B. ROLLINS, Kansas City Columbia JOHN H. BRADLEY, Kennett ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D.. LL. D„ PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF* AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R Moulton, Ph. D., Professor L. D. Haigh, Ph. D., Assistant Professor T. H. Hopper, M. S., Assistant W. S. Ritchie, A. M., Assistant E. R. Vanatta, B. S. A., Assistant AGRICULTURAL engineering E. w. Lehmann, E. E-, B. S. in A. E-, Professor ANIMAL HUSBANDRY E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. A., Professor F. B. Mumford, M. S., Professor L. A. Weaver, B. S. A.. Professor J. H. Longwell, B. S. A., Assistant BOTANY W. E. Maneval, Ph. D., Professor DAIRY HUSBANDRY 'A. C. Ragsdale, B. S. A., Professor W. W. SwETT, A. M., Assistant Professor Percy Werner, Jr., A. M., Assistant ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D., Professor K. C. Sullivan, B. S. A., Assistant Pro- fessor FARM CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D., Professor C. A. Helm, A. M., Assistant Professor E. M. McDonald, B. S. A., Assistant Pro- fessor L. J. Stadler, A. M., Assistant FARM MANAGEMENT O. R. Johnson, A. M., Professor R. M. Green, B. S. A., Assistant Professor FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E., Professor *As of June, 1919. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A., Professor H. D. Hooker, Ph. D., Assistant Professor H. F. Major, B. S. A., Assistant Professor J. T. Rosa Jr,, M. S. A.. Assistant H. G. SwartwouT, B. S. A., Assistant poultry husbandry H. L. Kempster, B. S. A., Professor G. W. Hervey, M. S., Assistant SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A., Professor R. R. Hudelson, A. M., Assistant Professor W. A. Albrecht, M. S., Assistant Professor F. L. Duley, A. M., Assistant Professor VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connaway, D.V.S., M.D., Professor L. S. Backus, D. V. M., Assistant Professor A. J. Durant, A. M., Assistant H. G. Newman, B. S. A., Assistant ZOOLOGY George Lefevre, Ph. D., Professor OTHER OFFICERS E. H. Hughes, A. M., Assistant to Director O. W. Weaver, B. S., Ai^ricu'tural Editor H. H KrusekopF, A. M . Soil Survey Wm DeYoung, B S. A., Assistant. Soil S' rvey O. S. CrislEr, D. V. M., Superintendent, Serum Plant E. E. Brown, Business Manager J. G. Babb, M. A., Secretary R. B. Price, B. S., Treasurer George Reeder, Director. Weather Bureau J. F. Barham, Photographer Robert Scurlock, Accountant J. C. McLachlan, Herdsman, Animal Hus- bandry H. A. Ball, Herdsman, Dairy Husbandry To His Excellency, Honorable Frederick D. Gardner, Governor of Missouri. Sir: I submit herewith a report of the progress of the more important activities of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the College of Agriculture of the University of Missouri, for the year ending June 30, 1919. This report is submitted to you in accordance with the provisions of the Federal Law which require an annual report to the Governor of the State, in- cluding a statement of receipts and expenditures of Federal funds. The present report includes a very brief and concise statement of the sig- nificant work of the Station, particularly the investigations in progress, the pub- lications issued, changes in the Station staff and the general condition of the Agricultural Experiment Station. The Director of the Station has during the past year, served as Chairman of the Missouri Council of Defense and as Federal Food Administrator for Missouri. The duties of these positions have to a considerable extent, prevented the Director from giving his undivided attention to the affairs of the Experiment Station, but the work has been successfully and efficiently administered by my colleagues and particularly by Acting Director, M. F. Miller. Respectfully submitted, F. B. Mumeord, Director. The Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station F. B. Mumford, Director The soundness of the policies followed in the development of the work of the Agricultural Experiment Station have been demonstrated by the war emer- gency thru which the nation has recently passed. The increased production cam- paigns were based entirely upon demonstrated methods which had been deter- mined thru the investigations of the Experiment Station. No further experi- ment was necessary. The facts had been determined and the methods essential to maximum production were quickly and successfully applied. It is undoubtedly true, however, that the important fundamental investiga- tions of the Experiment Station suffered as a result of the disturbance caused to all established institutions by war conditions. A number of investigators left the service of the Experiment Station temporarily to engage in military or other war activities. The investigators remaining were all actively engaged in patriotic service of some kind. All of this resulted in decreasing the well-or- ganized efficiency of the Experiment Station. The continually increasing prices of all commodities essential to good work has made it increasingly difficult to meet the necessary expenses of the Experi- ment Station with the funds which have been available. A larger income is essential if the Station is to continue to maintain its high standards of work. The word research has been used in a vague and indefinite sense. It is difficult to define the term so that it may mean a definite type of knowled- We cannot limit research to investigation in natural science, nor. indeed can we properly exclude from the classification investigations which are not properly classified as fundamental research. Research may be good or bad. It may be mediocre or it may ascend to the highest plane of intellectual achievement. It is as varied as human knowledge. It cannot well be standardized. Unfor- tunately, research does not lend itself to quantity production. It is in my judgment exceedingly unwise to stamp with our approval only those investigative achievements of an important fundamental character which have had a profound influence upon the development of human knowledge and human affairs and at the same time mark for disapproval those more modest investigations which may not have great fundamental significance, but which do at the same time extend the limits and broaden the field of intellectual enterprise and incidentally contribute to the solution of fundamental problems. After all it must be clearly recognized that if we are to depend alone upon the exceptional genius for the extension of our knowledge, we can hope for only a limited development. The vast majority of intellectual workers do not belong in the class with Galileo, Newton, Darwin or Kelvin. The advancement of hu- man knowledge must after all depend upon the faithful, accurate and industrious labors of the man of average ability. It is this type of investigator that needs encouragement and must be surrounded with favorable conditions if we are to secure the greatest output of new knowledge. The distinction between pure and applied science is much overworked. There is no essential fundamental distinction between these two types of re- search. As Dr. J. R. Angell has said, any difference that may exist is chiefly one of motivation. Investigations in applied science are purposeful. They have a definite object and that is to solve problems thru scientific investigation. Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 5 The scientific method applied to the solution of such problems may oftentimes yield results of a most important and fundamental character. Research in pure science is not necessarily undertaken as the result of an immediate and pressing need. The motive may or may not have any important application to present day problems. These distinctions are after all not of great significance. The two types of research are alike in that they must be based upon the same fun- damental principles of science and must be conducted in accordance with the well-recognized methods of science. Each requires the same qualities of mind and the same unvarying devotion to truth. It is admitted that most institutions have failed, thru various causes, to make real contributions to knowledge and such must always be dependent, both for their ideals and their trained workers, upon those institutions which are the centers of productive, intellectual achievement. It may not be wholly in- correct to designate such institutions as consumers rather than producers of knowledge. It is very clear that if an institution is to have any standing in the intellectual world as a center of learning, it must make real contributions to knowledge. It must perform a real service in extending the ever-widening boundaries of truth. Its intellectual activities must result in productive learning. It must create new knowledge. It can accomplish none of these except thru fundamental and original research. I cannot conceive of an institution making real contributions to knowledge that performs the work of teaching only, even tho it may be highly efficient in the performance of this function. The teacher himself must be a productive scholar. He must be a student. He must be an investigator if he would continue to grow individually, to contribute to the development of his subject and to the standing and reputation of his institution. What are the conditions of research? Why do some individuals make im- portant contributions to science while others under similar conditions fail to do so? Why are certain institutions recognized as centers of productive learning? It is certain that one condition is always a fundamental essential to successful research and that is adequate training in fundamental subjects. It is true that training alone does not insure productive research but lack of training is almost inhibitory. This is so clearly self-evident that it needs no discussion. But the most general complaint among university men who have the necessary training is that they are so burdened with teaching and administrative duties that they have no time or energy remaining for research. This complaint is made so frequently by men whose judgment in other matters is generally ac- cepted as sound that we cannot lightly ignore it in any effort to improve condi- tions. I have no doubt that much investigational work of value is really pre- vented in this manner. It is certainly true that teaching large numbers of un- derclassmen is not conducive to the higher type of fundamental research. It seems to me that administrative officers must make a more systematic effort to give a greater opportunity to men of ability. The difficulty which confronts the administrative officers is to discover the men of genius who should be given encouragement in their efforts to increase intellectual production. Men must really do research before they can be definitely set apart for this type of achievement. They cannot do research if they are too much burdened with teaching and other duties and thus men of really great possibilities may never have the favorable opportunity to develop their talents for productive scholar- ship. It seems to me, therefore, that it is desirable from an administrative standpoint to expect every teacher to make some contribution to knowledge 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 however small, in the hope that such a policy may result in a survival of the fittest and a consequent selection of those competent to succeed. When such men are discovered the . administration should not hesitate to give them maxi- mum salaries and every facility for investigation. Research thrives on appreciation. No institution can hope to attain any sort of standing in the intellectual world if it fails properly to value the achieve- ments of men of science. There must exist a proper atmosphere which in itself is a constant invitation to supreme effort. The creation of such an atmos- phere can be greatly encouraged by the administrative officers. The tools of research are essential. Apparatus, equipment, laboratories and supplies must be readily available at the proper time. It is nothing short of an intellectual calamity for an important investigation to be held up for lack of a piece of apparatus or a few dollars for ordinary labor or other as- sistance. But more important than any material condition or mechanical arrange- ment, is the spirit of research. There must be in the individual a divine zeal— an unquenchable fire which cannot be put out and which will urge the individual to a continual search for truth. With such a zeal the investigator may be cer- tain to find ample opportunity and the institution will find the means. CHANGES IN THE STATION STAFF New Appointments Mrs. Mary Cochran Farris, B. S. in Agr., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry V. R. Gardner, B. S., M. S. A., Professor of Horticulture D. J. Griswold, B. S. in Agr., A. M., Research Assistant in Animal Husbandry Henry D. Hooker, B. A., M. A., Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Horticulture John Harwood Longwell, B. S. in Agr., Research Assistant in Animal Hus- bandry M. F. Miller, B. S. in Agr., M. S. A., Professor of Soils, appointed Acting Dean during Dean Mum ford’s absence C. R. Moulton, B. S. in Ch. E., M. S. in Agr., Ph. D., Professor of Agricul- tural Chemistry A. C. Ragsdale, B. S. in Agr., Professor of Dairy Husbandry O. W. Weaver, B. S., Agricultural Editor Resignations H. O. Allison, M. S., Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry M. N. Beeler, B. J., B. S. in Agr., Agricultural Editor E. L. Dakan, B. S. in Agr., Assistant in Poultry Husbandry C. H. Eckles, B. S. in Agr., M. Sc., D. Sc., Professor of Dairy Husbandry Mrs. Mary Cochran Farris, B. S. in Agr., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry M. H. Fohrman, B. S. in Agr., Assistant in Dairy Husbandry D. J. Griswold, B. S. in Agr., A. M., Research Assistant in Animal Husbandry Howard Hackedorn, B. S. in Agr., Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry Helen Johann, A. B., A. M., Research Assistant in Plant Pathology W. H. Lawrence, M. S., Professor of Horticulture H. F. Libbey, B. S. in Agr., Assistant in Veterinary Science Leroy S. Palmer, B. S. in Ch. E., Ph. D., Professor of Dairy Chemistry E. C. Pegg, Assistant Professor of Forestry Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 7 V. T. Payne, A. B., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry L. G. Rinkle, M.S.A., Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry C. R. Thompson, B. S. in Agr., Assistant in Animal Husbandry P. F. Trowbridge, Ph. D., Professor of Agricultural Chemistry J. C. Whitten, Ph. D., Professor of Horticulture C. C. Wiggans, Assistant Professor of Horticulture PUBLICATIONS Three series of publications are issued by the Agricultural Experiment Station — bulletins, research bulletins, and circulars. Bulletins consist largely of definite reports on some specific investigation. The results are so presented as to be readily understood by the farmer, and the methods by which the results were accomplished are recounted for the benefit of any who wish to adopt them or profit by them. Research bulletins are essentially scientific papers presenting technical information for the investigator or the man well advanced in agricultural knowledge. The circulars are popular reports of experiments, or a summarization of the best information extant, relative to some phase of practical agriculture. The Station has issued within the year eight new bulle- tins, and three reprints, six new research bulletins, three new circulars and four reprints. Bulletins 114. Corn vs. Oats for Work Mules (reprint) 132. Control of the San Jose Scale in Missouri (reprint) 133. The Silo and Its Use (reprint) 156. Milk Production Costs and Milk Prices 157. Fertilizer Trials — Wentzville Experiment Field 158. Winter Rations for Dairy Heif- ers 159. Profits from Milk Cows on Gen- eral Cornbelt Farms Research 29. The Tarnished Plant Bug and Its Injury to Nursery Stock 30. Composition of the Beef Animal and Energy Cost of Fattening 31. Some Factors Influencing Growth and Size of Dairy Heif- ers at Maturity 160. Inspection of Commercial Fer- tilizers, 1918 161. Combining Dormant and First Summer Spray in Apple Or- chards Infested by San Jose Scale 162. Legumes, Sudan Grass and Ce- real Crops for Silage 163. Work and Progress of the Ag- ricultural Experiment Station-, 1917-1918 Bulletins 32. Some Factors Favoring or Op- posing Fruitfulness m Apples 33. An Investigation in Transplant- ing 34. The . Preservation of Milk for Chemical Analysis Circulars 57. Keeping Records of Dairy Cows (reprint) 58. Docking and Castrating Lambs (reprint) 80. The Missouri Poultry House (reprint) 83. The Home Vegetable Garden (reprint) 86. Soil Inoculation for Legumes 87. Growing Tomatoes for the Canning Factory 88. Raising Calves on Farms where Whole Milk is Sold 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 SYNOPSES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS Milk Production Costs and Milk Prices, R. M. Green, D. C. Wood and A. C. Ragsdale (Missouri Exp. Sta. Bui. 156 (1918), pp. 3-36, figs. 1). — A bulletin based on the methods of producing and marketing milk by farmers in the St. Louis, Kansas City and St. Joseph areas. The cost figures obtained from 101 representative milk producers are in terms of quantity of feed and labor as well as in terms of dollars and cents. The application of new prices to the quantity figures will furnish information approximately correct for any year when similar methods are followed. Fertilizer Trials — Wentzville Experiment Field, M. F. Miller and F. L. Duley (Missouri Exp. Sta. Bui. 157 (1918, pp. 3-23, figs. 5). — The results of ex- periments conducted in St. Charles County to determine the most profitable system of soil treatment and management for soil fairly typical of Putnam silt loam, are reported in this bulletin. The results should apply to practi- cally all the average prairie land of northeast Missouri. Winter Rations for Dairy Heifers, C. H. Eckles (Missouri Exp. Sta. Bui. 158 (1918), pp. 3-54, figs. 16). — This publication gives data that were taken during experiments which cover six winters with regard to rations for winter- ing growing heifers. Observations and data on seventy-seven Jerseys, Holsteins, and Ayrshires are included. Groups of dairy heifers were placed on experiment in successive winters for periods of from 150 to 180 days. The results are measured by daily gains in live weight, and by increase in height at withers. The most suitable rations for maintaining a normal growth are discussed. Profits From Milk Cows on General Cornbelt Farms, O. R. Johnson and R. M. Green (Missouri Exp. Sta. Bui.. 159 (1918), pp. 3-20, figs. 5). — A study to determine from farmers’ experience the costs and certain related factors pertaining to the milk business as a subsidiary enterprise on farms organized to do a general farming business. The greater part of the data is from detailed records on forty-one farms. The data cover a total of 158 head of milk cows and 128 head of calves. The figures presented sug- gest practices of most important application on the small to medium-size family farm where a satisfactory annual income depends more upon the practice of numerous small economies than upon some one or two heavily financed enterprises. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1918, F. B. Mumford and L. D. Haigh (Missouri Exp. Sta. Bui. 160 (1919), pp. 3-31, figs. 1). — A report on the analysis of 553 official samples representing 158 different brands of commercial fertilizers offered for sale in Missouri. The power of lime- stone and similar materials to neutralize soil acidity is expressed in per- centage of calcium carbonate for 42 samples tested. The brands and guar- anteed analysis of fertilizers registered for sale in Missouri in 1919 are listed. Combining Dormant and First Summer Spray in Apple Orchards In- fested by San Jose Scale, T. J. Talbert (Missouri Exp. Sta. Bui. 161 (1919), pp. 3-15, figs. 1). — ‘Experiments and observations extending over a period of four years, as reported in this bulletin, show that the dormant or San Jose scale spray consisting of commercial lime-sulphur, testing 33 degrees Baume, may be applied to apple trees at a dilution of 1 to 7 or 1 to 8 after Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 9 growth starts and until the trees begin to bloom, without material injury to leaves or flower buds. This late concentrated spray will take the place of the first summer spray. It is effective in killing many of the sap-sucking and leaf-eating insects. Legumes, Sudan Grass and Cereal Crops for Silage, C. H. Eckles (Missouri Exp. Sta. Bui. 162 (1919), pp. 3-25, figs. l). — A discussion of the silo as a means of preserving forage crops other than corn, and the pos- sibility and advisability of so using them. Numerous trials with legume and cereal crops and Sudan grass are reported. This bulletin does not advocate the making of silage from the crops discussed, but reports the results of experiments from which it is possible to draw conclusions as to the conditions necessary in order to preserve the crops successfully in the silo. Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station (1917- 1918), F. B. Mumford (Missouri Exp. Sta. Bui. 163 (1919), pp. 3-78, figs. 21). — This bulletin is the annual report of the Director and covers briefly the work of the Experiment Station, its publications and a financial state- ment for the year ended June 30, 1918. The Tarnished Plant-bug and Its Injury to Nursery Stock, L. Hase- man (Missouri Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 29 (1918), pp. 3-20, figs. 9).— The tar- nished plant-bug is described as causing the injury to nursery stock com- monly known as “stop-back” or “bush-head.” A history and a life history of the pest are included. The injury to nursery stock is described and remedial measures suggested. Composition of the Beef Animal and Energy Cost of Fattening, P. F. Trowbridge, C. R. Moulton and L. D. Haigh (Missouri Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 30 (1918), pp. 3-106, figs. 39). — This bulletin is a continuation of the series reporting the “Use of Food” experiment begun in 1907 to determine the chemical composition of the gain made by 3-year-old steers in the process of being fitted for market; and to determine what changes take place in the form of the animal in the fattening process. Some Factors Influencing the Growth of Dairy Heifers, C. H. Eckles and W. W. Swett (Missouri Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 31 (1918), pp. 3-36, figs. 16). — -This bulletin presents in a more or less complete form certain data con- cerning the factors which influence the growth of dairy heifers. The data were taken on animals in the dairy herd of the University of Missouri over a period of twelve years. Size of calf at birth, breed, liberality of the ration, gestation, lactation, combination of early calving and light rations, and calcium in the ration, are all discussed in determining the factors that influence growth. Some Factors Favoring or Opposing Fruitfulness in Apples, C. C. Wiggans (Missouri Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 32 (1918), pp. 3-60, figs. 7). — -This investigation deals with the variation of fruitfulness of the apple tree from year to year. The author observes that certain varieties tend to bear crops in alternate years, and some varieties alternate heavy and light crops. An extensive study of the fruit spur as related to this phenomenon is re- ported. The effects of girdling, of fertilizers, of tillage, and of pruning are all reported in this investigation. An Investigation in Transplanting, J. C. Whitten (Missouri Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 33 (1919), pp. 3-73, figs. 5). — This is primarily a report on inves- 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 tigations covering a period of ten years to determine the best season of the year in which to transplant fruit trees. Results from early and late fall plantings and early and late spring plantings of the most important varie- ties of fruits are compared to show how their development is influenced by the season of transplanting. Several minor studies relating to trans- planting are grouped as a second part in this report. They deal with effects of mulching fall-planted trees, the relation of soil and atmospheric tem- peratures to fall and spring planting, relation of wounds to the activity of adjacent buds, the time to prune transplanted trees, the depth to plant, orientation of the tree, shaping the tree, importance of protecting young tree roots from freezing and drying, and transplanting garden vegetables. The Preservation of Milk for Chemical Analysis, L. S. Palmer (Mis- souri Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 34 ( 1919 ), pp. 3 - 31 ). — In this bulletin a detailed study of the preservation of milk for chemical analysis is reported, particu- larly with reference to the preservation of the protein constituents. The experiments carried out were designed to show the influence of the fol- lowing factors upon the preservation of milk: the kind of preservative, the temperature of preservation, the development of bacteria and enzymes in causing decomposition, and the minimum quantity of the best preserva- tive to use. The preservatives selected were formaldehyde, mercuric chlo- ride, potassium dichromate, copper sulfate, thymol, and toluene. Soil Inoculation for Legumes, W. A. Albrecht (Missouri Exp. Sta. Cir- cular 86 ( 1919 ) pp. 15 , figs. 6 ). — This is a popular explanation of the neces- sity for inoculating legumes in Missouri, and a detailed summary of the best methods by which it can be done. Growing Tomatoes for the Canning Factory, J. T. Rosa, Jr. (Missouri Exp. Sta. Circular 87 ( 1919 ) pp. 16 , figs. 4 ). — This circular describes all steps to be taken in producing tomatoes on a large scale such as can be practiced in Missouri. The importance of good plants of desirable varie- ties, well started in the field, is emphasized. Methods of culture and the prevention of loss by insects and diseases are discussed. Raising Calves on Farms Where Whole Milk Is Sold, W. W. Swett (Missouri Exp. Sta. Circular 88 ( 1919 ) pp. 13 , figs. 1 ).— This circular is a guide to the dairyman who seeks to maintain his dairy herd by retaining the heifer calves, rather than buying heifers on the market. Three feeding plans are suggested: (1) Feed the calf a minimum amount of milk and some grain, using sufficient milk to give the calf a good start; (2) give the calf whole milk for a short time and then change to a ration of calf-meal gruel; and ( 3 ) give the calf a good start on milk, then withhold the milk at the end of two months and put the calf on a hay and grain ration. The last two plants are recommended. • DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLICATIONS The mailing list for Experiment Station publications is divided into seven classifications which total 14,180 names. The classes are: Commer- cial fertilizers, dairy husbandry, animal husbandry, farm crops and soils, horticulture, poultry, and home economics. Publications are distributed according to these lists as soon as they are received from the printer. More than 104,000 copies of Station publications were so disposed of dur- Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 11 ing the last fiscal year. About two-thirds of this number were sent to per- sons whose names are on the mailing list. The other one-third were mailed in answer to individual requests. The mailing list has increased annually until larger editions of popular bulletins and circulars are necessary. In some cases, the edition of the publication has been exhausted long before its period of usefulness has passed, and a reprint has been ordered. This healthy growth in the mailing list is an index to the increasing number of farmers who are studying the farming business. The Station sent many of it§ publications to hospitals where requested, many of them going to England, and some to Canada, France, and Austra- lia. Requests from army camps for bulletins to be placed in libraries, were honored. Many requests are now being received from high schools operating under the Smith-Hughes act for bulletins and circulars in quan- tity. The Missouri State Board of Agriculture is supplied with copies of bulletins requested. Articles by Members of the Staff Published in Scientific Journals — 10 c & sc “The Availability of the Energy of Food for Growth,” by C. R. Moul- ton. Journal of Biological Chemistry 31, pp. 389-394. “Cattle versus Crops as Soil Depleters,” by C. R. Moulton. Corn Belt Farmer 6, No. 9, p. 4. “Physiological Specialization of Parasitic Fungi,” by George M. Reed. Brooklyn Botanic Garden Memoirs Vol. 1 , pp. 348-409, July 6, 1918. “Milk as a Galactogogue,” by L. S. Palmer and C. H. Eckles. New York Medical Journal cviii, No. 9, 375, 1918. “The Physicochemical State of the Proteins in Cow’s Milk,” by L. S. Palmer and Robert G. Scott. Journal of Biological Chemistry, xxxvii, No. 2. 271, 1919. “A Study of the Birth Rate of Calves,” by C. H. Eckles. Journal of Biological Science, Vol. 2, No. 3, May 1919. PROGRESS OF INVESTIGATIONAL WORK It has been customary for a number of years to make brief progress reports of investigations in the Experiment Station. Only the more im- portant investigations are summarized in this report of active work. Such a report has value in indicating the character of investigations and the prog- ress which is being made from year to year. There has been some dis- turbance of the Experiment Station activities due to the general unrest after the war. Such disturbance has not been serious and the work accom- plished has on the whole been satisfactory. It should be clearly understood that the summaries presented herewith are not complete records of all the work undertaken by the departments named. They do represent the major projects and are therefore, indicative of the achievements of the Station staff during the year. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Use of Food Experiment (C. R. Moulton, L. D. Haigh, S. B. Shirkey). 'The work during the year has consisted largely of the preparation of the data for four research bulletins which are rapidly assuming form. Factors Influencing Normal Rate of Growth in Domestic Animals and the Permanency of the Effects of Arrested Development (F. B. Mum- 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 ford, C. R. Moulton, S. B. Shirkey, W. S. Ritchie). — One Group III animal, No. 580, was fed out from the 1140th day to the 1500th day and another Group III animal, No. 586, was slaughtered while still on the low ration at about 1500 days. The steer fed out consumed during its life about as much dry matter as Group III Use-of-Food steer. The low plane animal consumed one-sixth less dry matter. On this amount of feed steer No. 580 attained a body weight equal to a Group III Use-of-Food steer, i. e., about 1100 pounds, while steer No. 586 attained a weight of only about 600 pounds. Steer No. 580 had gained 940 pounds during the 1500 days of the trial while steer No. 586 had gained only 430 pounds. A Group III Use-of-Food steer had gained about 800 pounds. Steer No. 586 (Group III, retarded growth) Fed to gain ten pounds a month Steer No. 500 (Group III, use of food) Fed to gain one-half pound daily Steer No. 512 (Group II, use of food) Fed liberal ration from beginning of experiment Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 13 The growth of steer No. 580 in length, width and circumference was about equal to a Group III Use-of-Food steer, while steer No. 586 was very much behind. In height however, steer No. 580 had gained but little more than steer No. 586, and both were far behind the Group III Use-of- Food animal. Steer No. 580 made economical gains while the gains of steer No. 586 were very expensive.. The maintenance costs of the two animals were strikingly lower than the average costs of the Use-of-Food steers. The low plane of nutrition is considered the cause of the economy. In composition of quality of carcass steer No. 580 recovered to a Group II Use-of-Food condition (or a Group I Retarded Growth). Permanence of the stunting of the low plane Retai ded-Growth steers Steer No. 580 (Group III, retarded growth) Fattened at three years of age Steer No. 501 (Group I, use of food) Fed all he would take from beginning of experiment is indicated by some of the data but not proved since the animal fed out was still gaining at a rate more rapid than that shown by animals continu- ously on a better plane of nutrition. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING Investigations to Determine the Draft of Various Farm Implements and the Cost of Different Operations With Them (E. W. Lehmann). — Draft tests were made on Avery Six Shovel Cultivator. This test was made on the Farm Crops experiment field, which is a variable sand and clay loam soil. The crop under cultivation was soybeans, and the instrument used was an Iowa dynamometer. 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 Test Counter-readings Foot- pounds Time sec. Horse- power Pounds pull (approx.) Remarks start stop 1 176 195 19,000 14 2.47 470 Clay loam — up grade 2 195. 210.4 15,400 16 1.75 375 Sandy loam “down” 3 210.4 229.5 19,100 14 2.48 450 Same as No. 1 4 229.5 246.3 16,800 16 1.91 400 Up grade-sandy loam An Investigation of Sanitary Conditions on Farms and Experiments to Determine the Best Types of Sanitary Equipment (E. W. Lehmann, C. C. Taylor). — Data have been taken from fifty farms. Water samples have been collected from each farm and both chemical and bacteriological anal- yses have been made. Forty-eight samples of the water tested were taken from cisterns, one from a spring, and another from a shallow well. Results of the bacterial count show presence of B. Coli in forty-four of the fifty samples tested. The chemical analysis showed that practically all the sam- ples of water showed contamination. Free ammonia was present in prac- tically all the samples. This is considered an indication of recent con- tamination, especially of animal origin. The presence of nitrogen as ni- trates also indicates impurities and shows that oxidation is taking place, caused by the presence of bacteria. Practically all of the samples would be condemned from a sanitary standpoint as a result of the chemical anal- ysis. The presence of B. Coli as shown by the bacterial analysis indicates a clear case of some form of sewage contamination. While such water may not cause disease, it is yet possible that disease germs may appear at any time and cause ill health. It is found out of fifty homes surveyed, forty were occupied by owners, seven by renters and three by hired men. On the farms surveyed, the water was drawn in one place by a pump. On the farm where the spring was a source of supply, water was pumped to watering troughs for live stock, but not into the home. In five places the water was lifted by means of a bucket and rope, and in two places by means of a pitcher pump. On the remaining farms water was obtained di- rectly from cistern or well by means of chain pump. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY Age as a Factor in Animal Breeding (F. B. Mumford, J. H. Longwell). — The most significant fact developed during the year was concerning Factor 90. This gilt represented the ninth generation of swine bred at the first heat period, and farrowed thirteen pigs June 28, eleven of which are still living. This is the largest litter ever farrowed in this experiment. The average weight for the pigs was 2.31 pounds, or 0.07 pounds above the aver- age weight for the pigs of this experiment. Animals now on experiment and number of pigs farrowed and raised are as follows: Factor Generation Pigs Farrowed Pigs Raised 50 5th 6 6 60 6th 8 5 70 7th 7 6 80 8th 11 2 90 9th 13 11 Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 15 Heavy and Light Grain Rations When Fed in Connection With Corn Silage and Clover Hay for Fattening Steers (H. O. Allison). — Forty head of two-year-old steers were put on feed January 13, 1919, and fed for 83 days, on rations containing silage. At the end of 83 days, the silage was eliminated and all five lots of steers were full fed on shelled corn, linseed oil cake and clover hay for 38 days, the test ending May 14, 1919. For the first 83 days of the test, the cattle were fed the following rations: Lot I. — Shelled corn (full feed) Linseed oil meal (1 lb. to 6 lbs. of corn) Corn silage Clover hay Lot II. — Shelled corn (one-half feed) Linseed oil meal (same quantity as fed Lot I) Corn silage Clover hay Lot III. — Shelled corn (full feed after first 60 days) Linseed oil meal (same quantity as fed Lot I) Corn silage Clover hay Lot IV. — Linseed oil meal (same as Lot I) Corn silage Clover hay Lot V. — Linseed oil meal (average about 5 lbs. per day) Corn silage Clover hay The cost of gain on these cattle was greatly reduced during the first 83 days of the feeding period by the reduction and elimination of corn, other than that contained in the silage. Gains in live weight and the result- ing finish were also diminished. Whether the economy effected by the elimination of corn from the ration is justified will depend upon the higher price paid on the market for the additional weight and finish obtained by the corn-fed cattle. Oat Straw as Winter Roughness for Farm Work Horses Fed in Con- junction With a Grain Ration of 2 Parts Corn, 2 Parts Oats, 1 Part Bran and Linseed Meal to Balance the Ration (E. A. Trowbridge). — Twelve horses doing winter farm work were fed oat straw as roughness and a grain ration of 2 parts shelled corn, 2 parts oats, 1 part bran and a small quantity of oil meal for a period of 70 days, beginning January 3, 1919. The horses used in this test were ten purebred Percheron mares, and two grade draft geldings. Eight of the mares were in foal. Average initial weight 1488.33 lbs. Average final weight 1516.66 lbs. Average gain in weight during test 28.33 lbs. Average daily grain mixture 14.75 lbs. 2 parts shelled corn 2 parts oats 1 part bran Linseed meal .464 lbs. Oat straw 15.7 Average daily labor 4 hours 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 Horses owned by the University of Missouri which worked an average of 4 hours daily on an average daily ration of 14.75 lbs. of grain (2 parts shelled corn, 2 parts oats, 1 part bran by weight), and .46 lbs. linseed meal and 15.7 lbs. oat straw during the winter 1918- 1919. Photograph taken at close of experiment. Horses owned by the University of Missouri which worked an average of 4 hours daily on an average daily ration of 14.75 lbs. of grain (2 parts oats. 2 parts shelled corn, 1 part bran) .46 lbs. linseed meal, 15.7 lbs. oat straw, during the winter of 1918-1919. Photograph taken at close of experiment. The above data and the results of former tests indicate clearly that oat straw can be used advantageously as roughness for farm horses doing farm work in the winter months. Hominy Feed vs. Corn for Fattening Swine on Forage (L. A. Weaver). — ‘Economic conditions warranted the conducting of feeding trials to deter- mine the value and limitations of some by-products which might be suc- cessfully used as substitutes for corn in swine feeding. A direct compari- son was made with hominy feed and corn with two lots of ten hogs each. Both lots were fed on bluegrass pasture. Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 17 The ration for Lot A was: Hominy feed, 9 parts; shorts, 2 parts; tankage, 1 part. The’ ration for Lot B was: Ground corn, 9 parts; shorts, 2 parts; tank- age, 1 part. The experiment was begun June 1 and was continued for 86 days. The average initial weight of the hogs used was between 40 and 45 pounds. The average daily gain of hogs in Lot A was 0.9 pounds. The hogs in Lot B eating corn instead of hominy feed gained 0.97 pounds daily. It required 4.77 pounds of hominy feed, shorts and tankage to produce one pound of gain (Lot A) and 4.58 pounds of corn, shorts and tankage to produce one pound of gain (Lot B). Results indicate that hominy feed makes a satis- factory substitute for corn, altho the hogs receiving hominy feed gained a little less rapidly and it took slightly more feed to produce a given amount of gain than was the case of the hogs fed corn. Two lots of 17 hogs each, one grazing on alfalfa and the other on rape, were also fed a ration of hominy feed, 9 parts; shorts, 2 parts; tankage, 1 part. It was impossible to make a direct comparison of hominy feed with corn fed to hogs on alfalfa and rape pasture because there was but one lot of alfalfa and one lot of rape fed. The results substantiate the conclu- sions drawn from the comparison mentioned above, to the effect that homi- ny feed is a satisfactory substitute for corn. Semi-solid Buttermilk vs. Tankage as a Protein Supplement in Rations for Fattening Swine (L. A. Weaver). — The forty purebred pigs used in this test were farrowed in the fall of 1918. They were the offspring of Poland China and Duroc Jersey sows in the University herd. Two series of two lots each were used in the experiment. There were ten shotes in each of four lots. The experiment began March 11, 1919, and closed April 29, 1919, extending over a period of 49 days. The following rations were fed: Lot I. — Ground corn, 9 parts Shorts, 2 parts Tankage, 1 part Lot II. — Ground corn, 9 parts Shorts, 2 parts Semi-solid buttermilk, 1.5 parts Lot III. — Ground barley, 9 parts Shorts, 2 parts Tankage, 1 part Lot IV. — Ground barley, 9 parts Shorts, 2 parts Semi-solid buttermilk, 1.5 parts The hogs weighed about 130 pounds at the beginning of the test. At the close of the experiment they weighed in the neighborhood of 225 pounds. The average daily gain for Lot I was 1.93 pounds; for Lot II, 1.94 pounds. The hogs in Lot I required 409.9 pounds of feed to make 100 pounds of gain, while those in Lot II required 423.84 pounds of feed. The result showed little difference in either rate or economy of gain. One 18 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 pound of tankage had the same feeding value as one and one-half pounds of semi-solid buttermilk. The relative value of tankage and semi-solid buttermilk shown by the results of the second series, Lots III and IV, where barley was used in- stead of corn, were similar to those obtained from Lots I and II. The average daily gain for Lot III was 1.85 pounds, and for Lot IV was 1.87 pounds. The hogs in Lot III required 426.60 pounds of feed to produce 100 pounds of gain, while those in Lot IV required 434.14 pounds of feed. In this series there was little difference in either the rate or economy of gain caused by substituting one and one-half pounds semi-solid butter- milk for one pound of tankage. Barley vs. Corn for Fattening Swine (L. A. Weaver). — The animals used for this project were the same as those used on the “semi-solid but- termilk vs. tankage” project. It will be seen from the report on that pro- ject that the four lots were so arranged that opportunity was given to compare two lots getting corn with two lots getting barley, as well ^s to compare semi-solid buttermilk with tankage. In this case’, instead of com- paring Lots I and II and Lots III and IV with each other, the comparison is made between Lots I and III and Lots II and IV. The average daily gain for Lot I (corn, shorts and tankage) was 1.93 pounds as compared with 1:85 for Lot III (barley, shorts and tankage). More feed was required by the hogs fed barley for 100 pounds gain, — 426.60 pounds as compared with 409.90 pounds. Similar results were obtained with the other series of lots. The shotes in Lot II (corn, barley and semi-solid buttermilk) made an average daily gain of 1.94 pounds while those in Lot IV (barley, shorts and semi-solid buttermilk) gained on the average 1.87 pounds per day per head. It re- quired 434.14 pounds of barley ration to produce 100 pounds gain as com- pared with 423.84 pounds of corn. Summarizing the results of both series, it is true that while ground barley made a very satisfactory substitute for corn, that the hogs fed barley gained a little less rapidly and somewhat more feed was required to produce a given amount of gain when barley was used instead of corn. Fishmeal vs. Tankage as a Supplement to Corn in Rations for Fatten- ing Swine (L. A. Weaver). — The merits of fishmeal as a feeding stuff for pigs have become more and more appreciated in European countries. Only recently in the United States has there been any interest shown in using this as a feeding stuff. The composition of fishmeal shows it to be very high in protein and ash. This would make it particularly valuable as a supplementary feed where corn or some other carbonaceous grain is used in the feeding operation. Since the use of tankage is increasing rapidly, and since the supply is necessarily limited, it is important that other sup- plements be found which can be used for this purpose. Forty head of purebred Poland China, Duroc Jersey and Berkshire pigs, farrowed in the spring of 1918, were divided into four lots of ten hogs each and were fed for a period of 49 days, the trial beginning Sep- tember 21 and closing November 9. Rations and manner of feeding were as follows: Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 19 Lot I. — Ground corn 9 parts Shorts 2 parts by weight Tankage 1 part Mixed with water just before feeding and fed as a slop twice daily Lot II. — Ground corn 9 parts Shorts 2 parts by weight Fishmeal 1 part Fed same as Lot I Lot III. — Ground corn, shorts, tankage. Each feed placed in a separate self-feeder and hogs allowed to select feeds as they wish Lot IV. — Ground corn, shorts, fishmeal. Fed same as Lot III. The results obtained indicate that fishmeal makes a satisfactory sub- stitute for tankage, since in all cases the hogs receiving fishmeal gained more rapidly and required less feed to produce a given amount of gain than when tankage was used. Hogs fed corn 9 parts, shorts 2 parts, and fishmeal 1 part, gained an average of 1.76 pounds a head daily, while those getting corn, shorts and tankage gained 1.45 pounds a head daily. In the former case, 4.41 pounds of feed were required to produce 1 pound of gain. In the latter, it required 5.17 pounds of feed to produce 1 pound of gain. The fishmeal used in this test was furnished by the Bureau of Animal In- dustry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. PLANT DISEASES Grain Smuts Investigation and Control (W. E. Maneval, Helen Jo- hann). — The particular phases of the grain smut project which the De- partment has been investigating for a number of years have now been practically concluded. Final data are being secured regarding the field tests for the present season. In these tests 45 varieties of barley, 20 of wheat and about 150 of oats are being used. A Study of Certain Fusarial Diseases of Plants (W. E. Maneval, Helen Johann). — Isolations of fungi were made from scabby wheat received from Missouri, Iowa and Minnesota. Isolations were made of corn received from Missouri. Forty different strains of fusaria have been kept growing in pure culture. In addition, several other organisms which may be of importance were isolated, particularly Gibberella saubienettii and diplodia. These fungi were studied with possible reference to cultural characteris- tics, their relation to temperature and their ability to cause disease in wheat and corn. Scabby wheat grains were treated by various methods to determine means of disinfecting such seed. The treatments consisted of the use of formaldehyde, mercuric chloride, copper sulphate, calcium hypo- cholrite and hot water. The pathogenicity of some of the fungi isolated were tested in the laboratory and greenhouse with plants under sterile condition. The results are summarized as follows: 1. It is possible -to kill a large percentage of the scab organisms in infected wheat seed by means of hot water treatment. 2. Shrivelled grains from scabby heads are not necessarily infected. 20 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 This condition may possibly be due to the cutting off of the food supply during the growth of the grain. 3 . The optimum temperature for vegetative growth of all but one of the wheat Organisms studied varies from 25 to 28 degrees C. The optimum temperature for diplodia is between 30 and 35 degrees C. 4 . Giberella saubinettii will kill corn seedlings grown under sterile conditions in the laboratory at room temperature. DAIRY HUSBANDRY Factors Influencing the Composition of Milk. — The enzymes of milk and their relations to abnormal flavors (L. S. Palmer). — The experimental work carried out during the year has been confined almost entirely to a study of the lipase content of normal milk. Further study has been di- rected particularly to methods of determining the lipase content of milk. It was found that milk presents a number of special problems in connec- tion with the determination of lipase activity because of its lactose and protein content and the formation of titratable acidity from these sub- stances thru the action of bacteria and enzymes. It was found also that the inorganic compounds of milk are factors of importance in the deter- mination of the acidity of milk, particularly when it is attempted to deter- mine the lipase activity of the milk by the usual method of titrating to neutrality in the presence of antiseptics and then repeating the titration after lipase has presumably split off fatty acids from the neutral milk fat. It was found further that when pancreatic lipase is allowed to act upon the fat in milk the usual method of titration of the liberated fatty acids in the aequeous media with an aequeous solution of alkali gives only a par- tial measure of the total fatty acids liberated. These results led to an extensive search for the proper antiseptic to use in lipase studies with milk and also for a suitable method for the deter- mination of lipase activity when encountered in cow’s milk, by which the total liberated fatty acids would be determined and the various factors entering into the results, especially with milk, would be controlled. Be- tween 30 and 40 experiments were carried out in connection with these studies. Particularly successful results were secured in these investiga- tions by studying the action of pancreatic lipase on artificial milk prepared by emulsifying butter fat into gum arabic. The emulsion thus produced gave on dilution with water a highly suitable “milk,” which was free from the vitiating influence of lactose, proteins, and inorganic phosphates. Most interesting data were secured on the action of various antisep- tics toward the activity of pancreatic lipase when using this artificial “milk.” Chloroform, which has been adopted by most investigators for lipase studies with milk, was found to retard greatly the activity of lipase, as low as 2 per cent chloroform retarding the lipase 50 to 60 per cent. In a study of acetone solutions of iodoform as antiseptic it was found that both the acetone and the iodoform retarded lipase activity when fresh solutions of the salt in the reagent were used, and that solutions of iodoform containing very small amounts of iodine inhibited lipase activity completely. For- maldehyde was found to be the best antiseptic to use for lipase studies, concentrations as high as 1:1,000 having no retarding effects whatever. Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 21 It was found, in fact, that a concentration of formaldehyde as high as 1 per cent has no retarding effect on lipase, while the concentrations of 0.1 and 0.05 per cent actually had a slight accelerating effect on lipase activity. Regarding a suitable method for determining the total fatty acids lib- erated from milk fat by lipase, it was found that excellent results could be secured by adding 4 volumes of a mixture of acetone and ether, 2:1, and titrating with an 0.1 N. alcoholic solution of KOH, using phenolphthalein as indicator. The former method most generally used for lipase activity in milk wherein the milk is neutralized, incubated, titrated to neutrality and the procedure repeated until no further increase in acidity is secured, was abandoned in favor of allowing a suitable sample of milk to develop its acidity due to lipase under normal conditions, using a suitable antiseptic, and determining the acidity at intervals, as well as at the beginning of in- cubation, on aliquot portions of the milk. It is believed that this method gives a more accurate measure of the actual lipase activity. The work has not progressed to the point where it can be stated with assurance whether or not lipase is a normal constituent of milk. Further indications were secured, however, that the bitter milk which frequently characterizes the close of the lactation period of single cows is due to the action of lipase on the milk fat. This phase of the problem was not studied extensively during the year. The influence of the condition at parturition on the composition of milk and butterfat. — Cow No. 9 calved July 23, 1918, in excellent flesh and with a body weight of 750 to 800 pounds. She was kept on a high protein plane of nutrition until September 16. Following the observations on this animal made in three previous years, which indicated that a poor condition at parturition and low protein plane of nutrition depressed the fat and pro- tein content of the milk, it was expected that the combined good condition and high protein plane of nutrition in this year’s experiment would induce a higher protein and fat content in the milk following parturition. The anal- yses of milk composites taken at suitable intervals showed a slightly higher protein content in the milk, the average being about 3.5 per cent after the normally higher level of the milk following parturition had disap- peared, as compared with a protein percentage of about 3.0 to 3.1 for the previous years. The fat on the milk, however, averaged scarcely 3.5 per cent, which was no higher than that following parturition in a poor condi- tion and on a low plane of protein. The conclusion was drawn that it was not advisable to continue the project with this animal, inasmuch as the results secured in the previous three year’s work were apparently due to the individuality of the animal, as much as to the experimental conditions to which she was submitted. The abnormally low protein and fat content of the milk of this animal is apparently independent of the fact that she calved in poor condition or was kept on a low protein plane for a period following parturition. Our data do indicate, however, that an increase in the protein content of the ration may be beneficial in raising the fat and protein content of the milk if the animal has been on a low protein plane and is giving milk with a low fat and protein content. Influence of Nutrition of Heifers and the Age of Breeding Upon Their Subsequent Development. — Protein requirements for growth (A. C. Rags- 22 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 dale, W. W. Swett). — ‘Twelve animals were used this year. After another year’s work, it is evident that animals of either Holstein or Jersey breed cannot make normal gain on 8 per cent protein plane. On a 15 per cent protein plane we have been successful in getting practically a normal gain with a few of our Holsteins but we have not been successful on even a 15 per cent protein plane with Jerseys. A plane of 20 per cent protein or about 75 per cent of that prescribed by the Wolff-Lehman standard, was on the average approximately ade- quate to promote normal gain in our Holstein heifers. On a 25 per cent protein plane most of the Holsteins made gains somewhat above normal, while the Jerseys were inconsistent and on the average made only about normal gains. A 35 per cent protein plane was tried in a few cases. Hol- steins on this plane made gains greatly in excess of the normal, while Jer- seys ran only slightly above. It would appear that for some reason the Jerseys cannot make normal gains on a ration, which, figured on the same basis, is adequate for Hol- steins. It is much more difficult to get the Jerseys adjusted to their ex- perimental feed and handling than it is to start the Holsteins. Whether or not there is a physiological difference in the requirements of the two breeds is not certain. The Jerseys seem more delicate and seem more par- ticular about what they eat. No explanation can yet be offered for the dif- ference in results between Jerseys and Holsteins. It is noticeable that the effect of a change in ration is much more pro- nounced on the weight than on the skeletal measurements. An animal ^vill continue to grow in height even on a very low plane and when the animal is almost at a standstill in weight. It has been observed in our work that the young animal does not make as good gains on a given plane as an older animal. In a few cases the calves have been slightly below normal in size when started on experiment. This has handicapped them. Great care has been taken recently to select only calves that are of normal size. A question presents itself concerning the requirements of animals of different ages. Possibly a plane that is suit- able for an animal twelve months of age is not suitable for one six months of age. We may need to establish a “sliding scale” of requirements. Raising calves on milk substitutes . — The results of the experiments during the year lead to the following conclusions: Calves can be weaned at the age of sixty to seventy days and will con- tinue to make approximately normal gains when fed on a suitable grain mixture and alfalfa hay. Alfalfa hay used to supplement the grain ration gave more satisfac- tory results than timothy hay. Blood meal has no pronounced nutritional value when fed on the grain mixture to calves more than two months old. Ground corn 4 parts, wheat bran 1 part, and linseed meal 1 part, when fed in conjunction with alfalfa hay, make a satisfactory grain mixture for calves from two to six months of age. Raising calves by weaning at sixty days of age and subsequently feed- ing them grain and alfalfa hay is more economical than feeding skimmilk, grain and hay until the animals are six months old. Silage Investigations (A. C. Ragsdale, M. H. Forhman). — A compari- Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 23 son of the loss of nutrients in the silo and in the field was continued. The weather during the winter of 1918-1919 was mild and there was more rain- fall than during the previous winter, and while not exactly normal, it may be said the grain left in the field was subject to average conditions. The mice damaged somewhat that part of the grain which remained in the field longest. Sip age Experiment 3, 1918-1919 Data on four shocks of Learning corn left in the field Pile or shock No. Original weight Percent grain Weight when taken out Percent shrunk Weight into Silo Corn Water Total Lbs. Lbs. S 733.5 12.8 336.5 54.87 352.25 390.0 742.25 6 698.0 12.8 315.0 54.1 Put in Silo 4/4/19 7 706.5 12.8 253.25 *64.2 244.0 305.25 549.25 8 737.0 12.8 276.0 *62.5 *Some loss due to mice. The silage from shocks 4 and 5 which were put into the silo December 6, 1918, were dried out thoroly and water was added on the basis of corn 1.00 to water 1.11. When taken out of the silo May 14, 1919, some of the water settled to the bottom making the lower part of the silage wet. All of this silage kept excellently, was bright in color, had a sharp acid taste and was very palatable. Shocks 7 and 8, which were put into the silo April 4, 1919, were in good condition, except that the mice had damaged the corn somewhat. Water was added on the basis of corn 1.00, water 1.25. When removed from the silo, May 14, 1919, silage was bright and very palatable, moisture evenly distributed, and all kept in excellent condition. The corn from four shocks, Numbers 1 , 2, 3, and 4, was put into dif- ferent silos October 2, 1918. Corn was in good condition, about right for the silo but rather uneven, some being dented and some in the dough. Silage from the first silo was removed December 5, 1918, the silage being very good, altho a bit dry. The silage from the second silo was removed April 3, 1919, and was in excellent condition altho a little dry. It was not cut quite fine enough. Work on sweet clover was continued. A sample of sweet clover silage was secured for examination, and was of excellent quality, very palatable, and was readily consumed by cattle. More data were secured and the conclusion reached that ears of corn too soft for cribbing can be stored and preserved in the silo. Some late corn which was retarded in growth by dry weather in the summer was in the milk stage at silo filling time and was used for the soft corn test, as representative of the condition in which so-called soft corn is usually 24 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 caught by frost. The corn kept perfectly, had an acid taste, shrinkage was small, and there was no waste. Additional data on silage from corn with ears removed were secured by the use of a small experimental silo. The silo was filled October 2, 1918, and when removed May 13, 1919, the silage had kept perfectly except for some white mold in the bottom and at the edge in a few places. This may have been due to the fact that silage was not cut fine enough. The tests on the yield of special silage corn compared with regular field varieties, begun in 1917, were continued. The season was unfavorable and as a result the yield of all was much decreased. Weights were taken by cutting and weighing certain rows running the entire length of the field. The data on the varieties used is given in the following table: Data on Varieties oe Corn Used eor Sieage — 1918 Variety Yield per • Acre Percentage Percentage Percentage Grain only Water Air-dry matter Grain Stover Water Air-dry matter Eureka 16.680 ft 67.0 33.0 10.7 89.3 59.1 40.9 Cocke’s Prolific 19.320 lb 66.6 33.4 7.9 92.1 53.7 46.3 Biggs Seven Ear 15.300 lb 65.4 34.5 13.1 86.9 47.0 53.0 Ceaming 11.940 lb 66.7 33.3 9.1 90.0 42.2 The Chemistry of Churning (L. S. Palmer). — A limited amount of ex- perimental work, only, was done on this project during the past year. Further observations were made regarding the character of the emul- sion in cream and butter, respectively. It was found that cream which was treated with 17.5 per cent of strong acetone solution of Sudan III and Fuchsin, that the fat globules readily took up the red Sudan III stain and the casein particles the purple Fuchsin stain. Under the microscope the cream thus stained showed the red fat globules in an aqueous field contain- ing particles of purple colored protein. When this cream was churned and washed like normal cream the resulting butter gave the microscopic picture of clear aqueous drops, many of which contained particles of pur- ple colored protein, in a field of red stained fat. The experiment was re- peated several times with the same result. It seems to confirm Fischer’s theory that milk and cream are emulsions of fat in an aqueous media con- taining protein, but butter is the opposite type of emulsion, namely one of protein solution in fat, the process of churning being changing from one type of emulsion to the other. ENTOMOLOGY An Investigation to Determine the Life-History, Development and Habits of the Corn-Ear Worm and Practical Methods of Controlling Its Ravages (L. Haseman, K. C. Sullivan). — During the summer an experi- mental plot of corn was grown at Columbia to determine the effect of dust- Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 25 ing and spraying on the corn-ear worm. Three varieties of sweet corn, one variety of pop corn, and five varieties of field corn were used. These varieties were used in the test to find out, if possible, the relative suscep- tibility to the attacks of the corn-ear worm. Dusts were applied twice, and two sprays of different strengths were applied. The year’s results indicate that it is cheaper to dust than to spray, and there was much less damage to the treated than to the untreated corn. Dusting and spraying did not entirely keep the corn-ear worm from working. Injurious Insect Pests of Melon and Related Crops (L. Haseman, K. C Sullivan). — Watermelons, muskmelons, cucumbers, squashes and pumpkins were grown on the Entomological .experiment field and the study of the different pests attacking these crops was made. The melon aphis, also the striped cucumber beetle, the squash stink bug and squash vine borer re- ceived special attention. Nicotine sulphate was found to control effectively Testing various sprays on vegetables at the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station. the melon aphis. An arsenate spray made by mixing two pounds of ar- senate of lead in fifty gallons of water gave very good results where ap- plied early enough as a control of the striped cucumber beetle. An at- tempt was made to control the squash stink bug by using contact sprays, including a miscible oil, nicotine sulphate and two proprietary chemicals. While none of these sprays was entirely effective, the nicotine sulphate gave the best results. A Study of the Life Cycle of the Codling Moth and the Best Time and Method of Applying Insecticides for Controlling It (L. Haseman, K. C. Sullivan). — In May, 1918, a test was made in the Station orchards to deter- mine the pressure and the kind of nozzle to be used in applying a spray. A standard Bordeaux nozzle and an angled disc nozzle were used at the varying pressures of 200 pounds, 145 pounds and 85 pounds. The spray used was arsenate of lead. In the fall apples were picked and the results are indicated in the following table: 26 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 Nozzle Pressure Per Cent Endworms Bordeaux nozzle 200 lbs. 11.01 Disc nozzle 200 lbs. 8.74 Bordeaux nozzle 145 lbs. 8.80 Disc nozzle 145 lbs. 3.09 Bordeaux nozzle 85 lbs. 2.31 Disc nozzle 85 lbs. 1.89 An Investigation to Determine What Insects Are Injurious to Nur- sery Stock in the State, Their Life Histories, Distribution, Injury and Meth- ods of Control (L. Haseman, K. C. Sullivan). — San Jose scale is the most important nursery stock pest in Missouri. The San Jose scale, however, has been practically eradicated from Missouri nurseries. In 1915-16, twenty-four nurseries were found infested with this scale. In 1916-17, twenty-two were found infested. In 1917-18, fifteen were found infested, and in 1918-19, the number was reduced to two. These striking results have been secured by: First, a careful and thoro inspection of every nur- sery of the state during the growing season. Where infested stock was found, it was destroyed. Second, closer cooperation between the nursery- man and those in charge of the work in the destruction of infested stock and in spraying, fumigating and dipping of all stock where there was the least possibility of being infested. Third, by keeping the nursery premises free from all plants which might serve as a host and harbor the San Jose scale. FARM CROPS Cultural Experiments With Soybeans (W. C. Etheridge, C. A. Helm). — Results from experiments to find the relation between yield and the rate and method of seeding, were: 1. Soybeans planted in rows spaced 42 inches and 32 inches apart, and under each spacing planted at the rate of 15, 20, 25 and 30 pounds to the acre, showed no substantial differences in yields of either seed or hay. 2. When planted in rows spaced 16 inches apart all rates of seeding — 15, 20, 25 and 30 pounds to the acre — gave yields of hay and seed mate-, rially lower than those from rows spaced 32 and 42 inches apart. 3. Seeding at the rates of 40, 50, 60 and 90 pounds to the acre, in 8-inch (grain drill) rows, gave yields of seed and hay which were insignifi- cant when compared to yields from seeding at the lower rates in 32 and 42-inch rows. These results are of much practical significance, indicating as they do that a moderate rate of seeding soybeans, 15 to 20 pounds to the acre in rows spaced the distance of ordinary corn rows, is likely to give maximum yields of both seed and hay. Such a crop is easily planted and cultivated with the ordinary corn machinery. A Study of the Cultural Requirements and Adaptations of Sudan Grass (W. C. Etheridge, C. A. Helm).— At Columbia a crop of Sudan grass sown May 1 at the rate of 5 pounds of seed to the acre, in rows spaced 3 feet apart, gave from three cuttings a total yield of 10.2 tons of cured hay Another crop sown at the same time, with a grain drill (the rows spaced Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 27 8 inches apart), at the rate of 25 pounds of seed to the acre, yielded from three cuttings a total of 9.3 tons of cured hay. The method of seeding this crop produced a finer quality of hay (due to the smaller stems) altho a lower yield than was produced by the other crop seeded in wider rows. A summer sown (July 10) crop of Sudan grass produced only one cutting, that of 1.6 tons to the acre. At Warrensburg a crop sown July 12 gave from its single cutting a yield of 1.1 tons. The proper way to secure a good yield oi sc ybean hay from a catch-crop sown after wheat. Above: Soybeans sown on wheat stubble which had been disked. Below: Soy- beans sown on wheat stubble which had been given a light top-dressing of manure, then plowed and harrowed. Under the first treatment the acre yield was less than one-quarter of a ton of bean hay, crabgrass and weeds. Under the second treatment the acre yield was. one and one-half tons of clean bean hay with well-developed seed pods 28 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 A Study of the Adaptations of the Important Varieties and Selections of Cowpeas to the Various Soil Types of the State (W. C. Etheridge, C. A. Helm). — Ten varieties of cowpeas were tested at Columbia for seed and hay. In view of the fact that soybeans are rapidly displacing cowpeas in Missouri it is interesting to make the following comparison of the yields of the best six varieties of each crop: Soybeans Bushels i of seed per acre Taha 21.87 Ebony 19.69 Sable 18.97 Morse 18.15 No. 612 17.60 Mikado 17.49 Average 18.96 Soybeans Tons of cured hay per acre Taha 4.60 Chiquita 3.87 Buster Brown .... 3.49 Tarheel Yellow ~ 3.42 Arlington 3.40 Sable 2.53 Average 3.47 Cowpeas Bushels of seed per acre Groit New Era Cream Early Ramshorn .. Iron 13.77 12.69 11.77 9.75 9.28 Black 8.10 Average 10.89 Cowpeas Tons of cured hay per acre Brabham 3.86 Groit 3.61 Black 3.60 Clay 3.50 Whippoorwill 3.44 Red Ripper 3.23 Average 3.54 It is evident from these data that soybeans will heavily outyield cow- peas in seed. The hay yields of the two crops were nearly the same, but the abundant seed production of soybeans makes the hay of this crop much more valuable, pound for pound, than cowpea hay. A Study of the Adaptations of the Important Varieties of Wheat for Missouri Conditions (W. C. Eetheridge, C. A. Helm). — In 1918, tests of commercial varieties of wheat were conducted only at Warrensburg and Maryville. At Maryville the varieties were so thoroly winter-killed that no yields were secured. The following data show the yields of the leading varieties at Warrensburg: Variety Jones Red Wave Michigan Wonder Fulcaster 15 Michigan Amber Harvest King Bushels of grain per acre 24.4 21.6 20.9 19.5 18.8 There was a difference of 13.2 bushels between the acre yields of the highest and the lowest yielding varieties. This is a striking illustration of the importance of varietal adaptation. A Study of the Important Varieties of Oats for Missouri Conditions (W. C. Etheridge). — Commercial varieties of oats were tested at Warrens- hurg and at Maryville. The Warrensburg crop was poor; the Maryville Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 29 crop good; which is the usual result with oats in these sections. The data on yields follow and show that Texas Red and Burt, medium early varieties, were outstanding in their yields in both sections: Variety Bushels of grain i per acre Warrensburg Maryville Texas Red 10.9 60.8 Burt 17.0 53.2 Kherson 7.7 48.6 Silvermine 12.5 53.1 White Shonen 7.1 44.5 American Banner 9.6 36.3 Swedish Select 10.9 53.4 A Study of the Adaptations of the Important Varieties of Spring Bar- ley for Missouri Conditions (W. C. Etheridge). — -In the favorable season of 1918, spring barley yielded an average of 20.6 bushels an acre at Colum- bia, and 37.0 bushels at Maryville. Of two varieties tested, Oderbrucker was the better in each section. Accumulating results are indicating that spring barley is a fairly safe crop for north Missouri; an uncertain crop for central Missouri, succeeding here only in favorable seasons; and gen- erally a failure in south Missouri. A Study of the Adaptations of the Important Varieties of Cotton for the Southeast Missouri Lowlands (W. C. Etheridge, C. A. Helm). — A suc- cessful comparison of six important types of cotton was carried out in 1918. The late fall of last season was relatively favorable to the varieties which require the longest possible growing season. As the following data will show, Cleveland Big Boll and Mebane Triumph, both late, big boiled types, outyielded the early, small boiled types, King Improved and Simp- kins Prolific. Variety Mebane Triumph Simpkins Prolific Cleveland Big Boll .. Webber Long Staple King Improved Boykin Cultural Experiments With Cotton (W. O .Etheridge).— In the spring of 1918, the fertilizer tests with cotton were renewed in connection with a cropping system of corn, cotton and legumes. In beginning the system, fertilizer was applied to cotton on land which has not in recent years re- ceived a stock of organic material from the crops produced. All plant material except the stubble has been removed from the land. The follow- ing yields resulted: Fertilizer Treatment per acre 300 lbs. acid phosphate 35 lbs. potassium chloride No fertilizer 300 lbs. acid phosphate .... 200 lbs. acid phosphate .. Pounds of lint per acre 436 390 430 423 Pounds of lint per acre 395 324 374 297 319 338 30 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 Factors Influencing the Development of the Maize Plant. — Field stud- ies of the plant (W. C. Etheridge, E. M. McDonald). — Studies of the effect of an associated growth of soybeans on the development and yield of corn were successfully continued thru a season of extreme drouth. As in 1917 , a material growth of beans, by whatever method combined with corn, always caused a material reduction in the yield of corn. Beans planted late, by any method and in any manner, in all cases failed to make a mate- rial growth and had no effect on the yield of corn. Wheat Breeding Investigations Including the Improvement of Commer- cial Varieties by the Pure Line Method of Breeding and Hybridization and Subsequent Selection (W. C. Etheridge, L. J. Stadler). — In general this project is making good progress. Hybrids and pure line selections made at this Station are yearly compared with a large number of other hybrids and selections and commercial varieties. By yearly elimination of the less worthy kinds, the strains of outstanding merit are rapidly being narrowed to a small group. Within a year or two seed stocks of a few of the best strains will be increased for a wider test in various parts of the state. The comparative value of some of the selected strains may be suggested by the case of Fulcaster Selection 8-Y, which during the years 1914 to 1918 in- clusive, yielded a yearly average of 6.1 bushels more to the acre than the commercial variety from which it was selected. A Study of Certain Spring, Summer and Fall Sown Crops for Forage (W. C. Etheridge, C. A . Helm). — In the season of 1918 , summer sown forages gave the following yields at Columbia and Warrensburg: Crop Tons cured hay per acre Columbia Warrensburg Sudan grass 1.58 1.12 Sudan grass and soybeans 1 22 2.48 Amber sorghum 2.41 Amber, sorghum and soybeans .. 2.88 3.30 Amber sorghum and cowpeas 2.44 Kaffir and cowpeas 2.63 Cowpeas .... 1.39 Soybeans 1.06 Millet and cowpeas 0.68 Millet and soybeans 0.81 The fall sown forages at Columbia yielded as follows: rye, 0 . 61 ; rye and winter vetch, 0 . 93 ; winter vetch, 0.75 tons of cured hay per acre. At both Columbia and Warrensburg a mixture of oats and Canada field peas was the best of the spring sown forages, yielding in cured hay 1.51 and 1.86 tons. Cultural Experiments With Corn (W. C. Etheridge). — The investiga- tion of cultural methods for corn was continued in 1918 at the Maryville and Warrensburg fields. The season was extremely unfavorable; one of the most severe drouths in the history of the state caused a practical failure of the corn crop in both of the sections in which the investigation was car- ried out. Yields produced under various cultural treatments follow: Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 31 Treatment Yield per acre Warrensburg Maryville Corn, surface planted, 3 shallow cul- tivations - 0.42 bu. 1.67. bu. Corn, surface planted, 4 shallow cul- tivations 0.39 bu. 3.71 bu. Corn, surface, planted, 3 deep cul- tivations - 4.97 bu. Corn, list planted, 3 shallow cultiva- tions 0.43 bu. Corn, surface planted, surface scraped 5 times 0.57 bu. 8.44 bu. Corn, surface planted, no cultivation.... . 0 The most significant result is that from fiequent scraping of the sur- face. This method of cultivation while extremely shallow, kept the crop much cleaner than the deeper, less frequent cultivations, and by its greater efficiency in the removal of competitive plants (weeds and grass) made a much more favorable condition for the growth of corn in a season of ex- treme drouth. A Study of the Adaptation of the Important Varieties and Selections of Soybeans to the Various Soil Types of the State (W. C. Etheridge, O. A. Helm). — Thirty-one varieties and selected strains of soybeans were tested at Columbia in 1918. Some of the leading varieties of this group were tested also at Kennett, Maryville, Warrensburg, and Kirksville. The yields of the best six varieties at Columbia follow: Variety Bushels of seed Variety Tons of cured per acre hay per acre Taha 24.97 Taha 4.16 Ebony 19.69 Chiquita 3.87 Sable 18.97 Buster Brown 3.49 Morse 18.15 Tarheel Yellow .... 3.42 No. 612 17.60 Arlington 3.40 Mikado 17.49 Sable 2.53 At Warrensburg, Mikado, Morse and Medium Yellow were the leading varieties among six tested. Their respective yields were 6.82, 5.46 and 5.19 bushels to the acre. Chiquita, Mikado, and Morse were the leading varie- ties for hay, yielding respectively 3.42, 2.55 and 2.46 tons to the acre. At Maryville, Virginia, Black Beauty and Wilson were the leading seed varieties. Their respective yields were 4.46, 4.10, and 4.10 bushels to the acre. No yields of hay were secured. At Kirksville, Wilson, Morse and Medium Yellow gave the best yields, these being in the order of varieties, 4.02, 2.68, and 1.34 bushels to the acre. As at Maryville, no yields of hay were recorded. Investigations With Winter Oats, Including Variety Tests and Im- provement (W. C. Etheridge, C. A. Helm). — Seed of a few plants which survived the winter of 1917-18 were planted at Columbia, in the fall of 1918. No plants survived the winter. Since repeated trials of winter oats at Columbia and in south Missouri have clearly demonstrated their failure in average seasons, and their barely moderate success in unusually favor- able seasons, this project is now closed with the conclusion that winter oats are not to be regarded as a useful and reliable crop in this state. 32 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 FARM MANAGEMENT General Plans of Farm Organization and Operation in Different Sec- tions of the State (R. M. Green). — Records from southwest Dade County and northwest Saline County were tabulated, from the standpoint of what farmers are able to do with different amounts of capital. The two regions under study represent respectively a typical grain section of the state where wheat is a principal crop, and a typical livestock feeding section where corn is the main crop but is marketed largely thru livestock. The farms in the Saline county area whose operators had in 1914 only $2,500 capital or less, have been studied. Fifty-six such farms were studied. Only three farmers out of fifty-six with this small amount of capital were owners, and these three farmers fell in the lowest income group. Of the fifty-six farms, thirty-one were making an average labor income of $269.19 each. The other twenty-five farms averaged $1,083.46 labor income each. This difference in income in favor of the more successful farms was ac- counted for as follows: Larger crop yields 30.0 per cent Larger size of enterprise 29.4 per cent Saving in running expenses 15.5 per cent Better net returns from livestock 11.4 per cent More acres in farm 11.0 per cent Less interest charge on investment 2.2 per cent Larger price for crop sold 0.5 per cent Utilization of Labor on the Farm (R. M. Green). — A study of the fluctuation in amount of labor done month by month on different farms is being made. On the farms studied in 1917 actual fluctuations varied from 8.8 per cent on a 320-acre farm to 37.4 per cent on a 240-acre farm in an adjoining county. The first farm has been more successful in fitting to- gether its livestock and crop enterprises, and the other necessary mainte- nance and miscellaneous farm work. This farm is paying a hired man $80.00 a month, furnishing him a house and other accommodations. A good cropping system, hog feeding, production of some purebred hogs, and a herd of purebred Shorthorn cattle are worked together in a very suc- cessful farm business. A small flock of sheep has been recently added to the business without requiring the addition of any extra help. HORTICULTURE Peach Breeding for Hardy Sorts (V. R. Gardner). — Fruit buds on many of the seedling trees that have been produced in the course of this investigation survived the winter for the first time since they have reached bearing age. The trees showed great variations in hardiness and suitable records on this point were made in the spring of 1919. Tho many buds were killed by freezing, most of the trees will bear some fruit this year and some will bear a full crop. Suitable records will be made of tree and fruit characters of each plant as this season advances. Furthermore, advantage will be taken of the opportunity to secure a large number of seeds for sec- ond-generation trees. Fortunately, weather conditions have been such that Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 33 considerable progress upon this project is possible during the calendar year of 1919. Fruit Bud Development of Fruit Trees Influenced by Treatment (H. D. Hooker). — Research bulletin 32, Some Factors Favoring or Opposing Fruitfulness in Apples, has been issued. The project is being continued along related lines but from a new angle. Approximately 350 young apple trees are being subjected to various pruning treatments and chemical anal- yses of the fruit spurs are being made with a view to finding means of af- fecting fruit-bud development and observing the synchronous alterations in the chemical composition of the fruit spurs. A chemical study is being made of the spurs of mature trees, some bearing heavily, others bearing little or no fruit. The Nutrition of Fruits With Special Reference to Their Hardiness (V. R. Gardner, H. D. Hooker). — -A study of the nutrition of the straw- berry and the apple is being made, which involves both experimental treat- ment and chemical analyses. Spurs of young apple trees under treatment are being analyzed with respect to total nitrogen, ash, phosphorus, potash, moisture, reducing sug- ars, non-reducing sugars, starch, polysaccharides, total acidity, and hydro- gen ion concentration. The changes in chemical composition produced by treatment are being noted with a view to gaining a knowledge of favor- able and unfavorable metabolic conditions. The same determinations are being made in fruit spurs of full-grown apple trees collected at regular intervals during the year. The samples are taken from trees which represent a wide variety of metabolic states. Other trees are being treated with fertilizer to bring about extreme conditions. The phase of this project dealing with the fertilization and nutrition of the strawberry is being continued. Thru the use of fertilizers, different soil types, and shading experiments, an attempt is being made to control nutritive conditions within the plant. Records of general plant behavior together with chemical analyses should serve (1) to throw light upon the conditions within the plant that are associated with vegetative activities, fruit-bud formation, and fruit production, and (2) to suggest methods of culture useful in securing the best balance between vegetative and repro- ductive activities from a production standpoint. A Study of the Factors Influencing the Rest Period of Horticultural Plants (H. D. Hooker). — The study of the factors influencing the rest period of horticultural plants has been confined to the peach during the past year. Chemical analyses and microscopic examination of nodes with buds that survived and with buds that died from the cold last winter have been made to find the condition of metabolic equilibrium that favors hardiness. Determinations of total nitrogen, total ash, phosphorus, potash, moisture, reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, starch, polysaccharides, total acidity and hydrogen ion concentration were made. Microchemical tests for nitrates, starch, protein and sugars have also been made. A plot of 105 peach trees on the Experiment Station grounds is being given fourteen different kinds of pruning treatment. At the same time chemical analyses of the new growth under each of the different treat- ments are being made to determine the effect of treatment on the physiolo- 34 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 gical condition of the trees. This will be correlated with the ability of the various lots of trees to withstand the cold next winter. Transplanting Investigations With Vegetables (J. T. Rosa, Jr.). — Dur- ing the past year this project has been followed closely with a series of plants in field and greenhouse. One hundred and ten samples have been gathered for chemical analysis and a large number for sectioning and staining. Considerable time has been spent in determining hydrogen ion concentration and acidity of the sap of plants subjected to various degrees of hardening off. It has been found that the condition of hardiness in plants can be brought about as effectively by withholding moisture or by decreasing supply of available plant food, as by exposure to low tempera- ture. Positive differences in behavior of plants in the field have been ob- served in point of vegetative growth and fruitfulness. At the same time, data of practical value to the truckgrower are being accumulated, relative to methods of transplanting vegetable plants. Cooperative Tomato Investigations (J. T. Rosa, Jr.). — Work was be- gun in accordance with the outline of the project. Series of fertilizer tests have been placed with one grower in Livingston, three in St. Louis, three in Greene, three in Newton, four in Howell counties. Use of straw mulch is being tested cooperatively by several growers in St. Louis County. Several growers have agreed to use seed selected from their own fields, such selections to be made under direction and with the assistance of the vegetable specialist. Four growers in Howell, two in Newton, and one in Greene counties are testing varieties adapted for canning purposes. Seed of wilt-resistant varieties has been distributed to thirty-one growers in the state who suffered loss from this disease last year. Arrangements have been made with a cannery at Neosho to pulp selected tomato fruit, returning the seed to the growers in good condition, and paying the grower for the pulp. Several fields have been offered by growers for the purpose of making seed selections for local adjustment, as well as resistance to wilt and blossom-end rot. POULTRY HUSBANDRY The Relation of Plant Carotinoids to Poultry Production — Relation to growth, fecundity and reproduction (H. L. Kempster, L. S. Palmer). — White Leghorn chicks have been raised from hatching to maturity on ra- tions containing the merest traces, if not entirely devoid, of plant caroti- noids. The full-grown hens have shown normal fecundity, and no abnor- malities with respect to fertility and hatchability have developed. A second generation of chicks, free from carotinoids at hatching, has been started with every evidence of being normal except for the absence of yellow pig- mentation of the skin. It is concluded that the natural yellow pigment of fowls which is derived from the xanthophyll of the food bears no impor- tant relation to fecundity and reproduction, at least for one generation. Physiological relation between fecundity and the natural pigmentation of certain breeds of fowls. — Cockerels fed on a carotinoid-free ration when fed xanthophyll immediately began to show yellow pigmentation of the Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 35 visible skin parts and male birds with yellow shanks, beaks, etc., when given rations devoid of xanthophyll, gradually lost the yellow pigmentation until it finally disappeared. Histological examination of the skin shows the xanthophyll to be deposited in the epidermis, of the skin, beak, shanks, and ear lobes, largely in a granular form with little or no fat associated with it. It is found chiefly in the rete of the Malphigi but also along the blood capillaries of the subcutaneous tissue. As fading occurs the gradual movement of the pigment (xanthophyll) is toward the surface where it is worn off by reason of the normal replacement of the outer cells by those lower down, or is oxidized (decolorized) because of the closer contact with air. The shanks of laying hens fade when fecundity occurs. If the fecun- dity is continuous, the shanks of yellow-skinned varieties will in time be entirely free from pigment. Hens which had been raised from hatching to maturity on carotinoid-free rations and were laying eggs free from caroti- noids were fed rations rich in xanthophyll. It was observed that no mat- ter how rich the ration was in xanthophyll, it was impossible for the hen to accumulate yellow pigment in her shanks. Even the body fat failed to take up xanthophyll. The results of this experiment indicate that former explanations of why the shanks, beak, ear lobes, etc., of yellow-skinned varieties of fowls fade when laying occurs are unsatisfactory. The hypothesis which has been advanced and generally accepted in explanation of the relationship which has been observed between fecundity and pigmentation is that the growth of the egg abstracts pigments from the body tissue with the re- sulting negative correlation between egg production and the quantity of yellow pigment present in the ear lobes, beak, shanks, etc. The fading of the above-mentioned parts during fecundity is due to the fact that fecun- dity deflects the normal path of excretion of the xanthophyll from these parts of the egg yolk. The fading of the ear lobes, shanks, etc., as a result of laying is an indication of continuous fecundity only, and not heavy egg laying, while yellow color in these parts at the end of the laying season indicates intermittent fecundity or a more or less recent loss of fecundity for a period of time sufficient for the xanthophyll to be restored to body. Birds which stop laying soon accumulate xanthophyll in the beak, ear- lobes, and shanks while the fading is as rapid with mediocre as with heavy laying. Influence of specific feeds and certain pigments on the color of egg yolk and body fat of fowls. — Chickens which had been raised from hatching to maturity on rations devoid of carotinoids were fed certain pigments and feeds and the following observations were noted: Carotin and the orange yellow pigment of the annotto seed are with- out influence on the color of the adipose tissue and visible skin parts of fowls. Sudan III colors the adipose tissue only of non-laying fowls. It also colors the egg yolk, but is without effect on the visible skin parts of non- laying or laying fowls. Xanthophyll, fed in the form of yellow corn, has an immediate effect on the color of the adipose tissue and visible skin parts of fowls of the type of the White Leghorn. 36 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 The relative xanthophyll content of various chicken feeds was tested by feeding to laying hens raised on carotinoid-free rations and laying eggs with xanthophyll-free yolks. Yellow corn and green feed were found to be rich in xanthophyll and showed highly colored yolks after a period of three weeks. A little coloration of egg yolks was observed by feeding hemp seed, barley, gluten feed and red corn. Wheat, wheat bran, oats, cot- tonseed meal, rape seed, meat scrap, and blood meal were found to contain negligible quantities of xanthophyll, as indicated by the color of the egg yolks which were faintly tinted with yellow after a period of four weeks. Value of Sour Milk, Beef Scrap, Cottonseed Meal, Gluten Meal, and Oil Meal in Rations for Egg Production (H. L. Kempster). — During* 1918-19, a study of cottonseed meal as compared with meat scrap was made. Ten pens of White Leghorn hens were used in this test. Each pen contained ten hens, which were selected on the basis of their trap nest records. They were fed rations, the mash of which contained either meat scrap or cottonseed meal, or neither, in varying amounts.. The scratch feed was the same for all pens. Meat scrap, or cottonseed meal, was added to a basal mash of 2.2 pounds bran and 4.4 pounds shorts. Pen Protein Concentrates Eggs Grain Mash Lbs. feed to added to basal mash produce 1 doz. eggs 1 Meat scrap, 3.4 lbs 1135 509 318 8.7 2 Cottonseed meal, 6.0 lbs 378 493 169 21. 3 Cottonseed meal, 6.0 lbs. Bone meal, 0.66 lbs 676 467 195 12. 4 595 343 254 12. 5 Meat scrap, 1.13 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 4.02 lbs 1063 462 242 8.1 6 Meat scrap, 1.13 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 4.02 lbs. Bone meal, 0.66 lbs 998 474 224 8.37 7 Meat scrap, 1.13 lbs 1045 487 255 8.55 8 Meat scrap, 2.26 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 2.0 lbs 1099 468 205 7.5 9 Meat scrap, 2.26 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 2.0 lbs. Bone meal, 0.66 lbs 1151 484 240 7.5 10 Meat scrap, 2.26 lbs 1052 460 232 8.01 It is observed that the most economical egg production came from the pens in which the mash contained approximately 25 per cent meat scrap. The use of cottonseed meal as a supplement to meat scrap appar- ently did not materially increase egg production. In Pen 2, where cotton- seed meal alone was fed, a deleterious effect was observed. The egg pro- duction was 22 eggs per hen less than in Pen 4, where no protein concen- trate was added to the basal mash. Results for this experiment from No- vember, 1918, to June 30, 1919, are given below. As in the previous experiment, the efficiency of the ration depends upon including a protein concentrate from animal sources. Where no ani- mal food was used it required from 12.3 to 14.25 pounds of grain to pro- duce a dozen eggs, and when animal food was fed the amount of feed required ranged from 8.25 to 9.05 pounds. Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 37 Pen Protein Concentrates Eggs Grain Mash Lbs. feed to 1 added to basal mash Meat scrap, 3.3 lbs 747 425 200 produce 1 doz. eggs 10.05 2 Meat scrap, 3.3 lbs 976 415 259 8.25 3 560 370 2'96 14.26 4 588 385 272 14.1 5 Meat scrap, 1.13 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 4.02 lbs 720 380 227 10.27 6 No-protein concentrate plus bone ash 594 375 241 12.3 7 Meat scrap, 1.13 lbs 865 380 225 8.4 8 Meat scrap, 2.27 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 2.0 lbs 770 385 232 9.3 9 Sour milk given as a drink 745 464 96.7 9.0 10 Meat scrap, 2.27 lbs 729 370 329 9.0 As in the previous experiment, the use of cottonseed meal did not increase the efficiency of the ration. Sour milk appears to be equal to meat scrap, altho in the foregoing figures the amount of milk is not included. SOILS Crop Rotation and Fertilizer Experiments (M. F. Miller, R. R. Hudd- son, F. L. Duley). — The 1918 crop was the twenty-ninth grown in this ex- periment. It was a good season for wheat, but very hot and dry for other crops. The six-year rotation plots were in wheat and the records show very good results for the various methods of soil management. Treatment Yield, bushels per acre Six-year rotation with chemicals to make 40 bu. wheat 34.18 Six-year rotation with half chemicals and half manure 39.20 Six-year rotation with manure and rock phosphate 33.48 Six-year rotation with manure and bone meal 38.50 Six-year rotation with manure and acid phosphate 38.97 Six-year rotation with manure alone 34.30 Six-year rotation with no fertility added 10.80 38 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 Plots 22 and 23 which have been in timothy for twenty-nine years gave striking testimony to the value of manure on grass. Plot 22, which gets six tons manure annually, yielded 2240 pounds good quality hay, while plot 23 with no fertility added yielded only 490 pounds hay, about half weeds. Determination of the Relative Values of Different Forms of Phosphorus Upon the Soil at Columbia (M. F. Miller, R. R. Hudelson, F. L. Duley). — This project was continued according to plan and a crop of clover har- vested. Arranged in order of yield beginning with the highest, the differ- ent phosphates stand as follows: Calcined phosphate, acid phosphate, basic slag, rock phosphate, bone meal. The Effect of Different Amounts and Different Methods of Applying Commercial Fertilizer on the Corn Crop (M. F. Miller, R. R. Hudelson, F. L. Duley). — The records for 1918, which is the third year of this experi- ment, bear out those of the preceding year in showing the best yield where 300 pounds of fertilizer was drilled ahead of the planter with an ordinarv grain fertilizer drill. Next in order was the use of 50 to 75 pounds of fertilizer in the row with the fertilizer attachment on the corn planter. This was contrary to the preceding year’s records. One hundred and fifty pounds in the row was too much and caused a reduction in the yield. Fer- tilizer applied along the row at the second and third cultivations was only fairly satisfactory during this season. The Effect of Cowpea Land Handled in Various Ways on the Growth of Wheat Following (M. F. Miller, R. R. Hudelson, F. L. Duley). — The 1917 cowpea crop made practically no growth due to drouthy conditions. The 1918 wheat yields were as follows: Treatment Yield, bushels per acre Peas removed, land disked and rolled 13.65 Peas removed, land disked but not rolled 16.68 Plowed early, but no peas sown 11.91 Peas plowed under, disked and rolled 14.08 Peas disked under, land rolled 13.86 The land without cowpeas shows a consistently lower yield thruout the experiment. The Production and Distribution of Bacteria for Legumes (Wm. A. Albrecht). — During the year legume cultures were distributed to 1,225 dif- ferent farmers. A total of 7,764 cultures were sent out. These were for many different legumes, distributed as follows: Soybeans 4,474 Alfalfa : 1,769 Sweet clover : 658 Cowpeas 1 454 Red clover 269 Canada peas 63 Velvet bean 51 Field pea 5 Alsike clover 13 Navy bean 6 Peanut 2 7,764 Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 39 As a result of this project, with its distribution of information, the new legumes are being carefully inoculated and better success obtained. Re- ports from inquiries sent to the farmers indicate that the cultures have been highly successful. Experiments to Determine the Value of Bat Guano as a Fertilizer (Wm. A. Albrecht). — Since the south half of the state had numerous caves of which many are reported to contain bat guano, it was deemed ad- visable to test the value of this material as a fertilizer, especially for its value as a carrier of nitrogen. The state has been surveyed for the caves and samples of guano were collected and analyzed. Great variations in composition of the material were found, especially in its nitrogen. Irregularities are due to four factors: (1) Rock and extraneous matter, (2) moisture variations, (3) age or stage of decomposition, and (4) leaching. Significant deposits were found and the owners interested in marketing them for fertilizer. Fertilizer tests and decomposition were made on a good grade of guano. In comparison with dried blood and tankage its ammonia produc- tion in soil was the equal of these two common fertilizer ingredients. In producing nitrates it was not the equal of blood but superior to tankage. In pot culture of oats guano supplying 100 pounds of nitrogen per acre was the equivalent of dried blood and tankage applied at twice that rate, or ammonium sulfate put on at the same rate. In field tests with oats the following increases in yields were obtained: Increase per acre 200-pound application of air-dry guano 4.09 bushels 400-pound application of air-dry guano 4.45 bushels 100-pound application ammonium sulfate 0.32 bushels Fertilizer tests indicate that good bat guano is an excellent fertilizer and should be used whenever it can be obtained at reasonable cost. Studies on the Longevity of P. Radicicola in the Soil (Wm. A. Al- brecht). — Pseudomonas radicicola is the bacterium which produces the nodules on the roots of the legumes and enables these plants to feed on the nitrogen of the atmosphere in addition to that in the soil. When the proper bacteria are not present, the soil must be inoculated or the bacteria introduced. How long these nodule-producing organisms live in soil when once introduced, or how often artificial inoculation is necessary is an open question. In this study attempt is being made to answer these questions and to see how long the legume bacteria will live in soil under various treatments. Two different soils on which soybeans and red clover had gi own with plenty of nodules were stored under different conditions. Samples were left out of doors protected from contamination. Others were dried in the sunlight, and some in the dark, and later stored so as to be free from chance contamination. At intervals of a half year these soils are planted with their respective legumes whose seeds were sterilized to see if there are enough bacteria in the soil to' produce good root infection. Tests have been run at intervals of six months for the past year and will be continued for some time. The results indicate clearly that even 40 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 tho the soil may have been dried in the sun there are enough viable bacteria to produce as good an infection as the soil which was dried in the dark, or that left out of doors. In gathering an infected soil with which to inocu- late a new field there is no such great danger in exposing this inoculating material to the sun as has once been suggested. Drying in the sunlight and storing in the dry state for six to twelve months seems to have no seriously injurious effect on the inoculating power of the soil as compared to a soil left in its natural condition out of doors. With this fact estab- lished one can gather a well-infected soil in the season when nodules of the legume are plentiful and store that soil in the dry state for use as in- oculating material the next year. The following table giving the nodule production on plants grown in soils differently treated shows that the destructive action by sunlight is not so serious. Treatment Nodules pei plant Soybean Red clover Dried in the sun, stored six months 4 8 Dried in the dark, stored six months 6 8 No treatment, fresh field soil used for test 7 4 Effect of Weathering and Storage Upon the Composition of Barnyard Manure (M. F. Miller, F. L. Duley). — In this experiment one ton of mule manure that had been trampled down in barn during the winter was stored in a galvanized iron pan, ten feet square and six inches deep. Another ton was placed in a similar pan, but a drainage tub was provided to carry away the leachings from rain water. A third ton of the same manure was placed on the ground in a conical pile. The manure was thoroly mixed and sampled at the beginning and again at the end of the experiment. The samples were analyzed for their plant- food value and it was found that after five months’ exposure to the weath- er the manure stored in a pan without drainage or in a conical pile lost about one-third of the dry matter, while the pan having drainage lost 45 per cent of the dry weight. The loss of nitrogen in the conical pile was slightly less than in the undrained pan, but the loss of potash was nearly five times as great. The greatest loss of potash occurred in the drained pan, which roughly represented the condition of an open barnlot. In this case the potassium loss was 47 per cent. It was found from the manure in the drained pan that only a very small amount of nitrogen is lost in the leachings. A much greater amount of this element is lost in a gaseous form to the air thru fermentation. Studies of Water Absorption, Runoff, Percolation, Evaporation, Capil- lary Water Movement and Soil Erosion Under Field Conditions (M. F. Miller, F. L. Duley). — A summary of two years’ results to May 1, 1919, shows that land plowed eight inches deep lost nearly two and one-half times as much soil as land having no cultivation, except that the weeds were pulled. Land plowed four inches deep lost nearly as much as that plowed eight inches deep. This great loss of soil from the deeply plowed land was undoubtedly due to the fact that several of the rains were very heavy and came in downpours. When rains are light and well distributed there is always more erosion as well as much greater runoff from the Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 41 unplowed land. This is due to the greater absorbtive capacity of the loose •soil. The usefulness of deep plowing for preventing erosion, however, will ■depend very largely upon the character of the rainfall. Sod land was mosi •efficient in preventing erosion and at the same time absorbed a greater- percent of the rainfall than any of the other plots. Land in continuous wheat is almost as efficient, but may lose considerable soil when the land is first broken and when the wheat is small. The land having a rotation of corn, wheat and clover has lost very little soil except during the time the land was in corn. The land in continuous corn has lost about the same amount of soil as the uncultivated land, and less than half as much as the land plowed to the same depth and having no crop. About 60 per cent of the rainfall has been absorbed on the uncultivated soil, about 74 per cent on the plowed soil, and about 87 per cent on the •sod land. Nitrate Production in a Soil as Affected by the Crop and Cultivation (Wm. A. Albrecht). — The results of the past two years indicated the fol- lowing: 1. The most significant influence of the crops is that of removing the nitrates. The accumulation of nitrates is related to the growth of the crop. Tor corn, the nitrates increase to considerable concentration until late June and early July, or until the crop makes a vigorous growth, and then they are rapidly exhausted. On soil with grass crop, the nitrates increase in early spring with warming weather, but these are soon reduced to a low level, in fact, so low as to be scarcely detectable. They remain low during the entire season, and increase only in the spring before the growing crop •can draw on them. Oats and wheat exhaust the nitrates most completely hy June. Following the crop there is usually a small increase, but the con- centration never reaches the level attained in the uncropped soil. Low nitrate in cropped soil cannot be due to a toxic inhibition by the plant, but is due to removal since crops like corn allow nitrates to increase until the crop is making its maximum growth. Were the effects of the roots toxic, this increase should not be noticed. 2. Plowing has a very significant effect toward increasing nitrates. The plot which was plowed and kept free of weeds by scraping was con- tinually higher in nitrates than the adjoining plot unplowed and weed-free. Two plots with similar soil treatment but cropped to corn show similar results in accumulations of nitrates previous to the rapid growth of the •corn, but when the crop develops rapidly it removes the nitrates more •completely. This is due to better root penetration by the crop. The fact that plowing increases nitrate production is of much significance to em- phasize early plowing. Plowing early for wheat has perhaps its biggest advantage in causing nitrates to accumulate for some time so as to start the plants vigorously after seeding and thus pass the winter better than on •soil plowed late. 3. Cultivation of the surface soil reduces the nitrate in the upper seven inches of soil. Plots, both the plowed and unplowed, which were scraped to remove weeds, had higher amounts of nitrates present regularly than plants whose surface was cultivated during the season. This may be •due to the removal of moisture from the surface so that layer prohibited nitrate production. Drawing a seven-inch sample gets only a small part of 42 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 the moist soil, too small to give significant amounts even tho the concen- tration may have been greater than that in the uncultivated soil. This in- dicates that tillage may hold down nitrate production in the immediate surface and even in the upper seven inches there may be less nitrates on cultivated soil than in the scraped soil. This indicates that our surface cultivation should be shallow to remove the weeds and allow nitrates to in- crease. Shallow cultivation is better than the deep cultivation so far as the nitrogen feeding of the plants is concerned. 4. The most outstanding result obtained is the depressive effect of the mulch on nitrate accumulation. At no time during two years has the fallow mulched soil contained significant amounts of nitrate nitrogen. The maximum accumulation was 27 pounds following four weeks of very drj weather. Of all the fallow plots this has been the lowest, going no highei than 27 pounds of nitrate nitrogen an acre. Moisture seems to be the factor that is responsible either directly or indirectly by influencing the temperature. The moisture content and the nitrate content are negatively correlated. The average temperature of the mulched soil from June to August 1918 was 25.35° C. as compared to 33.06° C. and 33.92° C. for the fallow plots plowed and unplowed. The low nitrate content of this plot is very characteristic, and mulching could scarcely be good practice with crops that have a high nitrogen need. 5. Nitrates are affected by the rainfall of the season. Long continued rains remove the nitrates, especially in tilled soils, while downpours are not so serious as one might expect. Significant reductions in nitrate fol- low continued rains on open soils. 6. Another interesting fact is the high concentration of nitrates reached in a fallow soil. In 1917 the plowed but uncultivated plot reached a concentration of 204 pounds of nitrogen as nitrate an acre, while in the year following it went as high as 236 pounds of this form of nitrogen. In terms of sodium nitrate this latter figure would be equivalent to more than 1,400 pounds of sodium nitrate to the acre. Such high concentrations em- phasize the activities of the bacteria which produce the nitrate form of nitrogen. Experiments to Determine the Best Systems of Soil Management for the Most Important Soil Types in Missouri (M. F. Miller, F. L. Duley). — The following fields have been in operation during the past fiscal year: Field Name County Soil Type Billings Christian .... Crawford silt loam Cuba* Crawford Lebanon silt loam Chillicothe Livingston Wabash clay Eldorado Springs* Cedar Bates silt loam Hurdlandt Knox Grundy silt loam Kirksville Adair Bindley silt loam Maryville Nodaway Marshall silt loam Morley Scott Sarpy sandy loam Poplar Bluff Butler Waverly silt loam Potage des Sioux . St. Charles Wabash clay St. James Phelps Gerald silt loam Strafford Greene Lebanon gravelly loam Union Union silt loam Vandalia Putnam silt loam Willow Springs Howell Clarksville silt loam Windsor Oswego silt loam 'Established during year. tClosed during year. Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 43 During the year farmers meetings have been held at St. James, Willow Springs and Union. Some other meetings were postponed on account of the wet weather and the farmers getting behind with their work. These meetings are proving one of the best ways to interest farmers in the re- sults of the experiment fields. The meetings are usually held in coopera- tion with the Extension Service and after the farmers are conducted over the field a general meeting is held for discussion and lecture upon various topics. During the year a new field has been established on the Bates silt loam at Eldorado Springs. While no figures have been obtained the wheat showed some very remarkable results from the use of acid phos- phate. Another field was opened at Cuba in Crawford County on the Lebanon silt loam. This field is in conjunction with the work carried on at the same place by the Field Crops department. The results obtained on the various fields have been in harmony with those obtained in previous years. The three things gi\ing most consistent and economic returns are mamue, soluble phosphates, and limestone. An average of the results showing the effect of manure in a four-year rotation applied at the rate of eight tons an acre before corn, is shown in the fol- lowing table: Crop No. of trials Inc. from manure Value at 1918 prices Value at normal prices Corn 61 10.50 bu. $13.12 $ 6.30 Oats 35 5.17 bu. 3.36 2.07 Wheat 57 5.24 bu. 10.48 5.24 Clover 13 937 lbs. 11.71 5.62 Total value of increase Increase for each ton i in four-yeai nanure .... r rotation $38.67 $ 4.83 $19.23 $ 2.40 Bone meal has increased the yield of wheat by 5.5 bushels an acre, and corn 4.3 bushels. This would mean an increase of approximately $18 an acre on these crops alone for an investment of about $ 6 . 50 . In addition to this, the residual effect of this same fertilizer has been 4.6 bushels of oats and about one-half ton of clover hay. The return from acid phosphate has been approximately the same except the residual effect has been somewhat less. On certain thin Ozark soils bone meal has shown a very decided advantage over acid phosphate in the residual effect it exerts upon the growth of clover. An average of all the results obtained from the use of raw rock phos- phate shows that it has scarcely paid the cost of application. In justice to this material, however, it should be stated that on certain soils this form of phosphorus has given satisfactory returns. The use of ground limestone has brought good returns on the more acid soils of the state, particularly the level prairies of northeast and south- west Missouri, and over the greater part of the Ozark region. Some atten- tion has been given the furthering of the use of limestone on the more 44 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 acid types occupied by these fields. In some communities home crushers are being installed. In summarizing the results with the various fertilizers it is very evi- dent that the profits to be expected from those that give increased re- turns are decidedly greater at the present time with the high prices of farm products than they were a few years ago with lower prices of fer- tilizers and normal prices for crops. All evidence goes to show that it is more profitable to use fertilizer now than it has been in the past. The Determination and Mapping of Missouri Soil Types (M. F. Mil- ler, H. H. Krusekopf, Wm. DeYoung). — A constant effort is being made to map the soils of the state with more detail and accuracy, and great im- provement has been made over the earlier work. One of the difficulties encountered is that new and inexperienced men must be used, and require from two to three years of training before they can do the most proficient work, Reynolds and Chariton counties have been surveyed during the year. Soil survey reports were prepared for Knox, St. Francois, Reynolds and Chariton counties. St. Francois county was surveyed in 1915, but on ac- count of the resignation of the man in charge of the party, and on account of lack of data, the preparation of the report was delayed. VETERINARY SCIENCE Contagious Abortion Investigations (J. W. Connaway, A. J. Durant. H. G. Newman). — Serological tests, including retests, were made on 1,260 blood samples from 51 herds comprising 587 animals. The number of posi- tive reacting animals was 171; the number of negative was 416. The in- fection was found in 35 herds, while the blood samples from 16 other sus- pected herds were found to be negative. Other experiments were made to determine: (a) The specificity of the Bacillus abortus of Bang; (b) Whether this organism can invade the healthy uterus after pregnancy has occurred, and after the so-called “uterine seal” has formed; (c) Whether the Bang bacillus can invade the pregnant uterus thru various channels, namely, thru the vagina, thru the blood stream after entry into the alimentary tract by way of the mouth, or after entry into the udder thru the teats; or after hypodermic injection of live cultures into the subcutaneous tissues. The artificial infections were carried out as follows: Two heifers were fed cultures of Bacillus abortus Bang; two heifers were infected by in- jection of Bacillus abortus Bang cultures into the udder thru the teats after inserting a sterile milk tube. Cultures of the Bacillus abortus Bang were injected into the vagina of only one heifer (the experiment mate had died). Two heifers were injected subcutaneously with a saline suspension of Bacillus abortus Bang culture. Only one animal was available for in- fection by contact exposure. This cow was exposed daily by contact with two heifers which aborted after being fed cultures of Bacillus abortus Bang. Every female in the experiment developed positive reaction to the blood tests for abortion disease, and have remained reactors. Milk from all the heifers from which milk could be obtained, gave positive reaction to the Bacillus abortus Bang antigen. All the living calves showed a positive Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 45 reaction to the test at birth, but in time ceased to react, as is true of calves from naturally infected mothers in farm herds. Serological tests with Bacillus abortus Bang antigen . — Six pregnant sows were inoculated with cultures of Bacillus abortus Bang of bovine origin, one intra-muscular, two intra-axillary, and two by vaginal injection. Of the four pregnant sows inoculated with Bang abortus bacilli by means of the hypodermic syringe (intravenously, intra-axillary and intra-muscu- larly) two sows aborted, another which was a positive reactor had a dead pig (six apparently healthy living pigs) and one had four runty pigs. Two of these four sows showed a distinctly positive reaction to the serological test for abortion disease. The two pregnant sows which were given a vaginal injection of the Bang abortion bacilli did not abort nor show any reaction to the abortion test. MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES OF THE STATION Seed Testing Laboratory (W. C. Etheridge, Mrs. Norma Cardinell, Miss Helen Averitt). — Number of samples received from Missouri, 2251; Kansas, 325; Nebraska, 132; Iowa, 109; South Dakota, 73; Colorado, 21; Arkansas, 13; New York, 4; Illinois, 1; Custom House, 26. Total num- ber samples received, 2955. Number of tests made for Purity 963 Germination 2710 Examination 32 Identification 92 Custom House 52 Total 3849 Number of samples received — July 1, 1917, to June 30, 1918 4464 July 1, 1918, to June 30, 1919 2955 Decrease 1509 The difference is due to the fact that in 1917-18 a campaign for the testing of seed corn was carried out, which resulted in 2182 tests of seed corn by the laboratory. In 1918-19 there was no such campaign and only a few samples of corn reached the laboratory. The work of the laboratory therefore dealt only with clover, grasses and small grains. With this class of seeds 791 more tests were made in 1918-19 than in 1917-18. The primary purpose of the laboratory is to test the class of seeds whose value cannot readily be determined by the farmer himself, and along this line there was a substantial increase during the past year. A project in seed testing cooperative with the county agents has proved very successful. County agents collect and send to the laboratory samples of seed sold in their respective territories. Duplicate reports are sent to the agent and to the person or firm from whom the sample was collected. By noting the success of the seed from which the sample was collected the agent, knowing also the laboratory analysis of the seed, gains a talking point for the use of good seed. He may learn also the sources from which 46 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 seed of a given grade have been consistently supplied and may recommend the purchase of seed from the best sources. This project, started late in the year, is very popular with the agents, who at once realized its possibili- ties, and it promises to develop into one of the most useful extension pro- jects of the College of Agriculture. In cooperation with the county agents the laboratory is also engaged in a practical survey of the farm weeds of the state. The agents collect and send to the laboratory the important noxious weeds of their territories. The laboratory identifies the weeds and advises the agents of methods for control. When the survey is completed a list of all weeds received from various parts of the state, together with methods for their control, will be sent to each agent. Thru this project the agents will gain much valuable information on weed identification and control, and the department of Farm Crops will become informed on the location of the various noxious weeds of the state. The equipment of the laboratory has been largely increased by the Bureau of Plant Industry during the past year, and the Bureau has at all times kept the laboratory well supplied with competent analyses. Fertilizer Control (F. B. Mumford, Director; L. D. Haigh, E .E. Vanat- ta, Chemists). — The analytical work of the state fertilizer control ends in December of each year. The annual report is published as promptly as possible after the close of the year. The report for 1918, Bulletin 160, was issued in January, 1919. Five hundred and fifty-three samples were col- lected. The inspectors visited 113 towns in 46 counties. Two hundred and fifty-three samples were analyzed and reported. There were also sent in by farmers 42 samples of limestone and related material used for correct- ing soil acidity. These were tested for their neutralizing power, and report made. The results show that the compositions of fertilizers this year varied more than they should under normal conditions. The great demand for fertilizer due to war conditions coupled with the difficulty of obtaining basic materials of uniform composition largely explain this condition. The average result in plant-food valuation of all samples analyzed shows, however, plant food to the value of $1.07 a ton in excess of the value of the amount guaranteed. Official Testing of Dairy Cows (A. C. Ragsdale, M. H. Fohrman).— During the year just completed 403 cows were officially tested for 32 breeders in 13 counties of the state. Supervisors made 232 visits to breed- ers and conducted 1830 two-day tests and 50 seven-day tests. Despite the increased railroad fare and hotel meal rates, the cost to breeders of con- ducting these tests were held down so that it compares favorably with previous years as is indicated in the following tables: Year 2-day tests Cost for a test 7-day tests Cost for a test 1915-1916 1683 $1.09 17 $10.20 1916-191 7 1920 1.01 42 13.25 1917-1918 1343 1.12 114 10.60 1918-1919 1930 1.24 50 9.73 Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station 47 The following tabulation shows the progress of this work for the past four years: Fiscal year ending J une 30, 1916 1917 1918 1919 No. cows tested .. 336 413 349 403 No. breeders represented.... 24 26 28 32 No. 2-day tests .. 1744 2072 1473 1830 No. 7-day tests 22 47 25 50 Nursery Inspection (L. Haseman, K. C. Sullivan). — For the last three or four years, owing to a general setback in the matter of fruit tree prop- agation, the list of Missouri nurserymen has gradually grown less and less. Due to ever increasing vigilance in the matter of inspection and the con- demnation of scale infested and diseased stock, the nurseries have been freed from San Jose scale to a very large extent. Nursery stock which has been condemned by the inspector. Nurseries inspected 96 Nurseries certified 90 Nurseries found infested with San Jose scale 2 Total acreage of nursery stock inspected 1,303 No. of counties in which nurseries were inspected.... 40 No. of men making inspection 3 No. of cases imported nursery stock inspected 127 No. of foreign plants inspected 319,631 No. of counties in which these shipments were inspected — 9 Certificates and Permits Issued Inspection certificates issued 103 Dealers certificates 47 Agents permits issued 131 Growers permits issued to outside nurseries 169 48 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 172 FINANCIAL STATEMENT The Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station in account with the United States Appropriation — 1918-19 To receipts from Treasurer of the U. S. as per ap- Dr. Cr. propriation for the year ending June 30, 1919, un- der the Acts of Congress approved March 2, 1887, and March 16, 1906 $30,000.00 By salaries $17, 321. 49- Labor 4,153.12 Postage and stationery 215.97 Freight and express 715.35 Heat, light, water, and power 81.07 Chemicals and laboratory supplies 847.98 Seeds, plants, and sundry supplies 637.83 Fertilizers 8.50 Feeding stuffs 3,257.46 Tools, machinery, and appliances 337.62 Furniture and fixtures 921.54 Scientific apparatus and specimens 537.81 Live stock 421.70 Traveling expenses 43.36 Buildings and land 499.20 $30,000.00 $30,000.00 We, the undersigned, duly appointed auditors of the corporation, do hereby certify that we have examined the books and accounts of the Uni- versity of Missouri, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1919; that we have found the same well kept and classified as above; that the receipts for the year from the treasurer of the United States are shown to have been $30,000.00, and the corresponding disbursements $30,000,000 for all of which proper vouchers are on file and have been by us examined and found correct. And we further certify that the expenditures have been solely for the purpose set forth in the Acts of Congress approved March 2, 1887, and March 16, 1906. Attest : J. G. Babb Edward E. Brown, Secretary Business Manager, Acting as Auditor for the Board of Curators UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173 ASHLAND COMMUNITY SURVEY An Economic, Social and Sanitary Survey in Howard County, Missouri Fig. 1 . — Ashland Church Community Center. High school in basement. COLUMBIA, MISSOURI JULY, 1920 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL, THE CURATORS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY C. B. ROLLINS, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Columbia Kansas City JOHN H. BRADLEY, Kennett ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION July, AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E- Vanatta, A. M. Emory M. Roller AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING E. H. Lehmann, B. S. in A. E. Mack M. Jones ANIMAL HUSBANDRY F. B. Mumford, M. S. E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. A. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. Ray E. Miller, B. S. in Agr. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. J. H. LonGwELL, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. E. Maneval, Ph. D. W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale, B. S. in Agr. A. C. Dahlberg, M. S. W. W. Swett, A. M. Percy Werner, Jr., A. M. W. H. E. Reed, B. S. in Agr. C. W. Turner, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J- Stadler, A. M. Un service of U. S STAFF 1920 RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. R. M. Green, B. S. in Agr. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. D. Hooker, Ph. D. H. F. Major, B. S. A. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. H. H. G. Swartwout, B. S. in Agr. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L- Kempster, B. S. G. W. Hervey, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connoway, D. V. M., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crisler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, B. S. in Agr. