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Table 4. — Summary of State laws and rulings relating to the prevention of blindness from babies’ sore eyes (no county or city acts , ordinances , or
rulings included ) — Continued.
110 TABULAE STATEMENT OF INF ANT- WELFARE WORK.
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TABULAR STATEMENT OF INFANT- WELFARE WORK.
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DETAILS OF THE STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR REPORTING BABIES’
SORE EYES.
[References are to session laws unless otherwise specified.]
Arkansas. — Inflamed, swollen, reddened, discharging eyes of infant at any time to
be reported, within 6 hours, by midwife, nurse, or other person having charge, to
health officer or physician. Ruling State Board, of Health, 1913.
California. — Inflamed, reddened, swollen, discharging eyes of infant under 2 weeks
to be reported by physician or other practitioner, midwife, nurse, parent, or other
person having charge, within 24 hours, to health officer. Penalty, not more than
$ 50 ; for second offense, not more than $ 100 ; for third offense and thereafter, not
more than $200; third conviction sufficient cause for revocation of midwife’s or phy-
sician’s license, etc. 1915, c. 724, p. 1431.
Colorado. — Inflamed, reddened, discharging eyes of infant under 2 weeks, should
no physician be in attendance, to be reported by parent, nurse, or other person in
charge, to local health officer or legally qualified physician. Penalty, not to exceed
$ 300 . Regulation No. 28, State Board of Health, adopted Feb. 7, 1916.
Connecticut— Inflamed, swollen, reddened . eyes of infant under 2 weeks to be
reported by midwife, nurse, or attendant, within six hours, to health officer. Penalty,
not more than $ 200 . Gen. Stat. 1902, s. 2535.
District of Columbia. — Inflamed, discharging eyes of newborn child to be reported
by midwife or attendant other than physician, within six hours, to health officer. '
Midwife or attendant must not treat, disease. Penalty, not more than $40. RegvXa- \
tions of commissioners of August 25, 1911, effective September 27, 1911.
Idaho. — Inflamed, swollen, reddened, discharging eyes of infant under 2 weeks to
be reported by midwife, nurse, or other person having charge, within six hours, to
health officer or physician. Penalty, not more than $100 or 90 days, or both. Rev. '
Codes, 1908, s. 1108.
Illinois. — Inflamed, swollen, reddened, discharging eyes of infant under 2 weeks
to be reported by physician, midwife, nurse, parent, etc., within six hours, to health
officer. Penalty, $10 to $ 100 . 1915, p. 366.
Indiana. — Inflamed, swollen, reddened, discharging eyes of infant under 2 weeks
to be reported by parents or attendant, within six hours, to health officer. Penalty,
$10 to $ 50 . Burns's Anno. Stat. 1914, s. 7607d.
Kansas. — Ophthalmia neonatorum to be reported by physicians. Resolution State 1 ‘
Board of Health.
Kentucky. — Inflamed, swollen, reddened, or discharging eyes of infant under 30 \
days to be reported by physician, midwife, nurse, parent, within six hours, to health i
officer. Physicians, mid wives, nurses to be instructed annually in regard to recog- '
nizing and treating the disease. Penalty, not more than $100, or, for persistent failure, <
revocation of license. Carroll’s Stat. 1915, vol. l, s. 2062b :
Louisiana. — Red,, swollen, inflamed, discharging eyes of infant under 2 weeks to be
reported by physician, midwife, nurse, parent, or other attendant, within six hours,
to health officer, Penalty for first offense, not more than $50; for second offense,
not more than $100; and for third offense and thereafter, not more than $200 or revo-
cation of physician’s or midwife’s license. 191 4, No. 174, p. 292.
Maine. — Reddened, inflamed eyes of infant under 4 weeks to be reported by mid-
wife, nurse, or person having charge, at once, to physician. Penalty, not more than
$100 or six months. Rev. Stat. 1903, c. 18, s. 90.
Maryland. — Reddened, inflamed, swollen, discharging eyes of infant under 2 weeks
to be reported by midwife, nurse, or other attendant than physician, immediately,
to health officer or physician. Penalty, not more than $5. Anno. Code, vol. 3, 1914 ,
art. 43, s. 79.
Massachusetts. — Inflamed, swollen, red, discharging eyes of infant under 2 weeks
to be reported by physician, nurse, relative, or other attendant, within six hours, to
health officer, Penalty, physician, not less than $50 npr more than $200; other, not
more than $100. Rev. Laws, 1902, c. 75, s. 49, as amended 1914, c. 177; s. 50, as amended
1907, c. 480. # J|
Michigan. — Redness, swelling, inflammation or discharge of eyes of infant under 2
weeks to be reported by midwife, nurse, or person having charge, within six hours,
to physician. Penalty, not more than $100 or six months, or both. 1913, No. 123 ,
p. 221.
112
TABULAE STATEMENT OF INF ANT- WELFARE WORK. 113
Minnesota. — Inflamed, reddened, diseased eyes of infant under 2 months to be
reported by midwife, nurse, parent, or other person having charge, within 12 hours,
to health officer. Infraction a misdemeanor. Regulation State Board of Health.
Mississippi. — Inflamed, reddened, swollen, discharging eyes of infant, within
2 weeks, to be reported by physician, midwife, nurse, relative, maternity home or
hospital, parent, or other person in attendance, within six hours, to local health
officer. Penalty, first offense $50; second, $100; and thereafter, $200. 1916, c. 115.
Missouri. — Red, swollen, discharging eyes of infant under 3 weeks to be reported,
at once, by midwife, muse, or person having charge, to physician. Penalty, $10 to
$100, or not more than six months, or both. Rev. Stat. 1909, ss. 8321-8323.
Nebraska. — Ophthalmia neonatorum classed as a contagious disease; physician
required to report to State board of health within 24 hours; head of family or other
person to report to local board of health. Rules and Regulations, Nov. 9, 1915.
New Hampshire. — Inflamed, swollen, reddened, discharging eyes of infant under 2
weeks to be reported by midwife, nurse, or person having charge, within six hours,
to the board of health; physicians to report within 24 hours. Penalty, not more
than $25. 1915, c. 85.
New Jersey. — Inflamed, swollen, reddened, discharging eyes of infant under 2 weeks
to be reported by midwife, nurse, or other attendant than physician, within six hours,
to board of health. Penalty, $50. Comp. Stat. 1910, Health, p. 2733.
New York. — Inflamed, reddened eyes of infant under 2 weeks to be reported by
midwife, nurse, or other person having charge, immediately, to health officer or
physician. Midwife, nurse, etc., must not use remedies. Infraction a misdemeanor.
Con. Laws 1909, c. 40, Penal Law, s. 482. Public Health Manual, State Dept, of Health ,
p. 129.
North Carolina. — Inflamed, reddened eyes of infant under 2 weeks to be reported
by midwife, nurse, or person acting as nurse, within six hours, to health officer or
physician. Penalty, $5 to $10. 1915, c. 272.
North Dakota. — Inflamed, swollen, reddened, discharging eyes of infant under 2
weeks to be reported by parents or other attendant than physician, within six hours,
to health officer. Penalty, $10 to $50. Comp. Laws, 1913, s. 3170.
Ohio. — Inflamed, swollen, reddened, discharging eyes of infant under 2 weeks to be
reported by physician, midwife, muse, parent, relative, or other attendant, etc.,
within six hours, to local health officer. Penalty, $50 to $100, and $100 to $300 for
second or subsequent offense. Gen. Code, 1910, ss. 1248-1 to 1248-7 as added by 1915,
p . 321 . (See also s. 1 2787 .)
Oregon. — Inflamed, swollen, or reddened eyes of infant under 2 weeks to be reported
by midwife, nurse, or other person having charge, within 24 hours, to health officer
or physician. Penalty, $25 to $100, or not more than 30 days, or both. 1915, c. 210.
Pennsylvania. — Inflamed eyes of infant to be reported by physician to health officer
or State department of health. Inflamed, swollen, reddened eyes of infant under 2
weeks to be reported by midwife, nurse, or other person having care of infant, within
six hours, to health officer or State department of health and physician. Penalty,
$20 to $100, or 10 to 30 days, or both. 1913, No. 295.
Rhode Island. — Inflamed, reddened, swollen, discharging eyes of infant under 2
weeks to be reported by midwife, nurse, or other person having charge, within six
hours, to health officer or physician. Penalty, not more than $100, or six months,
or both. Gen. Laws 1909, c. 343, s. 25, as amended 1914, c. 1081.
South Carolina. — Inflamed, reddened eyes of infant at any time after birth to be
reported by midwife, nurse, or other person having charge, immediately, to health
officer. Penalty, not more than $25, or one month, or both. Crim. Code 1912, s. 443.