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer J. G. Babb, A. M., Secretary E. H. Hughes, A. M., Asst, to Dean O. W. Weaver, B. S., Agricultural Editor George Reeder, Director Weather Bureau Miss Bertha Hite , 1 Seed Testing Laboratory J. F. Barham, Photographer Department of Agriculture. Ashland Community Survey An Economic, Social and Sanitary Survey in Howard County, Missouri. Carl C. Taylor, E. W. Lehmann GENERAL CONSIDERATION. Through the eyes of the farmer, himself. — In the rapid advance of farm- ing as a business enterprise which has taken place in the last fifteen years, and in the great push forward in the line of farm production which took place during the war period, American agriculture progressed in technical proficiency at a rate not equalled at any other period of our national de- velopment. The advance has been so rapid and the emphasis has been so thoroly on production, however, that it is sometimes to be wondered if we may not be overlooking the great fundamentals in farm life, viz., the men,, women and children who live on the farm. It can be readily con- ceived that the people who do not live on the farms and whose ease of living depends largely upon the economic efficiency of these farm people should think of farmers only as producing units. It is quite incon- ceivable that farmers should ever accept this viewpoint themselves. For them the one supreme question must be, is farm life an adequate life? This study was made with the idea in mind of emphasizing those factors on the farm which bear closest relation to the every-day life of the people, without forgetting the ever necessary economic background, viz., farm- ing as a business. It is hoped that by looking at the facts gathered in this rather exceptional community both the possibilities and neglect of the human factors on the farm may be seen. Ashland Community. — Ashland Community lies in a triangle formed by the Missouri River on the west and south and Moniteau Creek, which flows into the river, on the south and east. All the territory surveyed, with the exception of small portions of a few of the farms, lies far enough back from both of these streams as not to be in the bottoms. The fifty farms surveyed are known by the people who live upon them and by all others who know the community, to constitute the heart of a real rural neighborhood-community. The farmers do not all trade at the same town, all belong to the same church, or all mingle together with the same degree of neighborly freedom, nor do these fifty farms include all the people who live within this topographical area. They are representative, however, of the best which lies in this section of Missouri and the neighborhood-com- munity is known widely thruout the state because of the magnificent rural church it has built, around which centers the religious, educational and to some degree the social life of the community. The community is made homogeneous by a factor which is far more fundamental, so far as farming is concerned, than the existence of this semi-community church, viz., a homogeneous topographical area. Every farm can be characterized as rolling and the soil type is almost universally clay loam. 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin This community in addition to being a unit in physical structure and social organization has been a stable community for many years. In many cases the people who are living in the community are the third and even fourth generation of families which have lived in this same community. The average length of residence of all upon the farms where they now live has been twelve and a half years. Thirty-one of them have lived in the community for more than thirty years. Nine of them have been on the farms they now occupy for more than fifteen years. Thirty-nine of them have never done anything other than farm. There are but five families in the community which have ever lived in another state, and eleven others who have ever lived out of Howard County. A community is an institution which it takes years to build and these people have been here long enough to build one. The farm families of the community are well-to-do financially and con- siderably above the average in educational status, as will later be seen. Eight of the farmers had money invested in enterprises other than farm- ing. Some of them had bought as high as $4000 worth of Liberty Bonds, and all but three of them paid their bills regularly thru checking accounts. Seventeen of them said they never paid a bill any other way. More than half of them read College of Agriculture bulletins regularly and feel that they receive material benefit from them. The church organization itself is the oldest Christian church organi- zation west of the Mississippi River. It celebrated its centennial anniver- sary in November, 1917. The present church edifice is a beautiful brick structure which with its total equipment cost $14,500 (in 1914). It is re- cognized as a “community building.” A four-year subscription high school is housed in its basement. It was being used as a Red Cross work room at the time of the survey. All agricultural club meetings, road meetings, literary meetings or other community enterprises center in this building. The church is about equidistant from the three chief trading centers, being eight miles from Rocheport, eight miles from New Franklin and seven and a half miles from Fayette. The average distance from the farm- steads to the church is three and nine tenths miles, and to the towns in which the people chiefly market is three and nine tenths miles. There are no hard-surface roads in the community, though the roads are almost universally well dragged. Only one farmer asserted that his road to market was really “bad.” Six more of them had some portion of the road which was only “fair.” All others designated their roads to market as “good.” It should be noted, however, that it is of little use to attempt to hold a community meeting of any type at certain seasons of the year or immediately after a rain storm, for practically all these people travel in automobiles and can not come over the dirt roads at such times. Hard-surfaced roads would do much to improve the life and conditions of the community. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS. Size and type of farms. — As might be inferred from foregoing state- ments, this is chiefly a community of home owners. There are but seven renters in the community. The tenants, with one exception are farming on thorogoing partnership arrangements with the owners, i. e., the owner furnishes the land, the renter the labor and all working capital, and crops Ashland Community Survey b are divided equally. The average size of the farms is 179.9 acres, and the average value per acre was, in 1918, $110. The average area in field crops is 125.2 acres. This leaves practically one-third of the farming area in grass. All operators except three are practicing some systematic crop- rotation plan. The scheme of rotation varies from systems of three to seven years. Clover is a factor on every farm and in five cases commercial fertilizer is used. The type of farming is that which generally prevails in the lower corn belt, viz., mixed grains and stock farming. The three leading grain crops in order are, corn, wheat and oats. The three leading kinds of live stock in order of importance are, hogs, cattle and sheep. Hogs and corn pro- duction are the chief industries tho a good many cattle are fed and the sheep industry is gaining in the community. No one of these farmers was, at the time of the survey, specializing in purebred live stock, tho 20 of them had some purebred stock on their farms. The community is not a special- ized but a mixed stock farming type as is shown by the fact that only fifteen per cent of the total value of all live stock was purebred stuff. The total value of all live stock was $157,333 while the total value of the purebreds was but $23,833. One of the greatest needs of the community from a pro- duction standpoint is more purebred live stock. Farm improvements, buildings, fences, orchards, etc. — This community is above the average of mixed farming communities in central Missouri in farm improvements but not what could be classed as a highly improved community. The age of the community has a great deal to do with the 'mprovement of the farms. As will later be seen a good many modern conveniences and comforts are being introduced and used in the community. The houses are for the most part old, however, which makes it difficult to introduce modern equipment, and the farms are not, for the most part, what would be called highly improved. Fig. 2. — A modern barn built in 1915 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin A few of the more recent farms are quite adequate and on the whole are replacing the old inadequate ones more rapidly than are, new hou-es replacing the old ones. One very thrifty owner expressed the opinion that “barns will build houses but houses won’t build barns.” He had just com- pleted a new barn and the house was greatly in need of repair. Recently he moved from this place to another where neither the house nor barn is new and it is to be feared that another barn may be built; and this will be supposed to “build the house” which, as in the last place, again will not be built. The fact that there is very little purebred live stock in the community and that this section is far enough south to avoid the severe northern winters leads to a noticeable lack of farm buildings. The average of the total farm improvements, including all buildings, fences, orchards and other equipment is $ 4,192 per farm. This is but 21 . 2 % of the whole value of the farms, and while it is slightly above the percentage which cost accountants say should be expended on the most economical farms of the size of these, it is again a question of whether the farm family cares to live in a house gauged solely by the value of the farm, and whether the farmer should make his farm life disagreeable in exact ratio to the poverty of his land. It is not thought a mark of extravagance in city life to expend twenty per cent of one’s income on mere house rent and it is the writer’s deepest conviction that farm people have a right to as great a percentage of their earnings and capital invested in farm improvements as is necessary to a happy farm life even tho it exceed the economic balance of one-fifth of the total capital invested in the farm. Farm machinery and labor-saving devices. — The average estimated value of farm machinery per farm in the community is $ 1015 . This is $ 5.64 an Fig. 3 . — Poor methods of protecting farm machinery. Ashland Community Survey 7 ac-he or 5 . 1 % of the value of the land. This again is a very favorable show- ing according to accepted standards. There are always two principles to keep in mind in the purchase and use of farm machines. One is the saving in man and animal power and time. The community is above the average in this respect. There were on these farms, 6 gas engines, 3 windmills, 9 manure spreaders, 11 two-row corn cultivators, 2 tractors, 11 gang plows, 30 hay carriers, 11 silos, and 6 cream separators. The other principle to be kept in mind in the purchase and use of farm machinery deals with the care and upkeep so as not to make these con- veniences an economic handicap rather than an economic asset. The farm machinery in the community for the most part is well taken care of, al- tho thirteen of the farmers admitted that they had no adequate provision for sheltering their common field implements. Vegetable, fruit and poultry products, raised, bought and sold. — Another indication that the people of the community are interested largely in the life on their farms is that every farm in the community with one exception is raising some fruit of its own. The one exception was a newly established residence. Eight of these farmers bought fruit and two of them sold fruit last year. To be without a home orchard in so good a fruit community as this would be almost unforgivable. Only one family bought and but two families sold any common garden vegetables. Three of them bought and. eight sold potatoes. The selling was almost universally to neighbors. The greatest quantity sold by one farmer was twenty-five bushels. Only one farm woman had sold any milk in the past year and five others had sold cream. Butter was sold on fifteen farms, 104 lbs. during the year being the greatest amount sold by any one farm woman. Poultry was sold on all farms except five, and eggs sold on every farm. The greatest value of poultry sold by any one farm woman during the year was $ 300 . The same farm woman sold $240 worth of eggs. The greatest value received by any one woman for eggs was $ 300 . Two things are apparent from these facts: first, poultry and eggs in this community are the farm woman’s chief somce of income; second, that the community is not specializing in robbing its own tables by sending all the good things to market. To this fact the surveyors can amply testify from personal experience in these homes. Hired help on the farm and in the home.— That the farms of the com- munity are family sized is indicated by the fact that but fourteen of the foi ty-four farm wives employed any domestic assistance during the year. Six of them had regular domestic assistance, two had hired domestic help for over six months of the year, one had help for four months, one for one month and the other four employed assistance regularly one or two days a week. Thirty of these homes hired no domestic help during the year. This is partly due to the fact that daughters of the family offer a good bit of assistance, partly due to the difficulty of obtaining domestic servants, and partly due to the fact that it is customary for the housewife to do the work herself. The domestic help is universally negro help and sleeps on the place, in a tenant house or a servant room at the back of the house . Farm help was hired on thirty seven of the forty-four farms. In 20 cases help was kept the year around and in all but seven cases was hired regularly. Field hands are almost universally negroes who, with few ex- ceptions, live in tenant houses on the place. In two cases white hired men 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin live with the families, thus increasing the work of the housewife. In one of these cases a household servant is employed to assist with the work one day each week. In the other case domestic help is employed regularly. In the latter case there are four children in the home. SOCIAL CONDITIONS. What is an efficient social life? — A satisfactory life is so much a matter of personal taste, and people are so universally satisfied with tastes which they have imbibed from their own home surroundings that it seems to some people an impossibility to set standards of an efficient social life. There are some things, however, which everyone will immediately recognize as essential to life if life is to be worth living. The amount or degree of these essential things may vary. If any one of them is absent there is introduced into social existence an undesirable element or at least there is left out a desirable element. These socially necessary factors are food, clothing, shelter, health, education, religion, recreation and association with other persons. The food supply is almost universally adequate on the farm. Clothing is measured by whether it fits the needs of the occupation and whether the people are “up to date,” so to speak. The people of Ashland Community are universally both well clad and well dressed. The general health is good in practically every case. Two children were found who had speech defects, one a case of stammering and the other a child who had never learned to talk. These facts, coupled with the more specific ones re- lated in the following section indicate that the social life of the people of Ashland Community is at least average, if not better. Educational status and interest. — The educational status of the com- munity is considerably above the average. Sixteen of the farm women and twelve of the farm men had gone to college. Seven additional men and five additional women had gone to high school. In conjunction with this exceptional record there appear those of four men and four ’women who have no schooling whatsoever. In three of these cases these near illiterate are husband and wife. Two of these families were foreign born and were tenants and both of these families have moved from the community now. In addition to the four-year high school which is now maintained at the church, the district schools are above the average for Missouri. One es- pecially is an exceedingly well-equipped country school. There was but one child of school age in the community who was not in regular atten- dance. All except three of these children expressed a desire to continue their education beyond the grade school, and without exception every child thought he or she would be a farmer. This phenomenal showing is due somewhat to the educational status and outlook of the older people, but probably more particularly to the presence in the community of the local high school. Forty-two of the forty-four fathers are in favor of “college education” for farmers. Thirty-nine of them favor a consolidated rural school, altho some of them are doubtful of the success of such a proiect until the roads are improved. Three of the fathers have no interest in and one is openly opposed to the idea. Religious affiliations and attitude. — There are 125 persons living at home in the forty-two families for which religious data were gathered. Seventy- Ashland Community Survey 9 nine of these people held church membership in some church. Thirty of the 125 are not yet ten years old. One hundred and four of the 125 attended church regularly. Sixty-one of them attended Sunday School regularly. Five of the adults said they never attended church and thirty of them said they never attended Sunday School. The most prevalent reasons given for non-church attendance were, “Too busy,” “Inconvenient,” "babies in the home," and “carelessness.” The failure of the Sunday School to attract as many people as does the preaching service of. the church is probably due to two things: first, the fact that rural Sunday Schools are not schools at all; second, that even now, in as high class a community as this one, people still believe that the prime essential of a religious institution is the preaching program. Thirty of the men surveyed said they were in favor of a community church. Two only were unfavorable, and the remainder were indifferent. Whether the people of the community are more religious than the average rural community would be hard to estimate. That they take a livelier in- terest in church affairs than people in most communities is clearly demon- strated by their interest in the development of the “community church” and by the magnificent church structure they have built. Social organization and social gatherings. — Isolation is probably the greatest handicap to a} satisfactory social life in most rural communities. Contacts with other people are what make life worth while. These con- tacts may. be got in the school, the church, community club, social center, at dances, parties and in various other forms of community gathering. In many cases these gatherings are in the towns, which may mean one of two things. In the lodges, town and country men and women actually mingle together. In picture shows, on the other hand, the participation of the spectator is so slight that it can scarcely be called a social gathering in the sense of social contacts. Twenty-one of the men and twelve of the women belonged to some social organization other than the church, tho in almost every case it was admitted that attendance at the organization meetings was irregular. The one case in which attendance was univer- sally regular was a farmer’s club. The club belonged strictly to the neighorhood and had direct bearing on rural life. The number and types of social gatherings in which the members of the community participate is indicated in the following facts which speak for themselves. These numbers represent the sum of the individual atten- dance at each of these types of gatherings. Of course there are many small children and a number of others who do not attend this or that type of gathering at all. For instance, there were forty of the 125 who attended no dances during the year. The total number of individual attendances at dances during the year was 883 , at movies 869 , at lectures and music 525 , at parties other than dances 522 , at church socials 351 , at athletic games 135 , at agriculture fairs 60 and at theaters other than movies 3 . These facts probably represent the lively neighborhood feeling of the com- munity better than any other one thing. These people, even when we include the foreign families, the babies and the old people, averaged per individual more than twenty-seven social gatherings a year, besides the ; r regular church, school, lodge and business gatherings. In addition to gathering of these types, thirty-seven of these families 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin make at least weekly trips to town, usually on Saturday afternoon, where they mingle with each other and with the town’s people. Twenty-one of the families had, in the last year, taken trips which carried them beyond their own community or even their county. Six of them had taken auto trips of more than one hundred miles. Usually these trips are in the nature of a vacation fishing trip- Home life. — Home life is made pleasant because of the type of ’ eople who are in the home, the conveniences in the home, the amount of leisure time, the reading material had and used, home amusements, musical instru- ments and visitors. The size of the families in the community varies all the way from five childless couples, to one husband and wife with nine children. The average family is husband, wife and three children, tho of course not all the children are at home all the time. It is interesting to know that the average size of the families in which the parents are more than fifty years old is 6.3 persons, whereas it is but 4 in those families where the parents are all less than fifty years old. There are five childless couples, four of them middle aged. There are few really young married, people in the community. The farms are held by people who have lain on them for a number of years. Only three of the farm men and six if he farm women are less than thirty years old. On the other hand but seven of the men and three of the women are more than 60 years old. This means that the homes and the community are made up of middle-aged people and their children. In the forty homes from which we could get complete data concerning reading material there is an average of 11 books and 7 newspapers, and magazine i per home. One of ta .se homes had a library of 634 books and another one 500. Nine of them have libraries of over 250 books each. One family takes 16 periodicals (including daily and weekly newspapers,, weekly and monthly magazines). Two families who subscribe for their periodicals in common have coming into their homes 27 different periodicals. Twenty-nine of these families made some use of the school library or the public library at Fayette. The most prevalent type of baok found in these homes other than school books is fiction with an ave r age of 47.5 per home. Next comes children’s books with an average of 9.1 followed in order by history 7, agriculture 4.3, religious 4.2, scientific 3.9,. health 2, and war 1. There is one home which has neither a book nor a periodical in it, and one other with nothing but school books. These are both homes of German tenants. Fifteen of these homes have pianos, twelve have some kind of a stringed instrument, six have victrolas and one has an organ. Twelve of these homes have two kinds of musical instruments in the home and seven have more than two kinds. Sixteen homes have no musical instruments. The chief home amusement in the community is cards, at least twenty- two of the families so stated. Other home amusements rank as follows: children’s games, croquet, checkers, dominoes, crokinole, and tennis. Seven families asserted that they have no home amusements. In practically every case these are the same families which do not attend the community- gatherings. There are forty-eight telephones in the forty-four homes so it is quite possible that one of the rhief home amusements was completely Ashland Community Survey 11 overlooked in answering the inquiry. If this be true there are two families who do not have even this facility. Six families have two telephones each in their homes. Woman’s work on the farm. — One of the greatest travesties on rural life is the fact that the farm woman does not get a fair deal. As was seen in a previous section, she has little hired assistance. Her work is some- times increased by the presence of permanently hired farm hands in the home. She cooks for her own family, the threshing gang, and big Sunday gatherings, besides doing her own washing, the family mending, raising the poultry, caring for the dairy products and often assisting with other farm work. She has the longest working hours of any one on the farm and often the least conveniences. Every farm woman in the community cares for the poultry. Twenty-one of them do part of the gardening, eight of them help out with the men’s work in rush season, and seven of them do the milk- Fig. 4. — A comfortable home with well-kept grounds. ing. One gives music lessons in addition to her home work. The average, working day in the rush season for these women is from 5 a. m. to 9 p. m., and the rush season comes all too near being all the year. The average value per home for all household equipment was (1918) estimated to be $694.51. This includes the furniture which is for Sunday use only and which rather than lessening the household work increase it. A better appreciation of actual household conveniences can be gained from a list of labor-saving devices found in the homes of the community. All homes except two have sewing machines. Twenty-two of them have oil stoves. Only twenty of them have washing machines, five have vacuum cleaners, five have kitchen sinks, two have running water in the house. None of them has any power machinery, tho it should be remembered there are six gas engines and three windmills on these farms. The weakest spot in Ashland Community is household equipment or modern labor-saving devices for farm women. If the writer were to make but one single re- commendation for the homes in Ashland Community, which is already con- siderably above the average in social efficiency, it would be better houses and more labor-saving devices for the farm women. 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin SANITARY CONDITIONS. The one phase of farm improvement which has been most neglected is the installation of modern sanitary equipment in the home. It is true that the production must first be taken care of and this is done by securing proper machinery, by improving soil conditions, by proper seed selection, by proper selection and breeding of stock, and providing suitable shelter for crops and animals produced. When the farm is on a paying basis, however, the owner cannot afford to be without those things in the home which make farm life attractive and satisfying. In fact, there are two essential improvements for the home, a pure water supply and sanitary disposal of human waste, which must be provided to make possible healthful conditions and successful farming Fig. 5. — Conditions very unsanitary at this back door. operations. Too many farmers have retired to the city to be able to enjoy certain advantages that might be brought to the farm. The farmstead.— The location of a farmstead has much to do toward making possible sanitary conditions. While every farm house cannot be located on sloping land this should be kept in mind. The general topography in which this survey was made being rolling, the farmsteads with only a few exceptions were located on high land with good surface drainage. Poorly drained grounds are more liable to be unsanitary than those which are well drained. The unsanitary condition found is a result of throwing waste material from the kitchen into the yard, chickens allowed the run of the place, trash and rubbish allowed to collect, general neglect and careless- ness. Three yards are in an excellent condition, six are very good, twenty- seven good, eleven poor, and three very poor. Only a little systematic attention is necessary to keep yards clean and attractive. Ashland Community Survey 13 Home location. — In locating a house an east or south front is usually desired. It- is interesting to find that twenty-one houses face south, thirteen east, one southeast, and one souhwest. Thirty-six out of a possible fifty face south, east, or in a southward direction. A south or southeast slope is muct more desirable for a farmstead site thruout the middle west because it drys more quickly and is warmer in winter. House. — The size of house varies from a two-room shack, for a negro hired man, to a ten-room house. There is one two-room, one three-room, four four-room, four five-room, seventeen six-room, eleven seven-room, five eight-room, two nine-room and five ten-room houses. Of the renters, one lives in a four-room, five in a six-room, and one in a seven-room house. Thirty-four out of forty owners live in houses of six rooms or more. There is only one modern house in the group. There are several old-fashioned brick houses, one built as early as 1826, and a number of houses framed with hewn timbers. These old houses are unhandy and make necessary many steps for the tired house-wife. An explanation often given for not having installed modem sanitary equipment in the home is because the new house will soon be built, which is often a long wait. House equipment. — Only two houses were equipped with complete plumbing systems. One of these had not been used for several months due to the pipes freezing during cold weather. At each of these places the sewage is discharged on the surface of the ground some distance from the house in an orchard. This is a dangerous practice and is not recommended. To make conditions sanitary, a septic tank at each place should be provided. A plan for such tank may be secured from the Agriculture Engineering Department, University of Missouri. At three places a pump and sink are provided in the kitchen with a drain to take care of the kitchen waste water. This is the simplest method of bringing water into the kitchen with little expense. The improvement in the farm house most desired by the house-wife is water piped where it is needed. There is no farmer who can afford not to install at least a kitchen sink and pump. At one farm the water pressure from a storage tank is piped to the watering troughs for live stock, but is not piped into the house. Think of the labor of carrying in water each day and the ex- posure during the cold weather that would be eliminated by piping the water where it is needed. Lighting and heating systems. — Two houses are equipped with acety- lene lights, two with blau gas, and the remaining forty-six use ordinary kerosene lamps. Two houses are provided with hot-air furnaces and the remaining forty-eight use stoves, and in a few cases the stoves are supple- mented with a fire place. It is hardly believable that a group of successful farmers who have bought all kinds of machinery to make the work of production easy and have bought automobiles for pleasure and profits have not equipped their homes with modern equipment to make the home a more convenient work shop and a better place in which to live. Purity of water supply. — It is of interest to find that the water for drinking purposes is from cisterns, with two exceptions, one a shallow well and the other a spring. With the cistern as a source of supply its purity 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin will depend on the care in collecting the water into the cistern and the pro- tection against the entrance of any impurities after the water i£ stored. Samples of each of the supplies were taken for chemical and bacterial analyses. In the bacterial analysis a test was made to determine the pre- sence of B, Coli, a bacteria that is commonly found in the excreta of warm- blooded animals. The results show the presence of this bacteria in forty- two samples, three show questionable results and six a negative test. Five additional samples were taken where there were more than one source of supply, and all showed contamination with B. Coli. The results of chemical analysis also indicate contamination. The presence of free ammonia and nitrogen as nitrites is usually considered indicative of recent contamination of animal origin. The presence of measurable quantities of nitrogen as Fig. 6. — Cistern with metal top. Filter shown on wall helps but is too small. Fig. 7. — Filter poorly protected at top and not cleaned out regularly. nitrites is considered sufficient ground for condemning a water supply. All of the samples, analyzed showed some free ammonia, and in all samples except three was found nitrogen as nitrites. By studying both the chemical and bacterial analysis it is found that every sample is more or less con- taminated. The presence of B. Coli as shown by the bacterial analysis indi- cates a clear case of some form of sewage contamination. Before a source of water can actually be condemned the local con- dition should be carefully studied to determine the actual source of the pol- lution. The fact that practically all of the samples were taken from cisterns, many of which are protected by good concrete tops, the walls being imper- vious to the flow of seepage impurities, must lead to the conclusion that the impurities went in with the supply when being collected. Water should not be caught until the roof is thoroly cleaned. A filter of some sort is pro- Ashland Community Survey 15 vided at only a few places. Some of these are without filtering material of any kind, and all others had not been cleaned out since they were in- stalled. In every case the so-called filter is not serving its purpose as such. A filter such as is recommended by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in Bulletin 941 is recommended, and it goes without saying that the top and walls of the cistern should be absolutely tight. Several of the sup- plies have a seepage vein of water flow- ing in, making them virtually the same as a shallow well sup- ply. Cracks in the curb in a few in- stances allowed sur- face water to flow in at the top, carry- ing with it contam- ination. The loca- tion and natural drainage eliminates danger of contami- nation in most cases from this source. Twenty-eight of the supplies are covered with board tops, none of which are tight enough to exclude all impurities; nine have concrete tops; seven cast iron, and five are of sand rock. Fig. 8. — Filter without filtering material and with trash in pipe. Fig. 9. — A privy that offers neither privacy nor protection. Disposal of human waste. — Only two homes were equipped with sanitary toilet with water carriage, the dis- charge being carried out in a drain to the surface. At one farm the privy was pro- vided with a box which was cleaned and disinfected at regular intervals; at the re- maining forty-seven farms, ordinary, unsanitary, surface privies were in use. They are open and have no pro- tection from the flies. They are unventilated and dis- agreeable and some of them give neither protection nor privacy. A great improve- ment could easily be made at slight expense by construct- ing a concrete vault and pro- viding ventilation. 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. Ashland Community is much above the average Missouri rural com- munity in economic prosperity and social life. Community spirit is represented by the church building which these people have recently erected and by the great number of social gatherings which they attend together. The community is prospereous as is indicated by the fact that practical- ly all the farmers own their own homes and by the methods of conducting their business transactions. The community is exceptional in its educational status and educational equipment, there being a great many college men and women in the com- munity, excellent grade schools, a four-year high school and excellent read- ing materials in practically all the homes. The farms of the community are well equipped for production and the system of farming is one that is calculated to foster both soil conservation and greater production in the future. The greatest two weaknesses in the community ate lack of modern homes equipped with labor-saving devices for the farm women, and lack of proper sanitary conditions about the houses. There are only two homes with plumbing systems, two with hot-air furnaces and four with lights other than kerosene. The impure condition of the w r ater for drinking purposes and the lack of attention to proper methods of disposal of human wastes indicate the lack of appreciation of factors that greatly affect life on the farm. The writers believe that Ashland Community is unique in some of its points of strength. Its equipment for educational and religious life and its habits of good fellowship are worthy examples. They believe, on the other hand, that weaknesses of home equipment and home sanitation are common to many other farming communities. They should like therefore to recommend to the farmers in this and other rural communities that they pay more attention to the home and the home equipment: that they give as much attention to equipping the house wih labor-saving devices as to equipping the farm for production; that they make conditions sanitary and provide an adequate supply of pure water; that the home be made for the family what the community center is for the community — the best possible. UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 174 HOG CHOLERA AND IM- MATURE CORN Fig. 1. — Pig affected with hog cholera COLUMBIA, MISSOURI SEPTEMBER, 1920 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL THE CURATORS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY A. J. BLANTON JAS. E. GOODRICH, Paris Kansas City JOHN H. BRADLEY, Kennett ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D„ PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF September, 1920 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. R. M. Smith, A. M. T. E. Friedemann, B. S. A. R. Hall, B. S. in Agr. E. G. SiEveking, B. S. in Agr. A. B. Culbertson, Jr., B. S. in Agr. B. W. Manning, B. S. in Agr. G. W. York, B. S. in Agr. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING J. C. Wooley, B. S. Mack M. Jones, B. S. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY F. B. MumFord, M. S. A. G. Hogan, Ph. D. E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. A. A. R. SchEnken, B. S. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. Ray E. Miller, B. S. in Agr. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. Paul B. Bernard, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. E- F. Hopkins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale, B. S. in Agr. W. W. Swett, A. M. Wm. H. E. Reid, A. M. Sam Brody, M. A. C. W. Turner, B. S. in Agr. C. H. Nelson, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. E. O. Pollock, B. S. in Agr. O. W. Letson, B. S. in Agr. B. B. Branstetter, B. S. in Agr. RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson. A. M. B. H. Frame, B. S. in Agr. R. C. Hall, A. M. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. horticulture V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. F. C. Bradford, M. S. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. H. D. Hooker, Ph. D. H. G. Swartwout, B. S. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L. Kempster, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connaway, D. V. S., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crisler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, A. M. ZOOLOGY George Lefevre, Ph. D. OTHER OFFICERS H. F. Majors, B. S., Landscape Gardener R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer Leslie Cowan, Secretary S. B. ShirkEy, Asst, to Dean O. W. Weaver, B. S., Agricultural Editor J. F. Barham, Photographer Miss Salome Comstock , 1 Seed Testing Laboratory 3 In service of U. S. Department of Agriculture. Hog Cholera and Immature Corn J. W. Conn away, D. V. S., M. D. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this bulletin is to impress upon the minds of the swine feeders a fact generally recognized by veterinarians that losses from dis- ease in the feed lot is due primarily to hog cholera; and that the popular notion that immature corn may originate this disease is a fallacy. It is also sought to show what is properly the true relation of the secondary infections to hog cholera, that these secondary bacterial invaders are relatively of minor importance as disease-producing factors, and that the effective control of hog cholera will render them practically harmless. The sources of cholera infection to feeding hogs are stated as well as the precautions to be observed when recently vaccinated hogs are put on the new corn ration. An attempt is also made to give the swine raiser a clearer idea of how immunity against hog cholera is acquired, and to show that a relapse or “break” from “vaccination cholera” is liable to occur from neglect on his part and especially that attempts to hasten the fattening process by excessive feeding at the beginning of the feeding period is in- judicious. A matter of no less importance is presented in the latter part of the bulletin under the head of “Diagnostic Points,” since the diagnosis of hog cholera has been confusing to many swine raisers who are unable to obtain the services of a veterinarian. The illustrations and descriptions of the cholera lesions, and of the complications arising from secondary bacterial invaders, will aid materially in making a correct diagnosis of cholera cases, and will lead to a more prompt and efficient treatment of cholera infected herds. SOURCES OF INFECTION Past experience has shown that, with the increased traffic in hogs for feeding purposes, during the fall feeding season hog cholera outbreaks are liable to occur. These outbreaks are often ascribed to the feeding of new corn ; but hog cholera nor any other specific infectious disease is caused by new corn. The virus or germs of hog cholera are always necessary to cause an outbreak of that disease. The injudicious feeding of new corn is, however, a factor which may increase the losses from cholera when the germs of that disease are present. Most of the herds that become sick after feeding for awhile on new corn are already infected with the disease germs prior to the beginning of the feed- ing period, or become infected from some other source than the corn aftgr they are put on to this feed. Many of the feeding hogs are shipped in from some other locality and are often mixed bunches, picked up from various farms, some of which are liable to harbor cholera infection. Some of these feeding herds pass thru stock yards which are permanently infected with cholera germs; or they may be shipped in infected cars. Hogs thus exposed if not immune will contract the disease, and a large per cent will die after they arrive at the feeding farms. Moreover, “breaks” from cholera will occasional- ly occur in car-lot shipments which have been given the “double treatment” for permanent immunity, if the feeder does not exercise proper care at the be- ginning of the feeding period. The turning of a car-lot of feeding hogs direct- 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 174 ly into the corn fields on arrival from the stock yards is attended with con- siderable risk, because the fatigue and the disturbance of the circulatory and digestive functions incident to vaccination and the stress of handling and ship- ping lower the vitality and powers of resistance of the hogs. Under these conditions it is injudicious to permit the hungry hogs to overload the stomach; and especially with new, immature corn, which is more fermentable than fully ripened and well-cured grain, and more liable to cause digestive disturbances and diarrhea. This disturbance of the digestive functions from dietetic errors will still further increase the susceptibility of the herd to hog cholera, and its complications, even tho new or soft corn is not a direct cause of cholera. The importance, therefore, of having the “feeder” hogs well immunized against hog cholera this fall before feeding the new corn crop can scarcely be over- emphasized, because of the probability that a considerable amount of the crop, and especially the last plantings, will not be properly matured and hardened before the feeding season begins. Besides, a considerable portion of the soft corn must be utilized by feeding it to hogs. There is an impression among some feeders that “double treated” hogs can be put with safety on full feed almost immediately after vaccination ; and it is true that in many cases no bad results have occurred, but the risks are too great to recommend such a practice. A gain in the total time of feeding, in the final weight, cost of fattening, and ultimate profits, can be made by pro- ceeding slowly at the beginning of the feeding period. This will usually pre- vent the setbacks due to “cholera breaks,” and associated complications such as pneumonia and necrotic enteritis which sometimes occur when hogs are put on new corn. DURABLE IMMUNITY ACQUIRED SLOWLY A longer period is required to develop a permanent immunity in vaccinated hogs than is commonly supposed. The most potent anti-hog-cholera serum that can be made cannot of itself confer a permanent immunity. Serum alone confers an immunity of a passive or temporary character, the duration being variable. The use of the “serum alone” is, therefore, applicable only to short feeding periods unless the herd is re-vaccinated or a thoro disinfection of the premises is made. When, therefore, a herd is in constant danger of exposure to hog cholera infection, it is preferable to confer a permanent immunity; but this cannot be secured except by subjecting the animal to the disease-producing activities of the virus. It is well known that the hog which recovers from a natural attack of hog cholera becomes, as a rule, permanently immune. Like- wise, that the “double treated” or “serum-virus” inoculated hog gains a per- manent immunity, if the virus is a living and vigorously active virus. The virus, however, in the vaccinated hog as well as in a natural attack of cholera acts in a harmful way on the cells of the body; and the cells, for self-protec- tion, must react to the attacks of the virus and produce specific “anti-bodies,” or protective substances, to counteract the harmful action of the virus. A veritable combat ensues when hog cholera infection enters the system of a hog, and this combat terminates either in the death of the hog or in an immunity more or less permanent. The vaccinated hog, however, has this advantage over the hog which has become infected with virus from natural exposure — a liberal dose of potent anti-hog-cholera serum is injected simultaneously with Hog Cholera and Immature Corn 5 the virus, and. this constitutes a supply of “reserve ammunition” which the vaccinated hog draws upon for protection while it is strengthening its cellular defenses and elaborating its own protective serum. If, however, the vacci- nated herd is not properly handled and properly fed, the virus may overcome the protective guards in spite of the reserve ammunition with which the body was reinforced; and some of the hogs may succumb to acute cholera of the septicemic type; or may linger along, with a chronic type of the disease, and finally die, from the pneumonic complications or from chronic inflammation of the intestines. ACTIVITY OF VIRUS IN VACCINATED SWINE Experiments which have been made at the Missouri Agricultural Experi- ment Station show that the virus remains alive and virulent in the “double treated” hogs for a considerable time after vaccination, even in vaccinated hogs which are given good care and do not show outwardly any symptoms of ill- ness. It was found that (for a period of more than a week) blood which was drawn daily from the tails of “double treated” hogs was almost as virulent as blood drawn from a pig showing well-marked symptoms of cholera; more- over, the blood drawn from some of the double-treated hogs even as long as twenty-three days after vaccination was still sufficiently virulent to cause death when inoculated into a healthy susceptible pig. It is thus shown that the process of acquiring immunity and overcoming the . disease germs in the body is evidently a slow process, and proper care should be given the vaccinated herd for three weeks or more to avoid the de- velopment of acute or chronic cases of cholera from the vaccination. Rough handling during this period, overfeeding after a fatiguing railroad haul or a long drive, may so lower the resistance of some of the animals as to permit the cholera virus with which they have been vaccinated to gain the upper hand and cause death from a true attack of cholera. “CHOLERA BREAKS” AFTER VACCINATION A genuine relapse from cholera has occurred more frequently than has been suspected in car-lots of swine which have been treated by the serum-virus method, and held for a period of 21 days or less before shipment. Other causes than cholera have often been assigned for these cholera breaks in vac- cinated hogs, because of the common impression that hogs are solidly im- mune within a short period after administration of the serum-virus treatment. To illustrate the point that relapses may occur in swine after release from quarantine of two or three weeks following vaccination (unless handled in a proper manner), one case which was investigated quite thoroly will be men- tioned. This herd was purchased as an immune herd, and the buyer was par- ticular not to accept the animals until they had passed the full 21 days in quarantine. There is good reason to believe that the vaccination was done in a proper manner and with serum of full potency, because the work was done under federal supervision. But unfortunately the hogs were loaded out on a very warm day, and the car was a little crowded ; moreover, the train was delayed in reaching its destination, and the hogs were on the car nearly 24 hours before unloading. They were then driven several miles to the farm of 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 174 the owner. Some of the hogs showed considerable fatigue during and after the drive. The hogs were put at once onto a green corn ration. Within a week some of the hogs showed well-marked signs of illness, and in ten days several had died. An investigation of the case showed the ailment to be hog cholera. The owner could scarcely believe that the hogs were affected with this disease, as he had purchased what he believed to be a well immunized carload. However, the symptoms, the post mortem examination, and the successful pro- duction of cholera in other hogs by inoculation and feeding experiments with materials from this herd, as well as by exposure experiments, proved the out- break to be hog cholera. It thus appears that the unfavorable conditions men- tioned combined to lower the resistance of the swine ; and the cholera germs, which were still alive and virulent, multiplied actively in the less vigorous and less resistant animals, overcoming the protective power of the serum which had been injected and the protective “anti-bodies” which had been developed by the vaccination. If the fact is kept in mind that such relapses or “breaks” following vac- cination can and do occur in herds subjected to unfavorable conditions, there will be less tendency to blame veterinarians for poor results in vaccinating, or to blame the serum for lack of potency. PRECAUTIONS AGAINST CHOLERA BREAKS Good serum and active virus in sufficient quantity, and properly adminis- tered, are essential to conferring an active or permanent immunity; but disas- trous results may occur if the feeders do not give proper after-care to the vaccinated feeding herds, for hog cholera virus has the power under certain conditions to cause a fatal illness, as well as the power under more favorable conditions to stimulate the development of a permanent immunity. Vaccinated herds should, therefore, be handled and fed during the immunizing period with greater care than is necessary at other times. And, if circumstances should require the feeding of new corn before the vaccinated hogs have ac- quired a solid immunity, a smaller quantity of this food should be given than ordinarily until the hogs are well accustomed to the change. A larger share of old corn if available should at first be given, and the new corn gradually increased in amount. An exclusive ration of corn, either old or new, is not che most nutritious diet nor usually the most economical one. It should be supplemented by a partial ration of muscle-building or protein-bearing foods and those containing bone-making elements and the vitamines. Such foodstuffs as bran, shipstuff, linseed or cottonseed meal, tankage, bonemeal, crushed oats and wheat screenings all supply important body constituents and all are avail- able upon the markets. At the beginning of the feeding period, if the new corn crop is to be hogged down, a feed of old corn and supplements as a morning ration before turning into the fields is suggested as a method of preventing digestive disturbances from an overfeed of the more fermentable new corn. Access for a part of the day to a clover, alfalfa or bluegrass pas- ture is advised, if such pastures are available. The foregoing precautions will prevent most of the breaks or relapses that occur within two, three or four weeks following vaccination. Such precau- tions perhaps would be less needful if the owner and the veterinarian were certain that all the hogs in the herd were in a thrifty, vigorous condition at Hog Cholera and Immature Corn / time of vaccination; and especially if a liberal dose of serum is administered. But it is not always easy to judge from outward appearances the actual condi- tion of health and powers of resistance of a hundred or more hogs at the time of vaccination. In some instances a considerable number of the hogs may be badly infested with worms but this fact may not be manifest nor discovered until a pig or two has died from vaccination cholera, and the post-mortem ex- amination has revealed the conditions. The rule of experienced veterinarians is to increase the dose of serum when vaccinating hogs which from any cause are unthrifty; and this is a good rule. But serum is not a vermifuge; moreover, the dose which is given may fail to hold the cholera virus in check in the hog that is badly infested with worms. But whatever may be the cause of the development of active symptoms of cholera in vaccinated hogs, a prompt revaccination of the herd to reinforce the natural defenses against the cholera virus is advisable, while applying proper measures to eliminate the worms or other unfavorable condi- tions. WHAT TO DO WHEN VACCINATION BREAKS OCCUR The prudent course for the swine feeders to pursue when several hogs of the feeding herd become sick within the first two to four weeks following vac- cination is to suspect a “break” from cholera, and to call the veterinarian who did the vaccinating and have him make a thoro examination of the sick ani- mals, study the symptoms, take temperatures, look into the conditions of care and feeding, and make a careful post-mortem examination of any hogs that- may die. If one or more hogs appear to be fatally ill these should be killed and the viscera examined. If the disease conditions which are found are like those occurring in cases of hog cholera in untreated herds, the herd should be revaccinated. The tendency to delay revaccination unduly and to seek for some other disease than hog cholera to account for* the illness, simply because the herd was vaccinated a few weeks previously, is liable to result in considerable loss which might be avoided by prompt revaccination. The prompt correction of errors in feeding and in the general care of the herd are essential, and may in some cases be sufficient to restore the herd to a healthy condition. Restriction of the ration is always good treatment no matter what the disease, and this is particularly true of hog cholera, whether from natural infection or following vaccination. In these cases of cholera breaks after vaccination the mistake has fre- quently been made of vaccinating against the secondary infections , which are sometimes complications of cholera, instead of revaccinating against cholera itself. The great anchor of safety for the swine industry so far as vaccina- tion against epizootic swine disease is concerned is the anti-hog-cholera serum. The opinion of many veterinarians is that the “bacterins” or other vaccines used in swine practice are of questionable value. The fact cannot be im- pressed upon the mind of the swine raisers too strongly that hog cholera, so far as has yet been demonstrated, is the only epizootic disease of swine in this country which is capable of spreading from herd to herd and causing large losses; and if greater effort were given by the swine raisers and veterinarians to the control and eradication of this disease, and to the application of proper sanitary measures in the handling of the swine herds, there would be little 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 174 need to bother about the minor secondary infections which are associated with that disease, as these would give but little trouble. SECONDARY INFECTIONS— “HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA,” ETC. This brings us to the consideration of the secondary infections which com- plicate the hog-cholera problem. Much has been heard during the past few years concerning “swine plague” or “hemorrhagic septicemia” of swine, as it is now known. The terms “mixed infection” and “necrotic enteritis” have also become familiar to many swine raisers; and even “hog flu” is a coinage of the last two years, which has served no good purpose so far as the needs of the swine raisers are concerned. The symptoms and the “lesions” or disease conditions occurring in the various organs of the sick hog, which have given rise to the foregoing names, are merely symptoms and conditions which are produced by hog cholera and by associated secondary bacteria, which under ordinary conditions are quite harmless. The so-called swine-plague or hemorrhagic-septicemia microbe, for instance, is a common hog-yard germ. It occurs in the dust and the soil of the feeding pens and does no harm to a healthy, vigorous hog. These germs are taken into the stomach daily and traverse the digestive tract without harm to the hogs. They are drawn into the nostrils in breathing, and can be found in the upper air passages of healthy swine, where they do not cause any serious inflammation, and are then carried out again with the mucous secretions. The presence of such bacteria on the healthy mucous membrane has been demon- strated by careful laboratory workers ; and it has been shown that these bac- teria conform in shape, size and all the laboratory tests for identification, with the so-called hemorrhagic septicemia germs which are sometimes found in the diseased tissues of swine. And the conviction has come to a number of the veterinary investigators that this microbe is merely a secondary or ac- cidental invader of the diseased organs and is not the primary causative agent of any epizootic swine disease. Also, that if it does produce harmful results they occur as a rule only in association with, or secondary to, some other and more virulent micro-organism such as the highly virulent infection of hog cholera. SANITATION AND GOOD CARE PREVENT SECONDARY INFECTIONS It is quite possible that these usually harmless bacteria may invade the blood and cause septicemic troubles and pneumonia in hogs which are exposed to extremely insanitary conditions. Hogs which are not properly protected from the winter storms but are allowed to bed around straw stacks and upon manure piles, piling in heaps, are especially liable to contract “colds” and pneu- monia; and in swine which are ill from such conditions it will not be difficult to find the so-called “hemorrhagic septicemia” bacterium and other bacteria in the diseased tissues. The lowering of the animal’s vitality and cell resistance by the conditions mentioned, make it possible for these ordinarily harmless bacteria to penetrate into the blood and thence into the lungs and other organs and cause inflammations which may prove fatal. But the harmful activity of Hog Cholera and Immature Corn 9 these common hog-yard or dirt germs can be prevented by proper herd man- agement. Dry and comfortable sleeping quarters provided with clean bed- ding at proper intervals, and a nutritious ration, are simple and effective means for preventing the ordinary pneumonic attacks which have often been diag- nosed as epizootic swine-plague or hemorrhagic septicemia of swine. There may be an extra virulent type of the hemorrhagic septicemia organ- ism which is highly infectious and fatal for healthy hogs, but up to the present it has not been discovered. Moreover, experimental evidence indicates strong- ly, if it does not prove definitely, that treatment of swine by the injection of hemorrhagic septicemia “bacterins" is without value, either as a preventive or a cure of the pneumonic and hemorrhagic conditions mentioned. “MIXED INFECTION" AILMENTS What has been said about hemorrhagic septicemia of swine is equally ap- plicable to the so-called “mixed-infection" disease of swine. There are good reasons for believing that the great majority of cases of illness in swine, which are thought to be caused by mixed infections, are in fact cases of hog cholera ; altho the case may be complicated with secondary bacterial invaders, which, under ordinary conditions, are quite harmless. Experiments at the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station show that the same lesions, or diseased conditions, upon which the diagnosis of “mixed- infection" disease has been based, will develop in pigs which are inoculated with hog-cholera virus and are let run the full course of the disease without treatment ; or in pigs which contract cholera from natural exposure and are allowed to die. In conjunction with this it was also shown that the develop- ment of these so-called mixed-infection lesions could be prevented by the in- jection of anti-hog-cholera serum; since other pigs which were inoculated with an equal amount of the same cholera virus and a proper dose of anti-hog- cholera serum, and were allowed to run with the first group of experiment pigs, did not become ill from the vaccination nor contract “mixed-infection" disease from the sick pigs which on post mortem examination showed the so- called mixed infection lesions. This accords with practical field experience in sick herds; a liberal dose of anti-hog-cholera serum stops the outbreak, altho the post mortems show the “mixed infection" lesions. As secondary factors, cooperating with the highly virulent cholera in- fection, it is quite probable that some of the common hog-yard bacteria which are swallowed daily and which under ordinary circumstances are quite harm- less, may act as irritants to the already inflamed and weakened intestinal tissues, and aid in the production of the “button ulcers" and the diffuse dip- theritic and necrotic intestinal lesions, which in the older and classic literature were regarded as signs of “chronic hog cholera." This diagnosis would still be well to adhere to, because of the probability that in such cases the primary and essential cause of the outbreak in the herd is hog-cholera infection, and because of the probability that a greater number of hogs can be saved by the prompt use of anti-hog-cholera serum, and the prompt application of appropri- ate hygienic measures, than can be saved by the use of “mixed-infection" vac- cines. These diphtheritic inflammations of the intestines are more liable to de- velop during cholera attacks if the feedstuffs are of a kind which tend to 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 174 cause bowel disturbances. And, as there is likely to be considerable immature and soft corn to feed this fall (unless the ripening season is prolonged and the frost delayed), it is especially important that the hogs which are put upon such feed should be well immunized against cholera before the heavy feeding begins. “SWINE INFLUENZA” OR “HOG FLU” In regard to “hog flu,” the appearance of which was announced in an ad- joining state two years ago (at the time influenza was so prevalent among people), the quite general impression among the conservative veterinarians is that there was no need for the invention of this new term to designate any ail- ment from which the swine herds were suffering, and that there was no need for any special vaccine to combat the supposed new swine epizootic. What the new corn crop may bring forth in the way of fancied or real ailments, and new remedies, remains to be seen. But the writer’s advice to the swine feeders and veterinarians is to take heed of hog cholera and to defend the herds from this real menace. It is not too soon to begin immunizing the hogs that are to be put on the new corn crop, if the losses from cholera and its complications are to be held within reasonable bounds. DIAGNOSTIC POINTS As an aid to diagnosis it is deemed advisable to include a few illustra- tions and descriptions of the most prominent diagnostic signs or lesions found in hog cholera and its complications. In some cases the diagnosis of hog cholera is easy, while in others it is exceedingly difficult even for the veterinarian who has had years of clinical experience. The information contained herein cannot, therefore, give to the swine-raiser all the aid that may be necessary to make a diagnosis of hog cholera under all circum- stances. To avoid errors in diagnosis and delays in applying proper treat- ment, the swine raiser is advised in all cases where it is feasible to secure the services of a competent graduate veterinarian. In several counties of the state, however, no resident veterinary prac- titioner is available and in such territory the swine raisers are for the most part dependent upon themselves both for diagnosis and treatment. In some of these counties even the help of a county agent cannot be had. The descriptions and interpretations of the different figures illustrating the disease conditions are therefore made as simple as the subject matter will permit, having in mind the needs of swine raisers who cannot secure veteri- nary aid. Besides, in territory where veterinary service is available, a bet- ter knowledge on the part of the swine-raiser as to what hog cholera is will lead to more prompt action in calling for professional aid. Experience has shown that the best results in the saving of hogs and in the control of hog cholera is by the intelligent cooperation of the swine raisers and vet- erinarians. Nature of the disease. — A definition or statement concerning the gen- eral nature of hog cholera will be an aid to diagnosis. Hog cholera is a specific infections disease; that is, it is caused by a special microbe, and no outbreak of the disease ever occurs in a neighborhood unless this special Hog Cholera and Immature Corn 11 microbe is present. An outbreak cannot occur in a herd that is free from the disease until the infection is brought in from some other source by an infection-carrier, as by the purchase of one or more cholera infected hogs, or by the careless use of hog cholera virus in vaccination work, or by con- tamination of the premises from sick herds in the neighborhood thru drain- age or other means. The disease is also a highly infectious or “catching” ■disease, spreading certainly and quickly thru a herd and to neighboring herds if measures of prevention are neglected, and the death rate among infected swine is usually very high. The infectiousness, epizootic character, and high death rate are usually sufficient to establish the diagnonsis of hog cholera when the outbreak has continued long enough to establish a history showing these characteristics, since there is no other swine ailment to compare with it in these respects. But at the beginning of an outbreak in a neighborhood, before many hogs have died, the symptoms and post mortem findings must be relied upon to determine the diagnosis. Symptoms. — As to the symptoms, these are by no means always diag- nostic; many of the symptoms are the same as observed in illness from other causes. In the very acute type of the disease, hogs may die without having shown any noticeable preliminary stage of illness; usually, how- ever, a period of several days’ illness occurs before death, the animal showing evidences of high fever by thirst, the temperature as shown by the clinical thermometer varying from 104 to 107 degrees. The figure on the cover page shows a very common posture in the cholera-infected pig. In cholera the animal shows extreme weakness and depression and a disinclination to move about, often lying in bed and bur- rowing in the straw as if to cover up for warmth, and when aroused and compelled to move about an unsteadiness of gait is observed, the hind parts wabbling or weaving from side to side. Diarrhea is frequently observed, but some pigs are severely consti- pated. In cases showing diarrhea the discharges at first are usually of a greenish color and later may become black from admixture with blood. In some cases a bloody discharge is seen. In the more chronic cases the discharges are often yellow or ochre colored, the so-called typhoid dis- charges, which on exposure to air change to a reddish orange color. Bleeding at the nose and the passage of bloody urine have also been ■observed in the acute hemorrhagic type of cholera. In some cases the skin, and especially on the belly and inner face of the hams, appears red- dened from the rupture of capillary blood vessels. A husky cough occurs in some infected animals when the respiratory organs are involved, but this occurs also from other causes. Lesions or disease changes. — A study of the autopsies of numerous un- questioned cases of hog cholera, together with considerable experimental evidence, shows that in addition to defining hog cholera as a “specific in- fectious disease” it can also be appropriately termed a “blood disease”; or in more technical language, a “septicemia,” which implies that the microbic infection or virus lives and multiplies mainly in the blood stream rather than in the cellular substance of the various organs thru which the blood circulates. In the most acute type of the disease the hog may die after a 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 174 short period of extremely high fever and no well-marked lesions or signs of disease be found in the carcass. Indeed in some cases if the animal is slaughtered at the height of the fever and bled out and dressed as a butch- ered animal, the carcass and visceral organs cannot readily be distinguished from those of a healthy hog; yet if a small quantity of the blood of such an animal is inoculated into a healthy pig, or if the pig is fed portions of the apparently healthy viscera (the capillaries of which still retain consid- erable blood), an attack of hog cholera is certain to develop. Hog cholera therefore in its simplest form is a pure “septicemia” (or blood disease). When the veterinarian or the swine raiser makes an examination of a case of this kind and finds no lesions he is unable, without further data, to make a diagnosis. Fortunately, however, so far as diagnosis is concerned, it is rare for an outbreak of hog cholera to occur without showing some posi- tive diagnostic signs early in the outbreak. In fact, the larger number of autopsies show another stage of the disease, namely, the occurrence of nu- merous minute hemorrhages in the various organs of the body following the rupture of capillary blood vessels. In some cases these hemorrhages are few and occur only in a few organs, while in other cases the hemor- rhages are numerous and several organs show the lesions. The descriptions of this stage or phase in hog cholera will be better understood by a study of the accompanying figures illustrating the hemor- rhagic lesions occurring in the several organs. Lymph nodes. — The lymph nodes (lymph glands or “kernels”) show a hemorrhagic condition in hog cholera more constantly perhaps than other structures. The “kernels” in the throat near the angle of the jaw should be examined; these are frequently enlarged from congestion of the blood vessels and show evidences of capillary hemorrhage into the gland tissue when cut across. Some of the lymph glands in other parts of the body, which it is advisable to examine, are the inguinal or flank glands or “ker- nels”; the bronchial and mediastinal glands, in the thoracic cavity; the portal glands between stomach and liver; and the mesenteric glands in the gut fat. In health these glands are of a grayish or leaden color, while in cases of cholera some of these glands will often be red or even black from the intense congestion with blood, and hemorrhage in the substance of the gland. Kidneys. — The kidneys perhaps stand next in the constancy of the hemorrhagic lesions. These organs in the great majority of cases of hog cholera show at least a few minute punctiform glomerular hemorrhages; and in some cases the hemorrhages are quite numerous giving the kidney a well-speckled appearance, the so-called “turkey-egg” appearance. (See Figure 2.) The lower or ventral surface usually shows more blood specks than the upper or dorsal surface. The pelvis of the kidney, the ureters, and the urinary bladder occa- sionally show signs of capillary hemorrhage in swine affected with hog cholera. Cases have been observed in which the urinary bladder was dis- tended with bloody urine. Hog Cholera and Immature Corn 13 Fig. 2. — Kidney showing hemorrhagic lesion of hog cholera Heart. — The heart occasionally, tho not frequently, shows numer- ous small hemorrhagic spots be- neath the pericardium, especially at the upper portion of the heart. (See Figure 3.) Lungs. — The lungs in many cas- es are quite normal in appearance; but in other cases, hemorrhages varying in size and number are found scattered over the surface of the several lobes, just beneath the pleural covering. The “blood shot” spots vary in size from that of a pin-head to areas three-fourths of an inch or more in diameter. (See Figure 4.) The cross-section of such a lung also shows hemor- rhages in the deeper portions. Stomach. — The stomach in many cases appears normal both outside and inside the organ, while in oth- er cases spots of hemorrhages are found on one or both surfaces, , Tr most frequently on the inner sur- riG. 3. — Hemorrhages in heart of pig af- . fected With cholera face m the submucous layer. Oc- casionally a massive blood clot is found in the cavity of the stomach of a hog that has died from hog cholera. Intestines. — The small intestines rarely show hemorrhages either on the outer or inner surface but occasionally the subserous space is well dotted with minute hemorrhages. Such hemorrhages occur more frequent- 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 174 \y in the inner coat of the small intestines. Sometimes extravasation of blood takes place thru the mucous coat into the cavity of the gut. Hem- orrhagic spots varying in size are observed more frequently in the walls of the large intestines in swine affected with hog cholera. (See Figure 5.) The food contents of the large intestines are sometimes strongly tinged with blood from hemorrhage into the cavity of the gut. Fig. 4. — Lungs of hog showing hemorrhagic cholera lesions This well-marked tendency for ruptures of the capillaries to occur in the various organs, resulting in numerous pin-point and larger hemor- rhages shows that hog cholera, in addition to being a “septicemia,” is also a hemorrhagic disease, and might in many cases be appropriately termed a “hemorrhagic septicemia,” except for the fact that this term is already used to designate an identical condition which is supposed to be caused by Hog Cholera and Immature Corn 15 a different microbe, namely, the “Bacterium suisepticus” or swine plague bacterium, or as it is now more popularly known the “bacterium of hem- orrhagic septicemia of swine.” But, as already mentioned in the earlier portion of this circular, the so-called hemorrhagic septicemia organism is probably not, as an independent and primary agent, a serious factor in the production of any epizootic disease among swine. And the probabilities are that the capillary ruptures and resultant hemorrhages are caused by the more highly virulent and toxic infection of hog cholera, and not by the “bacterium suisepticus,” or misnamed “hemorrhagic septicemia” organism; and that when the latter gains entrance into the tissues, this occurs as a rule only as a secondary invader through the lesions or ruptures produced by the hog-cholera virus. For practical diagnosis, therefore, these hemor- Fig. 5. — Hemorrhages in large intestines of hog affected with hog cholera rhages should be regarded by the veterinary practitioner and the swine raiser as evidences of hog cholera. Prompt treatment with anti-hog- cholera serum should be given when such lesions are found. Secondary 'lesions. — The numerous minute ruptures in the capillary blood-vessels of the lungs and intestines give easy ingress into the injured tissues to any of the hog-yard bacteria which at the time may be present on- the mucous surface of these organs ; and these micro-organisms, which in the healthy animal are quite harmless or rarely pathogenic, may act as local irritants or “wound infections” to the already injured lungs and intestines, and thus in conjunction with the hog cholera infection may give rise to a fatal broncho-pneumonia,' when the primary hog cholera lesions occur in the lungs; or to a diphtheritic inflammation of the intestines in cases where the primary lesions of hog cholera* are more pronounced in these organs. These secondary lesions of the lungs are shown in Figure 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 174 6. It will be seen that in addition to several subpleural hemorrhagic spots on the dorsal surface of the left lung, as at the point "e,” and the hemor- rhagic lymph-nodes in the space between the lungs, as at the point “d," there are also well-marked areas of solidification from broncho-pneumonia in the right lung. The greater part of the cervical lobe “a,” the middle lobe *‘b,” and the anterior outer portion of the posterior or principal lobe, as at the point “c,” all show solidification. There can be scarcely” any doubt that the hog-cholera infection,- be- cause of its virulency and prolonged vitality in the infected animal, is capable of producing these pneumonic lesions without the intervention of other microbic infections, since attempts to isolate bacteria from a pneu- monic lesion by bacteriological methods often fail in cases of hog cholera. But as the conditions at times are quite favorable for the penetration of Fig. 6. — Lungs of hog affected with cholera, showing pneumonic areas “a.” * b.” “c ? ’; hemorrhagic spots “e”; congested lymph nodes *‘d’’ the injured tissues by bacteria of various kinds, which may have been in- haled with the dust of the barn-y'ard, these bacteria frequently do penetrate the injured lung tissue and can be isolated and studied. Both bacillary and coccus forms have been found in the lungs of hogs which have died from cholera as has been shown in the work of this laboratory. The evidence, however, is lacking that an}* - of these secondary bacterial infections are responsible for serious outbreaks of swine disease, or need to be combated by other measures than good sanitation, proper feeding and shelter, and the proper use of anti-hog-cholera serum. As to the chronic intestinal lesions which are frequently associated with hog cholera, the development of these can be more readily under- stood by keeping in mind the earlier stages of cholera in which occur the numerous minute hemorrhages in the mucous and submucous layers of the Hog Cholera and Immature Corn 17 intestine, as shown in Figure 5, and by comparing this with Figure 7 show- ing numerous diphtheritic spots and patches. Figure 8 shows a less diffuse ulceration, one large “button ulcer” and several minute ulcers. If the pig showing these ulcerative or diphtheritic lesions had been killed a few days sooner the intestines would probably have shown the hemorrhagic lesions instead of the ulcerated or diphtheritic condition. The invasion of the hemorrhagic cholera wounds by the ordinary hog- yard bacteria or common intestinal flora may add to the irritation and in- flammatory action initiated by the hog-cholera infection or virus. Prac- tical clinical experience has shown that the most effective preventive measures against this necrotic enteritis or “mixed infection” bowel trouble are to guard against the initial or hemorrhagic lesions of hog cholera by using liberal doses of anti-hog-cholera serum at the beginning of an out- break of cholera, or when immunizing a herd by the double-method and to Fig. 7. — Section of large intestines of hog affected with cholera, showing diffuse “diptheritic” or * necrotic" spots give proper attention to feeding, and other hygenic measures. If these le- sions are found in a herd of swine which has had a “break” following dou- ble vaccination, the herd should be revaccinated with anti-hog-cholera serum, and fed for awhile on a soft or thin-slop ration, restricted in amount. There is some reason to believe that these so-called “mixed infection” intestinal lesions, or necrotic conditions, are in reality a stage in the heal- ing process of the initial hemorrhagic hog-cholera lesion, and not a pro- gressive disease process due to secondary bacterial invaders or “mixed in- fections.” In other words, that what is observed is in fact an effort on the port of the healthy cells of the intestines to separate and slough off the blood-cots or “infarcts” and dead portions of the mucous and submucous tissues which have been killed by the cholera infection; and that the various bacteria found in the necrotic tissues are present merely in the role of harmless saprophytes feeding upon the already dead tissues, rather than as disease-producing parasites which have killed living tissues. Figure 9 shows “button ulcers” as the healing process was underway. When this 18 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 174 dead or necrotic intestinal tissue is extensive the nutritive functions of the animal are greatly disturbed, and doubtless considerable “cadaveric”’ or necrotic “toxin” is absorbed into the blood stream and increases the depression of the affected animal. Moreover, under the conditions men- tioned, intestinal bacteria may invade the blood stream and be found at times in the spleen, liver and kidneys. But this has little significance as an indication that these invading bacteria are specific disease producers, and Fig. 8. — Section of large intestines showing more isolated necrotic cholera lesions — a large * button ulcer” and several small ulcers or necroses less justification for their use in the form of “bacterins” or “mixed infec- tion” vaccines for the immunization of swine against the occurrence of the necrotic conditions found in the intestinal tract of swine. It should be kept in mind that these bacteria are normal inhabitants of the intestines and if, as living bacteria in constant contact with the intestinal mucosa, they have been unable to produce an immunity, it is not probable that when they are grown artificially outside the body, and killed by heat and thus converted into dead bacteria or “bacterins,” they could give any Hog Cholera and Immature Corn 19 practical immunity against the disease-conditions mentioned. The good clinical results following the use of the “mixed infection” vaccines which have been reported from time to time in the veterinary journals by a num- ber of practitioners, as well as the results reported by the trade bulletins of the veterinary biological companies, are probably accounted for by the better care of the herd which is instituted when a diagnosis of “mixed infection” disease is made. The anti-hog-cholera serum which is usually administered at the same time should receive due credit for the good re- sults in preventing further losses in the herd. The safe conclusion for the swine raiser and the busy veterinary prac- Fig. 9. — Section of cecum and colon showing ‘ healing stage” at margins of button- ulcers titioner is to regard all the lesions which have been described as evidences of hog-cholera infection in the herd; and the safest action is to vaccinate the herd promptly with anti-hog-cholera serum and to give the herd such special care as to feeding and shelter as the conditions may require. A research bulletin on some of the phases of hog cholera touched upon in the preced- ing pages is in preparation, which because of its more technical nature and the incorpora- tion of experimental details will be of special interest to the veterinarians rather than the swine raiser. SUMMARY OF FACTS TO REMEMBER 1. Hog cholera is caused by a living germ, virus or infection. 2. The disease is contagious, or “catching” by contact with the sick animal or its excretions. 3. Hogs in low vitality from worms, lice, lack of proper nourishment, 20 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 174 poor care, fatigue, overheat or undue exposure to cold are less resistant to the disease than vigorous swine in a good state of nutrition and properly cared for. 4. The anti-hog-cholera serum contains the protective substances which prevent cholera, and does not introduce disease; but it gives only a passive or temporary immunity. 5. The “virus” used in the “double” or serum-virus treatment is blood from a hog affected with cholera in the acute form, and if injected without serum produces an acute attack of cholera. 6. The serum and virus when injected at the same time, in proper proportions, into healthy swine which receive proper after-care confer a tolerably lasting immunity. 7. The “virus” remains alive and virulent in the blood of double-treated swine for three or four weeks after vaccination; proper after-care should therefore be given double-treated hogs to avoid a “break” from “vaccina- tion cholera.” 8. “Breaks” following double treatment may occur if the virus is a weak or dead virus, the immunity in such cases being of scarcely greater duration than the immunity from serum-alone vaccination. 9. “Breaks” from vaccination cholera following the double treatment may occur if the virus is active and the serum is low in potency. The virus in such a case is not held in check and develops visible signs of ill- ness which may result in the death of several vaccinated animals. 10. “Breaks” from vaccination cholera following the double treatment may occur when active virus and fully potent serum are administered to swine of low vitality. The natural resistance of the animal plus the “serum reinforcement” being insufficient to withstand the disease activity of the virus. Avoid as much as possible giving virus to swine which are out of condition; give serum alone and later apply double treatment. But if this is not feasible, increase the dose of serum considerably when giving the double treatment. 11. “Breaks” from vaccination cholera are liable to occur in swine which are subjected to unusual conditions of fatigue, from long railroad hauls, or excessive handling too soon after vaccination, even tho such swine were in thrifty condition when vaccinated, and were given serum and virus of good Quality and proper dosage. Careful attention and light ra- tions for several days may prevent losses, and revaccination in most cases will prove helpful. 12. Bring the double-treated herd onto full feed gradually, and maintain a proper balance of supplements, such as tankage and oil meal. 13. If sickness occurs in a herd of double-treated hogs within three or four weeks after vaccination, cut down the feed at once, separate the sick animals, call the veterinarian, take temperatures, and if autopsies show lesions like those described in the foregoing pages revaccinate the herd with anti-hog-cholera serum. 14. A common fault in vaccinating hogs is to give too small a dose of serum. It is better to give a few cubic centimeters too much than a few cubic centimeters too little. In the former case the loss in extra expense is slight, while in the latter case both the serum and the hog may be lost. UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN NO. 175 INFLUENCE OF CAPITAL ON FARM ORGANIZATION I. IN A LIVE-STOCK SECTION The feeding of silage was common on the more successful farms COLUMBIA, MISSOURI OCTOBER, 1920 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL the; curators of the university of Missouri EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY H. J. BLANTON, JOHN H. BRADLEY, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Paris Kennett Kansas City ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D„ PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF October, 1920 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, M. S . 2 R. M. Smith, A. M. T. E. Friedmann, B. S. A. R. Hall, B. S. in Agr. E. G. Sieveking, B. S. in Agr. A. B. Culbertson, Jr., B. S. in Agr. B. W. Manning, B. S. in Agr. G. W. York, B. S. in Agr. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING J. C. Wooley, B. S. Mack M. Jones, B. S. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. in Agr. L- A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. A. G. Hogan, Ph. D. F. B. Mumford, M. S. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. Paul B. Bernard. B. S. in Agr. A. T. Edinger, B. S. in Agr. H. D. Fox, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. E. F. Hopkins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale, b. S. in Agr. W. W. Swett, A. M. Wm. H. E. Reid, A. M. Samuel Brody, M. A. C. W. Turner, B^S. in Agr. D. H. Nelson, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. S. R. McLane FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. O. W. Letson, B. S. in Agr. E. O. Pollock, B. S. in Agr. B. B. Branstetter, B. S. in Agr. RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. S. D. Gromer, A. M. R. C. Hall, A. M. B. H. Frame FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. F. Major, B. S. H. D. Hooker, Jr., Ph. D. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. F. C. Bradford, M. S. H. G. SwartwouT, B. S. in Agr. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L- Kempster, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. R. R. Hudelson, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. H. V. Jordan, B. S. in Agr. Richard Bradfield, A. B. O. B. Price, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connaway, D. V. S., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crisler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, A. M. ZOOLOGY George Lefevre, Ph. D. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S.. Treasurer Leslie Cowan, B. S., Secretary Sam B. Shirkey, Asst, to Dean O. W. Weaver, B. S., Agricultural Editor J. F. Barham, Photographer Miss Salome Comstock , 1 Seed Testing Laboratory *In service of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2 On leave of absence. Influence of Capital on Farm Organization I. In Live-Stock Section O. R. Johnson, R. M. Green* The amount of money a farmer has to work with is one of the most important factors in determining his success. The capital usually deter- mines not only the kind of farming he shall undertake but also the locality which he chooses. As prices increase and as land values rise capital be- comes more than ever a determining factor. To determine the importance of the amount of money a man has to work with, special study has been made in two sections of Missouri that contrast live-stock farming and high- priced land with grain farming and low-priced land. In this discussion only the first section studied will be dealt with. The second section will appear in a later report. The region chosen for this part of the work was Saline County, Mis- souri. Two hundred and two farms were included and the figures from these are for the farm year 1914-15. Statistics were collected from farmers by means of the survey method. This included the obtaining of inventories for the beginning and close of a farm year, also the recepits and expenses for that year. Certain additional information is gathered regarding prices, crop yields and many farm practices. The object is not only to obtain the farmer’s net income for the year but to have enough additional information to be able to give specific reasons for his success or lack of success. The part of Saline County studied is about one-fourth or one-fifth of the county extending from Marshall north and west. The soil in the region is very fertile. It is primarily a corn and a live-stock feeding section. The average yield of corn is approximately forty bushels. As this particular region is better than the average of Saline County the yield will probably differ a little from that average. Wheat does not do particularly well yet yields of between twenty and thirty bushels are not unusual. The average yield of various crops on the farms studied for 1914 are: Corn, 36.3 bu.; wheat, 16.4 bu.; oats, 19.3 bu. ; timothy and clover hay, 1.1 tons; alfalfa, 3.5 tons. As this is a region where land values are very high, capital really plays an important part in farm operations. In attempting to find out what a farmer can do with a certain amount of capital, the farms must be grouped according to amount of capital actually possessed by the operator. He may rent some additional land, or he may rent all the land he farms, or he may be renting some of his owned land to another farmer, yet he is put into the group with men who actually possess an amount of capital which falls within this group. For illustration, in the first group of farms are men with a capital of less than $5,000. In this group (Table 1) only two farm- ers owned all the land they operated, two others owned a little land and rented some additional. The remaining fifty-two farmers rented all the land Resigned, August, 1920. 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 175 they operated. These farms varied in size from 20 acres to 327 acres. Thus it is seen that different farmers have different ideas of how best to use a capital of less than $5,000 in farming. The exact amount of capital he uses in the nature of rented land is shown in Table 1 for each group of farms studied. Table 2 shoves that in all groups, some farmers use just their own land, some rent out some of their land, and others think they make more from farming the other man’s land than by owning it, for which reason they rent additional land. The object in dividing each group of farms studied into two classes should be explained. Farmers as well as men in other business believe that the best way to get pointers on successful methods of conducting their business is to study the methods and practices of successful business men engaged in that line of work and that the best way to learn what practices would fit their conditions is to study the successful operators in that line of business under similar conditions. A good way to have these differences firmly impressed on one’s memory is to compare the two classes just men- Table 1. — Capitae Used in Land Rented by Operators in Each Capital Group Operator’s capital group Acres farmed Owned capital per farm Acres rented per farm Value Under $5000 Ivow labor-income 141.8 $ 2,133 139.7 $16,759 High labor-income .... 194.1 2,353 194.1 27,849 $5000 to $20,000 Low labor-income 124.3 13,988 37.8 4,457 High labor-income ... 143.3 12,394 82.3 11,930 $20,000 to $40,000 Low labor-income 208.7 29,740 20.5 2,758 High labor-income .... 212.1 29,380 41.7 6,585 Over $40,000 Low r labor-income 321.2 62,563 48.8 5.674 High labor-income ... 369.4 65,125 46.8 6.179 Table 2. — Land Leasing Policy of Men in Each Capital Group Capital group Number of farms Per cent Farming own land only of operators Renting Renting more land out land Under $5000 Low 25 8 92 High 31 0 100 $5000 to $20,000 Low 30 60 40 .... High 31 55 45 $20,000 to $40,000 Low 24 46 21 33 High 17 59 35 6 Over $40,000 Low* 23 48 13 44 High* 22 44 32 32 Some men in these groups rented out some land and then rented more to farm, themselves. Influence of Capital on Farm Organization b tioned; namely, the successful and the unsuccessful engaged in similar lines of business. It is obviously impossible to study by direct observation the methods and practices of any considerable number of farms. Therefore, a measure which is fair to all and which can be applied to a farmer’s record, must be determined. For this purpose labor-income has been used for a number of years. Labor-income is what the farmer has left as wages for his labor and management after paying all operating expenses of the farm and allow- ing his capital 5 per cent as its fair earning for the year. The value of products furnished by the farm toward the family living, including house rent, is not charged as a farm receipt, neither are cash expenses of the family living charged as a farm expense. The farms studied are divided into four groups and each group is fur- ther divided into a class of successful and a class of less successful opera- tors. In several of these classes it will be noticed that the labor-income is given with a minus sign before it. This means that the operator failed by this amount to make 5 per cent interest on his investment. Table 3 shows the number of farms in each class of each group studied together with the average labor income made by this class. In making the labor-income divisions in each group, a dividing point is used which gives approximately the same number of farms in each class. (Table 3.) The division used was $100 labor-income in all classes except the first. In other words the class marked low labor-income included farms which made less than $100 wages for the operator. Those marked high income made more than $100 wages for the operator. This division had to be changed in the first group because not enough farms fell in the low group. It was found necessary to raise the division point to $600. After this general discussion each group will be considered individually and the practices of the more successful! farmers will be contrasted with the practices of the less successful. This will eventually give a fair idea of what a man may expect to do with a given amount of capital, provided he conforms more or less to practices which seem to pay best in that par- ticular group. Table 3. — Average Labor Incomes Made by Men oe Each Class in the Capital Group Capital group No. farms Labor-income $5000 or Less Labor-income under $600 25 $ 210 Labor-income over $600 31 1115 $5000— $20,000 Labor-income under $100 30 -354 Labor-income over $100 31 1065 $20.000— $40,000 Labor-income under $100 24 -794 Labor-income over $100 17 706 Over $40,000 Labor-income under $100 23 -1927 Labor-income over $100 22 2486 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 175 FARMERS POSSESSING LESS THAN $5000 CAPITAL In studying the operations of farmers who have less than $5000 capital, it is found first that practically all men in this group are renters. These farmers virtually agree that with no more capital than this, their funds should be devoted to equipment and live stock. Only four farmers in the list made any attempt to own land. While these men agree as to the ad- visability of not trying to own land wfith the limited capital they possess, yet their ideas of a farm are decidedly different. One, for example, was farming 24 y 2 acres, another 20 acres, and another 27 acres. On the other hand, there were 21 farming more than 200 acres of land. They also dif- fered in regard to the amount of investment deemed advisable for live stock and machinery. Some farmers had such investments in work stock, for illustration, as $175 on a 90-acre farm or $390 on a 180-acre or $150 on a 107-acre farm. On the other hand another man had as much as one- half of his capital invested in work animals. In regard to other classes of live stock we find similar variations. With machinery the situation is the same as with work animals. Considering the variation in men’s ideas of the way they should invest their capital, it will be desirable to compare the men making fair incomes with those making poor incomes to see if the more successful farmers have any uniformity of methods or to see if their methods uniformly differ in any respect from those of the less successful ones. These men are divided into two classes depending on whether they made a labor-income larger or smaller than $600. Thirty-one farms in this group fall into the class of lower labor-incomes, and twenty-five fall into the class of higher incomes. The distribution of farms in each class is given in Table 4. While the farmers of each class possess about the same capital, yet 84 per cent of those in the high income class have more than $1000 capital and less than $4000 while 22 per cent of the low income class have less than $1000, and 16.2 per cent have more than $4000. There are fewer farms in the extreme capital divisions in the high income class. Regarding the distribution of investment, the high income class have $400 more invested in live stock and $90 more in machinery. (Table 5.) The low income class have 14 per cent of their money invested in land. No doubt land is a factor of no small importance in explaining the differ- ence in labor-income made by the two groups. Studies of live stock and cropping systems give some further reasons for the difference in income. The high income class kept two more work Table 4. — Distribution oe Operators Capital in Group 1 Amount of capital High income class Low income class No. of Per cent No. of Per Cent farmers of total farmers of total Under $1000 3 12 7 22.6 $1001 — $2000 : 7 28 11 35.5 $2001 — $3000 10 40 5 16.2 $3001 — $4000 4 16 3 9.7 Over $4000 1 4 5 16.2 Influence of Capital on Farm Organization 7 horses per farm than did the low income class. They also kept one more brood sow and raised more pigs. With other stock the amount kept was about the same in both classes. However, in the high income class a larger profit was made on all classes of live stock. With a total difference in labor-income of $905, nearly 18 per cent of this sum was due to larger profits on hogs, 3 per cent to better management of cattle, and 6 per cent to poultry. With crops the high income groups show a marked difference from the low in the two more important crops, corn and wheat. They grew ap- proximately 50 per cent larger acreage of each crop, with 1080 bushels more corn and 359 bushels more wheat. The increased acreage and better yield of corn were responsible for 67.7 per cent of the difference in labor-income, while wheat was responsible for 4*4 per cent of the difference. (Table 6.) Variation in crop yields was not marked. Most of the difference was due to increased acreage. The larger acreage of crops grown by the more successful farmers Table 5. — Distribution oe Investment on Farms in Group 1 ( under $5000) Investment in — High income class Low income class Dollars Per cent Dollars Per cent Land 300 14 Work Stock 938 40 687 32 Other Live Stock 695 30 539 25 Machinery 380 16 290 14 Miscellaneous 340 14 317 15 Total 2353 100 2133 100 Table 6. — Size oe the Important Enterprises on the Farms oe Group I With Percentage Efeect on Labor-Income Enterprise High Low Dollars Per cent income income differ- effect on class class ence difference in income Per cent Acres of corn 72 49.6 $612 67.7 Acres of wheat 54.7 28.8 42 4.5 *Animal units in cattle. 2.4 2.2 28 3.1 *Animal units in hogs. 3.7 3.0 159 17.7 *Animal units in poultrv 1 1 55 6.0 Miscellaneous 9 1.0 tFeed fed per animal unit $51 $53 Difference in labor- income $905.10 100 *An animal unit is a mature work horse or its equivalent in other live stock based on relative amounts of feed consumed in one year. Thus each of the following are equal to one animal unit: 1 workhorse, 3 other horses, 2 dairy cows, 3 farm milk cows, 4 cattle under 2 years, 3 cattle over 2 years, 4 brood sows, 3 fattening hogs, 23 ewes and their lambs, or 122 hens and their increase. tFeed fed per animal unit means value of feed produced on the farm, and not sold, for each unit of live stock kept. This indicates the relative efficiency with which feeds are utilized. 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 175 enabled them to use their work stock to better advantage. The feed cost for this work stock was practically the same on all farms, while the farmers making the larger incomes grew 19.5 acres of crops for each work horse as compared to 15.9 acres of crops for each horse kept in the group making lower incomes. (Table 7.) The difference in incomes due to better management of their hogs on the more successful farms is because of the following conditions. The average figures for the group show that the better farms were obtaining one pig more per litter than was being obtained on the less successful farms. Also the practice of raising two litters of pigs a year from each brood sow was more common on the more successful farms. On the low income farms 55 per cent of the operators were securing two litters of pigs a year from each brood sow, while on the high income farms 87 per cent of the operators were getting two litters of pigs from each brood sow kept. Further, losses from disease amounting to 17.3 per cent were found on the farms making the low incomes and 6.4 per cent for the farms making the high incomes. (Table 8.) Three recommendations for this region may be made, based on the study of this group of farmers. First, with less than $5000 capital don’t buy, but rent enough ground to employ men and horses effectively. Sec- ond, pay more attention to wheat yields while growing a larger acreage of crops. Third, take every precaution to prevent losses from disease among hogs, and practice the two litter system of raising hogs. FARMERS POSSESSING BETWEEN $5000 AND $20,000 CAPITAL In studying the farmers in this area possessing from $5000 to $20,000 capital, some interesting comparisons are found. First, of all farmers in Table 7. — Acres oe Crops Tended Per Work Animal Group I. Acres per horse High income class 19.5 Low income 15.9 Group II. Acres per horse 14.1 10.6 Group III. Acres per horse 13.9 15.6 Group IV. Acres per horse 20.8 14.8 Table 8. — Showing Comparative Hog Losses and Pigs Per Sow Group I. High income class Percentage loss of hogs raised and bought Per cent 6.4 Pigs per sow 7.1 Low income class 17.3 6.2 Group II. High income class 11.0 9.1 Low income class 46.0 8.0 Group III. High income class 15.0 8.8 Low income class 31.5 9.0 Group IV. High income class 8.0 9.0 Low income class 30.5 6.8 Influence of Capital on Farm Organization 9 this group, all but five owned at least a part of the land they farmed. There are 61 farmers in this group. When they are separated into two classes, as the first group were separated, 30 of them are found to be making less than $100 labor-income and 31 more than $100. The 30 farmers made a labor-income of $-381 while the 31 more successful made an average labor- income of $930. Fourteen of the more successful farmers rented additional land while 11 of the less successful rented additional land. This indicated that men with this amount of capital are undecided as to whether it is advisable to rent more land. However, the high income class owned 61 acres of land while the low income class owned 86^ acres. The average amount rented by the high income class was 82 acres while those in the low income class rented an average of 37 acres. Table 9 shows the results obtained in both the low income and high income classes by the renting of this additional land. The men in the low income class who rented addi- tional land practically doubled the size of their farms and reduced their minus labor income from $434 to $225. Three of the four farmers in this class who made as much as 5 per cent on their investment were among those who rented additional land. They owned almost exactly the same acreage as those who did not rent but increased their holdings to a more economical unit by renting some additional land and increased their farm- income by more than $200. In the high income class the men who rented additional land increased their income thereby more than $1000. Those in this class not renting additional land made a labor-income of $428. Those renting additional land increased their holdings thereby from 42 acres to 219 acres which gave them a farm of economical size and a labor income of $1488. As was stated before, the men in this group apparently are not convinced that they should rent additional land. However, the resulting effect on the labor-income should convince the most doubtful. There is only $1600 difference in the amount of capital owned by each class. In determining where this capital is invested, it is found (Table 10) that the low income class has $3000 more invested in land than does the high income class. This larger investment in land by the low income class greatly handicaps them in the matter of working capital. They have only 17 per cent of their total capital as working capital while the more success- ful farmers have 31 per cent of their capital with which to operate. This will eventually mean less live stock, poor equipment and less efficient work on the farm thus handicapped. The high income class have two and one- Tabee 9. — Practice and Effect of Renting More Land in Group II ( Capital — $5000 to $20,000) High income class Low income class Factor Those rent- ing more land Non- renters Those rent- ing more land Non- renters Number of farms 14 17 11 19 Average labor-income $1488. $428 $-225 $-434 Average acres owned Additional land 42 76.5 85.8 86.6 rented 177.2 87.5 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 175 half times as much money invested in other live stock as do the low income class. In machinerj' investment there is little difference. The low income class have about $200 more in feed, seed, etc. The high income class grow one-third more corn than do the low income class. Otherwise there is not much difference in the cropping sys- tems. The low income class get a little better wheat yield while the high income class get a little better corn jdeld. The high income class get about 40 per cent more work from each work horse than do the low income class (Table 7). At the same time they feed two-thirds as much feed for each unit of live stock kept. (Table 11.) The difference in returns from live stock is made up almost entirely by hogs and cattle. The low income class failed to break even with both hogs and cattle, while the high income class made a gain on all classes of stock except sheep. A considerable portion of the gain in the high income class is due to more economical feeding and fewer losses from cholera among their hogs. The low income class, in addition to feeding 50 per cent more feed to each animal unit, lost nearE one-half of the pigs farrowed, and the number of pigs raised per sow was less than on the high income farms. Table 10. — Distribution oe Capital in Group II ( Capital — $5000 to $20,000) Capital in — High income class Low income class Per cent Per cent of total of total Land $8,566 69.2 $11,644 83.2 Work stock 789 6.4 746 5.0 Other live stock 2.582 20.8 1.039 7.9 Machinery 363 2.9 274 1.9 Miscellaneous 94 0.7 284 2.0 Total ... $12,394 $13,987 Value of the land rented .. $11,930 $ 4,457 Table 11. — Size oe the Important With Percentage Enterprises on the Farms Effect on Labor Income of Group II, Enterprise High income class Low income class Dollars differ- ence Per cent effect on difference in income Per cent Acres of corn 41.9 30.8 $576 40.6 Acres of wheat 26.6 24.4 0 0.0 Animal units in cows 1.6 1.3 158 11.1 Animal units in steers.... 11.6 1.5 189 13.3 Animal units in hogs 12.8 3.7 371 26.2 Animal units in sheep.... 7 .2 *-61 -4.0 Animal units in poultry 1.2 1.5 117 8.3 Miscellaneous 70 4.3 Feed fed per animal unit Difference in labor- income $41 $68 $1,420 The high income class lost on sheep, compared to the low income class. Influence of Capital on Farm Organization 11 The principal differences in these classes seem to be first, on the high income farms a much lower investment per acre with equal yields; second, uneconomical feeding practices on the low income farms with heavy losses from hogs. FARMERS HAVING FROM $20,000 TO $40,000 CAPITAL Forty-one farmers were farming with a total owned capital of from $20,000 to $40,000. Seventeen of these made a labor-income of more than $100 while the remainder failed to make as much as $100 above interest on investment. The average of the 24 remaining farms was $-794.04. The average income of the 17 successful farmers was $705, making a total differ- ence in the two groups of $1499. In the low income class of this group five farmers rented additional land while six in the high income class rented more land. The result of renting additional land is shown in Table 12. The farmers in neither class were able to make the renting of additional land profitable. The results show that the operators who were renting additional land did this in an attempt to increase the size of their business. The result on their labor- income was not very satisfactory. They had a fairly good-sized business to begin with altho it was not as large as that of the non-renters. A few of the farmers in the non-renting class let out some land. This was not of great importance however. In this group, as in the second, there is considerable difference in the investment in live stock, the high income class having 51 per cent more money invested in productive live stock than did the low income class. A considerably larger portion of the capital of the low-income class was in- vested in land. From the standpoint of making a labor-income, this was not so desirable, as the difference in capital invested in land was nearly $2000 (Table 13). Considering the fact that their total capital was prac- tically the same this $2000 difference must be taken out of working capital. The sacrifice was made in machinery and live stock other than work stock. This resulted in a greater expense of production on the part of the low income class and affected materially their returns from live stock. The outstanding difference in results obtained in the two classes was in handling hogs and cattle. More than 70 per cent of the $1500 difference in labor-income can be traced directly to hogs and cattle. The gains from Table 12. — Practice and Eeeect oe Renting More Land in Group III. ( Capital — $20,000 to $40,000) High income class Low income class Factor Those rent- Non- Those rent- Non- ing more renters ing more renters land land Number of farms 6 11 5 19 Average labor-income $486 $870 $-1206 $-713 Average acres owned • 147 184 171.6 219 Average acres rented Average acres rented 118.2 98.6 out 10 81.0 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 175 feeding cattle and hogs were approximately $600 on the high income farms while on the low income farms a loss of practically the same amount was incurred. This was largely due to more economical feeding by the high income farmer. They fed only about 60 per cent as much feed per animal as did the low income class. The low income class kept nearly twice as many horses and mules as did the high income class, thus making the feed and all farm operations cost considerably more (Table 7). There was not much difference in the cropping systems followed. The acreage of wheat was almost the same. The low income class grew a few more acres of corn and obtained exactly the same yield of corn. The high income class obtained three bushels more wheat an acre than did the low income class. This, combined with a lower cost of production because of cheaper horse labor gave them a gain over the low income class in crop production. Thirty-five per cent of the difference can be traced directly to steer feed- ing. Nine of the 24 farmers in the low income class had ten or more steers each. Only one of these steer feeders was using silage. Twelve of the more successful farmers were handling steers. Six of this number were feeding either silage or grass. Difference in buying and selling prices or the managers’ skill in trading was a bigger factor than the difference in feeding practices. The average labor-income of the nine steer feeders in the low income class was $-936. Those not handling steers in this class Pasture land is not working at full capacity because of poor care given it Table 13. — Distribution of Capital in Group III. ( Capital — $20,000 to $40,000) Capital in — High income class Per cent of total Low income class Per cent of total Land $24,427 83.1 $26,254 88.2 Work stock 1,171 3.7 1,062 3.5 Other live stock 2,963 10.0 1,900 6.7 Machinery 498 1.7 • 383 1.2 Miscellaneous 321 1.5 141 .4 Total Value of the land $29,380 $29,740 rented $ 6,586 $ 2,758 Influence of Capital on Farm Organization 13 made $-744. In the high income class the 12 who were feeding steers made >713 labor-income and those who were not feeding steers made $786. How- ever, the six farmers who were feeding silage or grass made labor-incomes of $887. Thirty-one per cent of the difference , in incomes of the two classes was due to difference in success with hogs. The low income class had an average hog loss of 31.05 per cent while the high income class lost only 15 per cent. The difference in loss totaled $171. The remainder of the $465 difference in hog profits in the two classes was due principally to feeding practices. The number of pigs saved per sow in both classes was practically the same. (Table 8.) The problems indicated in the study of this group are practically the One of the better managed pastures in the area studied. Pays a lower rate of interest than crop land but conserves fertility and is helping solve a vexatious labor problem Table 14. — Size of the Important Enterprises on the Farms of Group III With Percentage Effect on Labor-Income Enterprise High income class Acres of corn 54.3 Acres of wheat 40. Animal units in cows.... 2.9 Animal units in steers.... 25.2 Animal units in hogs 13.1 Animal units in sheep.... Animal units in poultry 1.3 Miscellaneous Feed fed per animal unit $42.50 Difference in labor- . income Low Dollars Per cent income differ- effect on class ence difference in income 62.7 t$-90. 16.6 40.8 340 2.0 223 14.8 8.9 529 35.0 8.6 465 31.0 -7 * 1.3 17. 1.1 22. 1.5 $72.00 $1499. *Loss of less than one-half of one per cent. tCorn was more profitable on the low income farms. 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 175 same as in group two, except that the renting of additional land is not so important while the retaining of enough capital as operating capital is im- portant. As in group two, the low income farmers are not feeding eco- nomically and they are apparently not so skilled in buying and selling. The problems in regard to cropping systems correspond generally to those of group two. FARMERS FARMING WITH OVER $40,000 CAPITAL This group comprised the 44 largest land owners in this area. One naif of this group were making more than $100 labor-income or an annual labor-income of $2486. The other half of the group made an average labor income of $-1927. In the low income class ten farmers let out part of their land while three of the group rented some additional land. One of the three also appears in the group of those who rented out land. The effect of this renting and letting out of land is shown In Table 15. In the high income class seven let out land while seven rented some additional land. Two of the seven who let out land in turn rented some additional land. The number of acres operated in each class is about the same. In studying the amount of capital devoted to various investments not a great deal of difference is found (Table 16). The more successful farmers are using about $1000 more in live stock other than work stock. However, this is not of so great importance in that the less successful have more than $5000 so invested. The reason for the difference in income must be looked for in other quarters. The major part of this difference in income seems to be in the selling of crops and the feeding of steers. The high income class grows nearly twice as many acres of crops as does the low income class (Table 17). They have 120 acres of corn as compared to the 64 acres of the low income class, and 98 acres of wheat as compared to 51 for the low income class. They have nearly 20 per cent more cattle and 30 per cent more hogs than does the low income class. Each work horse does one-half more field work on the farms of the high income class (Table 7). Yields of crops were practically the same in both classes. In fact the low income class received a slightly larger yield of corn. Turning to the live-stock figures it is found that nearly 32 per cent of the difference in the incomes of the two classes is due to steer feeding. Table 15 . — Renting Policy on Farms Having Over $ 40,000 Capital and the Effect on Income High income class Low income class Factor Those rent- ing more land Non- renters Those rent- ing more land Non- renters Number of farms 5 17 3 19 Average labor-income $3,935 $2,135 $-7,974 $-1,110 Average acres owned 245.6 447. 353.3 298.1 Average acres rented Average acres rented out 166. 101.2 406.6 70.8 Influence of Capital on Farm Organization 15 In both classes several farmers maintained breeding herds of beef cows. Five in the low income class kept an average of 15 cows while eight in the high income class kept an average of 17 cows. The percentage of calves for the year on the low income farms was 65 and on the high income farms, 80. This percentage is calves saved and does not include the entire number of those dropped. Thirteen of the low income farms sold one or more cars of fat steers while 19 of the high income farms made such sales. Twelve of the low income farms had feeders on hand at the end of the year but there were only two silos filled on these 12 farms. Twelve farms in the high income class had feeders on hand with ten filled silos. The farmers handling steers in the low income class made an average income of $-2880. The nirie not handling steers, $-1365. The 19 handling steers in the high income class made $2700 labor-income while the three not handling steers made $1602. The farmers in this group are facing some very serious problems. First, some of them are leaving most of their land in grass. This may be due to labor shortage or it may be due to a greater or less degree of re- tirement on the part of the farmer because of old age or the accumulation Table 16. — Investment Distribution and Amount Used Thru Renting on Farms oe Group IV. ( Capital over $40,000) Investment in — Land Work stock Other live stock Machinery Miscellaneous Total capital Value of the land rented High income class per cent of total $54,662 83.9 1,764 2.8 6,467 9.9 659 1.3 1,572 $65,124 2.4 $ 6,179 Low income class Per cent of total $54,450 87.0 1,261 2.0 5,397 8.6 563 0.8 891 1.4 $62,562 $ 5,673 Table 17. — Comparison oe Major Enterprises in Group IV With Percentage Eeeect on Difeerence in Gains Acres of corn Acres of wheat Animal units in cows.... Animal unit in steers Animal units in sheep.... Animal units in hogs Animal units in poultry Miscellaneous Feed fed per animal unit Difference in labor income t High Low income income class class 120.8 64.4 97.7 51.0 3.3 2.3 59.0 52. 8.3 2 23.7 16.7 1.5 1.0 $47.00 $55.50 Dollars Percentage difference in difference net income Per cent $1,139. 25.8 572. 13.0 *-11. -0.2 1,403. 31.7 243. 5.5 947. 21.4 64. 1.5 58. 1.3 $4,414.00 The high income class lost on cows, as compared to the low income class. 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 175 of enough money to live on comfortably without hard work. A problem closely related to this is the matter of renting out land. Many of the farmers in this group have rented out so much land that they do not have enough left to operate economically. Under some circumstances their income from land rented out will be greater than if they farm the land themselves. Another factor of great importance with these cattle feeders is the use of silage to cheapen rations for steers. Also the matter of skill in buying and selling has a great deal to do with their success. These farmers also had the same problem with hogs as did groups two and three combined; namely, the matter of getting more pigs per sow each year and reducing losses from various diseases. The problem of economic use of horse labor is really included in the problem of farming or not farming their land. On the larger owned farms cattle feeding is the principal method of marketing the corn crop UNDER PRESENT PRICE CONDITIONS The foregoing work was done under 1914 price conditions, which ob- viously would not apply to those of 1920. To translate these results in terms of 1920 prices certain changes must be made. Table 18 shows how prices and cost of production have increased since 1914, taking the average prices and costs of 1910 to 1914 as a base, or 100 per cent. The cost of growing corn has increased from 100 per cent in 1910-14 to 165.5 per cent in 1919, while the average farm price of corn has increased 230 per cent. With wheat the 1920 price has increased a very little more than cost of production, while with hogs and beef the increase has not nearly kept pace with the cost of production. Labor incomes have increased since 1914 .because with a higher price scale farm labor receives better wages, and labor of production is figured at these wages. Also, farmers decreased their activity along less profitable lines and increased along those which are better paying. Thus they are cutting down on cattle and hogs and increasing corn and wheat. The labor-income made in this area, assuming 1920 prices, is shown in Table 19. Another factor which would affect results is the enormous increase in the price of land. The capitalization of farms in the area was $141 an acre in 1914. In 1919 the average capitalizatoin was $198 an acre. Clearly, computing the labor-income on the latter basis will lower materially the results obtained. The effect of this factor is also shown in Table 19. This Influence of Capital on Farm Organization 17 represents what a man can expect who buys his farm under 1919 price conditions and pays 5 per cent on his money. The era of greatest profit for farmers has clearly passed. Increased land values have more than made up for a high product price scale. For the man who rents all the land he farms, if the share of the crop charged him has not been raised, he is still in a good position. Rent rates tho slower in adjusting themselves will generally take care of this, however. Table 18. — Missouri Cost and Price Index in 1920 on the Basis of 1910-14 Figures Cost of production index *Corn .*. 165.5 Wheat 279.8 Pork 226.5 Beef 238.0 *U. S. Price Index for All Crops and Live Stock. Price index 230.0 281.0 212.1 218.0 234. 3f *These figures are for 1919 as 1920 figures cannot yet be computed. The remaining ones are for 1920. tTaken from Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1920. Table 19. — Labor-Incomes as Influenced by Rise in Prices and in Land Values In 1914 *At 1919 Prices *At 1919 Prices with 1914 Land with 1919 Land Values Values Group I. — High labor income $1,115.46 $2,185.30 $2,185.30 Low labor income 210.36 401.78 387.06 Group II. — High labor income $1,065.37 $2,013.55 $1,395.63 Low labor income 354.39 -212.63 -889.51 Group III — High labor income $ 705.83 $1,941.03 $ 225.86 Low labor income -794.04 -341.43 -1,754.82 Group IV. — High labor income $2,486.36 $5,668.90 $2,113.40 Low labor income -1,927.43 -1,908.15 -3,719.93 *These figures assume the same system of farming in 1919 as in 1914. In most cases the system has been modified. Wheat and hogs were increased materially and other opera- tions were reduced. Farmers generally modify their system to some extent to meet changed price conditions. With this comparison of present day conditions with those of 1914, a brief sketch of the strong and weak practices of a few exceptional farms in each class is given. These comparisons show special evidence of skill or lack of skill in management which averages in the preceding tables could not show. Obviously it would be impossible to use in general tables any- thing but averages of groups or classes so that these few farms selected because of outstanding features will show more clearly individuality in operators. 18 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 175 Group I. Low Incomes. No. 1 . Labor Income $458. Of 27 acres, 20 cash-rented for $5 an acre. Receipts from working out were double the average. Receipts from eggs were double the average. For.ty-bushel corn yield on 21 acres. Kept only one sow to raise meat. No. 2. Labor Income $575. Of 41 acres, 40 were in corn. Gave two- thirds for rent, landlord furnishing land, machinery, w r ork stock, and a milk cow. Forty-eight-bushel corn yield on 40 acres. Kept only one sow to raise meat. No. 3. Labor Income $511. Of 90 acres, 82 are tillable and all in corn. Gave half of corn for rent. Receipts from working out twice the average. Forty-one-bushel corn yield on 82 acres. Fed no hogs; bought hogs to butcher. No. 4. Labor Income $-969. Of 370 acres, 120 in pasture. Kept 18 to 20 cows to raise calves. Fed out cattle but no hogs. Even bought hog to butcher. Corn all fed out, none sold. Farm living for 6, $1148. Group I. High Incomes No. 5. Labor Income $1532. Size, 120 acres, all rented. One hundred and five acres in corn at one-half rent. Receipt from working out five times the average. Fifty-one-bushel corn yield on 105 acres. Kept one sow. Ninety-six per cent receipts from sale of crops. No. 6. Labor Income $1122. Size, 120 acres, all rented. Horse trad- ing and handling of purebred horses accounts for extra income. No. 7. Labor Income $749. Size, 240 acres, all rented. Lost 88 head of hogs with the cholera. No. 8. Labor Income $776. Size, 240 acres, all rented. Lost 24 head of hogs with the cholera. Had 26 acres of wheat damaged by fly so that it wasn’t worth cutting. No. 9. Labor Income $3225. Size, 327 acres, all rented. In crops, 272 acres; 165 in corn, 95 in wheat, and 12 in timothy. The 165 acres of corn averaged 50 bushels. The 95 acres of wheat averaged 20 bushels. Seventy- five and three-tenths per cent receipts from sale of crops. Better produc- ing cows and poultry. Group II. Low Incomes No. 10. Labor Income. $-548. Size, 70 acres, owned. Only 12 in corn, 30 acres in wheat. Kept five head of work stock, two cows, one sow, and thirty hens. No. 11. Labor Income $-798. Size, 80 acres, owned. Had in no corn, bought all feed. Only 14 acres in wheat. Sixty-four acres out of 80 in pasture and land valued at $150 an acre. Lost 10 steers on way to market. Loss $300 to $350 above $400 insurance received. Group II. High Incomes No. 12. Labor Income $799. Size, 38V 2 acres, owned. Twelve acres corn averaged 50 bushels to the acre. Two acres melons, 1 acre raspber- ries, 2 V 2 acres strawberries. Teaches school part of the year. No. 13. Labor Income $840. Size, 40 acres, owned. Stock buyer and trader. All land in pasture. Makes money trading rather than farming Influence of Capital on Farm Organization 19 No. 14. Labor Income $1980. Size, 160 acres, owned 80 acres. Of this 150 in crops; 50 in clover and timothy. Fifty-bushel corn yield on 40 acres. Keeps about 500 hens. Sales from poultry near $700. Reached a good September market with steers. No. 15. Labor Income $6609. Size, 400 acres, all rented for two per cent on land investment. One hundred and fifty acres in corn. Kept 40 brood sows and bought over 300 head of hogs. Used silage in feeding. No. 16. Labor Income $705. Size, 440 acres, all rented. Giving one- half on all crop land and $5 an acre for pasture. On 160 acres got 15 bush- els of wheat an acre; 2 bushels an acre less than average of best farms. Loss of hogs, 31.5 per cent of number produced. Group III. Low Incomes No. 17. Labor Income $-1034. Owned 198 acres. Rented out 189 acres. Rents out all crop land for half. Too old to do much farming. Kept 3 head of work stock just to drive. No. 18. Labor Income $-1144. Owned 180 acres. Rented out 80 acres Lost all hogs with cholera. Rents out corn and wheat land at one-half. Old man to be farming. No. 19. Labor Income $-3160. Owned 160 acres and rented 208 acres, paying $6.50 an acre for land rented, one-half of which was used for pas- ture. Only crop in, 160 acres of corn. One hundred and ninety-six acres in pasture. Straight corn and hay feeding. Group III. High Incomes No. 20. Labor Income $2004. Size, 150 acres, owned. Close to town and run as a dairy farm selling mostly whole milk. Better than average yielding cows. A 35-bushel wheat crop in 1914. No. 21. Labor Income $3082. Size, 180 acres, owned. Exceptionally good buy made on nearly 100 head of steers that gained better than average, accounts for exceptional showing. Other returns ordinary. No. 22. Labor Income $353. Size, 345 acres. Owned 200 acres. Got only 10-bushel wheat yield. Got only about one-half of pig crop from 30 sows. Group IV. Low Incomes No. 23. Labor Income $-1293. Size, 310 acres, owned. Rented out 215 acres; 80 at $5.50 an acre cash, 135 at one-half share rent, the latter in corn and wheat. Had $200 an acre land. Tenant made a crop of 26 bushels corn to the acre and 7 bushels wheat to the acre. Lost one crop of pigs with cholera. No. 24. Labor Income $-4069. Owned 310 acres. Rented out 80 acres on shares of one-half the corn. Had $200 land. Wheat made only 11 bushels. Had 67 per cent of crop land in wheat. Put in only 22 acres of corn himself. Lost by cholera 26 shoats out of 100 heaji bought, and lost all pigs raised from seven sows except four pigs for meat. No. 25. Labor Income $-17271. Owned 450 acres and cash-rented nearly 1000 acres more. Total acreage was in grass. All feed bought, none raised. Speculated heavily in live stock. Owned land valued at $125 and was all used for pasture. 20 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 175 Group IV. High Incomes No. 26. Labor Income $1648. Owned 220 acres and operated it all. Averaged seven to eight pigs per sow for each of two litters. Corn yield 38 bushels or well up with the average. A 24-bushel wheat crop. No loss of hogs from cholera. No. 27. Labor Income $6123. Owned 298 acres and rented nearly 200 additional. A 25-bushel wheat crop. Two litters of pigs a year, seven or eight to litter from 15 to 17 sows. No loss from hog cholera. Hit good cattle market in early September. No. 28. Labor Income $11,137. Owned 160 acres and rented 270 more. Stock dealer, buying and selling much live stock. Bought all hogs han- dled. Corn crop 50 bushels an acre on land rented for cash at $6 an acre. Seventy-six per cent of crop land in corn. From $15,000 to $20,000 invested in live stock all the time, or about as much as he had in his own land. Favorably situated for securing good buys in live stock. SUMMARY Men with less than $5000 capital should not attempt to own land in a moderate to high-priced farming section. A better income will be realized by using all their capital as working capital. Renting a large enough area to employ men and horses efficiently is important. In this area the more successful men raise two litters of pigs a year from their brood sows. They also hold down losses from disease. In the group of farms with from $5000 to $20,000 capital, the main differences are in investment and efficiency with live stock. The low income class kept out too little capital as operating capital and had too much invested per acre for the yields they were getting; while they were poorer feeders of live stock and had greater losses from disease than did the more successful. The problems confronting men with from $20,000 to $40,000 do not differ greatly from those with $5000 to $20,000 except that the renting of additional land is not important. These farms are more strictly hog and beef-cattle farms. Plenty of working capital and reforms in feeding prac- tice are even more essential here than in the group with from $5000 to $20,000. Increase in wheat yields is worth trying for in all classes. On farms with over $40,000 capital the first thing noticed is that those making low incomes are not farming their land. They live on an interest return of 3 per cent to 4 per cent. Some of the owners rent out part of their land and live on the rent. The land they retain had better be rented and their working capital loaned out, as they do not retain enough land to farm economically. Another source of trouble is use of silage in cattle feeding. Those making money used silage to cheapen their rations. Skill or luck in buying and selling is not a small factor in their success with cattle. With hogs, they need more pigs per sow, and the eradication of cholera would mean a big saving. UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN NO. 176 NURSERY AND ORCHARD INSECT PESTS L. Haseman COLUMBIA, MISSOURI OCTOBER, 1920 Fig. 1 . — San Jose Scale; much enlarged, showing different stages of development UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL the: curators of the: UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY H. J. BEANTON, JOHN H. BRADLEY, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Paris Kennett Kansas City ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D„ PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION October, AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, M. S . 2 R. M. Smith, A. M. T. E. Friedmann, B. S. A. R. Hall, B. S. in Agr. E. G. SiEVEKiNG, B. S. in Agr. A. B. Culbertson, Jr., B. S. in Agr. B. W. Manning, B. S. in Agr. G. W. York, B. S. in Agr. agricultural engineering J. C. Wooley, B. S. Mack M. Jones, B. S. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. in Agr. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. A. G. Hogan, Ph. D. F. B. Mumeord, M. S. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. Paul B. Bernard, B. S. in Agr. A. T. Edinger, B. S. in Agr. H. D. Fox, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. E. F. Hopkins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale, B. S. in Agr. W. W. Swett, A. M. Wm. H. E. Reid, A. M. Samuel Brody, M. A. C. W. Turner, B^S. in Agr. D. H. Nelson, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. S. R. McLane FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. O. W. Letson, B. S. in Agr. E. O. Pollock, B. S. in Agr. B. B. Branstetter, B. S. in Agr. J In service of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2 On leave of absence. STAFF 1920 RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. S. D. GromEr, A. M. R. C. Hall, A. M. B. H. Frame FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. horticulture V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. | H. F. Major, B. S. H. D. Hooker, Jr., Ph. D. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. F. C. Bradford, M. S. H. G. Swartwout, B. S. in Agr. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L. Kempster, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. i W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. R. R. Hudelson, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. H. V. Jordan, B. S. in Agr. Richard Bradfield, A. B. O. B. Price, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connaway, D. V. S., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crisler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, A. M. ZOOLOGY George Lefevre, Ph. D. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer Leslie Cowan, B. S., Secretary Sam B. Shirkey, Asst, to Dean O. W. Weaver, B. S., Agricultural Editor J. F. Barham, Photographer Miss Bertha Hite, A. B. 1 Seed Testing Laboratory Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests Since the establishment of the Plant Inspection Service by the Legislature in 1913 the work of control of nursery and orchard insects has been given special attention. The San Jose scale, which since the early 90’s has been re- sponsible for much of the loss and damage to the fruit industry of Missouri, was taken in hand first of all. Remarkable results have already been secured in eliminating this pest from the nurseries of the state as well as from the im- portant orchard centers. The various other less well-known insects and plant diseases have also received attention. Except for certain pests of the fruit itself, practically every pest that is of importance in the nursery on the young trees, also attacks the older bearing trees in the orchard. For this reason it has seemed advisable in this report to deal with the various pests and their control both in the orchard and in the nursery. For the same reason it is of vital importance that the Plant Inspection Service be maintained and that adequate provisions be made to effectively pro- tect Horticulture and Agriculture against future losses from insects and plant diseases. The problems of the fruit grower and nurseryman, in this respect, are identical, and to make the work most effective we must continue to have close cooperation between them. A neglected orchard will endanger a neighboring nursery as well as increase the difficulties of nearby fruit growers. In this report the pests of apple, peach and other fruits will be taken up separately. Where a pest is of importance both in the orchard and nursery it will be so considered. INSECT PESTS OF THE APPLE Apple insects may be conveniently discussed as those of the roots, trunk and limbs, foliage and fruit. This method makes it easy for a fruit grower or nurseryman quickly to analyze his trouble. Apple Root Insects In Missouri there is only one insect of importance on the ^oots of apple trees. This is the Root Louse or Wooly Aphis, ( Schizoneura lanigera). It is quite generally distributed thruout the state, breeding commonly on apple, haw, crab, and on elm foliage. It is a small reddish-brown louse which usually keeps its body covered with a white cottony secretion. It feeds by extracting sap from the roots and bark thru a piercing beak. On the roots this causes swellings to form and on the trunk and limbs slight depressions. CoNTROi,. — In the nursery it helps to grow apple trees in fields which were formerly used for cultivated crops, and well isolated from old orchards, neg- lected apple trees, haws, crabs and elms. Also make sure that roots and scions are free from infestation when the grafts are made. Apple trees showing the 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 presence of lice should not be disposed of until properly treated. Such trees may be fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas as recommended for San Jose scale or the roots dipped in a solution containing one part of 40 per cent nicotine sulphate to 500 parts of water. One and two-year apples are less likely to he infested than older trees. In the orchard make sure that the young trees when planted are free from lice. Use land that is not newly cleared but which has been cultivated for several years. If possible do not have old worthless apple trees, haws and elms too near the young orchard. For the first few years after setting out the Fig. 4. — Flat-headed Ap- ple-tree Borer; a, Borer; b, pupa; d, adult beetle. (From U. S. Dept. Agr.) Fig. 2. — Root-louse of apple, showing typical root injury (After Stedman) Fig. 3 . — Round-headed Apple-tree Borer; a, Borer; b, pupa; c, adult beetle. (From U. S. Dept. Agr.) Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests . 5 young orchard scatter tobacco stems or tobacco dust about the base of the young trees and work it into the soil. On the large bearing trees this may also be done but it is especially important to young trees free from the louse. Insect Pests of the Trunk and Limbs In this group are included some of the most vital pests of apple; such as the borers and scale insects. Round-headed Borer ( Saperda Candida). — This pest works just at the surface of the ground, throwing out of its tunnel sawdust-like cuttings. It is worse on neglected bearing trees in the orchard but also at times may appear on older apple trees in the nursery. It requires three years to complete its de- velopment from egg to adult. When full fed the fleshy, whitish grub or borer is an inch long and as large around as a pencil. The tunneling and girdling work weakens the tree and permits rot to set in. Control. — In the nursery make sure that nearby old trees are not serving as breeding places causing infestation on the nursery trees. Also avoid carry- ing over scion trees or other unused trees until they become sources ot infesta- tion. In the orchard cultivate about the trunks of the trees to keep down grass and other rubbish as it seems to attract or protect the pest. Also go over the trees in the fall and in the spring and carefully dig out, or destroy with a wire, borers where present. During the early summer months keep the base of the trunks painted with whitewash to which enough lime-sulphur solution is added to give a distinct odor. In Arkansas asphalt paint applied, at the temperature of about 115 degrees Centigrade, to trees four years old or older gave good results. Where possible it is cheaper and better to prevent infestation thru proper orchard management than to clean up the orchard once the trees are infested. Flat-headed Borer ( Chrysobothris femorata). — This pest is smaller than the round-headed borer and confines its work to the bark and growing layer of trunk and limbs. It is common on nursery trees and also in orchards. As a rule it works where mechanical injury, sunscald or canker is at work on a tree. The grub or borer is whitish in color and has the segments of the thorax expanded so as to appear to have an enlarged head which gives it its common name. It completes its life cycle in one year. It is not confined to the apple tree, which makes it all the more difficult to control. Control. — During the early part of summer examine trees for signs of injury on trunk or larger limbs. If present carefully remove borers, disinfect wounds and paint over patches. As a precaution keep nursery and orchard as far from woods as possible and eliminate old worthless apple trees as well as haws and other trees from the vicinity of the orchard. Shot-hole Borer ( Scolytus rugulosus). — This small beetle and its tiny grub may attack all kinds of fruit trees and other trees. It is most important in the orchard but on weakened nursery trees it may also appear. The female beetle makes a tunnel between the bark and wood and lays eggs along either side of this. In time the small borers extend their work, often girdling limbs or the trunks of small trees, causing weakening or death of such trees. As a rule it is a weakened tree that is most likely to suffer injury. 6- Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 Control — Since the pest thrives best in weak or dying trees or limbs, keep all orchard primings removed from the orchard. In the nursery avoid the use of left-over trees for filling draws and the like alongside the growing stock. Remove and burn trees which are too seriously injured by the pest to be saved. In the orchard promptly prune out affected limbs and destroy them. The regular summer sprays with arsenate of lead and lime-sulphur for fruit insects will tend to repell this pest where spraying is thoroly done. Fig. 5. — Shot-hole d, borer; Borer; a, Adult; b, side view of same; all enlarged. (From U. S. Dept. Agr.) d c, pupa; San Jose Scale ( Aspidiotus perniciosus ) . — This imported scale insect is the most notorious one that attacks fruit trees. It came from the Orient some thirty years ago and has been in this state for about twenty-five years. It had much to do with the establishment of State and Federal Plant Inspec- tion Services and hastened the day when regular orchard spraying was abso- lutely necessary. In thirty years it has destroyed thousands of orchards and has cost nurserymen millions of dollars. It is a sap-sucking insect which secretes over its back a protecting scale or armor. The female gives birth to the young and in a day or two they insert their beak, begin to extract sap and to secrete the protecting armor. The fe- males never move from the point where they begin to feed, tho later the males emerge as small two-winged insects. In from thirty to forty days the insect Fig. 6. — San Jose Scale; portion of peach limb showing scale incrusting it. Enlarged Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 7 matures, so there are a number of generations maturing between spring and fall. The pest passes the winter as a half-grown nymph in the so-called black stage. Control. — Since the pest may be spread readily in the young nymph stage from orchard to orchard or to nursery stock by birds or other means, the State Plant Inspection Service has done all in its power to eliminate the pest from orchards and other grounds in the vicinity of the nurseries. This clean up work has now largely removed the immediate danger to the regular nurs- eries. Under especially favorable seasons, however, the pest may multiply and spread more than usual, requiring special effort in the way of clean-up work. In the orchard one or two regular dormant sprays will so reduce it that it is then easily kept in control. No one hopes to absolutely exterminate it once it Fig. 7. — San Jose Scale; blossom-end of apple enlarged slightly showing scale infestation becomes well established. For the dormant spray use the regular concentrated lime sulphur solution which gives a Beaumeau reading on the hydrometer of 30° to 33 °, at the rate of one gallon in eight gallons of water. Some prefer miscible oils and when used they should be mixed at the rate of one gallon of oil to twelve gallons of water. Some report good results with dry lime sulphur used at the rate of about 1 pound to 4 gallons of water. However, the writer’s experience leads him to believe that in their present form the brands of dry lime sulphur will not control this pest as effectively as the better brands of lime sulphur solution. A badly infested orchard should receive one application in November or December and a second one just as the buds swell in the spring. Where the infestation is light the spring application is sufficient. Select a warm day when there is little or no breeze. Use plenty of pressure and a nozzle throwing a 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 reasonably fine spray, yet one which will penetrate into protected places. The spray solution kills by contact so each scale must be touched. Spray thoroughly therefore and be sure the tips of all twigs are thoroughly coated. Spray all the way thru the tree from all angles. Blotching of fruit is often the first signs of infestation the grower observes. However, other insects may cause blotches on fruit so this is not always a sign that the scale is present. In case of doubt send twigs and blotched fruit to the Agricultural Experiment Station for examination. In the nursery the use of dormant sprays is not sufficient to insure against the possibility of spread of scale on nursery stock. Dormant sprays may con- Fig. 8. — San Jose Scale. Spraying infested peach orchard, using small barrel outfit trol the pest but it is humanly impossible to hit and kill every individual. For this reason inspection laws require the destruction of visibly infested trees and the fumigation or dipping of all other susceptible trees or shrubs before dis- tributing them. For fumigation use an air-tight room and hydrocyanic acid gas. Subject the trees to the gas for from forty to sixty minutes. The gas is made by using one ounce of potassium cyanide 98% or sodium cyanide 130%, one ounce of commercial sulphuric acid, and two or three ounces of water for each one hundred cubic feet of space. If the stock is dipped, a miscible oil diluted with twelve parts of water has given best results. In spite of the most careful work of inspection and treating of nursery stock there is the chance that some scale may escape, resulting in infestation in the orchard where trees Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 9 are planted. However, it should be remembered that in recent years most new infestations in orchards come from other infested orchards in the vicinity rather than on the young trees from the nursery. While the scale has done much injury to fruit growing it is now possible to control it very effectively and in good orchard management it is no longer feared as a dangerous scourge. The above discussion of the pest on apple holds true for other tree fruits as well. Other Scale Insects. — The oyster shell scale, the scurfy scale and the Forbes scale are also at times common on apple trees in the nursery and in the orchard. Neither of these, however, are likely to cause serious injury to bear- ing trees. In the nursery, on the other hand, they are undesirable and at times decidedly injurious. The scurfy scale has a light-colored flaky, armor, the oyster shell has a dark oyster-shell-shaped armor and the Forbes a circular armor with a shiny orange-colored center or exuvae. Control. — In the propagation of nursery stock select scions free from scales. Where nursery stock shows infestation do not use it in filling orders. To most fruit growers a scale is a scale and a nurseryman does not want the name of distributing scale infested stock. Dipping nursery stock in a miscible oil or fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas will prevent the possibility of spread of these scales on the stock. In the orchard where these scales are troublesome a dormant spray as for the San Jose scale is helpful, especially for the Forbes scale and spring applications of contact sprays as for plant lice, just when the young scales are crawling is very effective in controlling the scurfy and oyster-shell scales, since they pass the winter in the egg stage. Buffalo Tree-hopper ( Ceresa bubalus ). — In old neglected orchards the bark of small limbs and twigs is often found to be badly pitted and roughened. This is caused by this small insect. In the fall, by means of a small drill or ovipositor, the female places her eggs under the bark and this causes small scars on the bark. The injury is similar to the work of the Cicada, tho the punctures do not go beyond the bark. These eggs hatch in the spring and the young nymphs soon leave the twigs and feed on the sap of herbaceous plants, grass and the like about the orchard. The only damage done is due to the egg lay- ing and in severe cases it may be considerable. Certain varieties suffer more than others. In the nursery this injury is usually slight, tho it may be quite noticeable especially on scion trees in places where surrounding conditions are favorable for breeding. Control. — Where this pest is abundant clean culture in the orchard and surrounding fields will help to check the pest and its injury. Repeated mowing of grass and weeds in the orchard will help where cultivation is not advisable. Periodical Cicada ( Tibicen septendecim ) . — This peculiar insect, as is well known, reappears at definite intervals in the form of broods. One form re- appears every thirteen years and the second every seventeen years. In Mis- souri several broods appear, tho only the two heavy 13-year broods are of special importance. One of these appeared in the spring of 1920 and will next appear in the spring of 1933. The second appeared last in the spring of 1911 and' will next appear in the spring of 1924. These two broods are sufficiently heavy and widely distributed as to cause a certain amount of damage to the fruit-bearing twigs of apples and other fruits over most of the state. This is especially true 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 if orchards and nurseries are near tim- ber land. In this case again the dam- age done is entirely due to injury caused by the splitting of the twigs for placing the eggs. No injury is done by the in- sect feeding on the trees. Newly planted orchards and nursery stock suffer most. On bearing trees it simply serves as extra twig prunning and no serious damage results. Control — There is no very effective treatment to check injury once the adult insects arrive in the orchard or nursery. Systematic driving will help to some ex- tent. As a precaution one can deter- mine in advance when the next brood will appear and if a young orchard is to be started select land that has been in culti- vation for more than seventeen years if possible and select an orchard site as far as possible from timber. This will insure the least possible number of Cicadas in the orchard later when the pest appears. Insect Pests of Apple Foliage This includes a very large group of caterpillars, grasshoppers, plant lice, leaf- hoppers, plant bugs and other more or less destructive foliage pests. Where ap- lications of sprays, are recommended they are included in the regular spray sche- dule gi\e in connection with the control of the codling moth on page 22. Canker Worms ( Alsophila pometaria and Paleacriia vernata). — There are two species of canker worms, the fall and spring canker worms. The first appears as the adult in the fall and lays eggs while the latter appears in the spring. The female moth is wingless. The caterpillars are common dark- colored, span worms and do their destructive work just before, during and following apple blooming time. They often completely destroy the foliage and crop of fruit. There is one generation of the pest a year. The caterpillars when full fed leave the trees and pupate in the soil or rubbish. Here they remain until late fall or early spring, depending on the species. Control — The pest is controlled effectively by spraying with an arsenical just before the blossoms open, or on isolated trees banding with tangle foot, or screen-wire cones is effective since the females are wingless and must climb up the trees to deposit eggs. Occasionally these caterpillars may do some damage to nursery stock and when they do apply arsenical sprays promptly. Bagworms ( Thridopteryx ephermeraeformis). — This peculiar cater- FiG. 9. — Periodical Cicada; limbs split by female Cicada for placing eggs (After Riley) Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 11 Fig. 10. — Bagworm; limb with a number of winter cases containing eggs Fig. 11. — Bagworm; small apple tree showing work of young bagworms 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 pillar, while not primarily a pest of the orchard and nursery, is often a very troublesome and destructive pest in the nursery or orchard. It passes the winter in the egg stage in the larger bags suspended from twigs. In the spring the eggs hatch and they begin feeding soon after trees come into foliage. Each caterpillar makes for itself a bag or case as a protection and later it pupates in this. Where abundant it will strip apple trees of their foliage. The adult male moth develops wings, while the female remains within her protecting case where late in the fall she deposits her eggs. Control. — The calyx spray for the codling moth will also control this pest. In the nursery spray early in the spring so as to poison the young worms. Hand picking of the bags in the fall after the foliage is off will also help con- Fig. 12. — Apple-tree Leaf -roller; two larvae slightly enlarged (After Stedman) Fig. 13. — Apple-tree Leaf -roller; pupa slightly enlarged (After Stedman) Fig. 14. — Apple-tree Leaf -roller; adults much enlarged (After Stedman) Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 13 trol the pest. It attacks various evergreens, shades and ornamental shrubs worse, as a rule, than apple trees. Leaf-roller ( Archips argyrospila ) . — This small caterpillar is often very destructive to foliage of nursery trees and occasionally to bearing apple trees. It may have three or four broods a year in this state and when abundant the small yellowish millers are conspicuous about the nursery or orchard trees. The small active caterpillars roll or fold the leaves on which they feed. It may also feed to some extent on the fruit, especially around the blossom or stem end or where two fruits touch. Control. — In the nursery arsenical sprays applied just as the broods of young worms begin their work has proven entirely effective in one of the larger nurseries in the state. The development of the pest should be carefuly fol- lowed and the spray applied before the young worms fold or curl the leaves too much. In the orchard the regular summer applications of poison sprays, will control any ordinary outbreak of the pest. The pest passes the winter in the egg stage. The eggs are deposited on limbs or twigs in small circular light patches. Some have used oil emulsion sprays to destroy the winter eggs with fair results while others find them ineffective. Leaf-crumpler ( Mineola indigenella ) . — The leaf-crumpler is one of the most common foliage feeding caterpillars on young trees in the orchard or nursery. The caterpillar is a small reddish or brownish colored caterpillar which prepares, and lives within, a slender, coiled case. The case is usually attached to a twig and has one or more leaves attached to it. It passes the winter as a half grown cat- erpillar and transforms to the adult early the next summer. It feeds on the foliage of other trees, fruits and haws. Control. — It is most abundant on small trees and in the fall or win- ter when the leaves are off the trees it is an easy matter to see and re- move by hand the winter cases con- taining the small caterpillars. An arsenical spray applied soon after the foliage appears in the spring is also effective. In the nursery this is the most practical remedy. In the bearing orchard the regular summer arsenical sprays control this as well as other common foliage-feeding caterpillars. Leaf-miners ( Spp .). — There are a number of small caterpillars which live and develop within the cellular structure of the leaf. The serpentine, blotch, trumpet and tentiform leaf-miners are the most common ones found in the foliage of apple trees. Besides these the pistal and cigar case-bearers and Fig. IS. — Leaf-crumpler: a , Tube with larva head protruding; b, cluster of tubes; c, head of larva, enlarged; d, moth, enlarged 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 the ribbed cocoon makers are also common some seasons. In this state these small caterpillars do not often cause serious damage. In 1911 and 1912 the unspotted tentiform leaf-miner was very abundant and injured foliage seriously tho fortunately it becomes most abundant late in the fall after the crop and most of the growth has been matured. In the nursery where apple trees are dug and sold as one, two or three-year trees, these caterpillars do no serious damage. In the bearing orchard the regular arsenical sprays for fruit pests help some and natural parasites also help to prevent serious damage. As a rule, therefore, special treatments are unnecessary. Other Foliage Caterpillars. — Besides the foregoing foliage caterpillars there are a number of very common species in the nursery and orchard which some seasons may attract much attention but which as a rule do not require special treatment. The yellow-necked and red-humped apple worms, the fall web-worm, apple tent-caterpillar and white-marked tussock moth are the more common caterpillars in this group. Every year we have some of these present but the amount of foliage they consume is usually not sufficient to war- rant spraying or applying other treatments. Control. — In the bearing orchard the regular arsenical sprays are entirely effective. In the nursery or when injurious on young orchard trees the worms may be collected by hand or shaken off and crushed under foot or an applica- tion of an arsenical spray may be made just as the worms begin to attack the foliage. Grasshoppers ( Spp .). — During seasons of heavy grasshopper infestation, orchard and nursery trees are sure to suffer where the grasshoppers are per- mitted to migrate from adjoining pastures, meadows or other crops. There are three common species of grasshoppers which do this damage, the red-legged, differential and two-lived. Where injury occurs it is usually soon after hay harvest. The foliage is often completely devoured and serious injury may result wdiere the hungry grasshoppers attempt to appease their appetites further by gnawing the bark from the twigs and even the trunks of small trees. Control. — Where grasshoppers are abundant on crops near the orchard or nursery one should take precautions early in the summer to prevent trouble later. Poison bran bait sown broadcast in infested meadows and other crops when the hoppers are yet small will rid the community of the pest. Poison bran bait is prepared by mixing dry 50 pounds of bran and two pounds of white arsenic or Paris Green and moistening this with about 8 gallons of water with which are mixed 4 quarts of cheap sorghum and the juice and chopped up rinds of six lemons. Sow this at daybreak so the hoppers will get it for break- fast while yet moist and attractive. Where this precaution is not taken and the hoppers are feeding on the foliage spray the trees heavily with an arsenate of lead solution. Plant Lice (Spp .). — The foliage of apple trees may be seriously in- jured by two common green lice and one rosy louse. The injury is usually heaviest early, from the time the buds open until the fruit is well set. During the winter the lice eggs may be found attached to limbs and twigs, especially in the leaf scars and other protected nooks. The lice feed by extracting sap from leaves, blossoms and setting fruit. This causes a curling of the leaves and a knotting and dwarfing of the fruit. In severe cases the crop of foliage and fruit may be practically all destroyed. Since the lice are sap feeders, ar- Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 15 Fig. 17. — Plant lice; apples dwarfed due to plant louse injury. (After Talbert) senical sprays have no effect on them since it is impossible for them to take poison into their stomachs. Control. — I n the bearing orchard where the plant lice are injurious spray Fig. 16. — Plant lice: 1, Winter eggs on twig- 2, lice on tip of apple twig; 3, development of louse, enlarged 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 with a nicotine solution promptly. It may be combined with the regular cluster or calyx sprays. Commercial nicotine sulphate containing 40% nicotine used at the rate of one pint to one hundred gallons of water or combined with one hundred gallons of regular spray mixture is very effective. On young orchard trees the same solution may be used. In the nursery where the buds, leaves and growing tips are being injured spray promptly with the nicotine solution or where practical dip the infested tips in the solution. Leaf-hoppers. — Apple trees in the nursery and orchard are attacked by two common leaf-hoppers. In the orchard the rose leaf-hopper and the apple leaf-hopper are often both very troublesome while on nursery stock the latter is especially injurious. Since 1910 the apple leaf-hopper ( Bmpoasca mali) has repeatedly attracted attention in the nurseries of the state. In 1911 and 1912 it was especially in- jurious. Like the plant lice it feeds by extracting sap from the young leaves bo.th as the immature nymph and as the adult. This causes a curling of the leaves attacked somewhat like plant louse injury. The characteristic white speckled appearance on the upper surface of injured leaves on bearing trees is less pronounced on the young vigorous nursery trees tho in severe cases it may show up some. This species passes the winter in the adult winged stage in dry grass and other protection about the orchard or nursery. In the spring Fig. 18. — Apple Leaf-hopper; trap used for running over rows of nursery trees to catch adult leaf-hoppers Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 17 they fly to the apple tree to feed and deposit eggs. During the summer in Missouri this species develops three or four broods usually increasing in abun- dance towards fall. Besides apple it also breeds on and injures the foliage and young growth of Norway and hard Maples as well as certain vegetables. In Missouri the rose leaf-hopper ( Bmpea rosea ) seldom attracts attention in the nursery but is very abundant toward the close of the season on bearing apple trees. This fall (1920) the pest was so abundant in orchards in central Missouri that much of the apple foliage was badly injured and the air was often so full of the adult hoppers that they annoyed one working in or passing thru the orchard. This species is creamy white to light yellow in color with a tinge of orange on the face of the male. It passes the winter in the egg stage under the bark of apple and rose. It is also multiple brooded and is most abundant in late fall. Control. — In the nursery, leaf-hoppers may be controlled with a fair de- gree of success by using a large trap including sticky shields for catching the adults as well as the older nymphs. In this state spraying with nicotine solu- tion or oil emulsions have not proven to be practical on any large scale. One thorough application of a contact spray to control the first brood of nymphs in the spring will reduce later injury but a trap with sticky shields can be run more economically and effectively and where used by nurserymen it has re- placed the use of sprays. In the orchard spraying is usually unnecessary and at best not very ef- fective. Thorough destruction of the overwintering adults of the apple leaf- hopper where they collect in grass and other protection is a more practical check on this species. This is not effective against the rose leaf-hopper, how- ever, since it passes the winter as the egg under the bark. Fortunately the rose leaf-hopper becomes alarmingly abundant only toward fall when its injury to foliage is less important. Tarnished Plant-bug ( Lygus pratensis ). — This pest is one of the most im- portant pests of budded nursery stock. It does injury in the orchard, too, but its most prominent injury is in the nursery. It is a world-wide pest of various crops and plants and is a most difficult pest to completely control. In the nursery the injury is done early in the spring when the overwinter- ing adults suck sap from and blight the young buds and growth. Peaches are especially subject to their attack tho cherry, pear and other stock also suffer. The insect is multiple brooded and lives thru the winter in rubbish as the adult winged bug. Typical “stop-back,” “bush-head” and other similar injury to nurs- ery stock is largely the work of this pest. Often entire blocks of nursery stock are so attacked that few or no trees of marketable grade may be saved. Hundreds of acres of nursery stock are damaged every year by this pest. Control. — This pest breeds primarily on weeds in or near the nursery and passes the winter in rubbish near the nursery. The first treatment to consider, therefore, is clean culture in the nursery and make sure that draws, fence rows and neighboring fields do not serve as breeding places for this pest. Then make sure that all harboring places are burned over or plowed under during the late fall or winter. This will prevent much of the danger. When the pest begins its destructive work on the trees in the spring sys- tematic driving or heavy rains or other means of driving the pest from the trees will check injury. If the injury does not occur until growth has well 18 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 Fig. 21 . — Tarnished Plant-bug; life cycle of pest showing egg, five nymph and adult stages. Enlarged Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 19 started one can reshape injured trees by pruning. However, young buds or budded stock may be killed outright and the trees lost. In the orchard the Fig. 22. — Tarnished Plant-bug; a, injured peach trees in nursery rows; b, close view of tree showing bush-head or typical injury done by the pest pest seldom requires attention but weeds and winter rubbish should always be destroyed so as to prevent the pest from ever becoming abundant. Apple Fruit Insects In Missouri the apple worm or codling moth and the plum curculio are the two most important insects attacking the fruit. The San Jose scale in scale infested orchards also settles on the fruit seriously damaging it. Of the less important fruit pests, we have plant lice, lesser apple worm, apple curculio, apple maggot and a number of caterpillars which may feed on the surface of the fruit thruout the season. However, the spraying schedule, directed especially at the codling moth and plum curculio, is so arranged as to protect the fruit also from those pests of lesser importance. Codling Moth ( Carpocapsa pomonella ) . — This small pest in the pink- worm feeding stage is known to all who eat apples. It has been a pest of apples from the early days and in neglected orchards it ruins most of the fruit. Its development and injury to fruit is influenced both by climatic con- dition and its geographical location. In Missouri the pest develops normally two full broods and at times three, or in the Ozark section even a partial fourth brood, some claim. However, the control measures in the past have been di- rected primarily at the spring and summer broods. Moth. — The adult moth expands about three-fourths an inch and is not often observed about the trees. When at rest its wings are folded over the back and the irregular gray and brown bands on the fore wings give it a gray- ish-brown appearance. It becomes active about dark and deposits its eggs mostly on the leaves surrounding fruit clusters, tho occasionally on the side of fruits. Egg. — The egg is a pearly-white, scale-like object which can be detected 20 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 only after careful search. The eggs hatch in about a week, depending upon the temperature. Larva. — The young larva, like the egg is small and difficult to see with the unaided eye. If hatched near fruit the larva in time may reach the fruit and gain entrance. In time it makes its way to the core and later feeds on the seeds and surrounding part of the apple. The larva at first is light but usually takes on a more or less distinct pink color. It feeds for about one month and when full fed is about three fourths an inch in length. On maturing the larva leaves the fruit, spins a cocoon in some protected place, such as under the bark of the tree and in time pupates. Pupa. — The pupa is a small brownish object very similar to other related species. It is about one-half an inch long and is found inside a small but rather firm cocoon. In the summer it usually remains in the pupa stage for from about one week to ten days and then emerges as the adult. The insect passes the winter in the larval stage in the cocoon protected under the bark of the tree or about apple boxes, pens or where apples were stored for a time after picking. The larvae pupate just before apples begin to bloom and the adults emerge soon after the blossoms drop. Eggs are soon deposited and the first young larvae begin to hatch about two weeks after the blossons are all off. Those worms which gain access to fruit become fullfed in about a month, when they leave the fruit, spin their cocoon and later emerge as the summer brood moths. In central Missouri these usually appear on wing during the first ten days of July. However, they may be has- tened or retarded in thier develop- ment by temperature so each fruit grower should determine the date of emergence of the summer brood of moths in his own orchard. This he can do either by collect- ing a few wormy apples in June, and putting them in a tight box or other container where later the emerging of the moths can be observed or by putting rag bands on a few trees under which the worms will collect to pupate, and where the first emerging of adults can easily be determined. It is impor- tant to know when the July or summer brood of moths emerge so as to prop- erly time the July application of spray. Where a third brood develops the moths emerge late in August and the small worms may be found in the fruit at picking time in the fall. In the southern part of the state spring opens earlier and the pest has a longer breed- ing season. This permits the pest to develop more broods and to do more damage to the fruit. During the present spring, summer and fall conditions in Missouri have Fig. 23. — Codling moth; stages of devel- opment and injury to apple (After Riley) Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 21 Fig. 24. — Codling moth. Apples at proper stage for applying calyx spray. (After Talbert) Fig. 25. — Codling moth; Apples too far advanced for calyx spray. (After Talbert) 22 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 been somewhat abnormal and an unusually large number of worms appeared late and the fall injury ha3 been unusually severe, even in some sprayed or- chards. Control. — In the control of this pest we depend primarily on spraying. Some relief comes from the proper disposal of wormy fruit and the attraction of insectiverous birds to the orchard, but the real relief comes from a system- atic use of insecticides. The spray schedule for apple is arranged first of all to reach the codling moth, but the different applications are so timed and so combined as to reach all the important fruit and foliage insects as well as those fungi which also must be controlled. This schedule may include all or part of the following applications, depending on conditions in the orchard. Dormant Spray. — This spray is needed only when San Jose scale is pres- ent. It may be either a lime-sulphur solution or an oil emulsion as outlined under the control of San Jose scale. Cluster Spray. — This is given just before the blossoms open but after the cluster buds separate. If plant lice, canker worms and apple scab are also to be controlled, the spray solution should include one and a half gallons lime sulphur solution, one pound powdered arsenate of lead or two pounds of paste arsenate of lead and one-half pint of 40% nicotine sulphate to fifty gal- lons of water. Calyx Spray. — This is given just after the most of the blossoms are off and before the calyx ends of the young fruits close. It includes the same ma- terials as the cluster spray, except, where the louse is under control, omit the nicotine sulphate. Curculio or Second Apple-worm Spray. — Where curculio or apple blotch are not important, repeat the calyx spray in about two weeks. Where curculio is bad apply this spray in about one week after the calyx spray and repeat it two or three weeks later. If apple blotch is present use 3-4-50 Bordeaux mix- ture for the one and a half gallons of lime sulphur solution in this and the following spray. Local conditions will necessarily vary the time of application and the mix- ture for this and the one or two additional sprays which it may be necessary to apply in close succession. It is well for all fruit growers to keep this in mind and consult with the spray specialists of the College of Agriculture when conditions are abnormal. July Spray. — This is applied just before the apple worms of the second or summer brood hatch and begin to enter the fruit. It usually includes one and a half gallons of lime sulphur solution and one pound powder or two pounds paste arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of water. If blotch is present the Bordeaux is used as the fungicide in place of the lime sulphur solution. Where additional broods of the codling moth or where summer and fall fruit diseases are destructive it may be necessary to put on additional ap- plications and the College of Agriculture should be consulted regarding these. Plum Curculio ( Conotrachelus nenuphar ) . — This small snout beetle is abundant thruout the state. It breeds primarily in plums and peaches but often does serious damage to apples. It attacks apples both for feeding and for ovipositing, but only a small percentage of the eggs deposited in apples suc- ceed in maturing. The crescent gashes made by the adult beetle usually heal over later tho often they serve as entrance places for the small apple worms and for various fungi. Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 23 The adult is about the size of a garden pea and is blotched with brown, gray and black. It has a short, stout snout and rather distinct humps or bumps on the back. It passes the winter in the adult stage in rubbish and other pro- tection. In the spring about two weeks after apple blossoms fall or when wild- goose plums are the size of the tip of ones small finger, the adult appears on the fruit, cutting crescent gashes for egg laying or circular pits for feeding. When these eggs hatch especially in stone fruits the yellowish white footless grub bores down into the fruit to feed. It is the typi- cal slightly curved worm found in plums which ripen prematurely and in wormy peaches. The fullfed worms in central Missouri leave the fruit in about three weeks after the eggs are laid. These en- ter the soil to pupate, and around the mid- dle to the last of July they again emerge as the adults. These may feed on fruit un- til Fall and are usually responsible for most of the plum cruculio injury to apples. There is normally one brood a year, tho often in unusual years as in 1920 larvae may be found feeding in peaches as late as September. Control. — This pest can be controlled in part by poison sprays, and the spray applied one week after the calyx spray is so timed as to reach the adults while making the egg and feeding punctures soon after the fruit sets. It should be remembered, however, that sprays are less effective for this pest than Eig. 26. — Plum Curculio; adult curculio, much enlarged. (After Stedman) .'Fig. 27. — Plum Curculio; apple showing typical crescent gashes made by plum curculio for placing eggs. (After Talbert) for the apple worm. For this reason the sprays should be supplemented by the practice of clean culture to destroy the overwintering adults, the prompt dis- posal of wind-fall fruit with the enclosed worms and, where practical, shallow cultivation under stone fruit trees during July to destroy the soft, helpless rest- ing stage of the pest. On small trees it is possible to jar the adults onto sheets, when they begin to attack the fruit, and thereby destroy them. Since this spe- 24 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 cies breeds largely in stone fruits, injury to apples can be greatly reduced if peaches, plums and cherries are not planted in or near the apple orchard. San Jose Scale. — As previously mentioned, the scale settles on the fruit as well as on the foliage and the timber of the tree. The crop on scaly trees may be practically ruined. Its market value is reduced and the quality of the fruit is also injured. If remedial measures previously discussed are applied to protect the tree the fruit will also be protected. The dormant spray is neces- sary as the summer sprays are too weak to control the pest to any extent. Plant Lice ( Spp .). — When the plant lice are abundant on buds, foliage and twigs at blooming time and soon thereafter the young fruit is also sure to suffer. The lice sucking sap from the young fruits cause a dwarfing or com- plete check in its normal growth. This reduces the yield as well as quality. If necessary sprays to protect foliage and growth are applied, the fruit also will be protected. Lesser Apple Worm ( Bnormonia prunivora ) . — This small caterpillar somewhat resembles the real apple worm, tho it is smaller and usually of a deeper pink color. It feeds just under the skin of the fruit producing a mined- like effect. Its life cycle and feeding habits are quite similar to those of the apple worm and the regular spray applications for the latter will control it as well. For the past several years in Missouri this pest has been of comparatively little importance. Apple Curculio ( Anthonomus quadrigibbus ) . — This snout beetle, may become very destructive to apples, tho as a rule it is the work of the plum curculio that causes most damage in Missouri. Its life cycle is similar to that of the plum curculio except that it seems to enter hibernation quarters earlier and thereby does less injury to the fruit by feeding in the summer and fall. It makes a small circular opening in the surface of the fruit and hollows out below in the flesh of the young apple a cylindrical egg cavity. The surrounding tissue then hardens, causing a characteristic deformity of the fruit. Control. — Spray applications help some as with the plum curculio but they must be supplemented with clean orchard practices and prompt disposal of infested windfall apples early in the season. Other Fruit-feeding Caterpillars (Spp .). — Some seasons green and ripening apples are more or less injured by different caterpillars. The green fruit worms and the apple leaf-roller are often quite troublesome. They may eat rounded holes in the fruit or irregular gashes about the stem or blossom end. Where a regular system of summer sprays, including an arsenical, is ap- plied year after year, these caterpillars do little damage. INSECT PESTS OF THE PEAR In Missouri the pear is attacked by only a few of the worst pear pests. San Jose scale, codling moth, curculio, and blight are most commonly com- plained of on pear. Pear slug may do considerable damage but pear psylla and blister mite are seldom of serious consequences. The discussions on apple in- sects covers also pear injury and a separate discussion is unnecessary here. In the nursery do not grow pear trees near old blighted trees and do not permit wild haws to stand in or near the pear blocks. Pear trees should be carefully gone over so that all trees which may show the least signs of blight are detected and thrown out. Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 25 Pear Slug ( Eriocampoides limacina ) . — This pest attacks the foliage of pear and cherry often very badly. It is a small greenish, slimy worm similar to the rose slug and related species. Often a dozen may feed on one leaf, con- suming the surface layer, which causes the leaf to dry up. The pest develops two broods a year, the adults of the first appearing in June while the adults of the second appear in August. The first brood is most destructive. The pest attacks the foliage of trees both in the nursery and in the orchard. As a rule cherry is attacked more severely than pear. Fig. 28. — Pear slug: a, Adult female sawfly; b, larva en- larged; c, back view of same; d, injured leaves with larvae, natural size. (After Marlatt) Control. — Where the regular summer sprays are applied to bearing trees the pest will be controlled. On nursery stock the pest can be controlled by •dusting or spraying with an arsenical. INSECT PESTS OF THE PEACH The peach in the nursery and orchard is not subject to as many pests as is the apple, however, there are a number of important peach pests. Of these the peach-tree borer, the San Jose scale, the plum curculio, the tarnished plant- hug, the peach twig-borer, the shot-hole borer, and black peach aphis are usually the most important. Peach-tree Borer ( Sanninoidea exitiosa ). — This is a caterpillar borer which, while especially important in the orchard, may at times attack older peach stock in the nursery. Its presence is usually readily recognized by the appear- ance of peach gum about the base of the tree. . The borer varies from a very tiny whitish caterpillar to one an inch long and of a yellowish-white color. It works between the bark and the wood from a few inches above the ground usually to a few inches below ground. The adult moth resembles a wasp in appearance and action. The male has transparent wings and the body steel- Ijlue in color with yellow on the tip while the female is larger, wings more 26 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 completely covered with blue scales and the body is steel-blue with a distinct orange band. The pest passes the winter in the larval stage. In some cases the larva may be very small while in other cases it may be almost mature. In the peach belt of the Ozarks the moths begin emerging from the more advanced over- wintering larvae around the last of May but the heavy emergence and egg laying usually comes between the middle of June and the first of August. Control — The peach-tree borer is no exception to the rule that fruit tree borers are difficult and expensive to control. Worming by hand and the use tr Fig. 29 .— Peach tree Borer: Crowns of peach trees showing borers and injury. (After Chandler) of repelling or protecting paints should always be supplemented by clean culture and the removal of old worthless, borer-breeding peach trees and snags. In the nursery do not hold over any old trees as breeding places for borers and keep the young peach blocks as far as possible from old peach or plum trees. Do not sell peach trees which show signs of being infested with borers, unless they are fumigated. Badly infested trees should be wormed in the fall and again late in May before the moths begin to emerge. Dig away the dirt and gum and with a knife blade locate and destroy the borers without injuring the tree more than necessary. After the borers are removed in late May paint or spray the trunk Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 27 and exposed roots with one part of lime-sulphur solution to ten parts of white wash solution. If applied with a sprayer it should be made thinner than if painted on. When dry, mound up about the trees. One pound of arsenate of lead may be added to every ten gallons 'of the paint or wash. San Jcse Scale. — This pest and its control on peach is largely a duplication of its work and control on apple. Peach nursery stock infested with or ex- posed to the scale should be treated the same as apple stock. Plum Curculio. — The life cycle and habits of this pest have already been •discussed under apple insects. The pest breeds most abundantly in peaches and plums and special effort should be made to prevent it from developing in these fruits. Clean culture, destruction of wormy windfalls, jarring where practical and shallow cultivation in July should be supplemented with the use of arseni- cal sprays to poison the adults as suggested on apple.. The peach foliage is more easily burned than that of apple so greater care must be taken with mix- ing and applying sprays to peaches. The fuzzy nature of the peach enables it to hold the poison better than either apple or plum. Where curculio injures peach the spray application given when most of the shucks or collars are off the young fruit and the application given one week to ten days later are the most effective applications. They should include about one pound powdered or two pounds paste arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of the 8-8-50 self-boiled lime-sulphur solution. Do not use the ordinary commercial lime sulphur for spraying peaches when in leaf as it injures foliage. As a dormant spray, how- ever, it is all right for controlling San Jose scale. Tarnished Plant-bug. — This pest has already been discussed more espe- cially as a pest of nursery stock. Peach nursery stock suffers more than other Fig. 31. — Black Peach Aphis; peach tree showing lice on roots (After Smith) 28 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 types tho pear, cherry, and apple may also suffer from the pest. In the bearing- orchard peach does not suffer much injury. Peach Twig-borer ( Anarsia lineatella ) . — This small caterpillar is often very injurious to buds and new growth on both nursery and orchard trees. Bearing trees are usually more .seriously injured than younger trees. In the summer and fall it is also often quite troublesome, working into the fruit around the stem end or where fruit cracks. Late peaches suffer most. It passes the winter as a young larva in a small chamber made in the bark usually at the fork of two small twigs. In the spring these larvae bore into- buds and tips of new growth often killing several buds before maturing. These pupate in curled leaves or other protection and the small, dark-gray moth soon emerges to lay eggs for the next generations. . The later generations work more in the fruit and less in the twigs. Control. — This pest is usually most abundant on neglected trees tho well kept peach orchards may become seriously injured. The best means of reaching the pest is to apply the lime sulphur spray in the spring just as the young larvae are leaving their winter quarters. The spray may be applied, after the buds begin to open but before the blossoms are open, with effective results ort the borer and yet not seriously injure the peach foliage. Shot-hole Borer. — This species has been discussed under the apple insects and the same treatments recommended there will control the pest on peach trees. Black Peach Aphis ( Aphis persicae-ntger ). — This louse has been re- ported on peach in Missouri but thus far no serious injury has occurred. It works on the roots and in the summer some may come up on the leaves and twigs. It resembles other plant lice in feeding habits by extracting sap. It is a very dark-colored louse. Control. — If nursery stock becomes infested it should be thoroughly fumi- gated before being disposed of. In the orchard nicotine sulphate sprays are effective where the louse appears above ground and tobacco dust is suggested for the root form where injurious. Thus far this species has not done any appreciable injury in the state. The most up-to-date peach orchards of the state usually receive clean cul- ture which materially reduces the favorable conditions for various insects. It is usually the neglected orchard where the above insects are most abundant and injurious. INSECT PESTS OF PLUM AND CHERRY Plums and cherries are subject to about the same insects as peaches. The San Jose scale attacks certain types of plum and sweet cherries very badly. The plum curculio attacks the fruit of plums and cherries often completely destroy- ing the crop. The peach-tree borer may also do some damage on both plum and cherry. The peach terrapin scale also attacks plum. The plum louse and the cherry louse are also injurious some seasons. The cherry scale often becomes injurious.. The cherry maggot is seldom injurious to cherries in the state as is also true of the apple maggot or railroad worm in apples. Where plum and cherry are attacked by pests discussed under apple and peach insects simply refer to recommendations given under those fruits. Rusty Brown Plum Louse ( Aphis setoriae ). — This dark-brown louse Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 29 is usually most injurious early in the season. It also attacks peach. It attacks the leaves and young growth. Where abundant one application of the regular nicotine spray will control the pest. It is not often that sprays are necessary on nursery stock. Cherry Louse ( Myzus cerasi ). — This pest is most severe on sweet cherry trees in the nursery. Injury on bearing trees is usually slight. Prompt applications of the nicotine spray or the dipping of the tips in the solution will give relief. Cherry Scale ( Aspidiotus forbesi ). — This scale is found commonly on both bearing cherry and apple in this state. Occasionally it seriously encrusts cherry trees. It may also appear on young trees in the nursery, especially ap- ples where the scions are taken from trees showing infestation. Nursery stock showing any signs of this scale should be discarded. Bearing trees showing any serious infestation should be given one thorough application of lime sul- phur as for San Jose scale. Apply it in the spring as growth starts. Cherry Fruit-flies. — Where injury from these result, it is the work of the white maggot stage in the fruit. In the east these maggots do much dam- age to cherries but in this state it is seldom that they are found in the fruit. Where cherries are found to be wormy it is usually the work of the footless grub of the plum curculio as discussed earlier under apple insects. The fruit flies feed on sweets for a time after emerging in the spring and later deposit eggs in the green fruit. To control the pest therefore a small quantity of a poisoned sweet syrup, consisting of four pounds arsenate of lead 10 one hundred gallons of water sweetened with cheap molasses may be sprayed or sprinkled on the cherry foliage at the time the flies are emerging. Some claim that one or two applications, of two pounds of powdered arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of water, to the foliage just as the flies are emerging gives results. INSECT PESTS OF GRAPES In this state the grape scale, leaf-hopper, various leaf feeding beetles and caterpillars, fruit worm and curculio are the more troublesome pests on grape in the nursery and vineyard. Unfortunately the grape is not grown as abun- dantly in the states as it should be. However, as a consequence of this the insect problem on grape is not so important a one with us as is the case in large grape-growing sections of the country. Grape Scale ( Aspidiotus uvae ). — Not infrequently in the vineyard this small armored scale injures or kills grape vines outright. It works on the canes more or less protected by the loose bark on, the older growth. Where injurious, it can be controlled by pruning and spraying, when the vines are dormant, with lime sulphur solution diluted with eight parts of water as for the San Jose scale. Where the loose bark is abundant tear it away before spraying. In some cases San Jose scale, which is a close relative of the grape scale attacks and destroys grape vines in this state. In the nursery grape scale is of no serious consequence. Grape Leaf-hopper (Typhlocyba comes ). — This small yellow and red marked leaf-hopper is common on grapes and related vines every year, seriously injuring the foliage and thereby affecting the growth of the vines and the crop. The nymphs and adults extract sap from the lower surface of the leaves causing them to appear specked with white spots and where the injury is se- 30 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 vere the leaves turn brown and drop prematurely. This is perhaps the most common and most injurious pest of grapes in this state. The pest passes the winter in the adult winged stage in rubbish in the vine- yard or nearby along fences or where dry grass, leaves or other protection is found. Early in the spring the adults may extract sap from other plants until the grape foliage develops when they attack it and lay their eggs in the lower surface of the leaves. Virginia creeper on buildings is also similarly attacked. In Missouri several generations are developed each year, the pest becoming more abundant and injurious toward fall. Control. — Clean culture in and near the vineyard especially in the winter to destroy the overwintering adults is the first practical treatment to apply. When the pest is abundant spray with nicotine sulphate using one-half pint to fifty gallons of water when the early brood of nymphs begins to appear on the lower surface of the leaves. Use a penetrating mist spray and make sure that the lower surface of the leaves are thoroughly sprayed. If not entirely effec- tive repeat it later for succeeding generations of nymphs. It is not effective in killing the winged adult. Sticky shields have now largely given way to sprays. In the nursery the pest can be very effectively controlled with the nicotine spray. Leaf-feeding Beetles and Caterpillars ( Spp .). — In Missouri, the rose chafer and the grape-vine flea-beetle are the two most important beetles attack- ing grape foliage. . The grape root-worm and the adult leaf-feeding beetle is present but thus far has done no appreciable injury. Of the caterpillars, the leaf-folder, the eight-spotted forester, and the plume-moth are most commonly found injuring the foliage of grape. A number of other species feed on grape but only rarely destroy much foliage. In the nursery the leaf-roller is usually the only species that requires attention. Control. — Where the foliage of grape is being injured by chewing insects one or more applications of an arsenical spray will usually destroy the pest and save the foliage and fruit. In case of the rose-chafer poison sprays are less effective. For this pest use three pounds of powdered arsenate of lead and two quarts of a cheap grade of molasses to fifty gallons of water. The molas- ses hides the taste of the poison and the stronger spray will kill many of the beetles. However, one should supplement the sprays with hand work as the foliage may be badly damaged in a few hours in case of a severe outbreak. Where sprays are to be applied do not wait until the leaves are folded or until the pest has done serious damage. On a few vines hand work will prove en- tirely effective. Grape-berry Moth ( Polychrosis viteana ). — This small caterpillar is more or less injurious every year on the fruit. . It is to the grape what the codling moth is to apple. There are normally two generations a year. The winter is passed in the pupa stage on the grape leaves. The adults emerge and lay eggs so that the young worms are ready to begin feeding on the young set- ting fruits. These mature and the second generation of worms work on and in the fruit toward ripening time. The caterpillar varies in color from greenish-brown to purple and when full fed is nearly one-half an inch long. The adult is smaller and darker than tho somewhat resembling the codling-moth in general wing markings. The presence of the pest on grape is easily detected by the reddish blotches on Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 31 unripe fruits and the small worm feeding inside the fruit or where two fruits touch. Control. — Where this pest is injurious an arsenical spray, combined with Bordeaux mixture for grape diseases, should be applied just after the blos- soms are off and young fruits begin to set well. It is well to repeat this in 10 days and where injury is especially severe spray again early in July just as the worms of the second generation begin to hatch and attack the fruit. One pound of powdered arsenate of lead in fifty gallons' of 4-5-50 Bordeaux should be used. Supplement the sprays each year by gathering and burning or plowing under all grape leaves in the late fall. Grape Curculio ( Craponius inaequalis ) . — This small snout beetle is often very injurious to the fruit, especially in the southern part of the state. There is one main generation each year. The beetles begin making egg punc- tures after the fruits are about half grown and may continue until the earlier varieties ripen. The adult feeds to some extent on the foliage and where arsenical sprays are applied at regular intervals to keep poison on the foliage the pest can be successfully controlled. The adults pass the winter in rubbish, so clean culture in and near the vineyard during the fall and winter will reduce the number of adults that appear in the vineyard the next summer. The sec- ond spray for the grape-berry worm will help materially with the curculio. In Missouri our larger nurserymen grow comparatively little of their grape stock so that the nurserymen’s problem of handling insect pests on grape stock is a comparatively small one as compared with other types of nursery stock. INSECT PESTS OF GOOSEBERRY AND CURRANT Only three insects are of special importance on gooseberries or currants in Missouri. The San Jose scale is often found on currants and the imported currant worm and currant louse are to be met with every year. The various other insects reported as attacking the stems, foliage and fruit have in the past been of little importance in this state. San Jose Scale. — In the nursery and in the garden currants may become infested with the scale and it soon proves fatal to the bushes. Dormant sprays as on fruit trees will control it. Infested plants in the nursery should be promptly destroyed. Imported Currant Worm ( Pteronus ribesii ). — Every spring as soon as the leaves of gooseberry and currant are out the dark wasp-like adult appears to place her eggs in the veins of the leaves. The pest passes the winter in the cocoon usually as the larva and the adults appear early. The eggs hatch in about ten days and the young worms begin to eat holes in the leaves usually down in the center of the bush where they are less easily seen. As the worms increase in size they devour all edible parts of the leaves often leaving the bare stems with partly developed fruits and leaf stem. The common green and black spotted worms are familiar to all who grow currants and gooseberries. When full grown the larvae are three-fourths an inch long and spin a small oval cocoon near the ground or under rubbish on the ground. A second and even a third generation is said to develop but in this state the only damage done is due to the work of the spring brood of larvae. Control. — This pest is easily controlled. Dust or spray with arsenate of 32 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 lead as soon as the foliage is well out and no damage will be done by this pest. Too often one waits until the worms show up and by that time usually con- siderable damage has already been done. Currant Louse ( Myzus ribis ). — This louse in recent years has done considerable injury to foliage especially of currant in this state. Its presence is easily detected by the appearance of reddish blotching on the surface of in- fested leaves. Where the lice are feeding on the lower surface of the leaves they cause an upward projection of the surface of the leaves or a pocket-like formation. Except in severe cases the leaves do not crumple up or develop knot-like formations. On currants the lice appear shortly before the fruits begin to ripen in this state. Control. — As with other plant lice one or two thorough applications of nicotine sulphate will give relief. If a sprayer is not at hand double the strength of the nicotine solution and apply it to the lower surface of the leaves with a wisp of grass or dip the infested shoots where they are not bearing fruit. Here again much of the gooseberry and currant stock used in Missouri is propagated in the east and north. The Federal regulations affect the move- ment of currants from state to state, since it may carry the white pine blister- rust. These regulations are given in full in Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Circular No. 99. INSECT PESTS OF BLACKBERRIES AND RASPBERRIES In Missouri the red spiders, which are not true insects, and the snowy tree- cricket are the only pests that attract special attention on blackberries and raspberries. The rose scale may at times do some injury. The nurserymen, however, are also interested in the two important plant diseases, namely, anth- rachnose and blackberry rust, since both these can be spread on nursery-grown plants and both are classed as dangerously injurious diseases by the various state nursery inspection departments. Red Spiders. — The common red spiders are very small mites related to common spiders and to the scab or mange mites of live stock. When they cause trouble on blackberries or raspberries, it is due to favorable, dry, hot, climatic conditions. In a normal summer in this state no injury results but in dry summers these crops often suffer severely. The red spider spins some silk as protection and usually feeds on the lower surface of the leaf. The epidermis is broken and the liquid content of the leaf cells is consumed re- sulting in a yellowing of the leaf in spots and eventually its complete drying up. Control. — Where mites cause trouble and a liberal supply of water can not be applied to the affected patch, dust with powdered sulphur when the dew is on. Snowy Tree-cricket ( Oecanthus nigricornis ) . — This small active white cricket is common in the state and at times may do considerable damage to the young raspberry canes that are to produce fruit the following summer. However, it is of much less importance with us than various reports show it to be in other parts of the country. Where injury results it is due to the work of the female in placing her eggs in the canes. This results in a splitting and dying of many canes where extensive oviposition occurs. The eggs are deposited in the fall, they hatch the following spring and the nymphs feed all Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 33 summer on the foliage of different plants before maturing to deposit eggs for the following year’s crop of young. Control. — Where this pest is troublesome remove and burn injured canes containing the overwintering eggs. Also practice clean culture in and near the patch thruout the year. INSECT PESTS OF STRAWBERRIES In this state strawberries may be attacked by a large number of insects and diseases but the root louse, leaf-roller, slugs, weevil, crown-borer, tarnished plant bug and white grubs are the most important. Some years the leaf-roller may practically ruin the crop over the important strawberry belt of the states. To nurserymen, the louse, leaf-roller and the leaf-spot disease are of special importance, since they may be spread on the young plants. Root Louse ( Aphis forbesi ). — This louse has been reported as injuring strawberry fields in the state but it has not shown up in any of the fields where Fig. 32. — Strawberry Leaf -roller; strawberry leaf showing leaflet folded by pest plants have been grown for distribution. In the early part of the season the lice hatching from overwintering eggs on the foliage feed by extracting sap from the young growth but later ants carry them underground where they feed on the root system. Where the lice cause trouble in strawberry patches care should be taken not to spread infestation on plants shipped to growers. Dip plants in nicotine solution before setting in the spring and spray infested patches after the overwintering eggs hatch and before lice are carried to the roots by ants. Also destroy old strawberry beds as they may serve as breeding places for lice and other pests of strawberry. Leaf-roller ( Ancylis comptana ) . — This small active caterpillar has been the most destructive pests of this crop in recent years in the state. It may also attack raspberries and blackberries. The insect is multiple brooded, having 34 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 probably four broods a year in the southern counties of the state. However, the big damage comes before and at picking time. The winter is passed ap- parently largely in the larval stage. The moth expands slightly more than one half an inch and when seen on wing has a brownish appearance, the fore wings being also marked with lighter and darker streaks. The strawberry grower readily detects these in the patch and speaks of them as brownish moths or millers. Control. — Arsenical sprays are effective if applied at the right time. Watch for the appearance of the moths early in the spring usually the latter half of April in the southern strawberry belt, and spray promptly with two pounds of arsenate of lead powder to fifty gallons of water. The plan is to poison the young worms before they have folded over the two halves of the leaflets as protection while feeding. If this early spray is not effective repeat it after the crop is off and the next broods of moths appear in the patch. Some prac- tice mowing and burning over patches after the crop is off. Where this is done it should be so timed as to catch the pest in the pupa stage about the last week in July in southwest Missouri. Destroy old abandoned patches and volunteer plants. Strawberry Slugs. — Two species of slugs are reported on strawberries, tho the black-marked species (E. maculata) is the more important in this state. It is the larva of a sawfly related to the im- ported currant-worm. The larvae begins to attack the foliage when the crop of ber- ries is about half developed. One thorough application of two pounds of arsenate of lead powder to fifty gallons of water at that time will usually end the trouble. This spray and the one for leaf-roller may be combined where both pests are at work on a patch. Fig. 32. -Strawberry Slug; much enlarged Adult Strawberry Weevil ( Anthonomus signatus ). — This pest does not do much damage in this state tho some complain of it. Where present it cuts the stems of blossoms after the egg is deposited in the blossom bud. Control. — Clean culture in and about the patch with the setting of new patches often and the plowing under of old patches will usually control this pest. It attacks only the staminate varieties but commercial growers select commercial varieties, be they varieties subject to attack or those immune to attack. Tarnished Plant-bug. — This plant-bug breeds in the strawberry patches and the overwintering adults often do serious damage to the crop. They at- tack the blossom buds and young fruits causing them to be imperfect or as the grower terms it “buttoning” of the fruit. Control. — Clean culture in and near the patch during the winter as well as the summer will reduce the number of adults to pass the winter in the patch or nearby and thus reduce early spring injury. Systematic driving of the pest with the wind early in the spring is suggested also as a means of lessening the injury to strawberries the same as in case of budded nursery stock. Sprays and hand gathering is impractical in the commercial field. Nursery and Orchard Insect Pests 35 Crown Borer ( Tyloderma fragoriae ) . — This beetle breeds abundantly in the crowns of older plants doing considerable damage. New plantings and fields reset often do not suffer. Keep down volunteer plants and plow under aban- doned patches. The beetles are unable to fly, so new fields should be set at some distance from old ones using only young plants. Those distributing plants should sell only the young plants which are not infested. White Grubs {Lachno sterna spp .). — In recent years numerous complaints of white grubs have come from strawberry growers. They attack the roots, weakening or killing the plants. Often where sod is plowed under and straw- berries planted in the ground serious injury may result. Where old fields are not abandoned and new ones set often enough the brown June beetles, the adults of the white grubs, may visit strawberry fields and deposit their eggs thus starting an infestation. Some species of white grubs may feed as grubs for two or three seasons. Control. — Set new fields on uninfested, cultivated soil and replant often enough to prevent this pest becoming abundant and injurious to the crop. In this report no effort has been made to discuss all the thousands of in- sects which may attack the various fruits. Only those, which for the past ten or twenty years have been of most serious injury to nursery stock and the bearing fruit crops, have been included. Fruit growers and nurserymen, there- fore, who have trouble with species not discussed herein, should communicate with the Agricultural Experiment Station, Columbia, Missouri and the pest will be investigated, if a new important one, or information on its control promptly given. Investigations are now being made of a number of the pests discussed herein and when completed the results of these studies will appear in full in future station publications. ' ’ - UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 177 AN INVESTIGATION OF THE DIPPING AND FUMIGATION OF NURSERY STOCK A lot of condemned apple trees COLUMBIA, MISSOURI DECEMBER, 1920 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL the; curators of the; university of Missouri executive board of the university H. J. BLANTON, JOHN H. BRADLEY, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Paris Kennett Kansas City ADVISORY COUNCIL. THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D„ PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF December, 1920 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta* R. M. Smith, A. M. T. E. Friedemann, B. S. A. R. Hall, B. S. in Agr. E. G. SiEvEking, B. S. in Agr. A. B. Culbertson, Jr., B. S. in Agr. B. W. Manning, B. S. in Agr. G. W. York, B. S. in Agr. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING J. C. Wooley, B. S. Mack M. Jones, B. S. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY E- A. Trowbridge, B. S. A. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. A. G. Hogan, Ph. D. F. B. Mumford, M. S. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. Paul B. Bernard, B. S. in Agr. A- T. Edinger, B. S. in Agr. JL D. Fox, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. E. F. Hopkins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale, B. S. in Agr. W. W. Swett, A. M. Wm. H. E. Reid, A. M. Sam Brody, M. A. C. W. Turner, B. S. in Agr. C. H. Nelson, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. S. R. McLanE, B. S. in Agr. FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. E. O. Pollock, B. S. in Agr. O. W. Letson, B. S. in Agr. B. B. Branstetter, B. S. in Agr. RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. S. D. GromEr, A. M. B. H. Frame, B. S. in Agr. R. C. Hall, A. M. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. F. Major, B. S. H. D. Hooker, Jr., Ph. D. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. F. C. Bradford, M. S. H. G. Swartwout, B. S. poultry HUSBANDRY H. L. Kempster, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. R. R. Hudelson, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. H. V. Jordan, B. S. in Agr. Richard Bradfield, A. B. O. B. Price, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connaway, D. V. S., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crisler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, A. M. ZOOLOGY George Lefevre, Ph. D. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer Leslie Cowan, Secretary S. B. ShirkEY, Asst, to Dean O. W. Weaver, B. S., Agricultural Editor J. F. Barham, Photographer Miss Bertha C. Hite , 1 A. B., Seed Testing Laboratory •In service of U. S. Department of Agriculture. On leave of absence. Stock An Investigation of the Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery K. C. Sullivan More than one hundred years ago the first nursery was started in Mis- souri. At that time Missouri was a part of the Great West and was settled mostly along the water courses. The fruit industry at that time was undevel- oped. Today there are in Missouri more than one hundred nurseries. One ■of the largest, if not the largest, nurseries in the world is located in Mis- souri and the acres of some of the others run well up into the hundreds. The growth of the fruit and nursery industry in Missouri has been remark- able. Also, the increase in the number of injurious insect pests of the fruits bas been equally as remarkable; in fact, they have increased so rapidly that in some sections farmers are abandoning the fruit industry and entering some other line of work in which insect pests are not so troublesome. Some of the most injurious insect pests and fungous diseases of fruit trees, that we have to contend with, were first introduced and scattered over the country on nursery stock. The most noted and most injurious one of these is the San Jose scale. This scale is so destructive that every state in the Union and the Federal Government have passed stringent laws regard- ing its distribution and control. Missouri has a law which forbids anyone in the State to distribute or dispose of nursery stock of any sort upon which there is San Jose scale; nor is anyone from outside the state allowed to ship infested plants into the state. In many states there is a law which requires that all plants badly infested with San Jose scale be destroyed and that those which are not visibly infested be treated with the best known remedies for the destruction of the scale. The San Jose scale has become so widely distributed in Missouri that strong measures have been taken to stop further distribution. It is usually carried from one section of the country to another upon nursery stock. Practical^ all original infestations in Missouri were started from scale brought into the community upon nursery stock. Since the San Jose scale is usually carried into a non-infested district upon nursery stock, the logical thing to do is to produce clean stock; that (is, nursery stock upon which there is no scale. This is very difficult to do, especially where the scale has once obtained a foothold. From time to time, various remedies have been recommended by which nursery stock can be treated and the scale destroyed. Some of these treaments killed the trees as well as the scale; others did not always kill the scale, and others cost so much that they were not practical, especially with the smaller nurserymen. During the past five years the writer has been constantly in touch 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 with all the Missouri nurserymen and it has been his pleasure to make per- sonal visits with practically every nurseryman in the state and, especially with those located in communities where San Jose scale is prevalent. He has worked with them and helped them treat their nursery stock for scale and other injurious insects. While engaged in the work, many problems, confronting the nurserymen, concerning the eradication of San Jose scale from nursery stock, have been brought to his attention. As a result, a number of experiments have been made to test the effect of the different materials commonly used upon infested and non-infested stock, with the object in view of determining which remedy is the most practical from all standpoints, under Missouri conditions. Life cycle of San Jose scale. — 'The mature San Jose scale is yellow with a sac-like body which is covered with a soft, waxy secretion — the scale. This covering serves as a protection for the pest. The insect passes the winter in a half-grown stage, all other stages being killed by winter condi- tions. These half-grown insects are found under a small black scale just visible to the naked eye. About 95 per cent or more of these are male insects, they being greatly in excess. About the first of May, the males pupate and in a short time emerge as delicate two-winged insects. The females at this time have arrived at the stage of impregnation and in a few days the males disappear. The females reach maturity about a month later and begin to give birth to living young. Most of the other scale insects deposit eggs which later hatch, but this is not true of the San Jose scale. The young are developed in a mem- branous sac which corresponds to an egg, but they usually burst out of this before being born. Thus the San Jose scale is usually oviviviparous, but it may be partially oviparous. A single female is capable of giving birth to 600 young in a period of about six weeks. It is doubtful, however, if a female gives birth to more than 100 or 200 insects and many of these are males. Even at this rate of reproduction, from one single female the total number of off-spring at the end of a season reaches into the millions. The newly born insects are very tiny, yellow in color and have six legs. They soon push their way out from under the scale of the mother and crawl around for a day or so finding a suitable place to settle down. On the apple the young scale seem to push out towards the tender growing tips to settle down, while on the peach they stay more on the old wood. It is at this stage, while the young are crawling about, that the pest is likely to be scat- tered from one place to another upon the feet and bodies of birds, beetles and other objects. If the branches of two trees intermingle, the young easily crawl from tree to tree and it is often in this manner that the pest spreads. When a suitable place is found, the young settle down and begin to work the long proboscis, which is three or four times the length of the in- sect’s body, into the tissue of the host and begin developing a scale cover- ing. Within two or three days, this covering of cottony and waxy fibers becomes matured into a pale grayish scale which gradually becomes darker. Male and female scales are similar in size, shape and color until the first molt, which takes place in from twelve to fourteen days after the emer- gence of the larva. Up to this time the male and female are indistinguish- Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 5 able in appearance, but after the first molt they lose all resemblance to each other. The females lose their eyes, legs and antennae and become almost circular with indistinct segments. They resemble very much a minute flat- tened, yellowish sac. Springing from beneath the body, near the center, they have a set of long needle-like mouth parts with which they obtain nourishment from the plant. After the first molt, the male insects change in appearance also. They lose their legs and antennae but instead of losing their eyes they develop large purple ones and they become elongated and pyriform in shape. At this time the scale covering of the body of both sexes has a decidedly grayish tint mixed to some extent with yellow. In about eighteen days after birth, the male changes to the pro-pupa or first pupal condition and the scale covering assumes a longer shape which sometimes tends to be curved. At this stage the male begins to look more like an insect. Two or three terminal segments can be seen, the posterior one bearing two short spines. The antennae, legs and wing pads are visi- ble. The purple eyes are set close together. About two days later, or about twenty days from birth, the male insect transforms to the true pupa. The matted skin at this time, instead of form- ing a part of the scale covering as in the preceeding molt, is pushed out from beneath the scale. The last or third molted skin is also pushed from beneath the scale. The male insect becomes mature in twenty-four to twenty-six days from birth and pushes out backward from beneath the scale. In from three to five weeks from the larva, the females molt the sec- ond time. The skin splits around the edge of the body. The upper half adheres to the scale covering and the lower half forms a sort of ventral scale between the insect and the bark. The female insect becomes full grown in from thirty to forty days from birth. The adult male insect appears as a very small, delicate, two-winged fly about 0.6 mm. long and is capable of flying from place to place. The mature female does not develop as the male does, but remains concealed beneath her scale as a small, yellowish, almost circular insect about 0.8 mm. wide and 1 mm. long. No eyes, legs, wings or antennae are developed. The scale covering of the female is almost circular and slightly raised in the center. The exuvia is central or nearly so. In diameter the scale varies from 1 to 2 mm. The color of the scale is gray, excepting the part covering the exuvia, which is a pale or reddish yellow and the ring effects, which are often noted between the center and outer edge of the scale, marks the edges of the molts of the larval scale. The scale covering of the male is darked than that of the female and es- pecially in the winter, when it is black. In shape, it is oblong-oval and just about half as wide as long. It ranges from 0.5 to 1 mm. in length. There is a nipple-like prominence located between the anterior margin and center of the scale which marks the position of the larval scale. In Missouri there are four generations a year and probably five, espe- cially in a favorable season. The generations overlap to a great extent. Owing to the smallness and the color of the scales, the insect is hard to detect by the untrained eye and in many cases the writer has known the lenticles, or small knots on a tree, to be mistaken for the San Jose scale. 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 When a plant becomes encrusted with' the insects, it looks grey in color and upon rubbing the hand along the trunk or branches large flakes of the dead scales become loosened and fall off. The tree looks sick and does not leaf out so early in the spring as a normal tree and usually dies within a season or two. Where there is only a scattering of scale on the plant, it can usually be detected by the sunken places in the bark caused by a lack of food material which has been used by the insect instead of by the tree. Also immediately around the scale the bark takes on a reddish tinge, which is supposed to be caused by a toxin which the insect injects into the plant. This red-like blotch is very characteristic of the San Jose scale, especially on the apple and peach. Damage. — It is impossible to estimate the amount of damage done by the San Jose scale in Missouri orchards because at present no one knows exactly how extensively Missouri is infested, but it is a known fact that many large commercial and small orchards have been completely destroyed Some poorly packed nursery stock. This stock was also infested with San Jose scale. It was found and condemned thus preventing its dis- tribution by it. However, in the nurseries of Missouri in the past two years, the damage caused by this insect has amounted to the tremendous sum of $20,- 000.00 and this is but a drop in the bucket as compared with the damage to the orchards in Missouri. Control in the orchard. — The San Jose scale can be controlled in the orchards if proper precautions are taken. The most successful method practiced today is the use of lime-sulphur as a dormant spray. Certain of the miscible oils are also used to a greater or less extent with good results. Commercial lime-sulphur can be purchased on the market, which, when mixed with water, one gallon of lime-sulphur to seven gallons of water, makes a most efficient spray. A miscible oil makes a good spray when mixed with water at the rate of one gallon of the oil to twelve gallons of water. The lime-sulphur spray is the cheaper spray of the two and is recommended by the United States- Department of Agriculture, and by the state experiment stations. Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 7 As the San Jose scale is a sucking insect, it is impossible to destroy it by using a poisonous spray, so a contact spray must be used. The spray must be strong enough to either destroy the scale outright, that is, con- sume its body, or have great penetrating power, like the oil emulsions which burn and smother the insects. According to Todeman, lime-sulphur spray was first used for the con- trol of insects in 1851, by a Frenchman by the name of Grison, a gardner at Versailles, France. Grison used the following formula at first but later reduced the amount of lime to half. Flowers of sulphur 500 gms. Freshly slaked lime 500 gms. Water 3 liters. Boil for ten minutes, draw off the clear liquid and use 1 to 100 parts of water. This mixture was used as a fungicide and is one of the few early spray preparations still in use. Regarding the first use of lime-sulphur washes in America, Lodeman says: “A mixture similar to the following was originally used in California as a sheep dip, but as fruit trees began to drive out the sheep, the applica- tions of the compound were transferred to the trees, and thus it has been very generally used, and has proved to be of value in the orchards as well as on the sheep. It is used against insects and fungi. Lime (unslaked) 25-40 pounds Salt 15 pounds Sulphur 20 pounds Water 60 gallons “To mix the above, take 10 pounds of lime, 20 pounds of sulphur and 20 gallons of water. Boil until the sulphur is thoroly dissolved. Take the remainder, 15 pounds of salt and 15 pounds of lime, slake and add enough water to make the whole 60 gallons. Strain and spray on the trees when milk warm or somewhat warmer. This can be applied when the foliage is off the tree and will have no injurious effect upon the fruit buds or upon the tree itself.” Marlatt says “the early experience with lime-sulphur and salt washes for San Jose scale was unfavorable, largely due apparently to the fact that the observations on the trees treated were not continued long enough to note the effect of the late summer results. Good results were obtained with the kerosene emulsions and particularly with the soap washes and the fish- oil soap washes.” The formula which is commonly used at the present time in making home made concentrated lime-sulphur solution is as follows: Lump Lime 40 pounds Sulphur 80 pounds Water 50 gallons About 10 gallons of hot water is added to the sulphur and thoroly stirred, lhe lime is then added. As the lime slakes hot water is added as necessary to, prevent caking. When the lime has completely slaked enough hot water is added to make 50 gallons and the solution boiled for an hour and kept constantly stirred. Water is added from time to time to keep the liquid up to 50 gallons. This concentrated solution should test about 31 degrees Beaume. It should be stored in tight barrels until ready 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 for use. When used it is diluted with water in the same manner as ti e commercial lime sulphur. Hydrocyanic-acid gas was also tried in controlling San Jose scale on orchard trees, and at present is used upon citrus trees for controlling citrus scale. Where care was taken this method proved quite successful when used on the deciduous fruit trees, but the cost of fumigating an orchard as compared with spraying was so great that the former method has been abandoned altogether. An air-tight box had to be constructed in such a way that it could be moved from over one tree to another, or a large tent had to be placed over the tree to be treated and the gas generated beneath. Each tree had to be treated for about one hour. The treatment for San Jose scale must be applied while the tree is in a dormant condition for the scale is so difficult to kill that a treatment, to be effective, must be made so strong that it will also kill foliage. While the tree is in a dormannt condition, the insects are easily reached and a strong spray can be applied without any fear of damaging the foliage. Also, as the insects pass the winter in a half-grown state, they are more easily killed during the dormant season. In applying a spray for the scale, thoroness of the application is of the utmost importance. If twigs here or there are left without a coat of the spray material, the insects which are on them will soon reinfest the tree. At the present time the standard spray for the control of the San Jose scale upon deciduous orchard trees is lime sulphur. Commercial concen- trated lime sulphur has a specific gravity of approximately 1.28. One gal- lon of it is used to seven gallons of water which reduces the specific gravity to 1.04. This solution is then applied with either a barrel or power spraying machine during the dormant season. Besides controlling the San Jose scale with a dormant spray of lime- sulphur, many other pests, such as Forbes scale and aphids are also con- trolled. One of the important reasons why the San Jose scale is difficult to con- trol is the fact that it attacks so many of the deciduous plants including fruits, ornamentals and shade trees. Control on nursery stock. — As has been previously explained it was thru the infestation of nursery stock that the San Jose scale has become so widely distributed and naturally the first place to start in the control of the pest is upon nursery stock. Probably the most important means of controlling the scale upon nursery stock has been the passing of laws requiring that all infested stock be destroyed and the remainder treated under the direction of a competent man. Before 1913 Missouri had no law controlling the growing or trans- portation of infested nursery stock, and as a result much infested stock was sold to Missouri farmers. In 1913 an effective law was passed and has been vigorously enforced. Every state in the Union has a law similar to the Missouri law and they have done much to prevent further spread of San Jose scale and other dan- gerous insect pests and diseases as well. Practically all states require the use of hydrocyanic-acid gas in the Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 9 control of the scale on nursery stock and up to the present time it is most widely used. Some nurserymen prefer to dip their trees in a miscible oil rather than fumigate and this method has, to a great extent, been successful. In fumigating with hydrocyanic-acid gas the trees are dug in the fall or early spring, all excessive moisture allowed to dry from the tree and then placed in an air tight box or room. The gas is generated in the room and the trees are left exposed to it for from 45 minutes to one hour. Special preparations must be made, such as building an air tight box or house, in using hydrocyanic-acid gas. The gas is very poisonous, the chemicals are costly and it is easy to make a mistake in mixing them. Under certain conditions the gas is likely to injure the stock, especially the more tender species. This is also true in using liquid dips. Hydrocyanic-acid gas first used. — Hydrocyanic-acid gas has been used in collecting jars for years by entomologists to kill insects, but was first used for the destruction of scale insects by D. W. Coquillett in the orange groves around Los Angeles, Cal. His first work with hydrocyanic- acid gas was in September 1886, and was carried on at this time for the control of the cottony cushion scale on citrus trees. Such means as tobac- co smoke, sulphur fumes, concussion from gun powder, heat, muriatic acid, carbonic acid gas, chloroform, arsenic, bisulphide of carbon and other fumes and gases were tried, but none was so successful as hydrocyanic-acid gas. Dr. F. W. Morse of the University of California also began studying the control of the cottony cushion scale in 1887 and as a result that uni- versity gave to the public, in bulletin 71, the first knowledge of the use of hydrocyanic-acid gas. In doing this first work, a tent was thrown over the tree and the gas generated beneath the tent by putting together in one ves- sel sulphuric acid, water and dry potassium cyanide. All of this work done in California was upon citrus trees, which were in full foliage and a great deal of burning and injury resulted. However, the method of using hydrocyanic-acid gas has been so well perfected that at the present time it is comparatively safe to fumigate citrus trees which are infested with white fly or scale. The California agricultural experiment station, under the direction of Morse, conducted experiments with other gases as insecticides with special reference to the white scale (Icerya purchasi). The following is a summary of the results obtained, as set forth in bulletin 70 of the California agricul- tural experiment station. Chlorine, carbon bisulphide, sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia, carbon menoxide, aloxic acid, carbolic acid and hydrocyanic-acid gas were tried and it was found that hydrocyanic-acid gas was the only one that produced suf- ficiently fatal effects as to warrant a more thoro determination of the time of exposure and quantities of material which would produce the best results. Hydrocyanic-acid gas was not used upon deciduous trees until 1894, when the San Jose scale was found upon deciduous fruit trees in Charlottes- ville, Va. and Coquillett was detailed by the United States Department of Agriculture to conduct experiments with hydrocyanic-acid gas on these infested trees. The results of the first experiments were so satisfactory that the work was continued. 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 It was in 1898 that it was first suggested that hydrocyanic-acid gas could be used in mills, elevators and warehouses for the destruction of in- jurious insects. Use up to the present time. — Since the discovery of hydrocyanic-acid gas as an insecticide it has been used in a number of different ways. 1. To fumigate citrus trees infested with all sorts of scale insects. 2. To fumigate deciduous fruit trees, including nursery stock, for the destruction of San Jose scale. 2. To fumigate deciduous fruit trees, including nursery stock, for the destruction of San Jose scale. 3. To fumigate greenhouses for the destruction of white fly, red spider and other pests on greenhouse plants. 4. To fumigate warehouses, elevators, mills and other buildings for the destruction of various insect pests. Apparatus for fumigating car load lots: A tight oil canvas is placed over the frames. The hydrocyanic acid gas is generated in a tank and con- ducted through a pipe to the enclosure 5. To fumigate dwelling houses, railroad coaches, street cars, hotels and similar places for the destruction of lice, bedbugs, clothes moths and household pests. The use of hydrocyanic-acid gas as a fumigating material is becoming more extensive and the United States Department of Agriculture and all of the state experiment stations recommend it. Method of using. — The most general method practiced at the present time in using hydrocyanic-acid gas is as follows: One fluid ounce of sulphuric acid having a specific gravity of at least 1.83 is poured into an earthenware crock, wooden bucket or tub, containing 3 fluid ounces of water. Into this mixture 1 ounce, by weight, of fused cyanide of potassium, 98-99 per cent pure, is added. The above amounts are used for every 100 cubic feet of space. In fumigating tender growing plants, the above formula is too strong and has to be weakened. For dor- mant trees, mills, elevators and the like the 1-1-3 formula is recommended by both the United States Department of Agriculture and practically all of the state experiment stations. In fumigating nursery stock an air tight box or house is necessary. Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 11 The trees are placed ill the box or house. The water and sulphuric acid are mixed in an earthen jar and the jar placed in the box or house. The potassium cyanide is then dropped in and the box or house closed just as quickly as possible. The hydrocyanic-acid gas which is generated is deadly poisonous and the person doing the fumigating must be very careful not to breathe any of it. It requires about 45 minutes to fumigate nursery stock, altho some authorities say that better results can be obtained by letting the stock remain an hour. At the end of this time the fumigating box or house is opened and the gas allowed to escape and in from 15 to 20 minutes * the trees can be safely removed. It is never advisible to fumigate trees while they are damp or wet. It is claimed that under such conditions the gas is more likely to injure the stock. However, the writer’s experiments to date fail to corroborate this, though they do show that less scale is killed under those conditions. Some states require by law that all nursery stock grown within its borders or shipped in from outside nurseries be fumigated and,, as a result, all of the larger nurseries in the United States have constructed special fumigating houses or boxes. Chemical composition of hydrocyanic-acid gas. — In fumigating work hydrocyanic-acid gas is generated, as has already been explained, by placing together potassium cyanide (KCN) sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H.O). The sulphuric acid, which is sold commercially, has a strength known as 66° Baume which corresponds to the 96 per cent pure sulphuric acid. Commercial sulphuric acid, however, contains some impurities and is seldom more than 93 or 94 per cent pure. The potassium cyanide which is purchased on the market runs about 98 per cent pure. When the sulphuric acid and the potassium cyanide are brought to- gether, the chemical reaction that takes place is as follows: 2 KCN + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2 HCN In the above reaction, 1 ounce (avoirdupois) of potassium cyanide (100 per cent pure) requires 0.75 ounce (avoirdupois) sulphuric acid or .81 ounce of commercial sulphuric acid containing 93 per cent sulphuric acid which would be equal to 0.42 fluid ounces. Under conditions met with in fumigating work, the above reaction can- not be obtained and result in the best yield of hydrocyanic-acid gas. More sulphuric acid must be used and this causes acid potassium sulphate to be formed as is shown in the following equation: KCN + H2SO4 = KHSO4 + HCN In this reaction 0.84 fluid ounce of 93 per cent sulphuric acid is required for each ounce (avoidupois) of potassium cyanide. This amount in round numbers equals 1 part cyanide to 1 part acid which gives the best results in field work. In order to get the best yield of hydrocyanic-acid gas only two parts of water should be used, but in field practice when only two parts of water are used, the residue in the generating jar often solidifies and in order to prevent this, three parts of water are used. Thus the 1-1-3 formula is used in fumigating nursery stock. 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH HYDROCYANIC-ACID GAS Because of the large amount of damage being done in Missouri by the San Jose scale, and in order to help the fruit grower and nurserymen to better control the scale and thus lessen the danger of further dissemination of the pest, the writer began a series of experiments in the fall of 1915 with reference to the control of the scale upon nursery stock. Some of the nursery stock in the state which was found to be infested with San Jose scale was brought to Columbia where the experiments were conducted. The primary object of the investigation was to determine if possible the most practical, efficient and cheapest method to use in controlling the scale on nursery stock with the least injury to the trees or plants. In Missouri there are a number of nurserymen who grow nursery stock on a small scale and do not care to go to the expense of building an ex- pensive fumigating house or box and besides many object to using hydro- cyanic-acid gas because of its very poisonous nature. Several of these nurserymen have asked repeatedly about the possibilities of dipping nurs- ery stock in a lime-sulphur wash or a miscible oil for the control of San Jose scale. Some of the nursery stock which was used in the experimental work at the Missouri Agri- cultural Experiment Station Method of procedure. — First, during the fall of 1915 the following number of fruit trees and plants were obtained: Apple, 356 trees; peach, 164; pear, 52, and plum, 52. All of the fruit trees were two years old. Of the apple trees obtained, 260 were heavily infested with San Jose scale and 86 of the peach trees were also heavily infested. The trees were dug in the fall after the leaves had fallen and shipped to Columbia. Most of the scale-infested trees showed marked weakness caused by the ravages of the pest; otherwise all of them were in good condition. The trees were heeled in the fall and left until March 21 and 22, 1916, when they were given the different treatments. None of the trees died during the winter. The work was continued during 1917. On April 5, 1917, the following two-year-old trees were obtained, all of which were heavily infested with Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock o San Jose scale: Apple, 58 trees; peach, 58, and plum, 5. These trees had just been dug from the nursery row. They showed weakness from the effects of the scale, but were otherwise in excellent condition. A part of these trees were treated with hydrocyanic-acid gas on April 10 , 1917 . In the spring of 1918 a small nursery was started on the experimental grounds at Columbia for the purpose of obtaining trees to continue scale control investigations. Both peaches and apples were grown and in the summer of 1919 scale infested trees were placed with them and by fall the stock was all heavily infested. In March 1920 these trees were used in fumigating and dipping experiments. As has already been explained, one fluid ounce 66° Baume sulphuric acid, 1 ounce potassium cyanide and three fluid ounces of water for 100 cubic ■ Fumigating Box used at the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station. Notice the cleats against which the lid fits. These cleats are covered with felt to prevent the escape of gas. feet is most commonly used in fumigating nursery stock. Some of the nurserymen of Missouri had complained of severe burning of the stock when used this strong so two strengths of hydrocyanic-acid gas were used in the work in 1916. The regular 1-1-3 formula was tried and a formula just half as strong ( V 2 -V 2 -IV 2 ) was also tried. A fumigating box was constructed from 1 inch cypress lumber. The box was made 7 feet long, 3 feet wide and 2 feet deep, having a total capacity of 42 cubic feet. The top of the box was hinged on so as to form 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 a lid. Cleats were nailed on to the lid so as to fit tightly against the inside of the box when closed and these cleats were covered with felt so as to make the box just as nearly air tight as possible. The number of plants to be treated dry with the 1-1-3 formula were dug, the dirt removed from the roots and placed in the box. The sulphuric acid was weighed out and placed in an earthen jar, then the required amount of water was added slowly so as to prevent sputtering. The jar was then placed in the bottom of the fumigating box in such a way as not to come in contact with the nursery stock. The potassium cyanide, 98 per cent pure, which had been broken up into small pieces, was then added to the mixture and the lid quickly closed and clamped down. The stock was allowed to fumigate for 45 minutes, when the box was opened, the gas allowed to escape, which took about 10 to 15 minutes. The plants were then removed and set about two feet apart in rows 3 feet apart. The residue left in the jar is very poisonous so it was removed and buried to prevent anything from getting hold of it. Just as soon as the set of trees were removed from the fumigating box, a second set containing the same number of plants was taken. This set of plants was treated in exactly the same way as the above set with the ex- ception that they were thoroly dampened, both roots and tops, before being placed in the box. The object in fumigating this set of wet plants was to find out exactly if possible to what extent the plants would be injured and also if the effect upon the scale would be the same as upon the scale on the dry plants. The third set of plants was treated exactly the same as*the first except the Vz-Yz-^-Yz formula was used. A fourth set of plants, which were wet, was also treated with the Yz-Yz- lYz formula. Effect of hydrocyanic-acid gas upon San Jose scale. — As is shown by the following table, eighty apple trees with scale, were treated with hydro- cyanic-acid gas in 1916. Table 1. — Apples Treated in 1916 Date 1916 Treatment Condi- tion of trees Length of treat- ment, mm. No. trees treat- ed Per cent scale dead 5/14/16 Per cent trees dead 5/26/16 4/4/1 7 March 21 HCN 1-1-3 wet 45 20 77.8 10 ' 40 HCN 1-1-3 dry 45 20 100 10 30 HCN Y 2 -Y 2 -IY 2 wet 45 20 72.6 10 30 HCN Y 2 -Y 2 -IY 2 dry 45 20 97.5 25 55 Check 20 38.9 0 60 On May 14, 1916, a count was made to determine the effectiveness of the hydrocyanic-acid gas. In making the counts on these trees, several heavily infested twigs were collected from several of the different trees. The twigs were placed under a high power binocular and the numbers of Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 15 dead and live insects counted. From these numbers, the- percentage of live insects was determined. On May 25, 1916, additional counts were made and on May 26, 1916, the number of trees which were dead was counted. The results obtained show clearly that hydrocyanic-acid gas used at the strength of 1-1-3 and V 2 -V 2 -IV 2 will kill San Jose scale on dry plants better than on moist plants. Also the dry plants suffered more from the treatment than the wet ones. The hydrocyanic acid gas gave best results when used at the rate of 1-1-3 upon dry trees. Upon the other three sets live scales were found, the larger percentage being upon the trees treated while damp. All of these trees were heavily infested with the scale at the time of treating and their vitality had been weakened a great deal and this is undoubtedly the reason why such a large percentage died. The normal mortality of scale on the check trees was 38.9 per cent and the high mor- tality of the trees was undoubtedly due to the effects of the pest. On April 9, 1917, the following trees were treated with hydrocyanic acid gas, 1-1-3. Table 2. — Apples Treated in 1917 Date 1917 Treatment Condition of trees Length of treatment, min. No. trees treated Per cent scale dead 4/20/17 April 9 HCN 1-1-3 wet 45 8 100 HCN 1-1-3 dry 45 8 100 Check .... 4 75 This test in 1917 was made in order to check or substantiate the results obtained in 1916. On April 20, 1917, the trees were thoroly examined for scale and no live scale whatsoever could be found on either the trees wet or dry. In comparing the above treatments with the check it is clearly shown that good results were obtained with hydrocyanic-acid gas used at the rate of 1-1-3. On March 22, 1920, additional experiments were performed with HCN as is shown by the following table. Table 3. — Apples Treated in 1920 Date 1920 Treatment Condition of trees Length of treat- min. No. of trees treated Per cent scale dead 5/20/20 Per cent trees dead 11/8/20 March 23 HCN 1-1-3 wet 50 34 100 44.1 March 22 HCN 1-1-3 dry 50 34 100 50.5 March 27 HCN 2-2-6 wet 50 34 100 70.5 March 26 HCN 2-2-6 dry 50 34 100 73.5 March 29 HCN* l-U/ 2-3 wet 50 34 100 70.5 March 29 HCN* l-iy 2 -3 dry 50 34 100 50.0 Check .... 68 76 94.2 *In this treatment Sodium cyanide (NaCN) was used. 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 As the table shows in 1920 potassium cyanide was used twice as strong as is recommended. Also sodium cyanide (NaCn) was used. Sodium cyanide, which is stronger than potassium cyanide and which is ordinarily used at the strength of one ounce sodium syanide, one and one-half ounces sul- phuric acid and three ounces water. Every treatment of cyanide used in 1920 killed 100 per cent of the scale. As to the effect of the treatments upon the trees the HCN used at the rate of 1-1-3 it seems causd less injury both upon wet and dry trees. Effect of hydrocyanic-acid gas upon scale on peaches. — Somewhat bet- ter results were obtained on peaches. From counts made on May 25, as is shown by the table, three of the treatments gave perfect results so far as controlling the scale was concerned. Table 4. — Peaches Treated in 1916 Date Treatment Condi- Length No. Per Per cent tion of trees cent trees dead of treat- treat- scale trees ment, ed dead 1916 min. 5/14/16 5/26/16 4/4/1 7 March 21 HCN wet 45 8 95.4 37.5 87.5 hcn y 2 -y 2 -iy 2 dry 45 8 100 37.5 62.5 HCN 1-1-3 wet 45 8 100 12.5 50 HCN 1-1-3 dry 45 8 100 87.5 87 5 Check .... 8 100 25 62.5 Hydrocyanic-acid gas used at the rate of 1 / 2 - 1 / 2 -l 1 /2 on damp trees gave the poorest results. A larger number of the : trees treated dry were dead May 26 than was the case with those treated wet. Table 5. — Peaches Treated in 1917 Date Treatment Condition Length of No. trees Per cent of trees treatment, treated scale dead 3917 min. 4/20/17 April 9 HCN-1-1-3 wet 45 4 100 HCN-1-1-3 dry 45 4 100 Check .... 6 50 In 1917 hydrocyanic-acid gas proved to be effective in killing the scale on peaches upon both wet and dry trees. Fifty per cent of the scale on the check trees had passed the winter in safety. Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 17 Table; 6. — Peaches Treated in 1920 Date Treatment Condi- Length No. Per Per tion of of cent cent of treat- trees scale trees trees ment, treated dead dead 1920 min. 5/26/20 11/8/2C March 29 HCN 1-1-3 wet 50 5 100 20 March 22 HCN 1-1-3 dry 50 5 100 20 March 27 HCN 2-2-6 wet 50 5 100 100 March 26 HCN 2-2-6 dry 50 5 100 0 March 29 HCN* l-l Ms-3 wet 50 5 100 80 March 29 HCN* l-iy 2 -3 dry 50 5 100 60 Check 10 85.67 100 *In this treatment Sodium cyanide (NaCN) was used. One hundred per cent of all the scale was killed in every case in 1920. Effect of hydrocyanic-acid gas upon San Jose scale on pear. Table 7. — Pears Treated in 1920 Date Treatment Condi- Length No. Per Per tion of of cent cent of treat- trees scale trees trees . ment, treated dead dead 1920 min. 5/26/20 11/8/20 March 23 HCN 1-1-3 wet 50 2 100 50 March 22 HCN 1-1-3 dry 50 2 100 0 March 27 HCN 2-2-6 wet 50 2 100 50 March 26 HCN 2-2-6 dry 50 2 100 100 March 29 HCN* 1-11/2-3 wet 50 2 100 50 March 29 HCN* 1 - 11 / 2-3 dry 50 2 100 0 Check 4 74.68 0 *In this treatment Sodium cyanide (NaCN) was used. Practically the same results were obtained upon pear as upon peaches and apples. Effect of hydrocyanic-acid gas upon San Jose scale on plum - Table 8.- —Plums Treated in 1917 Date Treatment Condition Length of No. trees Per cent of trees treatment, treated scale dead 1917 min. 4/20/17 April 9 HCN 1-1-3 wet 45 1 100 HCN 1-1-3 dry 45 1 100 Check .... 1 57 • 18 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 As to the effectiveness of hydrocyanic-acid gas upon San Jose scale, the above tables show that it might not in every case kill all of the scale, es- pecially when used at a strength weaker than 1-1-3. When used at a weaker strength it will kill a large percentage of the insects but not enough to recommend its use. From the summary it is readily seen that more of the trees died when treated with the stronger hydrocyanic-acid gas than with the weaker. It is a known fact that plants treated with a high strength of hydrocyanic-acid gas will be injured and if the hydrocyanic-acid gas is too strong it will kill the trees. Whether or not it takes the gas longer than a month to effect a tree enough to kill it, is not known but it stands to reason that if the gas does injure a plant, the 1-1-3 strength would cause more injury than the V 2 -Y 2 -IY 2 strength. As has been shown, the greater strength gave better results in con- trolling the scale than the weaker and as far as killing the trees is con- cerned, there is not enough difference in the two strengths to amount to a great deal. Since the control of the scale is of the most importance, it is undoubtedly advisable to use the 1-1-3 formula when fumigating nursery stock. Another very important thing that was brought out in this work is the effect of hydrocyanic-acid gas upon wet and dry plants. It is the general belief among nurserymen that if plants are treated with hydrocyanic-acid gas while wet, or damp, the moisture on the plant will absorb a large quantity of the gas, which in turn, will cause a great deal of burning and injury to the plant. It will be noticed that in this work, a larger percentage of those plants treated dry died than those treated wet which is contra- dictory to the general belief of nurserymen and experiment station workers. In treating plants with ether to stimulate growth, a larger dose of ether must be used if plants are damp or the exposure must be longer if the same results are derived as would be ob- tained if the plants were dry. This may also be true of hydrocyanic-acid gas and as the re- sults obtained indicate, a larger dose of hydro- cyanic-acid gas must be used on damp plants to obtain the same results as on dry plants with a smaller dose. Also, fewer scale were killed upon the damp trees than on the dry, which indicates that possibly the same thing holds true in regard to animals as to plants. Since the scale was killed better on stock treated dry than on stock treated wet, and as the destruction of scale is of prime importance, nursery stock should not be fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas when wet, even tho the injury to the plants may be greater when treat- ed dry. A well constructed fumigating house. It is built of tongue and grooved lumber and cleats cover the joints on the outside Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 19 CARBON BISULPHIDE FIRST USED Carbon bisulphide was first used as an insecticide by Louis Doyere, a former professor of Agriculture at the Institute of Versailles, in 1856 and 1857. He used small amounts of the liquid on grain to destroy the weevils and their eggs. He also demonstrated that carbon bisulphide would not injure the grain. In 1876, Cornu and Moulleferet, both French investigators, demonstrated that carbon bisulphide could be successfully used upon grape phylloxera, caterpillars, butterflies, cicadas, wasps and plant lice. Use up to present time.— After 1876 the popularity of carbon bisulphide as an insecticide became great and many experiments were carried on with it. It was found to be an effective and cheap insecticide and easy to use. Today carbon bisulphide is widely used for the following: 1. To kill grape phylloxera on the roots of the grape. 2. Root maggot of different sorts on the roots of different plants. 3. For destruction of ants. 4. To kill grubs and mole crickets. 5. For the destruction of burrowing animals, such as moles, prairie dogs, gophers, etc. 6. For the destruction of sucking insects upon small plants. 7. For fumigating buildings containing stored cereals to destroy the insect pests. 