South Dakota. — Inflamed eyes of infant, within two months, to be reported by mid-
wife, muse, parent, or other person having charge, within 12 hours, to health officer.
Rule 61, Reg. Board of Health, July 25, 1913.
Tennessee. — Inflamed, swollen, reddened, discharging eyes of infant under 2 weeks
to be reported by nurse, midwife, or other person having charge, within six hours, to
health officer or physician. Penalty, $5 to $100, or six months, or both. 1915, c. 52.
(See also 1911, c. 10.)
Texas. — Inflamed, reddened eyes of newborn infant to be reported by midwife,
nurse, or other attendant than physician, within 12 hours, to health officer or physi-
cian. Penalty, $10 to $1,000. Rev. Civ. Stat. 1911, art. 4529, as amended 1911, c. 95.
Utah. — Inflamed, discharging eyes of newborn infant to be reported by physician
or midwife, within six hours, to health officer. Penalty, as for misdemeanor. 1911 ,
p. 61.
Vermont. — Inflamed, swollen, red, discharging eyes of infant, within 2 weeks, to
be reported by nurse, relative, or otherperson having charge, within six hours, to
health officer. Rule 29, State Board of Health .
36248°— 16 8
114 TABULAR STATEMENT OP INFANT- WELFARE WORK.
Washington.- — Red, swollen, discharging eyes of infant under two weeks, to be
reported by midwife, nurse, or other person in charge, immediately, to health officer
or physician. Regulation State Board of Health , July 15, 1912.
West Virginia. — Inflamed, swollen, reddened, discharging eyes of infant, to be
reported by midwife, nurse, or other person having charge, within six hours, to local
health officer. Regulation 100, Public Health Council, adopted January 25, 1916;
effective April 1, 1916. Penalty, $10 to $300 and 30 days. 1915, c. 11, s. S.
Wisconsin. — Reddened, swollen, discharging eyes of infant under 2 weeks to be
reported by nurse, parents, or other person having charge, within six hours, to health
officer. Penalty, not more than $100. Stat. 1915, c. 56, s. 1409a-2.1; 1409a-4.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
16 CENTS PER COPY
V
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
CHILDREN’S BUREAU
JULIA C. LATHROP. Chief
ADMINISTRATION OF CHILD
LABOR LAWS
PART 2
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM
NEW YORK
By
HELEN L. SUMNER and ETHEL E. HANKS
INDUSTRIAL SERIES No. 2, Part 2
Bureau Publication No. 1 7
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1917
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
■WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
20 CENTS PER COPY
CONTENTS.
3^7
y 3 |a
X 1
Co
OO
-as
Page
Letter of transmittal 5
Administrative agencies and their functions (chart) Follows page 5
Introduction . 7
General administration 12-21
Local departments of health 14
Local school authorities 17
State industrial commission 19
State supervision 20
Method of securing employment certificates, New York City (chart) Faces page 22
Methods of securing employment certificates 21-33
Regular certificates 22-31
New York City, Manhattan Borough 23
New York City, other boroughs . 28
Buffalo 28
Rochester 29
Other cities and villages 29
Number and form of certificates 31
Vacation and temporary certificates 32
Lost certificates 32
Over-age certificates 33
Evidence of age 33-42
Transcript of birth certificate 34-37
Native-born children 34
Foreign-born children 35
Certificate of graduation 37
Passport or baptismal certificate 38
Other documentary evidence of age 38
Physicians’ certificate of age 40
Parent’s affidavit 41
Disposition of documents 41
Physical requirements 42-50
Procedure 44
Tests.... 46
Causes for refusal of certificates 48
Treatment of refused cases 49
Physical examination in factories 50
^^Educational requirements 1 50-63
School records 51
Interpretation of grade requirements 52
Employment-certificate classes 52
Examinations for employment certificates 55
Children’s records 56
Attendance requirements 57
Methods of issuing school records 58
Literacy test 60
Evening and continuation school attendance 60
4
0 >
3
4
CONTENTS.
Enforcement
School attendance
New York City _
Buffalo
Rochester
Second-class cities
Third-class cities
Villages
School census
Outside of first-class cities . .
Permanent census, New York City
Permanent census, Buffalo
Permanent census, Rochester
Immigrant children
Applicants for certificates
New York City
Buffalo
Rochester
Second-class cities
Third-class cities
Unemployed children
Industrial inspection.
Conclusion.
General administration
Methods of securing certificates
Evidence of age
Physical requirements
Educational requirements .
Enforcement
Summary
Appendix
Application of laws
Analysis of application of laws (chart)
Laws relating to employment certificates
Amendments to employment-certificate law
Forms used in the administration of employment-certificate laws
Page.
63-82
66-70
66
68
68
69
70
70
70-74
70
71
71
72
74
75-78
75
76
77
77
78
78
79
82-110
83
86
90
........ 93
96
101
108
111-164
Ill
Faces page 112
116
132
134
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U. S. Department of Labor,
Children’s Bureau,
Washington , D. C., October 9, 1916.
Sir : I transmit herewith a study of the administration of the New
York State child-labor law with especial reference to the employment-
certificate system. This is the second in the series of comparative
studies of the administration of child-labor laws designed to bring
out a standard method.
The law upon which the system here described is based differs in
many important respects from that which furnishes the foundation
for the methods described in the first report of the series, that on
Connecticut.
Acknowledgment should bo made of the cooperation of the Federal
Commission on Industrial Relations in part of the preliminary field
work for this report. The series of studies is under the direction of
Miss Helen L. Sumner, the assistant chief of the bureau, who has
been assisted in this report by Miss Ethel E. Hanks. Especial men-
tion should also be made of the efficient editorial services of Mr.
Howard C. Jenness.
Respectfully submitted.
Julia C. Lathrop, Chief.
Hon. W. B. Wilson,
Secretary of Labor .
.
LIBRARY
Of THE
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS, NEW YORK CITY
ADMINISTRATION OF THE EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFI-
CATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
INTRODUCTION.
The child-labor and employment-certificate laws of New York
State differ in many important respects from those of Connecticut,
described in the first report of this series. In both States 14 years
is the minimum age and children from 14 to 16 must secure certifi-
cates before they can be employed legally; but in Connecticut the
law is State wide in its application, whereas in New York various
sections are in force in cities and villages of different sizes. In Con-
necticut the list of places of employment covered by the law includes
“ mechanical ” establishments, and this term is held to bring under
its provisions practically all child laborers except newsboys and
children employed in agricultural pursuits and in domestic service. 1
In New York, on the other hand, different lists of places of employ-
ment to which the law applies are given for cities and villages of
different sizes, but no list includes any general term which can be
held to cover occupations not specifically mentioned. 2
In New York State employment certificates issued by local health
authorities must be obtained by children from 14 to 16 years of age
as a condition of employment:
A. At any time,
1. In any place in the State in —
Factories. 3
Mercantile establishments.
Business offices.
Telegraph offices.
Restaurants.
Hotels.
Apartment houses.
Distribution or transmission of merchandise or mes-
sages. 4
1 U. S. Children’s Bureau. Employment Certificate System, Connecticut. Bureau publication No. 12,
p. 8.
2 The exact application of the minimum-age and employment and school-record certificate provisions
of the New York laws is discussed in the Appendix, pp. Ill to 115.
3 Labor Law, sec. 70; Education Law, sec. 626. For the text of these sections see pp. 120, 126.
4 Education Law, sec. 626. Labor Law, sec. 162, requires certificates only in places of 3,000 inhabitants
or more in mercantile establishments, etc. For the text of these sections see pp. 126, 124.
7
8
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
A. At any time — Continued.
2. In cities and villages having a population of 3,000 or more
in —
Theaters. 1
Places of amusement.
Bowling alleys.
Barber shops.
Shoe-polishing establishments.
Distribution or transmission of articles other than mer-
chandise or messages.
Distribution or sale of articles. 2
3. In first and second class cities in —
Any other occupation. 3
B. During school hours,
1. In places, other than first and second class cities, having
a population of 5,000 or more in —
Any other occupation. 4
The New York law also requires children from 14 to 16 years of age
to obtain “school-record certificates” from local school authorities
as a condition of employment at any time, in any place, and in any
occupation where employment certificates are not required. 5
To obtain a school-record certificate a child is not required to
produce the same evidence of age or to meet the same physical re-
quirements as to obtain an employment certificate. For an employ-
ment certificate the labor law specifies carefully the required evidence
of age, whereas for a school-record certificate the education law does
not state what kind of evidence is acceptable, but merely requires
that the child shall he over 14 and that the record shall contain the
date of his birth “as shown on the school record.” A physical
examination is required, as will be seen, for an employment certifi-
cate but not for a school-record certificate. The educational require-
ments are the same 6 for both. In practice, as children are required
frequently, if not generally, to secure employment certificates before
having their names taken from the school registers, the school-record
certificate is of little importance except as a prerequisite to an
employment certificate. For this reason no special attention is given
in this study to the school-record certificate as distinguished from
the school record discussed under “Educational requirements.”