8. For destroying household pests, museum pests and similar pests. In fact carbon bisulphide is the most extensively used fumigant today for destroying the more easily killed insects. Methods of using. — Carbon bisulphide is easy to obtain and easy to use. Any one who is willing to take a few precautions can use carbon bi- sulphide with perfect safety. Carbon bisulphide is put up in tight tin cans or steel drums and can be purchased in small quantities. It is very volatile and diffuses through the air rapidly. The gas is heavier than air and this factor is taken advantage of when using carbon bisulphide. In fumigating bins containing cereals or similar places, shallow pans are usually employed. The pans are set on top of the grain or on anything near the ceiling. Better results are obtained if the place to be fumigated is made air tight and the temperature is 70°F. or above. The carbon bisulphide is poured in the pans, the doors closed and the cracks stopped so as to prevent the gas from escaping from the building. Different authorities vary as to the rate at which carbon bisulphide should be used. In Kansas the following amounts have been recommended and other stations report similar amounts: At 90° F. 1 lb. CS 2 is sufficient for every 500 cu. ft. At 80° F. 1 lb. CS 2 is sufficient for every 400 cu. ft. At 70° F. 1 lb. CS 2 is sufficient for every 300 cu. ft. If used in an open bin, the above amounts should be greatly increased At a temperature below 60°F. it is not advisable to fumigate with carbon bisulphide at all for it does not evaporate sufficiently fast below this temperature. 20 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 The bin or building should be allowed to fumigate for from 36 to 48 hours. For fumigating seeds with carbon bisulphide, from 1 to 1V 2 pounds should be used to every 1000 cubic feet. Carbon bisulphide has been tried a number of times upon nursery stock for destroying scale insects, but up to the present time has proven unsatis- factory. Chemical composition of carbon bisulphide. — According to W. E. Hinds, of the United State sDepartment of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 145 , “the chemical sy^mbol of carbon bisulphide is CS 2 . Its molecules consist of one atom of carbon united with two atoms of sulphur. The specific gravity of the liquid is 1.29. The vapor is 2.63 times as heavy as atmospheric air. The pure article volatilizes rapidly and completely when exposed to the air. The liquid boils at 115°F. “The vapor takes fire in air at about 300° F. and burns with a faint blue flame, scarcely visible in daylight, but evolving considerable heat and de- composing the carbon bisulphide into carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ). The latter is the familiar gas given off by the burning of sulphur matches and is a strongly poisonous suffocating gas, which should not be inhaled. Carbon bisulphide vapor mixed with three times its volume of oxygen, or an amount of air containing that amount of oxygen, forms a mixture which is very highly explosive upon ignition. As 21 per cent of the air is oxygen, one volume of liquid carbon bisulphide evaporated in 5,357 volumes of air would form such a mixture. An atmosphere composed of one volume of carbon bisulphide vapor to approximately 14.3 volumes of air is liable to violent explosion in the presence of fire of any kind whatever, or a temperature of about 300° F. without flame. This is about the maxi- mum danger point from explosion in the use of carbon bisulphide.” The higher the temperature, the more carbon bisulphide will be taken up by the air. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH CARBON BISULPHIDE As has already been pointed out, carbon bisulphide is probably the most generally used insecticide for fumigating, especially for such insects as grain weevil. It has been tried to some extent upon nursery stock for the control of San Jose scale, but so far satisfactory- results have not been re- ported. Carbon bisulphide is cheaper than hydrocyanic-acid gas, easier to handle and, used as a poison, does not act in an effective way so quickly which makes it less dangerous for the person handling it. Object. — The idea in using carbon bisulphide was to determine if possi- ble, whether or not it could be used at 'all for destroying San Jose scale upon live plants without injury to the plants. Owing to its cheapness and the ease with which it can be used as compared with hydrocyanic-acid gas, carbon bisulphide would be a great deal more desirable provided the same results could be obtained. Procedure. — The same fumigating box was used with the carbon bisul- Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 21 phide as with the hydrocyanic-acid gas and, as shown by the following table, the same number of trees were used. The first dry and the first wet set of trees were treated for an hour with carbon bisulphide at the rate of 1 pound of the insecticide to 100 cubic feet of space. Sets No. 3 and 4 were treated for an hour also, but the carbon bisulphide was used at the rate of IV 2 pounds to the 100 cubic feet. In treating the trees, each set was placed in the fumigating box sep- arately, as with the hydrocyanic-acid gas. Near the top of the box a shelf was constructed upon which a shallow pan was placed. The nursery stock was placed in the box, the required amount of carbon bisulphide poured into the pan and the lid closed. Eighty apple trees heavily infested with San Jose scale were treated with carbon bisulphide as is shown by the following table. Table 9. — Apples Treated IN 1916 Date Treatment Condi- Length No. Per Per cent tion of trees cent trees dead of treat- treat- scale trees ment, ed dead 193 6 min. 5/25/16 5/26/16 4/4/17 March 21 CS 2 1-100 dry 60 20 92.3 30.5 70 March 21 CS 2 1-100 wet 60 20 88.2 15 50 March 21 CS 2 lMs-100 dry 60 20 77.1 10 45 March 21 CS 2 li/2-lOO wet 60 20 83.9 10 40 Check 20 38.9 0 60 As is shown, counts made May 14 and 25 definitely show that carbon bisulphide used at a strength of either 1 to 100 or iy 2 to 100 will not control scale. As compared with the check, however, it is evident that a number of the insects were killed but not enough to warrant its use. On April 9,' 1917, the following trees were treated with carbon bisul- phide, 1 y 2 to 100. Table 10. — Apples Treated in 1917 Date Treatment Condition Length of No. trees Per cent of trees treatment, treated scale dead 1917 m in. 4/20/17 April 9 CS 2 1 Ms-100 wet 60 8 96.6 CS 2 li/2-lOO dry 60 8 94.6 Check 4 75.0 The results obtained in 1917 are practically the same as those obtained in 1916 and they also show that carbon bisulphide used at the rate of 1}4 to 100 will not control San Jose scale. 22 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 Table 11. — Peaches Treated in 1916 Date Treatment Condi- Length No. Per Per cent tion of trees cent trees dead of treat- treat- scale trees ment, ed dead 1916 min. 5/25/16 5/26/16 4/4/1 7 March 21 CS 2 1-100 wet 60 8 100 62.5 75 CS 2 1-100 wet 60 8 100 62.5 87.5 cs 2 iy 2 -ioo wet 60 8 100 37.5 75 cs 2 iy 2 -ioo dry 60 8 94.8 30 87.5 Check 8 100 25 62.5 The results obtained on the peach also show that carbon bisulphide will not entirely control San Jose scale when used at the rate of 1V 2 to 100. However, these results are much better than those obtained upon the apple which is ] probably due to the fact that most of the heavily in fested peach trees died , which made it impossible to get as good a count. The peaches that lived were not so heavily infested. Table 12. — Peaches Treated in 1917 Date Treatment Condition Length of No. trees ; Per cent of trees treatment, , treated scale dead 1917 min. 4/20/17 April 9 cs 2 iy>-ioo wet 60 4 100 cs 2 iy 2 -ioo dry 60 4 100 Check 6 50 No live scale could be found upon the peach trees treated which was probably due to the fact that as a result of the treatment practically all of the young tender growth, which was the most heavily infested part of the trees, had died. It will also be noticed that a larger per cent of the plants treated wet died, both at the end of the second month and at the end of the first year. However, the difference was not very great. With hydrocyanic-acid gas more of the plants treated dry died. It may be that carbon bisulphide has an altogether different physiological effect upon the plant, especially in the presence of moisture. A larger percentage of the .scale on the trees treated wet were killed which seems to further indicate that carbon bisulphide used in the presence of moisture is more active. Owing to the fact that carbon bisulphide did not in any case completely control the San Jose scale upon apple trees, and in only five out of six cases upon the peach, and since the percentage of injury to the plants was very great, its use as a fumigating material upon nursery stock should be discouraged. Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 23 LIME-SULPHUR FIRST USED On page six, under “Control in the Orchard,” a discussion of the first use of lime-sulphur for the control of insects is given. F. A. Sirrine of New York Agricultural Experiment Station was prob- ably the first to dip nursery stock for the control of San Jose scale. He dipped some nursery stock in 1894 on Long Island with a whale-oil soap preparation. Lime-sulphur was probably first used as a dip for nursery stock for the control of the scale by Professor C. V. Close of the Deleware Experiment Station in 1903. Used up to present time. — Since 1894 a large number of experiments have been made with lime-sulphur as a tree dip for the control of San Jose scale but none have been, on the whole, entirely successful. In some cases the scale was controlled but the most serious objection to using it was the fact that in nearly every case the plants were injured to a greater or less extent. Although lime-sulphur is used almost altogether for controlling San Jose scale on old trees, it has never proven to be a practical success for dipping nursery stock. Methods for using. — When lime-sulphur is used upon nursery stock as a spray for the control of San Jose scale, it is during the dormant season while the trees are still in the nursery row. It is applied at the usual rate, the same as recommended for mature trees, 1 to 7, and is put on with a spraying machine, either hand or power. Most large nurseries have espe- cially constructed spraying machines which are built so as to be easily gotten between nursery rows. When lime-sulphur or any other material is used for dipping nursery stock a vat is constructed or a trough made which is large enough to hold sufficient liquid to immerse an entire tree. Chemical composition of lime-sulphur. — Lime-sulphur is made by boil- ing in water slaked rock lime containing not less than 95 per cent calcium oxide and flowers of sulphur. A very complicated chemical reaction takes place when lime and sulphur are boiled together in water. The sulphur (S) combines with the calcium (Ca) in the lime (CaO), in varying amounts, with the result that two compounds are formed — calcium tetrasulphide (CaSi), containing 76 per cent of sulphur. Also a small quantity of thiosulphate (CaS20 3 ) is formed. These compounds formed are soluble in water and it is to them that the insecticidal value of the mixture is due. The higher the percentage of pentasulphide, the more effective is the mixture. In making the lime-sulphur solution it is necessary to boil it for an hour in order to form a complete chemical union of the lime and sulphur. Two parts of sul- phur combine with one part of lime and in making the solution, twice as much sulphur as lime should be used. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH LIME-SULPHUR As the lime-sulphur wash has become the most standard spray for the control of San Jose scale on infested fruit trees, the writer saw no reason why it should not be used to dip infested nursery stock. 24 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 Object. — The object in using lime-sulphur was to determine definitely, if possible, its exact efficiency for killing scale on nursery stock and its in- jurious effects, if any, upon the plants. Lime-sulphur is the cheapest ma- terial used in the control of San Jose scale and as no fumes are produced, it is less dangerous to use than hydrocyanic-acid gas or carbon bisulphide. Procedure. — First a water tight wooden V-shaped trough was made, 9 feet long and 8 inches deep. This trough held with ease 8 gallons of the solution. The number of trees to be dipped were divided into four sets. In the first set the tops and trunk, down to the roots only, were dipped and those trees dipped in 1916 and 1920 were immersed and immediately removed, while those dipped in 1917 were left immersed for five minutes. With the second set of trees the tops and roots both were dipped. With the first two sets lime-sulphur was used at the rate of 1 gallon to 9 gallons of water. The third and fourth sets were treated exactly as the first two except the lime sulphur was used at the rate of 1 gallon' to 7 gallons of water. After the trees had been dipped they were allowed to drain for a few minutes, then set out. Effect of lime-sulphur upon San Jose scale. — As shown by the following table, forty apple trees, heavily infested with San Jose scale, were dipped in the lime-sulphur solution. Table 13.— Apples Treated in 1916 Date 1916 Insect- icide Parts treated trees Length of treat- ment, min. No. trees treat- ed Per cent scale dead 5/25/16 Per cent trees dead 5/26/16 4/4/17 March 21 L. S. 1-9 tops inst. 10 100 20 50 L. S. 1-9 t. & r * inst. 10 100 30 70 L. S. 1-7 tops inst. 10 99.6 10 70 L. S. 1-7 t. & r * inst. 10 93.6 30 50 Check 20 38.9 0 60 ^Both tops and roots dipped. These results show that lime-sulphur will, to a very large extent, con- trol San Jose scale on nursery stock but that the control may not be com- plete. Every tree was thoroly dipped, care being taken that every branch and twig was completely wet to the top, and the writer is convinced that none of the insects escaped immersion. Also a count of the scale was made from every tree and as shown by the results a very small percentage was alive a month after treatment. So far as the strength of the solution is concerned, the weaker gave the best results; however, there is very little difference in the strength of the two solutions used and the fact that the weaker solution gave the better results if of little significance. Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 25 In order to verify the above results, the following trees were treated in 1917 with lime-sulphur at a strength of 1-7. Table 14. — Apples Treated in 1917 Date Insect- Parts Length of No. trees Per cent icide treated treatment, treated scale dead 1917 min. 4/20/1917 April 9 L. S. 1-7 tops 5 6 100 L. S. 1-7 t. & r. 5 6 100 Check 5 4 75 In 1920 besides using commercial lime-sulphur in which to dip the frees, soluable sulphur, dry lime-sulphu: r and barium tetrichloride sulphide were used. The* last three named compounds have been placed on the ■market and are sold as scale remedies. The following table shows the results obtained in 1920 with these different materials on scaly apple trees. Table 15. — Apples Treated in 1920 Date Treatment Parts Length No. Per Per treated of of cent cent » treat- trees scale trees ment, treated dead dead 1920 3/20/20 11/18/20 March 27 1 gal. lime- sulphur to 9 gal. H 2 0 t. & r. inst. 34 96.62 91.1 March 27 1 gal. lime tops inst. 34 99.66 44.1 sulphur to 9 gal. H 2 O March 27 1 lb. soluble sulphur to 4 gal. H 2 O tops inst. 34 97.34 52.9 March 24 12 lbs. dry lime sulphur to 50 gal. H 2 O tops inst. 34 100 50 March 25 14 lb. Barium tetrichloride tops inst. 34 98.53 67.6 sulphide to 50 gal. H 2 O Check 68 76 94.2 Of the above materials used dry lime-sulphur used at the rate of 12 ^pounds to 50 gallons of water gave the best results. 26 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 Table 16. — Peaches Treated in 1916 Date 1916 Insect- icide Parts treated of trees Length of treat- ment min. No. trees treat- ed Per cent scale dead 5/4/16 Per cent trees dead 5/26/16 4/4/17 March 21 L. S. 1-9 tops inst. 4 100 25 25 L. S. 1-9 t. & r. inst. 4 100 25 25 L. S. 1-7 tops inst. 4 94.3 12.5 100 L. S. 1-7 t. & r. inst. 4 100 12.5 100 Check 8 100 25 62.5 Practically the same results were obtained upon the peach in 1916 as upon apple. Table 17. — Peaches Treated in 1917 Date Insect- Parts Length of No . trees Per cent icide treated treatment, treated scale dead 1917 min. 4/20/17 May 4 L. S. 1-7 tops 5 9 100 L. S. 1-7 t. & r. 5 9 100 Check 6 ' 50 As with the apple, no live scale could be found. Table 18. — Peaches Treated in 1920 Date Treatment Parts Length No. Per Per treated of of cent cent treat- trees scale trees ment treated dead dead 1920 3/20/20 11/15/20 March 27 1 gal. lime- sulphur to 9 gal. H z O t. & r. inst. 34 99.66 44.1 March 27 1 gal. lime- sulphur to 9 gal. H 2 0 tops inst. 5 100 0 March 27 1 lb. soluble sulphur to 4 gal. H 2 O tops inst. 5 100 100 March 24 12 lbs. dry tops inst. 5 100 100 lime-surphur to 50 gal. HzO March 25 14 lbs. barium tetrichloride tops inst. 5 100 80 sulphide to 5 gal. H 2 O Check 10 86.67 100 Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 27 Each treatment killed 100 per cent of the scale, except the first which killed 99.66 per cent. Table 19. — Pears Treated in 1920 Date Treatment Parts Length No. Per Per treated of of cent cent treat- trees scale trees ment treated dead dead 1920 3/20/20 11/15/20 March 27 1 gal. lime- sulphur to 9 gal. H 2 O t. & r. inst. 2 100 100 March 27 1 gal. lime- sulphur to 9 gal. HzO tops inst. 2 100 0 March 27 1 lb. soluble sulphur to 9 gal. H 2 O tops inst. • 2 100 0 March 24 12 lbs. dry lime sulphur to 50 gal. H 2 O tops inst. 2 100 100 March 25 14 lbs. barium tetrichloride tops inst. 2 90 0 sulphide to 50 gal. H 2 O Check 4 74.68 0 All gave good results except the barium tetrichloride sulphide which killed only 90 per cent of the scale. Table 20. — Plums Treated in 1917 Date 1917 Insect- icide Parts treated Length of treatment, min. No. trees treated Per cent scale dead 4/20/17 April 4 L. S. 1-7 tops 5 1 100 L. S. 1-7 t. & r. 5 1 100 Check 1 100 The scale on the treated trees were all dead. The lime-sulphur solution used at both strengths caused considerable injury. There was not a great deal of difference in the strength of the two solutions used and some authorities claim that lime-sulphur used at the rate of 1 gallon lime-sulphur to 9 gallons of water will give as good results as 1 gallon lime-sulphur to 7 gallons of water. At the end of the first two months and also at the end of the first year, a larger percentage of stock treated with the weaker, or 1-9 solution, was dead, which seems to indicate 28 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 that nursery stock can stand a solution of lime-sulphur a little stronger than 1-9 without any additional injury. Neither did the lime-sulphur have any effect upon the roots of the plants which were treated in 1915, for in only one case, the 1-9 solution where both roots and tops were dipped, was the percentage of dead plants greater than when tops only were dipped. Of these plants treated with the 1-7 solution, the percentage of dead was greater in the set treated tops only.. In 1920 the results were different and the plants that were dipped both tops- and roots suffered a much higher mortality than those dipped tops only. All of the plants treated with both the lime-sulphur and miscible oil were dipped instantaneously. If the plants had been allowed to remain in the solution for 5 or 10 minutes or longer there would have probably been a. greater difference in the results obtained. The 1-9 solution gave better results in controlling the scale than the 1-7 solution, so taking everything into consideration it seems that just as good results could be obtained by using a 1-9 solution upon nursery stock for the control of scale, as a 1-7 solution. However, owing to the fact that none of the sulphur compounds killed all the scale and that considerable injury may result from their use upon young plants it seems advisable according to these experiments, to discourage the use of them as a dip. In a paper which appeared in Marseilles, France in 1763, petroleum,, turpentine and other oils were recommended for killing plant lice. In this country turpentine mixed with earth and water was used to destroy worms in trees as early as 1835 and in 1865 kerosene was recommended for destroy- ing scale on orange trees and was successfully applied to oleander, sago- palm, acacia and lemon trees. The oil was applied by means of a feather. In June 1866 kerosene was recommended, in Gardener’s Monthly, for de- stroying all insect life. Later it was found that kerosene and other oils mixed better with water if a soap was added and the material could be applied with a syringe. It is not definitely known who made the first kero- sene emulsion but about 1875 kerosene mixed with soap was first used. Use up to present time. — Since 1875 many different mixtures containing miscible oils have been recommended for the destruction of both chewing and sucking insects, particularly the latter. Petroleum oils and soap form the basis of many patented miscible oil solutions which can be purchased on the market today. The miscible oils kill the insect by contact. The oil has great penetrating ability and probably kills the insect by preventing the assimilation of oxygen in the tissues. The following are some of the most common and most widely used of the miscible oil insecticides. Dissolve the soap in hot water, remove from fire and while still hot add the kerosene. Th emixture is thoroly agitated for five or ten minutes or until it becomes a creamy mass. Crude oil can be substituted for the MISCIBLE OIL FIRST USED Kerosene Soap Water 2 gallons % pound 1 gallon Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 29 kerosene. For a dormant spray one part of mixture is used to five or seven parts of water. Distieate Emuesion Distillate (28° Baume) 20 gallons Whale oil soap 20 pounds Water 12 gallons Dissolve the whale oil soap in the water, which should be. heated to the boiling point, add the distillate and agitate thoroly while the solution is hot. For dormant use, add 20 gallons of water to each gallon of stock emulsion. Method of using. — The miscible oils may be used upon all types of sucking insects and also upon the chewing insects where it is desirable to kill them with a contact spray. The best results are obtained by using a spraying machine when treating trees in the field, either a power or hand pump, and give the trees a thoro spraying. When used for scale insects it must be applied during the dormant season. It may be used as a dor- mant spray upon nursery stock, but more generally when nursery stock is treated for scale with a miscible oil, a tank is constructed, the tank filled with the oil at the desired strength, and the trees dipped. It is the general belief that the oil is not good for the roots of a plant and the tops only are dipped. Chemical composition of miscible oil. — The alkali in the soap or other emulsifier reacts upon the oil in such a way as to cause it to break up and become miscible in water. The commercial preparations are presumably composed of different types of oils treated in different ways and are pro- tected by United States patents. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH MISCIBLE OIL Owing to the fact that miscible oils are used to some extent in con- trolling San Jose scale upon fruit trees and, that in some states nursery- men are allowed to use it instead of hydrocyanic-acid gas upon nursery stock, an effort was made to determine its efficiency for controlling the scale, Some of the nurserymen who use a miscible oil to dip their stock say that it controls the scale just as well, if not better, than hydrocyanic- acid gas; that it is not so costly, and that there is less danger of injury to the tree. Also, like lime-sulphur, it is non-poisonous. Procedure. — The larger nurserymen who make a practice of dipping their stock, usually construct a large cistern-shaped vat of concrete or use a large tank which they fill with the solution and in which very large trees can be dipped. In this work the same trough was used as with the lime- sulphur and in every detail the methods of procedure were the same with the exception of the solution. With the first two sets of trees treated, 1 gallon of oil was used to 15 gallons of water; with the third and fourth sets, 1 gallon of oil to 13 gallons of water was used. Effect of miscible oil upon San Jose scale on apple. — The following 30 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 table shows the results obtained by using miscible oil upon San Jose scale on apple trees, at the strength of 1 gallon to 15 gallons of water, and 1 gallon to 13 gallons of water. Table 21. — Apples Treated in 1916 Date Inspect- Parts Length No. Per Per cent icide treated of trees cent trees dead treat- treat- scale ment ed dead 1916 min. 5/14-25/16 5/26/16 4/4/1 7 March 21 Mis. Oil 1-15 top inst. 10 100 10 50 Mis. Oil 1-15 t. & r. inst. 10 100 0 40 Mis. Oil 1-13 top inst. 10 100 10 50 Mis. Oil 1-13 t. & r. inst. 10 100 20 50 Check 20 38.9 0 60 Each tree was very carefully examined and no live scale whatever could be found, and the control seemed to be complete. Table 22. — Apples Treated- in 1917 Date Insect- Parts Length of No. trees Per cent icide treated treatment, treated scale dead 1917 min. 4/20/17 April 9 Mis. Oil 1-12 top 5 5 100 Mis. Oil 1-12 t. & r. 5 5 100 Check 4 75 No live scale could be found when examined. Table 23. — Apples Treated in 1920 Date Insecticide Parts Length No. Per Per treated of of cent cent treat- trees scale trees ment treated dead dead 1920 3/20/20 11/15/20 March 26 1 gal. Mis. Oil to 15 gal. H 2 0 t. & r. inst. 34 100 88.2 March 26 1 gal. Mis. Oil to 15 gal. H 2 O tops inst. 34 100 73.5 March 27 V 2 pt. Lemon Oil, 6% gal. H 2 O and V 2 lb. tops inst. 34 84.20 76.4 soap Check 68 76 94.2 Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 3T The lemon oil gave very poor results. Table 24. — Pears Treated in 1920 Date Insecticide Parts Length No. Per Per treated of of cent cent treat- trees scale trees ment treated dead dead 3/20/20 11/15/20" March 26 1 gal. Mis. Oil to 15 gal. H 2 0 t. & r. inst. 2 100 100 March 26 1 gal. Mis. Oil to 15 gal. H 2 0 tops inst. 2 100 100 March 27 V 2 pt. Lemon Oil, 6V 2 gal. H 2 0 and y 2 lb. tops inst. 2 100 50 soap Check 4 74.68 0 All treatments gave good results. Table 25. — Peaches Treated in 1916 Date 1916 Insect- icide Parts treated Length of treat- ment min. No. trees treat- ed Per cent scale dead 5/14-25/16 Per cent trees dead 5/26/16 4/4/17 March 21 Mis. Oil 1-15 top inst. 4 100 0 0 Mis. Oil 1-15 t. & r. inst. 4 100 37.5 37.5 Mis. Oil 1-12 top inst. 4 99.3 25 25 Mis. Oil 1-12 t. & r. inst. 4 100 25 62.5 Check 8 100 25 62.5 All of the above treatments proved effective with the exception of one, the 1-12, tops only, and the control in this case was 99.3 per cent. How- ever, this is enough to reinfest the tree. Table 26. — Peaches Treated in 1917 Date 1917 Insect- icide Parts treated Length of treatment, min. No. trees treated Per cent scale dead 4/20/17 April 9 Mis. Oil 1-12 top 5 9 100 Mis. Oil 1-12 t. & r. 5 9 100 Check 6 60 32 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 No live scale could be found. Table 27.- —Peaches Treated in 1920 Date Insecticide Parts Length No. Per Per treated of of cent cent treat- trees scale trees ment, treated dead dead 1920 min. 3/20/20 11/15/20 March 26 1 gal. Mis. Oil to 15 gal. H z O t. & r. 5 5 100 60 March 26 1 gal. Mis. Oil to 15 gal. H 2 0 tops 5 5 100 40 March 27 y 2 pt. Lemon Oil, 6J4 gal. H 2 0 and y 2 lb. tops 5 5 60 80 soap Check . 10 85.67 100 The foregoing tables show that miscible oil does not injure nursery- stock to any great extent; however, as compared with the check, some in- jury results from its use. Probably some time is required before the injury shows up to any great extent. At the end of the first two months the per cent of dead plants was not so great where the tops only were treated, as in> the case of the checks. At the end of a year, however, there was about three times as many of the plants, which were treated tops only, dead as in the case of the check. Those plants which were dipped both tops and roots showed a higher percentage of death than those dipped tops only. So it seems that it is not advisable to dip the roots of plants in miscible oil. In comparing the two strengths of miscible oil used, the 1 gallon to 12 gallons of water, caused a much greater percentage of injury than the weaker strength of 1 gallon of the oil to 15 gallons of water. As to the control of San Jose scale, the miscible oil gave excellent results. Both strengths controlled the scale upon the apples. Upon the peach the results were as good with the exception of those treated, tops only, with the 1-12 strength and in this case 99.3 per cent of the scale was killed. Taken as a whole, the miscible oil injured the plants less and controlled the San Jose scale better than any of the other materials used. As the tables show the lemon oil which was used in 1920 gave very poor results. Lemon oil is used to some extent by florists to spray green house plants which are infested with scale insects, however it seems to be of little value in controlling San Jose scale. NICOTINE SULPHATE AS A SPRAY In addition to all of the other materials used in 1920 nicotine sulphate, a tobacco extract, was tried. It is a sulphate of nicotine and therefore an acid material. It contains 40 per cent nioctine and is used as a contact Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 35 spray for soft bodied insects like the plant lice. It is usually used at the rate of one gallon of nicotine sulphate to about 800 gallons of water. In using it as a dip for San Jose scale on dormant trees it was used at the rate of one gallon of nicotine sulphate to 100 gallons of water. The following tables show the results obtained. Table 28. — Apples Treated in 1920 Date Treatment Parts Length No. Per Per treated of of cent cent treat- trees scale trees ment treated dead dead 1920 min. 3/20/20 11/15/20 March 27 1 gal. Nicotine sulphate to tops inst. 34 64.74 91.1 Check 68 76 94.2 Table 29.- —Peaches Treated in 1920 Date Treatment Parts Length No. Per Per treated of of cent cent treat- trees scale trees ment treated dead dead 1920 min. 3/20/20 11/15/20 March 27 1 gal. Nicotine tops inst. 5 100 80 sulphate to 100 gal. HUO Check 10 85.67 100 Table 30. — Pears Treated in 1920 Date Treatment Parts Length No. Per Per treated of of cent cent treat- trees scale trees ment treated dead dead 1920 min. 3/20/20 11/15/20 March 27 1 gal. Nicotine tops inst. 2 100 100 sulphate to 100 gal. H z O Check 4 74.68 0 Nicotine sulphate seemed to have killed all the scale on the peach and pear but on the apples it gave very poor results. It also caused con- siderable injury to the plants treated. Evidently it should not be used as a dip in controlling San Jose scale on nursery stock. 34 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 SUMMARY 1. Hydrocyanic-acid gas did not in every case completely control the San Jose scale. However, the gas used at a strength of 1-1-3 gave better results than the weaker strength of Vz-Vz-^Vz. The 1-1-3 strength gave as good results as the 2-2-6 strength. Sodium cyanide used at the strength of d-1^-3 killed 100 per cent of the scale. 2. Hydrocyanic-acid gas was more effective when used upon dry plants than upon wet. A larger percentage of the scale was killed. 3. All strengths of the hydrocyanic-acid gas caused more or less Injury to the plants. The stronger it was used, the more injury it caused. 4. The 1-1-3 formula should always be used in fumigating nursery ■stock, and the stock should be dry. There may be greater danger of in- jury to the plants, but the scale will be more completely controlled, and this is the most important factor. 5. Carbon bisulphide did not control the scale and it caused a verj r Tiigh percentage of injury. Its use as a fumigating material for the control of San Jose scale on nursery stock should 'be discouraged. 6. Lime-sulphur used at 1-9 and 1-7 strengths gave fairly good results in controlling the scale. The 1-9 solution gave perfect results on pears and plums. 7. The sulphur dips injured the plants to some extent. The plants dipped both tops and roots showed more injury than those dipped tops only. 8. The miscible oil gave the best results, 100 per cent of the scale being controlled in every case but one and in this case the control exceeded 99 per cent. 9. Miscible oil caused some injury to the plants. Those dipped tops and roots were injured most. When treating nursery stock with miscible oil the roots should not be dipped. 10. Lemon oil or nicotine sulphate should not be used as dips for con- trolling scale on nursery stock. 11. None of the materials used completely controlled the San Jose scale. 12. All scale-infested nursery stock should be burned or destroyed in some other way. 13. Nursery stock which has been subjected to infestation, but is not infested should be treated before being placed on the market. 14. The best results should be expected by treating the stock with* hydrocyanic-acid gas 1-1-3, or with miscible oil at the strength of 1-12 or 1-15, tops only. Dipping and Fumigation of Nursery Stock 35 BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) Comstock, J. H. 1916. Report on Scale Insects. Cornell Bui. No. 372. (2) Cordey, A. B. 1910. Insecticides and Fungicides. Oregon Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 108. (3) Dean, George A. Mill and Stored Grain Insects. Kan. Exp. Sta. Bui. 189 . (4) Faurot, F. W. 1906. Preliminary Experiments in Dipping Nursery Stock. Mo. Fruit Exp. Sta. Bui. 14. (5) Feet, E. P. Petroleum and Petroleum Products as Insecticides. N. Y. State Ed. Dept., Albany. (6) Garman, H. Nursery Inspection and San Jose Scale. Kentucky Sta. Bui. 110. (7) Diseases of Nursery Stock. Ky. Sta. Bui. 93. (8) Girauet, A. A. 1912 Insects Injurious to Stored Grains and Grain Products. 111. Exp. Sta. Bui. 156. (9) Haseman, L. 1915. Control of an Jose Scale in Missouri. Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta Bui. 132. (10) Hinds, W. E. Carbon Bisulphide as an Insecticide. Farmer’s Bui. 145. (11) Howard, L. O. Hydrocyanic-acid Gas Against Household Insects. U. S. D. A. Cir. 46, 2d. ser. (12) Johnson, W. G. 1902 Fumigation Methods. (13) Lodeman, E. G. Spraying of Plants. Macmillan Company. (14) Lowe, V. H. Inspection and Treatment of Infested Nursery Stock. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bui. 136. (15) Lowe, V. H. and Parrott, P. J. 1901. San Jose Scale Investigations 111. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bui. 202. (16) Marlatt, C. L. 1906. The San Jose or Chinese Scale. B. O. E. Bui. 62. (17) Morse, F. W. 1887. The Use of Gases Against Scale Insects. Cal. Exp. ta. Bui. 71. 36 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177 ( 18 ) McDonnell, C. D. 111. Chemistry of Fumigating With Hydrocyanic-acid Gas. U. S. D. A. B. O. E. Bui. 90. (19) Parrott, P. J., Hodgkiss, H. E., and Schoene, W. J. 1908. Dipping of Nursery Stock in Lime-Sulphur Wash. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bui. 302. (20) Pearis, L. M., and Merrill, J. H. 1916. San Jose Scale. Kan. Exp. Sta. Bui. 214. (21) Schoene, W. J. 1913. The Influence of Temperature and Moisture in Fumigating. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bui. 30. ( 22 ) 1914. Analysis of Materials as insecticides and Fungicides. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bui. 384. (23) Shaeerm, Geo. D. 1915. How Contact Insectides Kill. Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bui. 21 . (24) Sirrine, F. A. 1901. Treatment of San Jose Scale in Orchards. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bui. 209. (25) 1895. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rpt. (26) Slingerland and Crosby Manual of Fruit Insects. (27) Steadman, J. N. 1898. San Jose Scale in Missouri. Mo. Exp. Sta. Cir. 3. (28) 1898. San Jose scale in Missouri. Mo. Exp. Sta. Bui. 41. (29) Woodsworth, C. W. School of Fumigating. Univ. of Calif., Pomona, Calif. (30) 1909. Fumigating the Apple for San Jose scale. U. S. Ent. Bui. 84. (31) 1910. U. S. Census Report. (32) Missouri Nursery Inspection Law. Mo. Exp. Sta. Cir. 63. (33) Close, C. V. 1903-1906. Del. Sta. Ann. Rpts. 15:137; 16, 17, and 18:48. UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 178 TESTING FERTILIZERS FOR MISSOURI FARMERS: 1920 Schweitzer Hall, Chemistry Building COLUMBIA, MISSOURI JANUARY, 1921 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL, the: curators of the; university of Missouri EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY H. J. BLANTON, JOHN H. BRADLEY, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Paris Kennett Kansas City ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR i STATION STAFF January, 1921 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, M. S. 2 R. M. Smith, A. M. T. E. Friedmann, B. S. A. R. Hall, B. S. in Agr. E. G. Sieveking, B. S. in Agr. A. B. Culbertson, Jr., B. S. in Agr. G. W. York, B. S. in Agr. C. F. Ahmann, A. B. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING J. C. Wooley, B. S. Mack M. Jones, B. S. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. A. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. A. G. Hogan, Ph. D. F. B. Mumford, M. S. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. Paul B. Bernard, B. S. in Agr. A. T. Edinger, B. S. in Agr. H. D. Fox, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. E. F. Hopkins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale, B. S. in Agr. W. W. Swett, A. M. Wm. H. E. Reid, A. M. Samuel Brody, M. A. C. W. Turner, B. S. in Agr. P. H. Nelson, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. S. R. McLanE, B. S. in Agr. FIELD CROPS VV. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. O. W. Letson, B. S. in Agr. E. O. Pollock, B. S. in Agr. B. B. BransTETTEr, B. S. in Agr. RURAL LIFE O R. Johnson, A. M. S. D. GromEr, A. M. P. C. Hall, A. M. Ben H. Frame, B. S. in Agr. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. D. Hooker, Jr., Ph. D. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. F. C. Bradford, M. S. H. G. Swartwout, B. S. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L. Kempster, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. R. R. Hudelson, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. H. V. Jordan, B. S. in Agi Richard Bradfield, A. B. O. B. Price, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connaway, D. V. S., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crisler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, A. M. ZOOLOGY George Lefevre, Ph. D. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S.. Treasurer Leslie Cowan, B. S.. Secretary S. B. Shirkey, A. M., Asst, to Director A. A. Jeffrey, A. B., Agricultural Editor J. F. Barham, Photographer Miss Bertha C. Hite , 1 Seed Testing Laboratory 'In service of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2 Qn leave of absence. Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 Report of the Director F. B. Mumford Director of the Experiment Station The sale of commercial fertilizers in Missouri has increased materially during the past few years. The quality of fertilizers offered for sale has also improved. The Agricultural Experiment Station has under its direc- tion not only all soil investigations which have for their purpose a study of the best systems of soil management in the state, but also the inspection of commercial fertilizers. On the one hand the investigations of the Ex- periment Station determine the most profitable fertilizers for Missouri soils and, on the other hand it has, through its relation to the fertilizer inspec- tion service, the opportunity of encouraging the use of fertilizers adapted to Missouri soils and discouraging the sale of fertilizers which are not profit- able on the soils of this state. By reason of this relation, the Station has brought about a much more intelligent use of fertilizers and has practically eliminated commercial fertilizers of doubtful value from the fertilizer com- merce of Missouri. By reason of the success of the Experiment Station in properly cor- relating the investigational and educational activities of the Agricultural Experiment Station and the protection of farmers in the use of fertilizers through the inspection service, the manufacturers of fertilizers now con- sult the Experiment Station authorities before placing their brands of fer- tilizer upon the market. They have come' to appreciate the fact that the ultimate success of their business depends upon pushing the sale of brands of fertilizer which are known to produce profitable crops on the soils of Missouri. The actual inspection of commercial fertilizers involves the following activities : (1) Manufacturers are required to register the brands of fer- tilizers offered for sale in Missouri. (2) In registering fertilizers, the manufacturer is required to guarantee a definite chemical composition in terms indicating its value as aj fertilizer. (3) The manufacturer is required to print on every package of fertilizer in legible English the name of the brand of fertilizer and the guaranteed chemical composition of its contents. (4) Manufacturers and dealers are required to attach to every package of fertilizer, a registration tag which certifies to the fact that such brands have been registered for sale in Missouri. (5) The inspection work of the Experiment Station involves the collection of samples from warehouses, freight cars, dealers and farmers’ wagon in the field or wherever found. (6) The samples collected are sent immediately to the chemical 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 laboratory of the Experiment Station where they are analyzed with a view to determining whether or not the guarantee of the manu- facturer is truthful. ( 7 ) The results of these analyses are printed promptly and dis- tributed widely to dealers and farmers. Publicity is given in these publications to the failure of manufacturers or dealers to comply with the provisions of the law. The major work in connection with the proper registration and inspec- tion of commercial fertilizers as conducted by the Agricultural Experiment Station, is in the accurate sampling of brands of fertilizers as they are offered for sale in the state and the analysis of these fertilizers in the chem- ical laboratory of the Experiment Station. In some seasons the number of individual analysis which must be made is more than one thousand. Each sample is analyzed in duplicate and all results are carefully checked in order that the chemist may be absolutely certain that the composition of the fertilizer under investigation is determined with no possibility of error by his staff of assistants. At the present time we have employed in the Department of Agricultural Chemistry eleven chemists whose chief work is in connection with the analyses of commercial fertilizer samples. The facts determined by our inspectors and chemists in the fertilizer inspection work are exceedingly valuable in suggesting to the soil special- ists in the Experiment Station the problems which need to be investigated in order that the farmer may be protected in his use of commercial fer- tilizers. The combination of investigation and inspection of fertilizers and soils has been most successful and satisfactory. The important results secured in connection with the soil investigations of the Experiment Sta- tion could not have been secured if the fertilizer inspection had been sep- arated from the investigational work of the Experiment Station. The fact that the inspection service has been directly connected with the Agricultural Experiment Station has made it possible for us to place promptly in the hands of our County Agents the facts concerning fertilizers offered for sale in the state and thus we have been able to prevent fraud on the part of fertilizer manufacturers and to indicate the type of fertilizer which is certain to produce proltable results on Missouri soils. It may be said in general of the results of the fertilizer inspection as conducted by the Agricultural Experiment Station, that the whole fertilizer business has been placed upon a much more satisfactory basis, the farmers have come to know better what kind of fertilizer to apply, thus creating more and more a demand for honest goods, and have practically driven out of the market fraudulent or worthless fertilizer materials. Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 How to Use Commercial Fertilizers M. F. Miller Professor of Soils The use of commercial fertilizers in Missouri increased greatly during the war. This was due to the high prices of farm crops and to the gen- eral feeling among farmers that they should produce all they could in the emergency. There is little doubt that this will have a pronounced effect upon their future use since many farmers, who had not used them before, found them to bring marked returns and they are anxious to continue using them. There is still some skepticism among farmers regarding their use, however, many men believing that their constant application will injure the soil. No question is more commonly asked than that having to do with this possible injury. The facts regarding this matter seem to be thgse. DO FERTILIZERS INJURE THE SOIL? Fertilizers applied in comparatively small quantities to a crop like wheat, which is grown year after year without change, give a measurably better wheat yield but have no influence in building up the soil. As a mat- ter of fact, if such a practice is continued for four or five years and then wheat is planted without fertilizer, the yield will usually be found to be smaller than at the beginning. The fertilizer has added less to the soil than the crops have taken out, but its use has made it profitable to grow wheat somewhat longer than if it had not been used. Such an effect has often been observed and farmers have concluded that the fertilizer has in- jured the soil, when as a matter of fact, it was the exhaustive cropping of the land rather than the effect of the fertilizer that was responsible for the injury. Where fertilizers are used in small or in large quantities in connec- tion with a satisfactory cropping system and, especially where farm manure is carefully returned to the land, no such effect will be observed. THE USE OF HIGH GRADE FERTILIZERS It is better to use high grade rather than low grade fertilizers. Low grade fertilizers, either of necessity, must contain filler or they are made of low grade materials. High grade fertilizers contain little or no filler and they are the most economical in the long run. While the ton cost is higher, the cost per unit of plant food is lower. A less amount may be used per acre, and the crop increase is secured at less cost. In general high grade fertilizers include those containing from sixteen to eighteen units of plant food although any fertilizer containing as much as fourteen units would be considered satisfactory. (A unit is twenty pounds per ton, or one per cent. A 2-12-2 fertilizer therefore, contains 16 per cent of plant food and is easily in the high grade class while a 2-8-2 contains but twelve units and would not be considered a high grade material. The National Fertilizer Association, through its soil Improvement Com- mittee, is supporting the recommendations of the experiment stations for the use of high grade materials only. It is however, important to con- 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 vince the farmers regarding the benefits to be derived. The purchaser of a fertilizer, the same as the purchaser of a ton of coal, thinks of the ton price and often forgets to give sufficient attention to quality. So long as the farmers demand those fertilizers of lowest ton price regardless of their quality, just so long will the manufacturers make them. It is to the ad- vantage of the farmer and the fertilizer manufacturer alike to consider only the better materials. The farmer should study fertilizer compositions, he should learn just what fertilizers contain and he should inform himself in so far as possible regarding those fertilizers which will give the best return on his land. There is no doubt that the higher grade materials will bring the best return in the long run and the farmer should insist on having them. THE INFLUENCE OF THE WEATHER ON THE RETURNS FROM FERTILIZER Missouri will probably never use fertilizers in such quantities as the states further east and south. This is because of a less favorable distribu- tion of rainfall and because farm crop prices in this region of large pro- duction will doubtless remain somewhat lower than in the other regions mentioned. Spring planted crops are particularly influenced by the dry periods which occur so frequently during midsummer since these greatly interfere with the returns from fertilizers. For fertilizers to bring best returns on such crops, the season must be one of abundant rainfall. Fer- tilizers cannot take the place of moisture. The difficulty however, is not one of total rainfall, since that is usually sufficient; it is a matter of a proper distribution of this rainfall during the growing season. For fall sown crops, such as wheat, injury from drought is much less. Wheat usual- ly matures before the dry weather of summer comes on. It is, therefore, on wheat that the most consistent increases in yield are secured and this fact, together with the additional fact that wheat commands a comparative- ly high price per bushel, results in more than eighty per cent of the fer- tilizer used in Missouri being applied to this crop. THE RESULTS OF MISSOURI EXPERIMENTS The University of Missouri Experiment Station has been conducting experiments with the use of fertilizing materials for a period of fourteen years on a number of soil experiment fields representing the more im- portant soils of the state. The results secured have varied from field to field, but in general, the treatment that has brought largest net returns has been that of phosphates, applied in the form of highly steamed bone meal or acid phosphate. Potash has brought good returns on some of the soils of Southern Missouri and fair returns' on some of the soils north of the River. Fertilizers containing large quantities of nitrogen have not been used, since barnyard manure and legume crops have been depended upon quite largely for supplying this element. Where nitrogen has been used in small to medium amounts on poor lands, however, it seems to have brought fair returns, particularly on wheat. The thing that stands out in these results, is the return from the highly steamed bone meal and acid phosphate. Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 / As an average of all data, highly steamed bone meal and acid phosphate applied at the rate of 300 to 400 pounds per acre, divided between corn and wheat in a rotation of corn, oats,, wheat and clover, has brought a net return of approximately $10.00 at prewar prices and approximately double this net return at war prices of fertilizers and crops. Consequently the Experiment Station has been recommending these materials where they are obtainable at a reasonable price. During recent years bone meal has been compara- tively high and scarce, but this condition has improved considerably during recent months. There is no doubt that fertilizers carrying some potash (2 to 4 per cent) at anything like normal prices, will bring fair to good profits on certain soils, particularly some of the Ozark lands, the prairies of Southwestern Missouri, and even the poorer lands of Northern Missouri. The same may be said of nitrogen (2 to 3 per cent) in a fertilizer applied to wheat on these same lands, but nitrogen cannot be maintained in a soil by the use of fertilizers, so that dependence must cer- tainly be placed in a cropping system containing legumes and the use of barnyard manure or green manures. The recommendations which follow regarding the use of fertilizers on specific crops are based on the results and principles above given. FERTILIZERS FOR CORN Corn is the crop which can make best use of barnyard manure. It is a heavy feeder and requires much more plant food than can economically be applied in commercial fertilizers. Barnyard manure, however, is low in phosphates in comparison with the other , elements and, at the same time the average Missouri soil is deficient in this form of plant food. Consequent- ly one of the very best ways of fertilizing corn, where a good quantity of barnyard manure is available, is to apply thirty to forty pounds of acid phosphate to each load of manure before it is scattered on the corn land. This applies to practically all soils in Missouri except the richer bottom lands and uplands.. Where barnyard manure is not available in quantity, the application of about 200 pounds of acid phosphate per acre, applied with a fertilizer drill in advance of the corn planter, will usually be found to be the next best system of fertilization for lands of medium to low fer- tility. On very thin lands, a mixed fertilizer containing 2 or 3 per cent nitrogen, around 12 per cent available phosphoric acid and 2 or 3 per cent potash applied at similar rates with a fertilizer drill, will give good returns on seasons when a midsummer drought does not interfere.. The applica- tion of fertilizer in the hill or drill, with a fertilizer planter, is the most economical plan from the standpoint of first cost. The best fertilizer to use in this case seems to be one of the mixed fertilizers such as a 2-10-2, a 2-12-2 or a 2-12-0 at the rate of 75 to 100 pounds per acre. Where the season is one of abundant rainfall, such an application, on the average to poor lands of Missouri, or even on lands considerably above the average in fertility, will give good results, but such a practice continued year after year is hard on the land and in seasons of deficient rainfall, the corn often “fires” considerably more than where no fertilizer is applied. In general, however, the practice is not as satisfactory as the other methods mentioned. 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 It should be remembered that any system of fertilizing corn, except where considerable amounts of phosphate are applied, has little or no influence in 'maintaining fertility. In any case fertilizers should be used as an ad- junct to the best systems of cropping, legume growing and manuring that the farmer can practice. FERTILIZERS FOR WHEAT Since wheat is the crop on which most consistent results with fertilizers have been secured, rather specific recommendations can be made regarding its fertilization. It must be remembered, however, that these may be in- fluenced by the relative prices of wheat and fertilizer. Again the influence of the fertilizer on clover or grass, following the wheat, is usually of im- portance. In general, the following recommendations will hold. For the uplands of Northern and West Central Missouri: 1. Medium to good soils: a. Acid phosphate (16 per cent.) or steamed bone meal. b. Mixture, half acid phosphate and half bone meal. 2. Poor soils: a. 2-12-0 (2 per cent nitrogen and 12 per cent available phosphoric acid, no potash). b. 2-12-2 (On the white oak uplands and poorer prairies.) c. Bone meal — Where clover follows wheat. For uplands of Southern Missouri: 1. Medium to good soils: a. 0-12 or 14-2, (a fertilizer containing 12 per cent to 14 per cent available phosphoric acid and 2 per cent potash). b. 2-12-2 (On badly worn unmanured lands). c. Acid phosphate (on lands manured and well cared for). d. Steamed bone meal. 2. Poor soils: a. 2-12-2 b. Bone meal — Where clover follows wheat. For lowlands of Southeastern Missouri: 1. Acid phosphate usually is best where fertilizers are used at all. The above recommendations are as accurate as can be made in a gen- eral statement and the fertilizers recommended are those which seem best at this time. Where such brands are not available, the nearest approach to them should be used. It should be understood that acid phosphate and bone meal at reasonable prices will almost universally pay a good profit with wheat on most soils needing fertilizer at all, but these materials have been suggested only in those cases where they would be expected to give as good or better returns than other materials. The amounts of fertilizer to apply will depend upon the kind of fertilizer, the soil and the intensity of the system of soil management; but as a rule, the range should be from 125 to 200 pounds to the acre. Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 9 THE FERTILIZATION OF OATS Thus far comparatively little fertilizer has been used on oats in Mis- souri. This is due primarily to two causes. First, the rather warm spring and early summer weather of Missouri often results in comparatively low yields of light grain and under such conditions fertilizers do not give much response. Second, the market value of oats is too low to pay a very large return on fertilizers applied. In average seasons and on lands of low fer- tility, the same fertilizers recommended for wheat will usually pay. As an average of a series of years, however, the Experiment Station has not re- ceived a very marked money return from the fertilization of oats. There is one matter that should not be lost sight of in this connection and that is the results that may be expected from the fertilizer on the clover or grass sown with that oats. Often on lands of low fertility, this return may be sufficient to bring a final net profit wFile the return on the oats crop alone is small. THE FERTILIZATION OF CLOVER AND GRASS It is not common in Missouri to use fertilizer on either clover or grass alone. However, when the fertilizer is applied to the nurse crop, as in the case of wheat or oats, the results are often very striking on these follow- ing crops. As a matter of fact one of the marked returns from phosphatic fertilizers, particularly bone meal, is on clover or grass following the small grain with which the fertilizer is used. For alfalfa either bone meal, at reasonable prices, or acid phosphate applied rather heavily when seed- ing down, using 300 to 400 pounds per acre, will usually be accompanied by very good returns. 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 Report of the Chemist L. D. Haigh Assistant Professor of Agricultural Chemistry INSPECTION In the work of fertilizer inspection in the state there were collected, during the year 1920, 499 samples of commercial fertilizers representing 191 different brands. Inspectors visited 110 towns in 42 counties. Owing to large stocks of fertilizer being carried over from the previous season, the sale of fertilizer in the spring of 1920 was limited. The price of fertilizer materially advanced for the fall season and this advance had a tendency to reduce the amount of fertilizer sales. An idea of the distribution of commercial fertilizers in Missouri may be gained from a study of Table 8. This table indicates approximately the total tonnage and the tonnage of each kind of fertilizer sold in each county of Missouri during 1920. These figures are based upon the reports of ship- ments made by the companies operating in Missouri, and their complete- ness will depend therefore, upon the thoroness with which the companies have reported. Most of the companies report regularly and state that their reports are accurate. Some shipments are occasionally omitted from the report, especially local shipments. This table is therefore only approximate. To explain the classification, Bone Fertilizer means all Raw and Steamed Bone Meals unmixed with any other material. Acid phosphate includes all grades: 18 per cent, 16 per cent and 14 per cent. By High Grade Mixed Fertilizer is meant all brands containing 14 units or more of plant food; by Medium Grade, less than 14, but more than 10 units; by Low Grade those that contain 10 units or less of plant food. Under Miscellaneous are included all simple fertilizer materials, except bone and acid phosphate; such as dried blood, ammonium sulphate, nitrate of soda, potash salts, dried manure and basic slag. The bulk of the fertilizer sales in the state is made in the fall season for use on wheat. Some use is made of fertilizer for corn and oats and this use will undoubtedly increase. In certain localities fertilizer also finds some sale in the spring for the growing of special crops, such as tomatoes and melons and to a small extent for cotton. Since prices on all merchandise have a tendency now to decrease, some decrease in the price of fertilizer seems probable, especially for mixed fer- tilizer. The following violations of the state fertilizer law were found by the inspectors. 1. Goods found on sale which had not been registered. Bowker’s Ammoniated Food for Flowers made by Bowker Fertilizer Company of New York, and Archias’ Fairy Brand Plant Food put out by the Archias Seed Store, Sedalia, were found on sale by the Columbia Floral Company, Columbia, Mo. These goods were not registered during 1920 and the companies were notified that their sale was prohibited until such registration should be filed. Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 11 A shipment of one and one-half tons of Sheep Manure from Armour Fertilizer Works, E. St. Louis, was found at Barnes Hospital, St. Louis. No registration for this brand had been filed; but upon notifying Armour of this fact, the registration was filed in the usual form by the Company. League the Florist, Hannibal, Mo. had on sale, Vaughns Lawn and Garden Fertilizer in 5 pound packages, put out by Vaughn’s Seed Store, Chicago, 111. The dealer was notified that the sale of these goods was ille- gal until registration of the same should be filed with the Agricultural Ex- periment Station. A quantity of fertilizer labelled Special Mixture, put out by Douglass Fertilizer Company was found at the warehouse of T. M. Gentry, Cabool. This had not been registered and the Company were notified to file the registration for this brand at once. Pulverized Sheep Manure, put out by the Natural Guano Co., of Aurora, 111. had been sold to C. C. Wonneman, florist, Mexico, Mo. Upon notifica- tion, the Company filed the registration for this brand with the Experi- ment Station as required by law. “Zenke’s New Plant Life,” a liquid fertilizer put up by the Excell Labo- ratories, was found on sale at the store of C. Young and Sons Co., 1406 Olive Street, St. Louis, Mo. Registration for this brand was filed by the Excell Laboratories upon notification to the Company that this was re- quired by our state law. Guano Products Plant Food, a package fertilizer, prepared by the Photo Feed and Guano Co., 4121 LaSalle St., Chicago, was also found on sale at the store of C. Young and Sons Co., St. Louis. These goods were ordered to be registered before further sales could be made. 2. Registered Goods found on sale without the registration tags. Red Snapper Plant Food, put up and registered by the National Plant Food Company, was found on sale at the store of the Columbia Floral Co., Columbia, Mo. Registration labels were supplied by the Company upon notification of this discrepancy. Fertilizer, purchased from American Agricultural Chemical Co., was being sold by the Farmers Cooperative Elevator Co., Liege, Mo. without the registration tags attached to the sacks. These tags had been furnished by the manufacturer but had not been attached by the dealer. The latter was notified to attach these tags before further sales could be made. The Salisbury Milling Co., Salisbury, had transferred an old stock of fertilizer from the ro'tted sacks to new sacks, but had not transferred the registration tags. The Company was notified that it was necessary to remove the registration tags from the old sacks and place these on the new before the sale of these goods was legal. A shipment of Bone Meal, purchased in 1920 by A. E. Halladay, Kirks- ville, from Cudahy Packing Co., bore registration tags dated 1919. Inspectors found a shipment of Interstate Fertilizer Co., 1-12-1 goods at the warehouse of F. H. Veatch, Alba, which bore Kansas registration tags instead of Missouri tags. At the store of the St. Louis Seed Co., retail packages of Bone Meal and Pulverized Manure had been made up from the large sacks purchased 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 from the Company and were being sold without the registration labels being attached. Other package fertilizer in the same store, originally pro- vided with labels, had lost some of these labels while standing on the shelves. The St. Louis Seed Company were notified that these labels must be placed upon the packages before their sale was legal. 3. Goods found incorrectly, incompletely and indistinctly labeled. The shipment of Sheep Manure at Barnes Hospital from Armour Fer- tilizer Works, mentioned previously in this report, was found labelled so poorly that the guaranteed composition was read with much difficulty. The name and address of the manufacturer did not appear upon the sack. A shipment of Darlings General Crop fertilizer in the hands of Produc- ers Grain Co., Montgomery, did not show the guaranteed figure for nitro- gen and was labelled indistinctly. Other shipments of Darling and Co.’s goods in the hands of Farmers Elevator Co., Jonesburg and of Hugh Bon- nell, Bowling Green, bore labels which were difficult to read. At the warehouse of the Farmers’ Exchange and Elevator Co. of Pal- myra, shipment were found from Morris and Co., Kansas City, Kan. which were very poorly labelled. In some cases parts of the label were missing altogether. On other sacks, while apparently labelled,, the figures or let- ters could not be read. The inspectors obtained thruout the State, samples of Half Bone Meal Half Acid Phospate, put out by Armour Fertilizer Works and the Tennes- see Chemical Company. This brand is registered as Available Phosphoric Acid 11 per cent. None of the shipments inspected were labelled with the figure for Available Phosphoric Acid, but instead all bore the label, “Total Phosphoric Acid 20 per cent.” The companies were notified that the figure for Available Phosphoric Acid must be stated on all the labels for this brand. Shipments of Raw Bone Meal from Calumet Fertilizer Co., on sale by T. R. Shaffer, Sullivan, did not bear the name and address of the manu- facturer. Special Bone Meal at the same store was too poorly labelled to be read with certainty. Shipments of fertilizer from Swift and Co., E. St. Louis, at the ware- house of Henry Bridewell, Northview and of the Farmers’ Exchange, Springfield, bore indistinct labels, which were read with much difficulty. The Home Trading Co., Lebanon, had on hand Sco Raccoon Mixture, purchased from the Southern Cotton Oil Co., Little Rock,, Ark. which was not labelled either in brand name or guaranteed composition in exact agree- ment with their registration. This is a violation of the state law and the company were so notified. Tupelo 2-12-2 fertilizer from Tupelo Fertilizer Factory, at the ware- house of the Farmers’ Exchange, Walnut Grove, bore no figures showing the percentage of Available Phosphoric Acid and Potash present. At the same place from the same manufacturer was found Tupelo 18 per cent Acid Phosphate labelled in accordance with the Kansas State Law showing per- centage of phosphorus instead of phosphoric acid. In like manner, at the warehouse of the Farmers Grain and Supply Co., Golden City, Wilson’s Kali Phosphate from Wilson and Company, Kansas City, was found Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 13 labelled as per the Kansas State Law, guaranteeing phosphorus and potas- sium instead of phosphoric acid and potash respectively, as required by the Missouri State Law. The packages of Bone Meal and Pulverized Manure at the store of the St. Louis Seed Co., referred to previously, did not show the name and address of the manufacturer on the labels. REGISTRATION For the year 1920, 37 manufacturers registered 502 brands of fertilizer for sale in the State of Missouri; in 1919, 37 manufacturers registered 431 brands. While a larger number of brands were registered this year than last, the number of brands sold this year is apparently less. The fertilizer inspectors found and sampled 191 different brands. By far the larger amount of samples obtained, 60 per cent represented only 5 different analyses or general kinds which have the largest sale (see Table 8). The remaining brands are represented by comparativly few samples. It is a matter of great importance that purchasers of fertilizer place their orders- with manufacturers whose goods have previously been regis- tered with the Experiment Station as prescribed by law. In Table 7 will be found the names of manufacturers and the brands of fertilizer which they will offer for sale in 1921. In order that the sale of any brand of fertilizer may be legal, registration of the brand name and guaranteed composition must be filed with the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station before such sales are made. If the manufacturer or the brand name of the fer- tilizer which is to be purchased is not found in this table, it is best to con- sult the chemist in charge of the inspection for information. Some regis- trations are filed after this bulletin goes to press and, for this reason, do not appear in the table. The attention of purchases of fertilizer is called to some other provi- sions of the law which are framed for their protection. Every sack or package of fertilizer must be plainly labelled, showing its brand name, guaranteed composition and the name and address of the manufacturer. The above label must correspond in detail to the reading as it is filed with the Experiment Station in the process of registration. To each sack or package must also be attached a tag or label, certifying to the fact of regis- tration and bearing the fac-simile signature of F. B. Mumford, director of the Experiment Station at Columbia. This tag must not be interpreted to mean that the fertilizer is guaranteed by the Experiment Station as to quality and composition. It does mean, however, that the goods have been registered; that the manufacturer himself guarantees the goods to be as labelled and the sale of the goods is permitted under the law. An increasingly large number of brands of fertilizer in packages are being sold in the State for use on lawns, gardens and plants. The attention of' dealers, who sell such goods, is called to the necessity for registration of these brands also. Do not purchase from any manufacturer unless he can furnish proof that registration of his goods are on file at the Missouri Ag- ricultural Experiment Station. When such goods are received, see that the registration labels are on each package before placing it on the shelves. 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 Goods, not so labeled, are not permitted to be sold. When these provisions are met however, the dealer and his customer are protected in their pur- chase as the goods are likely to be as represented. As further protection to the purchaser, the Missouri Fertilizer Law pro- vides for inspection of fertilizers after delivery, in order to check up the correctness of the labels and to see that the requirements regarding sales have been met. Shipments of fertilizer in freight cars, warehouses and stores are examined as to labels and registration tags. Samples of the contents of the containers are carefully drawn according to the bfficial methods of sampling and sent to the laboratories of the Experiment Station for analy- sis. These analytical results are published side by side with the guaranteed analysis in the annual fertilizer inspection report from the Agricultural Experiment Station and distributed free of charge to users and handlers of fertilizers thruout the state as long as the edition lasts. . Purchasers of fertilizer and dealers are urged to study' carefully this printed report of the inspection as a guide to the purchases which they make and for other information such as legal requirements of sales. Any information desired by anyone on the subject will be gladly furnished on addressing a letter of inquiry to the Director of the Experiment Station, or to the chemist in charge of the fertilizer inspection. COMPARATIVE VALUATION The prices on fertilizer materials have shown a strong tendency to advance in price during 1920 following the general trend of prices of all classes of merchandise. In accordance with this fact, the value of nitrogen has been raised from $7.00 to $7.50 per unit; -available phosphoric acid, from $1.50 to $1.60 per unit; potash from $3 to $4 per unit. Total phos- phoric acid remains at $1 per unit, the value used last year. These values have been selected after the usual consideration of prices for fertilizer materials which have prevailed during the year in order that an average value may be selected. The value is so chosen that when used in figuring the value of a high grade fertilizer, it will show approximately the cost to a purchaser of one ton of such fertilizer delivered at his railroad station. When these values are used with a low grade fertilizer, the value found will be considerably below the selling price. The larger proportion of fertilizing value is thus found in the high grade fertilizer and the pur- chaser of this grade obtains the greatest value for his money. The use of these unit values is explained as follows: For example, nitrogen with the unit value pf $7.50 means the value of 1 per cent in one ton, or of 20 pounds of nitrogen. That is, one pound of nitrogen has a value of 37% cents. In like manner, $1.60 per unit for available phosphoric acid or for 20 pounds means 8 cents per pound as the cost of this material. Potash at $4 per unit means a cost of 20 cents a pound. As an example of calculating the guaranteed and found values in a fer- tilizer, consider sample 9-104 in Table 5. In this fertilizer the nitrogen is guaranteed at .82 per cent or .82 of a unit. Since one unit of nitrogen is valued at $7.50, the nitrogen in this fertilizer is worth .82 times $ 7.50 or $6.15. The analysis shows that it contains .88 per cent of nitrogen or the Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 15 nitrogen in this fertilizer is actually worth .88 times $7.50 or $6.50. This is 45 cents more than is guaranteed. For the available phosphoric acid in the fertilizer, 10 per cent is guar- anteed to be present. The analysis shows the presence of 10.21 per cent. Since the unit value of available phosphoric acid is $1.60, the available phos- phoric acid in this fertilizer is guaranteed to be worth 10 times $1.60 or $16.00, while the analysis shows it to be worth 10.21 times $1.60 or $16.34, a gain of 34 cents. In like manner the potash which is guaranteed to be present to the amount of 1 per cent and found on analysis to show 1.22 per cent, has a guaranteed value of $4 per ton in this fertilizer and a found value of $4.88. This is 88 cents more than guaranteed. For the fertilizer in question therefore, there is a gain in the values of all the constituents; the found value ,$27.82, being a gain of $1.67 over the guaranteed value. The results of this calculation are summarized in Table 1. Table 1 . — Comparison oe Guaranteed Value and Value Found by Analysis in Fertilizer Sample 9-104 Fertilizer Constituents Guaranteed value Found value Nitrogen $ 6.15 16.00 4.00 $ 6.60 16.34 4.88 Available Phosphoric Acid Potash Tntal $26.15 $27.82 Speaking further of guaranteed and found valuation which are given for each brand in Table 5, it must be remembered these valuations do not indicate the price one had to pay per ton during 1920 to dealer or manu- facturer for his fertilizer. It is true, as before stated, that in a high grade fertilizer, these valuations will approximate the selling price of these goods in 1920, but in a low grade fertilizer this valuation will be far below the selling price. Since this valuation represents the part of the fertilizer which is plant food, we see that in the purchase of high grade fertilizer one gets more fertilizer for the money expended. Since fertilizer prices may change materially in 1921, these valuations should receive corrsponding revision before being considered for 1921 goods. In Table 2 is shown the variations in value from the manufacturer’s guarantee for all the samples of manufacturers for whom are reported three or more samples analyzed. Of the 466 samples analyzed 66 proved to be below the guarantee in value; 14.2 per cent of the total. Compared with the last three years, this is a distinct improvement over the conditions which then prevailed as shown by the following. In 1919, 16.7 per cent of the samples analyzed gave valuation below the guarantee; in 1918, 30.6 per cent were thus deficient, and in 1917, the cor- responding result was 24.4 per cent. 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 The total samples analyzed this year showed an average valuation of $ 1.59 above the manufacturers’ guaranteed value. This means that, consid- ering all the fertilizer sold in the state represented by these samples, the purchasers receiver on the average $ 1.59 worth of plant food more in every ton than the manufacturer guaranteed to him would be present. This is good proof of the reliability of the value of the fertilizers sold in the state. Compared to the last three years, this is an excellent showing, as we observe from the data which is as follows: In 1919 , this value was $ 1 . 43 : in 1918 , $ 1 . 07 ; and in 1917 , $ 1 . 58 . Table 2. — Variations in Value from Manufacturer's Guarantee Manufacturer No. of samples analyzed Below guarantee Average loss 1 per ton Average gain or loss 2 per ton No. Per cent American Agricultural Chemical Co., Boar’s Head Brands 19 1 5.3 $0.01 $1.75 American Agricultural Chemical Co., Bradley Brands 4 1 25.0 0.11 1.52 American Agricultural Chemical Co., Empire Carbon Works Brands 32 5 15.6 5.50 .78 American Agricultural Chemical Co., Horseshoe Brands 14 3 21.4 0.29 1.11 Arkansas Fertilizer Co 4 1 25.0 4.48 —0.24 Armour Fertilizer Works, Armour Brands. . 42 2 4.7 0.14 1.75 Armour Fertilizer Works, Big Crop Brands 47 7 14.9 1.25 1.65 Armour Fertilizer Works, Tuscarora Brands 8 0 0.0 0.00 2.13 Bone and Potash Fertilizer Co 7 0 0.0 0.00 1.92 Calumet Fertilizer Co 7 3 42.8 0.07 0.98 Cudahy Packing Co 6 0 0.0 0.00 3.57 Darling and Co 13 0 0.0 0.00 4.32 Douglass Fertilizer Co 9 0 0.0 0.00 2.28 Empire Guano Co 7 2 28.6 0.50 1.61 Gate City Fertilizer Co. 3 0 0.0 0.00 2.43 Interstate Fertilizer Co 19 10 52.6 1.51 —0.18 Meridian Fertilizer Factory 14 2 14.3 0.43 1.37 Morris and Co 17 0 0.0 0.00 2.27 Pulverized Manure Co 5 0 0.0 0.00 1.58 Read Phosphate Co. 17 3 17.7 1.14 2.01 Swift and Co., Swift Brands 134 24 17.9 1.40 1.42 Swift and Co., Pioneer Brands 13 2 15.3 4.08 0.97 Tennessee Chemical Co 4 0 0.0 0.00 5.19 Tupelo Fertilizer Factory 4 0 0.0 0.00 1.18 Virginia-Carolina Chemical Co 8 0 0.0 0.00 1.65 Wilson and Co 9 0 0.0 0.00 1.39 T otal 466 66 14.2 $1.58 _j_$ 1 .59 1 This average is for those samples whose found value per ton is less than the guaranteed value per ton. 2 This is the average for all the samples of each brand and company indicated. When the minus sign stands in front of the figure it means that this average valuation is below the guaranteed valuation per ton by the amount indicated. Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 17 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS The detailed report of the analysis of samples of fertilizer collected by the inspectors during the year 1920 is found in Table 5. These are arranged alphabetically under the manufacturer’s name and the name of the brands. When the percentages and valuations are reported below the amounts guar- anteed by the manufacturer, these figures are indicated in the table with bold faced type. In addition to the samples collected by the inspectors, a number of samples are analyzed which are sent in by the purchasers themselves. These samples are reported under “Miscellaneous Samples” at the end of Table 5. Unless the sender is careful to select his sample from different parts of the shipment, the analysis may be valueless in indicating the aver- age composition of his purchase. The Experiment Station analyzes all such samples, however, when this does not interfere with the work on the offi- cially inspected samples. However, the following information is required of the sender before this analysis can be made: Name and address of the sender, name and address of the manufacturer, the brand name and guaranteed composition as it appears upon the label. If the information cannot be furnished, a charge to cover the cost of the work will be made. The percentage results from Table 5 are summarized in Table 4 and compared with the corresponding results of the last three years in Table 3. Table 3. — Summary oe Deficiencies in Plant Food Plant Food No. of of deter- mina- tions in 192C Determinations deficient Improvement 1 1920 1920 per cent 1919 per cent 1918 per cent 1917 per cent Over 1919 per cent Over 1918 per cent Over 1917 per cent Nitrogen 361 25.7 26.0 36.2 26.6 0.3 10.5 0.9 Total Phosphoric Acid 58 22.4 39.7 40.0 10.4 17.3 17.6 —12.0 Available Phosphoric Acid . . 408 10.5 15.9 28.1 26.1 5.4 17.6 15.6 Potash 233 32.6 38.7 51.8 53.3 6.1 19.2 20.7 Total 1060 21.2 26.1 37.0 25.4 4.9 15.8 4.2 ^he sign — in front of the figure indicates the results this year make a poorer show- ing than in the indicated year, by the percentage given. A study of these data indicate that the samples of the fertilizer manufactur- ers have made the best showing for this period, as a less number of deter- minations this year fell below the guarantee than ever before, with one exception. In 1917 the showing for total phosphoric acid was 12 per cent better than for this year. By this we may conclude that the manufacturers have succeeded unusually well in maintaining the full percentage of the plant food constituents in the goods put out this year. As usual, potash continues to show the largest percentage of deficiencies, due, largely per- 18 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 haps, to the variability in the composition of the potash supplies of the home land upon which the manufacturers have had to rely for their stocks of this material. During the year, 397 samples of limestone for agricultural purposes were tested for their power to reduce soil acidity. The results of this work will be found in Table 6. Missouri soils, in general, need applications of lime or limestone for the best results in crop production and this need is becoming wider recognized every year by the farmers of the State. It is good policy to test all rock which is to be crushed for this purpose in order to avoid the use of material which may have too low a value to pay for the work which must be expended upon it. Most of the limestones of the State contain magnesium and this often causes the value of the sample to exceed 100 per cent as it is reported in calcium carbonate equivalent. This is no detriment, for in truth, the value of the stone is directly proportional to the figure for calcium carbonate equivalent. The Experiment Station will test, free of charge, limestone which is to be used to correct soil acidity. With each sample information must be sent, locating the ledge, rock bank or quarry furnishing the sample. This information should give the distance and direction from the nearest town, also the range, township, section, and quarter in which the ledge is found. 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M d .S •3 fa O' *> w ■ © 45 & 1 ® fa M> . d Q fa S< I ® fa 5 co 3 II 5 o .5 o fa u b£> _ © 33 fa g> « ft£3 ® o fa t4 fa 0 Q d • s ^ 1 fa fa fa fa 3 33 > w © 3 fa . © h a . u b» ^ > fa d 'd 3 « O ° ^ £ ^ CO CO a fe ^ ^ m o +3 « so fa J8 33 33 © > 3 © © Sd © 5 £ £ § fa to o o 3 ^ d Jz; fc £j £ ® 32 «T 3 £ fa ►2 o 2 o s g^*"« §s CO • CO fa Q Q fa fa 3 „ s» ho « 3 d © s a © 5 a® < 2 * ► © o fa © 33 m flO 3 w d ' V * u 3 +-> . 3 o .a fa £ © © „ ~ W d - 3 ^ Cd 33 'O © d .50 3 fa fa fa fa ^ *> g s ■§ <.2 0 n 33 *3 S © g w <3 © *h j O .2 fa a 2 £ g o g « fa g H ^ < 2 3 3 33 33 ft ft CO CO O O 33 31 fa fa CO CO © © © S- 4J +3 4 ^ © 3 3 3 lCj 33 33 33 ~ © ft ft ft fa > CO CO M © JT 0 0 0 3 0 XI 33 33 3 ; Jb Ph fa fa « o &&& d §• CO CO CO o o j> 3 3 gfafa l o Sh CO CO d 3 P © © ’a a g-g a 2 2 2 SS £££ ifflO O fa fa £ £ 33 ® So fa 1 II Q, ° ft +3 ® 3 O 43 > XI O fa fa © fa 3 O © © o H pq ■d t, d £ 3 3 o fa O 3 fa fa © © © © d d o o fa fa * * 3 3 fa fa 3 3 fa fa h N M 00 hhhin 7 1 7 T Y 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 IO 05 ♦Guaranteed fFound Table 5 — Fertilizer Analyses and Guarantees: 1920 (Page 22) (Page 23) 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 o o o o O 05 05 O) o o t- 00 05 • 0.95 00 00 o 0.89 0.87 98 0 1.75 1.73 4 15 00 CO o iO h ft £ g « >> ^ ft w a ft -d ft (v ft -r f I “ ^ ft S | 1 1 a o : 1 1 1 © !> *3 O 2 ft !> S t oS ft ft S £ ft © • 4ft E* a „ ft 2 ft I « I s ® 8 | « S ft & £ 6 < &h' ft ft ft ► £ ► o o o In Ch i- 0 0 0 p p p ft ft ft © © ft ft ft ft • ft ft ^ A ft £ « 0 O . +p N ■P O 0 ft M * fl g 5 3 O ■O 1 *Ph g ® S 5 .3 ■§ h „ M s ft ft - 5 *^§3 >. ft := .* m ft •»H P ft o 5> O P H ft ft <1 o ft s ‘ft <1 _ ft I 2 s? o W £ o e +p ft s g a- <3 02 »rt © rn §1 1 »H ft 2 _ M § £ £ ft ft 4P — > ft ft a M O 3 ft o TJ TP ft ft ”2 ft 3 -a o ft ’ft ■ P3 «« | ft ~ ft £ ® § 'ft g ft S S S a 2 a 2 2 a ® a ® § § < <3 mm O H (M H 00 ift lO 1C 00 »o H H Tf H o co *o 05 O ft< rl rl I I I 05 05 O CO 05 CO rH Renfrow, West Plains I 2.471 2. 96 1 24.001 26.37' I I ' I I I 42 . 53' 48.57 Table 5 — Fertilizer Analyses and Guarantees: 1920 (Page 24) Value Per Ton F’ndf 46.29 34.18 33.35 34.21 34.86 34.04 34.83 28.03 53.66 54.22 54.51 52.49 21.81 29.93 28.95 23.79 24.55 23.55 23.36 * b 42.53 33.18 33.18 33.18 33.18 33.18 33.18 26.15 49.75 49.75 49.75 49.75 20.78 29.18 29.18 22.95 22.95 22.95 22.95 s§q oW F’ndf Per Cent 2.00 2.00 2.05 2.16 1.89 2.10 1.02 1.53 1 . 15 1.06 1.02 1.07 1.05 1.03 * b Per Cent 200 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.00 00 I 00 I 00 I 00 I 00 ‘ I 00 l 09 I Phosphoric Acid, P 2 O 5 Available F’ndf Per Cent 9.05 8.06 8.38 8.65 8.30 8.83 10.79 2.16 8.19 7.80 8.52 8.73 8.01 8.09 * b Per Cent 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 10.00 0000000 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 1-1 00 00 00 00 GO 00 Insoluble F’ndf Per Cent 0.71 0.97 0.91 0.66 1.04 0.35 0.40 0.28 0.83 0.40 0.13 0.31 0.31 0.17 * 'd b Per Cent 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 Total +- 'a a Per Cent 24.84 9.76 9.03 9.29 9.31 9.34 9.18 11.19 23.73 23.32 24.28 22.04 2.44 9.02 8.20 8.65 9.04 8.32 8.26 * 'O b Per Cent 24.00 22.00 22.00 22.00 22.00 Nitrogen F’ndf Per Cent 2.86 1.56 1.66 1.68 1.65 1.76 1.64 0.89 3 99 4.12 4.03 4.06 1.63 1.63 1 63 0.81 0.84 0 ! 87 0.84 * *d b Per Cent 2.47 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 0.82 3.70 3.70 3.70 3.70 1.65 1.65 1.65 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 Dealer O. A. Gregory, Northview.. . E. B. Evans, Mountain Grove Moye Feed Co., Phillip sburg Alford Rector, Bourbon Wellsville Hdw. & Imp. Co., Wells ville Farmers Cooperative Elev. Co., Elsberry Holt-Taylor Merc. Co., New Bloomfield Alford Rector, Bourbon Farm Club. St. James T. R. Shaeffer, Sullivan H. B. Sutter Impl., Co., Snrinerfield Wellsville Hdw. & Imp. Co., Wellsville Barnes Hospital, St. Louis . . E. L. Miller, Conway Farmers Elevator, Martinsburg P. O. Foristell, Foristell H. J. Schofield, Norwood . . . E. B. Evans, Mountain Grove C. P. Patton Hdw. Co., Cabool Manufacturer and Brands Bone Meal Grain Grower Grain Grower Grain Grower Grain Grower Grain Grower Grain Grower New Record Brand Raw Bone Meal Raw Bone Meal Raw Bone Meal Raw Bone Meal Sheep Manure Special Grain Grower Special Grain Grower Wheat, Corn and Oats Special Wheat, Corn and Oats Special Wheat, Corn and Oats Special Wheat, Corn and Oats Special Lab. No. 9-197 9-198 9-199 9-200 9-201 9-202 9-203 9-204 9-205 9-206 9-207 9-208 5-22 9-209 9-210 5-19 9-211 9-212 9-213 (Page 25) © if CO © CO © rH © 00 CO CM © © fH. © © 1 © » o © CO IN © CM CM © o Hjl Hjl © CM CM t'' . oc H}i © if Hji if © co © T)l CO Tf r)i © © 00 © © © IN CM IN IN IN IN CM CM CM CM CM (N CM CM CM CM CM 1 CM CM CM © © © 50 50 © © © © © © © © © © © c 1 © o © 05 05 © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © CM CM O IN CO rH rH CO T— I CO H}< r— 1 © O IO © 05 (N +4 o © 1-1 CM © O o 1-1 00 CM o 1-1 rH rH 1-1 o i -1 o O © © © o © o © o © o O © © © o o O © O o O © o o © © o o o O rH tH rH 1-1 1-1 1-1 1-1 rH rf CO I- rH (N © © 00 00 o 03 © i CM © if CO 05 (N © *o CO 00 .Hjl © a © i- i co 00 00 00 00 00 00 © t- © 00 00 00 00 © t~ © > © © 1 o o © © © o © © © © © © © © © o c C ) c ) o o © © o o o © © o © o o o o © o c ) c ) c > o 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 © © > © © 1 1-1 if 05 IN © rH CO © Hf o tH © o l> © 1 c ) CO Hj< 50 IN © CO Tjl © CO CM CO co C5 © CM © 00 © o o o © © o © o © o © © © © © © c > c ) c ) © o © © © © © © o o © © o © © © © c c ; c > o to © 50 50 © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © o o © © © © © © © o © o o o o © c c ; c > c 00 . 00 00 © © co IO © l-l o i> © © C5 ~ © © > © © 00 © 00 00 00 00 © 00 © 00 00 © 00 00 © 00 © © b- >» 6 ® o (m £ T3 £ ■g£ Sh © T3 © Sh © O Oh q, qj £ Ph O 2 c3 © m H © ^ o Ph pi £3 '© P3 H EH 2 w c8 r > o < o 4 g T3 o © o3 £3 .2 <5 oc S o : Stiji ^ !h '5 b H £ © sh Ssg g| o © ^ ffi ffi fc O £5 O hh o . >» ■o >> o - fl.On £ o p i .22 fl Sh c3 o Ph y) a§ o-s ® £2 £ CG r £ ® © £ T3 © O J QC co 'g I 8 I® ■— •s g © *> £ ° <3 £ £ • ° ° . p c = o^ © o w • © D hP Ph' Ph o . o O a O £ S-H O bS O . el . Sh . o ■5 O +3 © +3 O +3 O +3 o3 © o3 © £ ® c3 CD a o ft © ft © £ 50 £ CC £ CO £ £ £ £ £ O ■3° a © 00 £3 £ CO CM 05 o : o : o . o -3 o . o 1° £ : c Sh S-. . o : o : c £3 • £3 £ ; £ a . <$ o . o 0-^0 O +3 O 03 a © oo O 43 © ce a © OO £3 E £ O 43 © o3 a © OO £3 0+3 0+3 0+3 0+3 0+3 0+3 0+3 a©a©a©a©a©a©a© C0£3c«£300£300£300£300£300£3 ££££££££ Tf IO (M © (N ^h © © +3 +3 cfl ccS £3 £3 a a 02 02 o o £3 £3 Ph Ph t ) -o o '© 05 O Table 5 — Fertilizer Analyses and Guarantees: 1920 (Page 26) a © 0 P’ndf c8 u t> ® a 1 * 1 ? 1 ® £3^ •*— 1 c 1 r £0 1 fe ! * a~ 3 b 05 CO co CO 04 CO ■«< C CO X 05 y-i iH 05 04 04 c IN <30 04 00 Xjt CO 50 CO O 05 05 05 00 CO 05 CO 04 CO CO 50 1 ^ 50 10 05 CO X 50 50 rH 50 c O 0 »o X X X 50 10 50 50 >o 50 50 50 50 01 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 CO CO CO (N 04 IN 04 04 04 04 04 04 Tjt Tf ■ 5 * TP 04 04 04 CO 04 CO CO O -H 00 O c 00 co co O O an co io X •c* CO CO I> CO CO 10 X CO 04 rH 0 fH *“■ ’" H tH 1-1 rH rH 0 0 O 0 O 0 C O O O c 0 0 0 O 0 O 0 O c 0 O 0 c CO CO CO co co CO CO CO CO y-i rH T “ l rH r- 1—1 1 C 00 l> 50 C 5 cc CO OC 05 r> r-l co CO o> 00 O 0 o 5 O 00 w 05 05 3 Q 0 0 CO 0 04 O C 0 O c 1-1 0 O 0 0 0 CO 0 0 c 0 O 0 *o 1 C 1 C 50 50 50 50 50 0 O 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 O O 05 05 05 rH 00 0 CO CO IQ CO CO iC 03 X O CO T»l 05 O ; 0 05 0 0 c CO rf CO CO CO 1 C X eo X CO CO CO X i> CO CO 0 X X tr f- CO CO eo 50 CO 04 04 rH 1-1 04 04 04 04 04 (M 04 04 04 04 04 (N O O O 0 0 O O O O O 0 O c O 0 0 O O O O O c • 5 * Tj< Tf O O c 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 r- CO X 05 t> CO ^ rH 10 a CO fr 50 CO hH ic co Tf CO X ' 1 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 'H T " H l> X X X 04 01 04 1 1 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 >H 1-1 1-1 © oi c • c • © • ^ ® c a f ! 5 > o .a © ei C ^ o "3 tn O S £ S o . -2 S o I E C3 © Ed ffl 2 H EH o « © — © © o ►d © .O 8 * >» £ ft 8 © c © . pb *5 S J 2 g «c “ M rr P3 £! a o J S S3 a a © £ — ci >» . c = ac © a o O • ~ 5 a 2 a is 73 35 3 | I « I t < 2 fe C O H S 5 73 05 > a © £ £5 a a a J |‘§ X OQ : l - o o »■§ 03 c c K 3 ^ J 2 * H £ > o W • a 73 H Ed 0 O >> a ft -o a ® § ffl CO fl • ® £ © 2 © © Sl CD >> cfl <3 W H £ 35 =3 £ ffi £> OS S cn c £ © © a tc o © O ■ O 5 n J © . g c £ z © © © -t> c3 c3 c3 a a a CO CO - O O a a a a © © © © w +n -»-> ri ^ d £3 £5 A A a a d a o A a 2 2 © © < < o c c a a a a a a © © © © < < < < © © © © © © © 2 2 2222 2 ■2 o a* © © © © a c a a c o o o a a a a os 0 05 a 2 : 2 © ’. © < • < © 2 ® © o3 C -g o ft a § a ■3 a a s «*, A a Phosphate (Page 27) iH O 03 00 Tf r^ rH o 00 X ic CO rft Tft 00 CO to CO X CM to CO o us lO tO tf lO to ei 05 CM tO CO CO 00 CO X CM r- CM o to a> o to 03 w Tit eo Tt CM CO Tjt rH CM o CO o CO rH eo CO CM <7> 'C lO IO CM O to CO Tt CO CO to 00 03 lO o o o> o o c- «J> CM X CM w CM to CO Ttt cc o fr. 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S3 §°a O f» * J r/ O *“• s I 2 e3 ^ a 00 C •5 a c • Cv W H hJ E-i si a 3 3 g Ph 0, ^ 6 d ^ OO o >» >* o >» ago o Oi A w ^ <» ® W 8 £ 2 -g © fl a « xh q q > Cl s~ u a rt s3 ,2 a a m © 8 |S ft o 8« a <*, P< 73 © ©•©■©■© TO © 'S c a o §CQ TO 0 a § 8« TO m 8m £ s- ^ 73 W Ss o -a § §m £ 53 m ^ ffi s o £ S © „ © o> © +j s3 t 3 s3 43 s3 43 43 43 43 a bp m .5 *S o £ a ©^ o> © s3 T3 43 s3 a ^ 8 & fj ^ m &o . o • 5 a ©^ S3 T3 43 (3 a t 8 0 £ ^ PL W> 5 43 s3 a *" gO A 3 ^ PL 6C m 43 © © © ^ N N N Q 0 QJ QJ N S N N N 40 40 40 40 40 0 0 0 0 0 a a a a a h Tf CM CM IN N O N C>l N t-h CM (N CM CM CM GO CO ■4 03 O 00 co H Tj( ^ ^ Tf 00 X y T* Tjl ah rH 03 03 03 03 03 1891 12-4 Fertilizer Belshe & Son, Richland Table 5 — Fertilizer Analyses and Guarantees: 1920 (Page 28) »c c c 05 05 M 05 O M IO 4-1 T}< r- tji -o "* c r> c 05 CO o 00 i-i i-i 05 00 O cO lue Tor c co io t> o IO io CO »o 05 05 CO 05 f- B 05 05 05 03 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 c: o c IO 00 ic 1C io 10 o o o o o o 6 CO cc CO 1-1 05 05 05 eo eo oo eo eo eo eo J* 3 1C io »c 5 05 05 05 05 05 co co co CO CO o’ CO o OI 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 . lO i-H 05 IO n io o X CO C ^ •h o "S CO O (N t*- 05 CO Tjl 5-1 eo « 00 fig 15 so B (S o B Q ^ O T-i **• ^ T-^ TH Q Q Q Q tO |Q <0 iO iO ic 1C £ ■p © -g a § o O O O 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 b l"° , eo c i IT o CD i> C5 t- « O 05 — O © -d * « IO c » c o iO a a 9 05 co l> eo ic a 't *J o o CO CO c o X 00 * o o © © o O O' oi N ® O O rH © O 1 -i c rH r-l C rH O o c o © cfl 2 C K OB g t* _• ■ += •2 “ C3 - ^ ■£ • C mio C jtf © , -r © K c 8*" « oS 3 g f t£ 9 cj cSO O - _ 2 e3 >> £ g f S £ © b g j ° W o j g SB J B < Q 3 S B c n*\ e3 ■go 2 * O u o si O h CL B 2 _ © r* "cl ^ .' £5 -C a © 3? *= O .2 T 3 2 2 H *< < £ B c ■e 2 O S <5 < * 6 2 £ © o £2 J3 „>-« § * ® 43 2 G 0*^0 © © £ *£ -s coo i. s_ 05 O CO M « 05 05 05 •C 05 05 «j U 3 w 3 c 3 © c 3 © c 3 © a o a © S 00 £ X A £ £ £ -h 05 O »C CO 4 t 05 05 05 - 0 < IQ »C 05 05 c 3 - o ® © l§ 6 o 43 43 c 3 S 3 © © £££ ££ £ — © — a J "* S o O : .2 .2 c3 3 S3 o '© O ’© o © - CO eo rH CO N CO to X C 7 > CO N © (N X to CO CO to O X CO 05 N 05 CO 00 CD to to to eo x CO b~ b- Tt< (N IN © CO 05 o o CO rH o o o o o o o o o o >o o o o CO o CO « o o CO 1-1 1 ’-' 1-1 to CO rH co o 05 CO o to CO at at CO 1-1 o o o o o o o o o o o o to o o o rH (N CO CO CO o IN X' a< X 00 o to 05 o rH o rH ts.* to to CO tO b- X 1-1 1-1 (N co 1 rH rH rH N b- b- b- a< CO X at at at at at at o c o CO o > > > > ID 3 W C QQ t-i © S* 03 © : w o ^6 s s - +3 >> «3 e 3 > ft ® ft W a yj W & H I ; M 2 © cs ® -a a & S <5^ s * 3 © w H ~ fl Js$ o pp c 3 2 a § H 13 W £ § £ 5 JiJ g ce g p- © © ‘C o §ft« to to K. » O P 2 ft a S fa P3 :S &< a ft ° .S fa © a a, © go H S -2 M S^.2 fe if » 2 -a © S 2 2 o 2 ft »« a p. © © a s sg^s a ft ft o M O o <1 M ^ ($ a r » cj ° a £ o «3 n boW a a - o •rj >> ft ft o |^2 ^ M „ >? w a ft £3 « « ■§ M o a a o o PQ PP © © +3 43> cq m © © a a o o PP PP ft ft © © a a a a © © 43> m m at to co t> x 05 05 O rH X X X X X X (N (N X X N N IN c « '3 fi c i. 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O O 44 i» a © CM CM CM IQ >0 ifl CM © a s O O ■3" o >» h P h © u 5 N O f Cl u ~ © n * © a ® 2 63 ^ * 5 a w 5 .a - ® 2 £2 (H O 43 43 ft ft CO CO O O 43 43 Ph At u u Q P ft CO O 43 Ph t- 2 © £ 43 O OOP OOP >i >i >» c8 68 c§ (8 c8 c8 w c8 ^ w H H H H H CD [e 3 ’© © o © ft X a h o o © ft X © g ft "G a 0 a a o © 43 c 8 68 Xfl m ‘3 © "cc © © 43 s g ft X £ N 00 Ol TH 4JH I I I p p os rH CM P rH (M X X Tt Tt Til P P P tr X X Tt P P P P X X X P P P X P Ttt Tit Tjt CM (M CM CM ^ Tt P (M CM o N o fa N IN X X CM CM N fa CM © IN X N N rH fa CM O 03 ci 03 03 X CM 1-1 1-1 1-1 1—1 1-1 O o o O o o o o o o © o Q © o o o o o o o o o o o © o o o IN IN (N IN rH N fa CM 03 03 © 05 a X X ’" H f “ H rH fa fa 03 O IN X 03 rH CM rH o iO X rH fa x t- i-i X X fa X CO LO Tt< LO o IN CM X N rH o o O o o o o o iO T}< ,H O O o O © Q o o o o o © IN N IN IN IO fa fa) o 1-1 X 03 Ci o © fa '-I (N IN Tt o o o o © *“• CM fa fa fa fa fa fa rH CM CM CM CM CM fa fa fa fa fa fa IN fa X X X X X fa 1-1 rH rH IN rH o © © © © rH ft a -ft ~ C5 o3 X Ph H r 75 O is Louis . . & Grain Dixon . . o., ■2 x 'ft - O 6 >, T 3 • Oft ft 5 75 ft U a a ft fo Jq ° . 2 a ft %* a a o o ft ■ l-n rft o B - i. c« c oi o * ts * 3 £ £ £ £ $ a o a ‘ft ® ‘ft ® >■ D ^ 03 ■3 0 -3 « tb fa S a r °° ! • = - ^ rH tn C2 ^ 6 m « § « 2 go« 3 E o & O fa S fa fa o x) ° fa 1 fa 73 .ft 75 l- CO s- D t- D a ®* a s ®s 3 . ft 05 ‘ > D “ £ E-i bC S ^ 6 i3 o C.. ft 00 03 o ft fa O fa 03 ft 00 l> t> IN -ft fa D Eft 3 M ft m ■ t n rH O ft fa 3 fa 05 ft oo GO IN . ft O £ g° gs § £ -ft « ft d 3 «> ft O u fa _ ^ fad -h w £ S2 ° 3 O fa 2 r - 1 n . §■2 § § §\ •3 05 ; -H fa -U b. . ^ 03 ft fa ft 00 o .ft Ih - ft ^ < > fa ft ® fa fa O fl ft ft ft o D CJ 05 > zi ft 0) 0 C/2 £ * ft fa 03 ^ in O § fa •*H Cfl « 5 € ® o“ ■§ _03 bfl C fa .2 c ^ a o 2 0_ IN ■ft 03 6 ’o w ft © >H *m ZB ft « ms ft 5 ft _ rH W ft _ a O .2 0 fl te ~ © © o b G ft ft © ft ft -P S § ’S D ft O fa - - - .2 g .S is 3 3 3 S 3 - § ■§,■§ > w ca <« w ‘ ““ ' O O ft* 25 fa i-i CM 00 00 (N N -ft ftJ “ — 05 © O a a -rj 2 75 CC fa ft O O ft fe fa fa ® fa fa CC i—i X 03 N ft< ft< fa X X IN N 03’ 03 *Not registered. Table 5 — Fertilizer Analyses and Guarantees: 1920 (Page 36) i (N C5 "P £33 §s O l> 5 CM o § CO Ip X ss a o EH 3 3 CO N ^ CM CM « 33 X e* X (M 3 X CM X CM 3 33 © fL, * 3 3 3S § § § § § § §3 CM CM 333 33 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 n T3 g c 3 CD CO oo Tp 89 . 14 00 ■ co 9 fa fa g o 1-1 • • o O CM • 1-1 V 1 ° : Per Cent § i : ; O 1.00 2.00 2.00 +- 1 C fa Per Cent 7.08 o X sot X 1-1 1-H CNN CO CM 17.94 17.75 17.45 17.91 17.77 17.38 §§ CO M > * — § § § c o §§ § § § § § § §8 <1 b o r- i> Tp TP CM CM CM o CO CO CO CO CO CO CM ■“ fa CO -I ^ 3 s O -H 1-1 1-! CM * I c g *8 §§ tp co §§ § § s CO CO = 2 Ofa £fa ofa ^ & fa °p go go S1§1§ 2 — = -= E 3 l 3 ti I s I £ I 1 ill 2 o a > 3 O tst! £ is! •go *2; Hi II I ds o (Page 37) CO t- 05 05 f“H Tt< T)< 00 © CO 05 "<0 © rH IN 05 05 TO o *« 05 i-l rH © 00 © 05 CO 05 © t> CO TO ©(NO T}H >o I"" 1 rH lO O kO © © © © © © © © © © © 00 (N i-H CO • (N (N rH rH rH yH rH rH yH rH rH 00 iO l> 05 kO © © ■kO © CD rH 00 • (N T* rj< o> <£> 00 o <0 05 N © (N rH CD 00 t- 00 ID CD CD ID ID TO CD ID ID © tr & © © * * • 03 a pi cs . - ^ © d w 2 k £ W ^ 3 w I £ Dh O a? d Ah O .5 o n° O Ah * © c3 P w £ ^ e3 Ah . c« b > g © «> © W .5 ; .o • a : • eS O : o u : £ M © p • £ So ■ : 1 ° = 8 a © ^ t- © © © o | :®.^d ^ f-i o © 3 O >i ffl P U <• ^ © £ b.o O O 3 O <3 " ■? 3 £ © g fc .2 $ a 2 Z F ^ C 2 ® o ^ h 0$ m a fa © o .a j o . Ah w * 2 £ pq $ u Hr © © r fl •a I ;I o ’"' ' " 03 £3 Pi ■P -p -P -P -p ci ci o3 c3 -P X X X p. Pi p< Pi CC CO CO M O O O O £3 £3 £3 £3 Ah Ah Ah Ah 73 73 73 73 73 , .p .p P P P P 1 P 3 d (3 (3 c3 (3 d § *0 73 73 73 73 P P O O O O O 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 < < 5 5 S S S o o £3 £3 Ah Ah 73 73 P P c€ c$ 73 73 O O 2 2 5 S © © © © p p o o PQ PQ rH 00 © © rH (N 05 tO © © O © tO O © © O © © © O 05 05 © I © 05 © 05 05 05 05 05 05 W W eo co 05 © © 1 © ©©©©©©© © © © © © © © © 5-56 12 M-29 Bone Meal 1st. Louis Seed Co., **Not labelled for nitrogen as per registration. Table 5 — Fer t ilizer Analyses and Gu arantees: 1920 (Page 38) (Page 39) t>- rH X CM CM X r- CO 00 CO X CO 05 CM 05 o X CM rT o o CO X o CM CO X 05 Tf CO 05 to rH CO o to to l'- X 05 05 t^ X 05 X rfi 05 CM <0 rH rH to CM CO 05 X H* CO H* CO (N - CM mH o T|< CO © CM © rH tt n (0 X CM o rH o 1-1 i-H ^H O rH 00 X X CM CM CM CM i-H iH 1-1 o rH © o O o o O o O O O O o O o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o CM CM CM CM CM CM ^H rH tH 1-1 rH rH rH rH CM o o X CM O C4 CO CO CM 1-H t>- -H X rH X t-H 05 X 05 © CO H CM X to 05 rH X o CO 05 CO CM "t © © X 05 Tft LO H H Tfi X X X X o CM CM CM (N 05 O X © X X 05 05 o rH TH ,H 1-1 *"* rH O O o o o o o o o o O O o o o c © o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o © o o o o o co eo cc X X X X (N (N CM CM CM X X X X X X X X X 1-1 1-1 1-1 1-1 T_l 1—1 1 CM 05 H o X X o to CO to tO~ CO~~ 05 lO © CM X o o rT © to CO CO 05 CM X t" o o H o O to o to o f- X o tH- CO CO CO CO t-~ CM CM rH X t -1 o o ©5 o o o O © o o © © o © © o o O o o o o o lO lO LO lO to LO LO to to o o ° ° o o o o ° CO rH Tt< o CO o o CM rn CO X X © oT 05 X X © Tt< O X rjt to ■t* CM (N 1-1 CO CO CM 05 © (N CO LO © rH M o o o rH (N 1C CO co i-H i-H rH (M © 05 o © rH (M CM CM CM CM o -w a 0. fl i 3 «i Or; CO rH O Q fa a a o a - g 6 o' g o5 .S © ^ fa 9 ee .2 © cl x © w a © >> © s .-£ 9 © Eo co d h o o a §*' £ * * TO ffl W M a a ® £ s o ffl cl, 53 fa fa ■8 fa .5 TJ £ 0 < c 0 ) © © © © © t! c€ 03 c 3 e« £1 £3 £3 £3 £3 a a a a a a cc m CO CO CO CO O O o O O O £3 £3 £3 £3 £3 £3 fa fa fa fa fa fa TJ TO TO TO TO S 3 S 3 S 3 S 3 S 3 S 3 c 3 c 3 o 3 c 3 c$ c 3 c$ o 3 c 3 c« c 3 cS <0 © © © © © © © © © © © S 3 S 3 S 3 S 3 S 3 S 3 o O O O o o fa fa n PQ fa fa X a o co I> X CM CM X a a a X X X fa T T 05 05 05 a a : S 3 S 3 S 3 © o o o o O O U -a to TO TO TO a g S 3 S 3 S 3 O « e 6 c 3 a +3 43 fa a c 3 c 3 ce -e 2 © © © £ "ci S 3 . ; a / 1 S 3 - , £ fad .^rOoOoOoOoi g a £ : a ^ : a ^ : ft ^ © a g ; a g : a g ; A o i S 3 Sr g^O^O ^ O ^ o PQ O o o o a rH CM a o rH X X a CO X X a *o to a a tO tO CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CO XX XX XXX XX X rH hh OC oo ooo oo o 05 05 £5 © M O P5 ^ - Sr « o O TO +3 0> 05 © ^ 02 © £ « >» - fl W O ~ £ -2 § § I J >d| l H - &° 5 © -p, £_| CC £3 ^d - °§ ll !s a .f 2 g a g« s& l S fa fa o £ ffl £ 05 « «c g sc © -£ c8 £ S 3 H a a s 00 s x a o X CM X to X XXX X H X a to a a x XXX X X a to to to to a a a a a a Phillipsburg Table 5 — Fertilizer Analyses and Guarantees: 1920 (Page 40) © o -d 3 fSH fa ►> © * Ph 4 ^ o eo 05 05 © Tj< © co rH t- t- »C o t> © © © eo co eo eo eo eo eo 05 05 (N o & rH © O CO t- eo eo © o o © iH © 05 o o © O o o © © © © © o © © © © o o o o o o O © © © © c o 1-1 1-1 rH rH 1-1 1-1 © 05 eo eo t> © CO 00 © 05 © © eo ■et< © 05 eo eo © © © Tf o © © eo co © © 05 05 05 05 00 © © 00 © O o © © 05 05 05 1-1 1-1 rH 1-1 th o o o © © © © o © © © o © © O © o o © © o © © © © © © © © © © © 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 © © o 00 05 05 05 ** 00 00 eo y-H o © 00 © © © 05 © CO 05 t}< 00 o (N o rH © Tt< © tr l> 00 00 O If 1-1 rH rH © rH © 1-1 05 © o O o © O © © o © © O © © © © © lO »o 50 © © © © © © © © o o © © © o o © © © © © © o 1-1 © © © o © 00 © 00 © © © 05 rH o © 00 CO eo © © Hjl © eo 00 1> 05 CO *-• l> © o o o o o © rH © o o (N 05 i-H rH rji CO eo *"* ,H 1-1 rH 1-1 rH o O © o © © o o © © © © O © © © © lO © © © © © © © o O o © © © © 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 rH rH rH © 05 05 05 1-1 1-1 (N (N H © t- © eo t- © T* 05 eo 05 o © 00 (35 00 C5 t- © t- 00 e- © CO 05 © t- © o O © o o o o © o iH rH 05 © © O 05 (M a 1-1 S W O ^ © £ £ o o £} c3 O © - >> £ c$ © h g a .S © £ rt “ £ S O jg -g O 53 •in © . Sh © q. >» .a © o i: g So^O S ^ fO o « h a U © - o ^ a ® w s ° .s- E- fe j «; vw © J a2 © q . - © CO S3 ® o • £ O . O .S « m O fe Q 6 ffi o' * 3 fl: * ' : >* £ • . *- ’d © J g; H H Q 5 s _ a "Wl -O 2 3 ^ 2 3 P5 S $5 Qi 72 r< & o • ^ O g W - 00 05 if rf O eo eo © eo os o O if © © co eo if rH O © © CO 05 05 {if 0 >o O 0 to Ttl to r>- 0 co r>. O 0 IN rH IN CO CO 00 00 05 00 CO co CO 0 co CO rH CO 0 IN O 0 IN (N CO t- 05 0 O 05 CO 05 0 rH CO 00 0 rH 05 IN O tH IN CO CO CO CO 0 to tO to to to to to to to to to to to to to to 00 00 00 CO CO co co CO CO co CO CO CO CO CO co co co CO eo eo co CO r- tr 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 C 5 05 cd co co IN IN t> rt< CO © 00 IN rH IN © © t- M in CO in Tjl tO rH © o> a © co O i-H O l> co o> 0 O in a> O O co eo O 0 O © © 0 © © 0 7-1 © 0 rH rH 7-1 0 O 0 O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0 O 0 O O O 0 O O 0 O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0 O 0 O O O 0 O rH 7-1 7-1 rH rH 7-1 7H CO CO CO CO 00 rH O rH to CO rH 05 IN O -ct< 00 O to IN 05 O IN co CO CO 0 rH 00 to CO co 00 00 IN rH rH IN 05 00 to U 3 Th 0 00 05 05 IN a to CO 05 IN 05 X 05 05 to IN eo CO Tf ■cjl (N CO IN IN CO CO CO T}< CO tO CO CO co ■<* CO rH rH CO 7-1 1-1 1-1 rH 1-1 1-1 1-1 7-1 7-1 7H rH rH 7-1 7-1 O O O 0 O 0 O O O 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 O O 0 0 0 0 lO »d lO to to to tO tO to to to to to to to to to to to to 0 0 0 IN IN (N in H* O 7-1 0 O 0 0 O O 0 0 0 0 O 7-1 0 0 O © O 7-1 rH rH ® -* £ © . ® O § 2 £ _ s © „ © -3 I J sO A ■i fe: © 45 g gc O Q > rt ® o a a CC K> © I a 3 ^ a O £ ® Ssh § ™ © a W H fl ® u ” a © © r © *- ao«^ | O 3 S a S a a : | 5 u CQ £ T} ^ © © - hr © '© ^ 03 'd ® § I £ d o 1 6 £ 3 hOO * • • +3 O :5o a © 'o o © © g.§£ 23 a M a u* - ® .5 o 5 ‘3 u f o ^«X3 33* g. a d • 8 O 4s: fe CO •-9 « -o g< I mad w CO « § ce OQ © S3 «8 d a o a a d © 2 c O * >> dJ SB © o ® £ a £ ^ o a h o £ a a so B d x ® © 2 a o a £ > d 8 © o a .2 © cS . d o © © * * 000 £ * o o h h h h h 000 d d d O O d d I* © Sr © © 0 0 0 0 0 a a a a : a -d -d d d o o 2 2 tj ' d d d o o 2 2 © © -d d 'd d 'd d ’d d -d d 1 cS 2 d 2 e3 2 c3 2 c3 Q QQQOQ Q co 10 10 co co 00 05 10 10 CO CO O 1-H IN CO CO CO op CO c^s 05 05 05 * * £ OOO * * ► OOO * * 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d d d d d d d d *c3 *3 "3 £ £ © '3 '3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a a a ‘K” ‘K” “K” a a 'd 'd 'd d d d OOO 2 2 2 d ’d t) d d d OOO 2 2 2 TS T5 d d 0 0 2 2 e3 eg 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 CO N to CO CO 0 co co us CO 00 OOO to LO to 05 O O rH to to 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 rH 05 rH CO US CO Table 5 — Fertilizer Analyses and Guarantees: 1920 (Page 42) a^ £ u >• o c* a w © I-4 O (V © * 0 O CD CO CO CO © O s £3 *8 ^ o o a ° ° 0^2 l &, 5 ^ ^ -H Q Pk * I © c I — £ © X a >> § o .§3 S > *2 O C* ^ ® ^ _ a tea C X * I © c3 cJ 43 a QC £ c © fiH c x a ■S © g t- cq 2 c3 a a a C3 it - ^ -H 0) * W o o o 0 fi • © £ £ £ v c ; x t* o g © ■§ I c i jj g I 1 a o i © i ,5 ■S >> ^ 00 a * . « | g •* n *< =3 © © © = a S = 5 £ 6 2 O oq O < tf a . a Q Q ga | . j* 2 o a x 73 w • = E G is I 3 o ^ g£ A* ► a ^ 2 © £ « 3 ca S a ‘3 £ d J M 1/3 ©«r«2 <2 C i 3 ra S- c a c3 •go £ £ o o O G c c 2 ’3 •- •- G G -C T3 c e o c s s ce cs © © 43 43 j3 S © © © 43 43 43 cs a a Ml X a 2 2 2 2 © '© '© '© '© •< < < < < © © © © © c3 e$ c$ c3 c3 © © © 43 43 43 C^ a a a •o ■v •o ■© ’© ■© < < < © © © •o •o •o a a .C 2 2 © '© < < Q Q G G G G G G o G o G o G G G G 33 a ^5 a J* jn £* JO j* a a 60 to bo bC to .£f tc to tr to tc to tc tc to HH a a a a a ffi a 52 a a a a a CO "Cf in in -4 (N iO 1C I I 05 o> »o »o O M. f4.t^f>.l4.f4. co co co co co co cococo 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 O CO 00 05 co co "S* 05 05 05 a © •d 3 “3 a a T#< 05 r- Tf CO 05 1C (Page 43) <0 03 co 00 30 © © 03 CO 03 It rH 30 CO <0 TH (N t-H © rH rH co t- CO 00 IO co IN iO co o X CD a> © Tt« © rH Tt< CO © io T}i IN 30 H* 30 CO 30 co © X X r- t'r e* 30 30 eo co CO CO CO n co co X © a IN IN 1> ID I- X ID eo rH • X IN eo CO o o CO o © i-i o m ■ rH N X rH 30 CD IN © 30 o o o 00 t- 03 03 o rH rH (N X X CO X O rH rH rH rH rH O o o o o O o o o o o o © o © © © © o o o © o o o o o o o o o o o o © © © © o o o o 00 X X X X O 0 fa! 5 =3 !«§ c$ < u .0 a 8 d| 2 a c 3 c 3 O © © ro © © S-i S3 fl O O O a a 13 fa fa OQ © CO IN 00 00 00 X CO CO © © ' * £ : o o • s- © 0 0 ^ g .2 J S fi O Sh Sr CO © © © a a a a s GO PC 00 GO CO lO « N 00 rH rH 00 CO © © X I III 03 03 03 a fa fa a a W CO O O fa fa fa fa © a o a fa so o o fa fa a a GO GO O rH a a CO CO I I 03 a so 3 os ce _h h oo a CO CO I I 30 30 © 5 £ © o bo m 2 ® c 3 O >• §SS fa 03 2 « a a (j o o Eh Eh Eh O N (MOO 30 co i> ° G O § 3 fa SO G re c3 fa fa a a CO CO O O fa fa fa fa fa G o 3 13 13 © © © © G G O O a a Tt< 00 03 rH co io 9— 395 Complete Fertilizer Farmers Exchange, Lebanon 0.82 Table 5 — Fertilizer Analyses and Guarantees: 1920 (Page 44) 2H > ® Ph •f— rf< Tt< CO O 00 CO o o co CO CO CO T3 CO CO CM oo e~ oo CO 05 CO (M CM CO o O CO o O o» o t- 00 co Tt< fa CO CM co co CO eo TtH C 30 co 1 “H 03 03 03 03 C3 30 CM CD CO N b CM CM co CO CM & CO CO co CO hJH -H 00 ^O 00rt w O i-H iH O S-4 fH £ S * o Ph § £ £ « rH Tin CO CO CO CO CO (N CO CO CO Sh eH £ S Ph q a o a c .ft 03 PI g ®> EJO HH S3 „ 5S « © .2 x a w tJ a a ■- — c3 ci Ph Ph a o o O e3 >» < S3 S3 S3 _• o o o o ft ft ft O o3 c3 c3 ^ £ P jH © <33 © o PI P5 P5 03 ®* ©~ © M be be be ei q ft c a a © x 2 ^ a-o SflSgHH SPw s e £ s ® p.b a ® . s Ph Ph © © © ® a a a a - p- p- p- c3 ^ fa fa fa fa lo 5 b . -Q 6 a be ft Sh ^ l « ft o J3 S-» C-i S-i Sh Sh o .P ©© ©©©TO >p4pp S3 ■ S3 ei o as oo ooo«« ” Sh ^ tH (TJ ® « c3 ' w ;w XS S3 00 000 ® 5-2 2 X) ; T3 a : o 3 s3 sa d as3g^ m o S .rH .fh *r? *r! # rn ^ G> ■ #. — 9 © S © W p W 4 J < a : hi Sh o o "g g 'g & O O O £ CM (M CM Ph CM CM CM "? N (N N CM N g o © S3 O PP © TO © TO a 2 ° a o ft o ft (h Ph Cm M 2 Ph 2 ^ M W QJ © si fe £ ■qd CO e-* t> 03 03 I-H 03 03 co «J co co 00 03 03 *"H co »o I I 03 03 O H Cl CO o o o o tJH T^H t}H tJH I I I 03 03 03 03 H}H IQ o o -HjH (Page 45) IO OS 00 O os es 4i< CO CO 4t rH 10 yH ,H CO CO 00 OS IO 4# OS IO os 0 co OS 0 CO CO OS o y-4 01 © 4}< CO rH OS l> OS CO OS OS 4* CO IO 4# OS OS 431 OS OS OS OS O o 00 IO IO o IO IO X X 0 0 0 0 CO 00 IO CO r~ tji 05 OS IO IO OS CO CO CO IO 00 os os os o OS OS OS 05 IN 10 IO IO IO © OS • H rH rH OS OS O o ■ o o o 0 0 0 o o • o o o 0 0 0 OS • 4JH rH rH OS OS OS rH (M o • CO os t" “con os" “co" “x~ x" “co ■etc iO (N 00 • CO rH CO 0 I- OS X CO CO 00 OS OS • os 00 00 OS OS X co CO rH rH rH rH T " H o o O o • o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o O o ■ o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 CO 00 OS OS • 00 CO CO OS OS OS CO CO CO rH 1-1 rH rH 1-1 rH 1-1 CO OS iO IO • o rH CO 4* co CO X Js. iO IO CO 00 00 OS OS co os IO 0 rH rH o CO OS : ^ OS OS 0 o o o o ■ o o © o o • IO OS (M • o o o J4. IO OS CO O CO 00 X X CO CO o CO os 0 0 1-3 © X! a ce & © be a ® ■Sg 8 o H +> w a 5n a © . bC • a ® c3 J? ^ 2 8 O H 4= w a d a © +3 43 o a a a a s o 5 ^ a *3 a s «2 «8 w ffi 43 +> o o fe 2 © © 43 +i © © a a bo be cS c3 © © H J g a ^ ° * o o u u a 5 a £ c £ « ss H H o © o o * ^ 73 .a w b.a a CJ s o ©43+3 * S 3 O Ah « . £ > a I * :o a 3 £ * a j° o 5 a § 4 ^ © © +3 ™ c a oo _u ft* f— ( . © ° ri Ah > O ° DJ Q >» u o +3 S ft h ft iii ® * .3 1 -a N CG C$ Q. m U w S ^ M o f g a S © Ah ^ 43 43 Ah 5 Si| X 0 m 0 © §■£<1 73 c 8 ft a H H IS CO *© © ft m © A * ' ,5? ;. 2 «s| §2 i .12 w :s§ 1 o ^ ! ho *> i d a ! .2 £ U - M > © g 1 5 5 H a ^ to a © H ffl V, sh a 0 »H ci m 2 © 0 h O cS a. d a T't © OO^ ^ a 'So c3 ZS a a n H 73 73 O O O O o o •a o c _0 CH CO Hf iO TjC +JH Tj< 0 0)0) O £ ft ft O c« x 2 o o ^ ft ft .a §s s a a a Sh £ $ O x x OOO > > l> O CO CO -I (N io * Vaughan’s Seed Store have registered no goods for sale in Missouri. Offered for Sale in Missouri: 1921 Phosphoric Acid (P 2 O 5 ) Nitro- Potash Fertilizer gen (K 2 0) Total Avail- Insol- able uble Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Early Harvest 1.65 10.50 0 . 50 'Special Wheat Grower “B” 1.00 7.00 1 .00 Raw Bone and Potash 1.65 18.00 1.00 The Cudahy Packing Co. Chicago, Illinois Cudahy’s Blue Ribbon Fertilizer (Steamed Bone Meal) 2.47 24.00 Cudahy’s Blue Ribbon Fertilizer (16% Acid Phosphate) 0.00 16.00 0.00 Cudahy’s Blue Ribbon Half and Half Fertil- izer, made of 50% Bone Meal and 50% Acid Phosphate 1.23 20.00 13.00 0.00 Darling & Co., Chicago, Illinois Darling’s Farmer’s Favorite.. . . 2.40 8.00 2.00 4.00 Darling’s Chicago Brand 1.60 8.00 2.00 2.00 Darling’s Big Harvest 1.60 12.00 2.00 2.00 Darling’s Sure Winner 0.80 8.00 2.00 3.00 Darling’s Grain Grower ' 0.80 9.00 2.00 1.00 Darling’s General Crop 1.60 12.00 2.00 Darling’s Little Giant 0.80 10. CO 2.00 Darling’s Big Potash 1.00 8.00 2.00 10.00 Darling’s Ten Five 10.00 5.00 Darling’s Acme Brand 12.00 2.00 Darling’s 16% Acid Phosphate . . 16.00 Darling’s Bone and Acid Phosphate Half and Half 0.80 12.00 11.00 Darling’s Pure Ground Bone. . 1.80 28.00 Darling’s Ground Raw Bone 3.70 22.00 Darling’s Blood and Bone 4.94 12.00 Darling’s Nitrate of Soda . 14.80 Darling’s Pulverized Sheep Manure 1.85 1.00 1 .00 Douglass Fertilizer Co., Little Rock, Arkansas “4-Brand” Acid Phosphate 0.00 16.00 0.00 Blood, Bone and Potash . . 2.00 12.00 1.50 Early Potato and Truck, without Potash . . 2.50 12.00 0.00 Early Potato and Truck 2.50 8.00 4.00 Arkahoma Special 1.65 9.00 2.00 Douglass Choice 1.65 11.00 0.00 Douglass Complete . . 1 . 65 10.00 1 .00 Douglass Preferred . . 1.65 12.00 0.00 Douglass Superior Fertilizer. . . 1.65 10.00 2.00 4-Brand Prize Winner 1.65 9.00 2.00 “ Douglass Special Cotton Grower 1916” .... 1.65 10.60 0.40 Douglass Vegetable Fertilizer. . . 2.00 7.50 3.00 Economy 0.82 10.00 2.00 Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 61 Table 7. — Brands and Guaranteed Analyses of Fertilizers Registered and Offered for Sale in Missouri: 1921 Fertilizer Nitro- gen Phosph< Total Dric Acid Avail- able l (P 2 O 5 ) Insol- uble Potash (K 2 0) Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent 0.82 10.00 1 .00 1.65 8.00 2.00 1.65 10.00 0.00 4-Brand Phosphate and Potash 0.00 11.00 3.00 4-Brand Wheat Grower 0.82 8.00 1 .00 4-Brand Corn Grower 0.82 8.00 2.00 4-Brand Phospho-Potash 0.00 10.00 2.00 Early Harvest 1.65 10.50 0.50 Special Wheat Grower “B” 1.00 7.00 1 .00 4-Brand Raw Bone and Potash . 1.65 18.00 1 .00 The Empire Guano Company, Nashville, Tennessee Wheat, Oat and Corn Grower 0.82 17.00 7.00 1.00 Blood Bone and Potash 1.65 13.00 8.00 2.00 Missouri Premium Guano 0.41 15.00 8.00 4.00 Prize Grain Grower 1.65 15.00 12.00 2.00 Missouri Grain Grower 0.41 15.00 12.00 1.00 Red Banner Grain Special 0.82 15.00 12.00 1 .00 High Grade Grain Special 0.82 17.00 16.00 0.00 Clover and Wheat Special 0.82 15.00 12.00 2.00 Red Banner Favorite 1.65 16.00 12.00 0.00 Bone and Potash 0.00 15.00 10.00 2.00 High Grade Potash Special 0.00 16.00 14.00 2.00 Climax Phosphate 0.00 18.00 16.00 0.00 Bone Mixture 0.82 20.00 13 00 0.00 The Excell Laboratories, Chicago, Illinois “Zenkes New Plant Life” 2.80 4.80 2.15 0.05 1.08 ‘‘Zenkes New Plant Life” (Domestic Strength) 1.40 2.40 1.07 0.02 0 . 54 Falls City Fertilizer Company, New Albany, Ind. Falls City Brands High Grade Manure 1.23 10.00 9.00 1.00 1.00 Missouri Wheat Grower 0.61 9.50 8.50 1.00 0.50 Corn and Wheat Special 1.64 11.00 10.00 1.00 2.00 Two Twelve Two 1.64 13.00 12 00 1.00 2.00 Grain Grower 1.64 9.00 8.00 1.00 2.00 Onion and Potato Grower 1.64 9.00 8.00 1.00 8.00 High Grade Tobacco and Truck Grower 2.46 11.00 10.00 1.00 4.00 Special Crop Grower 0 . 41 13 . 00 12 . 00 1 . 00 Extra Ammoniated Bone Phosphate . 1 . 64 13 . 00 12 . 00 1 . 00 Bone Phosphate and Potash Mixture 0.41 11.00 10.00 1.00 1.00 Phosphate and Potash 11.00 10 00 1 . 00 2.00 Half Eight Three 0.41 9.00 8.00 1.00 3.00 Onion and Tobacco Grower 0.82 9.00 8.00 1.00 3.00 Ten Four 11.00 10 . 00 1 .00 4.00 Twelve Two 13.00 12 . 00 1 . 00 2.00 Half Ten Two 0.41 11.00 10.00 1.00 2.00 Half Thirteen One 0.41 15.50 13.00 2.50 1.00 62 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 Table 7. — Brands and Guaranteed Analyses of Fertilizers Registered and Offered for Sale in Missouri: 1921 Fertilizer Nitro- gen Phosphoric Acid (P;0 5 ) Potash (O s K) Total Avail- able Insol- uble Per cent Percent Percent Per cent Per cent Half Seven Ten 0.41 8.00 7.00 1.00 10.00 11.00 10.00 1.00 10.00 Acid Phosphate 14 % 15.00 14.00 1.00 Acid Phosphate 16^ 17.00 16.00 1.00 Bone Meal Mixture with Phosphate 1.23 20.00 12. CO 8.00 Bone Meal Tankage and Potash 1.23 16.00 (BO NE) 1.00 2.00 28.00 BO NE) Special Pure Bone Meal 0.82 30.00 (BO NE) 3.70 20.00 (BO NE) The Fertile Chemical Co., Cleveland, Ohio Xitro-Fertile 2.00 3 00 3.00 3.00 The Flower City Plant Food Co., Inc., Rochester, N. Y. Walker's Excelsior Plant Food 5.00 7 00 3.00 Archias’ Fairv Brand (Plant Food) 3.00 7 00 2.00 Japanese Fern and Palm Food 5.00 6 00 1.00 Gate City Fertilizer Co., Little Rock, Arkansas Red Ball Brands Extra Acid Phosphate 0.00 16 00 0.00 Blood Bone and Potash 2.00 12 00 1.50 Early Potato and Truck, without Potash. . . . 2.50 12 00 0.00 Earlv Potato and Truck 2.50 8 CO 4 00 Arkahoma Special 1.65 9 00 2.00 Four States Standard 1.65 11 00 0 00 Complete Fertilizer 1 . 65 10 00 1.00 Blood and Bone 1.50 11 00 1.50 Ammonia ted Superphosphate 1 . 65 12 00 0.00 Diversified Croppers’ 1 . 65 10.00 2.00 Cotton Grower 1 . 65 9 . 00 ! 2.00 “Cotton Grower 1916” 1 . 65 10 60 0.40 Old Time Vegetable 2.00 7 50 3.00 Economy 0.82 10.00 2.00 Acidulated Bone Fertilizer 0.82 10.00 1.00 Old Reliable Fertilizer 1.65 8 00 2.00 Soluble Bone Fertilizer 1.65 10 00 0.00 Phosphate and Potash 0.00 11.00 3.00 Arkmo Wheat Grower 0.82 8.00 1 CO Arkmo Corn Grower 0.82 8.00 2.00 Phospho-Potash 0.00 10.00 2.00 Early Harvest 1 . 65 10.50 1 0 50 Special Wheat Grower “ B ” 1.00 7.00 1 00 Raw Bone and Potash 1.65 18.00 1.00 Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 63 Table 7. — Brands and Guaranteed Analyses of Fertilizers Registered and Offered for Sale in Missouri: 1921 Fertilizer Nitro- gen Phosph Total oric Aci< Avail- able 1 (PsO*.) Insol- uble Potash (K«0) Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Interstate Fertilizer Co., Webb City, Mo. Interstate Brands (1) Grain and Cotton Special 2-10-2 1.65 10.00 0.50 2.00 (2) 2-8-2 1 . 65 8.00 0.50 2.00 (3) 2-10-0.50 1.65* 10.00 0.50 0.50 (4) 1-8-1 0.82 8.00 0.50 1.00 (5) 1-12-1 0.82 12.00 0.50 1.00 (6) 1-12-0.50 0.82 12.00 0.50 0.50 (7) 1-10-0 0.82 10 . 00 0.50 0.00 (8) 1-7-0.50 0.82 7.00 0.50 0.50 <10) Raw Bone Meal 3 . 70 22.00 <11) Steamed Bone Meal 1-29. . 0.82 29.00 (12) 0.50-16-0.50 0.41 16.00 0.50 0.50 <13) 0.50-14-0.50 0 . 41 14 . 00 0.50 0.50 <14) 2-12-2 1 . 65 12.00 0 . 50 2.00 (15) 2-12-0.50 1 . 65 12.00 0 . 50 0.50 (19) Sheep Manure Mixture 1-9-1 0.82 9.00 0.50 1.00 (22) 0.50-14-2 0.41 14.00 0.50 2.00 The Jacksonville Reduction Co., Jacksonville, Illinois Purity Bone Meal Fertilizer 3.60 18.00 Meridian Fertilizer Factory, Shreveport, Louisiana Rasy Driller Phosphate 16.00 Meridian Farm Special 1.65 10.00 Meridian Grain Grower 1 . 65 10.00 2.00 Meridian Wheat Grower 1 .65 12.00 Meridian Western Special 1 . 65 12.00 1.00 Meridian Great Western 1.65 12.00 2.00 Meridian Wheat Special 0.82 12.00 1.00 Meridian Grain Special 1.65 8.00 2.00 Meridian Ammoniated Phosphate. . . 0.82 10.00 Meridian Missouri Special 0.82 8.00 1.00 Meridian Bone Meal 2.47 24.00 Meridian Special Formula 0.82 10.00 1.00 Meridian Potash Acid 15.00 2.00 Meridian Phosphate and Potash 15.00 3.00 Mid-West Fertilizer Material Co., Carthage, Mo. Back Bone Brands Complete Corn, Oats and Cotton Grower. . . . 0.93 9.25 1.00 1.20 Special Wheat Grower 0.93 9.25 1.00 1.20 Pure Bone Meal 1 .23 22.50 •Concentrated Sheep Manure 1.64 4.00 2.00 2.00 64 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 Table 7. — Brands and Guaranteed Analyses of Fertilizers Registered and Offered for Sale in Missouri: 1921 Fertilizer Nitro- gen Phosphoric Acid (P 2 O 5 ) Potash (K 2 0) Total Avail- able Insol- uble Morris & Company, Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Chicago, Illinois 3.70 24.00 Spl. Big One — Phos. Tkg. and Potash 1.65 9.00 2.00 4.00 2.06 28.00 Spl. Big Two — Phos. Tkg. and Potash 1.65 10.00 1.50 2.00 Special Big Three — Manure and Potash 0.82 9.00 1 .00 3.00 Special Big Four — Half and Half 0.41 13.00 5.00 Special Big Five — Acid. Phos. and Potash . . . 10.00 1.00 2.00 0 . 82 16.00 3.00 Special Big Seven — Spl. B. Meal 0.82 22.00 Special Big Eight — Corn and Oats Special . . 10.00 1 .00 4.00 Big Eight — Ammo. A. P. and Potash 0.82 8.00 1.00 1 .00 Special Big Nine — Phos. Man. and Potash. . . 0.82 12.00 1.00 1.00 Big Ten — Grain Grower 1.65 8.00 1.50 2.00 Special Big Eleven — Phos. and Manure 1.65 10.00 1.50 1 . 65 12.00 2.00 Natural Guano Company Aurora, Illinois ‘Sheep’s Head” Pulverized Sheep Manure.. . 2.25 1.00 0.25 1.50 Pelican Fertilizer Works, Shreveport, Louisiana Pelican High Grade 1.65 12.00 2.00 Pelican Grain Special 1.65 12.00 Pelican Special Phosphate 16.00 Pelican Grain Grower 1.65 8.00 2.00 Pelican Special Formula 0.82 8.00 1.00 The Pulverized Manure Co., Chicago, Illinois Wizard Brand Manure 1 . 80 1 .00 1 .00 Wizard Brand Phosphated Manure 0.82 9.00 1.00 Read Phosphate Co., Nashville, Tennessee Corn, Wheat and Oat Grower * 0.82 17.00 7.00 10.00 1.00 Blood and Bone No. 1 1.65 13.00 8.00 5.00 2.00 Missouri Special 0.41 15.00 8.00 7.00 4.00 Premium Grain Grower 1.65 15.00 12.00 3.00 2.00 Missouri Grain Special 0.41 15.00 12.00 3.00 1.00 Red Diamond Grain Special 0.82 15.00 12.00 3.00 1.00 High Grade Grain Grower 0.82 17.00 16.00 1.00 0.00 Wheat and Clover Grower 0.82 15.00 12.00 3.00 2.00 Red Diamond Favorite 1.65 16.00 12.00 4.00 0.00 High Grade Bone and Potash 0.00 14.00 12.00 2.00 2.00 High Grade Potash Mixture 0.00 16.00 14.00 2.00 2.00 Special High Grade Phosphate 0.00 18.00 16.00 2.00 0.00 Bone Mixture 0.82 20.00 13.00 7.00 0.00 Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 65 Table 7. — Brands and Guaranteed Analyses of Fertilizers Registered and Offered for Sale in Missouri: 1921 Fertilizer Nitro- gen Phosphoric Acid (P 2 O 6 ) Potash (K 2 O) Total Avail- able Insol- uble Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent The C. F. Schumaker Fertilizer Co., St. Louis, Missouri C. F. Schumaker Brands Lawn and Floral Food 2.00 6.00 3.00 Spec. Floral Food 2.00 4 . 00 2.00 Truck Grower No. 1 2.00 7.00 3 50 Spec. Crop Grower 0.82 8 . 00 4.00 Corn, Wheat and Clover Grower 0.41 12 . 00 2.00 Tobacco Dust No. 1 2.00 0.45 2.50 Tobacco Stems 1.65 7.75 Nitrate of Soda 15.00 Sulphate of Ammonia 20.00 Treated Phosphate 16.00 Steamed Bone Meal 2.47 24.00 The Southern Cotton Oil Co., Little Rock, Arkansas SCO Brands Fruit and Truck Special 2.46 10 00 4.00 Columbia High Grade 2.46 10.00 2.00 Truck Mixture 2.46 8.00 2.00 Red Bull Wheat Special 1.65 12 . 00 2.00 Bre’r Rabbit 1 . 65 10 . 00 2.00 Grain Hustler 1 .65 10 . 00 1 00 •Quick Step 1 .65 9.00 2.00 Missouri Mixture 0.82 10 .00 1 .00 Pure Gold 0 . 82 8 .00 1 00 Missouri Special 1.00 13.00 0.00 Raccoon Wheat Grower 1 . 65 12.00 0.00 Full Moon Grain Grower 0.00 12.00 2.00 Acid Phosphate 0.00 16.00 O'. 00 The Sterling Fertilizer Co., Chicago, Illinois Sterling Harvest King 2.40 8 00 2.00 4.00 Sterling Harvest Queen 1 . 60 8 . 00 2 . 00 2.00 Sterling Wonder Yield 0 . 80 8 00 2 . 00 3.00 Sterling Special Grain Grower 0.80 9.00 2 . 00 1.00 Sterling Universal 1 . 60 12.00 2.00 Sterling Golden Harvest 0 . 80 8 .00 2 .00 10 00 Sterling Little Giant 0.80 10 . 00 2.00 Sterling Ten Five 10 .00 5.00 Sterling Superior Brand 1.60 12.00 2.00 2.00 Sterling Champion Brand 12 .00 2.00 Sterling 16% Acid Phosphate 16.00 ' Sterling Pure Bone Meal 1 . 80 28.00 Sterling Raw Bone Meal 3.70 22.00 Sterling Bone and Acid Phosphate Half and Half 0.80 12.00 11.00 66 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 Table 7.- -B RANDS AND GUARANTEED ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS REGISTERED AND Offered for Sale in Missouri: 1921 Fertilizer Nitro- gen Phosphoric Acid (P 2 O 5 ) Potash (KoO) Total Avail- able Insol- uble Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Swift & Company, National Stock Yards, Illinois Pioneer Brands 2-12-2 Grain Grower 1.65 13.00 12.00 1.00 2.00 Wheat and Corn Grower 1.65 11.00 10.00 1.00 2.00 2-11-1 Grain Grower 1.65 12.00 11.00 1.00 1.00 1-12-1 Grain Grower 0.82 12.50 12.00 0.50 1.00 General Crop Grower 1.65 9.00 8.00 1.00 2.00 2-12-0 1 .65 13.00 12.00 1 .00 16.00 14.00 2.00 12-4 Phosphate and Potash 12.00 4.00 Bone Meal and Phosphate Fertilizer 0.82 20.00 13.00 2)4-29 Bone Meal Fertilizer . 1.85 29.00 Raw Bone Meal Fertilizer. . . 3.70 23.00 Tomato Grower 0.82 8.50 8.00 0.50 3.00 Swift’s Brands Ammoniated Bone Phosphate 0.82 10.50 10.00 0.50 Tankage and Bone Phosphate 0.82 12.50 12.00 0.50 14-2 Phosphate and Potash 14.00 2.00 12-4 Phosphate and Potash 12.00 4.00 High Grade Acid Phosphate Fertilizer 16.00 Bone Meal and Phosphate Fertilizer 0.82 20.00 13.00 Ground Beef Bone Fertilizer 2.06 27.00 2 )4- 29 Bone Meal Fertilizer 1 . 85 29.00 Raw Bone Meal Fertilizer 3.70 23.00 Pulverized Manure 1.65 1.50 1.00 0 . 50 2.00 Complete Fertilizer 0.82 8.50 8.00 0.50 1.00 Champion Wheat and Corn Grower 1.65 13.00 12.00 1.00 2.00 Superphosphate 1.65 9.00 8.00 1.00 2.00 Special Grain Grower 1.65 11.00 10.00 1.00 2.00 Diamond “A” Fertilizer 2.47 9.00 8.00 1.00 3.00 Diamond “B” Fertilizer 2.47 9.00 8.00 1.00 5.00 Diamond “M” Grain Grower 1.65 12.00 11.00 1.00 1.00 Diamond “K” Grain Grower 0.82 12.50 12.00 0.50 1.00 Tomato and Yeg. Grower 1.65 9.00 8.00 1.00 3.00 Tomato Grower 0.82 8.50 8.00 0.50 3.00 Diamond “L” Grain Grower 1 . 65 10.00 9.00 1.00 Blood and Phosphate 1.65 13.00 12.00 1.00 Corn and Oats Special 1 .65 11.00 10.00 1.00 Standard Cotton and Corn Grower 1 . 65 12.00 11.00 1 .00 Tennessee Chemical Co., Chicago, Illinois Ox Brands 12-2 Fertilizer 12.00 0.50 2.00 12-4 Fertilizer 12.00 0.50 4.00 2-12-2 Fertilizer 1.65 12.00 0.50 2.00 2-10-4 Fertilizer 1.65 10.00 0.50 4.00 2-12 Fertilizer 1 65 12.00 0.50 14% Acid Phosphate 14.00 0.50 Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 67 Table 7. — Brands and Guaranteed Analyses of Fertilizers Registered and Offered for Sale in Missouri: 1921 Fertilizer 16% Acid Phosphate 1-12-1 Fertilizer Bone Meal Raw Bone Meal Half Bone Meal and Half Acid Phosphate 1-10 Fertilizer New Ammoniated Phosphate Wheat, Corn and Oats Fertilizer Ammoniated Phosphate New Grain Grower Tennesse Coal, Iron and Railroad Co., Birmingham, Alabama Duplex Basic Phosphate 14% Duplex Basic Phosphate 12% Duplex Basic Phosphate Tupelo Fertilizer Factory, Tupelo, Mississippi Tupelo High Grade 16% Acid Phosphate Tupelo Special High Grade 18% Acid Phos- phate Cotton Belt High Grade Corn Grower Tupelo Special High Grade Fertilizer Cotton Belt H. G. Fertilizer with Potash Cotton Belt High Grade Phosphate and Potash Tupelo Special High Grade Phosphate and Potash : Wheat Belt H. G. Grain Fertilizer Wheat Belt H. G. Special Fertilizer Wheat Belt Grain Grower Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Memphis, Tennessee V-C Plant Food for Vegetables, Lawns and Flowers National Ammoniated Superphosphate Monarch Grain Grower V-C Grain Grower Capital Phosphate and Potash Compound . . . V-C Phosphate and Potash Royal Phosphate and Potash Compound .... Black Diamond Phosphate and Potash V-C 20% Superphosphate V-C 18% Superphosphate V-C 16% Superphosphate Victor 16% Superphosphate Victor 14% Acid Phosphate Bone Meal Mixture Steamed Bone Meal V-C High Grade Top Dresser V-C Garden Truck Special Royal Vegetable Fertilizer Nitro- gen Phosphoric Acid (P 2 O 6 ) Potash (K 2 0) Total Avail- able Insol- uble Per cent Per cent Per cent Percent Per cent 16.00 0.50 0.82 12.00 0.50 1.00 2.47 24.00 3.71 22.00 1.23 20.00 11.00 9.00 0.82 10.00 0 . 50 0.82 12.00 0 . 50 0.82 8.00 0.50 1.00 1.65 10.00 1.65 8.00 0.50 1.00 18.00 14.00 14.00 11.00 12.00 9.00 16.00 1 .00 18.00 1 .00 2.50 12.00 2.00 2.50 9.00 2.00 3.00 1.65 10.00 2.00 2.00 12.00 1.00 2.00 12.00 1 .00 4.00 1.65 12.00 2.00 2.00 1.65 12.00 2.00 0.00 0.82 12.00 2.00 1.00 4.94 8.00 3.00 0.82 10.00 0.00 0.00 15.00 2.00 0.00 12.00 2.00 0.00 10.00 2.00 0.00 10.00 4.00 0.00 12.00 1 .00 0.00 10.00 1.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 18.00 0.00 0.00 16.00 0.00 0.00 16.00 0.00 0.00 14.00 0.00 3.30 20.00 0.00 2.50 22.00 0.00 6.17 4.00 2.50 4.94 6.00 4.00 2.47 8.00 4.00 68 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 Table 7. — Brands and Guaranteed Analyses of Fertilizers Registered and Offered for Sale in Missouri: 1921 Fertilizer . . Nitro- gen Phosphoric Acid (P 2 O 3 ) Potash (K 2 O) Total 1 Avail- able Insol- uble Percent ! Per centi Per cent Per cent i Per cent Eureka High Grade Guano . . 2.47 9.00 3.00 Memphis Truck 3.30 10.00 4.00 Good Luck Wheat Special 1 . 65 12.00 2.00 Good as Gold Standard Guano 0.82 12.00 1.00 Owl Brand Ammoniated Bone 0.82 10.00 1.00 Champion Corn and Wheat Grower 0.82 9.00 1.00 Good Luck Guano 0.82 8.00 1.00 Y-C Dixie Special, without Potash 3.00 9.00 0.00 V-C Side Application 4.94 8.00 0.00 Crescent Wheat Grower 1.65 12.00 0.00 Capital Ammoniated Superphosphate 1.65 10.00 0.00 Vita-Flora Co. Joplin, Missouri Vita-Flora 5.62 10.98 6 . 65 Wessell, Duval & Company, New York, N. Y. Nitrate of Soda 14.85 Nitrate of Soda Containing Potash 12.00 8.00 Wilson & Company, Inc. Chicago, Illinois Red “ W” Brand Special Bone Meal 0.82 30.00 Bone Meal and Acid Phosphate 0.82 ! 23.00 12.50 10.50 0.00 Corn and Wheat Special 1.65 10.00 8.00 | 2.00 2.00 Special Grain Fertilizer 0.82 10.00 8.00 1 2.00 1.00 “Two-Ten” Fertilizer 1.65 12.00 10.00 2.00 0.00 Kali-Phosphate 0.00 13.00 12.00 1.00 1.00 Acid Phosphate 0.00 16.00 0.00 Grain Grower 0.82 14.00 12.00 2.00 1.00 Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 69 Table 8. — Approximate Sale of Fertilizers in the State of Missouri, by Counties, Based Upon Report of Shipments by the Fertilizer Companies Sales in 1920 Fertilizers classified for 1920. COUNTY 1 Spring Fall Total Bone Acid Phos- phate Mix( High Grade ?d Ferti Med. Grade ilizer Low Grade Misc. Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Adair 42 22 64 5 10 29 19 1 Andrew 23 11 34 24 5 5 Atchison 40 40 40 Audrain 188 2011 2199 470 883 228 394 154 70 Barry 712 469 1181 201 78 275 318 116 193 Barton 1045 1864 2909 432 920 726 419 318 94 Bates 308 1118 1426 256 502 289 322 57 Benton 132 948 1080 566 162 115 130 67 40 Boone 58 399 457 107 265 52 33 Bollinger . . 