1 Children taking speaking parts in theatrical performances are not affected by this provision but are
covered by Penal Law, ch. 40, art. 44, sec. 485 as amended by 1916, ch. 278.
2 Labor Law, sec. 162. For the text of this section see p. 124.
3 Education Law, sec. 626. For the text of this section see p. 126.
* Education Law, sec. 621. For the text of this section see p. 125. For definition of cities of different
classes, and of villages and towns, see footnote 7, p. 112.
6 Education Law, secs. 624 and 626. For the text of these sections see pp. 125, 126.
6 Education Law, sec. 630, and Labor Law, secs. 73 and 165. For the text of these sections see pp. 127,
122, 124.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW l’ORK.
9
The requirements for obtaining certificates are notably higher in
New York than in Connecticut. The evidence of age to be produced
is carefully specified in the law instead of being left to the discretion
of the administrative authorities as in Connecticut. The educational
standard is completion of the sixth 1 instead of the fifth grade, as is
practically the requirement in Connecticut. But most important of
all, every child from 14 to 16 years of age who applies for a certificate
in New York is required by law to undergo a physical examination,
whereas in Connecticut only children who appear physically unfit
are subjected to any physical test.
In New York, as in Connecticut, the mere possession of a certificate
to work does not exempt a child from school attendance; he must
be actually at work. To be exempt from school attendance in New
York, indeed, a child 14 to 16 years of age not only must hold an
employment or school-record certificate but must be “ regularly and
lawfully” engaged in some “ useful employment or service.” 2 This
does not necessarily mean that the child must be engaged in remu-
nerative work. Either an employment certificate or a school-record
certificate acts as a permit to stay out of school to engage in “any
useful employment or service,” for example, to help in the housework
or in the care of the baby at home. The parent is responsible for the
school attendance not only of a child who has no certificate but also
of a child who, though he has a certificate, is not “regularly engaged
in any useful employment.”
One fundamental difference, however, is to be noted between the
employment-certificate system of Connecticut and that of New York.
In Connecticut the certificate must be delivered by the issuing officer
to the employer; the employer must notify the issuing office of both
the commencement and the termination of the child's employment;
and the child must secure a new certificate for each separate em-
ployer. 3 In New York, on the other hand, on the application of the
parent or guardian and after fulfillment of the requirements, the
employment certificate is given to the individual child; it is regarded
as his property and authorizes any employer to employ him subject
to the other regulations of the law. In addition to the date and
place of birth of the child and a statement to the effect that the
required papers have been duly examined, approved, and filed,
and that the child has appeared before the issuing officer and been
examined, it must contain, for the purpose of identification, the
child’s signature and a description consisting of the color of his
1 After Feb. 1, 1917, the standard for children under 15 will be completion of the eighth grade. Acts
of 1916, ch. 465. For the text of this act see pp. 132-133.
2 Education Law, secs. 621 and 624. For the text of these sections see pp. 125, 126.
3 The parent has a copy of the certificate which the child can use temporarily, but this copy is clearly
marked “For parent; not good for employer longer than one week.” U. S. Children’s Bureau. Em-
ployment Certificate System, Connecticut. Bureau publication No. 12, p. 16.
10
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
hair and eyes, his height, weight, and any distinguishing facial
marks. 1 While the child is employed the certificate must be kept on
file by the employer in the place of employment and must be shown
on demand to inspectors of the department of labor or to attendance
officers, 2 but when the employment ceases the employer merely gives
the certificate back to the child. 3 He is not required to notify any
public authority either that he has employed the child or that the
child’s employment has ended.
In addition to keeping employment certificates, every employer
covered by the New York labor law — i. e., operating a factory any-
where in the State or conducting, in a city or village with a popula-
tion of 3,000 or more, a mercantile or other establishment mentioned
in the labor law — must keep a register containing the name, address,
birthplace, and age of every child under 16 employed in his estab-
lishment. This register, like the certificate, is open to inspection by
agents of the department of labor and by attendance officers. 4
The other important provisions relating to child labor, in the
enforcement of which employment certificates may be used as evi-
dence of age of certain children to whom the law applies, establish in
New York decidedly higher standards than in Connecticut. Whereas
in Connecticut children under 16 are permitted to work 10 hours a
day, in New York they are permitted to work only 8 hours a day for
not more than 6 days a week, such hours to be between 8 a. m. and 5
p. m. in factories and between 8 a. m. and 6 p. m. in mercantile
establishments. 5
The list of dangerous occupations and industries in which children
under 16 are forbidden to engage is also much longer and more com-
plete in New York 6 than in Connecticut.
So far as the administration of the employment-certificate law is
concerned, however, the most important difference between Connect-
icut and New York is that in the former, one State agency and in the
latter two local agencies and two State agencies are concerned in its
enforcement. The centralization of administrative power in Connect-
icut and its diffusion in New York have far-reaching consequences
throughout the employment-certificate systems of the two States.
The Federal census statistics of child labor in New York State in
1910 show 35,757 boys and 24,485 girls; in all, 60,242 children 14
and 15 years of age engaged in gainful occupations. Of these,
10,641 children were engaged in agricultural pursuits and in domestic
1 Labor Law, secs. 71, 72, 163, and 164. For the text of these sections see pp. 120, 122, 124.
2 Labor Law, secs. 70, 76, 162, and 167; Education Law, sec. 633. For the text of these sections see pp. 120,
122, 124, 128.
» Labor Law, secs. 76 and 167. For the text of these sections see pp. 122, 124.
4 Labor Law, secs. 76 and 167; Education Law, sec. 633. For the text of these sections see pp. 122, 124, 128.
5 Labor Law, secs. 77 (as amended by 1912, ch. 539, and by 1913, ch. 465) and 161 (as amended by 1914,
Ch. 331, and by 1915, ch. 386).
6 Labor Law, sec. 93 (as -amended by 1910, eh. 107, and by 1913, ch. 464); Penal Law, sec. 485.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
11
and personal service. Of the 5,623 classified as in the latter group,
4,395 were servants and the remaining 1,228 were in occupations
covered by the law at that time as well as by the law of 1915, with the
exception of those in barber shops and shoe-polishing establishments.
More than half of the working children of the State in 1910 were in
the city of New York, where 37,235 boys and girls 14 and 15 years of
age were engaged in gainful occupations. The three first-class cities,
New York City, Buffalo, and Rochester, moreover, contained together
42,109 working children of this age group, more than two-thirds of all
those in the State.
During the year ended September 30, 1914, 42,468 certificates were
issued in New York State.
The table following gives certain data for New York City in re-
gard to employment certificates for the year ended December 31,
1915. 1
Employment certificates, New York City, year ended December 31, 1915.
Applications for certificates.
Borough.
Refused.
Received.
Granted.
Total.
Insuffi-
cient tui-
tion. 2
Educa-
tion. 2
Over
age.
Under
age.
The city
39,443
18, 665
4, 119
37, 131
17, 228
2,364
1,543
155
79
741
109
Manhattan
120
38
539
66
Bronx
3,880
230
11
9
40
11
Brooklyn
13, 225
12, 749
2,747
527
446
7
21
118
Queens
2,888
134
16
11
39
31
Richmond
546
11
1
5
Applications for certificates — Continued.
R efused — Continued .
Dupli-
Certifi-
Certifi-
cates in
force at
end of
year.
Borough.
Physical incapacity.
cates
issued.
cates
expired.
Total.
Malnu-
trition.
Cardiac.
Pul-
monary.
Miscel-
laneous.
The city
1,280
454
429
9
388
1,555
834
37, 252
17, 719
3, 789
57,434
25, 288
Manhattan
780
365
219
4
192
Bronx
159
38
87
3
31
148
4, 928
23, 464
3, 167
Brooklyn
299
33
106
1
159
495
12, 448
Queens
37
16
16
1
4
69
2, 848
Richmond
5
2
1
2
9
448
587
Fewer certificates were issued in 1914 than in 1913 because of the
fact that an amendment to the law effective September, 1913, added
completion of the sixth grade to the former requirement — ability to
1 Statistical report of division of employment certificates of the bureau of child hygiene, department of
health, New York City, for the year ended Dec. 31, 1915.
2 See p. 26.
12
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
pass an educational test. 1 In New York City 33,192 certificates were
granted during the year 1914 and 1,390 were temporarily or perma-
nently refused, whereas, in 1913, 41,507 were granted and 2,185 were
refused. In Buffalo 2,900 certificates were granted during 1914 and
753 temporarily or permanently refused — a decrease from 3,993
granted and an increase from 642 refused during 1913. In Rochester
1,429 certificates were issued during 1914 and 883 were temporarily
and 2 permanently refused, as against 1,947 granted and 1,469 refused
during 1913.
Because of differences in both the application of the law and the
organization of the issuing offices in cities of different classes, the
administration of the employment-certificate law of New York State
was studied in several cities of each class, as well as in cities with
diverse industries employing large groups of children, so that the
conditions discussed might be fairly representative of those through-
out the State. The first-class cities — New York City, Rochester, and
Buffalo — were all visited. Those of the second class visited were
Albany, the capital of the State; Troy, a manufacturing city north
of Albany, near the junction of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers; and
Utica and Syracuse, in the central part of the State. Those of the
third class were Little Falls, in the central part of the State; Cohoes,
near Troy; and Tonawanda, near Buffalo. In addition the village
of Victory Mills, northeast of Albany, was visited.
The methods used in New York City were first studied and have
been used, so far as possible, as the basis of comparison in discussing
the methods in Buffalo and Rochester and in the second-class cities.
In the third-class cities the procedure was found to be so varied that,
when necessary, each has been described separately. In all these
places except Little Falls, Tonawanda, and Victory Mills the descrip-
tions are based on actual observation of procedure, as well as on state-
ments of officials. The field studies upon which this report is based
were completed in May, 1915, and except when otherwise indicated
the conditions existing at that time furnish the basis both for the
description of facts and for the conclusions.
GENERAL ADMINISTRATION.
In New York State the administration of laws relating to the
employment of children from 14 to 16 years of age is in the hands of
four agencies — the local health departments or health officers, who
issue employment certificates and who in small cities and towns are
authorized to inspect mercantile establishments; the local boards of
education or public-school authorities, who issue school records and
enforce the compulsory school-attendance law; the State department
1 Labor Law, sees. 73 and 165; Education Law, sec. 630, subsec. 1. For the text of these sections see
pp. 122, 124, 127.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW Y T ORK. 13
of education, which has general supervision over the enforcement of
the compulsory-education law throughout the State and may with-
hold one-half of the State appropriation from any school district
which fails to enforce school attendance; 1 and the State industrial
commission, which, through inspectors of the department of labor,
of which it is the head, enforces the provisions of the labor law, and
supervises the issuance of employment certificates.
Three forms to be used in the administration of the employment-
certificate system are specified in the labor law: The school-record
blank, 2 the physical-examination blank, 3 and the employment-certifi-
cate blank. 4 The law provides that in cities of the first and second
classes the school-record and employment-certificate blanks shall
be approved by the industrial commission; that in other cities and
in towns and villages these forms shall be prepared and furnished
by the industrial commission; and that no school record or employ-
ment certificate other than those approved or furnished by the
industrial commission shall be used. 5 The industrial commission,
however, has supervision only over the form and not over the accu-
racy of the statements contained in the school record.
Although the industrial commission approves the form, the prepara-
tion of the school-record blank has been left to the State department
of education, which provides a model conforming to the law. Upon
this model the forms furnished by local authorities are supposed to
be based. In New York City the department of education provides
school-record blanks to public schools and to parochial schools if
desired; the department of health furnishes them to parochial schools
and to children from other cities applying without them. In Buffalo
the department of health, and in Utica and Cohoes the board of
education, furnishes them to all schools, public and parochial. In
all the other places visited the State department of education fur-
nishes the forms. In Syracuse the blanks are available at the bureau
of health, and in the other places at the office of the superintendent
of schools.
The form used for the record of the physical examination must be
furnished by the State industrial commission to the local depart-
ments of health 6 and is, therefore, uniform throughout the State.
The form of an employment certificate must be approved by the
industrial commission; the contents are specified in the law. In
1913, when the labor law was amended to provide that “no employ-
ment certificates other than those approved or furnished by the
1 Education Law, sec. 636. For the text of this section see p. 128.
2 Form 1, p. 134.
3 See p. 43.
* Form 2a, p. 134.
6 Labor Law, secs. 75 and 166. For the text of these sections see pp. 122, 124.
e Labor Law, secs. 71 and 163. For the text of these sections see pp. 120, 124.
14 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
commissioner of labor [industrial commission]” 1 should be used,
instructions and a model form of certificate were sent to every issuing
officer in the State. The department of labor furnishes blank employ-
ment certificates free to any issuing officer, and officers furnishing
their own are supposed to base them on the model adopted by the
department. All the first and second class cities in the State furnish
their own forms. The third-class cities visited use the form furnished
by the department of labor.
LOCAL DEPARTMENTS OF HEALTH.
Under the labor law the local departments of health have two impor-
tant duties — the issuance of employment certificates and the enforce-
ment of the law relating to the inspection of mercantile establish-
ments in places, other than first and second class cities, having a
population of 3,000 or more.
Although the responsibility for issuing employment certificates
rests upon the “ commissioner of health or the executive officer of
the board or department of health,” this “board, department, or
commissioner” may designate some other officer of the board or
department of health to issue certificates. Frequently, indeed, a
clerk employed by the department of health is designated as the
issuing officer. The physical examination, however, must always be
made by “a medical officer of the department or board of health.” 2
The exact apportionment of the work of issuing certificates depends
in part upon the way in which the department of health is organized.
The organization of departments of health differs widely in cities
of different classes and even in those of the same class. In New York
City the department is under the direction of a board of health
consisting of the commissioner of health (who is also president of the
board and executive officer of the department of health), the police
commissioner, and the health officer of the port. The first two are
appointed by the mayor and the last by the governor of the State.
The department comprises eight bureaus, one of which, the bureau of
child hygiene, includes as one of its seven divisions the division of
employment certificates. In Buffalo the department of health is
under the direction of a board consisting of the mayor, the president
of the board of public works, and the health commissioner. One of
the ten bureaus of this department is the bureau of child hygiene,
a division of which issues employment certificates. In Rochester a
commissioner of public safety appoints the health officer, and these
two officers in conjunction have all the powers and perform all the
duties which in New York City and Buffalo are vested in the board
1 Labor Law, secs. 75 and 166. For the text of these sections see pp. 122, 124.
3 Labor Law, secs. 71 and 163. For the text of these sections see pp. 120, 124.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
15
of health. The section of child labor of the bureau of health issues
employment certificates. In second-class cities the organization of
the health department is similar to that in Rochester. In a third-
class city the board of health consists of the mayor and at least six
other persons, one of whom is a physician; in a town it is the same
as the town board, which consists of the town supervisor and the
several justices of the peace; and in a village it consists of the board
of trustees. Each of these local boards of health appoints a physician,
not a member, to act as health officer.
In New York City an issuing office is maintained in each of the
five boroughs — Manhattan, Brooklyn, Bronx, Queens, and Richmond.
The work in each of these is in charge of a chief who reports to the
chief of the division of employment certificates. The latter has gen-
eral supervision over all issuing offices. The headquarters are in
the Manhattan office. In this office there are regularly employed
one chief clerk, one clerk who interviews children and parents when
they first enter the office, one clerk who issues certificates, two physi-
cians — a woman who is at the office half of each day and a man who
is at the office the other half of each day — and a nurse to assist the
physicians. At the Brooklyn office the regular force consists of two
clerks, two medical examiners, and one nurse to assist the examiners.
The examiners — a man and a woman — alternate, each being on
duty half a day. Either one examines both boys and girls. The
issuing office of Bronx Borough is in charge of a medical inspector
who examines the children, but a nurse interviews them when they
first enter and issues the certificates after the examination. At
times a clerk interviews applicants and other persons coming to the
office and also passes upon some of the documents presented. In
Queens Borough the office force consists of a medical inspector in
charge, who examines all applicants; a nurse who assists him, inter-
views the children, and issues certificates; and a clerk who assists in
various ways. In Richmond Borough the borough chief makes the
physical examination and a clerk interviews children, issues certifi-
cates, and has charge of the files.
In each of the other first-class cities only one issuing office is main-
tained. In the Buffalo office the regular force consists of the medical
inspector in charge who examines the applicants ; a woman attend-
ant who interviews children and parents, assists the physician in
his examinations, and issues certificates; and a clerk who assists in
interviewing children and in issuing certificates. In Rochester a
graduate nurse devotes her whole time to interviewing applicants, to
making the larger part of the physical examinations, and to issuing
certificates. The health officer makes the more difficult tests of the
physical examination.
16
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
During the busy seasons additional school nurses and medical
inspectors — and in New York City, clerks as well — assist in the issuing
offices in all the first-class cities.