32 197 229 83 18 30 98 Buchanan 19 101 120 14 34 46 1 25 Cape Girardeau 48 87 135 4 27 33 26 45 Caldwell 91 163 254 19 64 120 51 Callaway 576 1799 2375 916 552 423 216 208 60 Camden 31 31 5 6 15 5 Carroll 32 112 144 40 10 50 30 13 1 Carter 30 30 60 15 15 30 Cass 316 316 7 79 112 28 2 88 Chariton 16 88 104 12 13 71 8 Christian 240 615 855 85 301 243 167 42 17 Cedar 220 496 716 94 305 89 140 43 45 Clark 2 2 2 Clinton 17 124 141 30 22 82 7 Clay 28 308 336 21 100 191 4 20 Cole 200 647 847 126 109 283 170 90 69 Cooper 85 402 487 33 73 284 55 12 30 Crawford 44 183 227 77 28 29 64 27 2 Dade 120 527 647 106 28 170 165 6 172 Daviess 70 124 194 17 55 83 31 8 DeKalb 5 46 51 3 36 11 1 Dent 30 171 201 57 15 25 22 82 Douglas 80 20 100 5 40 15 25 15 Dunklin 221 221 3 42 96 50 30 Franklin 142 1358 1500 259 270 266 465 178 62 Gasconade 56 479 535 24 201 137 57 116 Gentry 62 43 105 44 61 Greene 495 1064 1559 360 293 550 318 3 35 Grundy 57 182 239 15 116 93 15 Harrison 53 35 88 6 39 25 18 Henry 182 549 731 9 451 109 95 67 Hickory 220 220 5 129 61 20 5 Holt 3 3 3 Howell 434 888 1322 35 251 113 596 326 1 Howard 17 33 50 12 37 1 Iron 21 212 233 3 63 67 62 38 Jackson 91 128 219 10 59 121 1 28 Jasper 1016 3168 4184 577 931 1456 847 297 76 Jefferson 3 295 298 76 71 43 31 74 3 Johnson 120 113 233 1 58 84 90 Knox *60 60 5 55 70 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 Table 8.- -Approximate Sale of Fertilizers in the State of Missouri, by Counties, Based Upon Report of Shipments by the Fertilizer Companies Sales in 1920 Fertilizers classified for 1920. COUNTY 1 Spring Fall Total Bone Acid Phos- phate Mixed Fertilizer Misc. High Grade Med. Grade Low Grade Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Laclede 341 402 743 41 85 151 288 178 Lafayette 65 74 139 10 69 20 40 Lawrence 966 1602 2568 240 731 353 480 472 292 Lewis 243 369 612 81 100 237 153 41 Lincoln 582 1757 2339 65 992 547 558 177 Linn 100 15 115 19 43 28 25 Livingston 18 23 41 5 34 1 1 McDonald 43 100 143 17 40 23 26 32 5 Madison 90 440 530 65 191 104 120 50 Macon 85 251 336 52 62 196 26 Maries 47 83 130 13 29 23 65 Marion 91 304 395 9 121 67 115 53 30 Mercer 40 69 109 29 50 15 15 Miller 61 580 641 222 109 144 143 23 Mississippi 15 15 15 Monroe 211 588 799 176 93 266 196 18 50 Montgomery 643 2131 2774 1250 542 195 513 198 76 Moniteau 83 562 645 115 247 98 128 57 Morgan 272 583 855 140 335 182 94 104 Newton 724 1210 1934 412 304 384 492 187 155 New Madrid 30 30 30 Nodaway 88 44 132 5 43 21 2 61 Osage 20 182 202 9 26 12 34 121 Oregon 44 19 63 3 30 10 20 Ozark 78 78 21 24 33 Perry 20 127 147 2 79 23 25 18 Pettis 49 343 392 25 187 79 85 16 Phelps 256 504 . 760 211 293 155 21 55 25 Pike 453 1352 1805 254 451 134 559 337 70 Platte 20 44 64 38 23 3 Polk 523 453 976 209 145 302 174 136 10 Pulaski 280 312 592 94 82 190 4 204 18 Putnam 16 16 15 1 Ralls 82 1015 1097 71 680 174 54 116 2 Ray 64 171 235 26 68 88 25 27 1 Randolph 37 183 220 22 61 120 17 Reynolds 0. I 2 0. I 2 0. 1 2 Ripley 100 15 115 1 5 46 63 Saline 26 28 54 12 14 21 7 Schuyler 52 138 190 55 29 53 28 25 Scott 1 40 41 41 Scotland 2 2 2 Shannon 45 35 80 45 3 32 Shelby 166 516 682 183 125 196 127 51 Stoddard 40 54 94 10 63 15 6 Stone 1 45 46 2 8 12 22 2 St. Charles 286 500 786 66 472 148 54 13 33 St. Clair 359 393 752 139 218 256 101 33 5 St. Francois 63 947 1010 80 280 288 162 200 St. Louis 47 70 117 2 26 9 5 6 69 Testing Fertilizers for Missouri Farmers: 1920 71 Table 8. — Approximate Sale of Fertilizers in the State of Missouri, by Counties, Based Upon Report of Shipments by the Fertilizer Companies Sales in 1920 Fertilizers classified for 1920. COUNTY 1 Acid Mixed Fertilizer Spring Fall Total Bone Phos- phate High Grade Med. Grade Low Grade Misc. Sullivan Tons 81 Tons 45 Tons 126 Tons 2 Tons 2 Tons 38 Tons 34 Tons 50 Tons Texas 202 303 505 32 216 98 41 73 45 Vernon 273 617 890 190 229 205 160 100 162 6 Washington 101 256 357 67 17 39 72 Warren 92 1145 1237 305 113 253 60 504 2 Wayne 26 82 108 67 40 1 Webster 993 14-75 2468 636 466 326 335 512 193 Worth 1 28 29 29 Wright 193 1399 1592 189 143 835 45 365 15 Totals *. . . 17,316 46,399 63,715 10,972 16,599 15,000 11,370 7,449 2,325 'No reports received of any shipments to Butler, Dallas, Pemiscot, St. Genevieve, and Taney Counties. 2 Not added in the totals. 72 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 178 FINANCIAL STATEMENT MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION in account with FERTILIZER CONTROL FUND For the Year 1920 Dr. Cr. RECEIPTS Jan. 1 1920, Balance on Hand $21,229.36 36,230.63 Receipts from Sale of Tags, 1920 EXPENDITURES Salaries $17,673.70 5,182.32 3,569.28 7.042.00 404.50 732.71 1,457.34 2,050.84 1.800.00 134.33 3,006.72 89.62 365.46 18.00 85.97 5,290.20 1,373.24 271.12 Labor Publication . ... ' Postage and Stationery Freight and Express Heat, Light and Water Chemical Supplies * Seeds-Plants and Sundry Supplies Fertilizers Library Feeding Stuffs Tools, Implements and Machinery Furniture and Fixtures Contingent Scientific Apparatus Live Stock Traveling Expenses Buildings and Repairs Total Expenditures $50,547.35 6,912.64 Balance on Hand Dec. 31, 1920 $57,459.99 $57,459.99 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179 What the Agricultural Experiment Station Is Doing for Missouri For the year July 1, 1919, to June 30, 1920 Fillies on Growth of Draft Colts test. May 5, 1920. COLUMBIA, MISSOURI JANUARY, 1921 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL, THE CURATORS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY H. J. BLANTON, JOHN H. BRADLEY, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Paris Kennett Kansas City ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF June, 1920 agricultural chemistry C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, A. M. Emory M. Roller AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING E. W. Lehmann, B. S. in A. E. Mack M. Jones, B. S. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. A. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. F. B. Mumford, M. S. Ray E. Miller, B. S. in Agr. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. J. H. Longwell, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. W. E. Maneval, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale. B. S. in i^gr. A. C. Dahlberg, M. S. W. W. Swett, A. M. Percy Werner, Jr., A. M. W. H. E. Reed, B. S. in Agr. C. W. Turner, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. S. R. McLanE, B. S. in Agr. FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. C. A. Helm, A. M. E. M. McDonald, B S. L. J. Stadler, A. M. RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson,. A. M. R. M. Green, B. s. in Agr. S. D. Gromer, A. M.* FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. D. Hooker Ph. D. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. H. F. C. Bradford, M. S. H. G. Swartwout, B S. in Agr. poultry husbandry H. L. Kempster, B. S. G. W. Hervey, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. R. R. Hudelson, A. M. F. L- Duley, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. veterinary science J. W. Connaway, D. V. M., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crisler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman. B. S. in Agr. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer J. G. Babb, A. M., Secretary E. H. Hughes, A. M., Ass’t to Dean O. W. Weaver, B. S., Agricultural Editor George Reeder, Director Weather Bureau Miss Bertha Hite , 1 Seed Testing Lab- oratory. J. F. Barham, Photographer In service of U. S. Department of Agriculture. *On leave of absence. To His Excellency, Honorable Frederick D. Gardner, Governor of Missouri. Sir : I submit herewith a report of the progress of the investigational work conducted by the Agricultural Experiment Station of the College of Agricul- ture for the year ending June 30, 1920. This report is required by the Federal law and its purpose is to indicate briefly how the Agricultural Experiment Station has utilized the Federal and State funds appropriated for investigational purposes. The report which I am submitting herewith covers only the work in prog- ress or completed during the period covered by this report. Very respectfully submitted, F. B. Mumford, Director. The Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station F. B. MumRord, Director The demands upon the Agricultural Experiment Station for definite infor- mation on many complicated problems affecting the agricultural industry have been greater than in any previous year of its history. The farmers of Missouri have come more and more to rely upon the investigations of the Agricultural Experiment Station to guide them in the solution of many of the difficulties which surround the operations of the agricultural producer. The value of the service which the Agricultural Experiment Station is able to give is often determined by the promptness with which it can attack the problem. Serious diseases may suddenly break out for example in connection with the market garden industry or the watermelon industry. If the Station is able to respond promptly by sending a trained investigator to the region where the trouble occurs, it is often possible to prevent the spread of disastrous diseases. A number of such instances have occurred during the past year, and the Station has been able materially to assist in combatting such out- breaks. The only limitations to the amount of service which the Station is able to render to the agriculture of Missouri is the amount of funds available for its work. In this respect Missouri has not received appropriations commensurate with the great importance of the agricultural industry or equal to the appro- priations which have been made for agricultural research in other states of much less agricultural importance. The Station has had no increase in its appropriation for the past six years; yet the demands upon the Station for investigational work have more than doubled. The result of this situation has been to curtail the number of projects under investigation. The excessively high prices, due to post-war conditions, which .the Station has been compelled to pay for all of its equipment and sup- plies have increased the difficulty. The importance of fundamental research was emphasized by the experi- ences of all nations in the conduct of the European war. The world has come to recognize the fact that through scientific research only may we look for per- manent and rapid development. The great business organizations have long recognized the importance of such research and have provided generously for its maintenance. The farmer is perhaps more dependent upon all branches of science than any other single producer. He cannot carry out such investigations for him- self. The State has undertaken to provide this service for the agricultural in- dustry, and it is exceedingly important that sums commensurate with the fun- damental importance of the agricultural industry be made available for its development. The work of the Agricultural Experiment Station is the basis of all suc- cessful teaching, extension and demonstration work. A college of agriculture with a weak experiment station must necessarily have a superficial and unre- liable course of study and extension service. The Federal appropriations to the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion now amount to $60,000 for the biennial period. The General Assembly of What the Station Is Doing for Missouri the State of Missouri meeting in January, 1921, will be asked to appropriate an equal amount to the Missouri Experiment Station. If this amount is appro- priated it will be possible for the Experiment Station to meet more completely the demands made upon it by farmers of the state. The following pages contain a record of the essential activities of the Ex- periment Station for the year. CHANGES IN STATION STAFF NEW APPOINTMENTS Camp, J. R., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry Hopkins, E. F., Plant Pathologist Jones, Mack M., Assistant Professor of Agricultural Engineering Jordan, Howard V., Assistant in Soil Survey McLane, S. R., Assistant in Entomology Price, O. B., Assistant in Soils Reid, Wm. H. E., Assistant in Dairy Husbandry Turner, Chas. W., Assistant in Dairy Husbandry Eetson, O. W., Assistant in Field Crops Hall, A. R., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry Peters, F. N., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry Roller, Emory M., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry Friedmann, Theo. E., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry Bradford, Frederick C., Assistant Professor of Horticulture Schenken, A. R., Assistant in Animal Husbandry RESIGNATIONS Lehmann, E. W., Professor of Agricultural Engineering Dahlberg, A. C., Associate Professor of Dairying Hopper, Turner H., Instructor in Agricultural Chemistry McDonald, E. M., Assistant Professor of Farm Crops Hudelson, R. R., Associate Professor of Soils Mangles, C. E., Instructor in Agricultural Chemistry Shirky, Sam B., Instructor in Agricultural Chemistry Talbert, T. J., Associate Professor of Horticulture Combs, W. B., Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry Fohrman, M. F., Assistant in Dairy Husbandry Roller, Emory M., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry PUBLICATIONS The publications of the Agricultural Experiment Station consist of bulle- tins, research bulletins and circulars. The bulletin series consists largely of definite reports on specific investigations. Nine new bulletins and five reprints were issued during the year. Research bulletins are essentially scientific papers presenting technical information for the investigator or the person well ad- vanced in agricultural knowledge. Two publications were added to this series. Circulars are popular reports of experiments, or a summarization of informa- tion relative to some phase of practical agriculture. Seven new circulars and one reprint were issued. 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 Bulletins 75. Wintering Yearling Cattle (re- 165. Cost of Producing Some Mis- print) souri Farm Crops 136. Feeding Wheat to Fattening 166. Handling Farm Manure Swine (reprint) 167. R'enting Land in Missouri 138. Farm Bee-Keeping (reprint) 168. Inspection of Commercial Fer- 144. Self-feeders for Fattening Swine tilizers: 1919 (reprint) 169. Profitable Tomato Fertilizers 155. Meat Scrap and Sour Milk for 170. Insect Pests of Field Crops Egg Production (reprint) 171. Agricultural Lime 164. Capacities of Silos and Weights 172. Work and Progress of the Ag- of Silage ricultural Experiment Station, 1918-1919 Research Bulletins 35. A Study of the Birth Weight of 36. The Normal Growth of Dairy Calves Cattle Circulars 75. The Farmer’s Poultry House 92. Bagworms Destructive in Mis- (reprint) souri 89. Estimating Silo Capacities and 93. The Missouri Poultry House Silage Weights 94. The European Corn Borer 90. Pruning the Apple 95. Growing Late Potatoes 91. Feeding Baby Chicks BULLETINS Showing number of pages, numbers of editions and totals. No. Edition Total No. No. Name Pages Ordered Pages 75. Wintering Yearling Cattle (reprint) 45 3,000 135,000 136. Feeding Wheat to Fattening Swine (reprint) 35 5,000 175,000 138. Farm Bee-Keeping (reprint) 40 5,000 200,000 144. Self-feeders for Fattening Swine (reprint)—. 22 5,000 110,000 155. Meat Scrap and Sour Milk for Egg Produc- tion (reprint) 16 8,000 128,000 164. Capacities of Silos and Weights of Silage.... 24 12,000 288,000 165. Cost of Producing Some' Missouri Farm Crops 26 10,000 260,000 166. Handling Farm Manure 29 10,000 290,000 167. Renting Land in Missouri 52 15,000 780,000 168. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers: 1919 55 6,500 357,500 169. Profitable Tomato Fertilizers 12 5,000 60,000 170. Insect Pest? of Field Crops 39 5,000 195,000 171. Agricultural Lime 24 10,000 240,000 172. Work and Progress of the Agricultural Ex- periment Station, 1918-1919 48 5,000 240,000 467 104,500 3,428,500 What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 7 RESEARCH BULLETINS 35 . A Study of Birth Weight of Calves 11 2,500 27,500 36 . The Normal Growth of Dairy Cattle ... 20 2,500 50,000 31 5,000 77,500 EXPERIMENT STATION CIRCULARS No. Edition Total No. No. Name Pages Ordered Pages 75 . The Farmer’s Poultry House (reprint) ... 12 10,000 120,000 86 . Soil Inoculation for Legumes (reprint) 15 5,000 75,000 89 . Estimating Silo Capacities and Silage Weights 4 10,000 40,000 90 . Pruning the Apple 20 15,000 300,000 91 . Feeding Baby Chicks — 4 12,000 48,000 92 . Bagworms Destructive in Missouri 4 5,000 20,000 93 . The Missouri Poultry House 9 12,000 108,000 94 . The European Corn Borer 4 5,000 20,000 95 . Growing Late Potatoes 4 4,000 16,000 76 78,000 747,000 GRAND TOTAL, Bulletins, Research Bulletins and Circulars 574 187,500 4 , 283,000 SYNOPSES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS ISSUED DURING THE YEAR Capacities of Silos and Weights of Silage, C. H. Eckles, O. E. Reed and J. B. Fitch (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 164 ( 1919 ), pp. 3 - 24 , figs. 2 ). — This bulletin, based on a combination of data gathered by the agricultural experiment stations of Missouri and Kansas, is designed to furnish more reliable figures by which the capacities of a silo can be estimated. Rules are given for applying the data to determine the size of a silo necessary to hold a given amount of silage and to determine the weight of silage after it has been in the silo for some time. Consideration is also given to factors influencing the weight of settled silage; such as percentage of water in the corn, the proportion of grain to forage, depth of the silage and the diameter of the silo. Cost of Producing Some Missouri Farm Crops, O. R. Johnson, R. M. Green (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 165 ( 1919 ), pp. 3 - 26 , figs. 10 ). — This is a third publication in the series based upon the cost of production studies begun in 1910 . This bulletin gives a rather condensed statement of crop production costs as determined by data from 52 Missouri farms on which complete cost-account records have been kept since 1910 . The figures pre- sented are average costs for the years 1910 to 1917 , inclusive. The crops reported on are corn, oats, wheat, rye, clover, timothy, alfalfa, soybeans, and cowpeas. Handling Farm Manure, F . L. Duley (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 166 ( 1919 ), pp. 3 - 29 , figs. 13 ). — The value of manure in growing crops, and how 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 best to handle it to receive the greatest returns, is set forth in this bulletin. The composition of manure and how the composition is changed and value lost thru improper handling is discussed. The best methods for storing and later applying barnyard manure to cultivated land, are described. Renting Land in Missouri, O. R. Johnson and R. M. Green (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 167 (1920), pp. 3-52, figs. 6). — The three common sys- tems of renting land in Missouri — share, share-cash, and cash — are de- scribed in this bulletin which discusses the value of each method to both parties to the lease. The importance of the rental problem to the welfare of the state is emphasized by significant data. Rent rates realized over a period of years for the four crops — corn,' wheat, oats and hay — are tabu- lated. Typical forms covering the methods of leasing land mentioned in the bulletin are appended. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers: 1919 , F. B. Mumford and L. D. Haigh (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 168 (1920), pp. 3-55). — This publication is a report on the analysis of 426 official samples representing 187 brands of commercial fertilizers offered for sale in Missouri. The power of lime- stone and similar materials to neutralize soil acidity is expressed in per- centage of calcium carbonate for 143 samples tested. The brands and guaranteed analysis of fertilizers registered for sale in Missouri in 1920 are listed. Profitable Tomato Fertilizers, J. T. Rosa, Jr. (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 169 (1920), pp. 3-12, figs. 2). — The effect of different commercial fer- tilizers and mixtures as well as of stable manure on the yield and time of maturity of the tomato crop as determined by cooperative experiments with ten tomato growers, is reported in this bulletin. One-year tests were made; one in Livingston County, two in St. Louis County, one in Green County, three in Newton County, and three in Howell County. As a result of these tests, it is suggested that a fertilizer analyzing 3 or 4 per cent nitrogen and 10 to 12 per cent phosphorus can be profitably used. Insect Pests of Field Crops, L. Haseman (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 170 (1920), pp. 3-39, figs. 37). — The most important pests of corn, wheat, legumes, grasses, cotton and of stored grains and seeds are discussed in this bulletin, which is a revision of Bulletin 134 by the same author. A description of the insect, its life history, a statement of the injury caused, and recommendations for its control, are stated. Agricultural Lime, M. F. Miller and H. H. Krusekopf (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 171 (1920), pp. 3-24, figs. 8.) — A full discussion of ground limestone for agricultural purposes is provided in this bulletin, which is a revision of Buletin 146 by the same authors. What soils need lime and why, what crops best respond to it, where limestone can be procured and at what cost, and how to grind and spread it, are dealt with. The limestones in various parts of Missouri which are suitable for agricultural purposes are described. Work and Progress of the Agricultural Experiment Station, 1918 - 1919 , F. B. Mumford (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 172 (1920), pp. 3-48, figs. 9). — This bulletin is the annual report of the Director and covers briefly the What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 9 work of the Experiment Station, its publications, and a financial statement for the year ended June 30, 1919. A Study of the Birth Weight of Calves, C. H. Eckles (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 35 (1919), pp. 3-11, figs. 1). — This bulletin deals with the marked variations in the size of dairy calves at birth, the extent and cause of such variations, and their significance from the standpoint of the future welfare of the animal. The new data presented represent those ac- cumulated over a period of twelve years from the dairy herd owned by the University of Missouri. The breeds represented are Holsteins, Ayrshires, Jerseys of the American and Island types and dairy Shorthorns. The Normal Growth of Dairy Cattle, C. H. Eckles (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 36 (1920), pp. 3-20, figs. 5). — The curve of normal growth from birth to maturity, as represented by weight and height at withers, is given for females of the Jersey, Holstein, Ayrshire and the dairy type of Shorthorn breeds, in this bulletin. The data upon which this curve is based were taken at monthly intervals from birth to maturity from animals in the University of Missouri herd. A compilation of data is also given showing the average height at withers and weight of mature Jersey, Hol- stein and Ayrshire cows. Estimating Silo Capacities and Silage Weights, C. H. Eckles (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Circular 89 (1919), pp. 4). — This circular presents new tables for estimating silage weight when filling is completed, and for estimating the weight of settled silage. Rules for applying the tables to specific prob- lems are given. This information is essentially a reprint from Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 164. Pruning the Apple, V. R. Gardner (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Circular 90 (1920), pp. 20, figs. 11). — Pruning apple trees to increase production, improve grades, and lower production costs, is discussed in this circular from the standpoint of the. young tree, the tree just coming into bearing, and the bearing tree. The training of fruit trees is touched upon. Feeding Baby Chicks, H. L. Kempster (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Circular 91 (1920), pp. 4). — The essentials of a chick ration are set forth in this condensed discussion of feeds for baby chicks. The necessity for vitamines in the diet is emphasized. A daily routine and feeding schedule for chicks from the time they are hatched to maturity, is suggested. Bagworms Destructive in Missouri, L. Haseman (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Circular 92 (1920), pp. 4, figs. 4). — This circular deals with the ever- green bagworm which is periodically destructive in the state. The life history of the pest is given, and control measures suggested. The Missouri Poultry House, H. L. Kempster (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Circular 93 (1920), pp. 9, figs. 8). — This circular is descriptive of the Mis- souri Poultry house which was designed by the Poultry Department of the College of Agriculture to meet the demand for a house of such size as to accommodate the average Missouri farm flock and also be adapted to Missouri conditions. Plans and specifications for building are provided, and the valuable features of the house described. The European Corn Borer, E. Haseman (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir- cular 94 (1920), pp. 4, figs. 1). — A description of the European corn borer, 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 its life history and methods for control, as well as a brief statement of the Missouri quarantine against the pest, are provided in this circular. Growing Late Potatoes, J. T. Rosa, Jr. (Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir- cular 95 (1920), pp. 4). — What varieties of Irish potatoes to select for late planting, how to plant and cultivate them, both for table use and for seed purposes the following spring are discussed in this circular. Harvesting and storing are also touched upon. CONTRIBUTIONS TO SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS AND PERIODICALS C. R. Moulton — Journal Biol. Chemistry Aug. 1920. Biochemical changes in the flesh of beef animals during partial starvation. L. S. Palmer and H. L. Kempster — September Issue of the Journal Biological Chemistry. Vol. 39 No. 2 Sept. 1919. “Relation of Plant Caro- tinoids to Growth, Fecundity, and Reproduction of Fowls.” “The Physio- logical Relation Between Fecundity and the Natural Yellow Pigmentation of Certain Breeds of Fowls.” “The Influence of Specific Feeds and Certain Pigments on the Color of the Eye, Yolk, and Body Fat of Fowls.” H. L. Kempster — Journal, American Association of Instructors and In- vestigators in Poultry Husbandry. “The Physiological Relation Between Fecundity and the Natural Yellow Pigmentation of Certain Breeds of Fowls.” F. B. Mumford — Wallace’s Farmer, May 21, 1920. “Effect of Early Breeding of Swine. ' J. T. Rosa, Jr. — Prac. Annex Soc. Hort. Sci. 16, 190, 197, December, 1919, “Nature of Hardening in Vegetable Plants.” J. T. Rosa, Jr. — Prac. American Botanical Soc. December 1919. “Effect of Hardening on the Chemical Composition of Tomato, Lettuce, and Cab- bage Plant.” DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLICATIONS The mailing list for Experiment Station publications is divided into seven classifications wdth a total of 14,576 names. The classes are: Com- mercial fertilizers, dairy husbandry, animal husbandry, farm crops and soils, horticulture, poultry, and home economics. More than 102,000 copies of Station publications were distributed from the mailing room last year. Of this number, about tw r o-thirds were sent to persons whose names appear on the classified mailing lists. The remainder were sent in answer to indi- vidual requests. The demand for publications has been increasing annually. Slightly fewer were mailed out this year than last, yet the demand has not been reduced. Anticipating a more conservative mailing policy, a number of publications distributed toward the close of the year were not sent to the classified lists. Had these been mailed in keeping with the former policy, the year’s total would have been greater. The increased demand has largely come through the increasing agricultural interest in high schools and a return to approximately normal attendance in the agricultural colleges throughout the United States. Also every increase in the boys’ and girls’ What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 11 club enrollment in the Agricultural Extension Service of the College is usually reflected to some degree in the distribution of Station publications. It was a determination to meet the demands of those really needing the publications that caused the curtailment of distribution to the classified lists. A Mailing List The Missouri Station has had in force for some time, rules which seem a little more conservative and made for more economy in the distribution of publications than those in force at other experiment stations. A survey of all experiment stations in the United States to determine this point was made by the questionnaire method. This survey supported the advanced policy already in force by the Missouri Station and argued for an even more advanced step in conservation — that of mailing publications only on request. This policy is in force in three experiment station mailing rooms and others have the step under advisement. It is not the intention of this Station to withhold publications from any one who desires them, but the increased cost of printing, which has re- acted in a manner similar to a reduction in the appropriations for publica- tions, makes strict economy necessary. PROGRESS OF INVESTIGATIONAL WORK It has been customary for a number of years to make brief progress reports of investigations in the Experiment Station. Only the more im- portant investigations are summarized in this report of active work. Such a report has value in indicating the character of investigations and the prog- ress which is being made from year to year. There has been some dis- turbance of the Experiment Station activities due to the general unrest after the war. Such disturbance has not been serious and the work accom- plished has on the whole been satisfactory. It should be clearly understood that the summaries presented herewith are not complete records of all the work undertaken by the departments named. They do represent the major projects and are therefore, indicative of the achievements of the Station staff during the year. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Use of Feed Experiments (C. R. Moulton, W. S. Ritchie, L. D. Haigh). — The data is being studied and interpreted for publication. The accom- panying charts indicate the growth that may be expected of normal beef animals from birth to four years of age when fed (1) all they will eat, (2) a ration for maximum growth without much fattening and (3) a ration rep- resenting poor farm conditions.. The first group gained rapidly and weighed on the average of about 2000 pounds at four years. The other groups weighed about 1000 to 1200 pounds respectively. This method of feeding made no difference in the height of the animals but decreased the length about 10 to 12 percent. The circumference of the chest at the region of the heart was decreased 20 to 25 per cent. The charts presented should serve as a measure of the growth of a steer of the Hereford-Shorthorn type.. They set a standard to which the performance of any steer can be compared. 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 Weights of Steers as Influenced by Age of Animal and amount of Feed. Heights of Steers as Influenced by Age of Animal and Amount of Feed. What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 13 Chest Girth of Steers as Influenced by Age of Animal and Amount of Feed. Length of Steers as Influenced by Age of Animal and Amount of Feed. 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING An Investigation of Sanitary Conditions on Farms and Experiments to Determine the Best Types of Sanitary Equipment (Mack M. Jones, E. W. Lehmann). — The sanitary, social and economic survey of farms in Ashland Community, Howard County, Missouri, has been completed and the results have been filed for publication. Investigation to Determine the Dra£t of Various Farm Implements (Mack M. Jones). — Draft tests have been made to determine the influence of speed upon the draft and power consumption of plows. The tests were made on the State Farm at Columbia, Missouri, in June, 1920, on a soil which is classified as a Putnam silt loam. The ground had been in corn the previous year. It was plowed in the fall of 1919, but during the winter the ground became compact, and in the following spring a heavy growth of weeds came up. The ground was prepared for the tests by double disking, followed by harrowing and rolling with a culti-packer. This put the ground into excellent plowing condition. All factors affecting the draft and power consumption of plows,, except speed, were kept as nearly constant as pos- sible. These tests were made on an Oliver (Xo. 273) two-bottom, 12-inch general purpose plow. A Moline tractor pulled the plow at various speeds, and an Iowa integrating dynamometer was used to measure the draft and the work done during each test, each individual test covering a distance of fifty feet. The time required to pull the plow the test distance was meas- ured with a stop watch. From the work done and the time required to do it, the power developed was calculated. In order to make the tests more valuable, they were started at the same point on each round. Thus data were secured on strips of ground that lay parallel to each other. The data secured were compiled and the results plotted in the form of curves with horsepower as ordinated against rate of travel in miles per hour as abscissae. From the curves the following table of averages was made, the draft being calculated from the value of horsepower. Average Results of First Series of Tests per Hour, Miles Draft Pounds Horsepower 1.5 725 2.90 2.0 758 4.04 2.5 795 5.30 3.0 844 6.75 3.5 894 8.34 4.0 946 10.09 4.5 996 11.95 The results show that increasing the plowing speed increased the draft and the power consumption of the plow very materially. In these tests an increase of the plowing speed from two to three miles per hour (which in- creased the work done 50 per cent) increased the draft 11.3 per cent and increased the power consumption 67 per cent; and an increase of the plow- ing speed from two to four miles per hour (which increased the work done 100 per cent) increased the draft 24.8 per cent and increased the power con- sumption 149.5 per cent. What the Station Is Doing for Missouri ANIMAL HUSBANDRY A Study of the Effects of the Periods of Gestation and Lactation Upon the Growth and Composition of Swine (F. B. Mumford). — A thesis has been written by J. H. Longwell entitled, “The Influence on the Period of Gesta- tion and Lactatoin of Early Swine.” Heavy and Light Grain Rations When Fed in Connection With Corn Silage and Clover Hay for Fattening Steers (E. A. Trowbridge). — Forty head of steers were marketed at Chicago on May 17 , 1920 . The object of this experiment was to determine the effect of the increased use of corn silage and limitation or elimination of shelled corn in the ration for fattening two-year-old cattle for market.. An added object of this year’s L,ot V, fed a maximum amount of silage and alfalfa hay • and, in addition, linseed oil meal during the last sixty days of the feeding period. test was to secure data concerning cattle which received, during the first half of their feeding period, only corn silage and alfalfa hay. Each lot of cattle shows a loss; ranging from $ 19.97 per steer for Lot 5 which was fed corn silage and alfalfa hay throughout the test and linseed oil cake (peasize) during the last sixty days, to $ 34.12 per head for Lot 1 which was full fed for the entire period on shelled corn oil cake, corn silage and alfalfa hay. These results generally agree with results of previous work, showing an advantage on the present markets in favor of extensive use of corn silage and an elimination or reduction of shelled corn. The following table shows the ration and loss per steer in each lot: 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 Summary of Steer Feeding Trial — 1920 Lot 1 II III IV V Number of steers 8 8 8 8 8 Average initial weight in pounds 923 919 907 917 906 Average final weight in pounds 1264.5 1205.9 1161.5 1174.2 1144.5 Average daily gain per steer, in pounds.. 2.85 2.39 2.12 2.14 1.99 Average daily ration per steer, in pounds 16.10 *15.58 *15.54 Linseed oil cake 2.76 2.78 2.78 2.61 *2.61 Alfalfa hay 2.46 2.87 3.09 2.76 3.05 Corn silage 21.82 34.17 47.55 34.52 48.04 Cost of feed per steer $80.39 $62.31 $45.83 $55.42 $39.27 Necessary selling price in lots $15.23 $14.43 $13.44 $14.21 $13.06 Gain nn hogs per steer, in pounds 62.00 14.88 14.25 Pork credit per steer (crediting gain on hogs at $14 00 per cwt.) $ 8.68 $ 2.08 $ 2.00 Cost of gain per 100 lbs. on steers (credit ing gain on hogs at $14.00 cwt.) $21.00 $20.99 $18.01 $20.76 $16.46 Necessary selling price in lots crediting pork produced $14.55 $14.26 $13.44 $14.05 $13.06 Selling price in Chicago $12.90 $12.50 $12.00 $12.60 $12.25 Shrinkage in shipment, pounds per head.. 43.25 29.65 34.00 27.95 30.25 Dressing percentages 61.48 59.90 58.08 60.50 58.38 Net loss per steer (pork credited) $34.12 $32.71 $27.80 $28.27 $19.97 *Lot II fed corn only last 60 days, average taken only for the time fed. *Lot IV fed corn and linseed oil cake only last 60 days, average taken only for time fed. *Lot V fed linseed oil cake only last 60 days, average taken only for time fed. Hogging Down Corn and Soybeans (L. A. Weaver). — Five lots were hogged down and the additional ration fed as shown in the following table: Plot Crop Additional Feed 1 Corn and Soybeans 2 Corn 3 Corn and Soybeans 4 Corn 5 Corn and Soybeans Tankage Tankage None None None The soybeans in the plots 1 and 3 were planted in the rows at the same time the corn was planted. In the plot 5 the crop was planted by having two rows of corn and two rows of soybeans alternating. This year’s results indicate: First, that either corn alone or corn and soybeans may be satisfactorily harvested by hogging down. Second, that the feeding of tankage in a self-feeder to hogs on corn materially increases the rate of gain, and in this case, also, the economy of gain. That is, the hogs not only gained more rapidly but the gain was cheaper. Third, that soybeans planted in the corn at last cultivation helped to balance the corn; for when What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 17 the crop is hogged down, the combination thereby increases both rate and economy of gain. Fourth, that when soybeans are used in this manner, they will not completely take the place of tankage. Fifth, that an acre of corn pastured off with hogs will produce more pork, if tankage is fed in ad- dition, than will an acre of corn and soybeans hogged down without addi- tional supplement.. These results cannot be considered conclusive since they are only for one year. Growth and Development of Draft Colts (E. A. Trowbridge, D. W. Chittenden). — The amount of feed required to grow a draft horse from Growth of Draft Colts. On left: Meana spring 1920, filly making greatest gain through first period of test. On right; Chatonias spring 1920, colt making smallest gain through first period of test. Foals on Growth of Draft Colts test, Dec. 15, 1919. 18 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 weaning time until old enough to work is one of the important factors in the production of horses. This experiment is concerned with the feed con- sumed by draft horses raised under approximately farm conditions and fed to secure liberal growth and condition. Seven purebred Percheron foals are being used in this test. The group consists of four fillies and three colts gelded in the spring of 1920. The foals were fed what grain they would eat while nursing their mothers. No group divisions were made since all the foals were to be treated in the same manner. The first period of the experiment extended from September 26, 1919, to May 1 , 1920. When the colts were turned on blue grass pasture, the second period was begun. The following is a summary of the results of the first period: Average initial weight 506.5 lbs. Average final weight ; 836.5 lbs. Average total gain per colt per period 330.0 lbs. Average daily gain per colt 1.51 lbs. Average daily ration per colt grain 6.75 lbs. 2 parts crushed oats 2 parts crushed corn 1 part bran Hay, choice alfalfa 7.47 lbs. Total feed per colt for the period Corn .1 1 10.56 bus. Oats 18.5 bus ( . Bran 295.8 lbs. Alfalfa hay 1600 lbs. Corn Silage as a Part Ration for Horses of Various Ages (E. A. Trow- bridge, D. W. Chittenden). — Six mares were fed from January 15 to Feb- ruary 26, 1920, on a grain 'ration of two parts shelled oats, tw r o parts shelled corn and one part wheat bran. Oats straw w r as fed as a roughage in the morning and corn silage as a roughage in the evening. These mares were not worked but were kept in the barn at night and allowed to exercise in a dry lot during the day. A summary of the data secured follows: Length of Trial No. horses on trial Average initial weight Average final weight - - =• Average gain for period Average daily ration of grain Average daily consumption of oats straw Average daily consumption of silage 6 weeks 6 1498 lbs. 1513 lbs. 15 lbs. 9.49 lbs. 8.08 lbs. 15 lbs. It will be observed that the ration was practically a maintenance ration, although the mares gained slightly. These mares were in good working condition throughout the trail. All of the horses on the test ate silage readily from the beginning. During the two previous years, some difficulty had been experienced in get- ting some of the horses to eat silage but such was not the case this year. Age as a Factor in Animal Breeding (F. B. Mumford). — This project has now been in progress nearly ten years. Factor 90, from the second What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 19 litter of Factor 80, represents the ninth generation of the immature group and has farrowed two litters during the year, the first litter on June 25th, 1919, and the second litter February 6th, 1920. Factor 80 had no sow pigs in her first litter. During the year, forty pigs were farrowed and thirty- three were raised. The five pigs in the accompanying photographs are from the fifth litter of Factor 70, representing the eighth generation of continued early breed- ing. This litter averaged 44 pounds at eight weeks of age, and reached 250 pounds in 290 days. Fifth litter of Factor 70, in eighth generation of continued early breeding. Factors Influencing the Rate of Growth in Domestic Animals and the Permancency of the Effects of Arrested Development (F. B. Mumford, D. W. Chittenden and J. H. Longwell). — There are ten steers under observa- tion in this experiment. These steers are divided into three groups. Group I comprises the animals fed for “maximum growth,” and the daily gains of each animal in this lot approximate 0.8 pound per day. This permits a fairly rapid development, but precludes a marked deposition of fat. The steers in group II receive a less liberal ration, and each makes daily gains 20 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 of about 0.5 pound. The steers in group III are given a decidedly limited ration, and the average daily gain is restricted to a little over 0.3 lb. per head. These steers are six years old and represent each of the three nutritive planes. All are increasing in stature, but this rate of growth seems subject Steer 579 is in Group II; steer 5S5 is in Group III, and steer 52S in Group 1. to the individuality of the animals. Numbers 528 (I) and 579 (II) are ap- parently growing at the maximum rate permitted by their respective planes of nutrition. Number 585 (III), however, is considerably shorter and more compact than the other two and has a relatively thicker covering. What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 21 The following table shows the development of typical steer of each group during past year. All measurements are in centimeters Number of steers and Number of group Steer 528 Group I Steer 579 Group II Steer 585 Group III Date of measurements 6/3/19-6/3/20 6/3/19-6/3/20 6/3/19-6/3/20 Height at withers 140.5-145.0 136.5-139.0 124.5-128.0 Height at point midway between top hip points 142.0-144.5 137.5-140.0 127.5-129.5 Depth of chest 76.0- 77.5 67.5- 69.0 59.5- 63.5 Width of chest 41.0- 43.5 33.0- 34.5 29.0- 36.0 Uength of foreleg, elbow to ground 81.0- 82.0 82.0- 84.0 73.0- 77.0 Distance from withers to line between top hip points 101.0-106.0 106.0-110.0 89.0- 99.0 Width of hips 56.5- 60.5 47.5- 49.5 43.0- 47.5 BOTANY A Study of Certain Fusarial Diseases of Plants (E. F. Hopkins). — The two diseases corn root-rot and wheat scab have been studied principally although observations have also been made on two other fusarial diseases, tomato-wilt and cabbage yellow. Corn Root-Rot : The experimental results indicate: (1) That corn seed from an apparently healthy ear may harbor fungous mycelium. (2) The mycelium is located near the tip of the grain in the darkened layer covering the scutellum. (3) Six different organisms, some of them fusaria, have been found commonly associated with these infected areas. (4) Some of these organisms are pathorganic being capable of invading the tissue of living, healthy corn roots under laboratory conditions. Wheat Scab: The work on wheat scab during the past year includes: (1) A complete review and summary of the literature, on wheat scab has been made. (2) Data concerning the regional distribution and amount of damage caused by wheat scab has been summarized. In 1919, the average amount of scab as determined from a large number of counts in 40 coun- ties was 4.0 per cent. The highest per cent, 25.6, was reported from Harrison County. The average amount this year was about 5.8 per cent. Wheat scab this season was more severe in Southeast Missouri than in any other section of the state. (3) Isolations from fungi from specimens of scabby wheat from various parts of Missouri showed that 75 per cent of the isolations were pure cultures from a fusarium of the Giberella type and of these over half formed perethecia of Gibberella saubinettii in culture. In pot experiments with wheat seedlings, infection was obtained. Preliminary experiments have been performed on the relation of the growth of wheat scab organism to hydrogen ion concentration with a view to the practical control of the disease. 22 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 A Study of the Metabolism of Roots (W. J. Robbins, W. E. Maneval). — This investigation was designed to determine whether any other mate- rials, in addition to the essential mineral salts and water obtained from the soil solution, oxygen obtained from the air and carbohydrate obtained from the plant top, are required for the growth and development of the root. A method has been developed for the growth of root tips or stem tips under sterile controlled conditions which will permit a direct attack on the problems indicated. DAIRY Nutrition of Heifers — Raising Calves on Milk Substitutes (A. C. Rags- dale, Chas. W. Turner). — Putting Calves on a hay and grain ration at the age of 60 days. The work done at this Station to determine if normal gains can be secured with calves if taken off skimmilk at 60 days of age, has been continued during the winter. The calves were weighed every ten days and measured every thirty days. These weights and measurements were com- pared with the normal weights and measurements for the breed as worked out at this Station. The plan followed has been to get the calves to take a good ration of skimmilk with some hay and grain- For the first two weeks after birth, a small calf, such as a Jersey received from 8 to 10 pounds of milk daily. This should be fed in two or three feeds per day. When the calves were two weeks old, they were gradually changed from a ration of whole milk to a ration of skimmilk by substituting an equal amount of skimmilk for each portion of whole milk removed. The substitution was completed in a week or ten days. The calves were fed liberally on this plan until 60 days of age. At 60 days of age, the actual experiment began. The milk was decreased daily until at 65 days of age, they were receiving only grain and hay. The rations fed were as follows: Tot T, soybean hay as a roughage aid a grain mixture composed of corn chops, four parts; wheat bran, one part, and oil meal, one part by weight. Lot II, alfalfa hay as a roughage and a grain mixture similar to the first with the exception that one part soy- bean meal replaced the oil meal. Lot I, fed soybean hay, made average daily gain of 1.05 pounds which is 71.24 per cent of normal gains for this age. They averaged 13.2 cm. gain in height which is 69.67 per cent of the normal gain in height* As the experiment progressed the animals fed soybean hay were easily distin- guished by their vigorous appearance and smooth, sleek coats of hair. Lot II made average daily gains of 0.59 pounds which is only 39.47 per cent of normal gain in weight for this age. Their average gain in height was only 8.33 cm. during the period which is only 45.09 per cent of the normal gain. For some reason not yet determined the calves in Lot II did not eat alfalfa in as large quantity as previously even though the amount of grain was limited to five pounds a day. This seems to be the limiting factor in their growth rather than the fact that soybean meal replaced the oil meal in the grain mixture. Factors Affecting the Composition of Milk. — Factors Influencing the Per Cent and Quantity of Milk of Cows on Official Test (A. C. Ragsdale, What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 23 W. W. Swett). — During the winter 1919-20, six cows were selected from the dairy herd. They were divided into two groups, each group containing one Jersey, one Holstein, and one Ayrshire. They were not fresh but were in the first half of their lactation period. Group one showed a very decided increase of fat in milk when the ration was reduced one-half. The high point occurred either the second or third day after the reduction was made and almost immediately dropped back toward normal and remained considerable above normal the rest of the period. As soon as the cows of this group were put back on full feed, the test in each case went down very rapidly and remained considerably below normal during the entire ten day period. The daily average tests fluctuated considerably; but the result in every case was a rapid rise in test when feed was cut to half, followed by a rapid drop in test when full feed was again furnished. The amount of milk varied almost directly with the amount of feed given. Body temperatures were taken three times each day. The changes did not have any appreciable effect on these tempera- tures. Group II did not show any noticeable change when the amount of protein was reduced from 50 per cent excess to 50 per cent of requirements by a sudden change in the character of the ration. Neither was the test affected when the ration was again put back to the preliminary ration which furnished slightly above requirements in both protein and energy. In order to check Group II and Group I, the cows were cut to a ration furnishing exactly one-half requirements in both protein and energy. The effect was not quite as extreme as with Group I but checked fairly well with it. The quantity of milk produced by cows in Group II showed a tendency to drop only slightly while the cows were on excessive protein, to drop appreciably and steadily while the protein was 50 per cent of require- ments, to steadily increase as the full feed was reduced and to drop again decidedly when the entire ration was cut to half requirements in the last period. The body temperature was not affected by any of the manipula- tions of the tests. Protein Requirements for Growth (W. W. Swett, A. C. Ragsdale). — Practically no difference in the results this year have been noticed between the Holstein and Jersey breeds. They seem to adjust themselves quite well to new experimental conditions and rations. All of the animals on experiment during the year have been on a mixed ration made up of com- mon dairy feeds, except that starch was used in varying amounts to help balance the ration by furnishing energy. Two animals have been on a 35 per cent protein plane. One of these was a Holstein and one was a Jersey. In neither case, was normal growth secured. Apparently this is an excess of protein which cannot be used by the animals in promoting growth. The animals used during the year have been slightly above normal in size. The average figures reported indicate that on the average 101.4 per cent of normal in weight and 100.6 per cent of normal in skeleton measurements. Increases in the ration in some cases have been brought about by increasing the protein and in other cases by leaving the protein unchanged and giving an excess of energy ranging from 15 to 50 per cent above the requirements. Silage Investigation (A. C. Ragsdale, C. W. Turner). — Studies on the 24 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 comparison of loss of nutrients in the silo and in the field have been con- tinued during the past year. The corn was cut in September, 1919, and at that time adjoining rows were used. A certain number of rows were cut and shocked in the field. To protect them from loss, they were screened in by and surrounded by a 12-inch plank buried in the ground to keep out the birds and rodents. The weather during the year was about average. Silo No. 2 showed a loss of 3.06 per cent in weight. The loss in No. 1, 14.84 per cent was greater, due probably to the fact that the silage was spoiled down six to eight inches below the wire. The ensilage in silo No. 3 composed of corn and soybeans grown to- gether showed a loss in weight of 5.22 per cent. Silo No. 4 filled with stover from Learning corn sustained a loss of only 1.83 per cent of its- weight. The average per cent of loss of the four silos was 6.24. The Effect of Each Ingredient in the Manufacture of Ice Cream (Wm. H. E. Reid). — This project necessitated the erecting of considerable new equipment. This equipment was constructed and set up and has proved very efficient. Ice cream freezers were constructed which would freeze four batches of ice cream at the same time, under the same conditions. Ap- paratus for determining the hardness of the ice cream when varied amounts of one or more ingredients, were used. A viscosity determinator was used in making the comparison of the heaviness and lightness of each mixture in the experiment, and for determining the standard melting period a melt- ing vat with a galvanized iron water jacket on the outside. The following problems were completed: 1. Uniformity of Maximum Overrun at Different Brine Temperatures. — A series of freezings were made to show that the amount of sugar added to the mixture has a direct relation to the ultimate swell or overrun of the finished ice cream. Five different mixtures were used, the percentage of sugar varying from 8 to 16 per cent. In order that the relation of the temperature of the brine to the maximum swell might be made plain, two different brine temperatures were made. The increase of sugar gave an increase of time required to freeze, which proved to be greater with the higher percentages than with a lower per- centage of sugar. Increase of sugar content from 10 to 12 per cent changed freezing time from 15 to 16 minutes; while raising sugar content from 14 to 16 per cent resulted in an increase in time to freeze of from 18 to 23 minutes. There was an increase of 4.3 per cent in overrun of the mixture containing 12 per cent sugar over that of mixture containing but 8 per cent sugar. A loss of 4.3 per cent was noted in comparing mixtures containing 12 to 16 per cent sugar, due to the use of an excessive amount of sugar. Maximum swell obtained when 12 per cent of sugar was added to the mix- ture. Freezing with the brine at 26 degrees F. gave practically parallel results with those obtained when freezing with the brine at a temperature of 23 degrees F. except that the higher brine temperature retarded the time of freezing. The temperature of the finished ice cream lowered as the per- centage of sugar was increased, showing that additional sugar lowers the freezing point. The difference in temperature of brine did not affect the What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 25 relative curve of the maximum swell. Sugar was the principal factor influencing the swell of the mixture. 2. The Effect of Increased Percentages of Sugar on the Hardness of Ice Cream . — It was noted that there was a gradual increase in the depth of penetration with each additional 2 per cent of sugar. The depth of penetration when 16 per cent sugar was added to the mixture was nearly double to that secured when 8 per cent of sugar was used. The greatest resistance was offered when 8 per cent sugar was added to the mixture, the least when 16 per cent was added. The addition of syrup to the mixture gave a resistance equal to the resistance offered when 10 per cent of sugar was added. 3. Determination of the Time Required for Creams With Different Per- centages of Sugar to Melt Under Summer Conditions . — A constant melt- ing temperature was maintained. Tempering each brick eliminated any error that would enter in case the bricks were not of uniform temperature. Percentage loss in the case of the brick containing 16 per cent sugar was 12 per cent greater than that in the 8 per cent sample. One outstanding result is the direct correlation in the melting of the brick with 8 per cent sugar plus 4 per cent syrup and the brick with 12 per cent sugar only. Con- cluded that a brick of ice cream retaining greatest weight following the standard melting period of four hours had the highest melting resistence and proved best adapted for commercial use. A sugar content increased above 10 per cent weakened the body of the ice cream. Ice cream containing 10 per cent sugar had the best holding-up qualities. One brick of each was secured at the end of the first and seventh days, during which time the bricks were held at a constant temperature. Settling out of sugar increased with each additional increment of sugar. Notes: There was a direct relation between the percentage of sugar added to a mixture and the hardness of the finished ice cream. The addi- tion of syrup to the mixture gave the ice cream a greater resisting power. The quantity of sugar used in a mixture determined the length of time the ice cream would hold up when exposed to summer temperatures. Ten per cent of sugar gave an ice cream that offered the maximum resistance to a standard summer temperature. Syrup has a resisting power equal to that of sugar. When 14 per cent and 16 per cent was added to the mixture, the resisting power was greatly reduced, offering the least resisting power of all batches. Each additional per cent of sugar added to the mixture lessened its factor of resistance. If ice cream is to be held for several days, the addi- tion of syrup will retard the settling out of fat and sugar. Syrup should not be used in quantities larger than 4 per cent because of its giving to the ice cream a syrupy and bitter flavor. The Effect of Each of the Normal Constituents of Butter Upon Its Keeping Qualities (A. C. Dahlberg, Percy Werner). — The purpose of this experiment is to locate in which constituents the off-flavors in butter de- velope, and if possible to determine the factors in butter to lessen the pro- duction of these off-flavors. A high quality butter was prepared, primarily of butter fat and water. The keeping quality of the fat could thus be ob- tained and each normal ingredient of butter could then be introduced at 26 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 one time, and its effect noted. Four samples of cream were treated as follows: 1. Normal cream not treated in any way. 2. One part cream diluted with 10 parts water and separated at a tem- perature of 40 degrees F. A fat test on the skimmilk part showed an ex- cessive fat loss and the temperature had to be raised to avoid this. The separated cream was again diluted one-tenth and separated at 100 degrees F. The separated cream was again diluted one-tenth and separated a fourth time at 100 degrees F. The skimmilk now appeared almost as clear as water and the cream looked like an oil emulsion. 3. Treated like No. 2 except that it was diluted and separated only twice each time at 100 degrees F. 4. Treated like No. 3 but diluted one part cream to 15 parts water, and the cream screw of the separator was turned in enough to give the de- sired richness of cream. The object of this greater dilution was to get a more thorough washing out of the solids not fat. The results show that the unaltered butter had the best keeping quality and batch No. 2 had the poor- est. These results are due to the increased air content of the butter. But- ter from batch No. 3 and 4 was somewhat mottled. ENTOMOLOGY An Investigatoin of the Hessian Fly Resistant Qualities of Different Varieties of Wheat (L. Haseman, S. R. McLane). — The following varieties were grown in drill width plots in the fields here at Columbia to check up further on the results secured last year in the insectory. Ziegler’s Choice Turkey Kanred Poole Fultz The percentage of fall fly infestation was determined in November and the yield has just recently been determined, as follows: Variety Ziegler’s Choice Kanred Turkey Poole Fultz Fall Infestation 0 . 2.6 % 1.5 % 1.8 % 0.05 % Acreage Yield 22 bu. 28 bu. 20 bu. 24 bu. 23 bu. The infestations at Columbia were light this past year which accounts for the low infestation records. In earlier experiments Kanred and Turkey have shown high susceptibility, Poole and Fultz average susceptibility and Ziegler’s choice slight susceptibility. Past results show clearly that the different strains of wheat vary great- ly as regards susceptibility to fly attack. During the year we have been trying to determine what chemical, physical or physiological factors pos- sessed by the wheat plant influence susceptibility. A study is being made including the anatomy and glandular secretions of the fly larva and the cellular response of the wheat plant to the work of the larva. The resistant What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 27 strains receive an abundant supply of fly eggs but later few or no flies mature from these eggs while six inches away on a susceptible strain the fly matures abundantly. It seems entirely likely that some common factor will be found to be responsible for this and that varietal resistance may be utilized in field in fly control. The following table shows clearly the relative susceptibility of a num- ber of common strains as determined from a large series of plantings in the insectory a year ago. Variety Per cent plants with eggs No. eggs to 100 plants Per cent infestation No. flax seeds to 100 plants Illinois Chief 39 78 5 6 Zieglers’ Choice 37 7 14 Mediterranean 37 79 10 18 Beechwood Hybrid .... 28 48 14 22 Michigan Wonder 48 102 14 23 Fulcaster 50 120 14 23 Dietz 53 255 18 48 Fultz 47 If 6 20 32 Michigan Amber 41 176 23 42 Currell 27 47 Turkey 45 151 28 46 Dawson Golden Chaff 30 44 Nigger 30 56 Kharkov 33 56 Early Ripe -47 94 Fultz-Mediterranean ... 49 135 Miracle .... 50 93 An Investigation to Determine the Life History, Development and Habits of the Com Ear Worm and Practical Methods of Controlling Its Ravages (L. Haseman, K. C. Sullivan, S. R. McLane). — Ten varieties of field corn, one variety of pop corn and two varieties of sweet corn were each treated with the solution of lead arsenate (1 pound dry arsenate to 50 gallons of water). Other plants of these varieties were dusted with equal parts of dry arsenate of lead and hydrated lime. Others were left untreated as a check. These treatments did not give any special results. The Annual Life Cycle of the Hessian Fly in Missouri and Its Control (L. Haseman, K. C. Sullivan, S. R. McLane). — Outlying plots have been maintained at Maryville on the grounds of the State Teachers’ College; at Kirksville on the ground of the State Teachers’ College; at Springfield by Mr. Bennett, at Lebanon by Mr. Johnson; at Webster Groves by Mr. Christ Toft and at Altenburg by Mr. Jacobs. With the exception of the plots at Kirksville, valuable data have been secured this year from each of the outlying fields and from the plots at Columbia. From six to eight seed- lings at intervals of a week were made. In November from each plot 25 linear yards of wheat plants were col- lected and examined to determine fall infestation. In every case, plots seeded on or after the fly-free date showed no' effective 1 fall fly infestation. 28 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 Owing to the early ripening and cutting of the plots at Centerview, Altenburg and Charleston no samples were secured to determine the yield as affected by the date of seeding last summer. Maryville Plots : — The plot No. 2 seeded two weeks before the fly free date gave the maximum yield tho it was but slightly larger than that from plot No. 4 seeded on the fly free date. Carrollton Plots : — The maximum yield came from plot No. 3 seeded one week before the fly free date and from plot No. 6 seeded two weeks after the fly free date. Plot No. 1 seeded three weeks before the fly free date gave the minimum yield. Columbia Plots : — Plot No. 3 seeded one week before the fly free date gave the maximum yield being considerably more than that from both earlier and later seedings. Springfield Plots : — The maximum yield came from plot No. 6 seeded two weeks after the fly free date. It was considerably more than the yield from plots No. 3 and No. 5 the next heavier yielding plots, seeded respec- tively one week before and one week after the fly free date. Lebanon Plots : — The yields from these plots were small beginning with plot No. 1 and gradually decreasing in amounts until plot no 6 seeded two weeks after the fly free date. The results of this year’s work largely substantiate earlier results. A Study of the Life Cycle of the Codling Moth and the Best Time and Method of Applying Insecticides for Controlling It (L. Haseman, S. R. McLane). — Chemical tests for amounts of arsenate of lead placed in calyx cups by using different nozzles and pressures were made. The pressures were of 100, 150 and 200 pounds. A spray gun, a Bordeaux nozzle and a Disc nozzle were used. After applying the spray, young apples were col- lected and prepared for determining first which treatment places most poison in the outer calyx cup and which most in the inner calyx cup. The following table gives the results of these trials: Nozzle Pressure Number of Cups Outer Cup Poison, % Inner Cup Poison, % Gun 250 lbs. 450 24.610 1.128 Bordeaux 250 lbs. 400 16.184 1.353 Disc 250 lbs. 410 20.852 1.006 Gun 150 lbs. 450 15.066 1.627 Bordeaux 150 lbs. 450 20.635 1.013 Disc 150 lbs. 450 9.756 1.249 Gun 100 lbs. 250 12.645 0.510 Bordeaux 100 lbs. 250 8.635 1.433 Disc 100 lbs. 250 7.800 2.660 From these results it is apparent, as our earlier results also show, that very high pressure and a coarse nozzle is not necessary for placing the poi- son down in the inner calyx cup. A pressure of from 75 to 150 pounds and a reasonably fine mist nozzle like the Disc will place as much or more What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 29 poison in the inner calyx cup than a higher pressure and a coarser nozzle. This does not agree with much of the earlier writings and theories regard- ing spraying but repeated careful experiments both in Missouri and New York including chemical tests of the contents of cups of sprayed blossoms convince us that this is true. Life History of Codling Moth. — In connection with the life history work it has been found that in a cool cellar the overwintering apple worms may be prevented from maturing until July first following: the moth com- ing out with the normal July or second brood of moths. An Investigation to Determine What Insects Are Injurious to Nurs- ery Stock in This State, Their Life Histories, Distribution, Injury and Methods of Control (L. Haseman, K. C. Sullivan, S. R. McLane.) — ian Jose Scale. — The spring and summer months of 1919 were very favorable for the development of San Jose scale. The Experimental Nursery at Columbia, Missouri, showed a decided increase in the number and the distribution of the pest. As a result of the favorable season for scale, eight nurseries were found infested in 1919. Other Insects. — The wooly aphis ranks second to the San Jose scale as a destructive pest to nursery stock in Missouri. Fifteen nurseries were found infested with this insect. The growth of apple trees in thirty nurseries was hindered considerably by the work of the apple leaf hopper. Apple tree and peach tree borers were found in four nurseries. Thirteen strawberry beds were slightly dam- aged by the strawberry leaf roller. The strawberry crown borer was doing extensive injury to five old strawberry beds. Eight nurseries were found slightly damaged by the tarnished plant bug. Bag worms were found in eleven nurseries. Other insects found doing only a small amount of damage were: grape leaf folder, fall web worm, canker worm, Forbes scale, oystershell scale, grasshoppers, and catalpa sphinx moth. Thirteen Year Cicada. — Inspectors this year expect to find a few nurseries which are located in wooden districts to be damaged to a more or less extent by the thirteen year cicada, the distribution of which was widespread throughout Missouri during the spring moths of 1920. Foreign Inspection. — Three nests of brown tail moth, one of the most destructive pests to trees and shrubs, were found in a shipment of nursery stock from France. These nests of caterpillars were carefully destroyed in order that there would be no chance for the insect to gain a foothold in Missouri. Bag worms were found in three foreign shipments of stock. Several specimens of Epidiaspis piricola were found in one shipment. Six cases of narcissus bulbs were infested with mites. Injurious Insect Pests of Melon and Related Crops (L. Haseman). — Tests of insecticides were made only in controlling the striped cucumber beetle and the melon louse. Striped Cucumber Beetle. — By keeping the young plants dusted with dry arsenate of lead from the time the plants come up until they began to vine this pest was effectively controlled. Likewise one tablespoon of dry arsenate of lead to one gallon of water or one pound to fifty gallons of 30 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 water used as a spray gave equally good results. By supplementing the use of arsenate of lead, with hand picking in this morning, when the beetles are less active, soon after the beetles first begin to attack the plants, much better results were obtained than where the insecticide alone was used. Melon Louse . — The louse feeding by extracting sap from the plant is not affected by arsenical insecticides though a contract spray readily controls it. Nicotine sulphate has proved most effective. When used at the rate of one tablespoon to one gallon of water or one part to five hun- dred parts of water the pest is quickly controlled. Soap added to the solu- tion makes it work more quickly, however, the local hard water makes the nicotine sulphate sufficiently volatile to kill both by contact and as fumes. FIELD CROPS A Study of the Adaptations of the Important Varieties of Corn for Missouri Conditions (W. C. Etheridge, C. A. Helm).— The only important feature of the 1919 studies of the adaptatoin of varieties of corn was the comparison of the Southern prolific varieties with some of the leading “native” varieties, in Southwest Missouri. The results of last year and the two preceding years in the comparison of these varieties follow: Variety Yields in bushels of grain per acre 1917 1918 1919 Average Prolific types Biggs Seven-ear 37.9 13.9 21.0 24.3 Cocke Prolific 31.3 17.1 24.2* Sanders Improved .... 26.1 16.0 21.1* Native types Commeicial White .... 31.1 14.3 23.3 22.9 Reid Yellow Dent 31.6 12.2 23.3 22.4 St. Charles White .... 29.6 12.0 22.0 21.2 ^Partial average. Of the prolific varieties tested Biggs Seven-ear is the only one to com- pare favorably, on the average, with the best of the native varieties. How- ever, the results of several additional seasons are required to decide the status of this promising variety. A Study of Certain Spring, Summer and Fall Sown Crops for Forage (W. C. Etheridge, C. A. Helm). — In 1919, trials of seasonal forages were carried on at Warrensburg. They gave the following results: Spring Sown Yields — tons of cured forage per acre Oats and Canada Peas . 3.27 Oats and Spring Vetch 3.01 Canada Peas and Spring Vetch 2.47 Summer Sown Sudan-grass and Soybeans 1.93 Sorghum and Soybeans 3.38 Corn and Soybeans 2.61 What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 31 Investigations in forage productions will for most crops be concluded at the end of the present season. Wheat Breeding Investigations Including the Improvement of Com- mercial Varieties by the Pure Line Methods of Breeding and Hybridization and Subsequent Selection (W. C. Etheridge, L. J. Stadler). Hybrids and pure-line selections made here are yearly compared with a large number of other hybrids, selections and commercial varieties. By yearly elimination «of the less worthy kinds, the better strains are rapidly being narrowed to small group. Seed of a few superior strains are now being increased for a wider test in various parts of the State. The comparative value of some of the selected strains is illustrated by the following yields of two strains of the variety “Mediterranean.” Average yield per acre 1914-1919 Mediterranean 30 (Selection) 31.7 bu. Mediterranean 31 (Selection) 32.7 bu. Mediterranean (original stock) 24.0 bu. A Study of the Adaptations of the Important Varieties and Selections of Soybeans to the Various Soil Types of the State (W. C. Etheridge, C. A. Helm). — Thirty varieties and selected strains of soybeans were tested at Columbia in 1918. Some of the most promising of these were tested also at Maryville, Warrensburg, Kirksville and Cuba. The yields of the six leading varieties at Columbia were as follows: Varieties Bushels of seed Varieties Tons of cured per acre hay per acre Tokio' 23.3 Chiquita 3.3 Mikado 20.5 Columbia 3.0 Morse 20.5 Taha 3.0 Chiquita 20.4 Virginia 2.6 Shingto 20.1 Arlington 2.6 Sable 19.9 Morse 2.6 At the outlying fields the following acre yields were made: Varieties Maryville Cuba Warrensburg Kirksville Bu. of Seed Tons df Hay Bu. of Seed Tons of Hay Bu. of Seed Tons of Hay Bu. of Seed Tons, of Hay Wilson 24.5 1.9 2.5 .2 19.8 2.4 22.0 1.3 Virginia 23.1 1.9 2.9 .3 15.8 1.8 17.0 1.4 Morse 27.7 1.7 2.3 .2 15.8 1.3 18.0 1.8 Medium Yellow . . 30.1 2.2. 2.7 .4 12.9 2.0 15.0 1.2 Mikado 27.6 1.8 2.5 .2 10.5 1.3 26.0 1.4 Cultural Experiments With Cotton (W. C. Etheridge). — In 1919 the fertilizer treatment of cotton was renewed in connection with a cropping system of corn, cotton and legumes. The fertilizer was applied to cotton on land which in 1918 grew a crop of cowpeas (harvested for hay) and a 32 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 ' crop of fall sown rye (turned under in the spring). The following yields resulted: Fertilizer Treatement per acre Pounds of Lint per acre 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 644.6 35 lbs. Potassium Chloride No fertilizer 589.1 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 653.2 200 lbs. Acid Phosphate 578.3 Cultural Experiments With Corn (W. C. Etheridge). — The investiga- tion of cultural methods for corn was continued in 1919 at the Maryville and Warrensburg fields. The season was favorable for corn and at each field the yields were above the average of the locality. The following data show the relation between the method of cultivation and the yield: Treatment of the Crop Yield in bushels of grain per acre Maryville Warrensburg: Four Normal Cultivations 47.2 21.4 Four Normal Cultivations and two later Cultivations 43.0 16.8 Four Deep Cultivations 47.1 23.6 No Normal Cultivation, but the surface was scraped clean thruout the grow- ing season 55.9 30.4 There are two important results here; low yields from late cultivation,, high yields from surface scraping. The first may be explained by the rea- sonable assumption that late cultivations tore out many of the surface roots. The second is explained by the fact that the surface scraping kept the crop entirely free from all extraneous plant growth during the growing season. Comparison of Soybeans and Cowpeas for Hay and Seed Production (C. A. Helm). — Comparisons of the soybean and cowpea crops for hay and seed in 1919, as in previous years show strongly the superiority of the soy- bean for both purposes. Yields of the leading varieties in each group- here follow: Hay Yield per acre Wilson Soybeans 2.23 tons Morse Soybeans 2.11 tons Whippoorwill Cowpeas 1.30 tons Red Ripper Cowpeas 99 tons Seed Medium Yellow Soybeans 23.8 bu. New Era Cowpeas - 21.9 bu. A Study of the Adaptations of the Important Varieties of Wheat for Missouri Conditions (W. C. Etheridge, C. A. Helm). — In 1919 tests of a few commercial varieties of wheat were conducted at Maryville, Warrens- burg and Cuba. A comparison of spring wheat, hard winter wheat and What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 33 soft winter wheat, was made at Maryville; of hard winter and soft winter wheat at Warrensburg; and soft winter and spring wheat at Columbia. The following were the results: Variety Yield in bushels of grain per acre Maryville Warrensburg Cuba Columbia HARD WINTER Kanred 24.0 10.4 SOFT WINTER Fulcaster 24.0 16.3 7.07 28.7 Michigan Wonder 21.5 Fultz 13.6 7.6 Poole 16.9 9.6 Red Wave 7.2 Rudy 13.2 Mediterranean 14.4 SPRING Scotch Fife 11.3 8.9 Marquis 23.8 9.6 From these data the following indications may be set forth: (1) . The superiority of the hard winter sort, Kanred, and the semi- hard sort, Fulcaster, over the soft wheat, Michigan Wonder, and the spring wheats, Scotch Fife and Marquis. (2) The inferiority of Kanred at Warrensburg. (3) The very marked inferiority of spring wheat at Columbia and Maryville. Among the large number of varieties of soft winter wheat tested on a nursery scale for the part six years at Columbia, the following are’ the lead- ers in yield: Average yield in Variety bushels per acre 1914-1919 inclusive Mediterranean 31 32.7 Mediterranean 30 31.7 Harvest Queen : 31.6 Fulcaster 8-y 31.2 Average of all varieties 26.1 A Study of the Adaptations of the Important Varieties of Cotton for the Southeast Missouri Lowlands (C. A. Helm).— Eight important varieties of cotton were compared in the season of 1919. They included three distinct types — (1) late, big boll, (2) early, small boll and (3) long staple. Yields by these groups were as follows: Big Boll Pounds of Lint per acre Cook Improved 625.3 Mebane Triumph 482.7 Cleveland 330.7 Rowden 272.7 Average 427.9 34 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 Small Boll Trice 501.1 Simpkin Prolific 475.0 King Improved 291.8 Average 422.6 Long Staple Weber 49 158.2 The difference between the yields of the big boll and small boll groups is not significant. It will be noted that the four leading varieties among the eight tested, are divided equally between the two groups. The extremely early small boll King Improved undoubtedly lost a large part of its yield through a failure to pick the crop at the proper time. This variety though normally a good yielder will not strongly hold its seed-cotton in the fully open bolls. Consequently when last season a shortage of labor 'made nec- essary a delay in picking until all varieties had matured their entire crop. King Improved was at a serious disadvantage, for it had matured and lost a considerable part of its crop before the late varieties were ready. Weber, 49, the single variety to represent the long staple group gave an extremely low yield. Factors Influencing the Development of the Maize Plant — Field Studies of the Plant (W. C. Etheridge). — In 1919 the effect of an associated growth of soybeans upon the yield of corn was similar to the effect of the same cause 1917 and 1918. In each of these three years there have been two out- standing general results: (1) A material growth of soybeans, by whatever method combined with corn, always caused a material reduction in the yield of corn. (2) Soybeans planted late, any method and in any manner, in all cases failed to make a material growth and have no effect on the yield of corn. Cultural Experiments With Wheat (W. C. Etheridge). — Cultural ex- periments with wheat have for the past two years been limited to the treat- ment of soybean stubble in preparation of a seedbed for wheat. To find the method of preparing the bean stubble, which would re-act most favorably upon the following crop of wheat has been the object of the experiments. The following are the summarized results of 1918 and 1919, presenting average yields of three series of plots: Treatment of the Yield in bushels of grain stubble per acre 1918 1919 Average Untreated 23.1 15.6 19.4 Harrowed 22.4 13.5 18.0 Single-Disked 21.9 13.9 17.9 Double-Disked 22.6 15.6 19.1 Single-Disked, harrowed 24.4 14.6 19.5 Double-Disked, harrowed 21.2 16.1 18.7 Double-Disked, rolled 26.2 14.7 20.5 The results do not show that any of the treatments were profitable. They were all shallow treatments — the only kinds which may usually be applied to bean stubble in preparation for wheat, since the normal season What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 35 of seeding wheat comes close upon the harvesting of the bean crop, and plowing the stubble would obviously make the soil too loose for a good seedbed. There is indeed a strong indication that bean stubble land which has been spring plowed and kept fairly clean during the season is without further treatment an excellent seedbed for wheat. A Study of the Cultural Requirements and Adaptations of Sudan Grass (C. A. Helm). — At Columbia a crop of Sudan grass sown in rows three feet apart in early summer yielded 2.7 tons of cured hay per acre on August 15th, and 1.3 tons of cured hay on September 15th; the total yield of 4.0 tons for the season. A part of the crop, allowed to mature, yielded 14.5 bushels of seed to the acre on October 1st. At Cuba the hay crop, sown on a point of very thin land, yielded only 0.27 tons to the acre; but the seed crop, sown on moist sodland, gave an acre yield of 16.0 bushels. The crop at Warrensburg seeded in rows three feet apart made an acre yield of 2.44 tons of cured hay from a single cutting on October 3rd; but the crop seeded with the grain drill, in rows eight inches apart, made on the same date a yield of only 1.93 tons per acre. A Study of the Important Varieties of Oats for Missouri Conditions (W. C. Etheridge). — Commercial varieties of oats were tested at Maryville, Warrensburg and Springfield. The season was generally good and the crop yielded well in each section. The acre yields of the leading varieties in each group, early and late, are given in the following table: Variety Maryville Warrensburg Springfield Average Texas Red 51.2 bu. 32.2 bu. 23.7 bu. 35.7 bu. Kherson 42.7 bu. 46.3 bu. 32.7 bu. 40.6 bu. Burt 40.3 bu. 33.9 bu. 21.0 bu. 31.7 bu. Silvermine 38.4 bu. 31.5 bu. 17.7 bu. 29.2 bu. White Shonen 33.1 bu. 30.1 bu. 25.3 bu. 29.5 bu. American Banner 44.8 bu. 29.7 bu. 30.7 bu. 35.1 bu. The important feature of these results is the comparatively high yields of the group of early varieties. These amount to an average of 36.0 bushels to the acre, while the yields of varieties in the late group average only 31.3 bushels. A similar superior yielding capacity of early varieties had con- sistently been shown in previous years. Tested on a nursery scale at Columbia, the leading varieties and their yields were as follows: Variety Irish Victor Kherson Selection Sixty-day Fulghum Bushels of grain per acre 69.6 67.2 62.1 60.9 A Comparison of the Most Important Grain Sorghums With Corn for Grain and Forage Production (W. C. Etheridge). — In 1919, both at War- rensburg and Cuba, grain sorghum outyielded corn by a wide margin, as the following data will show: 36 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 Corn Bushels of grain per acre Blackhull Kaffir Warrensburg 31.0 Cuba Sunrise Kaffir 28.5 17.6 Dawn Kaffir 22.0 21.3 Dwarf Milo 38.8 8.9 Average 30.1 15.9 Bloody Butcher 29.0 1.6 St. Charles White 23.7 1.9 Reid Yellow Dent 21.6 Learning Yellow 19.6 Commercial White 26.9 Boone County White 18.2 Ninety-day Silvermine 1.7 White Pearl 0.7 Average 23.2 1.5 Cultural Experiments With Alfalfa (W. C. Etheridge, C. A .Helm). — The most interesting developments in the cultural experiments with alfalfa and sweet clover are in (1) comparative yields of the two crops when hoth are under the same cultural treatment, (2) the effect of the small grain nurse crop upon the yield of alfalfa or sweet clover and (3) the relative effect of the legume upon the yield of the nurse crop, in both hay and grain. Briefly, the noteworthy results of the 1919 season are the following: (1) Under a broad range of cultural treatment of average Missouri upland, at Columbia, sweet clover invariably outyielded alfalfa by a wide margin. The difference in favor of sweet clover was greatest on untreated land and least on land well limed, fertilized, and manured. (2) Sweet clover or alfalfa sown with a nurse crop gave much lower yields than when sown alone. (3) Small grain nurse crops in which was sown sweet clover gave decidedly lower yields, in forage and in grain, than when alfalfa was sown with them. This was doubtless due to the heavier growth and greater com- petition of the sweet clover. A Study of the Adaptations of the Important Varieties and Selections of Cowpeas to the Various Soil Types of the State (W. C. Etheridge and C. A. Helm). — Ten varieties of cowpeas were tested at Columbia for yields of seed, with the following results: Variety New Era Red Ripper Groit Black Whippoorwill ... Clay Early Ramshorn Cream Iron Brabham Bushels of seed per acre 21.8 21.1 20.3 .. 19.8 18.9 15.2 14.5 11.1 9.0 9.0 What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 37 HOME ECONOMICS Utilization of Apple Surplus (Louise Stanley, Opal Davis). — This proj- ect was designed to find out a product which was palatable, compact and easily transported. It was found that apple sauce either with or without spice but with no sugar could be dried into compact form which with the addition of water and sugar gave a most palatable product after three to four minutes boiling. The product was dried by two methods, in an oven at low temperature and in a current of heated air. The methods were equally satisfactory and in neither case was there a dried apple flavor. The Effect of Blanching in the Canning of Some Typical Crops of Vegetables (Miss Ethel Geldehaus). — A comparison was made of the rate of heating of quart cans of spinach when heated directly and when heated after blanching and the cold dip. Temperature readings were taken every five minutes and the curves plotted. The density of the pack was varied as well as the method of previous treatment. After blanching spinach by steam and the cold dip as recommended in the government directions, fifteen minutes longer is required for a quart jar filled with spinach, so treated to reach the boiling point than when the material is wilted in the top of a double boiler and packed directly in a quart jar. Increasing the amount of spinach in the can from 1000 gms. to 1500 gms. per quart jar, had no. influence on the time required for the center of the jar to reach the tem- perature of 100 degrees C. In view of the recent findings of the b. Botulinus in canned foods, it was decided to test the effect of the above conditions on this organism. Cans of spinach were treated as above. Inoculated with b. Botulinus and sterilized, the time to reach 100 degrees C. was noted and the jars held at this temperature for varying lengths of time. This material was sealed and held for examination since tests on the thermal death point of this organ- ism are not conclusive until three months have elapsed. Standardization of Cooking Temperatures — Temperatures for cakes as effected by amount of baking powder used (Louise Stanley, Nita Collier). — A standard recipe was used in all the cakes. Eight series were baked at the following temperatures: 175 Degrees C 195 Degrees C 180 Degrees C 205 Degrees C 185 Degrees C 215 Degrees C 190 Degrees C 225 Degrees C Temperatures at which cakes were baked had no effect on the specific volume or texture when a medium amount of baking powder was used. The specific volume of cakes made with eight teaspoons of baking powder was greater than those made with one teaspoon but the increase was not in regular sequence. The specific volume of cakes at all temperatures was slightly larger when one cake was baked at a time than when four cakes were baked. Probably explained by the fact that the temperature inside the cake was higher in a shorter length of time where one cake was baked than where four were baked. 38 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 There was no relation between the amount of baking powder used and the water loss in the cakes in baking, in 24 hours, in 48 hours, or in total water loss. There was no relation between water loss and the temperature used in baking. The time required for baking was decreased as the temperature for bak- ing was increased. The kind of sugar used had little effect on the specific volume of the cake, but it did have a marked effect on the texture. Cakes made with powdered or fine grained sugar were the best cakes. The specific volume was greater when the egg white was beaten separately. There was no dif- ference in the specific volume when the egg white was added last and when it was added before the baking powder. Cakes were made to see if the specific volume, when the fat was melted differed from the specific volume when fat and sugar were creamed together. The greater the amount of batter the greater the specific volume of cakes. HORTICULTURE Fruit Bud Development of Fruit Trees as Influenced by Treatment and Previous Crops (F. C. Bradford). — A considerable amount of data has been tabulated concerning the relation of length of spur growth to bearing and the relation of leaf area to length of growth and to bearing. Material has already been collected for a microscopic study of buds and tissues. Breeding Apples for Late Blooming Habit (F. C. Bradford). — A few of the trees grown from seed resulting from crosses made in 1913 blossomed this year. While conclusions cannot be drawn with safety until several seasons of blossoming have passed, it is apparent that the trees will have blossoming seasons ranging from medium to late. A considerable amount of pollination was done this spring, but because of poor weather the results secured were rather unsatisfactory. However, there will be more or less seed to plant next spring. The crosses made were designed to bring out, if possible, the principles of inheritance of the late-blossoming character more especially than to make an attempt to secure definite gains of new varieties. To this end, varieties representing a rather wide range of blossoming seasons were crossed. Phenological records covering thirteen years have been arranged, analyzed and tabulated and will ultimately be used in connection with re- ports on the crosses made. Cabbage Seed Selection for Disease Resistance (J. T. Rosa, Jr.). — It has been found practically impossible under our conditions to secure seed from cabbage plants selected for disease resistance, in summer, due to decay the following year, when seed should be produced. Cabbage plants are now being grown on yellows-infected land in such a way that the disease resistant plants will mature in the fall, thus making it easy to carry them over to the following spring for seed production. The cabbage yellows disease increased rapidly throughout the state. Counts made in commercial fields of cabbage in St. Louis County showed 20 to 75 per cent destruction of the cron What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 39 Orchard and Strawberry Nutrition (V. R. Gardner and H. D. Hooker, Jr.). — A bulletin on the nutrition of apples has been filed for publication. Samples of apple fruit spurs with leaves, flowers or fruit removed were collected at intervals during the year and their chemical composition studied in relation to their physiological condition. Three types were investigated: spurs that blossomed and bore fruit; spurs that did not blossom but which developed fruit buds and sterile spurs that neither blossomed nor developed fruit buds. The first type is repre- sented by samples from Wealthy, Ben Davis and Jonathan trees; the second by samples from Ben Davis, and Jonathan trees, the Jonathan being the same one from which samples of the first type were taken; the third by samples from Ben Davis and Nixonite trees. Determinations were made of the dry weight, ash, titratable acidity potassium, phosphorus, total poly- saccharides, and hydrogen ion concentration. In general official analytical methods were used. The starch values were obtained by digestion, followed by hydrolysis of the digestive products. Some supplementary microchemical tests were made. 1. The seasonal changes in most of the constituents examined are dis- tinct and characteristic of the condition of the spur-bearing, non-bearing, or sterile. In general, the bearing and sterile spurs show extreme values, while the non-bearing spurs assume a position intermediate between them. 2. The conditions characteristic of bearing and non-bearing spurs of the same trees, (Jonathan) are practically identical with the conditions of spurs from trees (Ben Davis) in bearing and in the off year respectively. Spurs from barren trees are characterized by a seasonal chemical picture distinctly different from the two types of spurs from productive trees. 3. For most constituents, the spurs pass through one period of max- imum content and one of the minimum content during the course of a year. In the case of starch and titratable acidity, there are two maxima and two minima; the maxima of one coming at approximately the same time as the minima of the other. Carbohydrate consumption and acidity seem to be correlated. 4. High starch and low nitrogen content at the time of fruit bud differentiation appear to be essential for productivity. Fruit-bearing spurs that develop leaf buds have low starch and high nitrogen content, and sterile spurs have a low starch and low nitrogen content. The starch- nitrogen ratio is more indicative than the total carbo-hydrate nitrogen ratio. 5. During the late summer and fall, there is a steady increase in the phosphorous and nitrogen content of spurs with fruit buds. The absence of this feature in sterile spurs suggests a necessity of phosphorus and nitro- gen storage preparatory to the marked increase in these elements that is peculiar to bearing spurs in the spring. Study of Factors Influencing the Rest Period of Horticultural Plants (H. D. Hooker, Jr.). — The rest period studies have been continued along the same lines described in last year’s report. Analyses of fruit buds that survived last winter’s cold and of buds that were killed, have been made. In addition to the analysis previously made, ether extract has been deter- mined. The analyses on peach and cherry buds show the surviving buds to have a low ether extract, but to have a relatively high nitrogen, phos- 40 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 phorus and potash content. Analysis of comparable samples from the peach including the node with the bud showed the surviving buds to have a low moisture, acidity, and nitrogen content, and a high starch content. The starch is stored in the leaf gap and hence does not figure in the analysis of buds alone. Investigations With Seed Potatoes (J. T. Rosa, Jr.). — Favorable results were secured with the late potato crop planted July 1st. Potatoes produced in the fall were found to be of excellent eating and keeping quality. Three hundred and fifty potato seedlings are being grown in an effort to develop a still better variety. Good results were secured by the use of fall home-grown potatoes for planting the following spring. In the testing of several varieties from different Northern and Western On left — Early Ohio potatoes grown lrom fall, home-grown seed. On right — same variety from Northern-grown seed. potato growing sections, especially good results were secured from seed grown under dry farming conditions in Western Nebraska. In seed storage tests, it was found that potatoes intended for spring planting can be kept over winter satisfactorily in cold storage at 32 to 40 degrees Fahrenheit, and in cool out-door cellars. Peach Breeding for Hardy Sorts (V. R. Gardner). — Many of the first generation seedlings fruited for their first time this year. Records were made of tree and fruit characteristics and seeds were obtained for the pro- duction of a second generation of trees. The young seedling trees are now growing in the nursery row. Walnut Grafting Investigation (V. R. Gardner). — A collection has been made of what appears to be the most promising varieties for Missouri con- What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 41 ditions and suitable records are being kept of their behavior. Marked dif- ferences are in evidence in the ability of the English varieties to with- stand our winters. Transplanting Investigations With Vegetables (J. T. Rosa, Jr.). — It has been found that hardness may be increased in cabbage and tomato plants by various treatments which check vegetative growth. Analyses are being made to determine the effect of the various hardening treatments on changes in the composition of the plants and the correlation of such changes with the resistance of the plants to cold. Leaves and stems of plants subjected to various treatments are being sectioned to study effects of hardening on the structure of the tissues. Bliss Triumph Potatoes, June 1919; Northern on left vs fall, home-grown seed on right. Home Vegetable Gardening (J. T. Rosa, Jr., R. S. Marsh). — A model farm garden and a model back yard garden are being conducted on the hor- ticultural grounds. The farm garden, one-fifth acre in size, produced $ 132.79 at the cost of $ 42.00 including labor. The back yard garden, one-twenty-fifth acre in size, produced $ 62.23 at the cost of $ 18 . 45 , including labor. Data were secured that indicate that certain vegetable crops are quite profitable under farm garden conditions, while others do not pay for cost of production. Cooperative Tomato Investigation (J. T. Rosa, Jr.). — In ten series of cooperative tests in 1919 , yields of tomatoes were increased on the average 159.2 per cent by 8 tons of stable manure; 152.9 per cent by 250 pounds of 4 - 8-5 fertilizer; 152 per cent by 250 pounds of 4 - 8-0 fertilizer and 106 per 42 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 cent by 250 pounds of acid phosphate. The most economical gain for the cannery tomato crop was produced by acid phosphate. Another important result demonstrated in the fertilizer tests was the increased earliness of the crop when commercial fertilizer was used. Plots receiving complete fertilizer came into heavy bearing 3 to 4 weeks before the unfertilized plots, and plots receiving acid prosphate were 2 to 3 weeks earlier than the unfertilized plots. A number of the large growers were assisted in saving their own tomato seed from selected plants. One grower saved 700 pounds of seed worth Tomato Fertilizer test at Neosho, Mo.: Above, no fertilizer; below, 250 pounds of 4-8-0 fertilizer. What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 43 $3.00 a pound at a cost of about $60.00. A number of strains of these home- grown seed are being grown in comparison with regular seedsman’s stock this year. Cooperative tests of wilt resistant strains of tomatoes on wilt-infected land showed good results. Further selections are being made with a view of improving the quality of the wilt resistant strains. Seed of wilt resistant strains have been distributed to 75 growers for testing. Investigation With Everbearing Strawberries (H. G. Swartwout). — In a general way, it may be stated that the everbearing varieties of straw- berries now on the market have not been found adapted to Missouri con- ditions. POULTRY Value of Sour Milk, Beef Scrap, Cotton Seed Meal, Gluten Meal and Oil Meal in Rations for Egg Production (H. L. Kempster). — A scratch feed for all pens was supplemented with basal mash consisting of 2.2 pounds bran, 4.4 pounds shorts. To this basal mash was added meat scrap, and cotton seed meal or both in various amounts. In the check pens no protein con- centrates were added. In one of these pens bone meal was added to the basal mash. In another pen, meat scrap was given in the ratio of 0.57 pounds of meat scrap to 6.6 pounds of basal mash or, in other words, the mash contained 8 per cent meat scrap. This amount is considerably less than is usually recommended. In the pens containing no animal protein concentrate, the average production was 306 eggs. The egg production in the other pens was in direct proportion to the amount of meat scrap used in the mash. In the pens, in which cotton seed meal was fed, the egg pro- duction was not as great as in the corresponding pens containing the same amount of meat scrap, but not containing the cotton seed meal. The pen fed a mash containing 8 per cent meat scrap produced more than twice as many eggs as did the pens fed no meat scrap. Age as a Factor in Poultry Breeding (H. L. Kempster). — The relative hatchability of eggs from White Leghorn hens and pullets was observed. The hens’ eggs were 4 per cent infertile and the pullets’ eggs were 12 per per cent infertile. On the average the hens showed an advantage of 4 per cent over the pullets in hatchability. Experiment in Chick Feeding — Studies of Various Supplementary Feeds on Growth. (H. L. Kempster) — Eight lots of White Leghorn chicks, 31 in each lot, were fed chick feed and a mash consisting of bran, shorts, and cornmeal. This basal ration was supplemented with various feeds as is shown in the fol- lowing summary: 44 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 Feeds Hatching pounds weight Weight pounds 2 weeks Weight pounds 4 weeks Weight pounds 6 weeks Mortality % Grain mash, whole milk.... .073 .141 .236 .35 10 Grain mash, skim milk.... .071 .136 .234 .33 19 Grain mash, whole eggs.... .072 .112 .218 .32 7 Grain mash, egg-whites, bone meal .075 .10 .17 .23 32 Grain mash, skim milk, green food .073 .148 .238 .35 16 Grain mash, tankage .075 .086 .135 .23 23 Grain mash, tankage, green food .071 .093 .103 .21 28 Grain mash, skim milk, egg yolks .072 .162 .298 .422 3 The amount of the supplement was based on the consumption of milk so that each pen received approximately the same amount of protein. Evi- dently the milk, skim milk and egg yolks contain valuable essentials for promoting growth. Influence of the Time of Hatching on Future Production (H. E. Kemp- ster). — White Leghorn pullets hatched in February, March, April and May were observed. Contrary to the general opinion, early hatched birds layed well during the winter. This, however, was due to the high egg yield during November, after which a large proportion went into a partial molt, although a number kept laying the entire winter. It would also appear from these observations that if a person expects winter layers, Leghorns must be hatched not later than May. Winter Egg Production as an Indication of Year’s Production (H. L. Kempster). — White Leghorns were grouped in four classes as to production. From the data collected, it seems that the number of eggs a hen lays during the winter months, November 1 to February 28, is an excellent index to her total performance for the year. Time of Molt as an Indication of Past and Future Egg Production (H. L. Kempster). — White Leghorn hens just through their first year’s produc- tion were grouped into three classes; those which had completed the molt and had a new coat of plumage; those which were molting; and those which had not started to molt. The egg production of these birds was observed during the following year. The birds which molted early not only made poor egg records their first year but also their second year. Those which molted late made much better records each year. Relation of Plant Carotinoids to Growth (H. L. Kempster). — White Leghorn chicks were hatched from carotinoid-free eggs from hens raised from hatching now two years old, on a carotinoid-free diet. These chicks have been fed a carotinoid-free diet. They are now 12 weeks old and are apparently normal except for the absence of yellow pigment. The growth has been excellent and the mortality extremely low. It can now be con- cluded that the natural yellow pigment of fowls which is derived from the xanthophyll of the food bears no relation to growth. What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 45 RURAL LIFE Tractor and Other Farm Equipment Costs on the Farm (O. R. John- son, R. M. Green). — In farm cost accounting work the equipment charge for horse power equipment and the smaller tools is frequently prorated to dif- ferent enterprizes on the basis of the number of horse hours put in on the •enterprize. Equipment charge is therefore expressed in terms of cost per horse hour. A summary of such costs for the last five years follows: Year Equipment Cost per horse hour Cash outlay for repairs, replacements & additions in per cent of average inventory values 1914 2.3c 28.0 % 1915 2.8c 28.0 % 1916 2.9c 23.0 % 1917 2.9c 47.3 % 1918 3.7c 42.0 % Five of the farms keeping complete cost accounts bought tractors last year. Cost of Producing Farm Products Under Farm Conditions (O. R. Johnson, R. M. Green). — Sixteen complete sets of accounts were received from 14 counties. The work of setting up quantitative cost formulas from the large amount of data collected to date was begun. This work was undertaken in order to facilitate the giving out of recent cost information to farm bureaus. The Missouri Farm Bureau Federation is providing means for collecting up-to-date information on dollar costs. These data can be applied to the quantitative cost formulas to provide timely informa- tion as to current costs. Using the “Wheat Formula,” the cost of producing the 1919 wheat crop in Missouri was determined in July, 1919, as being $25.27 an acre. The yield at that time was estimated at 13 bushels to the acre which gave a cost per bushel of $1.94. The final yield reported for the year was 13.5 bushels. Using this yield, the cost per bushel would have been $1.87. The latter figure checks exactly with a recent report of the U. S. Department of Agriculture made nine months later and after a careful field study of costs in three Missouri counties. Further tests of this kind are needed, of course, to establish the most dependable formulas, and to determine the allowances necessary to make under varying conditions. Using the same formula and applying 1920 prices, the average cost per bushel of wheat in 1920 has been determined as $2.26. This is on the basis of a 12^4 bushel yield indicated to date by State and United States crop reports. Aside from the complete cost-account records, the financial accounts of 10 or 12 farms were summarized showing cash receipts and expenditures and inventory values. Following is an extarct from a report made to the Executive Secre- tary of the Missouri Farm Bureau Federation. It indicates in a brief way, the scope of work accomplished to date, on following acreage of main crops: 46 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 Acreage Corn 5886 Oats ; 1838 Wheat 2405 Rye 327 And on main classes of livestock: No. Head Work Horses or Mules 750 Young Horses or Mules 300 Milk Cows 360 Other cattle 600 Clover Timothy Alfalfa Acreage 1287 1721 544 Soybeans 465- Cowpeas 430 No. Head Brood Sows 1550 Other Hogs 12500 Sheep 1000 Poultry 17500* Showing result of adding later data to first two years’ data. Average total labor requirements of various crops: Crop Man labor in hours Horse labor in hours 4 farms 1910-11 Data up to and including 1914 4 farms 1910-11 Data up to and including 1914 Corn 23.81 21.81 41.82 38.77 Oats 10.08 9.40 18.92 17.90 Wheat 10.48 15.49 18.38 27.17 Clover 8.62 7.73 9.43 7.62 Timothy 7.06 7.36 9.50 8.71 Alfalfa 26.59 18.50 45.50 32.01 Soybeans 21.80 21.08 36.10 34.47 Cowpeas 19.94 18.93 30.27 32.86 Rye 9.98 20.38 Rape 5.48 14.87 The Agricultural and Market Value of Missouri Farm Lands (O. R. Johnson, R. M. Green). — Work on this project was in the nature of trying out the following plan of obtaining the agricultural value of Missouri farm lands. Work was all on the basis of 1910 data. Average acreage of corn, oats and wheat and each other crop per farm was obtained from the 1910 census report. Average yields as reported in the census and average prices for the period 1900-10 were used in arriving" at gross returns from crop acres. Net returns except interest on invest- ment was arrived at by taking cost of production except interest on land from gross receipts. Cost of production figures collected by the cost ac- counting work of this Department were used. The net receipts thus ar- rived at represent the rent the land pays after all other expenses are paid. Dividing this sum by six per cent gives the land value that will pay six per cent interest. This is designated agricultural or productive value. After allowing for pasture land, woodland and waste, this farm acre value is com- pared with the market values as reported in the census. What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 47 A partial report of the work done is as follows: County Crop-acres per farm Total acres per farm Agr. value of crop acre Agr. value per acre of farm Market value per acre of farm Land value index Atchison.. 116.05 187.0 121.33 98.58 96.05 103.0 Holt 71.74 133.3 105.50 80.52 76.69 104.0 Nodaway.. 68.47 139.8 106.16 79.62 80.02 99.5 Andrew.— 52.00 107.0 103.16 77.37 83.22 93.0 Buchanan 46.68 92.1 137.16 102.87 106.70 96.5 Platte 60.26 116.8 133.83 102.13 77.47 132.0 Carroll .... 70.25 128.0 87.00 67.66 59.97 113.0 Livingston 51.97 128.0 98.50 68.95 57.02 120.5 Land Tenure in Missouri (O. R. Johnson). — There are three common systems of renting land: (a) For a share of all crops, (b) a share of the crop on the main crop-land, and cash fo rthe rest of the farm; (c) a straight cash charge for the whole farm. The share tenant has the least capital and the cash tenant most. The share tenant as a rule gets the more fertile land. He is also a better feeder of live stock, getting $145 for each $100 worth of feed fed compared to the ■$126.00 for the cash tenant. The latter, however, was doing the bigger live stock business. The share tenant pays 82 per cent more rent to the acre than does the cash tenant, and pays the landlord nearly twice the interest on investment that the cash tenant pays. The share-cash running system serves merely as a middle ground between the other two systems. The Standard of Living on the Farm as a Factor in the Cost of Pro- duction (O. R. Johnson, R. M. Green). — For 12 to 14 farms that have kept complete accounts continuously for several years, household expenses are tabulated as follows: Year Av. cash house- hold expense per farm Per cent of 1914 cost per cent of previous year’s cost 1914 $ 416 100 1915 481 116 116 1916 505 121 105 1917 756 182 150 1918 849 204 112 1919 1082 260 128 General Plan of Farm Organization and Operation in Different Sections (O. R. Johnson, R. M. Green). — Men with less than $5,000 capital should not attempt to own land in a moderate to high priced farming section. A better income will be realized by using all their capital as working capital. In the group of farms with from $5,000 to $20,000 the main differences are in the investment and efficiency with live stock. The low income class kept out too lilttle capital as operating capital and had too much invested 48 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 per acre for the yield they were getting; while they were poorer feeders of livestock and had greater losses from disease than did the more suc- cessful. The problems confronting the men with from $20,000 to $40,000 capital do not differ greatly from those of Group II, except that the renting of addi- tional land is not important. These farms are more strictly hog and beef cattle farms. Plenty of working capital and reforms in feeding practice are even more essential here than in Group II. Increase in wheat yields is worth trying for in all classes. On farms with over $40,000 capital, the first thing noticed is that those making low incomes are not farming their land. They live on an interest return of 3 to 4 per cent. Some of them rent out part of their land and live on the rent. The land they retain had better be rented and their working capital loaned out, as they do not retain enough to farm economically. Another source of trouble is the failure to use silage in cattle feeding. Those making money used silage to cheapen their rations. Skill or luck in buying or selling is not a small factor in their success with cattle. With hogs, they need more pigs per sow, and the eradication of cholera would mean a big saving. Utilization of Labor on the Farm (O. R. Johnson, R. M. Green). — Labor requirements by operations have been determined. The following report is for 1914: Corn Gathered from Standing Stalks, North Missouri Conditions. 24.5 bu. North Mo. Corn 1914 Man hours Horse hours Cut stalks 1.24 2.38 Break 2.90 9.52 Disc, etc 2.47 7.87 Plant 1.06 2.10 Harrow Corn 1.49 3.68 Cultivate 3.99 8.26 Cut Weeds 2.43 Gather from Standing Stalks 4.91 8.55 Total .... 20.49 42.36 Corn Gathered from Shock, North Missouri Conditions. Man hours Horse hours Cut Stalks 1.24 2.38 Break 2.90 9.52 Disc and so forth 2.47 7.87 Plant 1.06 2.10 Harrow Corn 1.49 3.68 Cultivate 3.99 8.26 Cut Weeds 2.43 Cut Corn 6.05 Gather from shock 8.51 9.90 Total .... 30.14 43.71 What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 49 Corn Gathered from Standing Stalks, South Missouri Conditions. Man hours Horse hours Break 4.95 12.92 Disc, etc 2.52 8.55 Plant 1.11 2.10 Cultivate 7.00 12.20 Cut Weed 2.50 Gather from Stalks 7.20 8.16 Total 25.28 43.93 SOILS Crop Rotation and Fertilizer Experiments (M. F. Miller, F. L. Duley). — The 1919 cropping year marked the 30th year of these experiments. It was a somewhat more favorable season than the average for general crops and on the whole the yields were good. There are two or three interesting comparisons from among the thirty-nine plots. A four year rotation which has been continued during this thirty year period consisting of corn, oats, wheat and clover gave a corn yield this season of 52.2 bushels while the same rotation with manure gave a yield of 60.1 bushels. The plot which has been in continuous corn for thirty years without treatment yielded 19.6 bushels while a similar continuously cropped plot receiving barnyard manure yielded 39.1 bushels or approximately twice as much. It can be said in general regarding the effect of crop rotation on corn that it has been more effective in maintaining the yield where no manure has been applied, than has continuous corn with manure. The same can be said of wheat, although this statement does not hold for oats and grass. Another interesting result of the thirty years’ experiments is that heavy applications of commercial fertilizer have been practically as effec- tive in maintaing the yield of wheat under continuous cropping, and the yield of all crops in a six year rotation, as has the heavy use of stable manure. Experiments to Determine the Best Systems of Soil Management for the Most Important Soil Types in Missouri — Soil Experiment Fields (M. F. Miller, F. L. Duley, O. B. Price). — The following fields have been in operation during the past year: Field Name County Soil Type Billings ....Christian Crawford silt loam Cuba ....Crawford Lebanon silt loam Chillicothe ....Livingston Wabash Clay Eldorado Springs — Cedar : Bates silt loam Kirksville —Adair Lindley silt loam Maryville ....Nodaway Marshall silt loam Morley , Sarpy silt loam Poplar Bluff — Butler Waverly silt loam Portage Des Sioux.... ....St. Charles Wabash Clay St. James ....Phelps Gerald silt loam Strafford — Greene Lebanon silt loam Union ....Franklin Union silt loam Vandalia ....Audrain Putnam silt loam Williow Springs — Howell Clarksville silt loam Windsor ....Pettis Oswego silt loam 50 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 Several farmers’ meetings were held in connection with these fields during the year at which time the fields were visited, results were given and recommendations made regarding the soil management of the soil types in question. Below is given a summary of results from these experiment fields from the .time of their establishment until the close of the 1918 season. For convenience the results were applied to a corn, oats, wheat, clover rotation although the rotation varies somewhat on the different fields. Average annual value of crop increases due to treatments — 14 years re- sults : Manure 8 tons 4 years Limestone 1 ton Bonemeal 300 lbs. Acid Phos. 400 lbs. Rock Phos. 1000 lbs Potassium Chloride 50 lbs. Legume Corn $10.13 $3.06 $3.87 $2.87 $0.60 $2.70 $0.83 Oats 5.03 .78 4.52 1.56 .80 .67 .13 Wheat 10.10 2.26 10.08 11.22 3.96 2.98 .72 Clover 8.78 5.54 13.39 9.31 .53 1.00 1.30 Return per Rotation 32.04 10.08 31.86 24.96 4.83 7.35 1.06 Cost of Treatment. . 10.00 4.00 6.40 5.40 7.00 5.00 2.00 Net Ret. per Rotation Per cent Increase 22.04 6.08 25.46 19.56 —2.17 2.35 —.94 on investment 220 152 397 362 —31 47 —47 It will be observed from the above table that the treatment known as the legume treatment has brought no financial returns. This can be ex- plained by the statement that this treatment consists largely of growing cowpeas or soybeans in the corn which practice has been shown to be un- economical from the standpoint of green manuring alone. It is not possible to pasture these legumes and secure any economic return in that way. In the case of the potassium chloride application, it seems probable that this was somewhat high for the average soils in Missouri. Wheat on left received 260 pounds per acre of acid phosphate and yielded twenty-seven bushels per acre. Wheat on right received no fertilizer and yielded fifteen bushels per acre. Wentzville Experiment Field. What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 51 The rock phosphate has always been applied in combination with manure. On certain fields a good response has been secured, particularly with wheat, but the small response from other crops has made this appli- cation uneconomical, as a state average. Acid phosphate has not been used in so many cases as has bonemeal as a carrier of phosphorus. In the early experiments bonemeal, and rock phosphate were used extensively but the increased price of bonemeal has caused a change to acid phosphate on all the fields established within the last five years. The Determination and Mapping of Missouri Soil Types. — Soil Survey (M. F. Miller, H. H. Krusekopf, Wm. De Young, Howard V. Jordan). — Maps of St. Louis and Polk Counties have been finished and field work begun in Lafayette and Cole counties. Including St. Louis and Cole counties, this makes a total of 51 counties now covered by detailed soil maps. The effect of bone meal sown with wheat on the clover crop at the Willow Springs Ex- periment Field. The application of bone meal was required to secure a clover stand. Work was also begun on a map covering the brown loess soils of Mis- souri. These soils are of very much interest because of their very wide crop adaptation for agricultural use and because'of their special adaptation to fruit. The map will differentiate this brown loess into six distinct phases of types having varying agricultural and horticultural uses. Studies of Water Absorption, Runoff, Percolation, Evaporation, Capil- lary Water Movement, and Soil Erosion Under Field Conditions (M. F. Miller, F. L. Duley). — This experiment includes a series of plots under dif- ferent systems of cropping and cultivation to determine the effects of these treatments on the amount of erosion and surface run-off. 52 Missouri Agricultural- Experiment Station Bulletin 179 A summary of three years’ results to May 1, 1920, is given in following table: Treatment Tons soil eroded per acre Per cent of rainfall absorbed 1 Uncultivated, weed pulled 74.506 .53.64 2 Plowed 4 in. deep in spring, summer fallowed 120.228 69.70 3 Plowed 8 in. deep in spring, summer fallowed 119.565 71.76 4 Sod 1.476 88.31 3 Wheat continuous 12.110 78.42 6 Rotation — Corn, wheat, clover 9.910 82.97 7 Corn, continuous 64.054 73.58 During the season 1919 the erosion from the land plowed 8 inches deep was made less than in 1918. This was due to the even distribution of rain- fall. The loss of soil from plowed lands depends much more upon the Fertilizer Experiment with Corn. Station Field, Plots 3 and 2. No treatment vs 2-10-2, 300 pounds per acre broadcast ahead of planter. character of rainfall than it does upon the total amount. Sod land and rotated-land are the most effective in preventing erosion. The Effect of Different Amounts and Different Methods of Applying Commercial Fertilizer on the Corn Crop (M. F. Miller and F. L. Duley). — The season of 1919 was very favorable for the use of fertilizer on the corn crop. This was due to the even distribution of the rainfall which gave the fertilizer a good chance to act without having any tendency to burn the crop. The increases due to fertilizer in 1919 were much better than for pre- vious years of the experiment. This was doubtless due to the fact that the rainfall was more evenly distributed and at no time during the season did the corn suffer seriously from drought. The Determination of the Relative Values of Different Forms of Phos- phorus Upon the Soils of Columbia (M. F. Miller, F. L. Duley). — This project was continued according to plans and a crop of corn was harvested in the fall of 1919. Arranged in order of yield beginning with the highest, the different phosphates stood as follows: calcined phosphate, acid phos- phate, basic slag, rock phosphate, bonemeal. What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 53 The average yields of corn from the different treatments are shown as follows : Treatment 1919 Yield Increase due to fertilizer over adjoining check plots 1. Checks (average) 23.4 2. 2-10-2, 300 lbs. broadcast 15.4 bu.* 4. 2-10-2, 150 lbs. broadcast 9.0 bu. 6. 2-10-2, 250 lbs. broadcast 50 lbs. in row 13.2 bu. 8. 2-10-2, 150 lbs. in row 13.6 bu. 10. 2-10-2 75 lbs. in row 8.9 bu. 12. Acid Phosphate, 100 lbs. in row 5.9 bu. 14. 2-10-2, 150 lbs. at 3rd cultivation 1.2 bu. 16. 2-10-2, 300 lbs. at 3rd cultivation 2.5 bu. 18. 2-10-2, 150 lbs. at 2nd cultivation 75 lbs. in row 1.8 bu. 20. 2-10-2, 150 lbs. at 3rd cultivation Acid Phosphate, 75 lbs. in row 2.5 bu. 22. Acid Phosphate, 150 lbs. at 3rd cultivation 1.3 bu. *Gain over two adjoining checks. The yields this year were high, the untreated plots averaging 68.7 bushels per acre. The increase due to the phosphates were small and in most cases would hardly pay the cost of application. An Investigation Having to Do With the Development of the Various Parts of the Maize Plant as Influenced by Variation in Soil Moisture, Soil Composition and Texture, and in the Supply of Plant Food (M. F. Miller, F. E. Duley). — The part of this experiment having to do with soil moisture was resumed after being discontinued for two years during the war. The results of this year’s work check very favorably with those previously reported. Some further studies on the chemical composition of these plants as affected by the supply of water are being made. A report of this entire investigation is being prepared for publication. Nitrate Production in a Soil as Affected by the Crop and Cultivation (Wm. A. Albrecht). — Results of three years of cropping give the following- main facts: 1. The crop is of significant influence in removing the nitrates so that the accumulation of these is almost the reciprocal of the rate and season of crop growth. 2. Early spring tillage, particularly plowing, increases the nitrate con- tent but surface tillage lessens rather than increases nitrate content in the upper seven inches of soil, mainly because it dries the larger part of this soil stratum. This emphasizes the need for shallow cultivation especially in soils whose surface layer is not very deep. 3. Of all treatments studied, the straw mulch produced the most sig- nificant effects in holding down nitrate production. During three years, this mulch plot never went higher than twenty-seven pounds of nitrogen though unmulched fallow soil rose to 204 pounds of nitrogen as nitrate per acre. Experiments to Determine the Value of Bat Guano as a Fertilizer (Wm. A. Albrecht).— A survey of the state has located over seventy caves to- 54 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 date with many containing small deposits of guano. Most of these are in- accessible and make developments of the deposit economically doubtful. The results of the work have been summarized and for using bat guano as a fertilizer, it is generally recommended (1) that fresh guano be reinforced by adding phosphorus. That taken from the older deposits is fairly rich in phosphorus but low in nitrogen and may require the addition of the latter. (2) Dry guano is too light to be spread through machinery, and if used alone should be spread before it has lost all its moisture. (3) Good bat guano is an excellent fertilizer and can be used alone, but for best results, it should serve in mixed fertilizers to make it a better balanced plant food. Studies on the Longevity of B. Radicicola in the Soil (Wm. A. Al- brecht). — Pseudomonas radicicola, the bacterium which produces the nod- ules on legume roots and keeps them fed on air nitrogen as well as that in the soil is not always present in the soil, but must be introduced by artifi- cial inoculation. When once put into the soil, the question arises as to how long the bacteria will live there. The study of this question to the present time shows that legume bacteria live in a soil for a considerable time, even in a dry soil. Two different soils on which soybeans and red clover had grown with plenty of nodules were stored under different conditions. Samples were left out of doors protected from contamination. Others were dried in the sunlight and some in the dark, and later stored so as to be free from chance contamination. At intervals of a half year, these soils are planted with their respective legumes whose seeds were sterilized, to see if there are enough bacteria in the soil to produce good root infection. Tests have been run at intervals of six months for the past two years and will be continued for sometime. The results indicate clearly that even though soil may have been dried in the sun, there are enough viable bac- teria to produce as good an infection as from the soil which was dried in the dark, or that left out-of-doors. In gathering an infected soil, with which to inoculate a few fields, it seems that there is no such great danger in exposing this inoculation material to the sun as has once been sug- gested. Drying in the sunlight and storing in the dry state for two years seem to have no serious injurious effect on the inoculating power of the soil as compared to a soil left in its natural condition out of doors. With this fact established, one can gather a well infected soil, in the season when nodules of the legumes are plentiful and store that soil in the dry state for use as inoculating material the next year. The following table giving the nodule production on plants grown in soils differently treated shows that the destructive action by sunlight is not serious : Treatment Nodules per plant Soybean Red clover Dried in sun, stored two years 6 7 Dried in the dark, stored two years 4 10 No treatment, fresh field soil used for test 5 8 Effect of Weathering and Storage Upon the Composition of Barnyard Manure (M. F. Miller, F. L. Duley). — Three ton lots of manure were used What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 55 in this experiment. One lot was stored in a tight pan which represented about the conditions of a manure pit. Another similar lot was stored in a pan that was provided with a drainage hole. The leachings were caught and analyzed. The third lot of manure was piled in a conical pile on the ground. The principal loss from the manure due to leaching, is on the potash rather than the other elements. Most of the nitrogen loss seems to dis- appear in a gaseous form into the air and only very small amounts are car- ried away in the leachings. Under the conditions of this experiment the conical pile on the ground seemed about equally effective with the closed pit in conserving the fertility in manure. This is probably due to the fact that for the most part, it was deeper and turned water fairly well; it does not, therefore, become alternately wet and dry so often, but it does lose heavily of its potash. Plot on left had 8 tons lime applied in surface 8 inches and the yield was 2.48 tons of hay. Plot on right had the same amount of lime applied in subsoil and the yield was oniy 1.55 tons of hay per acre. In another phase of this work liquid manure was absorbed by straw bedding, and exposed in thin layers during the winter months. The straw seemed very effective in holding the nitrogen from the manure. An Experiment for the Purpose of Determining the Proper Fineness of Grinding Limestone for Agricultural Purposes and the Rates and Meth- ods of Its Application to an Acid Soil (M. F. Miller, F. L. Duley). — The plots were in sweet clover. The unlimed land produced 1.319 tons per acre. The land having 8 tons of lime per -acre, applied in the subsoil produced 1.728 tons per acre. The same amount of lime applied in the surface eight inches produced 2.432 tons; and where the lime was distributed through both soil and subsoil, the yield was 1.914 tons per acre. Where the lime was applied at different rates the yield of sweet clover increased with the appli- cation. 