In the second-class cities visited the work of issuing certificates is
nominally in direct charge of the health officer. In Albany a clerk,
who is the commissioner of deeds, performs all the clerical work,
administers oaths when necessary, and sometimes interviews chil-
dren. Usually, however, applicants are interviewed by whatever
medical inspector happens to be in the office. In Troy the health
officer is the examining physician and the health bureau clerk
administers oaths and issues certificates. In Utica the health officer
supervises the issuance of certificates ; but the deputy health officer
usually makes the physical examination and the clerk of the bureau,
who is also the commissioner of deeds, administers oaths when
necessary and issues certificates. In Syracuse the deputy health
officer instead of the health officer supervises the work and adminis-
ters oaths to parents. Two school medical inspectors are detailed
on alternate weeks to give physical examinations and a clerk issues
certificates.
In none of the third-class cities visited, except Cohoes, does the
health officer have any assistance in the issuing of certificates. At
Cohoes the clerk of the board of health comes to the office when
necessary to administer oaths to parents.
In Victory Mills the health officer examines applicants and the
village clerk issues certificates.
Even in cities of the same class, it appears, the issuing officer is
sometimes a physician and sometimes a clerk. In New York City
the division of duties made necessary by the large number of appli-
cants makes it possible for the medical examiner to pass only on the
physical condition of the children. In Buffalo and Rochester, on the
other hand, the physician who regularly makes the physical examina-
tion is the consulting authority on other points and is regarded as
the issuing officer. In Little Falls and Tonawanda this physician is
the health officer and performs all the work necessary in the procedure
of issuance. In Albany, Troy, Utica, Syracuse, Cohoes, and Victory
Mills the examining physician, whether the health officer, a deputy,
or a designated physician, is not regarded as the issuing officer and
assumes little responsibility beyond passing upon the physical con-
dition of the child.
The method of selecting employees in the health departments
visited differs widely. In New York City and Buffalo all appoint-
ments are made by the local board of health and, with the exception
of the heads of bureaus, are under civil-service regulations. In none
of the other places visited, except Cohoes, is the health officer under
such regulations, but in Rochester and in the second-class cities all
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
17
clerks and inspectors are chosen from a competitive civil-service list.
In Cohoes all employees of the board of health, including the health
officer, are appointed from such a list; in Victory Mills no civil-
service regulations are in effect under the hoard of health.
LOCAL SCHOOL AUTHORITIES.
The local school authorities perform two functions which have a
direct relation to children desiring to go to work. First, they pass
upon the educational equipment and the school attendance of such
children and issue school records to children from 14 to 16 years of
age who are eligible, so far as their education is concerned, for em-
ployment certificates. Second, they enforce school attendance of
all children, including those of working age, and as one method of
enforcement they take a regular school census.
According to the compulsory education law, the school records are
issued by the following officers: In cities of the first class, by the
principal or chief executive officer of the school which the child has
attended; in other cities and in school districts having a population
of 5,000 or more and employing a superintendent of schools, by the
superintendent only; and in all other school districts by the principal
teacher of the school. 1
School attendance is enforced by the local attendance officers 2 and
through the taking of a regular census of children in every school
district of the State. 3 In first-class cities the census is constantly in
progress ; in other cities it is taken once every four years, and in rural
districts annually. The facts to be ascertained by enumerators
relate to residence, date of birth, names of parents or guardians, liter-
acy, school attendance, and employment of all children between 4
and 18 years of age (5 and 18 in rural districts).
In the three first-class cities — New York, Buffalo, and Rochester —
permanent census boards were established under a law of 1908, which
prescribed that these boards should maintain through the police
force a constant census amended from day to day. In Buffalo and
in Rochester this board consists of the mayor, the superintendent of
schools, and the police commissioner, and appoints a secretary and
other employees.
In New York City, by an act of the legislature of 1914, the
compulsory education division of the department of education and
the permanent census board were consolidated into a “ bureau of
compulsory education, school census, and child welfare, ” which
1 Education Law, sec. 630, subsec. 2. For the text of this section see p. 128.
2 Education Law, sec. 632. For the text of this section see p.128.
3 Education Law, secs. 650-653; Greater New York Charter, 1901, ch. 461, sec. 1069, subdivision 8, added
by Acts of 1914, ch. 479. For the text of these sections see pp. 129, 130.
46446°— 17 2
18
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
works under the general supervision of the city superintendent of
schools, who himself acts under tne direction of the board of educa-
tion. This bureau, known as the bureau of attendance, has for its
purpose the enumeration of children, the enforcement of school
attendance, and the handling of problems which affect the school
attendance, education, employment, and welfare of children from 4 to
18 years of age. It has one main office with 13 branch offices in dif-
ferent parts of the city. To carry on its work the bureau employs a
director and an assistant director appointed by the board of educa-
tion for terms of six years each, a chief attendance officer, 2 division
superintendents, 13 district supervising officers, 2 women supervisors
of the welfare of high-school girls, 1 newsboy attendance officer, 1
medical supervisor, 2 supervisors of census enumeration, 1 “man
at large/ 1 133 attendance officers (20 of them women) who are also
census enumerators, and 73 clerks, 1 of whom is a stenographer— a
total force of 231. Commercial high-school students also assist in
the stenographic work of the office.
In Buffalo the department of compulsory education, in coopera-
tion with the permanent census board of the city, enforces school
attendance. The director of compulsory education is appointed by
the superintendent of education and supervises the work of the 15
attendance officers. Under the direction of the secretary of the per-
manent census board 60 policemen are employed whenever a census
of children is taken. In the office are regularly employed six clerks,
and during and after a census extra clerks assist in tabulating results.
In Rochester the efficiency bureau of the department of public
instruction and the permanent census board of the city enforce school
attendance. In the office of the efficiency bureau are employed a
director (who is one of the assistant superintendents of schools),
two stenographers, and two clerks. Four attendance officers are
employed in the field. Six police enumerators, one in each precinct
of the city, are employed constantly under the direction of the
secretary of the permanent census board, and in the office of this
board are employed one chief clerk (who is a stenographer) and two
assistant clerks.
In the rest of the State the school census is taken by employees,
most of them temporary, of the local school authorities, and school
attendance is enforced by regular attendance officers. Though the
selection of these officers is a local matter, their appointment is not
left to the discretion of the local officials. The law provides that
one or more attendance officers shall be appointed by the school
authorities “of each city, union free school district, or commoii
school district whose limits include in whole or in part an incorporated
village and that one or more attendance officers whose juris-
diction shall extend over school districts not otherwise provided
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
19
for shall be appointed, subject to the written approval of the school
commissioner of the district, by the town board of each town. In the
former class of places the superintendent of schools, and in the
latter the school commissioner, supervises the work of the attendance
officers. 1
Of the smaller places visited, Albany had three attendance officers,
Troy and Syracuse had two each, and Utica, Tonawanda, Cohoes,
Little Falls, and Victory Mills had one each.
With few exceptions the attendance officers, enumerators, and
other employees of the boards of education in the places visited and
of the census boards in the first-class cities are appointed under
civil-service regulations. Those who are not thus appointed are
the director and assistant director of the bureau of attendance of
New York City, whose qualifications are stated in the law; the secre-
taries of the census boards in Buffalo and in Rochester; the clerks in
the efficiency bureau in Rochester; and the attendance officers in
Syracuse and Victory Mills.
STATE INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION.
The enforcement of child-labor laws in factories throughout the
State and in mercantile establishments in first and second class cities
is vested in the State industrial commission. 2 This commission,
which became the head of the department of labor on June 1, 1915,
consists of 5 commissioners appointed by the governor and is advised
by an unpaid industrial council of 10 members, also appointed by the
governor. Six bureaus are provided for in the labor law : Inspection,
statistics and information, mediation and arbitration, industries and
immigration, employment, and workmen’s compensation. 3 The only
bureau, however, which has direct relation to the enforcement of
child-labor laws is that of inspection. This bureau, subject to the
supervision and direction of the industrial commission, has charge of
all inspections made for enforcing the provisions of the labor laws.
It consists of four divisions. The division of factory inspection
enforces all laws relating to the employment of children in factories
throughout the State. The division of mercantile inspection enforces
all laws relating to the employment of children in mercantile estab-
lishments in first and second class cities. The division of home-
work inspection aids in the enforcement of the law prohibiting home
work of children under 14 years of age, and under 16 years of age
without certificates. The division of industrial hygiene, through
the section of medical inspection, has charge of both the physical
1 Education Law, eec. 632. For the text of this section see p. 128.
2 Labor Law, secs. 56 and 172. For the text of these sections see pp. 118, 124.
3 Labor Law, sec. 42 (as amended by 1915, ch. 674).
20
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
examination and the medical supervision of children employed in
factories. 1
In order to assist in the general administration of the labor
laws, provision is made that all factories must be registered with the
industrial commission within 30 days after commencing business or
after a change of location. 1
The main offices of the industrial commission are in New York
City. The division of factory inspection has headquarters at New
York City, with branch offices in Albany, Buffalo, Rochester, and Utica.
The division of mercantile inspection has headquarters in New York
City, with no branch offices.
The commission has 8 supervisory inspectors, 131 deputy factory
inspectors, and 20 mercantile inspectors. All the employees in the
department except the deputy commissioners and counsel are under
civil-service regulations.
STATE SUPERVISION.
General supervision over the administration of child-labor laws
is vested in the State industrial commission as to the provisions
of the labor law and in the State commissioner of education as to
the provisions of the education law. The industrial commission is
directed by law to “inquire into the administration and enforce-
ment ” of the provisions of the labor law relating to the employment of
children, and for this purpose the commission or persons authorized
by it have access to all papers and records kept by local officers
charged with the duty of issuing employment certificates. 2 The
industrial commission may also investigate and report upon “all
matters relating to the enforcement and effect’ 7 of the provisions of
the labor law relating to child labor. 3 At the time the provision
relating to supervision went into effect, in October, 1913, the depart-
ment of labor sent out general instructions with regard to the methods
of issuing certificates, the character of records to be kept, and the
method of making these records; and also suggestions as to the
method of making physical examinations. Otherwise, practically no
State supervision over the issuing of certificates had been exercised
up to the time of this investigation.
Reports of the issuance of certificates are required by law. The
health commissioner of a city, village, or town must transmit to the
industrial commission, between the 1st and 10th of each month, a
list of all children to whom certificates have been issued during the
preceding month and a duplicate copy of the physical-examination
i Labor Law. sees. 53-61 and 69. For the text of these sections see pp. 117-119, 120.
a Labor Law, secs. 75 and 166. For the text of these sections see pp. 122, 124.
* Labor Law, sec. 51. For the text of this section see p. 117.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 21
record of every child who has received or been refused a certificate. 1
When reports are received at the department of labor the date of
birth given in the lists is checked with that on the physical-
examination sheet to see if they correspond. If errors are discovered
in such dates, the records are sent back to the issuing offices to be cor-
rected.
Supervision by the State department of education is exercised in
practice solely with a view to the enforcement of the compulsory
school-attendance law. From every school outside of New York City,
Buffalo, and Rochester regular monthly reports of attendance are
required by the compulsory education division of the State de-
partment of education and reports of the operation of the census law
are required monthly from Buffalo and Rochester and, whenever a
census is taken, from other places. The State commissioner of edu-
cation may specify what information in addition to that required by
law shall be collected by school census enumerators. 2
METHODS OF SECURING EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
One kind of employment certificate only is issued to children
between 14 and 16 years of age. Duplicate certificates, issued to
children who have lost their certificates, are exact copies of the origi-
nals, and no special certificates are in use for work during vacations
or for temporary work at any time. The division of employment
certificates of the bureau of child hygiene in New York City also issues
statements of age to children over 16 who present acceptable evi-
dence. Employment certificates properly issued in one part of the
State are legal, unless revoked, in any other part of the State until
the owner is 16 years of age. A child may obtain his employment
certificate either in the city, town, or village in which he lives or in
that in which he is to be employed. 3
No leaflet instructions with regard to securing certificates are issued
in any place included in this study except in New York City and
Rochester. In New York City the bureau of child hygiene of the
department of health has published a 24-page pamphlet entitled
“How to Obtain an Employment Certificate,” which has been dis-
tributed to the school principals and which is given to parents
and others at the employment-certificate office; in Rochester the
health bureau issues a card containing general directions. In many
of the schools in other cities special instruction is given as to the nec-
essary requirements and procedure.
During- the regular school year little difficulty is encountered in
securing school records, but various provisions are made for obtaining
1 Labor Law, secs. 75 and 166. For the text of these sections see pp. 122, 124.
3 Education Law, secs. 650-652. For the text of these sections see pp. 129, 130.
3 Labor Law, secs. 71 and 163. For the text of these sections see pp. 120, 124.
22
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
them during vacation. In many schools in New York City and in
Buffalo instructions for obtaining employment certificates during
vacation are given at the close of the year. Children who desire school
records and are entitled to them must get them before school closes
or take the risk of not being able to find their principals during the
summer. In Rochester instructions with regard to securing records
during vacation are given all public-school children at the close of
school. These records are filled in completely, except the date, for
all children wishing them who have complied with the educational
requirements and are of working age or will become so before Sep-
tember. They are kept in the office of the efficiency bureau. When
a child entitled to one calls for it at that office, it is dated and given
to him. The parochial-school child, on the other hand, must find
the chief executive officer of his school in order to get a school record,
if he has not secured one before vacation. In Troy, Little Falls, and
Tonawanda, where the duplicate records are in the superintendent’s
office, which is open during the entire year, children have no diffi-
culty in securing school records during the summer months. In the
other places visited, however, unless children procure them before
school closes they must depend on the chance of finding their princi-
pals later.
The issuing offices throughout the State are open so that children
may obtain certificates at any time during the year. In New York
City all the borough offices at which employment certificates are
issued are centrally located, convenient to those districts from which
large numbers of children go to work. In Buffalo and Rochester
the issuing offices are also well located to accommodate children.
In cities with 5,000 inhabitants or more, other than those of the first
class, the superintendent of schools, according to law, must issue the
school records; and in each of these cities visited, except Syracuse,
the office of the board of health where certificates are issued is near
that of the superintendent, often in the same building. In Syracuse
the distance between the two offices is of no importance, as the school
principals, instead of the superintendent, issue the records. In
Victory Mills the physical examination is not given in the village
where the certificate is issued but in the neighboring village of
Schuyler ville, about 1 mile distant.
REGULAR CERTIFICATES.
The legal requisites for obtaining an employment certificate are
uniform throughout the State. They are (1) the application of the
parent; (2) the presentation of satisfactory evidence of age and (3)
of a school record showing fulfillment of the specified educational
requirements; (4) the passing of a physical examination showing
sound health and (5) of an educational test in the issuing office proving
—
METHOD OF SECURING EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES, NEW YORK CITY.
employment-certificate system IN NEW Y r ORK. 23
literacy. Before the certificate is issued the issuing officer must
approve the papers submitted and must sign a statement that the
child is able to read and write simple sentences in the English lan-
guage. The child must appear in person . 1 The law does not state
bouTthe parent must apply, and the procedure in this matter is not
uniform. In some communities the parent’s presence is required
always; in others, only for certain purposes; and in still others it
is never necessary. The evidence of age required in the order of
preference specified in the law is a transcript of a birth certificate,
a certificate of graduation, a passport or baptismal certificate, other
documentary evidence, and in first-class cities a physicians’ certificate
of age.
New York City, Manhattan Borough . — In New York City when a
child applies for an employment certificate he must be accompanied
bv his parent or by the representative of his parent and must bring
with him two documents — evidence of age and a school record. A
clerk at a desk near the entrance to the room examines these docu-
ments and instructs him what to do next. No application, however,
is started unless some person in parental relation is present and
satisfactory evidence of age is presented. At this first stage delay
may be caused by the failure of the child to produce one or all of the
requisites.
If a child comes unaccompanied by his parent and fails to bring
any or all of the required documents, he writes his name and address
on the white interview card . 2 The interviewer examines whatever
documents the child has and, in order to make the office procedure
easy when the child returns, notes on the card what requisites are
missing or defective. The child is then sent away with instructions
to bring his parent and the requisite documents. If the child states
to the first interviewer that neither of his parents can come, he is
sent to the chief clerk, who questions him more fully to ascertain
positively whether neither father nor mother can appear. If he
convinces the clerk of the truth of his statement, he is given a blank
form 3 to take home for his parent to sign and acknowledge before
some notary. On this form the parent declares that he is unable to
accompany the child to the issuing office and appoints some one to
appear and act in his place. If the child explains to the satisfaction
of the clerk that his parents are both dead, or live in another country
°r State, he must bring some one to sign a sworn statement 4 to that
effect and to act in place of a parent . 5
1 Labor Law, secs. 71 and 163. For the text of these sections see pp. 120, 124.
1 New York City Form 1, p. 138.
3 New York City Form 2, p. 139.
* New Y ork City Form 3, p. 139.
5 Throughout the following discussion the w.ord “parent” is used to mean anyone in parental relation
'o the child.
24 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
When a child presents satisfactory evidence of age, he and his-
parent must come together to the office. Thus if they appear with-
out such evidence, they must both return with it unless the parent
states that he has specific satisfactory evidence at home, when he
is permitted to take oath and sign the application. The child then
returns alone to the office and, if the evidence is as stated, it is
accepted.
For a child born in New York City who comes without evidence
of age this may be readily obtained, as he is sent across the hall to
the bureau of records to secure a copy of his birth certificate, and,
if his birth is recorded, he is there given a form 1 on which the date of
birth is noted. If this date shows him to be over 14, the application
is started; and if the school record is satisfactory, the entire pro-
cedure may be completed at once. If, on the other hand, his
birth is not recorded, he is given at the bureau of records another
form 2 to that effect and must return to the issuing office later with
some other evidence of age acceptable under the law. A notation
is made on the white interview card, so that when the child returns
with such evidence the notes show what was done at the previous
interview.