56 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 MISCELLANEOUS Seed Testing Laboratory (W. C. Etheridge, M/iss Bertha Hite, Miss Helen Averitt, Miss Salome Comstock). — A total of 2,644 lots of seed were tested by the Seed Testing Laboratory during the year ending June 30, 1920. Of these lots, 2,117 were tested for Missouri farmers and seedsmen; 6 for the Missouri State Board of Agriculture, in connection with its seed in- spection for the administration of the state seed law; and 55 for the Cus- tom House. In addition 468 lots were tested for farmers and seedsmen of other states, as follows: Iowa 219, Nebraska 71, Kansas 56, Oklahoma 27, Colorado 24, Arkansas 22, Texas 20, South Dakota 19, Illinois 4, New York 2, Wyoming 2, Kentucky 1, Tennessee 1. On all of these lots of seed a total of 3,918 tests were made. On account of the excellent condition of seed corn in the spring of 1920, very few samples reached the laboratory for a test of germination. In former years, when less favorable conditions have prevailed, the work in testing corn has been very heavy. The Laboratory is therefore ready to make a very large number of germination tests of seed corn in an emer- gency, although in normal times, it tests mainly small seeds, clovers and grasses. Under the instruction of the Laboratory, officials of the Missouri Corn Growers’ Association tested for germination in the spring of 1920, the growers’ samples from 18,000 bushels of seed corn. Of this total lot of corn, 12,000 bushels were approved and sold under the official tag of the Association. During August and September, 1920, the Laboratory tested for the Association the growers’ samples from a large quantity of seed wheat, of which about 15,000 bushels were finally approved for seed by the Association. It may therefore be said that the Laboratory is cooperating closely with all agencies whose purpose is to promote the production and use of better seed in Missouri. The Production and Distribution of Bacteria for Legumes (Wm. A. Al- brecht). — That the importance of thorough inoculation is becoming well recognized is shown by the numerous inquiries for culture of pure legume bacteria the station receives annually. During the last year, a total of 5,861 cultures were produced and distributed to approximately 900 differ- ent individuals. The varieties of legumes for which inoculation was ordered included the following number of cultures: Soybeans 2,458 Alfalfa 2,244 Sweet Clover 601 Cowpeas 223 Red Clover 173 Peanut 81 Canada Pea 23 Hairy Vetch 18 Velvet Bean 17 Alsike Clover 15 Navy Bean 6 White Clover - 2 Total 5, ,861 What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 57 Some apprehension arose with regard to using the cultures on sweet clover seeded in the early spring when frosts are still common. Tests on freezing the cultures failed to show any serious harm to their viability by this treatment. As a result of this distribution the farmers introducing new legumes are gaining better success according to their own reports. The large num- ber of cultures sent out for soybeans, sweet clover and alfalfa show that these less common crops are being more widely cultivated and with thorough attention to their requirement for inoculation. Favorable reports are numerous and show that the need of legumes for proper bacteria is becom- ing more nearly common knowledge. Official Testing of Dairy Cows (A. C. Ragsdale, Chas. W. Turner). — During the year just completed, 667 cows were officially tested for 70 breed- ers of purebreds in 22 counties of the state. Supervisors made 359 visits to breeders and conducted 2,442 two-day tests and 133 seven-day tests. This is an increase of over 65 per cent of the number of cows officially tested, 118 per cent increase in the number of breeders making the official tests, 33 per cent increase in the number of two-day tests and 166 per cent increase in the number of seven or thirty-day tests. The following table shows the progress of this work during the past five years: Fiscal Year Ending June 30 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 No. cows tested 336 413 349 403 667 No. breeders represented .... 24 26 28 32 70 No. two-day tests 1744 2072 1473 1830 2442 No. seven-day tests 22 47 25 50 133 Beginning in September, 1919, a monthly summary of the progress of cows on test has been made. Included in this report are the records of all cows producing over three pounds of fat during the two days while being tested by official supervisors. It is interesting to note the rapid increase in the number of so-called “Honor Cows.” Starting with twelve in Sep- tember the number has gradually increased, reaching the peak in May when 82 cows secured honors. This information has gone into the hands of 300 Missouri breeders of purebred dairy cattle each month as well as to the farm publications of the state who have generously contributed space for the publication of this information. Fertilizer Control (F. B. Mumford, L. G. Haigh). — During the fall of 1919 and the spring of 1920, forty-three counties were visited in Missouri by inspectors. One hundred and eight towns were visited and about twenty additional samples were analyzed for farmers, dealers and county agents. About one hundred and fifty samples for limestone for agricultural purposes were tested and the report of these findings were published. Results of the inspection indicate the conditions affecting the conformity of the composition of the fertilizer to its guarantees of 383 samples of fertilizer and nearly 150 samples of limestone for purity. It also lists the brands of fertilizer registered for sale in 1920 and the approximate sale of fertilizer in the state by counties for the years 1918-1919. 58 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 Nursery Inspection (Leonard Haseman, K. C. Sullivan, S. R. McLane): Nursery Inspection Nursery inspected 93 Nurseries certified . 80 Nurseries infested with San Jose scale... 8 Total acreage of nursery stock inspected 1468.75 Number of counties in which nurseries were inspected ...... . 40 Number of men making inspection 4 Number of cases of foreign stock inspected 67 Number of foreign plants inspected 442,000 Number of counties in which these foreign ship- ments were inspected 6 Papers Issued Inspection certificates issued 103 Dealers 23 Agents permits 121 Growers permits , 157 Manufacture and Distribution of Hog Cholera Serum (Dr. O. S. Cris- ler, Superintendent University Serum Plant). — The Agricultural Experiment Station has been manufacturing and distributing serum to farmers and veterinarians for many years. In the beginning small quantities of anti- hog cholera serum were manufactured and distributed to farmers for the purpose of determining whether or not the anti-cholera serum was a practi- cal treatment for the disease of hog cholera. So important was the work and so successful the original investigations, that in 1909 the Legislature ap- propriated $10,000.00 for the production and distribution of anti-hog cholera serum. This was distributed free and the $10,000.00 appropriated for the purpose was soon exhausted after which the Experiment Station furnished serum at cost of manufacture. The General Assembly meeting in January 1911, made an appropriation of $25,000.00 to supply serum to farmers. This appropriation was ex- hausted in the Spring of 1912 and from that time on the Station made a small charge covering cost of production for the serum distributed. The 47th General Assembly in 1913, made an appropriation of $50,000.00 for the purchase of land and buildings with equipment for the efficient production of anti-cholera serum. With the $50,000.00 there was purchased a farm of 87.72 acres two miles from Columbia at a cost of $100.00 an acre, a modern laboratory including a refrigeration plant and virus laboratory with yards adjoining, a barn for the proper care of animals used in the manufacture of serum, a deep well and necessary fences and yards were constructed with the remainder of the appropriation. At the present time, 1920, serum is produced at a cost of l^c per cubic centimeter and this is the price charged to farmers and veterinarians. The equipment of the laboratory has been improved from time to time, until at present the Experiment Statoin has one of the best equipped and most con- venient laboratories for the production of anti-cholera serum in the country. All buildings and equipment are in good state of repair and the farm is being improved as rapidly as funds will permit. What the Station Is Doing for Missouri 59 The total amount of serum produced from 1909 to 1919, has been 28,- 592,973 c. c. The production by years is indicated in the following table: Year No. c. c. 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 527,701 1,032,248 2,743,099 4,104,311 6,993,702 4,060,960 3,562,799 1,557,250 254,375 1,569,001 2,187,527 28,592,973 c. c. It is not the policy of the Experiment Station to push the sale of serum in a manner to seriously compete with the private manufacturers of anti- cholera serum, but to produce the highest grade of serum that it is possible to produce at a minimum price. This serum is at all times available for purchase by Missouri citizens. Undoubtedly this policy has resulted in keeping the price of serum down to a reasonable cost in the state. In sea- sons of great emergency it would be possible to greatly increase the pro- duction of serum. Thus the plant may be considered in the nature of a state insurance against serious outbreaks of hog cholera. 60 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 FINANCIAL STATEMENT Dr. Hatch Adams Fund Fund To balance from appropriations for 1918-1919: Receipts from the Treasurer of the United States, as per appropriations for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1920, under acts of Congress approved March 2. 1887 (Hatch Fund) and March 16, 1906 (Adams Fund) $15,000.00 $15,000.00 Cr. abstract By salaries 1 9,107.63 6,292.38 Labor 2 1,498.09 1,990.40 Publications 3 000.00 omit Postage and stationery 4 206.76 32.19 Freight and express 5 299.89 229.25 Heat, light, water, and power 6 79.59 117.14 Chemicals and laboratory supplies 7 195.70 498.50 Seeds, plants and sundry supplies 8 536.02 373 Of Fertilizers 9 000.00 28.00 Feeding stuffs 10 2,553.67 3,861.01 Library 11 000.00 6.00 Tools, machinery and appliances 12 33.13 2.25 Furniture and fixtures 13 83.03 000.00 Scientific apparatus and specimens 14 90.00 1,391.31 Live stock 15 85.15 4.50 Traveling expenses 16 103.56 78.79 Contingent expenses 17 000.00 000.00 Buildings and land 18 127.78 94.90 Balance 000.00 000.00 Total $15,000.00 $15,000.00 We, the undersigned, duly appointed Auditors of the Corporation, do hereby certify that we have exained the books and accounts of the Mis- souri Agricultural Experiment Station for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1920; that we have found the same well kept and classified as above; that the balance brought forward from the preceding year was $ none on the Hatch Fund and $ none on the Adams Fund; that the receipts for the year from the Treasurer of the United States were $15,000.00, under the act of Congress of March 2, 1887, and $15,000.00 under the act of Congress of March 16, 1906, and the corresponding disbursements $15,000.00 and $15,000.00; for all of which proper vouchers are on file and have been by us examined and found correct, leaving balances of $ none and $ none. And we further certify that the expenditures have been solely for the purposes set forth in the acts of Congress approved March 2, 1887, and March 16, 1906, and in accordance with the terms of said acts, re- spectively. Signed: EDWARD E. BROWN Attest: Auditors LESLIE COWAN Acting as Auditor for the Custodian. Curators, University of Missouri. Cluster of more than a thousand bats on a Missouri cave ceiling. COLUMBIA, MISSOURI FEBRUARY, 1921 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180 BAT GUANO AND ITS FER- TILIZING VALUE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL the; curators of the; university of Missouri EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY H. J. BEANTON, JOHN H. BRADLEY, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Paris Kennett Kansas City ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D„ PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF February, 1921 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, M. S . 2 R. M. Smith A. M. T. E. Friedmann, B. S. A. R. Hall, B. S. in Agr. E. G. SiEvEking, B. S. in Agr. G. W. York, B. S. in Agr. C. F. Ahmann, A. B. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING J. C. Wooley, B .S. Mack M. Jones, B. S. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. in Agr. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. A. G. Hogan, Ph. D. F. B. Mumeord, M. S. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. Paul B. Barnard, B. S. in Agr. A. T. Edinger, B. S. in Agr. H. D. Fox, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY . J. Robbins, Ph. D. F. Hopkins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY C. Ragsdale. B. S. in Agr. . W. Swett, A. M. m. H. E. Reid, A. M. muEl Brody, M. A. C. W. Turner, B. S. in Agr. D. H. Nelson, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. O. C. McBride, FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. StadlEr, A. M. O. W. Letson, B. S. in Agr. E. O. Pollock, B. S. in Agr. B. B. Branstetter, B. S. in Agr. RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. S. D. Gromer, A. M. R. C. Hall, A. M. Ben H. Frame, B. S. in Agr. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. D. Hooker, Jr., Ph. D. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. F. C. Bradford, M. S. H. G. Swartwout, B S. in Agr. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L. Kempster, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. R. R. Hudelson, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. H. V. Jordan, B. S. in Agr. Richard Bradfield, A. B. O. B. Price, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY -SCIENCE J. W. Connaway, D. V. S., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crtsler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, A. M. ZOOLOGY . George Lefevre, Ph. D. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer Leslie Cowan, B. S., Sercretary S. B. ShirkEy, A. M., Asst, to Director A. A. Teffrey, A. B., Agricultural Editor J. F. Barham, Photographer Miss Bertha Hite , 1 Seed Testing Lab- oratory. Un service of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2 On leave of absence Bat Guano and Its Fertilizing Value Wm. A. Albrecht Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station The high cost of manufactured fertilizers and the shortage of nitrogen- ous materials, together with transportation troubles of the past few years, have put precarious conditions about the farmer dependent on commer- cial fertilizer. Even the man who has manure finds that his supply is ex- hausted all too soon and that to meet the demands of increased produc- tion he must use commercial plant food either as single element or as mixed products to make up the manure shortage. Such exigencies de- mand that every possible source of raw material with fertilizing value be searched out and developed. This demand has already brought increased development in utilization of garbage, leather scrap, feathers, wool waste and many other forms of waste products. Garbage alone supplied for com- mercial fertilizers in 1917 almost 124,000 tons of nitrogenous matter. Bat guano, the bat waste or accumulated excreta of those small winged animals in caves, should have attention for its possibilities in this respect. It con- tains much nitrogen, and appreciable amounts of phosphorous and potas- sium — the elements for which fertilizers are desired. In addition, it has such physical properties as to require no special treatment other than drying, and adapts itself readily for fertilizer use. Since caves with bats inhabiting them are common in Missouri, since quantities of bat guano estimated to exceed 16,000 tons have been located in caves of Porto Rico (3)*; and since considerable shipments of such material have already come up from Mexico (5) to go into fertilizers, a brief study of bat guano and tests of its fertilizing value were undertaken. PROPERTIES OF BAT GUANO Physical Condition. Bat guano in the strictest sense is not a guano since this term usually refers to accumulated bird excreta; but in the more general sense, referring to nitrogenous fertilizers as a class, its use is ap- propriate. As a pellet-formed excrement of small mammals this guano requires no grinding or special preparation to reduce it. Rock particles from disintegrating cave walls are usually mixed with it but these are easily sifted out. When completely dry, guano is dusty and too light for mechanical distribution but this difficulty can be overcome by mixing heavier fertilizer salts with it. Such practice would not only improve the physical condition but would permit adjustment of its chemical composi- tion more nearly to fertilizer standards as well. When left to retain a good percentage of moisture guano distributes readily; so, if used alone, incomplete drying makes it scatter nicely. As it comes from the caves this guano may contain varying amounts of water, but the water disap- pears readily on exposure and there can be no more serious objection to Numbers refer to literature cited in Bibliography on page 15. 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 180 this feature than to its other physical characteristics, which offer no great handicap to using bat guano as a fertilizer. Chemical Composition. The chemical composition of bat guano like that of all animal manures 'is determined by the animal itself and the na- ture of the food it ea':s. The cow, for example, with four stomachs, works over the feed stuffs differently from the horse. “The digestive apparatus (1) of the bat is very simple. The stomach is simple with a small fundus. The intestine is short measuring but one and one-half times the length of the body — The foods cannot be so highly simplified by making this short passage through the animal and the excreta not so greatly changed from the composition of the food itself. “Bats (1) feed exclusively on crepuscular and nocturnal insects and their diet is made up of mosquitoes, gnats, moths and even the heavily mailed nocturnal Coleoptera, all of which fall victims in large numbers.” This means that the diet which is exclusively animal tissue must contain much protein and consequently much nitrogen. In the bat’s simple digestive system this highly nitrogenous food cannot be changed greatly and the feces must carry much of this element. Under the microscope bat guano shows insect remains almost exclu- sively — save for some wooly body combings and occasional skeletal parts of dead bats, most of these being the hard internal parts and body cov- erings or skeletons. These are made up of a compound called “chitin”, chemically related to cartilage in the skeleton and mucin in the skin of larger, vertebrate animals. Chitin (8) is indigestible by chickens and seems to pass through bats also with little or no alterations. The exact proportion of nitrogen in chitin is not known, but regardless of what this figure may be, the excreta made from feeding on it must be comparatively rich in nitrogen. The composition of fresh guano is in accord with the foregoing deduc- tions. Samples whose form indicated recent deposition were collected near Zebra and Rocheport, Mo., and gave 10.3 per cent and 10.4 per cent of nitrogen respectively on analysis of the dry matter. Such composition is not permanent however. Age brings decomposition with various changes both in physical and chemical make-up. Fresh guano is black when moist and deep brown when dry. Older guano may be reddish, pale brown or even gray when dry. The nitrogen becomes soluble and is readily lost by leaching. It can scarcely escape as ammonia gas, because of the large amounts of water always present to dissolve it and the great absorption by the extensive surface of such finely divided material. Because of de- composition and leaching, the fertilizer value of guano for its nitrogen decreases with age, and a deposit is not well supplied with this element merely because it was rich in this respect when fresh. There is an irregularity in guano composition with the depth of the de- posit, since deeper layers are the older. There is a decrease in per cent of nitrogen and a change in color, but usually an increase in phosphorus percentage with successively deeper layers. The latter element is not so soluble and remains during decomposition while other materials are re- moved. An old deposit in Marvel Cave of Stone County, to which evi- dently no recent additions had been made, contained 5.90 per cent of nitro- Bat Guano and Its Fertilizing Value 5 gen in the upper foot, but only 3.46 per cent in the next layer of the same depth below. The analyses for phosphoric acid for these layers were 3.89 per cent and' 6.25 per cent respectively, a relation to depth opposite that for nitrogen. This variation in chemical composition of different layers is responsible for great irregularity in bat guano carelessly mined and poorly mixed, and has made many fertilizer concerns hesitate to offer full price for this material. In fresh guano the nitrogen occurs mainly as a part of some com- plex organic compound. Decomposition changes this form of nitrogen into the ammonia and nitrate or saltpeter forms. It was for the salt- peter, to be used in making gunpowder, that guano deposits in many caves in Missouri were worked during the Civil War. (4) In the samples gathered >and examined in this study little nitrate was found, due no doubt to the fact that most of them were collected from caves having water which carried it away. Ammonia nitrogen occurs in fresh material in rather unusual quantities Samples were found to contain as much as 1.98 per cent of ammonia nitro- gen when the total nitrogen content was 10.4 per cent. Some nitrogen may have been hydrolysed into this form during the process of analysis; but, even so, this large percentage indicates that a good proportion of the nitrogen is in a simple, unstable form and is readily subject to agencies converting it to soluble forms such as ammonia. In samples taken from older deposits or at greater depths below the surface of the accumulation there was less ammonia. Nitrate nitrogen was also lower in older de- posits. By far the largest part of the total nitrogen in guano was in the more stable complex organic form. As a general rule it was found that the ammonia decreased with age except in very fresh guano, while the nitrate form was almost negligible in the majority of the deposits studied. Not only the nitrogen, but phosphorus and potash in guano have some fertilizing value although generally in the newer deposits these are of less importance than the nitrogen. In older deposits they take on consider- able significance. ANALYSES OF BAT GUANO Nitrogen. In Table I are given analyses of guano from various caves in Missouri, tabulated for their total nitrogen content. Determinations were made on samples in air-dry condition, containing approximately 8 per cent hygroscopic water. 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 180 Tabee I. Nitrogen in Bat Guano brom Various Missouri Caves Location of Cave Town County Sample Number: Per cent Nitrogen . Notch* Stone 1 8.69t* Known as Marvel Cave. 2 5.90 Sampled at 2 ft. depth. 3 .31 Sampled at 3 ft. depth. 4 5.24 Sampled at 2 ft. depth. 5 3.46 Composite samples; 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 6 2.91 and 11, taken in different parts 7 3.66 of cave after guano had been 8 3.91 dug and mixed. 9 3.98 10 3.03 11 2.71 Colleda Camden 1 7.52 Nearly fresh guano. 2 2.32 Sampled at two feet depth. 3 1.77 Saturated with water. Ink Shannon 1 7.36 Depth 0-6 inches. 2 6.42 Depth 7-12 inches. 3 1.96 Depth 13-16 inches. Richland (7) Pulaski 1 1.86 2 6.34 3 8.78 Salem Dent 1 7.98 2 1.13 Phillipsburg (7) Laclede 2.87 Hoecker Miller 7.30 63 lbs. water per 100 of fresh gua- Laquey (7) Pulaski 4.71 no. Leasburg Crawford 2.06 Montgomery City, (7) Montg’ry 1.45 Rocheport Boone 10.44 1.97 per cent as ammonia, no ni- Zebra Camden 10.35 trate nitrogen. Oregon (6) 8.10 *Exact geographical locations were seldom available, hence the locations are given by postoffice nearby. -j-Data above are based on air-dry weights. Table II gives the content in phosphorus and potash for the ' sam- ples analysed, and indicates that the phosphorus must not be neglected when considering the fertilizer value of bat guano. Tables I and II show that there is a wide variation in composition of guano. In buying it for fertilizer one must be cautious and purchase solely on the basis of guaranteed analyses with respect to nitrogen, phos- phorus and potassium, as well as its moisture content. With percentage ranges from 0.3 to 10.4 for nitrogen, from 2.5 to 7.9 for phosphoric acid, from 0.36 to 1.9 for potash and from 8 to 50 for moisture, it is evident that no small financial hazard is involved in purchasing such material in the hope of putting it on a market closely guarded by State Fertilizer Control laws. Bat Guano and Its Fertilizing Value 7 Table II. Phosphorus and Potash in Bat Guano from Some Missouri Caves Location Town jf Cave County Sample Per cent: Remarks. PHOSPHORUS p 2 o 5 Notch Stone 7 6.63* Known as Marvel Cave 9 6.27 1L 5.56 Hoecker Miller 2.50 Leasburg Crawford .... 7.91 Oregon 2.06 By U. S. Dept. Agr. POTASH k 2 o Notch Stone 8 .36 Known as Marvel Cave Oregon .58 By U. S. Dept. Agr. Hoecker Miller 1.90 *Data are based on air-dry weights. EXPERIMENTS WITH BAT GUANO AS A FERTILIZER Ammonification. Since nitrogen is the prominent constituent of most bat guano, studies were conducted on its changes within the soil as com- pared with the nitrogen changes of other fertilizer materials such as tank- age and dried blood. To test the ammonification of guano 100-gram portions of Marshall silt loam were treated with 1.5 gm. guano and compared with the same soil weights given 1.118 gm. dried blood and 1.859 gm. tankage separately. The guano had 10.6 per cent, the dried blood 13.40 per cent and the tankage 8.06 per cent nitrogen. The weights of these materials taken were such as to add exactly 150 mgm. of nitrogen. Determinations of the ammonia* in the soil were made at the outset and at intervals of seven and eleven days with the average results for duplicate determinations given in Table III. Table III. Ammonia Nitrogen in Soils Treated with Bat Guano, Dried Blood and Tankage. Added in At 7 days 1 1 days later. Treatment Fertilizer Outset later mgm. mgm. mgm. mgm. Soil Alone None 2.660 2.359 2.484 Soil and Tankage 150 10.893 25.752 36.842 Soil and Dried Blood 150 3.814 ' 25.200 40.862 Soil and Guano 150 34.110 22.389 36.997 *The guano used in all subsequent experiments contained 10.4 per cent total nitrogen, of which 1.97 per cent occured as ammonia and scarcely a trace as nitrate. This was a high grade guano and a nitrogen content above the average shown in Table I. 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 180 Table III shows that soil treated with guano contained much ammonia at the start but less a week later, because, no doubt, of its being convert- ed into the nitrate form. Four days later the ammonia content increased again, equalling that of the tankage and almost that of the blood. This in- dicates that the nitrogen in guano is readily converted into ammonia and is subject to the changes undergone by other nitrogenous fertilizer constit- uents. Nitrification. To test further transformation of guano nitrogen through nitrification in the soil, studies were made comparing nitrate pro- Fig. 1. — Ammonia Accumulation in Soil Treated with Bat Guano Compared with that of Tankage and Dried Blood. duction by guano with that from dried blood and tankage. One hundred gram lots of Marshall silt loam soil treated with one gram of calcium carbonate were made up in jelly tumblers. Series of nine tumblers each were treated separately with one gram of guano, one of dried blood and one of tankage and kept at optimum moisture. Duplicate determinations were made on ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen at the start and at intervals of two weeks over a period of sixteen weeks. Table IV gives the data of the above determinations. Table V shows the percentage of nitrogen in each substance that was changed to nitrates. Figure 1 is a graphical representation of data for ammonia production given in Table IV. Figure 2 shows in a similar way the nitrification data from the same table, while in figure 3 the curves reproduce Table V. Bat Guano and Its Fertilizing Value 9 • on in Weeks Fig. 2. — Nitrification of Guano in Soil Compared with Dried Blood and Tank- age. Duration in Weeks Fig. 3. — Percent of Total Nitrogen in Guano Changed to Nitrates as compared with that of Dried Blood and Tankage. 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 180 Table IV. Nitrogen in Soils Treated with Bat Guano as Compared with Soils Treated with Dried Blood and with Tankage. Ammonia Nitrogen. Treatment Ferti- lizer At After After After After After After After After added outset 2 wks 4 wks 6 wks 8 wks 10 wks 12 wks 14 wks 16 wks gm. mgm. mgm. mgm. mgm. mgm. mgm. mgm. mgm. mgm. Soil 1 1.28 1.35 .80 1.40 1.14 1.30 .57 1.30 .87 Soil and tankage 1 3.66 12.84 9.96 1.35 2.13 2.58 1.68 1.53 1.95 Soil and dried blood 1 2.43 26.30 39.13 22.93 4.81 3.31 1.30 1.73 2.05 Soil and Guano 1 12.29 13.70 11.34 4.41 2.28 2.73 1.45 1.82 1.83 Soil 1 1.11 1.43 Nitrate 2.22 Nitrogen 2.35 2.68 (*) 3.55 4.33 4.57 Soil and tankage 1 .79 1.24 4.41 12.19 12.49 (*) 15.03 15.21 15.68 Soil and dried blood 1 .81 1.29 2.94 17.08 31.89 (*) 34.33 36.42 35.49 Soil and Guano 1 7.50 7.76 9.62 15.08 17.23 (*) 17.52 18.32 23.66 Table V. Per Cent O o Hi > r 1 Nitrogen in Nitrates. Tested Material Changed to Treatment After 2 wks. After 4 wks. After 6 wks. After 8 wks. After 10 wks. After 12 wks. After Afer 14 wks. 16 wks. Soil and tankage .55 4.49 13.88 14.50 (*) 17.66 17.85 18.45 Soil and dried blood .36 1.29 12.14 23.19 (*) 25.01 26.57 25.88 Soil and guano .24 1.74 7.15 9.17 (*) 9.45 10.20 15.24 • *Tenth week determinations in this experiment were lost. fOne gram sample of each fertilizer was used analysing as follows for nitrogen; tank- age 8.06 per cent, dried blood, 13.40 per cent, guano 10.60 per cent. Brief study of the data and graphs given shows that in the produc- tion of ammonia and its change to nitrates, fresh guano is a very efficient fertilizer. It does not produce as high a concentration of ammonia as dried blood, but higher than tankage. Its rate of nitrification is similar to that of tankage, as is shown in figure 2 by the curve for this process in guano which parallels that for tankage very closely but is slightly high- er on the scale. Guano does not equal dried blood in nitrate production, neither in rate nor in total amount, which might well be expected from the much higher initial nitrogen content of the blood. It does, how- ever, equal tankage when its change of nitrogen into soluble form is con- sidered. Pot Experiments With Bat Guano. To test further the fertilizing ef- fects of bat guano, pot cultures were run comparing it with ammonium sul- fate, tankage and dried blood. Applications were made at the following rates of nitrogen per 2,000,000 pounds of soil; ammonium sulfate 100 pounds, Bat Guano and Its Fertilizing Value 11 dried blood 200 pounds, tankage 200 pounds and guano 100 pounds in one series and 200 pounds in another. The soil used was a Lindley silt loam with a low nitrogen content. It was treated with fertilizers at the rate of 2 tons limestone, 300 pounds acid phosphate and 50 pounds muriate of potash per 2,000,000 pounds of soil in an attempt to make nitrogen the limiting element. Duplicate pots were used with oats as the crop. The results of the test are shown by the total crop weights of duplicate tests given in Table VI. Table VI. Weights of Oats on Pots Treated With Bat Guano in Com- parison with Other Nitrogenous Fertilizers. Equivalent of ni- Treatment trogen added. Grain Straw Total Increase (Lbs. per two Crop by million), treatment. gm. gm. gm. gm. None 7.45 17.85 25.30 Ammonium sulfate 100 8.60 19.70 28.30 3.00 Dried blood 200 11.35 21.70 33.05 7.75 Tankage 200 12.39 21.66 34.05 8.75 Bat Guano 100 12.96 20.04 33.00 7.70 Bat Guano 200 12.06 25.99 38.05 12.75 The results of pot cultures show that, when measured by a crop of oats, the application of bat guano at a rate of 100 pounds of nitrogen per acre was about equal to dried blood and tankage at twice that rate. This was true for both seed and straw production shown by the data in Table VI. That the addition of even the smaller application of bat guano im- proved the crop over the check is shown in Plate I, and that such treat- Plate I. — Pot cultures with oats showing the effect of bat guano as a fertilizer. Duplicate treatments from left to right are check, bat guano 100 pounds, and bat guano 200 pounds nitrogen per two million pounds soil. 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 180 ment gives results greater than the same nitrogen content in ammonium sulfate is shown in Plate II. This emphasizes very clearly the possibility of using guano as a fertilizer constituent just for the sake of its nitrogen, especially when its effects are so superior to those of the common fertilizer constituents used for this element. Field Experiments With Bat Guano. Field tests comparing ammonium sulfate with guano under various application rates also show interesting results. Five small field plots of Putnam silt loam were used. One was left untreated to serve as a check, one was treated with ammonium sul- fate at the rate of 100 pounds per acre and the remaining three plots were Plate II. — Pot cultures with oats showing the fertilizer effect of bat guano compared with that of ammonium sulfate. Duplicate treatments from left to right are ammonium sulfate 100 pounds, bat guano 100 pounds and bat guano 200 pounds nitrogen per two million pounds of soil. given guano at the rates of 200 , 400 , and 800 pounds of guano per acre. Oats were grown as the crop, carefully harvested and threshed to test the effects of the above treatments. Table VII gives the crop weights pro- duced by the different treatments, and Plate III shows the appearance of the plot treated with ammonium sulfate as compared to the one treated with the highest application of bat guano. Table VII. Weights oe Oats Produced by Bat Guano in Comparison with Ammonium Sueeate. Plot Fertilizer added per acre. Bushels grain per acre. Increase over check. Pounds straw per acre. Increase over check. 1 Guano 400 lbs. 31.17 4.45 1328 163 2 Guano 200 lbs. 30.81 4.09 1318 156 3 Check 26.72 1162 4 Ammonium sulfate 100 lbs. 27.04 .32 1180 18 5 Guano 800 lbs. 33.29 6.57 1444 282 Bat Guano and Its Fertilizing Value 13 The data in Table VII show that the guano produced greater in- creases in all three applications than did the 100 pounds of ammonium sul- fate. The minimum increase by the former was something over 4 bushels of oats per acre. This is a fair increase from 200 pounds applied, showing such application superior to the 100 pounds of ammonium sulfate. These results indicate that it is not only the nitrogen of the guano, but also the other fertilizer elements, phosphorus and potassium, which it contains, that produce increased yields. For had nitrogen been the limiting element in this soil the treatment with ammonium sulfate should have done equally as well. Plate III. — Field results on oats fertilized with bat guano at the rate of 800 pounds per acre (on the right) compared with ammonium sulfate, 100 pounds per acre (on the left). Plot on the right yielded 6.5 bushels over that on the left though not indicated clearly in the picture. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USING BAT GUANO According to its composition bat guano, as found in most deposits, is an unbalanced plant ration with high nitrogen content and will serve best when this excess is balanced by other plant foods. The fresher guano should be reinforced by adding phosphorus although that taken from older deposits is fairly rich in this element. Guano may, of course, be used alone, but when dry it is so light in weight as to scatter through fertiliz- ing machinery with difficulty. It would be far more serviceable as a constituent of mixed fertilizer. The addition of the heavier fertilizer in- gredients would overcome the mechanical difficulty of spreading as well as balance the plant ration. For 1 the farmer who owns a deposit of guano or can get such cheaply, it may be advisable to use the guano without modification, but for most efficient results it should be reinforced with those plant foods that balance the deficiencies. 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 180 SUMMARY Bat guano, usually found in caves, has a chemical composition which makes it favorable for use as fertilizer. Age affects the fertilizing value of guano seriously. While’ it loses much of its nitrogen and potash by leaching, it becomes relatively richer in phosphorus. Guano in Missouri caves shows variations in nitrogen from 0.31 to 10.44 per cent, in phosphoric acid from 2.5 to 7.9 per cent, and in potash from 0.36 to 1.9 per cent. Its content in moisture is usually high, often approaching 50 per cent. These irregularities have made guano buying a hazard to commercial fertilizer manufacturers. Experimental ammonification tests showed that the fresher bat guano produced ammonia in amounts equal to and nitrates in amounts even great- er than that of tankage. It did not equal that. of dried blood in these re- spects. In pot cultures bat guano gave results superior to those of dried blood, tankage, and ammonium sulfate and in field tests with oats, comparing it with ammonium sulfate, it proved itself superior. Average bat guano makes a good fertilizer on poor soils when applied directly at the rate of two hundred pounds of dry material peT acre. As a general fertilizing material it can be used more satisfactorily as a consti- tuent of mixed fertilizer, especially when mixed with phosphorus carriers. Bat Guano and Its Fertilizing Value 15 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Allen, H. Monograph on Bats of North America. Bui. U- S. Nat. Mus. 43 (1893) 198 pp. 2. Fraps, G. S., Commercial Fertilizers in 1912-1913. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 160 (1913). 3. Gile, P. L. and Carrero, J. O. Bat Guanos of Porto Rico and Their Fer- tilizing Value, Porto Rico Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 25 (1918) 65 pp. 4. Mcfarland, A. W., Blairstown, Mo. In correspondence with author. 5. Newhouse, E. E. Secretary for Arkansas Fertilizer Company in cor- respondence with author. 6. Miller, C. F. On the Composition and Value of Bat Guano. Separate U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau of Soils. 7. Trowbridge, P. F. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers. Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 145 (1917) 27. Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 154 (1918) 30. 8. Zaitschek, A. The Digestibility of Chitin and the Nutritive Value of Insects. Arch. Physiol. (Pfluger) 104 (1904) 612-623. Exp. Sta. Rec. 16 (1904-05) 585. COLUMBIA, MISSOURI MARCH, 1921 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181 CORN IN MISSOURI I. Corn Varieties and Their Improvement UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL the: CURATORS OF the: UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY H. J. BLANTON, JOHN H. BRADLEY, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Paris Kennett Kansas City ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF March, 1921 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, M. S . 2 R. M. Smith, A. M. T. E. Friedmann, B. S. A. R. Hall, B. S. in Agr. E. G. Sieveking, B. S. in Agr. G. W. York, B. S. in Agr. C. F. Ahmann, A. B. agricultural engineering J. C. Wooley, B. S. Mack M. Jones, B. S. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. in Agr. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. A. G. Hogan, Ph. D. F. B. Mumford, M. S. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. Paul M. Bernard, B. S. in Agr. A. T. Edinger, B. S. in Agr. H. D. Fox, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. E. F. Hopkins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale, B. S. in Agr. VV. W. Swett, A. M. Wm. H. E. Reid, A. M. Samuel Brody, M. A. C. W. Turner, B. S. in Agr. D. H. Nelson, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. O. C. McBride, B. S. in A. FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. O. W. Letson, B. S. in Agr. E. O. Pollock, B. S. in Agr. B. B. Branstetter, B. S. in Agr. RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. S. D. Gromer, A. M. R. C. Hall, A. M. Ben H. Frame, B. S. in Agr. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. D. Hooker, Jr., Ph. D. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. F. C. Bradford, M. S. H. G. SwartwouT, B. S. in Agr. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L. Kempster, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. R. R. Hudelson, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. H. V. Jordan, B. S. in Agi Richard Bradfield, A. B. O. B. Price, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connaway, D. V. S., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crisler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, A. M. ZOOLOGY George Lefevre, Ph. D. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S.. Treasurer Leslie Cowan, B. S.. Secretary S. B. Shirkey, A. M., Asst, to Director A. A. Jeffrey, A. B., Agricultural Editor J. F. Barham, Photographer Miss Bertha C. Hite , 1 Seed Testing Laboratory *In service of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2 On leave of absence. CORN IN MISSOURI I. Corn Varieties and Their Improvement L. J. Stadler, C. A. Helm* The average acre-yield of corn in Missouri during the 10-year period 1911- 1920 was 27 bushels. Many farmers have made yields two or three times as high in the same period. While it is true that many extremely high yields of corn are produced at less profit than moderately high yields, it is certain that the average yield per acre of the State could be increased at least 25 per- cent by practices which would not increase the cost of production. The yield of corn or of any other crop may be increased through the use of better seed and better methods of culture. In this bulletin the factors which make for better seed are discussed, including the choice of a variety, the improvement of the variety chosen and the production of pure, live, healthy seed. Methods of culture will be discussed in another bulletin soon to be published. VARIETIES OF CORN Tests of varieties of corn have been conducted by the Missouri Experiment Station in all sections of the State since 1905. Over 50 varieties were tested in a preliminary way at Columbia and the best of these were further tested for many years on eight outlying experiment fields and in 467 cooperative tests on farms located in the important agricultural regions of the State. The results of the first five years were reported in Bulletin 87 of this Station and the results of the first 10 years in Bulletin 143. The present bulletin reports the results of 16 years including the season of 1920. The results through this period were consistent and the relative value of the varieties now available to Missouri farmers may therefore be considered fairly well established, although it is possible that future tests of new varieties may discover kinds more valu- able than any now being grown. The object of these tests was to find the most suitable variety for each important agricultural section of the State. The conclusions are, therefore, based chiefly on the results of tests on outlying fields. The following varieties were tested at Columbia during the years 1905- 1915 inclusive: Boone County White Cartner Boone County Special Cob Pipe Bloody Butcher Commercial *The variety tests reported in this bulletin were planned and begun by M. F. Miller, and have been at various times under the direct charge of Professor Miller, H. D. Hughes, C. B. Hutchison, T. R. Douglass, J. B. Smith and C. A. Helm. Earlier results are report- ed in Bulletin 87, by M. F. Miller and H D Hughes, and in Bulletin 143, by C B. Hutchison, A. R. Evans, J. C. Hackleman and E. M. McDonald, with a description of the soil areas concerned by H. H. Krusekopf. These bulletins have been drawn on freely in the preparation of this report. Dr. W. C. Etheridge, chairman of the Department of Eield Crops, has had general supervision of the work since 1916, and has aided greatly by ad- vice and criticism in the preparation of the present bulletin. 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 Champion White Pearl Iowa Silvermine Cocke Prolific Indiana Ear No. 4 Clay County White Johnson County White Calico Kansas Sunflower Clarage Learning Diamond Joe Legal Tender Eclipse Lenocher Homestead Funk Silver King McAuley White Dent Funk Yellow Dent McMacken Gourdseed Funk 90 Day Missouri No. 7 Farmers’ Interest Marlboro Prolific Farmers’ Reliance Pride of the North Golden Beauty Pride of Nishna Gold Standard Learning Queen of Nishna Golden Eagle Reid Yellow Dent Graves Yellow Dent Ratekin Yellow Dent Golden Yellow Dent Roseland Hildreth Yellow Dent St. Charles White Hogue Yellow Dent St. Charles Special No. 2 Hoffmeister White St. Charles Yellow Howard County Yellow Smoot 90 Day Hickory King Tucker Special Illinois Silvermine White Superior Only 14 of these varieties were considered worthy of further trial on out- lying experiment fields and on farms of cooperators. The years in which these were tested in cooperation with farmers are indicated in Table 1. Continued tests eventually eliminated all but six varieties : Boone County White, Commercial White, St. Charles White, Reid Yellow Dent, Learning, and St. Charles Yellow and these six were very thoroughly tested on outlying experiment fields and in cooperative tests since 1910 to find their relative value in each section. These six varieties are alluded to in the following pages as the standard Missouri varieties. Table 1. — Varieties in Co-operative Tests, 1905 - 1914 . VARIETIES 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910-14 (Incl.) Boone County White 1 * * * * * * Cartner. . . * * * Champion White Pearl . . * Commercial White * * * * Farmer’s Interest * * Hildreth Yellow Dent * * Hogue Yellow Dent. * * * * Johnson County White. . . * * * * Learning * * * * * * Legal Tender * * * Reid Yellow Dent * * * * * * Silvermine. . * * * ' * * St . 1 r Charles White * * * * * * St. Charles Yellow * * * * * * Corn Varieties and Their Improvement COMPARATIVE SHRINKAGE OF CORN VARIETIES All yields reported in the following pages are in terms of bushels of ear corn per acre at husking time. Direct comparison of these yields gives a dis- tinct advantage to varieties which at husking contained an abnormally high percentage of moisture or a low percentage of grain. Varieties with large cobs and shallow grain may have considerably less grain per bushel of ear corn than varieties with a deeper grain, such as Reid Yellow Dent. Heavy cobbed and late maturing varieties are also likely to contain a high percentage of moisture. Thus equal yields of ear corn at husking may represent decidedly unequal yields of dry shelled corn. The unequal shrinkage of the different varieties must be considered in comparing yields. Sometimes as much as 25 percent difference betwen two varieties in yield of ear corn at husking is com- pletely overbalanced by difference in shrinkage. The yield of dry shelled corn should be the basis of judgment. Moreover, of two varieties equal in yield of dry shelled corn, the one showing the lower percentage of shrinkage, and consequently the lower yield of ear corn at husking, is to be preferred. The shrinkage is largely caused by high moisture content, and the higher the mois- ture content the poorer the keeping qualities of the grain. High moisture con- tent is usually caused by late maturity; and the use of late varities greatly in- creases the danger of soft corn from early freezes and the difficulty of secur- ing good seed corn even in the average season. Furthermore, the expense of handling up to 25 percent more weight in the ear corn at husking to secure the same actual yield of dry shelled corn is an item of some importance. As determinations of shelling percentage and of moisture content were not made in the early years of the tests reported herein, all yields are expressed in bushels of ear corn for direct comparison. A number of these determinations were made, however, and are reported. Five years’ data on the shrinkage of corn varieties at Columbia are avail- able. Shrinkage was determined by storing the corn in crates over winter in a dry and well ventilated seed house, and shelling it in late winter or early spring. The weight of air-dry shelled corn obtained from one hundred pounds of ear corn at husking time for the principal varieties grown at Columbia dur- ing the five seasons is shown in Table 2. Although the seasonal variation in shrinkage is large, it can be seen that certain varieties always show relatively low shrinkage, while others show rela- tively high shrinkage. In the averages of the five seasons reported above, the shrinkage of Reid Yellow Dent is less than 30 percent, while that of Cob Pipe, under the same conditions, is more than 45 percent. In other words, 1.14 bushels of Reid Yellow Dent in the ear at husking time was actually equal in dry shelled corn to 1.46 bushels of Cob Pipe under the same conditions; or a 64-bushel yield of Cob Pipe would be required to equal 50-bushel yield of Reid Yellow Dent as measured in ear corn at husking. A difference in yield of 28 percent is fully counteracted by the difference in shrinkage of these two varieties. This difference is extreme but other varieties also show note- worthy difference in rate of shrinkage. The figures given in the last column of Table 2 for each variety indicate equivalent yields of ear corn. Thus 1.26 bushels of Commercial White are equivalent to 1.18 bushels of Learning, or to 1.34 bushels of Hildreth Yellow Dent. 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 Table 2. — Shrinkage of Corn Varieties at Columbia. (In Pounds of Air Dried Shelled Corn per 100 Pounds of Ear Corn at Husking.) VARIETY 1910 1912 1913 1914 1915 Average Bu. Ear Ccm Equivalent to 1 Bu. Shelled Com St. Charles White 62 .68 68 .62 62 .22 64 .23 j 76 .81 1 66 .91 1 .20 Boone County White 61 .81 67 .40 1 64 .00 52 .68 78 .48 j 64 .87 1 .23 Learning 59 .07 70 .86 62 .90 64 .17 j 83 .02 68 .00 1 .18 Reid Yellow Dent 64 . 54 72 .02 j 65 .43 67 .61 82. .52 70 .42 1 .14 Cartner 62 27 69 .34 66 31 65 .48 1 80 .62 68 .80 1 .16 Iowa Silvermine 62 . 15 l 69 .60 62 .60 i 63 .67 82, . 59 68 .12 1 .17 Hildreth Yellow Dent i ^ .74 61 .14 | ! 64 . 77 43 .49 70. 96 59 .52 1 .34 Johnson County White 61 .31 1 68 .45 I 64 .38 ! 54 .98 81. 20 j 66 .06 1 .27 St. Charles Yellow 62 .76 68 .83 ! 60 .00 1 59 .16 80. 59 66 .27 1 .28 Hogue Yellow Dent 65 .11 72. . 54 | 66 • 14 64 .80 81. .79 70 .07 1 .14 Commercial White 55 .93 66 38 J 63. 33 56 .04 74. .37 63 ■ 21 1 26 Cob Pipe 54 61 48. 58 1 63 41 i 41 10 66. 44 54 .83 I 1 .46 Illinois Silvermine 64. .47 69. 97 63. . 56 68 .85 83. 22 70 01 1 14 Pride-of-the-North 65 . 98 ; 79. 19 60. 00 60 17 87. 41 71. .55 i 1 12 Clay County White 61. . 54 1 69. 63 67. 82 63. .52 79. 73 68 45 | 1 17 Calico • | 59. 13 71. 68 \ 65 . 00 54. 62 j 82. 28 ; 66 34 1 20 Bloody Butcher 56. 14 71. 07 61. 42 50 . 08 | 84. 05 64. .55 1. 24 Both factors concerned in shrinkage, as measured in the foregoing — the shelling percentage and the moisture content — are more or less affected by seasonal conditions. Determinations of both have therefore been made for five principal varieties grown in variety tests in different sections of the State and in different seasons. These are summarized in Table 3. The foregoing data show that in northern and central Missouri the shrink- age varies considerably, while in southern Missouri the shrinkage is slight in degree and varies but little with the variety. In northern and central Missouri the medium early maturing varieties, Reid Yellow Dent and Learning, show the smallest shrinkage. A 12 percent advantage in w T eight of ear corn at htisking time for Commercial White over Reid Yellow Dent or Learning is required to offset the lower shrinkage of the latter named varieties. In other words, Commercial White must yield 12 percent more ear corn as measured at husk- ing to equal the yield of dry shelled corn of either Reid Yellow' Dent or Learn- ing in northern or central Missouri. It must yield about 8 percent more ear corn than Boone County White or St. Charles White. Unless it excels these varieties by considerably larger mafgins than those mentioned, it is to be avoided in northern and central Missouri because of its higher moisture con- tent and consequently poorer keeping quality. However, in southern Missouri, where the growing season is long enough to mature Commercial White, this variety shows but little more shrinkage than the others and practically the same moisture content at husking. VARIETY TESTS AT COLUMBIA In the 11 years, 1905-1915 inclusive, 52 varieties of corn were tested at Columbia. The soil on which the tests were conducted is a gently rolling Putnam silt loam, fairly representative of the upland soils of northeastern Table 3. — Shrinkage Determinations in Northern, Central, and Southern Missouri. Northern Missouri. Corn Varieties and Their Improvement / A £ £ o H > Wt’d Av. 19.8 22.5 20.4 19.1 18.5 Humphreys 1 Yr. 18.2 22.0 21.1 21.3 18.0 rG a ai ^ 00 a H 05 5D | ^ o -r o oo W W N W H w rt 2 ^ • 3 • 2 CD Tj< 00 lO 00 ’3 > bn 05 N 50 lO ^ J5 < ^ C<1 i— 1 r-t C/2 1 « d o i-H o oo b > £ O H H 05 CO c« ^ W N N H H § ^ > £ ^ o >1 .5 tn S <3 ^ Oi o o o CO t> O t- lO eo os oj c- eo o o 4s U s s 0) g J3 § O O jJ mow 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 in XJ1 I .2 £ £ o a ■" o > 3 O * rj 15.2 17.2 17.8 15.8 15.9 Kennett 1 Yr. oo n x 4? h 4? 4J 4J ia 44 Charleston 1 Yr. 14.8 15.2 16.4 14.0 13.0 Cape Girardeau Av. 3 Yrs. 15.4 18.9 19.2 16.6 17.4 ^ > t- lO t- N 00 >* a 1-4 LO IN t- t> M n h « « « oo x go oo oo &|* C < oo x oo oo oo •s sl| 3 w BJ X *r a; o S.s I i ° a | Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 and central Missouri. The plots have received no commercial fertilizer, but crops have been rotated regularly and the soil is fairly productive. The yields of all varieties which were tested four years or more and were not eliminated because of poor yields before 1915 are given in Table 4. It will be seen from the yields in this table that in a given season there is a great difference between the yields of different varieties grown under the same conditions. Thus in 1907 the yield of Boone County White was more than 100 percent greater than that of Silvermine. The relative value of two varieties, however, may be very different in different seasons. For ex- ample, in 1907 Boone County White outyielded Reid Yellow Dent by 17 bushels, while in 1911 Reid Yellow Dent outyielded Boone County White by 12 bushels. Obviously, the best variety for a locality can be fairly de- termined only by a comparison of the average yields of varieties for a period of several seasons. Futhermore, in comparing two varieties, the average yields compared must represent the same seasons. It would not be accurate to compare the average yield of Boone County White for 1905-1915 with the average yield of Clay County White for 1909-1915. Clay County White can be accurately compared with Boone County White only by comparing the average yields of the two varieties for the jears in which both were included in the test. The average yields have been computed for the eleven-year period for the six varieties which were in the test for the full period, and also for shorter periods for varieties which were brought into the test after the first year. The yields of the six original varieties have been computed also for these shorter periods for direct com- parison with those of varieties tested less than 11 3 ^ears. In Table 5 all of the average yields in the same column represent the same period of years and may be directly compared. Of the six varieties which were tested for 11 years at Columbia, St. Charles White, Boone County White, and Reid Yellow Dent are the lead- ers, ranking in the order named. Iowa Silvermine is very inferior to the other varieties tested. In the lOwear averages neither of the two varieties added to the test, Johnson County White and Hogue Yellow Dent, equal the yield of St. Charles White. The yield of Johnson County White is about equal to that of Boone County White, which it closely resembles. These two varieties made almost identical yields in nearly every season. Hogue Yellow Dent, a variety ob- tained from Nebraska, was inferior to the three standard Missouri varieties, Reid Yellow Dent, Boone County White and St. Charles White. The two varieties added in 1907, Hildreth Yellow Dent and Commer- cial White, show well in the nine-year averages, the former equaling the yield of St. Charles White and the latter surpassing it by almost 10 per- cent. Both of these varieties, however, have a higher shrinkage than St. Charles White, as shown in Table 2. According to this five-year average of shrinkage determinations, 1.34 bushels of Hildreth Yellow Dent or 1.26 bushels of Commercial White are equivalent to 1.20 bushels of St. Charles White; that is, Hildreth Yellow Dent must outyield St. Charles White by about 12 percent and Commercial White must surpass it by about 5 per- cent in yield of ear corn at husking to equal it in yield of dry shelled corn. In yield of dry shelled corn Hildreth Yellow Dent has not equalled any of Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 11 the three standard varieties while Commercial White has outyielded them 5 percent or more. None of the varieties added to the test after 1907 has outyielded Com- mercial White. Cob Pipe, tested for seven years, shows an average yield 3 bushels less than that of Commercial White and somewhat greater than those of the other standard Missouri varieties. But its extremely high shrinkage reduces its yield of shelled corn to a point considerably below theirs. St. Charles Yellow, which was added to the test in 1906 but omit- ted in 1909, made an average acre yield of 51.4 bushels of ear corn during the nine years it has been tested, as compared with a yield of 52.3 bushels for St. Charles White in the same period. Considering relative shrinkage, Table 5. — Average Yields of Corn Varieties at Columbia. (In Bushels per Acre) VARIETY AVERAGE YIELD 11 Yrs. 1905-15 10 Yrs. 1906-15 9 Yrs. 1907-15 8 Yrs. 1908-15 7 Yrs. 1909-15 6 Yrs. 1910-15 4 Yrs. 1912-15 St. Charles White 53.1 53.1 51.9 48.4 47.6 45.4 41.3 Boone County White 51.5 51.3 50.0 46.1 46.6 45.3 42.4 Learning 48.7 48.9 46.8 44.6 45.6 44.2 41.6 Reid Yellow Dent 49.5 50.3 48.4 46.5 47.9 47.2 40.2 Cartner 48.2 48.1 48.5 46.0 47.9 47.2 44.1 Iowa Silvermine 42.5 41.3 39.4 39.2 39.8 38.6 36.8 Johnson County White 50.5 48.7 45.4 45.8 43.9 41.6 Hogue Yellow Dent 46.1 45.5 46.1 46.8 45.7 43.2 Hildreth Yellow Dent 51.9 46.8 48.5 47.9 38.5 Commercial White 56.6 52.8 53.7 53.1 49.5 Illinois Silvermine 41.7 42.5 39.1 35.4 Cob Pipe 50.7 48.2 41.0 Clay County White 43.1 42.2 38.1 St. Charles Yellow 45.3 43.0 Calico 42.3 38.4 Bloody Butcher 44.0 36.6 Legal Tender 38.2 Hoffmeister White 49.1 Tucker Special 34.1 its yield has been slightly lower than those of St. Charles White, Boone County White and Reid Yellow Dent. Legal Tender, also added to the test in 1906 but omitted in 1909, 1910, and 1911, has averaged during the seven years it was tested, 46.3 bushels, while St. Charles White has aver- aged 48.0 bushels in the same period. Pride of the North, tested from 1909 to 1915, with the exception of 1912, has yielded an average of 26.7 bushels, in comparison with 43.3 bushels for Commercial White in the same period. The leading varieties of corn at Columbia were Commercial White and St. Charles White. Boone County White and Reid Yellow Dent also yielded well. Johnson County White gave practically the same results as Boone County White. Extremely early maturing varieties such as Silver- mine and Pride of the North were decidedly inferior in yield to the medium late maturing varieties. 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 VARIETY TESTS ON OUTLYING FIELDS Variety tests have been conducted on outlying fields distributed over the State throughout the 16-year period treated in this report. For 10 years, 1905-1914 inclusive, they were conducted in cooperation with farmers and were located roughly in proportion to the production of corn in the var- ious sections of the State. The plan in this cooperative work was to test, on all of the important soil types of the State, those varieties most prom- ising for Missouri conditions. Each cooperator was supplied with seed of six to ten varieties, in quantities sufficient for planting at least one-fourth of an acre of each. These were planted side by side on the average corn land of the community, care being taken to select a piece of land as uniform in fertility as possible. Where possible the varieties were planted in long rows rather than in blocks, to gain more uniform conditions of soil. In order to make the test as simple as possible for the cooperators, usually but one plot of each variety was planted, although more accurate results undoubtedly would have been secured if each variety could have been re- peated and the average of two or more plots taken as an estimate of its value. In each case the varieties were given the same treatment so that all could have equal chances. As the season advanced each cooperator made careful observations and notes on the growth and development of the varieties and at maturity harvested and weighed each of them separately. These observations and weights were for- warded to the Experiment Station on blanks furnished for the purpose, and the yield of each variety in each case was calculated on the basis of 70 pounds to the bushel. The approximate loca- tion of the fields on which the co- „ A operative experiments were conducted Fig. 1. Approximate location of cooperative . . tests of corn varieties. IS shown in Figure 1. In 1910, in order to simplify the cooperative work and obtain more detailed and reliable information on the better yielding varieties, all except Boone County White, Commercial White, St. Charles White, Reid Yellow Dent, Learning, and St. Charles Yellow were dropped from the test. The first five years’ results had indicated that these six varieties were the leaders in all parts of the State. The results of the cooperative tests were reported in detail in Bulletin 143 of this Station. In the present bulletin they are reported only in sum- marized form. Corn varieties have also been tested on eight outlying experiment fields of the Experiment Station. The location of these fields is shown in Figure 2. The plots used on these fields were usually about one-tenth acre in size and were usually repeated from two to five times. For the purpose of determining the adaptation of the varieties to dif- ferent parts of the State, the State has been divided into seven sections, Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 13 largely on the basis of soil fertility and physiographic features. These sections are (1) the black prairies of northwestern Missouri (2) the rolling prairies of north-central Missouri (3) the level prairies of northeastern Mis- souri (4) the gray prairies of southwestern Missouri (5) the Ozark border (6) the Ozark center, and (7) the lowlands of southeastern Missouri. The Fig. 2. Agricultural regions of Missouri, and outlying experiment fields on which corn variety tests were conducted. location of these seven regions is shown in Figure 2. The number of co- operative tests located in each of these regions and in the bottom lands of northern and southern Missouri is shown below. Black prairies (upland) 110 Rolling prairies (upland) 28 Level prairies (upland) 85 Gray prairies (upland) 39 Ozark border (upland) 66 Ozark center (upland) 29 Southeast lowlands 9 Northern Missouri bottom lands 29 Southern Missouri bottom lands 48 Total number of cooperative tests 467 In the following pages all tests conducted by the Station elsewhere than on the Experiment Station farm at Columbia are summarized sep- 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 arately for each section. Variety tests on the bottom lands of northern and southern Missouri are also summarized separately. THE BLACK PRAIRIES OF NORTHWESTERN MISSOURI In general, the soils of the black prairie region represent the most valuable farming land of the State. They are characterized by their dark color, mellow texture, and high content of organic matter. The surface soil is mostly a mellow, black to dark brown silt loam, and the subsoil a drab silty clay loam, porous and retentive of moisture. Physically, the black prairie soils are almost ideal. The topography of the region is nearly level to gently rolling, except along the Missouri River where the surface is moderately hilly. In this section, 110 cooperative tests were made. These are summarized in Table 6. Learning, Reid Yellow Dent, Boone County White and St. Charles White, the only varieties which were tested throughout the 10-year period, show practically no difference in average yield of ear corn. The average yields of Commercial White and St. Charles Yellow are practically equal to those of the first named varieties for the eight years in which all were tested. When relative shrinkage is considered, however. Learning and Reid Yellow Dent must be considered distinctly superior to the others. Boone County White was the best variety of white corn. In these co- operative tests Silvermine again proved decidedly inferior. Johnson County White, tested in three seasons, made about the same yield as Boone County White. Hogue Yellow Dent yielded well but did not equal Learning and Reid Yellow Dent. Two of the outlying experiment fields are located in the black prairies region, one at Maryville, Nodaway Coun- ty, in the extreme northern part, and the other at Warrensburg, Johnson County, in the extreme southern part of the region. There is a consider- able difference in latitude between these two stations and the growing season at Warrensburg is, on the average, several days longer than the growing season at Maryville. The yields of varieties at Maryville for seven seasons are summarized in Table 7. Of the varieties tested for the full eight years at Maryville, Learning was the leader by a considerable margin, followed in order by Reid Yellow Dent, St. Charles White, and Boone County White. Hogue Yellow Dent, tested for only five years, slightly excelled the yield of Learning during that period, and is probably of about equal value. No other variety tested equaled the yield of Learning or of Reid Yellow Dent. The yields of the late, heavy- cobbed varieties, Commercial White and Hildreth Yellow Dent, were dis- tinctly inferior, while those of early maturing varieties, Silvermine, Funk Ninety Day, and Smoot Ninety Day were fair but not equal to the yield of Learning. The yields of varieties at Warrensburg for a six-year period are shown in Table 8. Commercial White was the outstanding leader at Warrensburg. Of the other important varieties, St. Charles White was next highest in yield and Learning third. Reid Yellow Dent and Boone County White made Table 6. — Yields of Corn Varieties in Co-operative Tests. Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 15 Table 7. — Yields of Corn Varieties at Maryville, Nodaway County. Black Prairie Soils of Northwestern Missouri 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 17 a poor showing in the test at this point. St. Charles Yellow, during the four years it was tested, almost equaled the yield of St. Charles White. On the black prairie soils of northwestern Missouri the leading varie- ties were Learning and Reid Yellow Dent. In the southern part of the black prairie region, however, Commercial White and St. Charles White gave the highest yields. Table 8. — Yields of Corn Varieties at Warrensburg, Johnson County. Black Prairie Soils of Northwestern Missouri. VARIETY 1914 1915 1917 1918 1919 1920 6 Yrs. 14-15 17-20 5 Yrs. 14-15 17-18 6 20 5 Yrs. 14-15 17-19 3 Yrs. 14-15 & 20 Boone County White 29.6 71.6 45.1 3.4 18.4 34.2 33.7 36.8 33.6 45.1 Commercial White 69.6 86.9 69.3 2.8 27.6 63.6 53.3 58.4 51.2 73.4 St. Charles White 59.1 65.0 58.3 4.9 24.9 38.5 41.8 45.2 42.4 54.2 Learning 51.3 69.4 47.3 4.4 19.7 25.0 36.2 39.5 38.4 48.6 Reid Yellow Dent 29.3 56.6 42.9 3.9 21.7 32.9 St. Charles Yellow 60.0 64.9 46.2 2.9 46.1 44,0 57.0 Johnson County White 50.8 54.6 Silvermine 52.1 50.1 Hogue Yellow Dent 46.0 £4 . 9 Cartner . . . 52.9 66.4 Calico . . . 31.9 44.7 49.1 42.1 Funk Ninety Day. . . 47.7 48 1 Bloody Butcher . 33.6 48.4 29.0 42.8 41.6 Golden Yellow Dent 42.8 60.6 Smoot Ninety Day 52.7 THE ROLLING PRAIRIES OF NORTH CENTRAL MISSOURI The soils of the rolling prairie region to a depth of six to ten inches are black, dark gray, or grayish brown silt loams or loams. The lighter colored soils are found on the lower areas or in places exposed to erosion, while the darker soils occur on the more nearly level areas and on the lower slopes where much organic matter has accumulated. The subsoils are yellowish-brown heavy loams or clay loams, which con- tain an appreciable amount of coarse sand, fine gravel, and lime concre- tions, and are usually somewhat gritty. They grade downward into com- pact gritty clay, usually yellow or gray or showing mottlings of these colors. The presence of sand and gravel in both soils and subsoils gives a distinctly loamy texture, and permits the downward percolation of water through the rather heavy soil material. The region is characterized by a rolling topography, more pronounced in the eastern than in the western portion. The production of corn in this region is less than in the other parts of northern Missouri. In this region 28 cooperative tests were conducted, extending through a period of eight years. They are summarized in Table 9. No difference in value between the six leading varieties is shown in this table. The yield of Silvermine is again distinctly inferior. 18 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 02 EH 00 K •< a a c U 55 02 a 5 55 CJ a a Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 19 A test has been conducted during the past three years in cooperation with the First District Normal School at Kirksville, in this region. The yields of varieties tested at this point are shown in Table 10. These results represent too short a series of seasons to form the basis for definite conclusions. They indicate, however, that the medium early varieties, Learning in particular, are fully as productive in this region as the later maturing varieties. It would appear that in the rolling prairie region of north central Missouri there is but little difference in the productivity of the six stand- ard Missouri varieties — Boone County White, St. Charles White, Com- mercial White, Reid Yellow Dent, Learning, and St. Charles Yellow — but that the very early maturing varieties, as typified by Silvermine, are of less value. Because of their earlier maturity and lower shrinkage, Reid Yellow Table 10. — Yields of Corn Varieties at Kirksville, Adair County. Rolling Prairie Soils of North Central Missouri. VARIETY 1918 1919 1920 Average Yield 3 Years, 18, 19, 20 Boone County White 15.8 72.3 20.2 36.1 Commercial White 12.7 65.0 21.2 33.0 St. Charles White 14.8 73.9 19.7 36.1 Learning 21.5 72.7 19.1 37.8 Reid Yellow Dent 16.6 19.6 St. Charles Yellow. . . 18.7 17.5 Early White 51.9 Bloody Butcher 21.3 Dent and Learning are to be preferred to the other standard varieties in this part of the State. A strip of the rolling prairie region extends through Randolph, Howard, and Boone Counties. In this portion of the region the results obtained in the test at Columbia, reported in Table 3, will probably apply, and the most productive varieties will probably be Commercial White, Boone County White, and St. Charles White. THE LEVEL PRAIRIES OF NORTHEASTERN MISSOURI The typical soil of this region is a dark gray or gray friable silt loam to a depth of eight to twelve inches, below which is a light ashy gray layer of somewhat loamy soil from 2 to 9 inches in thickness, commonly referred to as the “gray layer”. The subsoil begins abruptly at a depth of from 16 to 20 inches and consists of a tight, stiff brown or drab silty clay or clay loam, locally known as “hardpan”. It is not, however, a true hardpan, for water passes through it, although very slowly. The gray layer and the heavy subsoil are the distinguishing characteristics of the prairie land. In general, the soil in the northern part of the level prairie region, in Knox and Scotland Counties, is darker in color, deeper and more productive than in the southern part of the region. On much of the level prairie soil both surface and underground drainage are inadequate, and Yields of Corn Varieties in Co-operative Tests. 20 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 1. 1 - « E 2 Cl C W X* rH X g s s i g si 8 yrs. 07-14 o • H CO t- 1 22 ::::::: .15 j ^ ;1 1 05 ■ 5C to 1 2 : £ 2 :::::::: > £§ 2 1 Ci O o 1 0J i— < CO 22 2 :::::::: *3 N CO lO 2 ° ; -*r • r- S X c: N t- c; t- c r. o X - O X X N N N N ^ K K C N « N 2 5 £ 3 5 22 CS 5D X O O — £ 22 g g £ g -iSHNXr- ? a a r ^ lO iO f v IS r 1 co — t? x a -> a ^ n nxxxxxxxx n^isanNKat'an eg 555SS35SSSS ' S O ■ H 8 f I g o o sc ss? 2 111 f ! J s li 5 S lit * r ? ® 8 O ® a tc -S •= c •= >< 4 ^1 t> f— t- — 00 & r? iO tU iJ5llS*IIIIIi Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 21 in wet seasons, as well as in very dry seasons, crops suffer as a result of the unfavorable moisture conditions. The soils on the rolling lands in the eastern part of the level prairie region are quite variable and range from dark brown to gray silt loams or loams with reddish brown to yellowish gray clay loam or sandy clay sub- soils. In general, the soils are shallow and contain a relatively small amount of organic matter. A small quantity of sand and fine gravel is present in both soil and subsoil, and on some of the steeper slopes where the soil is thin, limestone rock outcrops at the surface. The surface fea- tures of the region in general are those of a vast smooth plain with a gen- tle slope to the southeast. Along its eastern edge, bordering the Missis- sippi River, the surface is rolling to moderate hilly. Along the river bluffs the soil material is mostly loess, and is on the average more productive than the soil of the remainder of the region. Eighty-five cooperative tests were conducted in this region, through a period of 10 years. They are summarized in Table 11. The differences in the productivity between the six standard varieties are slight, the leaders being Commercial White, Reid Yellow Dent, and Boone County White. Considering relative shrinkage, Learning should be added to this group. Johnson County White gave about the same results as Boone County White in the years in which it was tested. Silvermine was distinctly inferior to the other varieties in the years it was included. Two outlying experiment fields were located in this region, one at Lewistown, the other at Shelbina. The yields of varieties tested at Lewis- town during a five-year period are reported in Table 12. The leading varieties at this point were Commercial White, Learning, and Reid Yellow Dent. St. Charles White and Boone County White also ! -. ..ib C nstloO Table 12. — Yields of Corn Varieties at Lewistown, Lewis County. Level Prairies of Northeastern Missouri. VARIETY 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 5 Yrs. 10-14 Average 4 Yrs. 10-12 and 14 ; Yields 4 Yrs. io-n 13-14 3 Yrs. 11-13 Boone County White 57.8 52.5 30.8 15.2 18.6 35.0 39.9 36.0 32.8 Commercial White 71.2 62.8 36.2 21.5 18.8 42.1 47.3 43.6 40.2 St. Charles White 62.3 56.4 25.4 14.8 17.3 35.2 40.4 37.7 32.2 Learning 67.2 47.9 34.6 14.5 20.6 37.0 42.6 37.6 32.3 Reid Yellow Dent 64.8 50.1 34.1 8.7 21.6 35.9 42.7 36.3 31.0 St. Charles Yellow 60.5 51.4 30.0 5.4 17.2 32.9 39.8 33.6 28.9 Johnson County White 57.2 48.3 27.1 15.4 16.2 32.8 37.2 34.3 30.3 Silvermine 49.3 46.3 23.2 20.2 20.6 31.9 34.9 34.1 29.9 Hogue Y ellow Dent 50.8 45.2 14.1 20.0 32.5 Cartner 62.9 49.4 26.4 19.0 39.4 Hildreth Yellow Dent 53.4 27.5 3.9 28.3 Calico 16.0 22.9 Golden Yellow Dent 10.9 16.2 Tucker Special 42.5 13.0 Bloody Butcher 15.7 Smoot Ninety Day 18.2 Funk Ninety Day 19.1 22 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 yielded fairly well. St. Charles Yellow, Johnson County White, Silvermine, Hogue Yellow Dent, Cartner, and Hildreth Yellow Dent made inferior yields. The yields obtained in the variety test at Shelbina through a four-year period are reported in Table 13. The difference in yield between the lead- ing varieties in this test are slight and have little significance. The variety test at Columbia was located at the souhwestern edge of the level prairies region, and gives some indication of the adaptation of varieties to the southern part of this .region. In this test the leading varieties were Commercial White, St. Charles White, and Boone County White. Table 13. — Yields of Corn Varieties at Shelbina, Shelby County. Level Prairies of Northeastern Missouri. VARIETY 1912 1913 1914 1916 Average Yields 4 Yrs. 12-16 3 Yrs. 12-14 3 Yrs. 13-16 2 Yrs. 14-16 Boone County White 34.6 3.8 22.6 13.0 18.5 20.3 13.1 17.8 Commercial White 34.1 3.5 23.0 15.4 19.0 20.2 14.0 19.2 St. Charles White 32.1 4.8 24.0 16.1 19.3 20.3 15.0 20.1 Learning 37.5 3.9 27.4 13.9 20.7 22.9 15.1 20.7 ReidjYellow Dent 33.9 4.0 24.4 13.5 19.0 20.8 14.0 19.0 St. Charles Yellow 31.0 1.9 27.6 15.8 19.1 20.2 15.1 21.7 Johnson County White 28.5 3.7 23.5 8.7 16.1 18.6 12.0 16.1 Silvermine 23.9 6.7 29.0 19.9 Hogue Yellow Dent. . . . 6.6 31.6 14.7 17.6 23.2 Cartner 25.0 4.3 21.3 18.2 17.2 16.9 14.6 19.8 Hildreth Yellow Dent 27.5 1.6 Calico 42.8 5.6 26.8 12.7 22.0 25.1 15.0 19.8 Golden Yellow Dent 3.3 26.2 Tucker Special 2.3 Bloody Butcher 20.4 14.7 17.6 Smoot Ninety Day 20.7 8.8 14.8 Funk Ninety Day 27.2 11.8 19.5 Eureka 14.2 The leading variety for the level prairies region was Commercial White. In the northern part of the region Learning and Reid Yellow Dent yielded almost or quite as much dry shelled corn as Commercial White, and may be preferable because of their earlier maturity and better keeping quality. In the southern part of the region, however, these varieties were outyield- ed not only by Commercial White, but also by St. Charles White and Boone County White. These five varieties outyielded all others tried in this region. GRAY PRAIRIES OF SOUTHWESTERN MISSOURI The soils of the gray prairie region are of two general types — flat prairies and rolling prairies. The rolling land is confined mostly to the east- ern edge of the region. It is mainly a dark brown to a grayish brown fine sandy loam with a brown friable sandy clay subsoil, highly mottled red and yellow. The amount of sand in both soil and subsoil varies with the Table 14. — Yields of Corn Varieties in Co-operative Tests. Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 23 24 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 topography and is greatest on the droughty rolling areas, which are fre- quently underlaid by sandstone rock. The flat prairie soils are gray to black sand}' loams six to twelve inches deep, underlaid by a gray to dark drab stiff clay loam, mottled yellow, brown, and gray. Be- tween the soil and subsoil is a gray ashy layer containing iron con- cretions. The lower subsoil is distinctly lighter in color and more friable than the upper portion. In general this gray prairie soil is very similar in physical characteristics to the level prairies of northeastern Missouri. In Bates, Henry, and Cooper Counties it is somewhat more productive than in the counties in the south and in its agricultural importance approaches the black prairie soils. In this region 39 cooperative tests extending through a period of 10 years, were conducted. They are summarized in Table 14. In cooperative tests in the gray prairie region the highest yielding va- riety was Commercial White, though its advantage in yield over St. Charles White and Boone County White was not great. In these tests there was little difference in yield between the six standard varieties. The tests at the experiment fields at Carthage (Table 16) and at Colum- bia (Table 5) have some application to this region, as they were located al- most on its borders, the former on the south and the latter on the north. In both of these tests the leading variety was Commercial White. Apparent- ly Commercial White is the best adapted variety for the gray prairie region, with St. Charles White and Boone County White ranking next in value. THE OZARK BORDER The Ozark border soils form an almost unbroken belt around the main part of the Ozark region. They extend in a semi-circle from the southern part of Cape Girardeau County along the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers to the southwestern corner of the State. The Ozark border, as a whole, has considerable variation in soils, but in its agricultural importance and development it is rather uniform. The soils of the Ozark border in the southwestern part of the State are almost uniformly gravelly loams, although the occasional level areas are generally stone-free. They vary in color from gray to brown, with reddish- brown subsoils. In texture they are silty, with silty clay subsoils. The con- tent of chert gravel varies from 10 to 50 per cent, the higher percentage pre- vailing on the rolling areas. As a rule, it is not present in sufficient quan- tity to make cultivation impossible, but in some cases it is rather difficult In general, the red soils are not as gravelly and are more productive than the gray soils. The soils of the Ozark border along the Missouri River are mainly yel- low and gray silt loams with yellowish-gray, compact, silty clay subsoils. Along the Mississippi River are extensive areas of red limestone soils. They are stone free, contain a fair supply of organic matter and lime, and rep- resent the most productive land in this region. The rough, hilly land bordering the larger streams is stony and much of it is of little agricultural value. In general, the more productive land lies nearest the Missouri and Ozark Border (Upland Soils Only) Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 2 26 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 Mississippi Rivers. Away from the rivers the surface becomes more hilly and the soils are more stony and less productive. In this region 66 cooperative tests were made during the nine year period from 1906 to 1914 inclusive. They are summarized in Table 15. The best yielding variety in the cooperative tests in the Ozark border region w r as Commercial White, although its advantage in yield over the other standard varieties was hardly more than sufficient to offset its greater shrinkage. There has been little difference in yield between the other standard varieties, the leaders being Boone County White and St. Charles Yellow. Two outlying experiment fields were located in the Ozark border region, one at Carthage in the southwestern part of the State, and the Table 16 . — Yields of Corn Varieties at Carthage, Jasper County. Ozark Border VARIETY 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Average Yi 4 Yrs. "Ids 3 Yrs. 11-13 Boone County White 32.9 40.2 49.1 35.3 15.7 1 34.6 ; 33.3 33.4 Commercial White 41.1 43.4 54.2 33.4 19.6 ! 38.3 37.1 35.7 St. Charles White 30.5 41.3 42 . 5 22.7 15.5 30.5 27.8 26.9 Learning 35.3 35.7 45 . 7 32.5 17.1 33.3 32.7 31.8 Reid Yellow Dent 36.0 42.5 42.6 36.6 17.3 35.0 33.1 32.2 St. Charles Yellow 31.5 38.8 39.6 30.0 17.6 31.5 29.7 29.1 Johnson County White 30.9 41.7 44.3 27.3 14.8 31.8 29.3 28.8 Silvermine 27.1 33.5 26.6 30.9 17.9 27.2 25.6 25.1 Hogue Yellow Dent 34.9 36.4 40.6 32.4 18.1 ’ 32.5 31.5 30.4 Cartner 31.5 39.2 39.4 30.5 19.1 31.9 30.1 29.7 Hildreth Yellow Dent 22.6 47.0 19.9 7.3 24.2 24.7 Tucker Special . . 41.8 25.3 17.4 ! 28.2 Calico 17.0 Golden Yellow Dent 16.4 Champion White Pearl 34.3 Hoffmeister White. . 30.3 | other at Cape Girardeau in the southeasern part. Both of these stations were located near the edge of the Ozark border region and the results ob- tained apply almost as well to the neighboring regions as to the Ozark border region. Thus the test at Carthage may be applied to the gray prairie region as well as to the Ozark border region, while the tests at Cape Girardeau apply to the southern part of the Ozark border region and the northern part of the southeastern Missouri region. The results of the va- riety tests at Carthage are shown in Table 16. Of the 10 varieties tested through the five years at Carthage, Commer- cial White, Reid Yellow Dent, and Boone County White gave the highest yields. Under the conditions at Carthage and in the neighboring territory, Commercial White is apparently the best yielding variety of corn, although many farmers will prefer to grow Reid Yellow Dent or Boone County White because of their higher shelling percentage and earlier maturity. St. Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 27 Charles White, which is rather widely grown in this part of the State has given only fair yields in this experiment. The result of the varieties tested at Cape Girardeau are shown in Table 17. In this test Commercial White has been the outstanding leader. No other variety has approached it in yield. Moreover, the shrinkage of Com- mercial White at Cape Girardeau has not been appreciably higher than that of other varieties. Both Cape Girardeau and Carthage are in the southern part of the Oz- ark border region. A considerable portion of this region is in central Mis- souri, along the Missouri River in the the eastern half of the State. The Table 17. — Yields of Corn Varieties at Cape Girardeau, Cape Girardeau County. Ozark Border VARIETY 1916 1917 1918 1919 4 Yrs. 16-19 Averagi 3 Yrs. 16-17 19 - Yields 2 Yrs. 17-19 2 Yrs. 16-17 Boone County White 67.3 70.9 50.5 33.4 55 . 5 57.2 52.2 69.1 Commercial White 62.2 83.9 73.0 69.0 72.0 71.7 76.5 73.1 St. Charles White 57.6 77.7 31.5 55.4 55.6 63.6 66.6 67.7 Learning 65.2 68.3 52.0 42.0 56.9 58.5 55.2 66.8 Reid Yellow Dent 63.2 65.9 42.5 57.2 54.2 64.6 St. Charles Yellow 48.9 64.7 56.8 Johnson County White 69.7 Silvermine 63.6 26.0 44.8 Hogue Yellow Dent 58.9 Cartner 65.8 Calico 55.5 Bloody Butcher 45.9 Eureka 59.3 Cape County 60.8 86.8 63.0 Funk Ninety Day 52.1 Smoot Ninety Day 46.7 variety test at Columbia (Table 5) applies more nearly to the conditions in this part of the region than do the tests at any other station. In this test, it will be remembered, Commercial White was the leader, followed by St. Charles White and Boone County White. The leading variety in all tests in the Ozark border region was Com- mercial White. Boone County White also gave very good results in all tests in this region, though in the southeastern portion of the region the yield of Commercial White had been far more than that of any other variety. St. Charles White is well adapted to the northern part of the region along the Missouri River. THE OZARK CENTER The soils of the Ozark region, with a few minor exceptions, are all derived from cherty limestones, and are, therefore, mostly gravelly and stony loams. They are usually gray in color and are low in organic matter 28 Missouri Agricultural Experimen r Station Bulletin 181 and lime. The lack of organic matter gives rise to undue compactness in the surface soil and renders its tillage difficult unless the mechanical handling of the soil is undertaken when the moisture content is neither too great nor too small. Throughout the Ozark region are found rather extensive areas of relatively smooth and stone-free soil. These areas occupy the highest parts and represent the plateaus and broad inter-stream divides. The soil is a dark gray silt loam or moderately gravelly loam, underlaid by yellowish- gray, stiff, clay subsoil. Although it is fairly easily cultivated, it is gen- erally considered not as productive as the gravelly land. Probably more than 50 per cent of the soils of the Ozark region are stony loams. The most extensive areas of rough, stony land are found in the eastern part of the region — in Reynolds and all the surrounding coun- ties. Areas of similar character occur along the White River and to a less- er extent along the Gasconade and Osage Rivers and their main tributaries. In these rough and stony areas the narrow bottoms along the streams form the only important agricultural land. On most of the moderately rolling areas the soil is a gray or brown gravelly loam with gravelly subsoil. Land of this character although somewhat difficult to handle, is of fair productivity. In this region 20 cooperative tests were reported, covering a period of eight years. The results are summarized in Table 18. The highest yielding variety in the Ozark region was Commercial White, followed by St. Charles Yellow and Boone County White. The differences in yield between these three varieties were slight. St. Charles White, Reid Yellow Dent, and Learning gave about equal yields, slightly less than the three varieties mentioned above. Johnson County White, during the three seasons in which it was tested, yielded about as well as Boone County White. It seems probable that some of the earlier maturing varieties, such as the so-called Ninety-Day varieties, will give better results in this region than any of the standard Missouri varieties, as they will probably be less affected by drought. These varieties have been tested in the region for two years and have given substantially better yields than the standard Missouri varieties. In this region of Missouri, however, it is probable that the grain sorghums, Kafir and Milo, will give better results than any va- riety of corn. THE LOWLANDS OF SOUTHEASTERN MISSOURI With the exception of a few narrow upland ridges, the soils of the south- east lowlands are alluvial in origin. They represent, therefore, a mixture of material derived from various sources, which has formed soils of great diversity in physical properties and in productivity. In texture they vary from sands to heavy clays, and in color from light gray to deep black. In general the soils bordering the Mississippi River, including Miss- issippi and Scott counties and the eastern half of New Madrid and Pemi- scot counties, are dark brown loams and fine sandy loams, with yellowish gray fine sandy loam subsoils. Except in the most sandy areas, these soils contain a high percentage of organic matter and are very productive. Table 18 . — Yields of Corn Varieties in Co-operative Tests. Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 29 30 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 They are well drained and represent the most highly improved portion of the lowland region. The soils in the central part of the lowland region are mainly clay loams or sandy clays with black, heavy clay subsoils. They form a con- tinuous belt extending from the southern part of Cape Girardeau county to the southern part of Pemiscot and Dunklin counties. Large areas of these very productive soils have not yet been brought under cultivation and are covered with a dense growth of timber. Drainage is necessary before crops can be successfully grown. In the western part of the lowland region, the soils are prevailingly gray loams with compact subsoils. The content of organic matter and lime is low and the soils are, therefore, of only moderate productivity. Both surface and under drainage are inadequate. Nine cooperative tests were conducted in the lowlands of southeast Missouri. They are reported in Table 19. Although the number of cooperative tests is small it is clear from the data given in Table 19, that the later maturing varieties, St. Charles White, Table 19. — Yields of Corx Varieties ix Co-operative Tests. Lowlands of Southeastern Missouri VARIETY 1908 1910 1911 1912 1913 1,15 Average Yield 6 Years 1908-15 Boone County White 74.8 47.5 ! 63.9 j 46.5 40.4 31.4 50.9 Commercial White 85.8 37.4 66.1 j 41.8 31.7 29.1 48.6 St. Charles White 70.7 49.8 ■ 81.3 40.2 42.9 27.0 52.0 Reid Yellow Dent 54.2 32.9 36.4 43.3 43.5 28.8 39.8 Learning j 68.8 29.9 j 46.7 43.3 40.4 30.1 43.2 St. Charles Yellow 74.4 43.2 49.1 I 43.6 43.5 29.3 47.2 Boone County White, and Commercial White are better adapted than others to the lowlands of southeastern Missouri. St. Charles Yellow, which is a late maturing variety, has been the best yielding variety of yel- low corn, but has not given as high a yield as any of the three varieties of white corn tested. Corn varieties have also been tested at the outlying experiment field at Kennett, in southeastern Missouri, during the last six years. The results of this test are shown in Table 20. The leading varieties of corn at Kennett have been Commercial White and St. Charles Yellow, though the differences in productivity between the six standard corn varieties have been slight. Biggs Seven-ear, a variety of prolific corn from the South, has yielded slightly more than any other variety during the four years it has been included in the tests. It is possible that the late prolific varieties grown in the southern states may give better results than even the late standard varieties of Missouri, but their numerous small ears are objectionable on account of the greater labor required to harvest them. Several such varieties will be tested at Kennett in comparison with the better adapted Missouri varieties, particularly to determine their relative value for silage production. Lowlands of Southeastern Missouri. Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 31 >* t> CO m Tf N N (N 00 t- o rH (M t-H 05 O CO <£> OOOOOOCOT^OOiCO OCOOlt'WWCOCO £is § is O o u §3 s g o £ 6* * § CQ ® a) O I § s Q ^ ►> >H £ 2 5 . w ® | I ? .3 I « ! la 1° I pq >* £ s £ J g o O 2 .3 s o -x ■ T3 i: a) ctf > H o c a > I 02 w n ® be ^ M C SPJhlSWUMWOunM 32 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 VARIETY TESTS ON THE BOTTOM LANDS OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN MISSOURI Most of the cooperative corn variety tests have been located on upland soil, in order to place them on the average corn soil of the community. Each year, however, a few experiments have been placed on bottom lands in the various sections of the State. Since there is not a sufficient num- ber to summarize the results of these experiments by the same soil types as those made on uplands, and since there is no apparent reason for mak- ing such a grouping of these data, they have been divided into two groups, one for northern Missouri and one for southern Missouri. All tests made on the bottom lands within the black prairies, rolling prairies, and level prairies regions have been placed in the first group, and all tests made on bottom lands within the gray prairies, Ozark border, and Ozark center re- gions have been placed in the second. The data for corn variety tests on the bottom lands of northern Mis- souri are shown in Table 21. In these tests the later-maturing varieties, Commercial White and Boone County White, have given better results than the earlier maturing varieties, Reid Yellow Dent and Learning. Commercial White is the lead- ing variety, and both Boone County White and St. Charles White appar- ently will give better results than Reid Yellow Dent and Learning. As the moisture content of Commercial White corn has been high in this section of the State, Boone County White is to be preferred. The yields of corn varieties on the bottom lands of southern Missouri are shown in Table 22. On the bottomlands of southern Missouri all three standard varieties of white corn have outyielded the standard varieties of yellow corn by a considerable margin. The highest yielding variety, considering shrinkage, has been Boone County White, as on the bottom lands of northern Mis- souri. The yields of Commercial White and St. Charles White have also been very good. VARIETIES OF CORN FOR SILAGE Although special varieties of corn for silage are often recommended, it is a common custom to use the same variety for both silage and grain. The total of the digestible nutrients in a pound of ear corn is estimated as about 60 per cent greater than in a pound of stover (stems, husks and leaves) when the corn plant as a whole is ensilaged. Consequently the va- riety which yields the most grain will make the richest silage, pound for pound, although its total acre yield of silage may fall below that of other varieties which yield a greater bulk of plant matter with less grain. If now the variety which makes a high yield of grain compares favorably in total yield of plant matter with varieties which yield less grain, it may fairly be considered superior in the production of silage on the basis of feeding value per acre. All so-called special silage varieties are tall, heavy plants which pro- Bottomlands of Northern Missouri. Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 34 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 i 5 E § 2 1 > 0 1 > < 'il C H X lS ;s x x S3 x t? t? - - t- 5 § 1 W • w • ■ Ci Si O iS X x X s X Si X g :- : : : x"ll N ■ ■ ■ ■ O « ■ X X X *s ^ -1 X * - * © - - — X IS T- Si — Si iS X IS X X O IS ;S X t> S3 S3 S3 S3 S3 S3 S3 Si ^ r S - — • o 5 52 : g g g Si — T- xr - O O ^ - ~ g : :S£S ; 1 o Si ■is* - a o h SfHfH : S g g : s s O OJ ~ C- Ci « Tr S £2 22 ^ =5 :22~ 1 xx — t-xxxx — ’-x -so I X OO X O S C X X 5 - 5 S : S 2 : 2 s g 5 S 1 ~ TT o t- 50 2 A i ig'g : : isS 1 s; -*r a o r - ~ is - S H w ~ w c: O -r 1= < > 1 : z : = — r I Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 35 duce low yields of grain, but high yields of total plant matter. Eureka, or Eureka Ensilage, is probably the best known of these varieties. Also the prolific varieties of the South, because of their tall leafy growth, are sometimes recommended for use in silage production outside of their adapt- ed region. In the seasons of 1917 and 1918 two well known prolific va- rieties, Cocke Prolific and Biggs Seven-Ear, together with Eureka, were compared in silage production with Commercial White, a standard Mis- souri variety which during the period 1905 to 1915 made the highest aver- age yield of grain in variety tests at Columbia. Table 23 shows the acre yields of the varieties in tons of silage containing 75 per cent of moisture. The data show that in each of two extremely different seasons — one remarkably goqd for corn, the other remarkably poor — Commercial White has compared very favorably with the special silage varieties, in acre yield of total plant matter. As the average of two years Commercial White ranked second and was outyielded by Eureka, the leader, by less than half a ton per acre. Because of a serious shortage of labor during the critical years of 1917 and 1918, no separate yields of grain were actually measured for these varieties. But by careful observation, it was determined that Com- mercial White yielded far more grain than Eureka, the special silage va- riety, and somewhat more grain than either of the two prolific varieties. A comparison of Commercial White with the two prolific varieties and the special silage variety may now be summarized. 1. As a silage variety Commercial White was far superior to the spe- cial silage corn. Eureka, when the production of grain as well as total plant matter is considered. 2. Commercial White was probably slightly superior to Cocke Prolific, the better of the two prolific varieties, in combined value of grain and other plant parts. At least it can safely be said that the prolific variety was not a better silage producer than Commercial White. This comparison would leave the advantage with Commercial White, for unless a prolific variety will heavily outvield a standard variety it is undesirable, on ac- count of its late maturity and the difficulty of preventing it from mixing with other varieties. A COMPARISON OF STANDARD VARIETIES FOR SILAGE It is important to compare also the standard varieties with one an- other for their value in silage production. Accordingly Table 24 gives the following data: (1) in column 7 the average acre-yields of 10 well known standard va- rieties, in ear corn and stover (stems, husks and leaves) during a six year period at Columbia. (2) in column 8 the silage equivalents computed from the yields of ear corn and stover assumed to contain 20 per cent moisture. (3) in column 9 the yields in pounds of ear corn for each 1000 pounds of stover produced. 36 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 < i 1 a < 111 ; 1 sl* Ilf! a *s -a o S § * s ^ -* O OS C5 t> so « so oc £^« CCr - MCXNX^^Tr I £ S g I § Ss I s 1 S 3 2 8 § 8 § 8 " S ^ 8 ®- g ®. g S *■ 8 *■- 3 " 3 "- § NC-c?K«n5Nn?;rtNn«nnNNN slssssssssslslsS^ssS far>vxno:csoio«(»o us -SO ■ o to t - • iC ■ T ? affiNHr . nNt - H^KOO ~r , 'rrKr^'?KK^N , fN "sxaCr-axoct-nar'gcMJ'. ga ssssssslslssss-gltsls x a o x fe ^ Is £ 3 X w 6- w fe c & III 3 X 3' X 3 X 3 X 3 X 3 X 3 X x—x—xoxoxoxoxo C&CVCVCVCVCOC9 llilllililllil .. ,2 s $ | 1 si £ £ j a a Corn Varieties and T heir Improvement 37 (4) in column 10 the relative value of the varieties for silage, assum- ing a pound of ear corn to contain 60 per cent* more of total digestible nu- trients than a pound of stover. Among the standard varieties Commercial White . was the outstanding leader in the production of silage, because of its high yield of both grain and stover. The varieties ranking next are St. Charles White, St. Charles Yellow, and Cartner, with little difference between them. The third group— Boone County White, Reid Yellow Dent, Learning, Johnson County White, White, Silvermine and Hogue Yellow Dent— do not rank as silae-e va- ERROR CORRECTION On page 36, “Table 23” should read “Table 24.” Table properly numbered 23 is supplied herewith. Table 23. — Silage Yields of Corn Varieties at Columbia. (In Tons of Silage Containing 75 percent of Moisture) Variety Yield per Acre 1917 1918 Average Eureka Ensilage 16.03 6.27 11.15 Cocke Prolific 15.25 6.13 10.69 Biggs Seven-ear 12.56 5.53 9.05 Commercial White 15.24 6.44 10.84 uotiom ianas in ail parts ot the State and one ot the leaders on uplands throughout central and southern Missouri. The variety Johnson County White is so similar to Boone County White in general features and adapta- tion that for practical purposes the two varieties may be considered as one. Commercial White: A late maturing variety of white corn grown fairly extensively in southwestern Missouri, where it was originated. In these tests it was the highest yielding variety throughout central and south- ern Missouri and gave good yields on bottom lands all over the State. This variety does not mature well in the average season in northern and central Missouri and consequently yields grain of high moisture content and poor keeping quality. The danger of producing soft corn and the difficulty of securing seed of good germination are increased by growing a variety so late in maturity. In the southern third of the State, where the growing season is longer, the variety will mature fairly well and is free from most of the disadvantages named. In this section it will out-yield the other va- rieties by a considerable margin. It is to be recommended as a variety for grain in the southern third of Missouri, and as a variety for silage in any part of the State, but particularly the southern part. St. Charles White: A medium late maturing variety of white corn ex- tensively grown in southern Missouri. In the tests St. Charles White was 38 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 found to be one of the leading varieties for grain in central and south- eastern Missouri and a good yielder on bottom lands all over the State. This variety is an exceptionally good silage variety, producing a heavy yield of silage of good quality without extremely late maturity. Reid Yellow Dent: A medium early maturing variety of yellow corn widely grown in Missouri, particularly in the northern part of the State. In these tests it was found an especially good yielder on the upland soils in the northern third of the State, particularly in the western portion. In southern Missouri and in the bottom lands of northern Missouri it will not yield as well as Boone County White or Commercial White. Learning: A medium early maturing variety of yellow corn, similar in adaptation to Reid Yellow Dent. This variety is not widely grown in Missouri and adapted seed is therefore hard to obtain. It has no marked advantage over Reid Yellow Dent and as improved and adapted seed of the latter is available in abundance. Learning is not to be recommended. St. Charles Yellow: A late maturing variety of yellow corn which in general gave good yields in the tests, but did not lead in any section. In northern and central Missouri it does not mature well in the average season and has the same disadvantages as Commercial White without its high yield. In southeastern Missouri St. Charles Yellow has given good yields but offers no advantages over St. Charles White and Commercial White. CORN IMPROVEMENT Although certain varieties of corn are clearly superior in yield and quality to others, under Missouri conditions, it is undoubtedly true that a wide variation may occur between strains of the same variety. Few eco- nomic plants are more variable than corn. By continual selection to- ward a definite type the character of a strain of corn may be modified to an astonishing degree. When corn is moved to a new locality it gradually changes and adapts itself to the new conditions. Therefore the limits of corn varieties are necessarily vague. It cannot truly be said, in the strict- est sense, that any one variety of corn is better adapted than all others to a given region, for the difference in yield and other characters between the strains of the same variety is sometimes greater than the difference between fairly typical strains of different varieties. For example, at the Iowa Experiment Station a number of strains of Reid Yellow Dent varied widely in a yield test, though all were of good type and were furnished by growers of Reid Yellow Dent for seed in Iowa. Thus in 1919 the highest yielding strain yielded 76.8 bushels per acre, while another strain grown on the same field under the same conditions yielded only 51 bush- els per acre. In other words, improved strains of Reid Yellow Dent have varied in yield fully as much as one would expect different varieties to vary. If ordinary, unimproved strains had been included in the test prob- ably the variation would have been even greater. Therefore, it may not always be wise to give up an adapted and improved strain of a good variety because another variety has yielded more in a variety test. In the variety tests reported in this bulletin the best strains of each variety available were used, but except in cases of large differences in average yields be- Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 39 tween varieties, it is not recommended that strains which have been select- ed toward a desirable type and have proved satisfactory be abandoned for varieties yielding better in the tests. The difference in ability to yield between strains of the same variety is caused by differences in the natural conditions under which they have been grown and in the selection or other means which have been used in their improvement. In buying seed corn it should be remembered that t’e strain is almost as important as the variety, and further, that the value of the strain for any one place depends upon two things, how nearly the natural conditions under which it has been recently grown approach those under which it is to be grown, and how well it has been improved by se- lection or other means. Seed corn imported from a region where the growing season is long will be late in maturity, while seed corn from a region where the growing season is short will be early. Seed corn from as far as 100 miles south is to be avoided, and seed corn from 100 miles north, though not so undesirable, is not recommended. The principal methods which have been advocated for increasing the yielding ability of corn are (1) continuous selection in the field, (2) pedi- gree selection, (3) crossing varieties, and (4) crossing inbred strains. There has been much investigation of the value of these methods which is here briefly reviewed. Continuous Selection. Continuous field selection is the method by which most of the varieties of corn now in existence have been developed. The well marked features of such varieties as Learning, Reid Yellow Dent, and Boone County White, in which selection has been carried on for many years, prove the power of selection in changing the type of both the ear and the plant. This has been shown most strikingly in a number of experiments in which selection has been made in opposite di- rections in the same strain of corn. For example, at the Illinois Station, a high-protein strain containing about 15 per cent of protein, a low-protein strain containing about 6 per cent of protein, a high oil strain containing about 9 per cent of oil, and a low-oil strain containing about 2 per cen-t of oil have all been produced by continuous selection from one original strain containing about 11 per cent of protein and about 5 per cent of oil. By the same process the height of the ear and the angle at which it is borne have also been greatly changed. At the Indiana Station the tend- ency to bear suckers was found to be readily changed by selection. At the Ohio Station features of the ear have been modified materially in selection experiments. Apparently it is possible to mold the type of corn almost at will, if selection toward any desired type is continued long enough. But selection to increase the yield has not given such marked results. Selection for yield is a much more difficult matter than selection for any sr'ngle visible feature, because yield is determined by so many factors, and these factors vary widely in their importance in different seasons. If one or a few visible features were known to be always connected with yield it would be a simple matter to increase yield by selection. It was assumed for many years that certain features of the ear were connected with high yielding ability and these features were emphasized on the score card and in corn shows. But very thorough investigation has failed to 40 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 reveal a consistent connection between yield and any feature commonly considered desirable in show corn. Thus, tapering ears have been found to yield as well as cylindrical ears; ears with bare tips have yielded as much as ears with well covered tips, and so on. Plant features as well as ear features have been investigated, and thus far no visible feature of the ear or of the plant has been found which may serve as a reliable index to yield. Some experiments have indicated that selection for large ears may increase the yield, though this has not been definitely proved. But field selection of seed corn is undoubtedly a profitable practice, even if no increase in yield can be made. By selecting seed corn in the field before the first killing frost it is possible to obtain sound seed ears from healthy plants of desirable form. Moreover, if selection is made for yielding ability itself, that is, if seed is selected only from plants which have yielded well without any advantage in growing conditions, it is like- ly that the yield of the strain can be increased. Increases in yield ob- tained by this sort of selection have been reported in some experiments, although it is true that carefully conducted experiments in which well adapted and improved varieties have been used in the corn belt region have generally failed to show an increase. It is easily possible by this method to develop an earlier maturing type, to reduce the prevalence of disease, and to change the type of both plant and ear. Pedigree Selection. The difficulty of recognizing the plants of highest yielding ability from their appearance alone led to the development of pedigree selection. Several methods of pedigree selection have been rec- ommended, but the essentials of all of them are similar. A large number of desirable ears are selected and their yield under the same conditions is determined in an “ear-row” test, in which seed from each ear is planted in a separate row. The ear-rows usually show rather distinct differences in plant features, maturity, disease resistance, and yield. The ear-row test may be run either one or two seasons from the same ears. Part of the seed from each of the original ears is retained and the remnants of the ears found best in yield and other features in the ear-row test are mixed together and planted as foundation stock for an im- proved strain. Pedigree selection has been very strongly recommended and in some parts of the country this method is used rather extensively by farmers. It is relatively an easy matter to make rapid progress in obtaining earliness of maturity or desirable plant features by this method. Some consider- able increases in yield by pedigree selection have also been reported, but in most cases these have been obtained in varieties which had not pre- viously been highly improved or in sections where the varieties grown were not perfectly adapted. None of the experiment stations in the corn belt states, except the Ohio Station, have reported pronounced increases obtained by pedigree selection. At the Nebraska Station over 15 years of very careful pedigree selection work with Hogue Yellow Dent failed to produce a strain at all superior in yield to the strain carried on from the start by ordinary continuous selection. Although attractive in theory, pedi- gree selection in corn has been, on the whole, disappointing in practice. Perhaps this is caused by narrow breeding resulting from choosing a small Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 41 number of ears to serve as foundation stock. Perhaps it is impossible to find the ears naturally best in yielding power in only one or two years’ tests. Perhaps the seeds planted in the ear-row do not represent fairly the qualities of the seeds in the remnant retained, because of fertilization by different pollen. At any rate, it seems that little more improvement is to be expected from pedigree selection in well adapted strains of corn than can be obtained by ordinary continuous selection in the field. Cer- tainly under farm conditions it is not only expensive to carry on careful car-row tests, but it is extremely difficult to obtain reliable results from them. Under ordinary conditions, then, the method of pedigree selection is not recommended for use on the farm. Crossing Varieties. When two varieties are crossed, the hybrid is usually more vigorous in growth and higher in yield than the average of the parents. The hybrid vigor gained is greater in some crosses than in others and seems greatest when the parent varieties have been closely bred for a long time and when they are not closely related. The most successful crosses reported have been those between flint corn and dent corn varie- ties. But in all cases the hybrid vigor is greatest in the first generation following the cross and rapidly decreases thereafter. A varietal cross hasi no practical value unless the hybrid out-yields the higher yielding parent and can be relied on to do so in the average of a series of seasons. Moreover, the gain must be great enough to pay the expense involved in making the cross every year. This expense is not very great as hybrid seed can easily be produced by planting in alternate rows the varieties to be crossed and detasselling plants of one variety. The seed borne on detasselled plants will then be hybrid seed, and the seed borne on plants not detasselled will be pure seed of one of the parent va- rieties. Pure seed of the other parent variety must be produced in a field far enough from other corn fields to prevent foreign pollen from reach- ing it. First generation hybrids of varietal crosses which are said to be of practical value have been produced by the Connecticut and Minnesota ex- periment stations. At the Connecticut Station, of 50 varietal crosses made, 88 percent yielded more than the average of the parents and 66 percent yielded more than the higher yielding parent. The average yield of the crosses was about 9 per cent more than that of their parents. Some crosses exceeded their parents by more than 10 bushels per acre. At the Minneso- ta Station several crosses have produced increases in yield over the better yielding parents, and one cross of two well adapted varieties has produced 7 bushels more than the better yielding parent in the average of a four-year test. In the corn belt states, however, varietal crosses have not given such striking results. Some crosses giving higher yields than either parent have been produced, but most crosses between well adapted varieties have been found to give yields lower than those of the higher yielding parents. Up to the present time no varietal cross has been found in any of the corn belt states which can be relied upon to produce a higher average yield in a series of seasons than the best commercial varieties now obtainable. It may be that the varieties in use in the corn belt have been improved to 42 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 such a point that it is more difficult to produce superior strains there than in regions where corn has not been grown so extensively. Possibly, also, the fact that the best corn belt varieties are more closely related than are the best varieties in northern States where both flint and dent corn is growm increases the difficulty of producing profitable varietal crosses. However, varietal crosses superior to the best varieties now being grown in the corn belt may yet be found, after more combinations have been tried. Some experiments indicate that there is an increase in yield from cross- ing not only in the crop grown from the hybrid seed, but also in the crop of the season in which the cross is made. If this is true, a mixture of va- rieties might give a larger yield than any of the varieties making up the mixture, grown alone. In the two experiments which have been reported on this point, mixtures have yielded slightly better than any of the includ- ed varieties. But it has not been shown that such an increase will take place in all varietal mixtures or that in the same mixture the increase will be made in different seasons. The effects of crossing some of the standard Missouri varieties, both on the yield of the current crop and of the cross produced from hybrid seed, are being investigated in experiments now in progress at the Missouri Experiment Station. For the present, however, no varietal crosses or mixtures are known to be desirable in this State. Crossing Inbred Strains. Corn is naturally cross-fertilized, and con- tinual self-fertilization, or inbreeding, rapidly reduces its vigor. When the progeny of an ear of corn is continually self-fertilized a very rapid de- crease in plant vigor takes place in the first few generations, shown by a decrease in the height of the plant, the size of the ear, and the yield. Af- ter about six to eight generations the inbred strains usually reach a level of vigor which is held thereafter. The number of generations necessary to bring the strains to this constant level varies. The rate of decrease in vigor is also very different in different strains, some dying out completely wdthin a few generations, some rapidly reaching a constant state of more or less reduced vigor, and some reaching this condition more slowly. By the time the inbred strain has reached a fairly constant state of vigor, it has become remarkably uniform in type. Thus after several generations of in- breding of an ordinary commercial variety several strains are obtained, all less vigorous than the original variety and differing widely in their ap- pearance, vigor and yield, but each almost perfectly uniform within itself. For example, at the Connecticut Station four plants of Learning yellow dent corn were self-pollinated in 1905 and the strains then produced have been inbred in each succeeding season. The yields in these four strains steadily decreased as inbreeding progressed, and in the tenth generation the yields of the four strains were 32.8, 32.7, 19.2 and 31.8 bushels per acre respectively, while the original Learning corn grown on the same field and under the same conditions yielded 74.7 bushels. When two of these apparently worthless inbred strains are crossed very surprising results are obtained. The vigor lost by constant inbreed- ing is suddenly regained and the yield is in many cases enormously increased. Seventeen crosses of the four inbred strains of Learning corn mentioned above are reported by the Connecticut Station. The average yields of the parent strains used in these crosses were 27.8 and 27.2 bushels per acre, Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 43 while the average yield obtained in the same season and under like con- ditions from the hybrid seed was 78.4 bushels. Some of the crosses of in- bred strains have outyielded the original Learning parent by more than 20 bushels per acre. Moreover, the crosses have the uniformity of the in- bred strains. Practically every plant bears a sizeable ear, and the mon- strosities common in the ordinary corn field never occur. Not all crosses between inbred strains are highly productive. Some strains apparently “nick” much better than others. There seems to be a fairly general but by no means invariable relation between the yield of the strains crossed and of the hybrids obtained. Crosses between very closely related strains are nearly always less productive than crosses be- tween strains not closely related. The gain made in the first generation hybrid is not maintained, so it is necessary to produce crossed seed every year or two. As most inbred strains are low in vigor and bear stunted ears and grains of poor size and quality, the hybrid seed is usually inferior, to the great disadvantage of the first generation crop. This disadvantage may be overcome, however, by double crossing; that is, the crossing of two vig- orous strains, themselves produced by the crossing of inbred strains. It seems quite likely that in the future the most marked improvement of corn will be gained by the production, selection, and crossing of in- bred strains. This method offers possibilities which could not be approach- ed by older methods. The inbreeding and crossing could all be done by breeders, who would sell the hybrid seed of crosses found by experience to be well suited to the conditions of limited regions. Such seed would be worth a much higher price than any seed corn now on the market. Its value would decrease very considerably in a few seasons and it would prob- ably be advisable for farmers to purchase new seed every season. The discoverer of a valuable cross would retain the inbred strains and sell the hybrid seed from them each year, thus gaining a financial reward comparable to that of successful animal breeders. Such opportunities for profit in corn breeding would provide a stimulus which could not fail to result in the production of valuable improvements. These results, however, are not immediately obtainable. Much ex- perimental work must be done in investigating the methods outlined above and in devising means for their practical use. This work is now being done at several experiment stations. For the present it is extremely un- likely that valuable results will be attained in this line of breeding by any one not thoroughly familiar with the fundamental facts of inheritance in corn. At the present time the method is of interest not because it offers the prospect of immediate profit, but because of its promise of future value. HEALTH AND VIABILITY OF SEED In addition to inherent ability to produce high yielding plants, good seed must have the power to germinate and produce thrifty seedlings and must be free from seed-borne disease. The use of seed with a low power of germination and of seed infected with highly injurious diseases causes enormous loss to corn growers every year. It is probable that a far great- er gain in yield per acre over the country as a whole can be made by im- 44 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 proving the quality of seed simply in germinating power and health, than can be made by breeding directly for high yields. Germinating Power of Seed. The production of seed of high germin- ating power is almost wholly a matter of reducing the moisture content to a low point before the seed is subjected to extreme temperatures, either high or low. The relation between moisture content and freezing injury is strikingly shown by recent experiments at the Nebraska Station. Samples of seed containing differ- ent percentages of moisture were subjected to a temperature of 28-32° Fahrenheit for 24 hours. The germination of corn containing less than 25 per cent of moisture was not at all injured by this treatment, while corn Fig. 3. Three good methods of drying seed corn. The hanger in the center is cut from electrically welded wire fencing. containing 35-45 per cent moisture germinated only 80 per cent, and corn containing 45-55 per cent moisture germinated only 33 per cent after the treatment. The corn containing 25 per cent moisture, which was not in- jured in germination by a temperature of 28-32°, germinated only 88 per cent when exposed to a temperature of 12-16°; and only 27 per cent when exposed to a temperature of 4-8° for 24 hours. Air-dry corn contains only about 10-14 per cent of moisture. Corn as dry as this was found to with- stand the temperature of liquid air, 190 degrees below zero. Contrary to the general impression, the first killing frost is not the main cause of freezing injury of seed corn. The greatest damage is apparently done by continued freezing temperatures in the late fall. Seed selected immediately after the first killing frost, and properly stored, so as to dry out rapidly, Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 45 will germinate well. For several reasons seed corn should be selected be- fore the first killing frost, but when this is not done, seed selected immed- iately after the frost can be used with satisfactory results. The average date of the first killing frost in Missouri is about Octo- ber 10th in the northern section, October 15 in the central section and in the Ozark region, and October 20 in the southeastern section. These dates are variable and may differ by as much as two or three weeks in different seasons. The variety of corn grown should be one which will mature un- der normal conditions in ordinary seasons, but not necessarily in the short- est season, for the later maturing varieties generally outyield the earlier maturing varieties. The number of days required for maturity varies with seasonal conditions and with the date of planting, although it is influenced greatly by the variety. It is probably best to grow neither the latest and heaviest yielding variety nor the earliest variety available, but to grow one which is early enough to escape freezing injury in all but the excep- tionally short seasons, and to depend upon early seed selection and a re- serve supply of seed for such seasons. With most varieties it is possible to obtain by selection a strain fully a week earlier in maturity without sac- rificing yielding ability. Such selection should be made early in the fall before the first killing frost, when the variation in maturity is most appar- ent. The safest way to obtain sound seed corn of high germinating power is to select it in the field from the standing stalks before or immediate- ly after the first killing frost. Such selection also gives an opportunity for improvement of the corn. Although this practice is undoubtedly a profitable one, it involves extra labor which some are unwilling or unable to give. Seed of high germination may in most seasons be obtained while husking for early feed or even at the time of general husking. Whether early field selection is practiced regularly or not, seed corn should always be gathered in the field in early fall in seasons when corn in general is late in maturity and seems in danger of being caught by frost. The germinating power of the seed is influenced fully as much by the method of storage as by the method of selection. It is essential that seed ears be stored in such a way that they may dry out rapidly. The germin- ation test should not be regarded as a substitute for proper selection and storage. Ears of perfect germination can usually be selected from the crib, but ears which have been properly stored may outyield them even if the germination of both samples is perfect. For example, in a test re- ported by the United States Department of Agriculture, 400 ears were di- vided into two equal lots, one of which was well cared for and the other placed in a barn as corn ordinarily is cribbed. The well preserved seed produced yields 12 per cent higher on poor soil and 27 per cent higher on fertile soil than that poorly preserved, although both lots of seed germ- inated equally well. Methods of storage are discussed on page 48. Seed-Borne Diseases. Several important diseases of corn, particularly those causing root, stalk, and ear rots, appear to be carried over from one generation to the next largely by the seed. These diseases are extremely important and it has been estimated that they cause a loss of 10 per cent in the yield of corn in the United States. The losses they cause result 46 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 from the death of infected plants in the seeding stage, from the stunting of other plants, from delayed maturity, and from the rotting of roots, stalks, ears and shanks. They are very generally distributed and seem to be pres- ent in every corn growing section of Missouri. It is found in ear-row tests that plants from some ears are much less affected by disease than those from other ears, a fact which indicates that these diseases can be controlled in large measure through the use of seed free from disease. Much can be done to control disease in corn by care- ful selection of seed in the field. This selection should be made before Fig. 4. A seed corn rack, made from 1x6 lumber and plastering lath. Fig. 5. Another satisfactory method of drying seed corn. the first killing frost, so that ears which have matured normally can be distinguished from those that have ripened prematurely on account of dis- ease. Only mature ears borne on sound shanks and on stalks which still bear green leaves should be selected. It has been found that kernels with rough indentation are more frequently diseased than kernels of smooth type. Dull and discolored kernels, particularly those with discolored germs, are often diseased. Apparently there is a great deal of difference between plants in re- sistance to disease. It will probably be possible during the next few years Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 47 to develop resistant strains by selection or by the crossing of inbred strains. At present, however, no available varieties or strains are known to be re- sistant, and the best procedure for the corn grower to follow is to im- prove his own adapted corn in disease resistance by field selection and by the method of germination testing described on page 49. Testing for Germination. The germination test is a valuable aid in detecting dead or diseased seed. The germinating power of seed ears gath- ered before the first killing frost and properly stored may be relied upon ordinarily without testing, unless the ears were extremely immature when gathered. When the germinating power of such seed ears is doubtful, a bulk germination test may be run by taking six kernels from each of 100 ears selected at random and determining their germination in the usual way. If the germination of these kernels is found to be less than 90 per cent, individual ear tests should be run to detect the ears low in germin- ative power. A special germination test for the detection of diseased ears as well as ears of low germination has been devised by the United States Department of Agriculture. It will probably pay to use this test even when the germinating power of the ears tested is known to be satisfactory. In an experiment reported by the United States Department of Agriculture, a group of apparently healthy ears were separated by such a germination test into diseased and disease-free lots. The average acre yield from dis- ease-free ears was 15 bushels more than that from the diseased ears. The special germination test is hardly more expensive than the older methods. It is described on page 49. CORN IMPROVEMENT BY THE FARMER It is possible for farmers to make very substantial and profitable im- provement in corn by simple, inexpensive methods. The increase in yield which may be obtained by such methods cannot be stated, though it is safe to say that there are few strains of corn now being grown by Missouri farmers which could not be improved to some extent in natural yielding power by continuous selection of the right sort under farm conditions. The features of the plants could be changed in the desired way, the time required for maturity shortened if necessary, the proportion of weak and diseased stalks reduced, the keeping quality of the grain improved and good germinable seed obtained in every season, by proper selection and storage of seed. Actual corn breeding is not usually profitable under ordinary farm conditions, when the variety is already a good yielder. This is true not only because of the extra expense involved, but because it is decidedly doubtful under farm conditions that better results can be obtained by such methods than by ordinary selection. The first step in corn improvement is to obtain seed of an adapted and productive strain of a good variety, for foundation stock. If the corn already being grown on the farm is not considered suitable, an improved strain should be obtained, from some nearby source if possible. If it is necessary to obtain seed from a distance, it is better to go east or west than north, and better to go north than south. The most important ele- ment in adaptation is time of maturity, and corn which has been grown 48 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 for some years where seasons are longer will be found too late for best results. Seed corn should be selected in the field when most of the ears have matured and, if possible, before the first killing frost. If the first killing frost occurs before most of the ears have matured, the seed corn should be gathered the following morning. About 30 to 40 ears should be selected for each acre to be planted, so that ears found diseased or otherwise un- desirable may be eliminated and so that an extra supply may be on hand for possible replanting and for reserve stock for the following year in case of an early freeze or a crop failure. The all-important points in the selection of seed corn are yield, good maturity and soundness. These should not be sacrificed for any other fea- tures of the ear or plant. Ears should be selected only from plants pro- ducing well and growing in a full stand with no apparent advantage in growing conditions. In selecting for yield, large ears are desirable, but the ear which is large and heavy because of late maturity should be avoid- ed. Freedom from disease is indicated in several ways. The stalks and leaves of undiseased plants usually hold some of their color for some time after the ears have ripened. Broken ear shanks and leaning and broken stalks are indications of disease, and plants showing these defects should be avoided even though they bear ears of seemingly good quality. Rela- tively short, sturdy stalks bearing the ear at a convenient height and at a declining angle are desirable. Ears not covered to the tip by the husks should be avoided as they are more likely to be injured by insects and dis- ease. Apparently it does not pay to study the features of the ear too close- ly in selecting for seed. None of the fancy points used in scoring seed corn have been shown to be associated with yield. Apparently, ears having a relatively shallow indentation are less susceptible to disease than ears of deeper indentation. The seed ears selected should invariably be stored on the day they are gathered. This is very important, for their germinating power may be greatly reduced if they are left in the sack or piled on the ground even for a day or two. The most important requirements of storage are dryness and ventilation. The storage place should also be fairly warm, but if arti- ficial heat is used, the seed must be given plenty of ventilation to carry off excess moisture, or injury may result. The great necessity in storing seed corn is to dry it out thoroughly before it freezes or heats. Seed ears should never be left for any considerable length of time in direct sunlight, however. Some good methods of storing seed are shown in Figures 3 , 4 and 5 . When the ears have dried out thoroughly, which will usually take from four to six weeks, they can be stored in crates, which should be lined with one-fourth inch wire screen for protection from rats and mice. In the late winter or early spring the ears should be individually test- ed for germinating power and freedom from disease. If the corn has been properly selected and stored, there is little danger that it will fail to germinate well, but the various rot diseases, which can be recognized in the right sort of germination test, are so injurious that it will pay to test all seed ears, so that those affected by such diseases may be thrown out. Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 49 A special rag-doll germination test, for the detection of dead and diseased ears, is performed as follows: Lay a strip of butchers’ wrapping paper, 12 inches wide and 60 inches long, on a clean surface, and on top of this lay a moistened strip of bleached or unbleached muslin, 12 inches wide and 54 inches long, so that about three inches of paper extends beyond each end of the cloth. Now place eight representative kernels from each ear in a row on the muslin, germs down and tips pointing in the same direction, towards one side of the muslin. Roll the paper and the cloth into a doll just tightly enough to hold the kernels in place, using the extra three inches of paper at one end for a core, and fasten at each end with a rubber band or string. Place the doll in the germinator box so that the tips of the kernels point downward, and Fig. 6. A rag-doll germinator for the detection of both dead and diseased kernels. on the upper end attach a tag indicating the numbers of the ears tested No guiding lines or ear numbers inside the doll are necessary if the ears are numbered in the order in which their kernels are placed in the doll. The muslin should be put in boiling water for a few minutes before it is used in another test. The germinator box consists of an outer and an inner box with saw- dust between, as illustrated in Figure 7. A convenient size for the inner box is 12x24x18 inches inside. Wire cross rods three inches apart are placed in the upper part of the box to hold the dolls apart. The outer box should be large enough to allow at least two inches of space for a tight sawdust filling around the sides of the inner box. The sawdust should be kept moist, and holes should be made in the sides of the inner box to allow damp air to enter the germination chamber. A three-inch layer of sawdust in the bottom of the inner box provides a base for the dolls to rest upon. The top of the box is covered with wet gunny sacks 50 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 181 while the test is in progress. The dolls should be sprinkled thoroughly twice a day with lukewarm water, but they need not be soaked in water at any time. After seven days the doll is taken out of the box and unrolled. The percentage of germination of each ear is determined in the usual way and the seedlings are then examined for molding or rotting of the roots. The seedlings which have rotted stems or roots, or which come from rot- ted kernels, indicate ears infected with disease. These ears, as well as ears which do not give good germination, should be discarded.* Fig. 7. Germinator box for rag doll disease germinators. SUMMARY 1. Variety tests of corn extending through a period of 16 years, from 1905 through 1920, are reported. Nearly 500 cooperative tests on farms well distributed over the State, and tests of several years duration on the experiment station field at Columbia and on each of eight outlying experi- ment fields, are included. 2. The best varieties for upland soils in northern Missouri were the medium early maturing varieties, Reid Yellow Dent and Learning. Their advantage in yield over the later maturing varieties, such as Boone County White, St. Charles White, and Commercial White, was greatest in north- western Missouri and least in northeastern Missouri. 3. The best varieties on upland soils in central Missouri were Boone *A germinator of the table type for the detection of diseased ears has also been de- vised. This is described in Farmers Bulletin 1176, in which practical methods for the control of the root, stalk, and ear rot diseases are fully discussed. This bulletin may be obtained free from the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Corn Varieties and Their Improvement 51 County White, St. Charles White, and Commercial White. Although Com- mercial White has given the highest yields in this part of the State, Boone County White and St. Charles White are to be preferred because of their earlier maturity and the better keeping quality of their stored grain. 4. The best variety for upland soils in southern Missouri -was Com- mercial White. In the lowlands of southeastern Missouri St. Charles White was found best adapted. 5. The best variety for bottom lands both in northern and southern Missouri was Boone County White. 6. Commercial White was the best variety for silage at Columbia, the only point at which a direct test for silage was made. Other good varieties were St. Charles White, St. Charles Yellow, and Cartner. 7. On account of the wide variation between strains of the same vari- ety, it is not recommended that adapted and improved strains which have proved satisfactory be abandoned for another variety which has been re- ported as giving higher yields. 8. The practical value of various methods of corn improvement is discussed and methods of corn improvement for the farm are briefly stated. Continuous selection of seed corn in the field is recommended as the most practical method of corn improvement on the farm. 9. Germination testing for the detection of disease is recommended even when the germinating ability of the seed is unquestioned. A UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 182 Thirty Years of Field Experiments With Crop Rotation, Manure and Fertilizers General view of plots on Rotation Experiment Field at Columbia COLUMBIA, MISSOURI APRIL, 1921 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL THE CURATORS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY H. J. BLANTON, JOHN H. BRADLEY, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Paris Kennett Kansas City ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D„ PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF APRIL. 1921 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, M. S . 2 R. M. Smith A. M. T. E. Friedmann, B. S. A. R. Hall, B. S. in Agr. E. G. SiEvEking, B. S. in Agr. G. W. York, B. S. in Agr. C. F. Ahmann, A. B. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING J. C. Wooley, B .S. Mack M. Jones, B. S. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. in Agr. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. A. G. Hogan, Ph. D. F. B. Mumford, M. S. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. Paul B. Barnard, B. S. in Agr. A. T. EdinGER, B. S. in Agr. H. D. Fox, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. E. F. Hopkins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale. B. S. in i\gr. W. W. Swett, A. M. Wm. H. E. Reid, A. M. Samuel Brody, M. A. C. W. Turner, B. S. in Agr. D. H. Nelson, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. O. C. McBride, FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. O. W. Letson, B. S. in Agr. E. O. Pollock, B. S. in Agr. B. B. Branstetter, B. S. in Agr. 1 In service of U. S. Department of Ag 2 On leave of absence RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. S. D. Gromer, A. M. R. C. Hall, A. M. Ben H. Frame, B. S. in Agr. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. D. Hooker, Jr., Ph. D. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. F. C. Bradford, M. S. H. G. Swartwout, B. S. in Agr. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L. Kempster, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. R. R. Hudelson, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. H. V. Jordan, B. S. in Agr. Richard Bradfield, A. B. O. B. Price, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connaway, D. V. S., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crtsler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, A. M. ZOOLOGY George Lefevre, Ph. D. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer Leslie Cowan, B. S., Sercretary S. B. ShirkEy, A. M., Asst, to Director A. A. Jeffrey, A. B., Agricultural Editor J. F. Barham, Photographer Miss Bertha Hite , 1 Seed Testing Lab- oratory. riculture. Thirty Years of Field Experiments With Crop Rotation, Manure and Fertilizers M. F. Miller and R. R. Hudelson. Long- continued experiments are necessary in order to determine the effects of systems of crop rotation and manuring upon the soil. Short time ex- periments mean little because of the influence of seasonal variations and be- cause of the necessity of securing results from several rounds of the various rotations. The data here reported include the results of 30 years of experi- ments 1 with various systems of cropping, manuring, and fertilizing, designed to determine not only the effect upon crop yields but also upon the soil. THE SOIL The soil of the field on which these experiments have been conducted may be described as being of a dark, brownish-gray color and of a silt loam tex- ture, 9 to 12 inches deep, grading into a grayish subsurface layer 4 to 6 inches thick. Below this there is another gradation into a brown, heavy clay loam rather impervious in character. The subsoil is a yellowish-gray, silty clay loam, more friable than the layer above it. The surface drainage is gen- erally good. It is classed as Putnam silt loam although it differs slightly from the typical areas of this soil, in being slightly more rolling in to- pography, slightly deeper and somewhat darker in color. Also, the gray silt layer in the subsurface soil is not so pronounced and the tight clay loam layer in the upper subsoil is somewhat less impervious than in the typical Put- nam silt loam. Plots 1-7, 23-26, and 29-33 inclusive are subject to slight ero- sion. The soil of the field is, however, fairly uniform in fertility. THE PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENTS The Plots: The experiments were begun in 1888 , the original plan pro- viding for 39 tenth-acre plots separated by alley-ways 3 feet wide. In 1904 , owing to a change in a street on the north side of the field, it was neces- sary to shorten one range of plots somewhat and eliminate plot 8. It was considered wise to shorten the plots of the other ranges similarly so that all plots were reduced to one-thirteenth acre. To provide wider borders and improve the plan of handling they were further reduced to one-four- teenth acre in 1914 . iThis experiment field was planned by J. W. Sanborn who was director of the Station in 1888 when the experiment was begun. The plots were laid out and the field work inaugurat- ed by H. J. Waters who was at that time Assistant Agriculturist. Various men have been in charge of the detailed management of the plots at different times since. The work at this time is being handled by F. L. Duley. R. R. Hudelson has done most of the work in preparing the material for publication. 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Cropping Plan: The original plan provided for the following systems of cropping and soil treatment: Continuous Corn Untreated Plot 17 Manured Plot 18 Continuous Oats Untreated Plot 16 Manured Plot 15 Continuous Wheat Untreated Plots 9, 29 (29 not included in calculations.) Manured Plots 5, 10, 21, 24, 30, 36 Fertilized Plot 2 Continuous Clover Untreated Plot 7 (Changed to continuous cowpeas in 1909) Manured Plot 6 (Changed to continuous cowpeas 1913) Continuous Timothy Untreated Plot 23 Manured Plot 22 Tvl'o Year Rotation : Wheat, Clover. Untreated Plot 33 Manured Plots 31, 32 Three Year Rotation : Corn, Wheat, Clover. Untreated Plot 27 Manured Plots 25, 26, 28 Four Year Rotation : Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover. Untreated Plot 39 Manured Plots 34, 35, 37, 38 Six Year Rotation : Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover, Timothy, Timothy. Untreated Plot 13 Manured Plots 1, 11, 12, 14, 19, 20 Fertilized Plot 3 One-half application each of manure and ferti- lizer Plot 4 It will be observed that there were from two to six duplications of the manured plots in each rotation although for the untreated rotated plots, the continuously cropped plots and the fertilized plots no duplicates were provided. Further the plots were not arranged in series according to rotations and their irregular distribution over the field has made them very difficult to handle efficiently since it has been necessary to handle each plot separately. Lastly the failure to provide a plot for each crop each year in the various ro- tations has made it impossible to eliminate the seasonal factor. It is there- Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations ■The three year rotation t>f corn, wheat and clover. Upper row of pictures shows growth on plots receiving manure; lower row shows growth without manure. 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 fore, only after a long period of years has elapsed that the results can be sum- marized with any assurance of accuracy, even 30 years being too short a time to eliminate this source of error. The necessity for the duplication of plots was not so clearly recognized in the early days of experimental work in agri- culture, when these plots were laid out. In 1914 at the end of a quarter century the plan of certain of the dupli- cate manured plots was changed to include more modern methods of applying manure, lime and iertilizer. One plot of each treatment was retained, how- ever, and only the records from these unchanged plots are included in the averages for the last five years of the 30-year period. PLOT TREATMENT The original plan of manured plots provided for an application of 6 tons per acre annually. The same applications per plot were continued after 1904 when the plots were reduced in size, thus making the rate, from 1904 to 1913, 7.8 tons per acre. After 1913 the rate was restored to 6 tons per acre. On one plot, No. 1, the original plan provided for an application of 7 tons per acre, the acre-application on this plot being 9.1 tons after 1904. Such appli- cations of manure are much larger than is practical on the cultivated land of the average farm, and the effects upon the soil and crop are therefore intensi- fied. Considerable difficulty has been experienced from the use of such large amounts of manure in stimulating weed growth on certain plots and in causing wheat and oats to lodge, often smothering out grass and clover crops sown with them. The fertilizer treatments on plots 2, 3 and 4 were based on the amounts of plant food removed in maximum crops. Plot 2 which was grown to wheat continuously received sufficient nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium to equal the amounts of these elements contained in a 40-bushel wheat crop and the accompanying straw. Plot 3 which was devoted to a 6-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat, clover, timothy and timothy received an application of fertilizer carrying the amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium found in maximum yields of these re- spective crops, that is, corn 80 bushels with 2.4 tons stover, oats 60 bushels with 1.5 tons straw, wheat 40 bushels with 2 tons straw, and hay crops 3 tons. Plot 4 which had the same rotation as plot 3 received one-half the usual application of manure and one-half the amount of fertilizer used on plot 3. Standard analyses showing crop composition have been used in determin- ing the fertilizer applications. Sodium nitrate has been used throughout as a nitrogen carrier, acid phosphate 1 as phosphorus carrier and muriate of potash as a carrier of potassium. An interesting thing about the composition of these fertilizer applications based on the composition of the crop is the man- ner in which they differ from present day fertilizers, especially in the nitro- gen content. The following table gives the amounts of the different fertilizers which have been applied to each crop since 1915. Previous to that time the amount was figured annually from the best available crop analyses using as a basis the yields given in this table. Such fertilizer applications are of course 'An exception to the above was made in the use of dissolved bone black instead of acid phosphate from 1889 to 1899 and bone meal 1908 and 1909. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations / Table 1. — Amounts of Fertilizer Applied in a 6- Year Rotation, also with Continuous Wheat. Pounds of Fertilizer Per Acre ASSUMED YIELD Sodium Acid Muriate of Nitrate Phosphate’ Potash Corn, 80 bu. plus 2.4 tons stover 764 301 136 Oats, 60 bu. plus 1.5 tons straw 375 157 98 Wheat, 40 bu. plus 2 tons straw 495 209 111 Clover, 3 tons hay 774 245 216 Timothy, 3 tons hay (2 years) 464 147 170 'An exception to the above was made in the use of dissolved bone black instead of acid phosphate from 1889 to 1899 and bone meal 1908 and 1909. not economical. The value of the experiment lies in the effect they have upon the maintenance of productivity and upon the physical and chemical compo- sition of the soil. METHODS OF CALCULATION In the following tables all plots receiving a given treatment are averaged together. In a few cases records were omitted by accident chiefly through changes of administration in the early days when help was insufficient. All such cases are marked “omitted” in the detailed tables which appear in the appendix of this bulletin. Where it was considered desirable to reduce all records to a common summary, it was necessary to choose a common denominator, and for this purpose the total crop value was chosen. This necessitated the selection of a set of prices and it was considered best to use the December first farm price recorded in the annual reports of the State Board of Agriculture for the 30 years, 1889 to 1918, covered by the field experiments. These prices are lower than those prevailing at present. They are : Corn 52 cents a bushel, oats 35 cents, wheat 86 cents and hay $8.95 a ton. No such record of prices is available for straw or corn fodder and the following prices were considered fair : Wheat straw $2.50, oat straw $3.00 and corn stover $2.00 per ton. In computing costs of treatment manure was assumed to cost $1.00 a ton applied to the land and in computing the cost of fertilizers the pre-war prices of 20 cents a pound for nitrogen, 6 cents a pound for available phosphoric acid and 6 cents a pound for available potash were used. These were the prices used by the state fertilizer inspection service 1908 to 1911. All compu- tations are on the basis of one acre. ROTATIONS The chief problem which this experiment was designed to solve is the de- termination of comparative values of different rotations when continued through a period of years. Table 2 gives in compact form the information bearing on this question. It is evident that the longer the period between corn crops the greater is the yield, varying from 20.9 bushels with corn every year to 32.6 bushels in a three-year rotation, 38.5 bushels in a four-year rota- tion and 41.5 bushels in a six-year rotation. This is to be expected since corn 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 is the only cultivated crop and hence the most exhaustive one in the series. A closer study of all the crops, however, seems to indicate that the four-year rotation gave best general results since it is a little better on oats, wheat and clover than the six-year rotation. Reducing to average values per acre the last column of the table bears out this observation. Table 2. — Average Yields of Crops without Manure or Fertilizer. (30 Year Average Expressed in Yield per Acre.) Cropping System Corn Os ts Wheat Clov- er Timo- Average thy Annual Grain bu. , Stove: ! lbs. Grain bu. Straw lbs. Grain bu. Straw lbs. Hay lbs. Value Hay of lbs. Crop 6 Year rotation 41.5 1899 27.2 1720 20.1 1914 2173 2446 $14.48 4 Year rotation 38.5 2940 27.9 1600 23.6 3314 2615 17 82 3 Y ear rotation 32.6 2478 14.4 1717 1918 14 18 2 Year rotation 18.4 2405 2974 16 07 Corn continuouslv 20.9 2052 12 92 Oats continuously 16.9 1C99 7 56 Wheat continuously 9.5 1241 9.72 Clover continuously 2430 10 87 Timothy continuously 2577 11.53 In all cases, growing the same crop continuously reduced the average value of the crop, which is probably due to several causes, among which is the favoring of enemies of a specific crop by continuing that crop on the same Fig. 3. — Continuous timothy heavily top-dressed with manure on left and without treatment on right. The manure has approximately doubled the yield and greatly lessened the number of weeds, particularly during recent years when the weakened condition of the untreated plot has allowed many weeds to come in. Thirty Years of Experiments W ith Crop Rotations y field year after year. Insect enemies, weeds and diseases are all favored by this practice. All the grain crops gave approximately twice the yield under rotation that they gave under continuous cropping and of course there is much more profit in growing a given amount of produce in one year than in two, since the seed, interest, tax and labor costs are thus cut in half. On the other hand extending the rotation too long and putting the money crops too far apart may reduce profits. Table 3 gives a summary of the effects of rotation and continuous crop- ping where all plots have been heavily manured annually. In this case enough fertility is supplied so that the factor of soil exhaustion is practically eliminated, but even under these conditions rotation gives better yields than a one-crop system. As to choice of rotations this table is not so conclusive. Apparently Table 3. — Average Yields of Crops Receiving Annual Applications of Manure. (30 Year Average Expressed in Yield per Acre.) Cropping System Corn Oats Wheat Clov- er Timo thy Average Annual Value of Crop Grain bu. Stover lbs. Grain bu. Straw lbs. Grain bu. Straw lbs. Hay lbs. Hay lbs. 6 Year rotation 44.0 2987 25.7 1683 26.5 3680 3981 4335 $20.23 4 Year rotation 47.7 3181 28.9 1980 24.0 3427 4564 21.60 3 Year rotation . 43.4 3183 25.6 3342 3352 22.32 2 Year rotation 23.5 3139 4777 22.75 Corn continuously 34.9 2889 21.04 Oats continuously 27.3 1928 12.45 Wheat continuously 18.1 2456 18.64 Clover continuously 3257 14.58 Timothy continuously 4902 21.94 any system which discourages crop enemies and preserves a good tilth is satis- factory where the fertility is maintained by other means. It is then a question of introducing the most valuable crops and eliminating the crops of little value giving consideration to the question of labor distribution and the feeds need- ed. Maintaining fertility by means of manure presupposes a livestock system of farming. Table 4 summarizes the results from using rotation and manure in corn production. It is doubtful if any other crop is so good for measuring these soil differences since corn is so universally grown in this section and it is the crop before which most of the manure is applied. From this table it is evi- dent that in cases where the soil is not maintained by manuring, the corn yield Table 4 — Average Yields of Corn Obtained under Different Cropping Sys- tems WITH AND WITHOUT MANURE, 30 YEAR AVERAGE. Cropping System Unmanured Manured Corn Continuously 3 Yr. Rotation 4 Yr. Rotation . . . 6 Yr. Rotation . . 20.9 bu. 32.6 bu. 38.5 bu. 41.5 bu. 34.9 bu. 43.4 bu. 47.7 bu. 44.0 bu. 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 is increased by lengthening the period between corn crops up to at least five years; where manure is used liberally the six-year rotation is no more ef- fective than the four-year rotation, but as there is no apparent reason for the six-year rotation falling below the shorter one, this result seems due to accidental variation in the plots or seasons averaged. USE OF MANURE It should be remembered in studying the effects of manure in these experi- ments that the amounts applied were greater than is feasible in any practical system of farming with the possible exception of intensive trucking. The comparative effects on different crops would probably remain the same with lighter applications, however, since the results agree in general with those from other experiment fields of the Experiment Station where practical appli- cations have been made. It was often necessary to haul manure from livery stables in town and large amounts of weed seed were sometimes introduced. Clean cultivation reduced their damage to corn and they did not gain much of a foothold in an established stand of timothy. The excessive applications of manure often caused lodging of the wheat and oats crops and injured the clover following, both through smothering and through the introduction of weed seeds. Table 5 shows the high value of manure on corn, wheat and timothy. From this table it is evident that manure is not so good on continuous clover. Much Table 5. — Average Annual Yields of Single Cropped Plots Manured and Unmanured, 30-Year Average. CROP Average Annual Yield Average Increase from Use of Manure Manured Unmanured Corn 34.9 bu. 20.9 bu. 14.0 bu. Oats 27.3 bu. 16.9 bu. 10.4 bu. Wheat 18.1 bu. 9.5 bu. 8.6 bu. Clover 3257 lbs. 2430 lbs. 827 lbs. Timothy 4902 lbs 2577 lbs. 2325 lbs. of this is due to weed trouble and the difficulty of growing clover continu- ously. Clover often gives excellent returns for manure where the manure is applied to a preceding crop in the rotation, thus giving a chance to germinate and kill the weeds, or where the young clover is given a light top dressing. Oats is a poor crop on which to use manure. The increase in bushels of oats per acre is greater than the increase in wheat, but the lower price per bushel of oats makes the return smaller. Lodging was particularly bad on the manured oats plots. In Table 6 the effects of manuring have been reduced to terms of money value. Timothy, wheat and corn show the largest crop values from the use of manure and they rank in the order named. This relative value is some- what dependent on the crop prices selected, however, and the relatively high value returned by wheat is chiefly due to its greater value per bushel. The Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 11 Leqend Corn V///\ Oats ll 1 1 1 1 Wheat V//A Clover 1- ■ I Timothy Fig. 4. — Total weight of crop produced on an acre in six years with continuous cropping and with different rotations (30-year average). soil of Rotation Field is especially well adapted to timothy and it is less hampered by seasonal and soil limitations than the other crops. In these ex- periments it was very noticeable that a stand of timothy was maintained for longer periods where the soil was manured. On the continuous timothy plots the timothy on the unmanured plot often gave way to wild grasses and weeds and had to be reseeded at frequent intervals particularly during recent years, while the manured plot retained a clean, vigorous stand of timothy almost in- definitely. It was plowed up only for the purpose of treating the two plots alike when it became necessary to reseed the unmanured plot. A top dress- ing of manure on timothy is highly beneficial. Table 6. — Average Annual Value of Produce on Manured and Unmanured Plots for a 30- Year Period. Cropping System Average Annual Value Average Annual Increase for Manure Manured Unmanured Corn continuously $21.04 $12.92 $8.12 Oats continuously 12.45 7.56 4.89 Wheat continuously 18.64 9.72 8.92 Clover continuously 14.58 10.87 3.71 Timothy continuously 21.94 11.53 10.41 6- Y ear rotation 20.23 14.48 5.75 4- Year rotation 21.60 17.82 3.78 3- Year rotation 22.32 14.18 8.14 2-Year rotation 22.75 16.07 6.68 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Table 7 indicates that the three-year rotation is a little less effective and the longer rotations more effective than heavy manuring in maintaining corn and wheat yields over a period of thirty years. Judging from the soil analysis it is evident, however, that manure is more effective in keeping up the soil than is rotation. In still longer periods than thirty years, therefore, rotation may not be so effective. A combination of rotation and manure is best. It is evi- dent that rotation alone cannot maintain fertility since no combination of crops can put other fertility elements than nitrogen back into the soil. Proper use of a rotation may put nitrogen back through legumes if only the seed be harvested, and it may also reduce the amount of other elements removed, but so long as crops are sold some fertility is lost and the amount in any soil is definitely limited. Table 7 — Comparative Effectiveness of Rotations and Manure in Main- taining Yields of Corn and Wheat. 30 Year Average Yield Crop Single Cropping Rotation without Manure Without With 3 yr 4 yr. 6 yr. Manure Manure Corn 20.9 34.9 32.6 38.5 41.4 Wheat 9.5 18.1 14.4 23.6 20.1 COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER VERSUS MANURE IN MAINTAIN- ING CROP YIELDS Commercial fertilizers have come into common use very rapidly in Missouri. This has led to many questions about their value when used for a period of years, and the possibility that the continued use of fertil- izers might have a harmful effect upon the soil. These 30-year-old ex- periments with fertilizers have therefore gained much in interest and value. Unfortunately only three plots receiving fertilizer were included in this experiment. There is one plot of continuous wheat with enough fertilizer to replace all the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in 40 bushels of wheat and 2 tons of straw, one with a 6-year rotation on which enough fertilizer is applied to replace these elements of plant food in maximum crops, and one plot with 6-year rotation on which half this amount of fertilizer is applied together with 3 tons of manure, which is half the amount of manure ap- plied on the manured plots of this experiment. These are very heavy ap- plications, too expensive for practical use in general farming in Missouri, although no greater than are commonly used in trucking, potato growing, cotton farming or other types of intensive agriculture. Table 1 gives the rates of application of these fertilizers. The materials were applied by carefully mixing them together and drilling or broadcasting either before the crop or as a top dressing on the crop. These large amounts of fertilizer sometimes interfered with germ- Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 13 ination when drilled in with the seed in case of wheat and two methods of avoiding this difficulty were tried with success. One method was to drill the fertilizer a few days before drilling the crop and the other was to broadcast the fertilizer as a top dressing in the spring. Drilling ahead of the crop has the advantage of furnishing an abundance of plant food to promote vigorous growth when the crop is getting a start and the fer- tilizer is not likely to interfere seriously with germination since fertilizer and seed are in different drill furrows. Table 8 gives the crop yields on the plots receiving commercial fertilizer in comparison with yields on untreated and manured plots. From Table 8 it may be seen that fertilizers have kept up the yields as well as manure when averaged for 30 years. Corn and the hay crops are better with manure, but wheat,' and oats; are better with fertilizer. In fact oats yielded less with manure than without, which can only be explained in the increased lodging of oats where manure was applied so heavily. In general, this relative response of the different crops to manure and fertilizer agrees with numerous other experiments of the Missouri Ex- periment Station. The 1 Rothamsted Experiment Station in England and the Pennsylvania Experiment Station in this country have also demon- 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Table 8. — Fertilized and Manured Plots in Comparison. Yields for 30 Years under Single Cropping and 6-Year Rotation Systems. Yields uroppmg system Untreated Manured Complete Fertilizer Manure H Fertilizer Wheat continuously 9 5 bu. 18.1 bu. 18.7 bu. Six-Year rotation Corn 41.5 bu. 44.0 bu. 41.6 bu. 36.8 bu. Oats 27.2 bu. 25.7 bu. 39.1 bu. 37.6 bu. Wheat 20.1 bu. 26.5 bu. 30.0 bu. 30.5 bu. Clover 2173 lbs. 3981 lbs. 3636 lbs. 3580 lbs. Timothy (average 2 years) 2446 lbs. 4335 lbs. 3810 lbs. 3652 lbs. strated the possibility of maintaining crop yields for long periods of time by the use of heavy applications of chemical fertilizers as readily as by the use of farm manure. The comparative effects of manure and fertilizers on wheat have been observed many times on the experiment fields of Mis- souri, as well as those of other states. Wheat when manured makes a good growth of straw but when it begins to head out is usually spotted and ripens unevenly, while wheat fertilized with a material high in avail- able phosphate usually matures evenly, with a very uniform appearance, due to the uniformity in height, size of heads and color. Wheat fertil- ized with a phosphatic fertilizer almost invariably matures a few days earlier than unfertilized or manured wheat. An interesting observation in case of the plots receiving fertilizer only, even the one cropped continuously to wheat, is that the soil is not ap- Fig. 6. — Average yield of wheat on equal areas. From left to right the average yields in bushels per acre are as follows: Continuous wheat without treatment, 9.5; con- tinuous wheat with manure, 18.1; continuous wheat with fertilizers, 18.7; wheat in six year rotation with manure, 26.5; wheat in six year rotation with fertilizers, 30.0. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 15 preciably more compact than that of similarly cropped plots without treat- ment. It might be expected that the large quantities of sodium nitrate ap- plied would tend to puddle the soil to a certain extent but such a condi- tion has not been observed. A general summary reduced to values, is shown in Table 9. The figures for cost of production are taken from Missouri Bulletin No. 125 which covers the period preceding the war. They do not take into account any extra expense in harvesting and marketing the crop increases from soil treatment. Probably the most important point shown by this table is that rotations, in general, bring greater returns than single cropping. It is evi- Table 9. — Annual Net Return per Acre with Costs, Averaged for 30 Years. Crop and Treatment Average Annual Value Cost of Production Cost of Manure or Fertilizer Total Cost Net Gain 6-Year rotation No treatment 6-Year rotaton $14.48 $10.83 $10.83 $3.65 Manured 6- Year rotation 20.23 10.83 $6.60 17.43 2.80 Complete fertilizer 6-Year rotation 20.46 10.83 21.15 31.98 —11.52 manure; fertilizer . 4- Year rotation 19.69 10.83 13.88 24.71 — 5.02 No treatment 17.82 11.50 11.50 6.32 4-Year rotation Manured 3-Year rotation 21.60 11.50 6.60 18.10 3.50 No treatment 3-Year rotation, 14.18 11.83 11.83 2.35 Manured 2-Year rotation, 22.32 11.83 6.60 18.43 3.89 No treatment 2-Year rotation, 16.07 11.00 11.00 5.07 Manured Corn continuously, 22.75 11.00 6.60 17.60 5.15 No treatment Corn continuously. 12.92 13.50 13.50 — .58 Manured Oats continuously. 21.04 13.50 6.60 20.10 .94 No treatment.’ Oats continuously, 7.56 10.50 10.50 — 2.94 Manured Wheat continuously, 12.45 10.50 6.60 17.10 — 4.65 No treatment Wheat continuously, 9.72 12.50 12.50 — 2.78 Manured Wheat continuously. 18.64 12.50 6.60 19.10 — .46 Complete fertilizer Clover continuously, 19.15 12.50 18.40 30.90 —11.75 No treatment Clover continuously, 10 ,87 9.50 9.50 1.37 Manured Timothy continuously, 14.58 9.50 6.60 16.10 — 1.52 No treatment Timothy continuously. 11.53 9.50 9.50 2.03 Manured 21.94 9.50 6.60 16.10 5.84 • 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 dent also that both manure and fertilizer were used in too large quantities to pay. For general farm crops the cost of manure and fertilizer must be kept down to correspond with the value of the product. Heavy applica- tions increase the gross return per acre, but in general the return per unit of fertilizer is greater as the quantity of fertilizer per acre is reduced. Experience and judgment must determine that amount of manure or fer- tilizer which in normal seasons proves best adapted to the particular set of conditions under which a given farm is operated. It is evident that these heavy applications of chemicals were not pro- fitable under the existing conditions. Manure was better even though it was used in very large quantities. The use of half manure and half fer- tilizer was better than fertilizer alone. It is evident that the chief source of financial loss in this fertilizer is the high cost of so much nitrogen. The general farmer must get most of his nitrogen from cheaper sources than commercial fertilizer. Legumes must be used increasingly and con- stantly if yields are to be kept up economically. Losses of nitrogen must be constantly watched and prevented, especially in the liquid manure which contains almost half of the nitrogen in the manure. The potash applied to these fertilized plots was also excessive. Potash is abundant in this soil and needs only to be made available. The phosphates used were not so excessive and these quantities, which varied from 150 to 300 pounds of acid phosphate per acre, have often proved profitable when used alone or in connection with small amounts of nitrogen and of potassium. In fact 150 to 200 pounds is the rate commonly used on the experiment fields of the Missouri Experiment Station and recommended to Missouri farmers. Three hundred pounds is the maximum ever recommended for field crops. Climatic and soil conditions effectively limit the amounts of fertilizer that can economically be applied to general field crops in Missouri. Maintenance of Crop Yields. Relative Yields of Crops by Five-Year Periods: Figures 7 and 8 show diagramatically the yield in total weight of dry matter under the different cropping systems and treatments used on Rotation Field when averaged by five-year periods In the lower half of the chart the length of the black or cross-hatched blocks is proportional to the yield of crops. The curves in the upper half of the chart show the trend of the yields. They are parallel to the tops of the cross-hatched blocks below. A study of these charts will show whether or not the yield is being maintained under each treatment. Seasonal variation complicates these records leaving them somewhat indefinite in many instances but the following observations seem justified. The yield was unmistakably increased where the three and four-year rotations were used and the land manured. The curve seems inclined up- ward also where the two-year rotation is manured, but the effect is pro- duced largely by unusually favorable conditions during the last five years. Where the six-year rotation is used with manure, fertilizer, or half manure and half fertilizer the curve is approximately level, indicating main- tenance but no increase. Considering the ability of continuous timothy to maintain a rather high level of nitrogen and organic matter there is no apparent explanation for the seeming inferiority of the six-year compared with shorter rotations in maintaining crop yields. The curve is also nearly level for the two, three, and four-year rota- Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 17 tions without manure. It is likely that somewhat improved methods of cultivation and management have balanced any downward tendency in yield on these plots. Later records should show whether or not there is actual soil maintenance. The yield has apparently decreased in the case of all continuous crops without manure or fertilizer although the downward tendency is not so marked with continuous oats. It is most conclusive for corn and timothy. Fig. 7. — Yields in total weight of dry matter under different cropping systems and treat- ments by five-year periods. The oats crop is not well adapted to the climatic conditions in Central Missouri so that the yields average low. There is, therefore, less tendency to soil exhaustion. With continuous corn and continuous timothy the yields have run down even where manured. The one exception to this is the last period with corn when exceptionally favorable conditions have apparently brought the yield up again. Although the 30-year average yields previously discussed indicate that heavy applications of fertilizer have generally given as good yields as manure, a studv of the chart showing the six-year rotation under different 18 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 treatments shows that fertilizer exceeded manure in total weight of crop during the first three periods or half of the time included, but manure gained the ascendency through the last three periods. Half manure and half fertilizer stood lowest of the three treatments for the first three per- iods but for the remainder of the time stood first or second with the fer- tilizer plot standing in third place. There is at least an indication here that manure or a combination of manure and fertilizer is superior to fertilizers alone in maintaining soil fertility through long periods of time. SOIL MAINTENANCE The efficiency of any system of soil management will depend not alone upon its ability to produce an immediate profit, but upon its ability to maintain soil fertility and guarantee a permanent productivity. There is no better single index to the maintenance of the soil of different plots in the same field than their nitrogen content. Besides the value of nitrogen itself, it is a fairly accurate indicator of the amount of organic matter re- maining in the soil. Figure 8 shows very clearly the effect of different LEGEND No Treatment I Fertilized Fig. 8. — Yields in total weight of dry matter with various crops grown continuously on the same land and without soil treatment. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 19 methods of management on the nitrogen remaining in the soil after 25 years of cropping, the soil samples having been taken at that time. Corn is clearly the most exhaustive crop on the nitrogen supply, fol- lowed by oats and wheat which do not differ greatly, and finally by tim- othy which appears to be less exhaustive than any of the other crops. It will be remembered that it proved impossible to grow clover continuously. Rotations have been less exhaustive of soil nitrogen than any single crop except timothy. This results from the fact that all rotations contain legume or sod crops or both. It may also be due to nitrogen fixation through azotobacter or similar free nitrogen fixing forms in timothy sod as shown by Rothamsted data. Chemical fertilizers, although maintaining yields when used in large quantities, have not kept up the soil nitrogen. Evidently most of the ni- trogen not used by the immediate crop was removed Com the soil by leach- ing or denitrification. It should be said in this connection, however, that the plots receiving chemical fertilizers are located on a part of the field which slopes slightly more than the average and a small amount of erosion takes place. It is almost certain that some of the loss of nitrogen may be explained by this fact. Other plots similarly located but not fertilized with commercial nitrogen are very little below the average, however, and surface erosion does not explain the large loss of nitrogen where fertilizers were used. As nitrogen is a fair indicator of the supply of organic matter in the soil, this data has an interesting bearing on statements sometimes made in soil literature that the heavy use of commercial fertilizers tends to maintain organic matter through increased production of roots and stubble. There is little evidence to sustain this view in these experiments if the nitrogen content be used as the indicator. The nitrogen in the continuous wheat plot receiving large amounts of fertilizer is appreciably less than that in the continuous wheat plot without treatment. However, as has been mentioned, the last named plot suffers somewhat less from erosion which, in the light of other experiments at this station, might account for the observed difference. If a comparison is made between the six-year ro- tation plot receiving fertilizers only and the plot with the same rotation without treatment, it will be seen that the fertilized one contains more nitrogen, but only very slightly more, than the one without treatment. Here again the slope of the fertilized plot is a little greater than that of the untreated one. Manure has been very effective in keeping up the nitrogen supply and all plots receiving the full annual application of 6 tons of manure per acre stand higher in nitrogen than the soil on the driveways, which has never been cropped and which has only occasionally had the bluegrass and weeds removed when they were allowed to get too tall before clipping. Of all the plots receiving a full application of manure the continuous timothy plot stands highest in nitrogen. The non-cultivated crops, wheat and oats, stand higher than corn. This bears out the well known fact that stirring the soil hastens decomposition of the organic matter by increasing the air supply in the surface soil thus promoting nitrogen loss. 20 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Nitrogen in Surface Foot of Soil Fig. 9. — Nitrogen in surface foot of soil, after 25 years of cropping (1889 to 1913). Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 21 SOIL MANAGEMENT In the light of these old experiments it is evident that systems of soil management which produce an immediate profit and at the same time provide for a continuation of that profit by maintaining or increasing the fertility of the soil will require careful and intelligent planning. The onl}' exception to this, as shown by these experiments, is that of growing con- tinuous timothy, an impractical plan in all but a very few localities of the State. Organic matter and nitrogen must be maintained and this requires the use of a minimum of cultivated crops, since cultivation hastens the loss of nitrogen and organic matter. As many legume and sod crops must be used as the particular type of farming will profitably admit. The four- year rotation of corn, oats, wheat, and clover which has long been popu- lar with many farmers seems a little the best of those tried. In this case the land is in a cultivated crop only one-fourth of the time which is enough on any but strong soils. Even strong soils will deteriorate if more corn is grown, unless more, than ordinary care is taken to return manure, green manure or crop residues and it is cheaper to keep soil at a high pro- ducing capacity than it is to restore it after it becomes exhausted. Not all the methods of maintaining organic matter were included in these experiments. The use of crop residues and green manure crops should be considered in most plans of soil management. If legume crops are used liberally in the plan for keeping up organic Legend: Com £22 Wheat EZZI Timothy Oats HOI) Clover [==j Fig. 10. — Left: Effect of manure and rotation on corn yields (30-year average.) Right: Crop yields in six year rotation with different soil treatments (30-year average). 22 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 matter, nitrogen will be taken care of in the same plan. For general farm- ing purposes in Missouri nitrogen should only be bought for general field crops on the thinner lands where there is not time enough to build up soils by the slower but better method of growing legumes. Even in such cases the amount should not be large since such applications are prohibited by the expense. Keeping up organic matter and keeping the soil in good physical con- dition largely take care of the potash problem for most Missouri soils since they contain much potash and it is largely a question of hastening its availability. Potash, like nitrogen, is advisable for general crops only in lather small quantities. Its use is advisable only in mixed fertilizers on soils relatively low in available potash. Continuous corn with no Corn in 3 yr. rotation Corn in 3 yr. rotation treatment, 20.9 bu. per acre. with no treatment, 32.6 bu. manured, 43.4 bu. per acre, per acre. Fig. 11. — Average Annual yield of corn from plots variously treated during 30 years. The one element of fertility which must be purchased in a system of general farming, livestock farming or grain farming is phosphorus. All products of the farm contain it and nearly all soils have a very limited supply. It may be purchased as acid phosphate, bonemeal, or ground rock phosphate. These and other experiments of long duration have shown that the acid added in making phosphates available has no appreciable harmful effects upon the soil. The phosphate in bonemeal is partly avail- able the first year and most of the remainder during succeeding years. For immediate profit and a quick turnover of the investment one of the forms containing quickly available phosphate should be used. SUMMARY 1. These field experiments with crop rotations, manure and fertilizers, were begun in 1888 and 30 years’ results are here reported. 2. In general, crop rotations gave better yields than were secured from crops grown continuously without rotation. 3. Among the rotations used, the four-year rotation of corn, oat3, wheat and clover gave somewhat better results than the others. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 23 4. Crop rotation without manure was practically as effective in main- taining the average yields of corn and wheat as was heavy manuring where these crops were grown continuously without rotation. 5. Manure was more effective in maintaining a high average yield of corn and grass in a six-year rotation than was heavy fertilization with chemical fertilizers, but the reverse was true in the case of wheat and oats. 6. When measured by the 30-year average yield, heavy applications of chemical fertilizers were as effective as heavy applications of barnyard manure in maintaining the total produce in a six-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat, clover, timothy and timothy, but when averaged by successive five-year periods, the results indicate a growing superiority of manure oi a combination of manure and fertilizer. 7. Soil analyses, at the end of 25 years, indicated that the most im- portant factor in soil exhaustion was the loss of nitrogen and organic mat- ter. 8. The crops grown continuously without rotation or manure stood in the following general order with reference to the reduction of the sup- ply of nitrogen: First, corn; second, oats and wheat; third, hay crops. 9. Heavy applications of barnyard manure were very effective and heavy applications of chemical fertilizers were ineffective in maintaining the supply of soil nitrogen. 10. Crop rotation was more effective on the average than continuous cropping to grain crops, but less effective than continuous cropping to grass, in maintaining soil nitrogen. 24 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 APPENDIX The following tables give the complete crop data from all plots used in the 30-year summary of the results of the experiments. Where a crop failure has resulted because of soil limitations, due to the cropping system used or the treatment given, the fact is indicated in the tables by the symbols 0000. Where there is an absence of records, due to other causes such as injury from chinch bugs, attacks by birds or incomplete data, the year is omitted in computing averages and is so indicated. Plot No. 1 6- Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover, Timothy, Timothy *Manured Annually I Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Wheat 13.27 2160 1890 0000 1891 Timothy Omitted 1892 Corn 61.43 2060 1893 Oats. . 36.25 3680 1894 Clover 5500 1895 Wheat 44.00 4160 1896 Clover 1000 1897 Timothy 6540 1898 Corn 35.00 2080 1899 Oats 41.00 2890 1900 Clover 6300 1901 Wheat 40.10 5595 1902 1903 Timothy Omitted. 1950 1904 Corn 46.06 2600 1905 Oats 19.06 1443 1906 Timothy 2730 1907 Wheat 28.20 3634 1908 Timothy 7216 1909 Timothy 7618 1910 Corn 50.30 6864 1911 Oats 24.07 1100 1912 Wheat 15.16 2587 1913 Clover 3887 Average Corn 48.2 3401 Average Oats 30.1 2278 Average Wheat 28.1 3627 Average Clover 4172 Average Timothy 4342 * 7 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 9.1 tons per acre annually;1904-1913; 6 tons per acre annually, 1914-1918. Plot No. 2 Wheat Continuously *Complete Fertilizer for Maximum Wheat Crop Year Crop Yi< Grain eld Forage 1889 Wheat 20.58 3225 1890 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1891 Wheat 24.60 2665 1892 Wheat 13.33 1980 1893 Wheat 00.00 0000 1894 Wheat 34.53 3700 1895 Wheat 39.33 4140 1896 Wheat 12.50 1970 1897 Wheat 10.80 1100 1898 Wheat 3.30 1400 1899 Wheat 16.10 1434 1900 Wheat 17.30 2040 1901 Wheat 28.70 3780 1902 Wheat 26.60 2650 1903 Wheat 18.70 3880 1904 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1905 Wheat 7.90 1024 1906 Wheat 33.36 4323 1907 Wheat 27.90 3616 1908 Wheat 14.10 1827 1909 Wheat 23 . 00 2474 1910 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1911 Wheat 16.46 2184 1912 Wheat 7.69 1515 1913 Wheat 17.01 2990 1914 Wheat 20.32 2741 1915 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1916 Wheat 10.5 2674 1917 Wheat 6.5 1162 1918 Wheat 34.3 3346 Average Wheat 18.7 2455 * Annual applications of enough sodium nitrate, dissolved bone, steamed bone or acid phosphate, and muriate of potash to replace all the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium removed in a 40-bushel crop of wheat with 2 tons of straw. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 25 Plot No. 3 6-Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover, Timothy, Timothy ^Complete Fertilizer for Maximum Crops Year Crop Yi Grain eld Forage 1889 Wheat 17.67 2780 1890 Timothy 0000 1891 Timothy Omitted Omitted 1892 Corn 60.71 4590 1893 Oats 38.75 4340 1894 3140 1895 Wheat 38.67 4180 1896 3740 1897 Timothy 8220 1898 Corn 34.10 1700 1899 Oats 39.40 3200 1900 Clover 4700 1901 Wheat - 43.30 5790 1902 Timothy 2120 1903 Omitted. 1904 Corn 41.60 2340 1905 Oats 36.56 1106 1906 Cowpeas 1690 1907 Wheat 24.08 3121 1908 Timothy 6318 1909 Timothy 3888 1910 Corn 46.20 3302 1911 Oats 17.88 754 1912 Wheat 21.99 1320 1913 Clover 2964 1914 Timothy 527 1915 Timothy 5600 1916 Corn 25.6 4340 1917 Oats 62.7 2764 1918 Wheat 34.18 3773 Average Corn 41.6 3254 Average Oats 39.1 2433 Average Wheat 30.0 3494 Average Clover 3636 Average Timothy 3810 * Annual applications of enough nitrogen as sodium nitrate, phosphorus as dissolved bone, steamed bone, or acid phosphate and potassium as muriate of potash to replace all the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium re- moved in a maximum crop. A maximum crop was assumed to be: 40 bu. wheat with 2 tons straw, 80 bushels of corn with 2.4 tons of stover, 60 bushels of oats with 1.5 tons of straw, and 3 tons of clover or timothy hay. Plot No. 4 6- Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover, Timothy, Timothy *Manure Yi Application ■(■Fertilizers for Half Maximum Crop. Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Wheat 15.83 1800 1890 Timothy 0000 1891 Timothy Omitted 1892 Corn 52.14 1880 1893 Oats 32.19 3770 1894 Clover 3480 1895 Wheat 42.50 5000 1896 Clover 2700 1897 Timothy 5750 1898 Corn 30.00 1580 1899 Oats 44.70 3065 1900 Clover 4320 4340 1901 Wheat 43.30 1902 Timothy 2350 1903 Timothy 1700 1904 Corn 27.70 1495 1905 Oats 30.88 2667 1906 Cowpeas 1950 1907 Wheat 24.80 3214 1908 Timothy 7138 1909 Timothy 6254 1910 Corn 46.80 2366 1911 Oats 14.83 798 1912 Wheat 17.66 2295 1913 Clover 3822 1914 Timothy 788 1915 Timothy 5236 1916 Corn 27.2 4676 1917 Oats 65.5 2688 1918 Wheat 39.2 3654 Average Corn 36.8 2399 Average Oats 37.6 2598 Average Wheat 30.5 3384 Average Clover 3580 Average Timothy 3652 * 3 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 3.9 tons, 1904-1913; 3 tons, 1914-1918. t One-half as much fertilizer as applied on Plot 3, using the same materials. 26 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Plot No. 5 Plot No. 6 Wheat Continuously Clover Continuously *Manured Annually *Manured Annually Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Wheat 8.08 1100 1890 1891 Omitted. Wheat 27.92 2715 1892 Wheat 8.83 2290 1893 Wheat 0.00 0000 1894 Wheat 30.17 2390 1895 Wheat 34.33 3840 1896 Wheat 11.83 1930 1897 Wheat 13.80 1825 1898 Wheat 4.00 1100 1899 Wheat 13.60 1304 1900 Wheat 19.30 2380 1901 Wheat 23.30 3160 1902 Wheat 35.20 6210 1903 Wheat 17.26 2632 1904 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1905 Wheat 12.35 1601 1906 Wheat 7.15 927 1907 Wheat 17.10 2216 1908 Wheat 14.50 1879 1909 Wheat 00.00 0000 1910 Wheat 12.68 2968 1911 Wheat 6.50 1196 1912 Wheat 12.56 1970 1913 Wheat 15.93 3081 Average Wheat 15.00 2118 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903 ; 7.8 tons, 1904-13. Yield Year * Crop Grain Forage 1889 Clover 4200 1890 Clover 5600 1891 Clover 3620 1892 Clover 3000 1893 Clover 3680 1894 Clover 4040 1895 Clover 4800 1896 Clover 2800 1897 Clover 1900 1898 Clover 3000 1899 Clover 5180 1900 Clover 1400 1901 Clover 2440 1902 Clover 3200 1903 Clover Omitted 1904 Clover Omitted 1905 Clover Omitted 1906 Clover Omitted 1907 Clover Omitted 1908 Clover 0000 1909 Cowpeas 3562 1910 Cowpeas 7852 1911 Cowpeas 4000 1912 Cowpeas 6500 1913 Cowpeas. ..... 2210 Average Clover 3257 Average Cowneas. ...... 4825 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889* 1903; 7.8 tons 1904-1913. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 27 Plot No. 7 Clover Continuously No Manure or Fertilizer Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 2600 1890 4300 1891 3720 1892 2850 1893 1420 1894 Clover 2550 1895 Clover 3500 1896 Clover 2300 1897 Clover ........ 1300 1898 Clover 1320 1899 Clover 3380 1900 Clover 720 1901 Clover 1220 1902 Clover 2850 1903 Clover (1) Ab andoned 1904 Clover Ab andoned 1905 Clover Ab andoned 1906 Clover Ab andoned 1907 Clover Ab andoned 1908 Clover Ab andoned 1909 Clover Omitted 1910 Oats 13.80 1606 1911 Clover Omitted 1912 Wheat 19.61 2151 1913 Cowpeas 1547 1914 Cowpeas 4056 1915 Cowpeas 4270 1916 Cowpeas 5684 1917 Cowpeas 3514 1918 Cowpeas 4760 Average Clover 2430 Average Cowpeas 3972 (1) Plot not used for experiment during this period. Plot No. 8 6- Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover, Timothy, Timothy *Manured Annually Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Clover 3450 1890 Clover 4010 1891 Timothy 7350 1892 Timothy 5400 1893 Corn 38.57 3940 1894 Oats 42 . 50 1320 1895 Clover 5480 1896 Wheat 31.33 3820 1897 Timothy 4250 1898 Timothy 4960 1899 Corn 45.20 2200 1900 Oats 53.60 2285 1901 Clover 1030 1902 Wheat 29.80 6010 1903 1904 Wheat (1) 15.27 2983 Average Corn 41.9 3070 Average Oats 48.0 1802 Average Wheat 25.5 4271 Average Clover 3492 Average Timothy 5490 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1880- 1903. Plot discontinued after 1903. (1) Plot abandoned to give room for a street. 28 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Plot No. 9 Wheat Continuously No Manure or Fertilizer Year Crop Yie Grain Id Forage 1889 Wheat 8.17 935 1890 Wheat Omitted 1891 Wheat 24.58 2725 1892 Wheat 6.17 1610 1893 Wheat 0.00 0000 1894 Wheat 18.00 1880 1895 Wheat 22.00 2880 1896 Wheat 2.83 390 1897 Wheat 1.66 210 1898 Wheat 2.70 720 1899 Wheat 2.70 318 1900 Wheat 10.70 1360 1901 Wheat 15.60 1855 1902 Wheat 28.60 3935 1903 Wheat 11.48 3276 1904 Wheat Omitted 1905 Wheat Omitted 1906 Wheat 5.85 758 1907 Wheat 7.05 914 1908 Wheat 7.10 920 1909 Wheat 0.00 000 1910 Wheat 10.51 1444 1911 Wheat 4.98 486 1912 Wheat 1.30 228 1913 Wheat 8.83 913 1914 Wheat 20.07 1922 1915 Wheat 1.98 399 1916 Wheat 8.40 1197 1917 Wheat .20 112 1918 Wheat 1 21.00 2114 Average Wheat 9 . 5 1241 Plot No. 10 Wheat Continuously *Manured Annually Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Wheat 15.00 1580 1890 Wheat Omitted 1891 Wheat 31.25 4475 1892 Wheat 14.00 2920 1893 Wheat 0.00 0000 1894 Wheat 34.83 2630 1895 Wheat 40.67 5160 1896 Wheat 20.00 1240 1897 Wheat 6.10 935 1898 Wheat 5.25 2025 1899 Wheat 15.80 1690 1900 Wheat 21.50 2790 1901 Wheat 25.20 3410 1902 Wheat 27.10 4830 1903 Wheat 16.02 3100 1904 Wheat Omitted 1905 Wheat 15.38 1933 1906 Wheat 8.66 1122 1907 Wheat 10.80 1400 1908 Wheat 16.10 2087 1909 Wheat 15.20 1970 1910 Wheat 6.21 3234 1911 Wheat 10.30 1538. 1912 Wheat 12.46 2204 1913 Wheat 16.90 3205 1914 Wheat 26.37 3707 1915 Wheat 18.66 1988 1916 Wheat 10.7 2114 1917 Wheat 10.9 1820 1918 Wheat 30.33 3402 Average Wheat 17.2 2447 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1903-1913; 6 tons, 1914-1918. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 29 Plot No. 11 6- Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover, Timothy, Timothy *Manured Annually Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Wheat 16.17 1800 1890 Timothy 3120 1891 Timothy 6860 1892 Corn 37.93 1420 1893 Oats 27.81 1750 1894 Clover 4580 1895 Wheat 44.00 5560 1896 Clover 1280 1897 Timothy 6700 1898 Corn 27.00 1380 1899 Oats 36.70 2525 1900 Clover .... 7080 1901 Wheat 43.30 6650 1902 1903 Timothy Omitted. 2750 1904 Corn 43.83 1820 1905 Oats 28.03 2243 1906 Cowpeas 1690 1907 Wheat 26.43 3426 1908 Timothy 7398 1909 Timothy 8320 1910 Corn 51.60 3146 1911 Oats 18.50 1072 1912 Wheat 22.48 3129 1913 Clover 4303 Average Corn 40,1 1941 Average Oats 27.8 1898 Average Wheat 30.5 4113 Average Clover 4311 Average Timothy 5858 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913. Plot No. 12 6- Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover, Timothy, Timothy ^Manured Annually Year Crop Yi( Grain -Id Forag< 1889 Timothy 1500 1890 Timothy 4690 1891 Corn 41.50 2470 1892 Oats 00.00 0000 1893 Clover 5900 1894 Wheat 43.50 4090 1895 Timothy 4300 1896 Clover 6080 1897 Corn 64.80 3920 1898 Oats 8.00 1104 1899 Clover 2380 1900 Wheat 28.80 4030 1901 Timothy 0000 1902 Timothy 1750 1903 Omitted. 1904 Oats 17.47 1398 1905 Wheat . . Omitt( 1906 Omitted. 1907 Timothy 3250 1908 Timothy 7840 1909 Corn 31.94 3040 1910 Oats 34.10 2170 1911 Oats 17.40 980 1912 Wheat 23.29 3332 1913 Clover 5538 Average Corn 46.1 3143 Average Oats 15.4 1130 Average Wheat 31.9 3817 Average Clover 4974 Average Timothy 3333 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913. 30 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Plot No. 13 6- Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover, Timothy, Timothy No Manure or Fertilizer Year Crop Yie Grain >ld Forage 1889 Wheat 6.50 820 1890 Timothy 1790 1891 3920 1892 Corn 25.71 1300 1893 Oats 21.88 3160 1894 1230 1895 Wheat 33.00 3170 1896 Timothy 1900 1897 Timothy 4600 1898 Corn 25.10 1340 1899 Oats 32.80 1290 1930 Clover . 3780 1931 Wheat 39.30 3190 1902 Timothy ... 130 1&03 Corn 85.42 4290 1904 Corn 54.20 2145 1905 Oats 16.65 1330 1906 Cowpeas . 1040 1907 Wheat 10.80 1404 1908 Timothy 3536 1909 Timothy 2820 1910 Corn 39.40 962 1911 Oats 13.82 636 1912 Wheat 13.97 1359 1913 Clover . . 1508 1914 Timothy 124 1915 Timothy 3192 1916 Corn 19.00 1680 1917 Oats 51.10 2184 1918 Wheat 16.80 1540 Average Corn 41.5 1899 Average Oats 27.2 1720 Average Wheat 20.1 1914 Average Clover 2173 Average Timothy 2446 Plot No. 14 6-Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover, Timothy, Timothy *Manured Annually Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 1890 Oats Clover 29.53 1945 0000 1891 1892 Wheat Timothy .... 27.00 3140 4280 1893 Timothy 4340 1894 1895 Corn Oats 12.00 25.00 3440 1620 1896 Clover 5580 1897 1898 Wheat Timothy 37.67 4640 5280 1899 Timothy 5040 1900 1901 Corn Oats 41.40 2.30 2100 545 1902 Clover 2100 1903 1904 Omitted. Timothy Omitted 1905 Omitted 1906 Corn Omitted 1907 Oats 34.93 2795 1908 Clover 0000 1909 Wheat 16.50 2138 1910 Corn 52.90 2302 1911 Oats 23.98 1220 1912 Wheat 21.99 3419 1913 Clover 5018 Average Corn 35.4 2614 Average Oats 23.1 1625 Average Wheat 25.8 3334 Average Clover 2540 Avpratrfl Tim nth v 4735 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889-1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 31 Plot No. 15 Oats Continuously ♦Manured Annually Year Crop Yu Grain >ld Forage 1889 Oats 36.88 2507 1890 Oats Omitted 1891 Oats 25.94 3970 1892 Oats 0.00 0000 1893 Oats 30.63 1480 1894 Oats 30.31 1390 1895 Oats 42.19 2750 1896 Timothy 4400 1897 Oats 36.00 3000 1898 Oats 4.70 390 1899 Oats 27.30 1285 1900 Oats 49.80 2415 1901 Oats 2.00 430 1902 Oats 15.10 1065 1903 Oats Omitted Omitted 1904 Oats 31.30 2504 1905 Oats 19.09 1527 1906 Oats 34.13 2720 1907 Oats 37.37 2990 1908 Oats 29.04 2323 1909 Oats 15.84 1267 1910 Oats 29.74 2584 1911 Oats 26.10 1460 1912 Oats 32.44 2288 1913 Oats 9.55 1144 1914 Oats 5.28 1033 1915 Oats 35.81 2338 1916 Oats 30.2 2296 1917 Oats 65.1 3122 1918 Oats 36.08 1771 Average Oats 27.3 1928 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913; 6 tons, 1914-1918. Plot No. 1G Oats Continuously No Manure or Fertilizer Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Oats 27.35 2207 1890 Oats Omitted Omitted 1891 Oats 18.44 3540 1892 Oats 00.00 0000 1893 Oats 17.82 840 1894 Oats 30.94 1270 1895 Oats 28.13 1080 1896 Timothy 2850 1897 Oats 11.00 450 1808 Oats 2.50 260 1899 Oats 13.40 550 1900 Oats 24.80 1105 1901 Oats 1.10 190 1902 Oats 20.80 785 1903 Oats Omitted Omitted 1904 Oats 7.30 584 1905 Oats 7.31 585 1906 Oats 17.06 1365 1907 Oats 21.93 1754 1908 Oats 10.16 813 1909 Oats 12.19 994 1910 Oats 9.03 542 1911 Oats 5.01 320 1912 Oats 29.34 1248 1913 Oats 3.86 338 1914 Oats 4.06 432 1915 Oats 30.62 1722 1916 Oats 29.00 1036 1917 Oats 53.70 2044 1918 Oats 19.90 772 Average Oats 16.9 1099 32 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Plot Xo. 17 Plot No. 18 Corn Continuously Corn Continuously No Manure or Fertilizer *Manured Annually Year Crop Yie Id Year Crop Yield Grain Forage Grain Forage 1889 Corn 27.14 3070 1889 Corn 34.86 4020 1890 Corn 41.14 2190 1890 Corn 60.71 3350 1891 Corn 32.07 1870 1891 Corn 36.36 2990 1892 42.14 3550 1892 Corn 51.43 2200 1893 Corn 24.86 3660 1893 Corn 34.00 3340 1894 Corn 17.14 2160 1894 Corn 30.29 3040 1895 Corn 31.43 2300 1895 Corn . . . 64 31 3900 1896 Corn 21.00 1590 1896 Corn 46.42 2890 1897 Corn 22.90 1900 1897 Corn 47.20 2700 1898 Corn 23.90 1340 1898 Corn 25.60 1380 1899 Corn 19.40 1200 1899 Corn 31.90 2o00 1900 Corn 16.80 1200 1900 Corn 28.60 1500 1901 Corn 5.70 750 1901 Corn 11.30 1450 1902 Corn 38.00 1800 1902 Corn 79.40 3060 1903 Corn 29 . 53 1954 1903 Corn 55.54 2808 1904 Corn 17.10 2275 1904 Corn 13.37 1885 1905 Corn 11 .'88 1612 1905 Corn 64.25 3652 1906 Corn Omitted Omitted 1906 Corn Omitted 1907 Corn 11.70 1196 1907 Cofn 33.42 1768 1908 Corn 4.45 3470 1908 Corn 11.70 3992 1909 Corn 1.30 1886 1909 Corn 16.57 2938 1910 Corn 1.85 754 1910 Corn 6.50 1418 1911 Corn 13.18 1677 1911 Corn 25.07 2690 1912 Corn 27.01 1469 1912 Corn 30.82 1625 1913 Corn 6.96 2730 1913 Corn 19.22 3870 1914 Corn 28.78 2678 1914 Corn 33.89 4079 1915 Corn 38.00 2744 1915 Corn 45.70 3332 1916 Corn 7.4 1988 1916 Corn 14.6 3066 1917 Corn 27.59 1610 1917 Corn 35.59 3668 1918 Corn 14.4 2884 1918 Corn 22 4 5166 Average Corn 20.9 2052 Average Corn 34.9 2889 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913; 6 tons, 1914-1918. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 33 Plot No. 19 (5-Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover, Timothy, Timothy ^Manured Annually — Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Corn 28.43 3340 1890 Oats Omitted Omitted 1891 3020 1892 Wheat 14.83 4590 1893 Timothy 3280 1894 Timothy 4880 1895 Corn 80.00 4700 1896 Timothy 5000 1897 Clover 5400 1898 Wheat 9.50 2650 1899 Timothy 4700 1900 Timothy 5500 1901 Corn 15.80 1775 1902 Oats Omitted 2100 1903 Omitted. 1904 1905 Wheat Omitted. Omitted Omitted 1906 Timothy 0000 1907 Corn 53.48 2327 1908 Oats 26.41 2113 1909 Cowpeas 4784 1910 Wheat 19.17 4134 1911 Oats 22.45 940 1912 Wheat 12.86 1930 1913 Clover 5109 Average Corn 44.4 3035 Average Oats 24.4 1718 Average Wheat 14.1 3326 Average Clover 4510 Average Timothy 3893 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons 1904-1913. Plot No. 20 6- Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover, Timothy, Timothy *Manured Annually Year Crop Yie Grain Id Forage 1889 Timothy 2950 1890 Timothy 5040 1891 Corn 41.71 2960 1892 Oats 0.00 0000 1893 Clover 4540 1894 Wheat 41.33 4070 1895 Timothy 4400 1896 Clover 5700 1897 Corn 64.80 3750 1898 Oats 4.70 910 1899 Clover . . . 2400 1900 Wheat 33.70 3740 1901 Timothy 0000 1902 Timothy 2000 1903 Corn 78.74 4472 1904 Oats 25.20 2016 1905 Omitted. 1906 Wheat 18.83 2440 1907 Timothy 4160 1908 Timothy 7240 1909 Corn 28.79 2510 1910 Oats 44.05 2978 1911 Oats 17.88 800 1912 Wheat 16.09 2875 1913 Clover . . 4810 1914 Timothy 766 1915 Timothy 6818 1916 Corn 28.00 4060 1917 Oats 60.50 2876 1918 Wheat 34.30 3990 Average Corn 48.4 3550 Average Oats 25.4 1597 Average Wheat 28.9 3423 Average Clover . . 4362 Average Timothy 3708 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913; 6 tons, 1914-1918. 34 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Plot No. 21 Wheat Continuously ^Manured Annually Year Crop Yi< Grain eld Forage 1889 Wheat 11.83 1910 1890 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1891 Wheat 30.83 5370 1892 Wheat 24.00 3360 1893 Wheat 00.00 0000 1894 Wheat 39.17 3060 1895 Wheat 43.33 4800 1896 Wheat 20.17 2950 1897 Wheat 8.40 1195 1898 Wheat 6.30 1580 1899 Wheat 15.80 1590 1900 Wheat 23.50 3330 1901 Wheat 24.12 3420 1902 Wheat 32.60 6790 1903 Wheat 6.82 2450 1904 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1905 Wneat 15.60 2022 1906 Wheat 7.15 927 1907 Wheat 24.05 3117 1908 Wheat 23.90 3097 1909 Wheat 11.70 1516 1910 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1911 Wheat 30.55 3472 1912 Wheat 12.07 2384 1913 Wheat 17.44 3387 Average Wheat 19.5 2806 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913. Plot No. 22 Timothy Continuously ^Manured Annually Year Crop Yii Grain eld Forage 1889 Timothy 2100 1890 Timothy 5790 1891 Timothy 7600 1892 Timothy 6960 1893 Timothy 6200 1894 Timothy 4640 1895 Timothy 6500 1896 Timothy 5840 1897 Timothy 6100 1898 Timothy 5980 1899 Timothy 4760 1900 Timothy 4800 1901 Timothy 2400 1902 Timothy 5700 1903 Timothy Omitted 1904 Timothy ..... Omitted 1905 Timothy Omitted 1906 Timothy 2275 1907 Timothy 2730 1908 Timothy 7812 1909 Timothy 6032 1910 Timothy 4160 1911 Timothy 2600 1912 Timothy 6110 1913 Timothy 3042 1914 Timothy 889 1915 Timothy 6888 1916 Timothy 6650 1917 Timothy 5586 1918 Timothy 2240 Average Timothy 4902 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913; 6 tons, 1914-1918. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 35 Plot No. 23 Timothy Continuously No Manure or Fertilizer Year Crop Yit Grain ;ld Forage 1889 Timothy 1600 1890 Timothy 2290 1891 Timothy 4760 1892 Timothy 4000 1893 Timothy 3820 1894 Timothy 3880 1895 Timothy 5440 1896 Timothy 2480 1897 Timothy 2400 1898 Timothy 3000 1899 Timothy 2260 1900 Timothy 2500 1901 Timothy 1150 1902 Timothy 4500 1903 Timothy Omitted 1904 Timothy Omitted 1905 Timothy Omitted 1906 Timothy 1820 1907 Timothy 0000 1908 Timothy 3654 1909 Timothy 2146 1910 Timothy 2340 1911 Timothy 0000 1912 Timothy 4550 1913 Timothy 1339 1914 Timothy 546 1915 Timothy 3276 1916 Timothy 3220 1917 Timothy 2142 1918 Timothy 490 Average Timothy 2577 Plot No. 24 Wheat Continuously ^Manured Annually Year Crop Yii Grain -Id Forage 1889 Wheat 17.00 1780 1890 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1891 Wheat 30.60 2065 1892 Wheat 13.67 3540 1893 Wheat 00.00 0000 1894 Wheat 31.17 3170 1895 Wheat 39.17 5950 1896 Wheat 18.66 2100 1897 Wheat 8.20 1060 1898 Wheat 4.80 1390 1899 Wheat 12.00 1140 1900 Wheat 19.30 2920 1901 Wheat 23.60 1485 1902 Wheat 30.10 4840 1903 Wheat 7.47 2440 1904 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1905 Wheat 15.60 2022 1906 Wheat 11.83 1533 1907 Wheat 23.07 2980 1908 Wheat 24.70 3320 1909 Wheat 13.80 1788 1910 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1911 Wheat 28.55 3318 1912 Wheat 10.72 1970 1913 Wheat 17.33 2743 Average Wheat 18.2 2443 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913. 36 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Plot No. 25 3- Year Rotation: Corn, Wheat, Clover *Manured Annually Year Crop Yie Grain Id Forage 1889 Corn 37.71 3310 1890 0000 1891 Wheat 17.00 1690 1892 Corn 52.00 5400 1893 5880 1894 Wheat 39.67 2500 1895 Corn 77.14 3800 1896 Clover 2040 1897 Wheat 20.17 2490 1898 Corn 25.20 1400 1899 Clover .... 3240 1900 Wheat 23.50 3390 1901 Corn 8.20 1050 1902 Clover Omitted 1903 Omitted. 1904 Corn 38.70 1534 1905 Omitted. 1906 Wheat 17.11 2217 1907 Corn 56.64 2080 1908 Wheat 29.40 3910 1909 Cowpeas 4446 1910 Corn 28.04 1600 1911 Wheat 32 . 12 3286 1912 Cowpeas 7410 1913 Corn 25.07 6669 1914 Wheat 35.67 4074 1915 Cowpeas 6146 1916 Corn 24.80 3038 1917 Wheat 31.00 4312 1918 Clover 5908 Average Corn 37.3 2988 Average Wheat 27.3 3096 Average Clover 3414 Plot No. 26 3- Year Rotation: Corn, Wheat, Clover *Manured Annually Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Clover 2300 1890 Clover 5320 1891 Corn 41.71 2450 1892 Clover 0000 1893 Wheat 9.00 1480 1894 Corn 33.71 3720 1895 Clover 4600 1896 Wheat 31.50 4550 1897 Corn 45.40 2660 1898 Clover Omitted Omitted 1899 Wheat 16.60 1620 1900 Corn 47.90 2320 1901 Clover 0000 1902 Wheat 25.50 6520 1903 Corn 82.08 3900 1904 Clover Omitted 1905 Wheat 22.31 2891 1906 Corn Omitted Omitted 1907 Clover 0000 1908 Clover 5450 1909 Corn 22.29 1833 1910 Wheat 9.64 2818 1911 Wheat 31.80 3424 1912 Cowpeas 8710 1913 Corn 24.14 7176 Average Corn 42.5 3437 Average Wheat 20.9 3329 Average Clover 2524 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913. * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons 1904-1913; 6 tons, 1913-1918. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 37 Plot No. 27 3- Year Rotation: Corn, Wheat, Clover No Manure or Fertilizer Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Wheat 14.92 1505 1890 Corn 28.36 1990 1891 Omitted 1892 Wheat 9.17 1450 1893 Corn 24.29 2500 1894 Clover 1350 1895 Wheat 27.50 2400 1896 Corn 34.85 2020 1897 Clover 2660 1898 Wheat 5.00' 1910 1899 Corn 25.50 1320 1900 Clover 1800 1901 Wheat 23.30 2960 1902 1903 Corn Omitted. 65.30 1850 1904 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1905 Corn 50.70 2470 1906 Cowpeas 1300 1907 Corn 47.17 2665 1908 Wheat 6.90 1294 1909 Cowpeas 2054 1910 Corn 16.57 1522 1911 Wheat 11.48 1170 1912 Cowpeas 4450 1913 Corn 13.93 5837 1914 Wheat 18.09 1452 1915 Cowpeas 2688 1916 Corn 19.60 2604 1917 Wheat 13.50 1316 1918 Clover 1862 Average Corn 32.6 2478 Average Wheat 14.4 1717 Average Clover 1918 Plot No. 28 3- Year Rotation: Corn, Wheat, Clover *Manured Annually Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Wheat 18 . 42 2445 1890 Corn 45.79 2220 1891 j Clover Omitted 1892 Wheat 24.17 4200 1893 Corn 34.60 3500 1894 Clover 3500 1895 Wheat 42.33 4460 1896 Corn 51.42 2720 1897 Clover 7440 1898 Wheat 15.70 2720 1899 Corn 37.90 1860 1900 Clover 4600 1901 Wheat 34.50 4500 1902 1903 Corn Omitted. 88.60 1850 1904 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1905 Corn 77.62 3315 1906 Cowpeas 1820 1907 Corn 65.92 3679 1908 Wheat 29.20 3784 1909 Cowpeas 3042 1910 Corn 32.69 2626 1911 Wheat 33.58 3586 1912 Cowpeas 7150 1913 Corn 1 24.70 7059 Average Corn 51.0 3203 Average Wheat 28.3 3671 Average Clover 5180 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1903-1913. 38 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Plot No. 29 (1) Wheat Continuously N o Manure or Fertilizer Year Crop Yie Grain Id Forage 1889 Wheat 25.42 3205 1890 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1891 Wheat 33.83 4450 1892 Wheat 23.50 2950 1893 Wheat 00.00 0000 1894 Wheat 29.75 3840 1895 Wheat 36.00 3890 1896 Wheat 9.83 1230 1897 Wlieat 8.33 650 1898 Wheat 3.16 890 1899 Wheat 3.00 300 1900 Wheat 10.50 1230 1901 Wheat 21.00 940 1902 W heat 31.50 2920 1903 Wheat 10.82 2115 1904 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1905 Wheat 19.28 2499 1906 Wheat 8.01 1038 1907 Wheat 9.53 1235 1908 Wheat 16.40 2125 Average Wheat 16.7 1973 * No manure, 1889-1907. 7.8 tons manure 1908-1913. (1) Plot 29 omitted from general average because of a change of plan after 1908. Plot No. 30 Wheat Continuously *Manured Annually Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Wheat 20.92 2045 1890 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1891 Wheat 31.92 4355 1892 Wheat 26.17 3210 1893 Wheat 00.00 OOdO 1894 Wheat 33.58 3085 1895 Wheat 41.33 3970 1896 Wheat 26.00 2980 1897 Wheat 14.80 181 1898 Wheat 8.50 2210 1899 Wheat 15.70 1580 1900 Wheat 16.70 2260 1901 Wheat 28.50 3510 1902 Wheat 25.80 5430 1903 Wheat 7.36 2710 1904 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1905 Wheat 29.66 3844 1906 Wheat 11.26 1459 1907 Wheat 11.37 1474 1908 Wheat 19.10 2475 1909 Wheat 19.40 1348 1910 Wheat Omitted Omitted 1911 Wheat 18.35 2490 1912 Wheat 12.02 2763 1913 Wheat 22.53 3510 Average Wheat 19.6 2586 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 39 Plot No. 31 2-Year Rotation: Wheat, Clover *Manured Annually. Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Wheat 21.33 2030 1890 3200 1891 Wheat 31.35 4935 1892 4760 1893 Wheat 9.33 1&60 1894 Clover . . 5380 1895 Wheat 43.33 3940 1896 Clover . . 2200 1897 Wheat 30.33 3680 1898 Clover 5260 1899 Wheat 14.80 1712 1900 Clover .... 7400 1901 Wheat 38.20 5950 1902 Clover . . . 1450 1903 Omitted. 1904 Omitted. 1905 Wheat 11.05 1432 1906 Cowpeas . 2470 1907 Wheat 24.24 3141 1908 Clover 9932 1909 Wheat 12.10 15S8 1910 Cowpeas 5408 1911 Wheat 32.55 3404 1912 Cowpeas ... 4550 1913 Wheat 27.79 3039 1914 Cowpeas 5135 1915 Wheat 25.08 3955 1916 Cowpeas 7308 1917 Wheat 27.40 3520 1918 Clover 6006 Average Wheat 24.9 3155 Average Clover 5C63 Average Cowpeas 4974 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1903-1913; 6 tons, 1914-1918. Plot No. 32 2- Year Rotation: Wheat, Clover ♦Manured Annually. Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Clover 5700 1890 Clover 5100 1891 Clover 5440 1892 Wheat 22.58 3670 1893 Clover 5000 1894 Wheat 37.92 2885 1895 Clover 5300 1896 Wheat 34.33 5340 1897 Clover 3850 1898 Wheat . 11.00 2400 1899 Clover 3500 1900 Wheat 18.20 2810 1901 Clover 2480 1902 Clover ....... Omit ted. 1903 Wheat 3.36 2301 1904 1905 Wheat Omitted. Omit ted. 1906 Wheat 17.11 2217 1907 Clover 4030 1908 Wheat 19.50 2527 1909 Cowpeas 3276 1910 Wheat Omit ted. 1911 Wheat 22.27 2798 1912 Cowpeas 4810 1913 Wheat 28.17 4225 Average Wheat 21.44 3117 Average Clover 4489 Average Cowpeas 4043 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913. 40 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Plot No. 33 2- Year Rotation: Wheat, Clover No Manure or Fertilizer. Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Wheat 23.67 2270 1890 4600 1891 Wheat 33.33 5300 1892 3800 1893 Wheat 8.33 1780 1894 2 360 1895 Wheat 34.67 4880 1896 Clover 1320 1897 Wheat 12.50 2250 1898 Clover 3180 1899 Wheat 2.70 438 1900 Clover . . 4320 1901 Wheat . . 30.90 3545 1902 1903 Clover Omitted. 1100 1904 Clover Omit t-d. 1905 Wheat 9.96 1290 1906 Cowpeas 1950 1907 Wheat 12.78 1656 1908 Clover 4278 1909 Wheat 14.30 1853 1910 Cowpeas 5252 1911 Wheat 16.90 2528 1912 Cowpeas 3250 1913 Wheat 25.68 2717 1914 Cowpeas 6031 1915 Wheat 11.66 2156 1916 Cowpeas 5684 1917 Wheat 20.7 1512 1918 Clover 1512 Average Wheat 18.4 2405 Average Clover 2974 Average Cowpeas 4439 Plot No. 34 4- Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover *Manured Annually. | Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Corn 42.00 3100 1890 Oats Omit ted. 1891 Clover 3000 1892 Wheat 9.33 4200 1893 Corn 23.71 3940 1894 Oats 41.25 1900 1895 Clover 4600 1896 Clover 4600 1897 Corn 58.60 3060 1898 Oats 4.10 469 1899 Clover 2600 1900 Wheat 17.83 3190 1901 Corn 3.00 88) 1902 1903 Oats Omitted. 6.20 1300 1904 Wheat Omit ted. 1905 Corn 75.02 3172 1906 Oats 34.12 2730 1907 Clover 5902 1908 Wheat 16 10 2287 1909 Corn 36.40 3C63 1910 Oats 27.40 2119 1911 Corn 32.03 4901 1912 Oats 40.83 2451 1913 Wheat 28.33 4215 1914 Cowpeas 7033 1915 Corn . . . 55.62 4634 1916 Oats 42.90 2212 1917 Wheat 39.4 5726 1918 Clover 4578 Average Corn 40.8 3344 Average Oats 28.2 1883 Average Wheat 22.2 3923 Average Clover 4213 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913; 6 tons, 1914-1918. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 41 Plot No. 35 4- Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover *Manured Annually. Yield Year Crop Grain | Forage 1889 Oats 28.44 1975 1890 Clover 3550 1891 Wheat 19.58 1825 1892 Corn 40.00 1100 1893 Oats 29.38 2350 1894 Clover 4490 1895 Wehat 35.83 5050 1896 Corn 60.86 2340 1897 Oats 37.50 3300 1898 Clover 4700 1899 Wheat 24.30 3020 1900 Corn 42.10 2000 1901 Oats 3.00 500 1902 Clover 2000 1903 Corn Omit ted. 1904 Corn 47.30 1638 1905 Oats 28.03 2242 1906 Cowpeas 1820 1907 Wheat 17.44 2260 1908 Corn 48.50 4400 1909 Oats 16.25 1300 1910 Clover 1040 1911 Corn 37.30 5603 1912 Oats 51.59 2932 1913 Wheat 25.13 3751 Average Corn 46.0 2847 Average Oats 27.7 2085 Average Wheat 24.4 3181 Average Clover 5028 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913. Plot No. 36 Wheat Continuously *Manured Annually. Year | Crop Yit Grain ild Forage 1889 Wheat 23.00 2070 1890 Wheat Omit ted. 1891 Wheat 27.33 4570 1892 Wheat 29.83 3870 1893 Wheat 4.00 860 1894 Wheat 26.58 1265 1895 Wheat 33.00 3320 1896 Wheat 26.00 2980 1897 Wheat 14.67 1820 1898 Wheat 6.90 2720 1899 Wheat 18.20 1790 1900 Wheat 10.00 1740 1901 Wheat 27.20 3320 1902 Wheat 11.70 5200 1903 Wheat Omit ted. 1904 ! Wheat Omit ted. 1905 Wheat Omit ted. 1906 Wheat 8.66 1122 1907 Wheat 24.80 3214 1908 Wheat 16.10 2087 1909 Wheat 21.90 2858 1910 Wheat Omit ted. 1911 Wheat 20.25 1892 1912 Wheat 9.96 1386 1913 Wheat 20.91 3484 Average Wheat 19.0 2593 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913. 42 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 182 Plot No. 37 4-Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover ^Manured Annually. Yield • Yaar Crop Grain Forage 1889 3400 1890 5550 1891 Corn 45.64 2450 1892 Oats 00.00 0000 1893 Clover 4620 1894 Wheat 31.00 3280 1895 Corn 80.00 4070 1896 1897 Timothy Clover 4250 5300 1898 Wheat 12.25 2920 1899 Corn 38.10 1860 1900 Oats 43.80 2600 1901 Clover 1580 1902 Corn 80.70 2850 1903 Corn 69.08 3029 1904 Oats 19.91 1593 1905 1906 Omitted. Wheat 11.48 1488 1907 Corn 63.88 2587 1908 Oats 30.06 2405 1909 1910 Cowpeas Wheat Omit 2952 ted. 1911 Corn 31.80 4784 1942 Oats 53.82 2886 1913 Wheat 24.91 4037 Average Corn 58.4 3090 Average Oats 29.5 1897 Average Wheat 19.9 2931 Average Clover 4e90 * 6 tons manure per acre annually, 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913. Plot No. 38 4-Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover *Manured Annually. Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Wheat 26.92 2370 1890 Corn 50.93 2800 1891 Oats 29.69 1150 1892 Clover 4200 1893 Wheat 15.17 2510 1894 Corn 34.00 3580 1895 Oats 40.63 2340 1896 Clover 6000 1897 Wheat 37.33 4460 1898 Corn 31.70 1600 1899 Oats 32.20 2250 1900 Clover 2960 1901 Wheat 37.20 4410 1902 Corn 78 . 50j 2700 1903 Omitted. 1904 Clover Omit ted. 1905 Wheat. 31.81 4123 1906 Corn * Omit ted. 1907 Oats 37.78 3022 1908 Clover 7254 1909 Wheat 15.70 2035 1910 Cowpeas 7242 1911 Corn 33.80 6559 1912 Oats 14.42 1495 1913 Wheat 27.79 4807 Average Corn 45.8 3448 Average Oats 30.9 2051 Average Wheat 27.4 3531 Average Clover 5103 * 6 tons manure per acre annually 1889- 1903; 7.8 tons, 1904-1913. Thirty Years of Experiments With Crop Rotations 43 Plot No. 39 4- Year Rotation: Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover No Manure or Fertilizer. Yield Year Crop Grain Forage 1889 Wheat 25.83 2460 1890 Corn 35.29 2390 1891 Oats 21.57 1090 1892 Clover 3400 1893 Wheat 14.00 2960 1894 Ccrn 34.29 3120 1895 Oats 31.56 1250 1896 Clover 2760 1897 Wheat 28.67 3380 1898 Corn 28.20 1600 1899 Oats 26.30 1580 1900 Clover 2300 1901 Wheat 34.00 4480 1902 1903 1904 Corn Omitted. Omitted. 54.00 2900 1905 Wheat 20.80 2696 1906 Corn Omit ted. 1907 Oats 26.81 2145 1908 Clover 2163 1909 Wheat 21.70 2812 1910 Cowpeas 6162 1911 Corn 29.90 2899 1912 Oats 30.27 2080 1913 Wheat 13.76 4011 1914 Cowpeas 5239 1915 Corn 49.60 4732 1916 Oats 30.60 1456 1917 Wheat 30.00 3710 1918 Clover 2450 Average Corn 38.5 2940 Average Oats 27.9 1600 Average Wheat 23.6 3314 Average Clover 2615 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183 CROP ROTATIONS FOR MISSOURI SOILS A good rotation for the better soils of Missouri. COLUMBIA, MISSOURI MAY. 1921 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL, the: CURATORS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY H. J. BLANTON, JOHN H. BRADLEY, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Paris Kennett Kansas City ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D„ PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR agricultural STATION STAFF MAY, 1921 CHEMISTRY RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. S. D. Gromer, A. M. C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. VV. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, M. S. 2 R. M. Smith A. M. T. E. Friedmann, B. S. A. R. Hall, B. S. in Agr. E. G. SiEvEking, B. S. in Agr. C. F. Ahmann, A. B. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING J. C. Wooley, B .S. Mack M. Jones, B. S. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. in Agr. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. A. G. Hogan, Ph. D. F. B. Mumford, M. S. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. Paul B. Barnard, B. S. in Agr. A. T. EdingEr, B. S. in Agr. H. D. Fox, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. E. F. Hopkins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale. B. S. in Agr. W. W. Swett, A. M. Wm. H. E. Reid, A. M. Samuel Brody, M. A. C. W. Turner, B. S^ in Agr. D. H. Nelson, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. O. C. McBride, FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. O. W. Letson, B. S. in Agr. E. O. Pollock, B. S. in Agr. B. B. Branstetter, B. S. in Agr. B. M. King, B. S- in Agr. R. C. Hall, A. M. Ben H. Frame, B. S. in Agr. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. D. Hooker, Jr., Ph. D. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. F. C. Bradford, M. S. H. G. Swartwout, B S. in Agr. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L. Kempster, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. R. R. Hudelson. A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. H. V. Jordan, B. S. in Agr. Richard Bradfield, A. B. O. B. Price, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connaway, D. V. S., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crtsler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, A. M. ZOOLOGY George Lefevre, Ph. D. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer Leslie Cowan, B. S., Sercretary S. B. Shirkey, A. M., Asst, to Director A. A. Jeffrey, A. B., Agricultural Editor J. F. Barham, Photographer Miss Bertha Hite , 1 Seed Testing Lab- oratory. ’In service of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2 On leave of absen e Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils R. R. Hudelson and C. A. Helm The term crop rotation means that different kinds of crops follow one another in a regular order for a definite period of years. Field experiments extending over 30 years and comparing the values of different rotations have been conducted by the Missouri Experiment Sta- tion. Continuous growing of corn and other common crops on the same land has been tested also. All crops have been grown both with and with- out manure. From the records of these experiments some interesting re- sults are here presented as to the effects of different cropping systems on the yields after a period of 30 years. The year 1919 was the thirty-first year and the following table shows the yields of plots which were in corn that season. The season of 1919 is selected because it is the most recent year when the four-year rotation plots were cropped with corn. Yields oe Corn on Rotation Field at Columbia. Cropping system and soil treatment Yields in bu. per acre 31st year, 1919. Continuous corn, no treatment 19.6 Continuous corn, manured 39.1 Corn, oats, wheat, clover rotation, no treatment 52.5 Corn, oats, wheat, clover rotation, manured 60.1 These results show the high value of rotation in maintaining the yield of corn. Corn in rotation is shown to yield twice as much as where grown continuously. With twice the yield and little increase in cost of produc- tion the profits are several times as great. Based on 1919 yields, one crop of corn in the rotation series is more valuable than three crops of corn produced on continuous cropped plots. It is the margin above cost which counts. The other crops of the rotation are affected almost if not quite as much as corn. The following table shows the yields of wheat from the same plots in 1917, which was the most recent year when these plots were cropped with wheat. Yields oe Wheat on Rotation Field at Columbia. Cropping system and soil treatment Yields in bu. per acre 29th year, 1917. Continuous wheat, no treatment <■ 0.2 Continuous wheat, manured 10.9 Corn, oats, wheat, clover rotation, no treatment 30.0 Corn, oats, wheat, clover rotation, manured 39.4 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 183 From these records it is evident that rotations may make all the dif- ference between a total failure of the wheat crop and a very satisfactory yield when the cropping system is continued through long periods of time. The plot growing continuous wheat with no manure or fertilizer does not give so complete a failure every year but the wheat is so weakened by lack of fertility and other unfavorable conditions that it is often badly winter- killed. Here again it should be noted that increased yields due to rotation are secured practically without increase in cost. While harvest and market- ing costs will increase slightly with higher yields from crop rotation, this is offset through a better seasonal distribution of the labor secured from growing a variety of crops. Corn is probably the best crop with which to measure fertility, since it seldom fails completely through attacks of insects or from bad weather conditions. The effects of 40 years’ work with crop rotations are well represented in Figure 1, giving the 30-year average yields of corn un- der different cropping systems. From this plate it is evident that, on the average, the yield is increas- ed by lengthening the period be- tween corn crops. The one plot which is shown to have received manure was manured at the rate of six tons an acre every year for 30 years. While the use of 6 tons of manure per acre each year is too heavy for ordinary practice it shows that corn yields cannot be maintained at a high level by man- ure applications alone. As shown by Figure 1 a three-year rotation without manure or fertilizer was almost as effective, and the four- and six-year rotations were more effective in keeping up the yield of corn than was heavy manuring where corn was grown every year. On the average, therefore, rotation is more effective than heavy manuring in maintaining corn yields. Considering all of the crops grown on Rotation Field at the Missouri Station, the four- year rotation of corn, oats, wheat and clover was more effective in keeping up yields than any of the other rotations used. This evidence seems conclusive on the value of rotation for keeping up crop yields. If not, there is much other evidence in the experience of successful farmers of this and other countries, particularly in the older countries of Europe and Asia. Fig. 1 — Thirty-year average yields of corn un- der different rotations. It should not be concluded, however, that crop rotation will absolutely maintain yields. It is found in our oldest experiments with crop rotation that after a period of years, even under good rotations, crop yields gradu- Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils 5 ally but surely run down if all crops are removed and no manure or fer- tilizers are used. Proper rotation, including legumes and careful handling of manure, will keep up the organic matter and nitrogen in soils, but other factors such as the supply of lime and phosphorus must be taken care of. It is not the purpose of this publication to treat these latter factors.* EFFECT OF CROP ROTATION ON THE SOIL At the end of 25 years of cropping on the Rotation Field at Columbia all plots were carefully sampled and the soil analyzed. Little difference was found in the amounts of phosphorus and potassium in the soil of dif- ferent plots. Very significant differences were found, however, in the nitro- gen supply of soils that had been handled with different cropping systems for a quarter of a century. The results of these analyses are shown in the diagram (Figure 2). A study of this chart shows how the common field crops vary in their effects upon soil nitrogen. The soil nitrogen is practi- cally all in the organic matter and the chart therefore indicates the relative amounts of organic matter remaining in the soil. Corn, the only cultivated crop included, is much the most exhaustive of soil nitrogen. This is due mainly to two causes. Corn is a gross' feeder •Write for circular No. 102 on “Keeping Soils Productive.” 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 183 and uses much nitrogen; but even more important is the fact that corn ground lies bare throughout the season giving every opportunity for leach- ing and washing. The process of cultivation also hastens decomposition of the organic matter. It does this by repeatedly turning the soil over, stirring air into it and thus hastening oxidation or decomposition. Wheat and oats are much alike in their drain on the soil nitrogen, being cultivated only when seeded. Wheat plots are shown to contain a little more nitrogen than oats plots, which is probably due to the fact that winter wheat partly covers the ground during the winter and gives less chance for the leaching away of plant food. Plant food as it becomes available is taken up by the growing wheat, part of it remaining in the root system and eventually being returned to the soil. Another factor to con- sider is the low yield of oats removed from these plots. It was found impossible to grow clover continuously for 25 years, but timothy was quite successful. When the soil was analyzed timothy plots showed the highest amount of nitrogen of any of the continuous crop plots. It is constantly in sod, thus reducing the loss of nitrogen, by leaching erosion and cultivation. Practically all of the plant food in timothy sod is that taken off in the crop. Surface washing is prevented by the sod absorb- ing nearly all of the rainfall or at least checking the surface runoff until it runs so slowly as not to carry away the surface soil. It is also true that the sod is always on the ground and living plants take up plant food ele- ments as quickly as they become available. When the nitrogen content of the two, three, four, and six-year ro- tation plots is averaged the nitrogen supply is found to be higher than that in any but the continuous sod plots. This is to be expected since the sod crop tends to keep up the nitrogen, but cultivated and small grain crops tend to run it down. The rotation plots therefore occupy an intermediate position. Some sod crop should occur in practically every corn belt rota- tion. CROP ROTATION DISTRIBUTES LABOR AND INCOME The effects of crop rotation in keeping up soil fertility and crop yields are not its only benefits. It is well known that one source of the farmer’s trouble in keeping competent help is his inability to make profitable use of the same amount of help throughout the year. Transient help is always unsatisfactory. The use of a variety of crops in a rotation helps materially in dis- tributing labor evenly over the year. Plowing and preparing wheat ground comes at a period when other crops need little attention. Wheat seeding also comes at a comparatively slack period. Oats ground is prepared and oats are seeded before the corn planting season is on. Wheat, oats and rye harvests usually come at slightly dif- ferent periods, though in close succession. Their harvest comes late enough that in average years corn cultivation is well in hand. A certain labor advantage is to be secured from following clover or grass sod with corn. Corn following sod allows for a greater period over which ground can be plowed and prepared. Sod land can also be worked when Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils 7 wet with less injury than land which has been under cultivation. As a rule sod land requires less cultivation and labor to keep the corn free of weeds. Continuously cultivated land is usually more foul with bad corn weeds. OTHER BENEFITS OF ROTATION Many other advantages of crop rotation may be listed. Weed control is most practical under rotative cropping systems. Buckhorn, major plantain, whitetop, yarrow and wild carrot are quite common in continuous grass land. Crab grass, yellow and green foxtail, cocklebur, bull nettle and morn- ing glory are very troublesome weeds in cultivated and small grain crops. These weeds can most easily be held in check by the systematic alternating of cultivated, small grain and sod crops. Continuous sod also often reaches a sod-bound condition, thus lowering its production due to factors other than soil fertility. One of the most effective means of control of plant diseases and in- sect attack is through crop rotation. Corn smut is carried over to the next season through crop residue left on the land. Wireworms and cut- worms are more plentiful on land which has been left in sod over long periods. Another benefit of systematic rotation is that the farm will thus pro- duce a variety of products available at different periods during the grow- ing season. A one-crop system may throw its entire product on a high or low market and thus return either a profit or a loss. Again under a one- crop system, a crop failure results in extremely hard times for the year. A variety of crops, on the other hand, helps to equalize losses on the year’s production. A season is seldom equally bad on all crops. On the other hand, history shows that only in rare seasons are corn, oats and wheat equally favored. A large corn crop often follows a fair to poor wheat crop. ROTATION IS BECOMING MORE COMMON The farmers of the central states have been slow to adopt crop rota- tion for several reasons. In the beginning soils were fertile and good crops have been possible without much attention to methods of soil main- tenance or improvement. Agricultural practice is still new in this country and it has not been necessary to give much thought to the use of improved methods. Older countries such as those of Europe have found it not only advantageous but practically necessary to adopt such measures as crop ro- tation. Farming in the central west has been of the extensive type in which large acreages of the most profitable crops are grown. This condition is rapidly changing. Even our best soils are found to lose some of their native productiveness under careless or unsystematic methods. Gradually it is being learned that some attention to soil main- tenance is necessary. Some evidence of this change in attitude is seen in the decreasing numbers of farmers who burn their corn stalks and their straw. One of the cheapest means of improving soil management is the adoption of a suitable rrnn rotation 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 183 CROPS TO BE INCLUDED IN A ROTATION If it is decided to adopt a rotation certain principles should be followed. In the discussion of 30 years of field experiments at Columbia it was shown that crops fall into different classes with respect to their effects upon the soil. These groups are known as cultivated crops, small grains and sod crops. The cultivated crops are, for average conditions, nearly as funda- mental as sod crops. They hold in check certain weeds which give much trouble in land left to sod for any great length of time. While cultivated crops are exhaustive upon soil fertility, at the same time they are among the principal money crops. Corn, sorghum, and soybeans comprise the bulk of cultivated crops, grown in this State. Among the second group oats, wheat, and rye are the principal crops. When land begins to fail, after a year or two of corn growing, one or more Fig. 2. — (Left) Corn in four-year rotation, 55 bushels. (Right) Corn every year, 38 bushels. Both plots manured at same rate. of these crops would logically follow. Wheat and rye are the best nurse crops for clover or grass. They also, being fall sown, will serve as a cov- er crop to prevent winter leaching and erosion. When these crops are fol- lowed with sod crops the land is kept covered at all times until again brok- en out for corn, or other cultivated crop. The reasons for using wheat or rye as a nurse crop for sod crops are two-fold. A nurse crop keeps weed growth under control, thus preventing the smothering out of the plants during their early period of growth. The second and most important value is in seeding land to grass or clover with no loss of time. On the better soils and in occasional years some returns are secured the same season following the grain harvest Sod crops, as a group, are the most important of all from a soil saving .^.11 building point of view. They include: clovers, alfalfa, timothy and pa. Line grasses. These crops cover the ground through the winter, reduce Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils 9 soil washing and fill the soil with masses of roots which later decompose and increase the supply of organic matter. This greatly improves the soil tilth. If the sod crop is also a legume it has the double advantage of adding to the supply of nitrogen in the soil, provided of course, that this nitrogen is not all removed by selling the legume crop as hay. There are various legumes which do not belong to the class of sod crops but which have a value as nitrogen building crops. In this group are soybeans, cowpeas and Canada field peas. They are not so beneficial as clover and alfalfa which belong to both the legume and the sod forming classes. The well known ability of legumes as nitrogen builders is of course due to the bacteria which they harbor in nodules on their roots. Some- times these are lacking and must be supplied by means of inoculation. This is only in case of legumes which are new to a particular field or which show by the absence of root nodules that the bacteria are lacking. It is fin Actual Central Missouri Farm of 160 Feres fis Arranged Before Using a Rotation and As Arranged After Adopting a Rotation Isf yr Corn Oa is Wheal Clover 2nd y rOats Wheat Clover Corn 3rd yr W heal Clever Corn Oats— 4//? yr Clover Corn Oats Wheat Fig. 4. — Laying out a larm to facilitate crop rotation. highly important that the farmer provide inoculation if the soil is not in- oculated. It can be done at little cost and is too important a matter to neglect. Any rotation to be satisfactory must include at least one legume. Gen- erally it should contain one or more sod crops as well as a cultivated crop which serves to keep the soil clean. On soils that are rolling or occupy steep slopes, sod crops are more imperative because they are efifective in the prevention of soil washing or erosion. From a business point of view crops are sometimes classified as cash crops, feed crops, and green manure crops. Cash crops are grown for sale as one of the chief sources of income. Wheat or potatoes are usually classified in this group, while corn, soybean seed and clover seed may be so used. Hay is usually classified as a feed crop to be fed on the farm, and corn and oats are frequently fed. A green manure crop is one grown solely for soil enrichment. It is 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 183 therefore not harvested but is plowed under. Such a use of crops is not at all common because producing u crop for manure only is expensive since the cost of seed, work and rental must be charged against it. It is only justified in special cases such as growing a catch crop of cowpeas after wheat, a practice common in southeast Missouri, or rye grown during fall and winter to plow down before a summer crop, or cover crops grown in orchards or the second crop of clover. The use of green manure in such cases is a quick means of increasing the organic matter in soils as it re- turns much more organic matter than if the crop is fed and the manure re- turned. Where the green manure crop is a legume, much nitrogen may thus be added. It is usually better however, to grow a greater abundance of feed crops to balance the loss in feeding and gain the profit of feeding as well as the manure for soil enrichment. METHOD OF HANDLING A CROP ROTATION There are numerous difficulties involved in establishing and maintain- ing a crop rotation. The fields on a particular farm are often not laid out so as to fit a rotation. Land varies} in its adaptation to clover; wheat may winter kill. Also the market may become very unfavorable to growing a particular crop. In nearly every community of progressive farmers some will be found who have surmounted these difficulties. Their methods should be studied with a view to making crop rotation more successful. It is practically necessary that the number and size of fields be adjusted or the crops selected so that there will be as many fields as there are years in the rotation. Where there are a large number of small fields they may be combined into groups, cropping each group as one field. These fields, or groups of fields, should be approximately equal in area, in order to give a steady supply of each crop, omitting seasonal variations which cannot be prevented. This is easy on level farms where all the land is tillable, but on farms which are cut up by ravines, steep slopes, bottoms or wood- lands, it usually requires some ingenuity and a close study of the farm’s possibilities. Fortunately in the better farming areas such cases are few. There are exceptional cases also where a bottom field has its soil annually renewed by overflow and which is suited best to almost constant cropping with corn. A very high percentage of farms can and should be arranged for systematic crop rotation. The accompanying diagrams show how farms on which there is con- siderable rough land may be arranged to accommodate different rotations. Each farm is an individual problem so far as its arrangement of fields is concerned. It is usually not practicable to move all fences at once and completely reorganize a badly arranged farm. A suitable plan of arrange- ment should be studied out, however, and adopted as rapidly as possible Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils 11 Plan for 160 acre farm that is all tillable and nearly level. Buildings, Lots, Orchards, etc 5 Acres. Field H Feld B FeldC Field D 1st i^r Corn Oats or Soybeans Wheat Clover and Timothy 2n Ayr Oafs or Soybeans Wheat Clover and Timothy Corn 3rd i jr Wheat Clover and Timothy Corn Oats o ~ Soybeans 4thyr Clover and Timothy Corn Oats or Soybeans Wheat Rotation plan fora 160 acre dairy farm with a major and a minor rotation. Fields fl, B, and C for major rotation of corn, oats, and clover Felds D,E,Fand G for minor rotation of forage crops as indicated. Building and Lots Field D 8 Acres Oats and peas in earlu Spring. Followed by coupeas. and seeded to rye in fall Field A 40 acres Istyr Corn 2nd.yr Oats 3rd.yr Clover Repeat after 1923 Field E 10 /teres. Rue for winter and early spring feed. Followed by soybeans Field F 10/tcre s. Corn with soybeans to be pastured by hogs or used for silage- Field G 10 Acres. Alfalfa to be left for 6 years, and then shifted to Field D F. i eld C 40 acres Field B 40 acres 1st. ur C 1 over Istyr Oats 2ndyr Corn 2ndyr Clover 3rd yr Oats 3rd. yr Corn Repeat alter 1923 Repeat after 192 3 Fig. 5. — Rotation plan for level land. 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 183 Rotation plan for farm on which there is much rouqh land Buildings and Lots Garden and Fruit 5 ‘/zA Corn 1st. yr Hoa Pasture y / iA . Oats 2ndyr Wheat 3rd yr Chover^th yr F \e!d /!. Z5A Horse Pasture 3] f 2 / t . Oats 1st yr Wheat 2nd yr Clover 3rd yr Corn 4th.yr. Field B. Z5A ft Jt brmanent \ asture ^ A v Wheat Ist.yr Clover 2n d.yrf Corn 3rdyr ^ S -'V AiL Clover 1st. yr . Field C 26 A Corn 2ndyr ^ Field plan of an actual farm in the OzarK Border country with a rotation suitable to a combination bottom and upland farm Fig. 6. — Rotation plan for rough land. Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils 13 SEQUENCE OF CROPS Following the principles which have been laid down, each farmer should select the crops best suited to the type of farming which he desires to follow. These should then be arranged to follow each other in proper or- der to get the best results with the least expenditure of labor. Oats are grown in Missouri mainly because of their low labor costs and in that they pave the way for wheat or grass. It is not the common practice to plow ground for oats. The preparation of the seed-bed and time of seeding come at a period before corn planting. In cropping systems following corn with oats and wheat in the order named, ground is usually plowed before corn and after oats. Except in the northern one-fourth of the State oats are not, as a rule, a paying crop. Soybeans work well in a cropping system, replacing oats. They may replace the oats crop entirely or only in part as best suited to the individual farm. Where soybeans are thus used no more plowings are required than for oats. Ground is plowed before corn and again before soybeans. Wheat is seeded on the soybean stubble without plowing. On average land where both clean and level cultivation of soybeans is practiced, an ideal seed bed is automatically prepared for wheat. Double disking and harrowing soy- bean stubble is the only preparation required. The most common cultivated crop is corn and it will have a place in nearly all of the rotations selected by Missouri farmers, but in special lo- cations soybeans may be the cultivated crop. The cultivated crop leaves a good seed bed for a small grain crop. Often two crops of small grain are grown in succession. The small grain offers suitable conditions for seeding grasses. Timothy is often seeded in wheat or rye in the fall, while seeding the wheat, or seed- ed with clover in the spring on the same field. This gives two chances for a successful stand of hay. If both succeed, the clover makes up the bulk of the first year’s hay crop, but timothy largely replaces it in the second and succeeding crops. After one to three seasons the sod is plowed and again prepared for the corn or other cultivated crop. One of the chief difficulties in maintaining a regular order of cropping is the failure of certain crops of the rotation. It is a rather common prac- tice to replace any unsuccessful crop with corn and start a new round of the rotation, but this gives a larger acreage of corn than is beneficial to the soil and starts two fields at the same point in the rotation thus break- ing up the system. These crop failures should be provided for in the plan by substituting a similar crop for one that fails. If wheat winter kills oats may be substituted. If clover fails when seeded with timothy the latter crop may be left as the sod crop. If clover fails when seeded alone or if clover and timothy both fail, the next best possibility is the substitution of a legume crop usually soybeans or cowpeas. Such a plan does not dis- arrange the rotation. Good farming will prevent many crop failures, but when unavoidable failures come the field should be brought around to bearing its proper crop in the prearranged plan as soon as possible. The use of lime and phosphates will reduce the number of clover failures. Many farmers do not attempt to follow any regular systematic rota- 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 183 tion but change from one crop to another as their immediate judgment dictates. This method loses some of the advantages of a more farsighted plan, however, because the proportion of legume and sod crops is often not kept clearly in mind and there is always a temptation to choose more corn or other soil wasting crops because the immediate profit is frequently greater. The excessive use of grain crops although likely to swell the im- mediate gains is at the expense of soil fertility and eventually tells in re- duced yields. Without a prearranged plan most farm operators will not always follow their own best farsighted judgment. Lack of any cropping system is most common on rented farms because the man who rents on the usual short time lease cannot be expected to have any interest in the farm beyond the term of his own contract. He ordinarily puts in a larger proportion of grain crops than is justified on the best of soils because this serves his immediate purpose best and he has no other interest in the particular farm. The landowner and not the tenant is to blame. Many landowners attempt to protect their soil by stating the amount of grass to be sown each year, but this is often done in a half-hearted manner and is not sufficient protection. Often the land- owner, in his desire for immediate profits is as shortsighted as the short- time tenant. If he really desires to protect his property, however, the lease should be so exact as to specify the cropping system to be followed on each field each season. It is possible to include a diagram of the farm on which each field is represented and the crop to be grown each year is specified. In the long run this would benefit both tenant and owner. ROTATIONS FOR THE BEST MISSOURI UPLANDS The chief area included in this group is the large district of rolling black prairie soils in northwest Missouri. The more level and better areas in the north central part of the state are also included as well as the black prairie soils lying east and south of Kansas City. These are districts of fertile soils and extensive farming. The very fertility of their soils has often operated against the soil saving practice of systematic crop rotation. To preserve their present standing in crop pro- duction, however, much more attention must be given to soil maintenance. No soil is so good that it will maintain itself against the ravages of care- less cropping. CROP ROTATION ON RENTED FARMS Partial List of Crops Suited to the Best Uplands. Cultivated Crops Sod Crops Soybeans Potatoes Tobacco Sorghum Corn Red clover Alsike clover Alfalfa Timothy Bluegrass Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils 15 Small Grains Wheat Oats Barley- Rye Annual Legumes not Included in Sod Crops Soybeans Cowpeas Canada Field Peas These crops may be combined in rotations to suit various types of farm- ing such as dairy, livestock, grain, or mixed farming. They should be combined according to the principles previously set forth. Where oats are included before wheat in these rotations soybeans may be substituted. The soybean is a more valuable crop and is conveniently followed by wheat. If grown for seed, however, the crop requires labor at the same time that corn is needing cultivation which does not make a good distribution of labor. Alfalfa is not commonly included because it is unsuited to short time rotat'ons. The expense of seeding and the value of the crop make it ad- visable to leave a stand of alfalfa at least five years or as long as it is Fig. 7. — An old, standard three-year rotation. good. Where alfalfa is grown an extra field should be provided for it. When ready to plow up alfalfa a new stand may be seeded on one of the other fields and the alfalfa field taken into the rotation. Where potatoes, tobacco or other cultivated crops are grown they may be substituted for part of the corn, following the sod crop. Suggested Rotations for Best Missouri Uplands. — Rotation No. 1 for general farming: 1. corn, 2. oats, 3. clover. This three-year rotation is an old standard one proved by long ex- perience. It is well balanced and simple to maintain being suited to farms having either three or six fields. It keeps one-third of the land in corn, which is enough for even the best of soils unless more than ordinary care is given to manuring and fertilizing. One-third of the land is kept in a legume-sod crop. Labor is well distributed, only one-third of the land being plowed each year. Even this rotation will not maintain the soil 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 183 unless the manure, stalks, straw, etc., are returned to the soil. This rota- tion has the one objection of using oats as a nurse crop for clover. Oats shade the ground heavily and are harvested rather late. Early oats make a better nurse crop than late oats. Rotation No. 2 for general or grain farming: 1. corn, 2. wheat, 3. clover. This rotation has the same advantages as No. 1 except that it is more difficult to sow wheat after corn than to sow oats. It is especially well adapted to farms where corn is cut and shocked or used for ensilage. Rotation No. 3 for general farming: 1. corn, 2. corn, 3. oats, 4. wheat, 5. clover. This rotation increases the amount of corn to two fifths of the farm and to maintain the soil, much care must be given to putting back, manure, stalks, straw, etc. Rotation No. 4 for the larger stock farms: 1. corn, 2. corn, 3. oats, 4. clover and timothy, 5. clover and timothy. This gives an abundance of corn and hay as well as oats and oat straw. Where timothy is seeded with clover the chances of getting a stand of hay are increased. In this system timothy and clover are seeded in the oats in the spring. Wheat may be used instead of oats. Rotation No. 5 for grain farming: 1. corn, 2. soybeans for seed, 3. wheat, 4. clover for seed. This is a good rotation in that it keeps a legume on the land most of the time and includes a sod crop. For a strictly grain system where little manure is provided, wheat and soybean straw as well as clover chaff and corn stalks must be returned to the soil if the soil is safely kept up. The soybeans and corn compete for labor but this includes only half of the farm in cultivated crops. Wheat follows soybeans most advantageously. Sufficient clover should be cut to supply hay for the stock necessary even on a grain farm. This rotation may be used for mixed farming where all roughage and part of the grain is fed, if the manure is then taken care of. In this case part or all of the clover may be cut for hay. ROTATIONS FOR THE LEVEL PRAIRIES The level prairies of Missouri are chiefly in the northeast and south- west sections of the state. They vary from undulating to level plains where drainage is sometimes a problem. Most of these soils are sour and will not grow red clover satisfactorily until the soil has been limed.* The clay subsoils under these prairies are often rather compact and impervious. Timothy and wheat are among the best adapted crops and are widely grown. There is at present a very serious lack of legume crops on these prairies and the soils are usually not being well maintained. Lime should be used and clover seeded. In the southwest Missouri prairies, periods of dry weather offer an additional problem in the way of growing clover. Alsike clover withstands wet conditions better than red or sweet clover. 'Write to the Missouri Experiment Station for Bulletin 171 on Liming. Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils 17 Where clover is used in the following rotations it is understood therefore that alsike clover may well be used where drainage is poor. None of the clovers can be considered a dependable crop on sour soils and it will often be necessary to use lime before any of them can be grown. Where liming can not be done immediately a temporary rotation of crops suited to sour soils may be used, but in most cases it is advisable to use lime as soon as possible, and then adopt a rotation containing one of the clovers. Where clover is uncertain it is advisable to mix timothy and clover, thus increasing the chances for a stand of hay and for a sod crop. Timothy is usually seeded in the fall, either in wheat or rye or alone. The clovers are all seeded in the spring. In Southwest Missouri the grain sorghums, such as kafir, milo, and feterita may well be used instead of corn in some cases. They are culti- vated crops and occupy the same place in the rotation. Where grain sorg- hum is grown in place of corn* the kafirs are to be preferred over all other varieties. They may therefore be substituted freely in the following rota- tions where corn is included. Partial List of Crops for the Level Prairies: Cultivated crops Corn Soybean Kafir Sweet sorghum Small grains Wheat Oats Rye Sod crops Timothy Red clover Alsike clover Sweet clover Redtop Bluegrass Annual legumes not included in sod crops. Soybeans Cowpeas Suggested Rotations for Level Prairies — Rotation No. 1 for large stock farms: 1. corn, 2. corn, 3. oats, 4. wheat, 5. clover and timothy, 6. clover and timothy. This is a well balanced rotation for soil upkeep and distribution of labor. The crops follow each other conveniently. Soils of the level prairies should never have corn on them more than a third of the time unless in cases of emergency. This rotation requires six fields and is therefore not so well suited to small farms. Rotation No. 2 for large stock or general farms: 1. corn, 2. corn, 3. soybeans, 4. wheat, 5. clover and timothy, 6. clover and timothy. This is the same rotation as No. 1 except that soybeans replace oats. It has the same advantages except that it is even better for the soil by hav- ing an additional legume crop. The soybean is a better crop than oats, but requires a little more labor. *Write for the Missouri Experiment Station Bulletin No. 185, “Corn in Missouri. 