If the child appears without a school record but is accompanied by
his parent and has satisfactory evidence of age, the application blank
is started and, in order to avoid the necessity of the parent’s returning
to the office, his affidavit is taken at this time instead of after the
child has fulfilled all the requirements. If the child states that he is
in a low grade, nothing more can be done until the school record is
produced. On the other hand, if the child states that he has finished
the eighth grade or is in the high school, he goes through the entire
procedure except that he does not receive his certificate until he has
brought his school record. A child from a parochial school is given a
school-record blank 3 to take to the chief executive officer of his school
to be filled in; one from a public school gets a similar blank, filled in
on application, at his school. 4
Delays in securing a certificate are thus caused and return trips
made necessary by failure on the child’s part to appear with the
requisites. Delay or refusal may be caused also by the presentation
of documents which are not satisfactory. For instance, a child
born in a country or State which issues copies of birth certificates
may present as evidence of age a certificate of graduation or a bap-
tismal record. If a birth certificate is procurable, the child and his
parent must return at a later date with this certificate. But if it can
not be secured the evidence first presented may be accepted. The
school record may also be unsatisfactory, usually because it does not
1 New York City Form 4, p. 139.
2 New York City Form 5, p. 139.
3 New York City Form 6, p. 140.
* New York City Form 7, p. 140.
EMPLOYMENT-CEKTTFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YOEK.
25
show the number of days the child has attended school. In this case
the child’s name and address are taken on the interview card for
future reference, and he is sent to his principal to have the blank
properly filled in.
If, however, the documents presented by the child are satisfactory
and a birth certificate, a certificate of graduation, a passport, or a
baptismal certificate has been accepted as evidence of age, the first
interviewer fills in the application blank , 1 with the exception of the
signature of the issuing officer and that of the medical officer, and
stamps on it the kind of evidence submitted. He then administers
an oath to the parent, who swears that the child is of the age specified
and that he or she is the parent. The interviewer also transcribes
on the form appropriate to such evidence of age the contents of the
document, and both the parent and the child sign the application
blank in the specified places.
The school record and the documents proving the child’s age are
then fastened to the application blank and given to the child to take
to the physician in the examining room.
If for any reason the child does not pass the physician’s examina-
tion, he is sent to the office of the borough chief, where he is examined
by that officer or by the assistant chief. If the examining officer
agrees with the first physician, he marks the examination sheet “R,”
in red ink, and signs it and also the application blank. In case he
does not agree, he signs both blanks as before but does not put “R”
on the examination sheet and the child may secure his certificate.
In questionable cases, therefore, the decision in regard to the child’s
physical fitness to work does not rest with the examining physician
but with the borough chief.
As a result of the physical examination the child may be refused a
certificate permanently, or, if the defect seems remediable, tem-
porarily. The treatment of the child in either case is discussed
later . 2 In the latter case the essential facts concerning the defect are
noted on a special card 3 and placed in what is called a “ tickler” file,
which is kept on the desk for ready reference; the parent and child
are given a notice of temporary refusal and are instructed how to
haye the defect corrected and when to return for reexamination;
and the school principal is mailed a special notice explaining why the
certificate is withheld, so that he may expect the child at school. If
the child does not return to be reexamined, a card is sent requesting
him to do so and setting another date. In case of repeated nonap-
pearance, and in all cases of permanent refusal, a nurse is sent to
ascertain whether the child has had the prescribed treatment. In case
the child comes back to the issuing office with the defect corrected,
New York City Form 8, p. 141,
2 See pp. 49,75.
a New York City Form 9, p. 142.
26 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
this fact is noted on his card and he goes through the rest of the pro-
cedure as if he had passed the physical examination at the earlier
visit.
If the physical examination is satisfactorily passed, the examining
physician signs the application blank and the physical-examination
blank, 1 the two blanks are fastened together, and the child is sent
to the chief clerk, who is the issuing officer. The clerk notes on the
back of the application blank the child's height and weight as they
appear on the medical-examination sheet, and dictates to the child
a sentence from a Third Reader. If the child writes the sentence
correctly, the clerk signs the certificate, stamps it with the date of
issuance and the number, and delivers it to the child. If the child
fails on the first sentence, he may try two more. If he writes 2 out
of 3 or 3 out of 5 sentences correctly, he is passed; but if he can not
do this his papers are sent to the director of the bureau of child
hygiene, with the recommendation that he be refused. The director,
after investigating the facts of the case, makes the final decision as
to the granting or refusing of the certificate.
Children are refused certificates whenever cause for refusal occurs
at any point during the procedure. A child may appear with his
parent and either state that he is under 14 years of age or bring docu-
mentary evidence which shows that fact. A child may bring a school
record showing either that he has attended school less than the 130
days required by law or that he is in the second half of the sixth grade
or in a lower one. A child may fail to pass the physical examina-
tion, or at the very close of the procedure he may fail in the literacy
test. For the under-age child the application blank is completely
filled, and the parent is sworn in the regular way. The child is
then refused a certificate, the parent is given a formal statement
showing the cause of this refusal, 2 and the application blank and the
refusal card 3 are stamped with the word “ Ref used' ' and also with
the cause “ Under age." In the other cases the proceedure relating
to the refusal of a certificate is the same, but the causes differ — -
“ Insufficient tuition," if the child has not attended school a sufficient
number of days or has not reached the specified grade; “ Insufficient
education," if he fails to pass the literacy test; or “ Physical inca-
pacity," if he fails to pass the physical examination.
When the child has to establish his age, either by documentary
evidence other than a birth certificate, certificate of graduation, pass-
port or baptismal certificate, or by a physician's certificate of age, the
procedure differs somewhat from that outlined above, and the child is
longer delayed before he receives his certificate. Before such evidence
is accepted, indeed, the child may.be obliged to make several visits to
1 See p. 43.
2 New York City Form 10, see p. 142.
3 New York City Form 11, see p. 142.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 27
the issuing office in an effort to establish his age through one of the
preferred documents. If this effort is unsuccessful he is referred by
the first interviewer to the chief of the division, who advises him how
to procure “other documentary evidence’’ or determines whether he
must resort to the physicians’ certificate.
When a child, after making every possible effort, is unable to bring
one of the preferred documents but has other acceptable documentary
evidence of age, this evidence is transcribed to a form called a “ Board
paper” 1 and the application blank is filled in. The child then goes
through the physical examination and, up to the point of receiving
his certificate, follows the same procedure as though he had brought
other evidence. If the child passes all the tests successfully, the
“Board paper,” showing the documentary evidence of age presented,
is filled out and signed by the issuing officer. Before the child re-
ceives his certificate, however, this evidence must be approved by the
board of health, which usually meets every two weeks. Thus the
child must wait from a few days to two weeks before he knows whether
or not he is to receive a certificate. The child and parent are in-
formed of the reason for delay, and the child is given a typewritten
statement to take to the principal of his school, explaining that his
application has been referred to the board of health and that he will
be notified should the board decide to grant the certificate. If the
board approves the evidence of age, a post-card notice is sent to the
child telling him to call for his certificate on a specified day.
Every effort is made to secure other evidence before resort is had
to the physicians’ certificate of age. But if the child is apparently
more than 14 years of age and no other evidence seems available, the
parent may make a formal application for an employment certificate
and a physicians’ certificate of age. 2 The issuing officer fills out this
form and administers an oath to the parent to the effect that other
evidence of age can not be obtained, and both he and the parent sign
the form. The regular application blank is then partly filled in and
the child is given a statement to take to his principal explaining the
delay. This statement informs the principal that 90 days from date
the child will be notified to appear at the office for a physical exam-
ination to determine age, and that if in the opinion of the examining
physicians he is at least 14 years of age the physicians’ certificate of
age will then be issued, and if he presents a school record showing
him to be at least 14 years of age, and in the grade required by law,
an employment certificate will be granted. At the end of 90 days,
therefore, if meanwhile no better proof of age has been found, the
child is notified to come again with his parent to the issuing office.
Two physicians then examine him, and, if they agree, this evidence
New York City Form 12, see pp. 142, 143.
2 New York City Form 13, see p. 144.
28 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
of age is accepted. If the two physicians disagree, however, a third
physician examines the child, and any two concurring opinions are
final. After the physicians’ certificate has been acoepted as evi-
dence of age the parent’s affidavit is taken and the child is tested
for physical fitness and for literacy as are other applicants.