18 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 183 Rotation No. 3 for stock farms: 1. corn, 2. oats, 3. clover and timothy, 4. clover and timothy. This is a good soil-maintaining rotation since it keeps the soil covered with a crop for over half of the time. It gives only one-fourth of the farm to corn, which reduces labor but does not give as much corn as some feed- ers may require. By plowing up the sod after the first hay crop this ro- tation may be reduced to three years and adapted to a three field farm. Rye may be drilled in the corn for fall and winter pasture but the land will then need plowing for oats. Rotation No. 4 for general farms: 1. corn, 2. oats, 3. wheat, 4. clover and timothy. This is an old standard rotation proved by the experience of many farmers. On a livestock farm all but the wheat and part of the oats should be used for feed and bedding. Oats straw makes good winter roughage, while clover hay, corn and oats provide a fairly well balanced feed supply. The manure thus made will keep the soil in excellent condition if properly used. Soybeans may also be substituted for oats in this rotation. Rotation No. 5 for sour soils: 1. corn, 2. soybeans or cowpeas, 3. wheat, 4. timothy. The crops in this rotation will endure a certain amount of sourness in the soil. It is not so good as a rotation with clover in it, however, and it is usually advisable to lime the soil as soon as possible and then mix clover with the timothy. Even without liming it is usually advisable to sow some alsike clover with the timothy since this clover is a little more hardy than red clover. It stands wet land better and the seeding is less expensive. ROTATIONS FOR THE BETTER ROLLING UPLANDS This includes the rolling to rather hilly lands where the soils have good depth and fertility, but are subject to erosion if not carefully handled Experiments now being carried on by the Experiment Station show that even on gently rolling lands erosion may cause a large loss of nitrogen from the soil. More than ordinary care is necessary to prevent it. In selecting a rotation for rolling lands, therefore, attention must be given to choosing crops which will cover the land through the winter when erosion is often severe. Some rolling lands occur throughout the state, but the districts in which they predominate and yet which have good deep soils are North Central Missouri, the river hill belt, chiefly along the Missouri and Missis- sippi rivers, and the Ozark Border Region. The Ozark Border Region is most extensive in Southwest Missouri, particularly in the Springfield dis- trict, but occupies a belt along the west, north, and east sides of the Ozarks. Naturally a great variety of conditions must be met in the various sections of rolling country. Not all of the good crops and good rotations can be given here. Rolling lands are best suited to livestock or general farming, including dairying as a phase of livestock farming. Fruit growing i also adapted but cannot be included in this discussion. Grain farming is unsuited to the conditions. Limited districts in the river hill or brown loess area, par- Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils 19 ticularly between St. Joseph and Kansas City grow considerable tobacco. Tobacco may be used as a part of the cultivated crop and substituted for corn in any of the following rotations. Partial List of Crops for Use on the Better Rolling Upland Soils: Cultivated crops Corn Soybeans for seed Kafir corn Sweet sorghums Small grains Wheat Oats Rye Barley Sod crops Red clover Sweet clover Alfalfa Timothy Bluegrass Annual legumes not included in sod crops. Soybeans Cowpeas Alfalfa is suited to the better soils of the rolling districts especially to the river hill lands, the darker colored glacial soils of north central Mis- souri, and the better soils of the Springfield district. Other areas may grow it by careful methods and the liberal use of limestone and phos- phates. Soybeans Wheats Tirnot/h^f Fig. 8. — A good rotation for sour soil. Suggested Rotations for Rolling Upland Soils. — Rotation No. 1 for general or stock farms: 1. corn, with rye in fall for winter cover, 2. soy- beans, 3. wheat, 4. clover and timothy. This is a good rotation in which the land is never left bare through the winter. Rye seeded in the corn makes good winter and early- spring pasture, but it must be plowed down early, or damage will be done to the following crop of soybeans. It is a more effective cover crop if not pas- 20 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 183 tured too close; neither can it be pastured while the ground is soft, with- out serious injury to the soil. Oats may be used in place of soybeans but if rye is used as a cover crop this would require plowing the land for oats, which is usually im- practical. If the soil is sour and can not be limed at once, clover may be omitted from the fourth year until lime can be provided. Rotation No. 2 for general farms: 1. corn, 2. wheat, 3. clover and tim- othy. This is also a well balanced rotation with a crop on the land each win- ter.' It requires but three fields and is therefore suited to small farms. It is, however, difficult to sow wheat in standing corn. The rotation is well suited to stock and dairy farms where the corn is used for silage, or where corn is cut and shocked. The timothy is included as insurance against a failure in securing a sod crop. Rotation No. 3 for stock farms: 1. corn, with rye cover crop, 2. corn, 3. wheat, 4. clover and timothy, 5. clover and timothy. This is a well balanced five-year rotation for soil maintenance. Diffi- culties in seeding rye and wheat in corn are encountered but this is unavoid- able if corn ground is not to be left bare through the winter. It necessi- tates cutting the corn or seeding between the rows. Rotation No. 4. for livestock farms: 1. corn, 2. rye for pasture, 3. clover or clover and timothy. This rotation furnishes corn as the only grain, but gives an abundance of roughage especially if the corn is cut for silage, or shock corn. Rye may also be used for grain. It is hardy, matures early and does not shade the ground as much, which gives the clover a good chance. Rotation No. 4 for general farm with part fertile bottom land and part upland soil: For bottom land, alfalfa 5 years, corn 5 years; for upland, 1. soybeans, 2. rye, 3. timothy and clover. With this plan all corn is grown in the bottom, where half the area is kept in corn and the other half in alfalfa. This keeps corn on the same field longer than is usually advisable, but if it is kept in corn only half the time, and manured, bottom soil will be kept in a very satisfactory state of fertility. It is not feasible to reseed alfalfa more often than once in 4 or 5 years. With no corn on the upland this arrangement provides soybeans for a cash crop, and rye may be either sold or fed. The upland soil is thus overed each winter, and an abundance of feed is provided. ROTATIONS FOR THE POOR ROLLING UPLANDS Limited areas of rather poor hilly upland soils occur at various places over the state. They are usually intermingled with areas of better soils. As a class they are inclined to be shallow, unproductive, and subject to severe erosion, if left unprotected. There is a higher percentage of such lands in the Ozark Region than in other districts. The chief problem on lands of this character is the prevention of ero- sion. Much of it is best left in pasture, which is the greatest means of Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils 21 avoiding erosion. Where not too steep farming is profitably done if care is used in selection of crops and methods of soil management. The soil should not be left bare over winter, and the acreage of cultivated crops must be kept down to the minimum. Farming should be done across the dope rather than up and down it. In some cases terracing is advisable. 1 These areas of rolling lands have excessive drainage, and frequently suffer from drought. It is therefore best to select crops which withstand spells of dry weather well. In the Ozark uplands it has been found that the grain sorghums will yield more bushels of grain than will corn under the same circumstances. Their use in place of corn for either grain or silage is strongly recommended. 2 Rye which is hardy, early maturing and drought-resistant may be used instead of wheat in many instances. Much of the poor rolling land is sour even though it may have been derived from limestone. Slopes lying below limestone outcrops are usually not sour because lime constantly washes down into them. Where the soil is sour, lime should be provided before much success is likely, to be attained with the clovers. Only livestock or fruit farming should be attempted on these lands. Just enough grain should be grown for use as feed, except that wheat or rye may often be sold. Over this section soybeans and cowpeas should be grown. They are drought-resistant, are well adapted to slightly sour soils, and have the ability to make fair returns on thin soils. They are well adapted to grow- ing for either seed or hay. As a cash crop for seed they are more profit- able than corn over much of the section, and are not so hard on the soil. Crops That May Be Grown on the Poor Rolling Uplands: Cultivated crops Corn Kafir or other grain sorghums Sweet sorghums Soybeans for seed Cowpeas for seed Small grains Wheat Rye Oats Millet Sod crops Timothy Orchard grass Bluegrass Lespedeza or Japan clover Red clover Annual legumes not included in sod crops Soybeans Cowpeas Suggested rotations for poor upland soils. — Rotation No. 1 for general farming: 1. corn or grain sorghum, 2. rye or wheat, 3. timothy and clover, 4. timothy and clover. This plan keeps the soil covered every winter and in sod more than half of the time. It will supply much forage and a fair supply of grain. If rye is used it may be ground with corn or grain sorghum for feed, thus 1 Write for Experiment Station Circular No. 98 on The Mangum Terrace. 2 Write for Experiment Station Bulletin No. 185 on Corn in Missouri. 22 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 183 providing for a strictly livestock system of farming. If the manure is properly handled this makes an excellent system for soil maintenance. Rotation No. 2 for general farming: 1. corn or grain sorghum, with rye in fall, 2. soybeans or cowpeas, 3. wheat or rye, 4. clover and timothy, 5. clover and timothy. This also provides winter cover, an abundance of legumes, to build up nitrogen, and a good acreage of sod crops. It provides for seeding wheat or rye after soybeans or cowpeas, which is often preferred to seeding after corn. Rotation No. 3 for grain farming: 1. wheat, 2. wheat or rye, 3. clover and timothy. On thin, eroded areas where a cultivated crop is not desired this plan may be used. If rye is used as one of the grain crops it will give a smaller chance of loss from a bad wheat season. Timothy is added as an insurance against a sod crop failure. ROTATIONS FOR THE BEST BOTTOM SOILS Lands of this character are found all along the bottoms of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. There are also small areas along many smaller streams. The most extensive area is the large lowland region of southeastern Mis- souri. The most productive bottom soils are included, from those contain- ing some sand but not enough to be harmful, to those that are too heavy to be farmed easily. These soils are capable of producing corn more of the time than the upland soils, but this fact is realized too well, and in many cases corn is grown almost continuously. No soil will stand continuous corn production, however, with the possible exception of soils which are overflowed fre- quently. It is at least probable that no farm should have more than three- fifths of its area in corn if the soil is to be permanently maintained. It is much easier and cheaper, in the end, to keep a soil in a high state of pro- ductiveness than to build it up if it is once permitted to run down. Soils of this group need little besides a good rotation and proper use of manure and crop residues to keep them productive. Alfalfa is better suited to the best bottom lands, where drainage is good, than to any other group of soils in the State. It does not lend itself to use in short time rotations, but after providing fields for a rotation an extra field should be set aside for alfalfa. When the stand finally fails or A is desired for any reason to plow it up, this extra field may be taken into the rotation and one of the rotation fields used for alfalfa. Where potatoes are grown extensively they may be substituted for corn in these rotations. Wheat is a good crop to follow potatoes. Cultivated crops Corn Potatoes Soybeans for seed Crops Suited to the Best Bottom Soils: Sod crops Alfalfa Red clover Alsike clover Timothy Bluegrass Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils 23 Small grains Wheat Oats Barley- Annual legumes not included in sod crops Soybeans Cowpeas Suggested rotations for the best bottom soils. — Rotation No. 1 for gen- eral- farming: 1. corn, 2. corn, 3. oats or wheat, 4. clover. This rotation gives half of the farm to corn and the clover crop com- bines the sod and legume crops necessary to a satisfactory rotation. Corn may be followed by oats better than by wheat. Early oats should be used since they make a better nurse crop. Rotation No. 2 for general farming: 1. corn, 2. corn, 3. corn, 4. oats or wheat, 5. clover and timothy, 6. clover and timothy. On large farms where six fields can be provided this is a good rotation. Under exceptional conditions, including a very fertile soil and exceptional care in returning manure, straw and other crop residues, the clover and tim- othy may be plowed up after one year, but it is doubtful whether such a practice can maintain productiveness unless considerable feed is bought, to make more manure, and nearly all of the corn is fed. Rotation No. 3 for general farming: 1. corn, 2. corn, 3. corn, 4. soy- beans, 5. wheat, 6. clover. This is an exceptionally good rotation on strong soils where sufficient labor can be provided to take care of cultivating so much corn and soy- beans. Less labor is required if oats be substituted for the soybeans, but the crop is not so valuable either for profit or soil maintenance. ROTATIONS FOR SANDY BOTTOM SOILS There are considerable areas of sandy soils in the bottomlands of nearly all streams. A small part of this acreage is too sandy for profit- able cropping. Most of the area is fertile but needs more care than the silty soils, if its fertility is to be preserved. Sandy soils are exceedingly well suited to legume crops, once they are established. The open character of these soils is favorable to the deep root systems of legumes, and nitrogen fixing bacteria on legume roots grow abundantly in an open soil. This is fortunate because open sandy soils lose their organic matter and nitrogen rapidly on account of the free air circulation and rapid decay in such soils. The chief difficulty involved is in the seeding of clover and alfalfa. Sandy soils dry out quickly on the surface and small seeded crops of this type may be killed out before their roots become established deeply enough to draw moisture from lower levels. If the surface soil is kept well filled with organic matter as manure, straw, stalks, etc., this drying out process is largely avoided. Some sandy soils are also found to contain too little lime for clover and alfalfa, but their most serious deficiency is in the supply of organic matter. Cowpeas and soybeans are easy to establish and exceedingly well adapted to sandy soils. The best soybean and cowpea lands of the state are the sandy soils of southeastern Missouri. Special crops such as melons 24 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 183 and early potatoes are grown to considerable extent on certain sandy soils of the state. Several counties of southeastern Missouri also grow con- siderable areas of cotton. These cultivated crops may be interchanged with corn in the following rotations. Crops Suited to Sandy Bottom Soils: Sod crops Red clover Mammoth clover Alfalfa Alsike clover Annual legumes not included in sod crops Soybeans Cowpeas Vetches Velvet beans Suggested rotations for sandy bottom soils. — Rotation No. 1 for gen- eral farming: 1. corn, 2. soybeans, 3. wheat, with cowpeas seeded in stubble. With the soybeans grown for seed this rotation yields a seed or grain crop every year; but to maintain the soil soybean and cowpea straw must Cultivated crops Corn Soybeans Cotton Melons Potatoes Small grains Wheat Oats Rye Fig. 9. — Sandy soil rotation for Southeast Missouri. be returned to the soil either by spreading back on the fields or by feeding and saving all manure. The cowpeas may be pastured. Soybeans or cow- peas may also be seeded in the corn and both pastured down. All wheat straw should be returned either as straw or bedding. Rotation No. 2 for general farming: 1. corn, 2. soybeans, 3. wheat, 4.' clover or cowpeas. Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils 25 This rotation is good for those areas which are not too sandy to get clover started. Rotation No. 3 for general farming: 1. cotton, and rye, 2. cowpeas, 3. corn and rye, 4. cowpeas. This plan includes rye seeded in both corn and cotton crops to be used as winter pasture and plowed under for organic matter in the spring. As much cowpea straw or manure should be returned as possible. ROTATIONS FOR GRAY BOTTOM SOILS Gray bottom soils occur in limited areas throughout the state, but are most extensive in the western part of the lowland area of southeastern Missouri. They were formed under conditions of poor drainage or are very old soils that have been subjected to much leaching. They usually have rather heavy, compact subsoils, and consequently under drainage and aeration may be insufficient. Most of these soils were originally timbered Corn, wheat, cowpeas and timothy are adapted to these soils. In gen- eral they need lime before clover does well on them. Where well culti- vated, corn is a fair to good crop. The use of lime, followed by alsike clover, will do much for these soils. Rice is grown successfully on certain soils of this group in southeastern Missouri. Crops Suited to the Gray Bottom Soils: Cultivated crops Corn Soybeans Sod crops Timothy Redtop Bluegrass Alsike clover Red clover Lespedeza or Japanese clover Small grains Wheat Oats Rye Rice (in some cases) Annual legumes not included in sod crops Soybeans Cowpeas Suggested rotations for gray bottom soils. — Rotation No. 1 for general farming: 1. corn, 2. wheat, 3. timothy and alsike clover. This rotation is well balanced and suited to the soil. It is very good if arrangement is made for seeding wheat on corn ground. Oats or rye may be used instead of wheat. If desired the timothy and clover may be left for two years, making a four year rotation, which is highly beneficial to the soil. Rotation No. 2 for general farming: 1. corn, 2. cowpeas, 3. wheat, 4. timothy and alsike clover. This is an easier rotation to maintain since cowpeas follow corn more easily than does wheat. It may also be extended by leaving the timothy and clover for another year. 26 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 183 Rotation No. 3 for rice farming: 1. rice, 2. rice, 3. soybeans cultivated for seed. This use of cultivated legume crop in rice growing aids in cleaning out red rice and weeds as well as in adding some nitrogen to the soil. ROTATIONS FOR GUMBO BOTTOMS ■Soils of this class are inherently fertile, but difficult to handle. Drain- age is usually poor and plowing difficult. The amount of work necessary in the spring when gumbo soils are wet must be reduced to the minimum. Fall plowing is advisable and erosion is not a problem. Under conditions of poor drainage the best crops are wheat, timothy, alsike clover and corn. With improved drainage alfalfa and red clover are good crops and corn is greatly improved. Gumbo is difficult to plow if not in just the right moisture condition. It is therefore highly desirable to have large plowing equipment to plow rapidly when conditions are favorable. Cultivated crops Corn Soybeans Sod crops Timothy Alsike clo\er Red clover Alfalfa Bluegrass Crops Suited to Gumbo Soils: Small grains Wheat Oats Barley Annual legumes not included in sod crops Soybeans Cowpeas Rotation No. 1 for general farming: 1. corn, 2. corn, 3. wheat, 4. tim- othy and alsike clover, 5. timothy and alsike clover. This gives a good balance of crops for soil maintenance and is good where half of the corn can be cut. Where no corn is cut oats may be used instead of wheat, but oats are difficult to seed on gumbo because it is too wet during the oats sowing season. They usually lodge badly also. Rotation No. 2 for general farming: 1. corn, 2. wheat, 3. wheat, 4. timothy and alsike clover, 5. timothy and alsike clover. This gives a greater acreage of wheat and reduces the amount of ground necessary to be worked in the spring. Rotation No. 3 for general farming: 1. corn, 2. soybeans, 3. wheat, 4. timothy and alsike clover, 5. timothy and alsike clover. This plan combines crops that follow each other easily. By using an early variety of soybeans they may be seeded later than corn after the soil has dried out to some extent. Crop Rotations for Missouri Soils 27 ROTATION THE FIRST STEP IN ESTABLISHING SYSTEMS OF PERMANENT FERTILITY Not all the crops that may be grown in each locality have been treated here, nor have all the possible good combinations been arranged, but suffi- cient principles and examples have been given to enable anyone interested in special combinations of crops to devise a plan suited to his special con- ditions and needs. There is great need for improved systems of cropping over most of the state; especially is there a need for a more general use of legume crops particularly red clover. Fig. 10. — A good rotation for any part of the State. Rotation alone will not maintain soils but is probably the greatest factor in most practical systems of soil management, and when supple- mented with proper use of manures, lime, and phosphates, complete, profit- able, and permanent systems of soil maintenance may be evolved, to the great benefit of the individual and following generations. IN MISSOURI UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 184 SMALL FRUIT GROWING COLUMBIA, MISSOURI MAY, 1921 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL THE CURATORS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY H. J. BLANTON, JOHN H. BRADEEY, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Paris Kennett Kansas City ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF MAY, AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. W. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, M. S . 3 R. M. Smith A. M. T. E. Friedmann, B. S. A. R. Hall, B. S. in Agr. E. G. Sieveking, B. S. in Agr. C. F. Ahmann, A. B. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING J. C. Wooley, B .S. Mack M. Jones, B. S. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. in Agr. L. A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. A. G. Hogan, Ph. D. F. B. Mumford, M. S. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. Paul B. Barnard, B. S. in Agr. A. T. Edinger, B. S. in Agr. H. D. Fox, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. E. F. Hopkins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale. B. S. in Agr. W. W. Swett, A. M. Wm. H. E. Reid, A. M. Samuel Brody, M. A. C. W. Turner, B. S. in Agr. D. H. Nelson, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. O. C. McBride, FIELD CROPS W. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. C. A. Helm, A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. O. W. Letson, B. S. in Agr. E. O. Pollock, B. S. in Agr. B. B. Branstetter, B. S. in Agr. B. M. King, B. S. in Agr. 1921 RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. S. D. Gromer, A. M. R. C. Hall, A. M. Ben H. Frame, B. S. in Agr. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. D. Hooker, Jr., Ph. D. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S. F. C. Bradford, M. S. H. G. SwARTwauT, B S. in Agr. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L. Kempster, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. R. R. Hudelson. A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. H. V. Jordan, B. S. in Agr. Richard Bradfield, A. B. O. B. Price, B. S. in Agr. veterinary science J. W. Connaway, D. V. S., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crtsler, D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, A. M. ZOOLOGY George Lefevre, Ph. D. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer Leslie Cowan, B. S., Sercretary S. B. ShirkEY, A. M., Asst, to Director A. A. Jeffrey, A. B., Agricultural Editor J. F. Barham, Photographer Miss Bertha Hite , 1 2 Seed Testing Lab- oratory. 1 In service of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2 On leave of absen.e Small Fruit Growing In Missouri H. G. SWARTWOUT INTRODUCTION The commercial production of raspberries, blackberries and dewberries in Missouri is only in its infancy. The possibilities for future development of this industry are very great, considering the areas adapted to the grow- ing of these fruits, and the great demand that is now but poorly supplied. At present nearly all the plantings of the bramble fruits are located near a few of the larger cities, and even there the production is far below the demand. True there is still a fairly large acreage of wild blackberries in certain sections of the state, but this acreage is not nearly so large as formerly and what is left is rapidly disappearing as more and more land is cleared and put under cultivation. There are practically no commercial plantings near a large number of the smaller Missouri cities and towns, each one of which would con- sume locally all the fruit produced from several acres. If one is inter- ested in large commercial plantings, there are plenty of opportunities for locating near the larger cities or along railroads that have direct con- nection with the large consuming centers. There are, of course, a number of problems encountered in the pro- duction of small fruits, which are not met in the production of the tree fruits. The berries are a soft, perishable product which must be handled carefully and quickly. The fruit ripens rapidly and in a comparatively short period of time, necessitating large picking crews; and it moulds or sours quickly, making immediate disposal imperative. The bushes are short-lived, shallow-rooted and subject to injury from the summer droughts occurring in the middle west. On the other hand, there are two big advantages in the growing of the small fruits: First, returns can be expected within two or three years from the time of planting and, second, large returns are possible from a small acreage, in fact an acreage so small that one man can easily handle the en- tire plantation, except at picking time. These two advantages make it possible to conduct the business upon high-priced land advantageously lo- cated for quick and easy disposal of the fruit. TYPES OF THE BRAMBLES Of the raspberries there are three types, the black, the red and the purple, that are grown commercially in this country; while a second type of red, bearing yellow berries, is grown for special markets and as a cur- iosity, but is not adapted to general commercial purposes. Of these the black raspberry, commonly known as the blackcap, is the most important for commercial planting in Missouri, adapting itself to a wider range of environmental conditions and producing berries that are firmer, more 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 184 easily picked, handled and marketed and adapted to a more varied use than the red or purple raspberries. Our cultivated blackberries have been derived from several different native species and combinations of these different species. There is con- sequently a great variation between the different varieties of the black- berry group, especially if the dewberry and the various hybrids between the dewberry and the blackberry be considered as belonging to the same general class. CHARACTERISTICS Under favorable conditions for development the black raspberry pro- duces strong, vigorous, arched, blackish purple canes with stiff prickers. Fig. 1. — The Cuthbert (red raspberry) as grown on the trial grounds at Turner, Mo. The canes of the purple raspberry make the same general type of growth but are lighter in color and more vigorous than those of the blackcap. Both produce their new shoots from underground buds on the old canes, near the base of the original plant. The red raspberry canes are light brown to reddish brown in color, and generally rather slender and upright in habit of growth. The Cuthbert, as it has been grown on the Station grounds, often branches, producing long laterals, which do not have the stiff, arched appearance of the black and purple raspberries, but present a rather loose, straggly appearance. Small Fruit Growing in Missouri The red raspberry produces new canes, both from buds near the base of the old plant, and growth coming from adventitious buds on the roots. This sucker producing habit is a very undesirable one, sometimes making it very difficult to keep the plants within bounds. The blackberry has the same sucker-producing habit as the red rasp- berry, and anyone who has tried to exterminate a blackberry patch knows with what tenacity it will hold cn and continue to send up shoots from every root or piece of root left in the ground. The blackberry canes have a decidedly upright habit of growth, while the dewberry trails over the ground. The hybrids between the black- berry and dewberry occupy, in habit of growth, a position intermediate between the two and might be classed as semi-upright or semi-trailing. Some of these hybrids are rather upright with fairly long laterals; while others, like the McDonald, are only slightly upright with long trailing laterals, reaching in some cases the length of the dewberry runners. With all the brambles, the fruit is borne in terminal clusters on la- teral shoots arising the same year the fruit is produced. These shoots come out from buds on the main cane, or from laterals that grew the year before. As the fruit is produced on the terminals of the shoots, hg further growth is made after the fruit is produced, and the canes die as soon as the crop is matured. Thus, we have in our ordinary varieties perennial plants with biennial canes, a new crop of these canes being pro- duced each season to replace those that have fruited and died. With some of these fruits, especially the blackcap and some varieties of blackberries, the clusters of berries are very dense and compact; while with others, notably the red raspberry, and to some extent the dewberry, the fruit clusters are loose. Typically the center flowers of the dew- berry and raspberry clusters bloom first, and generally the fruits pro- duced from these flowers ripen first. In the case of the true blackberry the lower and outer flowers of the clusters open first. PROPAGATION The black and most of the purple raspberries naturally propagate them- selves from plants produced at the tips of the branches. In order to secure new plants, then, it is only necessary to make sure the tips are cov- ered with soil in early fall. This can be most conveniently and easily done by cultivating the bed very thoroughly in August, which will result in a large percentage of the tips being covered either from the process of cultivation or through the action of subsequent rains. The rooted tips are generally left attached to the parent plant until the following spring when the laterals are cut several inches above the ground and the rooted tips lifted, packed and stored, or set directly in the permanent bed. The red raspberry and blackberry which produce new plants from roots may be propagated either by lifting and transplanting the sucker plants, or by making root cuttings. When using the former method for establishing a new plantation, root sprouts which are one year old are best adapted for transplanting, although the young succulent sprouts can be transplanted if a portion of the mother root is removed with the sprout. 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 184 When propagating by root cuttings on a large scale it is necessary to dig up and destroy the old rows. Roots the size of a lead pencil are the best, but roots somewhat larger or smaller can be used. They are cut into lengths of two or three inches, packed and stored in damp sand or sawdust, where they will not freeze, until spring, when they are dropped two or three inches apart in shallow furrows and covered with about three inches of loose, sandy soil. No buds are on the roots when cut, but ad- ventitious buds develop later, and by spring two or three of these buds can be seen. Generally, after one year, the plants will have made enough growth to be removed to the permanent plantation. If the growth has been slow they should be allowed to remain, another year in the nursery row. The red raspberry suckers very freely, so in ordinary practice pro- pagation by means of root cuttings is seldom resorted to. With the black- berry, however, both methods are in use. Those varieties which sucker freely are propagated by sprouts, while those that naturally sucker very little are generally propagated by root cuttings. Additional plants of the dewberry may be secured either by rooting the tips, or by using suckers or root cuttings. SITE The most important factor in the selection of a site for the berr> plantation is the soil. In general the land should be fairly rich, and well supplied with humus, for the production of strong vigorous canes. If the soil is not already well supplied with humus, it can be added by plow- ing under cover crops, or by the addition of barnyard manure. Although the brambles must be well supplied with water, the soil in which they grow must be well drained. The black raspberry will adapt itself and do well upon a greater var- iety of soils than any of the other raspberries, but it does best in a rich clay loam topsoil with a more clayey subsoil which is retentive of mois- ture. It will, however, do well on a rather sandy soil well supplied with manure and water. In fact a better yield will be secured on such a soil well handled than on the ideal soil poorly managed. The red raspberry thrives on a lighter and more sandy soil than the black, but does well on any soil from a sandy to a clayey loam, pro- vided other conditions are suitable for its growth. The purple raspberry, as might be expected from the fact that it is a cross between the black raspberry and red raspberry, is intermediate between the two in its soil requirements. It does best upon a silty loam soil. The blackberry, like the black raspberry, requires a rather clayey loam, but not so rich as the black raspberry demands. A soil too rich will stimulate vegetative growth at the expense of fruit production. A sandy or gravelly soil, unless underlaid with porous clay subsoil, is not at all suited to the growing of blackberries. Such a soil tends to become too hot and dry just at the time when the blackberry is maturing its crop and jn need of a great amount of water. The dewberry is found in the wild state growing upon rather sandy Small Fruit Growing in Missouri 7 well-drained soils, and it is on such soils that it will probably do its best under cultivation. The next factor in importance after soil, in the selection of a site, is drainage, both atmospheric and soil. Since these fruits ordinarily bloom late enough to escape the spring frosts atmospheric drainage is not so important from the standpoint of spring frosts as from the standpoint of winter injury. If the plantation is located on a hillside high enough that the cold air can drain away to lower lands, the amount of winter injury to the canes will be found to be less than where the plants are located in “pockets” or on low lands. A location which has good atmos- pheric drainage generally has good soil drainage. All poorly drained spots should be avoided, as the canes are more liable to winter injury in such places. If a north or northeastern exposure is available it should be used, as such a slope is more moist and cooler than other slopes. This is, how- ever, the least important factor in the selection erf a site and should be the last insisted upon when it is impossible to find the ideal location. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL Preparatory to planting it is advisable to grow on the land some in- tensively cultivated or hoed crop to rid the land as much as possible of weeds, or if the land is lacking in humus better still to plant it to some cover crop to be turned under. The plowing may be done either in the fall or early spring. The land should be deeply plowed, especially the heavier soils, and reduced to a fine state of tilth. Plowing to a depth of about 8 inches, using a steep moldboard to pulverize the furrow slice, followed by a thorough disking and harrowing will put the land in good condition. If a cover crop is not turned under it is advisable to work in a liberal supply of man- ure, as the bed will probably stand five to ten years and humus can be more easily added to the soil at this time than after planting. NURSERY STOCK Very often in putting out a new plantation a grower will select plants from his old one, or from his neighbor’s. This may be done without dan- ger, if the old plants are healthy, vigorous and practically free of disease; but generally it is better to buy nursery stock from reliable nurserymen who make it a practice to grow their plants from young and healthy stock. Any plants affected with crown gall should be thrown out as they are generally weakened and will not prove as productive as perfectly healthy ones. Crown gall can be recognized by the knots which appear on the roots and about the crown of the plants. If the plants are not to be set as soon as received, they should be unpacked and heeled in to prevent drying out or rotting. For heeling in a trench is dug with the back side sloped at an angle of about 40 degrees and deep enough that the plants can be covered as deeply as when they stood in the nursery. The plants should be spread out one layer deep 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 184 along the trench and covered with moist soil well packed about the roots. If the plants are dry they should be watered. Just before setting, if the day is warm and sunny, the roots should be dipped in a puddle of clay and water to protect them from the drying effect of the sun and wind, and the old canes cut back to 4 to 6 inches to prevent them from throwing out flowering shoots which will weaken, the small and poorly established plants. There is no harm in cutting the cane shorter as the main purpose it serves is to mark the row after setting. For protection against dry weather it is advisable to set the plants a little deeper than they stood in the nursery. Care should be used, however, with the black and purple raspberries, not to set the crown deeper than two inches as there is danger of smothering out the plants. Ordinarily the red raspberry and blackberry are set 2 to 4 inches below the surface of the ground. SETTING THE PLANTS The best time for setting plants is in the early spring, but they can be planted in the fall, if mulched with a fine layer of straw for pro- tection during the winter. It is very important that they be set early in the spring before growth has started. If setting is delayed too long there is danger of breaking off the shoots or their tender tips. Furthermore, the roots which have started growing will be injured in moving, and drought may set in before the plants have become well established, with a resultant reduction of the stand to a half or a third. There will be no trouble in securing a full stand if the plants are set at the right time and with proper precautions. The actual setting may be done, either by digging holes into which the plants are set; or by pushing a spade into the ground, then pushing it forward and dropping the plant into place, removing the spade and tamp- ing the soil firmly about the plant, much as sweet potato slips are set. Still another method of planting is to plow deep furrows along the rows and in these the plants are set. No trouble need be taken to fill the deep furrows between the plants, as this can be done by later cultivation. PLANTING DISTANCES As grown in Missouri, raspberries and blackberries are generally set in rows, the plants 3 to 4 feet apart in the rows, and the rows 6 to 8 feet apart. Distances less than this often result in crowding, while distances greater than this generally involve a waste of land. If land is compara- tively cheap, it may be advisable under some conditions to set the rows far enough apart to cultivate the middles with a disk. For planting one acre with plants set 3 feet apart in rows 7 feet apart 2,074 plants will be required. With plants set 4 feet apart and the rows 8 feet apart 1,361 plants will be necessary. Dewberries are generally set 3 feet apart in rows 6 to 7 feet apart. Small Fruit Growing in Missouri 9 CULTIVATION Because of their habit of growth the purple and black raspberries do not spread, but grow in clumps from the plants originally set. With them it is no trouble to keep the plants within bounds and the rows as orig- inally set. The red raspberry and the blackberry, which may send up shoots anywhere from the roots, are in many cases allowed to form a matted row from 20 to 24 inches wide. With them it is sometimes quite a problem to keep the middles clean, and the rows straight and of proper width.- This can, however, be accomplished by shallow plowing in the spring, throwing the furrows away from the rows. Plowing to the depth of 3 or 4 inches is sufficient and in no case should it be deeper than 4 inches as so many roots will then be injured as to cause a dense growth of sprouts. Cultivation with a spring tooth cultivator or five-shovel cultivator should begin at once after the plowing, keeping up a constant and thorough stirring of the soil until picking time. If plowing is not done, cultivation should begin early enough to keep ahead of the weeds and suckers. It is desirable to maintain a dust mulch, but the soil should not be stirred to a depth of more than 2 or 3 inches as some of the roots are so near the surface that they will be injured. Some growers shorten the cul- tivator teeth or set them shallow on the side next to the rows so as not to disturb the small feeding roots near the surface. During the ripening season of the raspberries cultivation is sometimes discontinued, but it is generally better to continue to cultivate the middles unless it stirs up enough dust to injure the berries. Cultivation so close as to injure or knock berries from the canes is to be avoided. Thorough cultivation and conservation of moisture in the case of the blackberry cannot be over emphasized as the blackberry is supporting and maturing a heavy crop of fruit when the weather is normally the hottest and driest. To keep the weeds out of the matted rows at least two hoeings will be necessary, one in the spring and one in the fall; and, if the weeds are very bad, a third hoeing in midsummer will be necessary. It is impossi- ble to keep the matted rows clean by the use of a horse cultivator. Cultivation late into the fall, which tends to develop new growth and to prevent the hardening off of canes, is undesirable. For the home garden the berry patch can be mulched to very good advantage. Straw applied to the depth of about 6 inches will prove satis- factory. Such a mulch keeps down weeds, checks evaporation and does away with the necessity of cultivation. Its use cannot be recommended at present for large commercial plantations. FERTILIZATION The question of fertilization is a very much disputed one, some grow- ers favoring it, some condemning it. This doubtless is due, in large part, to the many different soils on which the brambles are grown. Unfor- tunately there are not at present enough reliable experimental data along 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 184 this line to warrant any definite fertilizer recommendations. Each grow- er must determine the needs of his soil, by the application of fertilizers to small blocks and by noting the effect upon cane growth, yield and quality of fruit. Of the fertilizers used, barnyard manure is the most popular, adding nitrogen and humus to the soil, both of which favor the development of strong, vigorous canes. It should be applied in the late fall or early spring. The use of commercial fertilizers containing large amounts of quickly avail* able nitrogen, or the excessive use of barnyard manure, apparently is danger- Fig. 2. — The Robinson blackberry before thinning and pruning. Note the mass of canes and laterals near the center. Compare with Fig. 3. ous, as it causes excessive cane and leaf growth at the expense of fruit production. The usual application of barnyard manure is from 5 to 10 tons per acre. PRUNING AND TRAINING Each spring the raspberries, blackberries and dewberries send up many new shoots from near the base of the old crown, or from adventitious buds formed on the roots, to replace the fruiting canes which die as soon as the fruit is matured. The method of pruning and training these shoots will vary according to the kind of fruit or variety grown. ' Small Fruit Growing in Missouri 11 The pruning practices for the blackberries and the raspberries, with the exception of the red raspberry are very much the same. In order to prevent the new shoots from making long, weak canes to bend or break down into the dirt with a heavy crop of fruit, the tips are pinched out as soon as they have reached a height of 18 to 20 inches (possibly longer with the purple raspberry and the ranker growing varieties of blackberries). This shortens, thickens and strengthens the shoot and in- duces the formation of from four to six laterals near the top. It is on these laterals that the fruiting shoots are later produced. To prevent overbearing, these laterals must be shortened, preferably in early spring Fig. 3. — The Robinson blackberry after thinning the canes and laterals and shortening the vigorous laterals remaining. before growth starts. Shortening the laterals of the blackberry and black raspberry to 8 to 12 inches leaves enough buds to produce a good crop of large, well-formed berries. In the case of the purple raspberry, which pro- duces its fruit farther out on the laterals it is necessary to leave them 12 to 18 inches long. As soon as the fruit is produced the old canes die and should be re- moved at once to give the young canes more room and sunlight, and to check the spread of disease and insect pests. At this time the new shoots of the raspberry are thinned so that there will be four or five strong, vigorous canes to each plant. Blackberries, because of their ten- 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 184 dency to throw up new and weak .shoots, should not be thinned until spring at the time the laterals are shortened. They are then thinned to leave strong, vigorous canes 8 to 10 inches apart. Because of the likelihood of producing tender laterals, pinching out the tips of the red raspberry shoots is not practiced in this section of the country. The only pruning done is the removal of the old canes as soon as they have fruited, and in the spring thinning the fruiting canes to stand about 8 inches apart. Ordinarily no method of supporting or trellising is used in growing raspberries in Missouri, but it has been found advisable on the trial grounds Fig. 4. — The black raspberry as it looks before pruning. Note the mass of long laterals, also the thickness of the clump to the left. Compare with Fig. 5. at Columbia to support the canes of the black and purple raspberries with a horizontal trellis. If this is not done and the plantation is exposed to strong winds, many of the new shoots are likely to be broken down. This will have a decided effect upon next year’s crop for it is then too late for these shoots to be replaced with others. Besides trellising, this brings out the advisability of locating the plantation in a sheltered spot whenever it is possible. The horizontal trellis may be constructed by setting large posts at the end of each row, with lighter posts at intervals of 20 to 30 feet. Cross- Small Fruit Growing in Missouri 13 arms 18 inches long are nailed to each post at a height of 20 to 30 inches, depending upon the vigor of the cane growth. A wire is then stretched tightly on either side of the row and securely fastened to the ends of the cross-arms. Such a trellis is easily constructed, permanent and of neat appearance. It prevents the new growth from being whipped about by the wind or bent over and broken, and it supports the fruiting canes, holding them out of the mud and dirt and out of the way of cultivation. A trellis has not been found necessary for blackberries and the red raspberries, except the Cuthbert which sometimes forms long straggling laterals. Under Missouri conditions, probably the best method of handling the dewberry is simply to allow it to trail on the ground. This is much cheap- Fig. 5. — The black raspberry as it looks after pruning. The end post and wires of the trellis are also shown. er than tieing or training it to stakes or wires, and the yield is probably as large. The only serious fault of this system is the difficulty of mak- ing clean pickings, as the berries are concealed by the foliage. A modi- fication of this system, which may facilitate picking, is that of stretching a wire' along the row and over this the vines are thrown. The only pruning necessary is the removal of the old canes ,and the cutting out of the weak growth in the spring. LIFE OF PLANTATION The length of time a plantation will remain profitable depends upon soil conditions, diseases and care. If the moisture supply is inadequate or 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 184 if the plants are allowed to overbear, few, if any, new canes are developed and the plants are weakened or killed. This is particularly true of the black raspberry. Under present conditions and cultural methods the life of a plantation in Missouri is from live to ten years. In some parts of the country plantations twice that age are still bearing good crops. HARVESTING Raspberries are ready to pick as soon as they will readily separate from the receptacle. At that time they are not so easily bruised in pick- ing and handling, w'ill hold up better under shipment and are not so sub- ject to the attacks of fungi as when allowed to become fully ripe. Blackberries do not reach their highest state of perfection until fully ripe and to be at their best must be eaten soon after picking. As the fruit colors before it is ripe, it should be allowed to become soft before picking for home use. For shipment the blackberry should be picked as soon as it separates fairly easily from the cluster. This lessens deteriora- tion in marketing. In picking, three fingers should be used and but few berries should be held in the hand at one time. The fruits should be placed, not dropped, into the containers. They are picked directly into the pint or quart boxes in which they are to be marketed. Additional handling of these soft fruits will result in broken skins and this detracts from their appearance and hastens deterioration. The pickers use trays or carriers holding from four to six boxes. The use of carriers holding more than six quarts is to be discouraged, as the berries first picked are exposed to the sun so long that the fruit becomes overheated and damaged. Blackberries, when exposed to the sun for long periods, turn red and develop a bitter taste. All grading, except where the packer separates the boxes of fruit ac- cording to the picker or the appearance on top, is done by the picker. The picker reserves one or two boxes in the carrier for the decayed, over-ripe, green, misshapen, and injured berries. The carriers when full should be placed in the shade under the canes and gathered up later by a person whose duty it is to bring in the full trays, or they may be brought directly to the packing shed by the pickers. The best time for picking is in the morning as soon as the dew is off and while it is still cool. At this time the berries are cool, and the pickers do much better work than in the heat of day. Not only are warm berries harder to cool, but the thin membraneous covering is weaker and more easily broken in picking and handling. PAYING THE PICKERS Two general methods are used in paying pickers; one by the hour, the other by piece work. Both have their advantages and disadvantages. The great disadvantages in piece work include the tendency of the pickers to fill their boxes as fast as they can with little regard to grading and Small Fruit Growing in Missouri 15 .careful handling, and their fondness for picking where the berries are the thickest and leaving the scattering fruit. Better grading can generally be secured by paying slightly more per box for the cull berries. Most pickers must be watched constantly and checked to secure clean picking and careful handling. In order to hold pickers at the end of the sea* son when the berries become scattering it is often necessary to give them more per quart or give a bonus to those who stay throughout the season. On the other hand paying by the hour is expensive as few if any of the. pickers will work at a maximum speed. There are three general methods of keeping a record of the number of berries gathered by each picker. The first and least satisfactory is the daybook system where the foreman merely enters the pickers name, the date and the number of quarts picked. The two better methods are the check system, and the punch-card system. In the check system each picker is given a check for each quart or tray brought in. These checks are kept by the picker and turned in on pay day. They are best made of some metal such as aluminum and stamped with the design of the fruits being harvested; they are generally in denominations of 1 pint or 1 quart, and 1 tray (4 to 6 boxes). In the punch-card system each picker is given a card much like a shipping tag in outline. On this card is writ- ten the picker’s name and the rate per quart he is to be paid, and around the margin are printed numbers which are punched according to the num- ber of quarts brought in by the picker. In using this system the punch must be changed frequently to prevent the picker securing and using a punch of like design. Various modifications of this system as to arrange- ment, the length of time the cards will last and the number of cards used, are in use. With any system frequent pay days are necessary to prevent discon- tent and to avoid chances of error. PACKAGES The 24-quart crate as used for strawberries is perhaps the best crate in which to market dewberries, blackberries and black raspberries. A 32 or 48-quart crate might be used when marketing locally, but for shipping such crates are too large. The added weight of fruit above tends to crush the berries in the boxes near the bottom. Furthermore the 24-quart crate best meets the demands of the customer buying in crate lots for putting up at home. The American style one-quart box is one of the best and most popu- lar of the quart boxes. They are made up at the factory and shipped nested, and there is no expense or inconvenience of making up at home. They fit into the American 24-quart crate in three tiers of eight boxes each, with a divider between each two tiers. The purple and red raspberries are best marketed in shallow pint boxes. They are rarely marketed in quart boxes, except where the mar- kets are very conservative and demand the quart box. The weight of the extra berries in the quart box will crush those near the bottom; and 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 184 generally, because of the high price of the red raspberry, the consumer prefers to buy in pints. To comply with the rules and regulations of the Net Weight Amend- ment to the Food and Drugs Act, the shipper, when shipping to another state, must stamp plainly on the outside of the package the contents and number of open packages contained, in terms of the largest unit con- tained. For example, the 24-quart crate would be marked, — “Contents 24 dry quarts,” or “This crate contains 24 dry quarts.” Further, the standard- ization of the berry box makes it illegal to ship from state to state, berry boxes which do not contain in cubical contents one pint, one-half pint, one quart, or multiples of one quart, all dry measure. PACKING SHED Some sort of packing shed is essential in the small fruit industry. It protects the fruit from the hot sun and rain, creates a central packing point and provides a storage place for packing material and equipment. It may be a very cheaply constructed affair, consisting only of a frame-work and roof that will keep out the sun and rain, or it may be more substantially constructed with a storage room or loft, thoroughly protected from the weather. Such a place provides a permanent storage place for packing material. YIELDS As may be seen by referring to Tables I to IV the yields vary con- siderably from year to year, with different soil and environmental condi- tions, and with different varieties. Under ordinary conditions and with good care the black raspberry should yield from 1200 to 1800 quarts per acre, the purple raspberry about the same, and the red raspberry, under Missouri conditions, 500 to 800 quarts. Sometimes very large yields will be secured as with the Kansas grown at Columbia, which made in 1910 over 4000 quarts per acre. Those blackberry varieties, which, when given good care, will not average 1200 quarts per acre, when planted 4 feet by 10 feet, are not adapted to commercial planting. Averages of 1800 to 2000 quarts per acre may be regarded as good yields. Upon examination of the tables of yield of blackberries and raspberries, it will be seen that there are varieties which run consistently low in yield. Such varieties may be adapted to planting in the home garden because of some other quality they possess in a superior degree, but they should never be planted in a commercial way. The red raspberry, even with the additional price paid for it, is not nearly so profitable as the blackcap. However, the fruit of the purple-caned varieties is usually sold as a red raspberry for which, as a matter of fact, it is an acceptable substitute and there are varieties of this group that are profitable under Missouri condi- tions. VARIETIES Black raspberries — Almost all of the black raspberries tested are recog- nized standard varieties, and consequently the differences in yield are not Small Fruit Growing in Missouri 17 Table I. — Yield oe Raspberries 1919. Original Y eld in Quarts Total Perc’t Yield per Gross re- No. of Varieties No. of June 14 June 20 June 26 Yield stand arce in turns-per berries to to to l/ qts. 4’x8’ acret per qt. Plants June 19 June 25 July 7 V Blackcaps Turner Kansas Black 80 23.5 18.0 5.0 46.5 88 904 $ 271.20 705 Pearl 160 48.25 58.5 22.0 128.75 90 1217 365.10 509 Cumberl’d 160 43.0 93.5 42.0 178.5 92 1647 ■494.10 488 Plum Farmer 160 56.5 53.25 14.5 124.25 94 1127 336.10 596 Gregg 80 5.5 55.0 34.75 95.25 91 1769 531.70 512 Improved Gregg 80 15.25 28.75 11,25 55.25 93 1017 305.10 488 Blackcaps Columbia Kansas 42 24.75 50.0 9.5 84.25 100 4148* 1244.40 * 589 Conrath 42 13.5 35.5 10.25 59.25 100 2924* 877.20 * 546 Cumberl’d 42 8.25 42.75 13.75 64.75 100 3194* 958.20 * 517 Purpleoano Turner Cardinal Columbia 80 .25 32.0 57.75 90.00 98 1565 547.75 465 Cardinal 42 8.25 36.00 45.00 100 2219* 776.65 * Red Turner Louden 80 8.0 8.0 5.25 21.25 94 386 135.10 672 Cuthbert 160 5.75 18.25 12.75 36.75 97 322 112.70 445 King 80 2.0 8.0 16.25 26.25 94 480 168.00 568 Red Columbia Eaton 42 1.75 5.0 6.75 48 699* 244.65 * Cuthbert 42 4.0 14.0 18.0 100 901* 315.35 * King 42 .25 5.75 13.0 19.0 95 985* 344.75 * *3 feet by 7 feet. tBlacks at 30c per qt., Reds and Purple at 35c per qt. Explanation of Tables I to IV. — The blackberries, and those raspberries mark- ed Turner were grown on the trial grounds at Turner, Missouri, in a soil which is a mixture of the loess soil and silty loam. Those marked Columbia were grown on the trial grounds at Columbia in a heavy silty loam, rich and reasonably well drained. The blackberries at Turner were set 4 feet apart in rows S feet apart. At Col- umbia the raspberries were set 3 feet apart in rows 7 feet apart. As was to be expected very few of the varieties came into bearing with a full stand, so the percent of a stand bearing each year is given; and the yields per acre, as given, were calculated for a full stand at the distance planted. 18 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 184 so great as they otherwise might have been, except where the influence of the two types of soil is felt. As might be expected, the soil at Colum- bia, being richer and better supplied with humus than that at Turner, gave much larger yields, even when the difference in distance planted is taken into consideration. Of the varieties grown at Turner, the Cumberland and Gregg gave the largest yields, while at Columbia the Kansas and Cum- berland were the highest yielding varieties. Although very little is known of the adaptability of different varieties to various soil types, the data given carry the suggestion that Cumberland and Gregg are good varieties Table II. — Yield oe Raspberries 1920. Original Yield in Quarts Total Yield Perc’t stand 1 / Yield per acre in qts. 4’x8’ Gross re- turns per acret 1 acre Aver. yield of 2 yr. 4’x8’ Varieties No. of Plants June 19 to June 26 June 27 to July 5 July 6 to July 14 Blackcaps T urner Kansas 80 11.0 3.25 .25 14.25 54 459 $137.70 681 Black Pearl 160 22.75 11.0 .25 34.0 70 414 124.20 816 Cumberl’d 160 12.75 19.0 2.0 33.75 76 380 114.00 1013 Plum Farmer 160 30.75 10.25 .25 41.25 81 431 129.30 779 Gregg 80 8.0 9.0 4.5 21.5 75 487 146.10 1128 Improved Gregg 80 8.25 4.0 8.25 81 256 76.80 636 Blackcaps Columbia Kansas 42 30.5 6.5 37.0 100 1827* 548.10* h 2987* Conrath 42 24.75 13.0 2.0 39.75 100 1962* 588.60* ' 2443* Cumberl’d 42 19.75 16.25 .75 36.75 100 1815* 544.50* > 2504* Purpleeane Turner Cardinal 80 1.25 28.75 16.0 46.0 91 857 299.95 1211 Columbia Cardinal 42 1.0 22.25 5.0 28.25 100 1396* 488.60* 1807* Red T urner Louden 80 16.0 12.5 3.0 31.5 94 573 205.55 479 Cuthbert 160 13.25 32.0 8.5 53.75 96 476 166.60 399 King 80 10.0 9.75 8.0 27.75 88 539 188.65 509 Red Columbia Eaton 42 Most of canes winter killed. . . .349* King 42 4.25 1.75 6.0 100 •309* 108.15* > 647* Cuthbert 42 All canes winter killed to ground 450* *3 feet x 7 feet. tBlacks at 30c per qt., Reds and Purple at 35c per qt. Small Fruit Growing in Missouri 19 to grow on the poorer soils, while the Kansas is a very good one for the richer soils All three varieties, Kansas, Cumberland and Gregg are strong, vigorous growers and hardy enough to meet Missour. cond.- tions. The Kansas is a few days earlier than the Cumberland, while the Gregg is the last of the three to ripen. The Kansas is sweeter than t e other two, but runs a little smaller in size. Purple raspberries— The Cardinal was the only purple raspberry test- ed, but the yield was large enough to make it a very profitable berry to grow wherever it can be disposed of quickly. Red raspberries — N one of the red raspberries proved to be of com- mercial value. The Cuthbert, although its yields were a little less than those of some of the other varieties, is the best red for the home garden because of its superiority in quality and flavor. The berries do not have the tendency to crumble so much as those of some of the other varieties. Table III— Yield oe Blackberries 1919. Original Varieties No. of plants June 17 to June 25 Yield in Quarts McDonald Early Harvest Robinson Blowers Ward Snyder Ambrosia. Lagrange Eldorado Ancient Briton 80 160 160 80 160 160 80 80 80 80 109 136 89 June i26 to July 4 July 5 to July 13 July 14 to July 21 Julyl 22 to July 29 3 3.75 64 13.25 114 67. 3. 1 33. 41.5 14. 1 79. 90.5 16.75 148.75 129. 11.25 7.75 8. 1.75 7.25 28. 18.5 53.5 46. 9.25 3. 24.5 16.5 Total Yield Percent stand \J Yield per acre Rows 10 ft. apart Returns per acre at 20c per qt. No. oi ber- ries per qt. 115.75 213.25 273. 89.5 187.25 289. 17.5 53.75 108.75 96.2 84.4 67.5 86.3 81.3 93.8 50.0 75.0 87.5 68.8 1658 1738 2792 1429 1588 2126 485 988 1715 886 331.60 264 347.60 458.40 285.80 317.60 225.20 97.00 197.60 343.00 177.20 508 360 270 385 471 46o 231 221 355 The everbearing raspberry, of late introduction, has been widely ad- vertised and many questions have been asked as to its value ' N °” e °‘ the varieties of everbearing raspberries have been grown on the Stat o grounds, but it is doubtful if this type will prove profitable under M s- souri conditions, except, possibly, in a few special districts where the con- sumer will buy regardless of the price, or in the home garden where cost 1S ° Bkckberrie^— The blackberries may be divided roughly into the early and late maturing sorts. The early varieties include the Robinson, Early Harvest, and McDonald, the last named a hybrid between the blackberry and dewberry. The late varieties include; Blowers, Ward, Snyder, A brosia Lagrange, Eldorado and Ancient Briton. In general the early var- ieties ’are to be preferred, because they ripen before the wild plants and thus avoid competition with them and because they escape or partly escape the hot, dry weather that so often prevails during the ordinary ripening season of the later varieties. 20 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 184 the ear, y varieties mentioned, the Early Harvest is the he t Tt McDonald although producing very large dewberry- * * berries i, ** uncertain because of winter killing. The low yield In lotm ! winter injury of the fruiting wood Also because of it , ?• ^ ‘° h of growth and f formidable thorns, picking is slow and Tple^'a"/ The" Robinson because of its great susceptibility to rust and its thieh h V-, t growth, which hides many of the berry clusters is f ^ °* , fsszzzt. r:;zx‘v::r^- “ - Table IV.— Yield oe Blackberries 1920 . Early Harvest Robinson Blowers Ward Snyder Ambrosia Lagrange Eldorado Ancient Briton 80 160 160 80 160 160 80 80 80 80 30 14 Original Yield in Quarts Varieties No. of plants June 21 to June 28 June 29 to July 5 July 6 to July 12 July 13 to July 19 July 20 to July 26 Total Yield Percent stand \) Yield per acre Rows 10 ft.' apart Returns per acre at 20c per qt. 110 81 *Rows 10 feet apart. 33. 32. 29.5 39.5 61. 7.75 7.2 5 53.5 3. 14. 3. 33.25 64. 114.5 8 . 28. 46. 24.5 11.5 21.5 35.75 1.75 18.5 9.25 16.5 30. 245. 130. 74.25 125. 211.25 17.5 53.75 108.75 44. 96.2 85.6 62.5 87.5 79.4 93.8 50.0 72.5 87.5 1871 1433 1168 1085 1552 256 406 750 432 $ 86.40 394.20 286.60 233.60 217.00 310.40 51.20 81.20 150.00 70.0 1028 205.60 A SUCCESSION OF FRUITS out the summer. In this way the work is spread out over a per^d of sL FoTI fun t a c d ^ • ^Th bUnChe<1 Within 3 period ° f or three week," or a lull succession the grower can start witL +v, Q *. i will start ripening in May and last until June. The standard *"? south Missouri is the Aroma, while the Dunlan is th P h r variety for souri. The strawberry may be fol.owedbytL raspberry ZtZ succession the following varieties are to be recommended in th na T d: h K j* nSaS> Cumberland and Gregg. The blackberry ’t ype *f °fruit might be begun with the Lucretia dewberry which altho,nY P / • * with the raspberry, will pay well for the extra effo’rt llecesty To h^'dle Aver, yield for 2 yrs.* 1045 1854 2112 1298 1336 1839 370 697 1232 957 Small Fruit Growing in Missouri 21 it at this time. After the dewberry will come the Early Harvest black- berry followed by the Snyder or Eldorado, carrying the season to about the first of August. For a fall crop the grape may be planted, beginning with some of the early varieties such as Daisy (.black) and Moore's Early (black) fol- lowed by the midseason varieties like Concord (black), Worden (black), Wyoming Red (red), Niagara (white) and Diamond (white). For a later grape the Catawba might be grown. The average grower will find it best to make the most of his planting of Concord or Worden. The above is merely a suggestion, and the grower must decide for his own particular conditions whether it will be profitable for him to at- tempt to grow all the small fruits or only a part of them. Also he must decide the amount of each particular fruit and variety to grow. This will depend somewhat upon whether the grower intends to ship his fruit or sell it locally. INSECTS AND DISEASES Insects — Of the insects attacking the brambles, none is of sufficient importance in Missouri at present, to necessitate the use of any special re- medial measures. Diseases — Crown gall — This is the gall or swelling which appears on the roots or at the crown of the plant and weakens it, the affected plant having a sickly appearance. Prevention. Plant only healthy nursery stock that is free of the galls on land which is not already infected with the disease organism. Remedy. Dig out and destroy all affected plants. Anthracnose — This is a very common and very serious disease of the black raspberry. It attacks the canes, the leaves, and the fruit, but is more notice- able on the canes on which it produces small gray elliptical spots from a mere speck to three or four times the size of a pin head. They are bordered with a dark, blackish purple, indefinite and narrow band. As the spots near ma- turity they often split lengthwise of the stem and the interior assumes the color of dead wood. When abundant the spots coalesce forming large patches of diseased bark. In bad infestations canes may be girdled. Control. This disease can be controlled by spraying, but this is not to be recommended as the extra yields secured do not pay for the added cost of spraying. The plan generally recommended for holding this disease in check is to cut out all the old canes as soon as they have fruited and all the badly infected new growth. This partly removes the source of infection and opens up the interior of the rows, allowing better ventilation and more sunlight. The infected canes should be burned. Orange Rust — This is a very serious disease of the blackberry, but not so troublesome on the raspberry. The first appearance of the disease is on the leaves in the spring, when they assume a sickly, yellowish green color. A little later a glistening orange color appears on the under surface of the leaves and from this the small, dustlike orange-colored spores break. The spores may alight upon some other plant where they germinate, the mycelial growth spreading through the leaves of the host plant and eventually down the stems and into the roots where it lives from year to year. 22 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 184 Control. Because of its habit of growth it is impossible to control Or- ange rust once it has gained entrance to the plant. To prevent it f- om spreading to nearby plants the affected plants should be dug up completely before the orange-colored spores break out. Also, any affected wild plants near the plantation should be cut out. STRAWBERRY VARIETIES FOR MISSOURI The strawberry is by far the most important of the small fruits grown in Missouri. This is due to many factors, chief among which are the al- most universal demand for this fruit when it is in season and the fact that certain sections in this state seem to be particularly well adapted to its commercial production. The commercial strawberry industry of this state is based largely upon a few well-tried varieties. Many new var- ieties, however, are introduced to the trade each year. The amateur grow- er is often unacquainted with those that have proved desirable, and is at a loss to know which among old and new to select for planting. The com- mercial grower also is eager to obtain stock of any newly developed sort that may be really meritorious with promise of netting greater profits. The Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station has had some of these var- ieties under trial on its grounds, and the records as to what they have done are sufficient to justify an opinion as to their probable performance under average Missouri conditions. It is not considered either necessary, or de- sirable, at this time to present detailed descriptions and detailed perform- ance records of each of these varieties. The following account of our strawberry variety trials, therefore, is limited to a brief statement sum- marizing our observations with the standard or spring maturing varieties and to a somewhat more detailed statement of results and observations upon the varieties of the everbearing type. The Spring Bearing Varieties — The very early varieties are not ex- tensively grown in Missouri, and probably none of them yields heavily enough or is the type of berry that should be extensively planted except in those districts where an early berry will command an exceptionally high price. Two of the more promising early varieties for this section are the Early Ozark and Michel. The Early Ozark is a low growing plant, but is vigorous, reasonably resistant to fungous diseases, makes a fairly good plant growth and, for an -early berry, is productive. The berries are large for their season and are of very good quality. Michel (Michel’s Early) is moderately vigorous and moderately disease-resistant, but is of only medium quality. It is firm, however, and will probably ship well. As a second early the Klondike is a very good commercial variety for south Missouri, but it cannot be recommended for north Missouri. The plants of this variety are vigorous and the leaves are very resistant to leaf spot. It bears a moderately heavy crop of large, regular berries that are firm and excellent for shipping but are rather poor in flavor. Where it does well it is a very good commercial berry, but for the home garden there are other early varieties of much better flavor. For a midseason berry the Dunlap (Senator Dunlap) is the standard variety for north Missouri. It is an excellent plant maker, vigorous and Small Fruit Growing in Missouri 23 'very productive. The berries are medium in size, conical and often slight- ly necked. It is of very good flavor and will ship reasonably well for short distances, but is too soft for long shipments. It is also an excellent pollenizer and is one of the best varieties to grow with pistillate varieties. The Dunlap does not do so well in south Missouri and has given way almost entirely to the Aroma which is the leading commercial variety of the Ozarks. The Aroma is peculiarly adapted to the heavy silty loam to •clay soils found in the Ozarks. It is a little later than the Dunlap and might be termed a midseason to late variety. The plants are vigorous, of good size, moderately good plant producers and very productive. The berries run uniformly large, are roundly conical in shape and very attrac- tive. They are of only fair flavor, but are firm and excellent for shipping. Table V. — Showing the Number oe Plants Produced erom the Mother Plants After the First Season's Growth; and the Average Width oe Rows After Two Seasons Continuous Growth. Irrigated Not Irrigated Variety No. of No. of Av. width No. of No. of Av. width Percent Percent original plants row in original plants row in increase increase plants fall ’18 in. fall 1920 plants fall ’18 in. fall 1920. in plants* in width* Superb 50 241 13 50 164 9 147 144 Progressive 50 648 17 50 496 12 131 142 Peerless King of the 50 2221 56 50 554 30 401 187 .Autumn 50 521 18 50 260 9 200 200 Ideal 50 1590 22 50 218 12 729 183 Francis 50 930 21 50 237 10 392 210 Arizona 50 2405 50 50 477 22 503 227 Americus 50 454 21 50 129 10 352 210 ^Percent increase produced in irrigated plot over that not irrigated. In some years the Aroma does well in north Missouri, but through an av- erage of a number of years it has not proved equal to the Dunlap as a •commercial variety north of the Missouri river. For a midseason variety of high quality the Warfield is one of the best. It does equally well in north and south Missouri, but is not so vig- orous a grower or so disease-resistant as either the Dunlap or Aroma. The berry is only of medium size, but is a dark crimson in color and of excellent dessert quality. It is to be highly recommended for the home garden. Being a pistillate variety, the Warfield must be grown with some good pollenizing variety. For a late variety the Gandy is probably one of the Best. It is a heavy producer on rich soils, but tends to bear “buttons” on thin soils. The berries are large, regular, round-conic in shape and firm, making them good for shipping. The flowers are perfect or semi-perfect, but the 24 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 184 pollen is not abundant, consequently this variety generally does its best when planted with some good pollenizer. The Everbearing Strawberry — The everbearing type of strawberry has been developed in this country within comparatively recent years and has been very widely advertised, especially for the home garden and has been quite extensively planted for home use. Instead of producing all its ber- ries within a period of two to four weeks in late May and June, the ever- Table VI. — Everbearing Strawberries eor 1919. Varieties Yield in quarts from a 100 ft. row Yield in quarts per acre Precent culls Total yield per acre Spring 5/17—10/26 Fall 10/26 Spring Fall Spring Fall Irr'gated Superb 18.66 .36 2351 46 .(*) • (t) 2397 Progressive 25.91 .83 3271 105 3376 Peerless 48.33 ... 6090 6090 King of the Autumn 21.84 .42 2752 53 2805 Ideal 45.03 1.0 6049 126 6175 Francis 5.72 .08 722 10 732 Arizona 19.43 2828 2828 Americus 7.81 .43 981 55 1036 Non-Irrigated Superb 18.12 .14 2283 18 2301 Progressive 20.77 .28 2747 35 2782 Peerless 24.97 .06 3145 8 .... 3153 King of the Autumn 25.87 .03 3260 4 .... 3264 Ideal 17.25 2188 2188 Francis 1.89 251 251 Arizona 1 22.12 2787 2787 Americus 11.32 .08 299 10 309 * Actual amount of culls was not kept throughout the season but observation showed it to run well over 50% on the average. fNot enough berries from which to calculate percentage of culls. bearing strawberry matures its crop at intervals, more or less continuously throughout the summer and fall. Very often blossoms, green berries and ripe fruit may be found on a single plant at one time. As a commercial proposition, however, the everbearing strawberry has proved to be somewhat of a disappointment under Missouri conditions, be- cause of the light and scattered crop produced after the main crop in the spring. This light production is probably due in part to the small num- ber of runners formed the year before. This lack of plant growth may be due to two causes: First, strawberries do not produce runners while they are fruiting, the heavy runner growth on ordinary sorts always coming af- Small Fruit Growing in Missouri 25 ter the crop has been removed; second, the dry weather here during July and August is also a limiting factor in plant growth, because the run- ners cannot be produced without a plentiful moisture supply. In view of the above facts it was thought advisable to investigate the possibilities of irrigation with everbearing strawberries, as fruit borne at other times than the usual strawberry season, commands good prices and, if the yield could be raised to a satisfactory point, the everbearing type would become very profitable. For this work two different blocks were planted with 50 plants each of Superb, Progressive, Peerless, King of the Autumn, Ideal, Francis, Table VII. — Everbearing Strawberries for 1920. Yield in | quarts from Yield in quarts Percent culls Total Varieties a 100 ft. row per acre yield Spring Summer Fall Spring Summer Fall Spring Summer per 6/7- 7/21- 10/8- & fall acre 6/21 8/14 11/1 Irrigated Superb 15.48 3.98 .3 1697 563 38 64 50 2568 Progressive 16.6 18.71 1.67 2094 2739 212 77 53 5045 Peerless 37.66 1.64 .05 4756 176 6 80 61 4938 King of the Autumn 31.0 6.66 .13 3912 741 16 72 53 4669 Ideal 56.2 9.43 .15 7075 1189 19 52 56 8283 Francis 11.45 3.94 1446 497 70 73 1943 Arizona 12.63 1597 79 1597 Americus 8.45 4.97 .03 1071 632 3 86 69 1706 Non-Irrigated Superb 10.61 1.87 .11 1341 263 13 67 66 1617 Progressive 5.58 1.33 .88 704 169 109 86 88 982 Peerless 16.99 .22 .05 ! 2146 28 6 77 . 100 2180 King of the Autumn 7.6 1.49 .07 963 79 9 70 72 1051 Ideal 6.16 .8 777 100 74 72 877 Francis 2.13 .65 278 81 70 92 359 Arizona 1.41 .8 178 41 77 24 219 Americus .6 .28 i 75 35 88 55 110 Arizona and Americus. They were set in rows feet apart with the plants 2 feet apart in the rows. One block was supplied with moisture as needed by means of an overhead irrigation system while the other re- ceived only the natural rainfall. After the first season’s growth counts were made for each variety in each block to determine how many plants had been produced from the mother plants. During the second and succeeding seasons the time of 26 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 184 harvest and the quantity of fruit produced upon the irrigated and non- irrigated rows of each variety were recorded. Table V shows that there were appreciably more plants produced from the mother plants on the irrigated plot than on that which was not irri- gated. With some varieties, notably the Ideal and Arizona, the additional plant growth secured the first year from irrigation was very great. The average width of rows as given in Table V represents the total growth in width of the different varieties after two growing seasons, since the rows were not molested in the spring of 1920 as they were in 1919 when the rows were cut down to 8 inches in width after the main crop had been removed. Although the increase in width of rows in the irrigated plot over that not irrigated was not so great with all the varieties, as the increase in number of plants, the irrigated rows averaged from one and one-half to twice the width of the corresponding rows in the plots which received only the natural rainfall. Although the yield in general was greater on the irrigated plot than on that not irrigated, the increase was not due altogether to the increased number of plants produced, but to the better growing conditions under irrigation. In fact the varieties under irrigation had a tendency to pro- duce too many new plants that were small and weak, rather than a few strong healthy daughter plants which were capable of yielding a large crop of high-quality fruit. The increased yields secured from irrigation on the trial grounds at Columbia, however, were not sufficient to make the everbearing straw- berry of commercial value from the standpoint of the fall crops. Not only was the total fall yield low, but the individual pickings were so small that few, if any, would pay for the cost of picking and handling. Fur- thermore about 50 percent of the berries harvested graded out as culls. At first glance, it would seem that the spring yield was high enough, when compared to the yield of the spring bearing varieties, to make some of the everbearers more profitable to grow, but if the light pickings which would pay little, if anything, above the cost of handling are discarded, the yield would be cut down from one-fifth to one-fourth. Also upon exam- ining Tables VI and VII, it will be seen that the percentage of culls runs well over 50 percent and in some cases over 80 percent. This is far more than the percentage of culls from the spring bearing varieties grown under similar conditions. In fact the high percentage of culls (with some of the varieties small berries) produced by the everbearers, as grown under conditions existing here, is one of the serious drawbacks to their culture. Irrigation decreased the percentage of culls a little, but so very little that it is within the probable experimental error. Also, the everbearing varie- ties do not, as a general thing, have the flavor and quality of the spring sorts. In view of the results secured by this .Station, the everbearing straw- berry cannot be recommended for general commercial planting, in this section of the country. There may be, of course, a few special localities, where the price paid by the consumer for strawberries out of season is sufficiently high so that the everbearer can be grown with profit. Small Fruit Growing in Missouri 27 For the home garden this type of strawberry may be grown where the space required to grow a reasonable quantity, the care required and the cost are items of no consequence. Probably the two best varieties for Missouri conditions are Progressive and Superb, as these varieties will meet general conditions better than the other varieties tried here. UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185 CORN IN MISSOURI II. Field Methods That Increase the Corn Crop COLUMBIA, MISSOURI JUNE, 1921 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL, THE CURATORS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY H. J. BLANTON, JOHN H. BRADLEY, JAS. E. GOODRICH, Paris Kennett Kansas City ADVISORY COUNCIL THE MISSOURI STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OFFICERS OF THE STATION A. ROSS HILL, PH. D., LL. D„ PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., DIRECTOR STATION STAFF June, 1921 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY C. R. Moulton, Ph. D. L. D. Haigh, Ph. D. VV. S. Ritchie, A. M. E. E. Vanatta, M. S. 2 R. M. Smith, A. M. A. R. Hall, B. S. in Agr. E. G. Sieveking, B. S. in Agr. C. F. An mann, A. B. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING J. C. Wooley, B. S. Mack M. Jones, B. S. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY E. A. Trowbridge, B. S. in Agr. L- A. Weaver, B. S. in Agr. A. G. Hogan, Ph. D. F. B. Mumford, M. S. D. W. Chittenden, B. S. in Agr. Paul B. Bernard. B. S. in Agr. A. T. Edinger, B. S. in Agr H. D. Fox, B. S. in Agr. BOTANY W. J. Robbins, Ph. D. E. F. Hopkins, Ph. D. DAIRY HUSBANDRY A. C. Ragsdale, B. S. in Agr. W. W. Swett, A. M. Wm. H. E. Reid, A. M. Samuel Brody, M. A. C. W. Turner, B^ S. in Agr. D. H. Nelson, B. S. in Agr. ENTOMOLOGY Leonard Haseman, Ph. D. K. C. Sullivan, A. M. O. R. McBride, B. S. in Agr. FIELD CROPS VV. C. Etheridge, Ph. D. C. A. Helm. A. M. L. J. Stadler, A. M. O. W. Letson, B. S. in Agr. E. O. Pollock, B. S. in Agr. B. B. Branstetter. B. S. in Agr. B. M. King, B. S. in Agr. RURAL LIFE O. R. Johnson, A. M. S. D. Gromer, A. M. R. C. Hall, A. M. B. H. Frame, B. S. in Agr. FORESTRY Frederick Dunlap, F. E. HORTICULTURE V. R. Gardner, M. S. A. H. F. Major, B. S. H. D. Hooker, Jr., Ph. D. J. T. Rosa, Jr., M. S- F. C.. Bradford, M. S. H. G. Swartwout, B. S. in Agr. POULTRY HUSBANDRY H. L . Kempster, B. S. SOILS M. F. Miller, M. S. A. H. H. Krusekopf, A. M. W. A. Albrecht, Ph. D. F. L. Duley, A. M. R. R. Hudelson, A. M. Wm. DeYoung, B. S. in Agr. H. V. Jordan, B. S. in Agr. Richard Bradfield, A. B. O. B. Price, B. S. in Agr. VETERINARY SCIENCE J. W. Connaway, D. V. S., M. D. L. S. Backus, D. V. M. O. S. Crisler. D. V. M. A. J. Durant, A. M. H. G. Newman, A. M. ZOOLOGY George Lefevre, Ph. D. OTHER OFFICERS R. B. Price, M. S., Treasurer Leslie Cowan, B. S., Secretary Sam B. Sitirkey, Asst, to Dean A. A. Jeffrey, A. B., Agricultural Editor J. F. Barham, Photographer Miss Bertha Hite, A. B. 1 Seed Analyst 'In service of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2 On leave of absence. CORN IN MISSOURI II. Field Methods that Increase the Corn Crop C. A. Helm* Corn is Missouri’s greatest crop. Its value usually exceeds that of the combined yields of both wheat and oats. On Missouri farms in 1919, for example, the acreage of corn was equal to all the fields of wheat and oats, while the value of the corn produced was one-and-a-half times the com- bined value of these leading small grain crops. Yet the average yield of corn in all sections of the State is so low that in many cases the crop must have been produced at a loss. No other conclusion is possible from the reports of the Federal Bureau of Crop Es- timates whose figures are shown in Table 1. Table 1. — Average Yields and Farm Values oe Corn, Oats, and Wheat by Sections, eor the Seasons 1908 to 1919. Acre yields and farm market values by sections Crops Northwest Northeast Central Southwest Southeast Yield Bu. Value $ Yield Bu. Value $ Yield Bu. Value $ Yield Bu. Value $ Yield Bu. Value $ Corn 27.8 23.00 27.8 21.85 24.6 20.85 20.2 15.70 25.7 21.45 Oats 28.1 13.80 27.5 12.90 25.6 12.85 24.9 12.25 23.5 13.30 Wheat 16.9 21.70 15.2 19.85 13.4 17.30 12.8 16.95 12.55 16.40 To discover and adapt to general application, therefore, principles that will increase the average yield of corn throughout the state is the greatest opportunity of the worker in field crops to add materially to the wealth of Missouri. To report the work already done toward this pur- pose by the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station two bulletins have been prepared for publication as Parts I and II under the common title of Corn in Missouri. In Part I, issued as Missouri Experiment Station Bulletin 181, are considered corn varieties, their regional adaptability and their improvement by breeding, selection and care. It is the purpose of the present bulletin to discuss the remaining fac- tors by which the grower may increase the yields of corn, and to tell the results of experiments in these processes and conditions. The possibilities of increasing Missouri’s yield of corn, oats and wheat are indicated by the tabulated results of this work. The average yields of these crops on Experiment Station fields at Columbia and in different parts of the state are shown in Table 2. *Many of the experiments reported in this bulletin were planned by M. F. Miller in 1906 and have been at various times under the direct charge of Professor Miller, H. U. Hughes, C. B. Hutchison, T. R. Douglass and J. B. Smith. Since 1916 the work has been carried on under the direction of W. C. Etheridge, chairman of the Department of Field Crops. 4 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletion 185 This bulletin, therefore, considers the following conditions and pro- cesses : Page (1) Fertility of the Soil 5 (2) Preparation of the Seed Bed 7 (3) Method of Planting 8 (4) Time and Rate of Planting 11 (5) Cultivation During the Growing Season 13 (6) Corn versus Grain Sorghums for Thin Uplands 15 (7) Mixture of Corn and Other Crops 18 CORN IN A CROPPING SYSTEM Crop rotation is the basis of continuous profitable farming on the same land. The practice of continuous cropping or planting the same field year after year to the same or similar crops, has probably done more than any other one thing in reducing the margin of profit secured from the corn crop. The first principle of maintaining soil fertility is in seeding cultivated land to grass or clover, at frequent intervals, for meadow or pasture. Table 2. — Average Acre Yields oe Corn, Oats and Wheat. (On Experiment Fields at Columbia, Maryville and Warrensburg) Columbia, Boone County Maryville, Nodaway County Warrensburg-, Johnson County Corn Oats Wheat Corn Oats Wheat Corn Oats Wheat 12 10 12 6 6 5 4 4 4 yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. 45.5 30.4 23.2 61.2 48.5 29.8 28.3 30.6 14.6 Corn, wheat, oats and soybeans are the most important crops for the greater part of the State. Where any or all of these crops are grown, grass or clover should be sown at intervals of three to six years, depend- ing upon the conditions involved in each particular case. The yield of corn more than the yield of any other crop is lowered by continuous cropping. In addition to the rapid depletion of soil fertility the physical condition of the soil becomes poor. Corn smut, root diseases and the attack of insects often develop from continuous cropping. Corn naturally fits into a cropping system following sod and preceding oats or soybeans. While there are practical objections to the planting of sod land to corn, no other crop, with the exception of sorghum, is better adapted. Sod land being naturally dry, the crop is more subject to dam- age from drought than when planted on land that has been under culti- vation for one or more years. In addition to the natural dryness of sod land, corn also suffers during a drought because of the relative rank growth which makes a greater demand for soil moisture. Experimental evidence indicates, however, that soil moisture is more efficient on fertile Field Methods that Increase the Corn Crop 5 soils than on poor soils. In other words, a pound of soil water will pro- duce more dry matter in plant substance on fertile land than it will pro- duce on soil relatively poor. All arguments against a rotation following sod with corn cannot eft- set the advantages gained by establishing a system providing sod in the cropping system. VARIETIES For the upland soils of North Missouri medium early maturing var- ieties are preferable. Reid’s Yellow Dent is one of the best of these var- ieties. Boone County White and St. Charles White are varieties recom- mended for the uplands of Central Missouri. In the southern part of the state Commercial White is adapted to the upland soils. For the lowlands of Southeast Missouri, St. Charles White has proved best. For all bottom lands of the State, excepting the lowlands of the southeastern portion, Boone County White is generally recom- mended. When early varieties, those maturing in from 100 to 115 days, are wanted, use Iowa S lvermine. Diamond Joe, or early maturing types of Calico or Bloody Butcher. For silage purposes St. Charles White and Commercial White have proved superior to other varieties tested. A thorough discussion of varieties is included in Missouri Experiment Station Bulletin 181. THE USE OF MANURE ON CORN The results of fifteen years experiments by the Department of Soils of this station on a large number of soil types in various sections of Mis- souri show an average yearly increase in yield of 10.34 bushels an acre, when 8 tons of manure were applied in a four-year rotation and plowed under before planting corn. No more manure was applied until the be- ginning of the next rotation. The average annual increase of crops following corn in the rotation have been, oats 4.59 bushels, wheat 4.73 bushels, and clover hay 808 pounds. It will be seen from these figures that the effect of the manure was by no means confined to the corn crop. It is usually most convenient, however, to apply manure before corn so that it can be plowed under. Less of the fertility supplied by the manure is lost if this is done than if the manure is applied as a top dressing. However, it is often good practice to top-dress wheat with manure where clover or grass is to follow. It is better to plow under coarse, fresh manure several weeks before the corn is planted, as this gives time for decay to begin and there will be more plant food available when the young corn needs it. Manure may be applied to corn at almost any rate up to 16 tons an acre with profitable results. An application of this sort, however, is pos- sible only if a large amount of feed is purchased. The average farm can not produce more than enough manure to apply eight tons an acre once 6 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletion 185 in a four year rotation, or an average of two tons an acre a year to the cultivated land. This amount can be applied only if the most carefm methods of handling manure are used. Manure in itself is not a complete fertilizer as compared with the needs of the crops and the soil, for the percentage of phosphorus is low. This may be corrected by adding 25 to 40 pounds of acid phosphate to each load of manure before applying. FERTILIZERS FOR CORN When the supply of barnyard manure is limited it is often profitable to apply commerc'al fertilizer to corn. In the experiments conducted on the soil experiment fields an application of steamed bonemeal at the rate of 150 pounds an acre, applied with a fertilizer drill ahead of the corn planter, has given an average increase in yield of 3.59 bushels of corn and 5.45 bushels of oats following the corn the next year. Ac‘d phosphate has given results similar to steamed bonemeal when tested on the same fields. On medium to thin lands where some manure is used it is usually good practice to apply about 150 to 250 pounds of acid phosphate or bonemeal with a fertilizer drill ahead of the corn planter. On very thin lands and especially where little manure is returned and few legume crops grown a mixed fertilizer containing 2 or 3 percent nitrogen, 10 to 12 percent available phosphoric acid and 2 or 3 percent potash may be used instead of the acid phosphate or bonemeal. Fertilizers give their best results on corn in seasons of normal rainfall. During dry years they may cause the corn to fire and produce little or no increase in the yield of grain. In some parts of Missouri it is common practice to apply fertilizer in the hill or row with an attachment to the corn planter. When used in this way the fertilizer should be applied at only 75 to 100 pounds to the acre. During seasons of abundant rainfall this method will yield good re- turns, but in dry . years there is more danger that the fertilizer may cause the corn to fire than when it is applied ahead of the planter with a fer- tilizer drill. The effect on the following crop will also be less than if the fertilizer is applied with a fertilizer drill. In general the fertilizing of corn may be considered a temporary means of increasing the immediate crops. It has little effect in building up the soil except that the phosphorous content may be slightly increased if large quantities of high phosphatic fertilizers are added. In any sys- tem of fertilizing corn the other crops in the rotation should always be considered, for the increased yields of these may greatly increase the pro- fit from the fertilizer. Fertilizer should be used with a good system of crop rotation which returns an abundance of organic matter and manure to the land and which utilizes the best methods of cultivation and soil management. That is, fertilizers should be used to help raise the general level of crop yields; but they should not be depended upon to increase or even to maintain yields, unless other provisions are made for maintain- ing the organic matter and nitrogen of the soil. Field Methods that Increase the Corn Crop 7 PLOWING FOR CORN Fall plowing usually is advisable when the land is not inclined to wash badly. Spring plowing should be practiced exclusively where land washes during the winter months. Land deeply fall plowed is less sub- ject to erosion than when plowed very shallow. Fall plowing has many advantages other than reducing the amount of spring labor. Whenever practicable, sod land should be broken in the fall. It causes a more complete decay of all plant growth turned under, together with the decay of grass roots. Disking before plowing is recom- mended. Fall disking and plowing of sod land reduce the danger that corn yields will be cut by drought in the following season. Another fac- tor favoring fall plowed sod land is the control of wireworms and cut worms. Their attack is always more noticeable following sod, especially in seasons when the weather is continually cool and moist the first two weeks after the corn is up. Fall plowing followed by freezing weather helps materially in the control of these pests. Fall plowing not only provides more time for thorough seed bed preparation in the spring, but makes possible the preparation of a good seed bed with less labor, because of the effects of freezing and 'thawing. Fall plowing in the place of spring plowing usually will reduce the labor of preparing the seed bed by at least one double disking. Depth of Plowing. — 'The proper depth of plowing land for corn de- pends largely . upon the nature of the soil and subsoil, and the depth of former plowing. Plowing 6 to 8 inches deep is recommended as a gen- eral practice. Plowing always at one depth tends to pack the soil be- low the furrow depth. When it is desired to deepen a shallow soil by plowing, the depth of plowing should be increased very slightly each year. Do not throw out several inches of new soil at one time for this may re- sult in decreased yield of the crop. This decrease will be more notice- able when the ground is plowed in the spring. The effect will also de- pend largely upon the nature of the soil and subsoil. SEED BED PREPARATION In preparing the land for planting the ultimate object is weed con- trol. After fall plowing it is well to let the land lie in its rough condi- tion as long as possible up to the final preparation for planting. But when land is plowed in the spring it should be harrowed soon afterward. There are two distinct advantages of this practice (1) the harrowing fills in the spaces between the furrow slices and thus checks the evaporation of moisture and (2) it levels the surface and makes disking much easier and more effective. However, final preparation of spring-plowed land should also wait until just before planting. The great benefit in this practice is the destruction of early grass and weeds which are so difficult to clean out at the early cultivation of the crop. Planting on thoroughly clean land is an important step toward a successful crop. When the land is disked but once, disking should cross the direction of plowing. In harrowing go across the disking or at an angle to the di- rection of disking. This method provides a more uniform seed bed. A 8 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletion 185 level seed bed is essential, especially if the ground is only moderately loose, as it results in a more uniform depth of planting. In the case of sod land double disking with cross disking is usually necessary to put the ground in good shape for corn. The amount of work will always depend upon the time of breaking and the sodded condition of the soil. Thorough working of the surface before planting, thus enab- ling better covering of the seed, will always reduce the damage done by field mice, crows and other birds. Following the planter with a harrow will also help materially. METHODS OF PLANTING Through the greater part of the corn belt corn is surface planted on ground prepared by fall or spring plowing. The listing of corn is a prac- tice confined largely to the western section of the corn belt in regions where moisture is the limiting factor in crop production. Listing is not recommended as a general practice for Missouri. It is, especially, not advisable through the greater part of Northeast Mis- souri and in other sections where the land is flat and none too well drain- ed. On such land listing increases the danger that the seed will rot in the ground or that the young crop will be drowned out after it comes up. In sections where the soil is relatively shallow, listing is not ad- visable, for it would result in planting the corn in or near the subsoil. But in the extreme Northwestern part of the State, designated in general by Atchison, Nodaway, Holt, Andrew, DeKalb, Gentry, Harrison and Worth counties, there is reason for believing that where land is well drained, listing is better than surface planting. At Maryville, in Noda- way county, tests of listing covering a nine-year period have been con- ducted by the Missouri Experiment Station in co-operation with the North- west Missouri State Teachers College, with excellent results. These re- sults are reported in Table 3. As an average for the nine years single listing has increased the yield 12.6 bushels per acre over plowing and surface planting. The use of fur- row openers in surface planting, by which means- the seed is planted in shallow furrows, increased the yield 7.4 bushels per acre over ordinary surface planting. Double disking ahead of the lister has not paid for the labor involved. Double disking has been inferior to single listing to the extent of 6.6 bushels decrease per acre. During each of the nine years single listing has given a better yield than the average of the other four methods. Except for the seasons of 1911, 1915, and 1916 single listing has given larger yields than any other methods, being for two of these years slightly lower in yield than where furrow openers were used on plowed land. A study of the rainfall table (see Table 4) shows that during the years of 1915 and 1916 more rain fell during the months of June to August inclusive than for this period in any of the remaining seven years. Moisture was especially plentiful in 1915 during the period June to August. The relatively low yields from double listing can be explained, in part at least, by the condition of the seed bed. The treatments were conducted each year on land that had been in corn, surface planted the year before. Tabi,e 3. — Yield oe Corn as Determined by the Method oe Preparing the Seed Bed. (Maryville, Nodaway County) Field Methods that Increase the Corn Crop 9 to VO 00 VO T-t o to 00 00 K ts (N O 00 to VOtOOCMtOOrHCM^ O \0 N O On 0\ 00 O CO o 00 C* PO 00 O o ^ CM 1-H O Tf Xfl 3 W o s u O >, * £ g.g u o O O CO no .-h O O O « c ft cn w X u £ n co N in O O lO O 00 Tf uo <0 *0 in n io h o\ « no ft ft " ' ft cm’ ts to O) Tf -t m CM ■'f O O ON o *ot>.O00^3M-O>oO vOi— tovo^novovoo rtNio^m'ONO'o OiftOiO\OiO\OiOiOi 10 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletion 185 The stalks were not pastured and considerable plant residue and trash was present each spring. Through double listing this plant residue was only partly covered. This left the soil extremely loose and porous and the crop was probably more subject to damage from drought. It also in- terfered materially with cultivation, even to the extent of reducing the stand by the occasional loosening or tearing out of hills of corn. This series of experiments was partly duplicated during the years 1917 to 1920 in co-operation with the Central Missouri State Teachers’ College at Warrensburg in Johnson County. While the results shown in Table 5- are not consistent enough to warrant general recommendations, the Table 5. — Yields oe Corn Surface Planted With and Without Furrow Openers. (Warrensburg, Johnson County) Bushels per acre Method of planting 1917 1918 1919 1920 Average Surface planted without furrow opener Surface planted 40.1 . 1 4 ‘ 3 21.9 47.4 28.4 with furrow . opener 52.2 4.3 j 26.4 46.3 32.3 use of furrow openers increased the yield 3.9 bushels per acre over that of ordinary surface planting. Moisture is without -question the most im- portant limiting factor in corn production over much of Northwest Mis- souri. The soil is~ deep, fertile, and generally well drained. Under such conditions corn grows extremely rank. Dry periods, though often short in duration, seriously effect the yield of corn. SHOWING COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF CORN SURFACE: PLANTED AND CORN LISTED MARYVILLE NODAWAY COUNTY Y /// \ bushels or corn i 1 bushels increase 1/ /// I SURE ace: PLEN-rro I I FROM LISTING Fig. 1. — Comparative Yields of Corn Surface Planted and Listed, at Maryville in Noda- way County. Field Methods that Increase the Corn Crop 11 Listed corn is somewhat reduced in stalk development and leaf area. For this reason and probably for others which are not understood, listed corn is able to withstand drought better than surface planted corn. In addition, listed corn is less inclined to blow down or be broken off after earing. In general, rainfall affects the relative production of listed corn and surface planted corn. A study of Tables 4 and 6 and figure 1 will show this correlation. It is best illustrated during the seasons 1913 and 1915. In 1913 listed corn gave an increase of 28.6 bushels while in 1915 the increase over surface planting was only 4.1 bushels. The total rainfall during the months of June to August was only 8.8 inches in 1913, and for the same period in 1915, 31.0 inches. Considering the rainfall for these years from April to August in 1913, 14.9 inches fell while in 1915 there was a total of 38.6 inches. Table; 6. — Yields of Corn from Two Methods oe Planting, Together With Inches oe Raineaee During Growing Season. (.Maryville, Nodaway County) Yield in bushels per acre by years Method of planting 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1919 1920 Average No disking, land single listed 60.3 80.0 43.1 58.1 45.2 59.2 84.2 91.9 55.9 64.2 I^and plowed, crop surface planted 49.9 62.8 14.5 44.9 41.1 46.3 75.0 78.5 51.7 51.6 Difference 10.4 17.2 28.6 13.2 4.1 12.9 9.2 13.4 4.2 12.6 Total inches rainfall June 1 to Aug. 30 5.7 1 6.3 8.8 6.3 31.0 10.8 10.7 8.8 5.3 For the season of 1912 listed corn gave an increase of 17.2 bushels. The total rainfall for the summer months was only 6.3 inches. In some seasons, for example the season of 1920, the relations are not so consistent. The difference in yield favoring listed corn was only 4.2 bushels yet the total rainfall was comparatively light; especially during the last three weeks in June and for the month of August. This can be explained in part by the relatively thin stand on the plots for this season. Under less than normal stand, the effects of dry weather would not .be so notice- able. TIME, MANNER AND RATE OF PLANTING Corn in Missouri ordinarily is planted too early for best yields. Low- er yields from early planting may result from (1) poor stands due to rotting of the seed and attacks from wireworms and cutworms, and (2) an early, rank growth of weeds, which is seldom completely cleaned out. There are, however, two practical reasons in favor of early planting. The first is the convenience of labor. Where large acreages are to be planted it is necessary to start early in time to finish planting at a season- able date. The second one is that late planted corn is often caught by 12 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletion 185 dry periods at a critical stage in its development during silking and tas- seling. Corn planted earlier may escape partly or entirely such dry per- iods. At this stage corn is affected more by dry periods and hot winds than at any other time, resulting in firing the tassel, poor pollination, and a general check in shooting and ear development. Many of the so called barren stalks are caused by dry weather, thick planting or a combination of both. Late planted corn is also affected more by the attack of corn ear worms than corn planted earlier. However, all reasons in favor of early planting will not warrant planting so early that stan'ds are reduced or that the crop cannot be kept clean. Through the sandy soils of Southeast Missouri, the Ozark sectic the Ozark border, and the flat and rolling prairies of Southwest Missouri, early planting of corn is necessary for the best success in average years. These soils are naturally dry and failures from drought are not uncom- mon. Planting two weeks later than the average date often will result in practically complete failures. Through the central and northern part of the State the soils do not dry out so quickly, especially along the Mis- souri River and in the northwest section. In these areas extremely early planting is seldom warranted. In general, corn on upland should be check-rowed and on rich, moist bottom land drilled. Where land will stand a heavy rate of planting, more corn can be raised from drilled corn than from checked corn. This is partly because (1) more good ears can be produced in drilled corn than in corn checked and (2) under ordinary conditions the roots are dam- aged more in cross cultivation. However, when corn is drilled one must consider the difficulty in weed control, especially in backward seasons. The common rate of planting is three kernels checked every three and one-half feet in rows 3 feet 5 inches to 3 feet 8 inches apart. When the crop is drilled the quantity of seed used is about the same. A heavier rate is not to be recommended for most corn land in the State except where the crop is intended for silage. On rich, moist, bottom soils typifi- ed by the Missouri river bottoms a heavier rate, an additional stalk every 3.5 feet in the row, will usually result in greater yields, especially as a silage crop. Where corn is planted very thick, however, it should always be drilled. On the thinner uplands of Missouri corn is easily affected by drought, and a standard rate of two plants to every 3.5 feet in the row, checked or drilled, will yield as much and usually more corn per acre than a heavier planting. This applies especially to the Ozark region, the Ozark border, and the southwest level prairies of the State. At the Missouri Experiment Station for the seasons of 1918, 1919 and 1920 checked corn 2 stalks per hill averaged 2.3 bushels per acre more than a 3-stalk rate. The results are reported in Table 7. CORN CULTIVATION Corn is cultivated primarily to kill weeds and at the same time to keep the soil receptive to rainfall. On thin soils or where there is a ten- dency for the soil to run together and become hard and baked, cultiva- Field Methods that Increase the Corn Crop 13 tion also helps to hold moisture. In general, however, where extra culti- vations are not necessary for weed control, it is doubtful if the results se- cured will pay for the extra labor involved. This is true especially on all soils which could be classed as above the average in fertility. Tate cultivation after corn is normally laid by will rarely pay. Ex- tra cultivations are usually done with a one-horse cultivator harrow, single shovel, or mower wheel harrow. If in these extra cultivations the ground is stirred deeply the actual result will more often be to decrease the yield than to increase it. Corn develops its principal feeding roots in the top six to seven inches of soil. These roots develop rapidly as the plants advance in growth, anu by the time corn is in full tassel have extended through the soil between and in the row. Any cultural operation which interferes with this de- velopment may materially reduce the yield of the crop. Table 7. — Yields oe Corn Planted at Different Rates. (Columbia, Boone County) Rate of planting 1918 1919 1920 Average Check-rowed 2-rate 14.4 47.8 69.0 43.7 Check-rowed 3-rate 10.8 47.0 66.3 41.4 Deep cultivation should be avoided late in the season, especially when corn is being normally plowed the last time. The effects of deep cul- tivation will more often be noticeable during periods of drought. Deep, late cultivation followed by extremely dry weather may often reduce the yield of corn 10 to 15 percent, especially if the drought comes at a critical time in corn development — silking and tasseling. The effect of deep cultivation on the yields of corn is indicated in Table 8 which shows the importance of shallow tillage. In these experi- ments, carried on at four outlying fields in the State, land previous to cul- tivation was treated in exactly the same manner. Shovel type of cultiva- tois were used in these experiments. All plots were cultivated four times except the plots receiving late culture, which were cultivated six times. For both shallow and late cultivations the soil was stirred only deep enough to keep down weeds. On the deep cultivated plots the soil was stirred to an average depth of five inches. On the surface scraped plots no cultivators were used; the weeds being controlled by very shallow hoeing. The average yields for the ten years at all the four fields brings out four practical points in regard to corn culture: (1) cultivation is primarily for the purpose of weed control ( 2 ) deep cultivation reduces the yield ( 3 ) late cultivation will ordinarily not pay for the labor involved and ( 4 ) av- erage cultivation, even though shallow, causes considerable injury to corn roots, resulting in reduced yields. Nearly 10 bushels greater yield was obtained by keeping the weeds down by hoeing, as compared to shallow cultivation. The practical ap- 14 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletion 185 plication of this result may be found in the use of weeder knives in the place of shovels during the later stages of corn growth. Six and one- half bushels increase was secured from shallow culture, over cultivating deeply. At the Shelbina field, ridging the land was practiced in comparison with the shallow, late and deep cultural operations, reported in Table 8. An average acre yield for three years of 18.6 bushels was secured. This was four bushels per acre less than on the shallow cultivated plots. These results are consistent with those from cultural experiments con- ducted in other states. For example, at the Illinois Station for a period of five years, an increase of 6 bushels resulted from shallow cultivation, as compared to deep cultivation. Table 8. — Eeeects oe DieeerEnt Methods oe Tillage on the Yield oe Corn. (Summary of Results from Four Fields) Method of cultivating Number of cultivations Yield in bushels ; per acre Shelbina Shelby Co.) 3 years Maryville (Nod’w’y Co.) 3 years Warrensburg (Johnson Co.) 3 years Springfield (Greene Co.) 1 year Total Average Shallow 4 22.5 45.7 23.8 28.4 30.1 Late 6 21.4 37.9 23.2 28.3 27.7 Deep 4 21.1 33.7 21.8 18.0 23.6 Surface scraped none* 58.9 25.6 34.9 39.8 Average 21.7 44.1 23.6 27.4 *No cultivation; but the plot was kept clean by scraping the surface with a hoe whenever the other plots were cultivated. WEED CONTROL Crop rotation is the first step in weed control. Since one of the most important items in the cost of corn production is the cultural opera- tions, any methods which will reduce the labor costs of keeping corn free of weeds will materially increase the crop profits. Certain weeds, due to their habits and time of growth, are naturally associated with cultivated crops. Crab grass, yellow and green foxtail, bull nettle, butter print, pigweed, morning glory, and cocklebur are the principal bad weeds in corn. These weeds are always to be found in great- ter numbers in land grown year after year to corn. Through a systematic alternation of corn, small grains and grass much progress can be made in the control of weeds. Sod land planted to corn can be kept clean with less labor than land long under cultivation. For the season, weed control is best secured by planting on a seed bed freshly prepared ahead of the planter. This gives the corn an oppor- tunity to start even with the weeds, if not ahead of them, and makes it possible to clean the corn by the first cultivation. Extremely early plant- Field Methods that Increase the Corn Crop 15 ing usually results in difficulty in cleaning corn. Certain weeds germin- ate promptly and grow more rapidly under cool, moist conditions. The harrow is one of the best implements in corn cultivation. Corn may be harrowed before it is large enough to cultivate, and while the weeds are yet small. Harrowing also breaks any soil crust that may have been formed and serves to make the soil drier and warmer on the sur- face, stimulating the growth of the corn. Harrowing while corn is small reduces the damage done by field mice, cutworms, wireworms and birds. Any reduction in stand by harrowing is easily offset by these advantages gained. The harrow should always be set with the teeth slanting back rather than straight. When corn is planted on first year sod the disk type of cultivator is more desirable than the shovel types. This is true at least for the first and second cultivations, especially if the ground is well set with grass roots. In backward seasons or where weeds have made a large growth, corn can be more easily cleaned with the disk cultivator. Ground can be cul- tivated with this implement when too wet for the shovel cultivator. The corn should be “barred off,” getting as close to the plants as is pos- sible. At this time corn has not developed an extensive root system and there is always sufficient moisture to prevent the soil from drying out. There is no danger in retarding the growth of the plants. For the second cultivation the disks should be set to throw the soil back, giving enough “set” to cover weeds between the hills. If the corn has been checked, the second cultivation may also “bar off,” crossing the first and breaking out the sections between the hills. After the two first cultivations either type of cultivator is equally satisfactory. Due to the inefficiency in maintaining two complete sets of cultiva- tors, the common practice is to use either the disk or shovel type ex- clusively. Where all cultivations are made with the disk type care should be used to prevent excessive ridging of land by the time the corn is being worked the last time. The land should be left as near level as possible. The practice of ridging corn is common, especially on the less rolling and poorly drained soils of Northeast and Southwest Missouri. The results ob- tained in securing better drainage during early spring will not offset the damage done the plants during the drier periods of summer. On stumpy or rocky land, the four-shovel type of cultivator is in more common use. Whenever practicable, however, the six-shovel im- plements are to be preferred. The land can be stirred more effectively without cultivating deeply and without the necessity of ridging. CORN OR SORGHUM FOR THIN UPLANDS On much of the thin, dry uplands of the Ozark section corn is a diffi- cult crop to grow successfully, except in especially favorable seasons. Over this section, as well as the uplands of the Ozark border and the level prairies of Southwest Missouri, there is reason for believing that grain sorghums are generally better than corn for a grain crop. When cured forage is desired the sweet sorghum will produce more tonnage and a better quality of feed than corn will produce. 16 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletion 185 The sorghums are extremely drought resistant. They will live through periods so dry that corn would be ruined for seed or forage, and when the drought is broken, they will go into a vigorous growth. They will make fairly good yields on poor land. Comparative yields of corn and sorghums were secured during the seasons 1919 and 1920 at Columbia, Boone County, and at Cuba, Crawford County. Additional yields were secured during the seasons 1917, 1918 Fig. 2. — A field of Grain Sorghum in Crawford County (Photographed at Second Cul- tivation.) and 1919 at Warrensburg, Johnson County. The results are shown in Tables 9, 10 and 11. The results secured at Cuba, Crawford County, as shown in Table 10, are an indication of what may be expected in yields of these crops. The soil on which the experiments were conducted will not make a good crop Table 9. — Yields in Seed, Green Forage, and Cured Forage oe Corn, Grain and Sweet Sorghums. (Columbia, Boone County) Crop Bushels of grain per acre Tons of green f per acre orage Tons of cured per acre forage 1919 1920 Avg. 1919 1920 Avg. 1919 1920 Avg. Corn 50.6 62.5 56.6 6.5 10.7 8.6 1.2 1.9 1.6 Kafir 66.8 26.0 46.4 7.7 9.8 8.8 1.6 2.6 2.1 Milo 65.0 13.8 39.4 7.6 6.9 7.3 1.1 1.9 1.5 Feterita 56.6 15.9 36.3 6.1 5.3 5.7 1.3 2.0 1.7 Sweet Sorghum 50.1 15.7 32.9 14.2 19.1 16.7 1.6 2.5 2.0 Field Methods that Increase the Corn Crop 17 of corn in the average season. The season of 1919 was so dry that corn was practically a complete failure. The season of 1920 was a good one for corn. By comparing the yields of these two seasons it will be seen that corn was affected by the dry season of 1919 much more than were the sorghums. As a comparison between kafir and corn for the two years, kafir yielded nearly four times more grain; twice as much green forage, and one-third more cured forage per acre. Kafirs are the best among the grain sorghums tested. Table 10. — Yields in Seed, Green Forage and Cured Forage oe Corn, Grain Sorghum and Sweet Sorghum. (Cuba, Crawford County) Crop Bushels of grain per acre Tons of green forage per acre Tons of cured forage per acre 1919 1920 Avg. 1919 1920 Avg. 1919 1920 Avg. Corn 1.5 13.8 7.7 0.2 3.3 1.8 0.1 1.1 0.6 Kafir 22.7 33.0 27.9 0.8 4.7 2.8 0.5 1.4 0.9 Milo 10.6 16.9 13.8 0.7 4.7 2.7 0.2 1.2 0.7 Feterita 9.4 8.7 9.1 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.3 Sweet Sorghum 14.6 27.9 21.3 1.3 6.9 4.1 0.6 1.3 0.9 Table 11. — Yields in Cured Forage oe Corn, Grain and Sweet Sorghum. ( Warrensburg, Johnson County) Crop Tons of cured forage per acre 1917 1918 1919 Average Corn 2.6 1.8 2.6 2.3 Kafir 1.1 2.7 3.6 2.5 Milo 1.8 3.1 3.0 2.6 Feterita 1.1 2.2 2.7 2.0 Sweet Sorghum 4.4 4.2 4.5 4.4 Sudan grass 2.6 2.4 2.4 2.5 The tests at both Columbia and Warrensburg were conducted on land better for corn than the average uplands of these two sections. At Warrensburg only forage yields were determined while at Columbia yields of both forage and grain were measured. Tables 9 and 11 indicate that on land of this type sorghums are inferior to corn in yield of grain but su- perior in forage yields. Based on yields secured at the three fields, sweet sorghums are su- perior as a forage crop to either corn or kafir the best of the grain sorg- hums. At Cuba, sweet sorghum yielded one-third more cured forage and twice the green forage yielded by corn. At Columbia the yield of sweet sorghum in cured forage was about equal to that of grain sorghum and greater than that of corn. In green forage the tonnage was double that 18 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletion 185 of either grain sorghum or corn. At Warrensburg sweet sorghum yields in cured forage were twice as large as the yields of either corn or sorghum. From results so far secured, sorghums are to be recommended for thin uplands of South Missouri, growing the grain sorghum for a grain crop and the sweet sorghum for forage. The production of corn should be limited largely to the first and second creek and river bottomlands of these sections and to the more productive uplands. Where sorghums are grown for grain as a substitute for corn the kafirs are preferable to feterita or milo. They make a better yield, ripen more uniformly, and shatter less. The milos, especially the dwarf varieties, are not easily harvested. The chief objection to feterita is its heavy produc- tion of suckers which results in an unevenly ripened crop. When allowed to become over ripe feterita shatters badly. Among the kafirs, Standard Blackhull, Sunrise and Dawn are probably the best varieties for Missouri. When the crop is to be used for forage, either green or cured, the sweet sorghums are preferable to either corn or grain sorghum. The Amber, Orange and Honey are the best varieties. The varieties are named in order of their time of maturity. CATCH CROPS IN CORN The practice of using any crop other than rye as a catch crop in corn is not to be recommended except on bottom land well supplied with available moisture. At the last corn cultivation, the usual time of seeding catch crops in corn, as rye, rape, cowpeas or soybeans, the weather is usually dry and hot. The ground is shaded by the corn and frequently there is not enough moisture to give uniform germination of the seed. Sufficient growth from the catch crop to warrant the practice, can only be secured in rare seasons when there prevails a period of cool moist weather following such planting. At the Missouri Experiment Station, the returns from broadcasting soybeans in corn at . the last cultivation have never been large enough to pay for the cost of the seed. Corn and soybeans. — The planting of soybeans with corn is becoming more popular each season. The use of cowpeas with corn is an old prac- tice, especially over the southern part of the corn growing region. Soy- beans give better results because they produce more seed and are fully equal to cowpeas in yields of forage. Where soybeans are planted with corn, both crops should always be planted at the same time. Corn and soybeans cannot be mixed and planted from the same box. Soybeans are best planted with a pea and bean attachment on the corn planter, which can be secured for all standard planters. These attachments are fixed to the planter frame and deliver the seed from a separate box into the same dropping channel as that of the corn. With this arrangement soybeans can be drilled, or dropped in the hill with corn where the crop is checked. The planter should be set to drop an average of two soybeans for every two to three kernels of corn. Four to six pounds of soybeans are required per acre, depending upon the size of the seed. When soy- beans are planted in corn, do not plant too early or too deep. Early and deep planting often result in poor stands of soybeans. Soybeans are planted in corn for pasturing with lambs in the stand- Field Methods that Increase the Corn Crop 19 ing corn, for hogging both crops off or for using the combined crop for silage. Where the combined crop is used for silage some of the beans may shatter. Much of this loss can be recovered by pasturing the corn stubble with hogs. The exact value of-hogging off corn and soybeans, using the soybeans as a substitute for tankage or other similar concentrates, has not been fully determined. The Missouri Experiment Station has, however, made a study of the effect of soybeans on the yield of corn when the two crops are combined. Soybeans planted in corn decrease the yield of the corn. The amount of decrease depends in general upon three things, (1) rate of planting both Fig. 3. — Soybeans in Corn Should be Seeded at the Same Time the Corn is Planted. corn and soybeans, (2) soil fertility, and (3) relative amount of moisture during the growing season. In general a cut in the corn yield of from 2 to 7 or 8 bushels per acre may be expected, depending upon the degree of one or more of the above conditions. However, the soybeans may themselves yield 4 or 5 bushels of seed, and hence may abundantly com- pensate for any reduction in yield of corn which they cause. This question can be settled only by direct feeding experiments, which are now being conducted by the Missouri Experiment Station. Corn and cowpeas. — The combination of cowpeas and corn is similar in every way to corn and soybean combinations. Their effects on corn 20 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletion 185 yields are also similar to that of soybeans. At the Shelbina field in 1914 cowpeas planted in corn decreased the corn yield 2.24 bushels per acre. At the Morely field in 1913 the decrease was 6.6 bushels. On the latter field the soil is quite sandy and readily subject to drought. Cowpeas in corn will compare favorably with soybeans only when the crop is to be used for silage. For other purposes soybeans are more sat- isfactory. Corn and rape. — Rape is not well suited for planting in corn. It is a cool season plant which gives its best results from either early spring or late summer planting. Average corn planting time in the spring is too late to sow rape for best results. The practice of seeding rape in corn at the late cultivation is, under average conditions not practical because in the usual dry, hot weather at that time of the year, the rape will rarely germ- inate and grow well. Considerable forage for late summer and fall pas- ture can be secured by seeding rape along the fences in the turning rows. I UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 630.7M70B C001 BULLETIN. COLUMBIA 169-185 1920-21 3 0112 019672192