New York City , other boroughs . — The procedure in the different
boroughs is now uniform; that in Manhattan is followed elsewhere
in the city. When this investigation was begun, however, there were
certain points of difference in matters of office detail. The Bronx
office, for instance, took precautions to assure itself that a child
applying for an employment certificate had not received one at some
previous time. When a child applied he was asked his name, and
the card catalogue was consulted. If the name was found, the child
was told to write his name, address, and date of birth on a piece of
paper, and, if his signature was the same as that in the files, he was
not allowed to continue with the application. If his name was not
found or if the signatures were not the same the application blank
was marked “O. K.” in the corner.
Buffalo . — The procedure in the Buffalo issuing office resembles
closely that in the New York offices. But the register of births of all
children born in Buffalo who are of certificate age is kept in the
issuing office for ready reference. If an applicant’s record of birth
is in this register or if he submits a birth certificate, the application 1
provided on the school record is signed by the parent; in this case
he need not come to the office. If other evidence is presented, the
parent must come to the office to make affidavit. In case a certifi-
cate of graduation, a baptismal record, or a passport is accepted,
the application signed by the parent is similar to that used in Man-
hattan. In case any other documentary evidence or a physicians’
certificate of age is accepted, special application blanks , 2 on which
the character of the evidence is noted, are used. The board of
health meets frequently, and in case the evidence presented must
have its approval the child is instructed when to return for his
certificate.
. At the first interview much information is noted on the school record.
Such points as the date of birth, the character of the evidence of age,
whether or not the child’s birth is recorded in Buffalo, and the
parents’ birthplaces aid later in the examination. No matter what
the school record states, the child is questioned as to the grade he is
in; and if he has not entered the seventh grade, the procedure stops
there and he is told to return to school. If the school record and
the child’s answers are satisfactory, he is required to read from
some part of the Fifth Header and to write a sentence from dictation.
Buffalo Form 1, see p. 157.
3 Buffalo Forms' 2 and 3, see pp. 158-159.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
29
If he can not do both to the satisfaction of the attendant, he is refused
a certificate for insufficient education; but if he can, and if his evi-
dence of age is acceptable, he is allowed to have the physical examina-
tion. If he passes this also, his school record is stamped “ Approved”
and he is sent to the clerk or attendant for his certificate. The
child is asked where he is going to work, and a notation as to
whether it is in a mercantile or a manufacturing establishment is
made on a stub record. He then signs and receives the certificate.
The examining physician in charge of the office alone decides on
physical fitness. If he thinks the child is not fit, the school-record
and physical-examination blanks are stamped “ Disapproved,” with
specific cause of disapproval, and the child is told why he can not
get a certificate at that time. In cases needing treatment a notice
is given to the parent, if present, or to the child to take to his parent.
Whenever a child who has been refused a certificate for a physical
defect returns with the defect corrected, the school-record and
physical-examination blanks are stamped “ Approved” and “ Defect
corrected” and the certificate is granted.
Rochester . — The child who applies for a certificate at the issuing
office in Rochester is required to bring an additional card,
namely, his health-record card, showing the results of his school
physical examinations. This card is used to aid in substantiating the
age of the child and in checking up the work of the medical inspectors.
The nurse passes on the papers and makes part of the physical ex-
amination. The child is also asked if he has been promised employ-
ment ; but whether he has or not he receives his certificate. A written
promise of employment was first requested by the health officer in
the spring of 1914, and such promise must be produced, when pos-
sible, before the certificate is issued. This promise, however, not
being a legal requirement, can not be insisted upon.
When documentary evidence of age other than a birth certificate,
certificate of graduation, baptismal certificate, or passport is pre-
sented the nurse approves it and administers the required oath to the
parent, and the child is not delayed by waiting for the health bureau
to act. WRen the child has to resort to a physicians’ certificate of
age, the parent’s affidavit is taken at the second appearance, and the
names of the two physicians making the examination are noted on
the comer of the affidavit blank. This is the only case in which a
parent is required to appear. No educational test is given unless
the child appears illiterate or can not speak English.
Other cities and villages . — In second and third class cities the laws
relating to employment certificates differ in some respects from
those in first-class cities. Final resort to a physicians’ certificate
of age is not permitted, and if a child can not produce documentary
evidence of age he can not legally procure an employment certificate.
30 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
The school record must be signed by the superintendent of schools
instead of by the principal of the school the child attended.
In each of the second-class cities visited the clerk of the bureau
of health passes upon the documents submitted by the child and
issues the certificate. His signature, not that of the health officer,
is on the employment certificate. The physician making the physical
examination is regarded, indeed, as the examining physician and
not as the issuing officer. In the third-class cities visited the
health officer performs all the work attendant upon issuing and signs
certificates.
When a child appears without necessary or satisfactory documents
and is therefore unable to secure his certificate at once, his name
and address are not taken. But in every issuing office visited the
names of children under 14 years of age who apply are recorded
and such children are comited among the number of refused ap-
plicants. In Little Falls the parent must always accompany the
child to the office; in Troy, Syracuse, and Cohoes only when neces-
sary to sign a sworn statement as to the child’s age; and in Albany
a boy’s parent must appear for this purpose, and a girl’s parent must
in addition accompany her at the time of the physical examination.
In Utica the parent must appear at some time during the procedure
to sign the application blank. 1 In Tonawanda, on the other hand,
he is not required to appear at any time.
No literacy test is given at the issuing office in any of these
places. In Albany such a test was given at one time but was dis-
continued later. Inquiry is usually made at Albany as to the char-
acter of the child’s work.
In all these cities except Syracuse the child is required to go first
to the superintendent of schools to have his school record filled in, or
approved if previously filled in by his school principal. In Syracuse
the child is obliged to make an additional trip, as he must go to the
issuing office to get the school-record blank for his school principal
to fill in and then has to return with it to the issuing office. One
trip to the issuing office suffices in most places, however, unless the
child applies at other times than the office hours of the examining
physician.
The health officer at Little Falls is the only one in any of these
cities who asks for other documentary evidence of age and refuses to
accept a parent’s affidavit without supporting evidence. The child
is not inconvenienced there, however, by waiting for action of the
board of health, as the officer grants the certificate but can revoke it
if the board decides later that the evidence is not satisfactory. Thus
far the board has always affirmed the judgment of tbe health officer.
i Utica Form 1, p. 163.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
31
In Victory Mills the child has his school record filled in by the
principal of the village school and goes with it to the clerk of the board
of health, from whom he receives an affidavit blank. He takes this
to his parent for the sworn signature; goes to the adjoining village of
Schuylerville to be examined by the health officer; brings back to the
clerk the duplicate copy of the physical examination blank; and, if
everything is satisfactory, receives his certificate. Thus the child
usually makes three trips, two to the clerk’s office and one to the
health officer in Schuylerville. Sometimes, however, he goes directly
to the health officer with an affidavit and a school record, returning
with all three papers to the clerk.
NUMBER AND FORM OF CERTIFICATES.
The contents of an employment certificate, as has already been
noted,, are specified in the law, and a model form 1 is provided by the
State department of labor. In addition to conforming to the law this
model has a statement concerning the physical examination and a
note to the effect that the certificate is to be filed with the employer
and surrendered to the child or to the person in parental relation
when the child’s employment ceases. Notices specifying the hours of
labor in factories and mercantile establishments and calling atten-
tion to the section of the law relating to dangerous occupations for
children are printed on the back of the form.
All places visited issue certificates based on this model except
Victory Mills, where an old triplicate form in use before the law was
changed in 1913 is used. Certificates in the old form are made out
either for a factory or for a mercantile establishment, and under the
old law they could not be used in any other kind of an establishment
than that specified. In New York City the form differs from the
model 2 in providing for distinguishing physical instead of facial marks
and has additional spaces for the address and sex of the child. These
data are meant to aid in identification in cases where confusion might
arise on account of foreign names. Of 23 cities, other than those
visited, from which certificates were obtained all but 2 use forms
based on the model, and these 2 use the old triplicate form.
Though the law provides for only one copy of an employment cer-
tificate, the number varies. In New York City, Buffalo, and Utica
only one copy is made out, but in the last two cities stub records of
the essential facts shown on the certificate are kept for use in case it
is necessary to make a duplicate. In Rochester, Albany, Troy, Little
Falls, and Tonawanda certificates are made out in duplicate, one copy
being given to the child and the other filed in the office. In Syracuse
and Victory Mills three copies are made; one of these is given to the
child, one is retained at the office, and one is sent to the office of the
State industrial commission.
i Form 2a, pp. 134, 135.
2 Form 2b, p. 135.
32 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YOBK.
VACATION AND TEMPORARY CERTIFICATES.
No vacation or temporary certificates are issued in New York
State. If a child wishes to work during vacation, before or after
school hours, or on Saturdays, he must comply with the same require-
ments as though he intended to leave school permanently to go to work.
Furthermore, a child is not allowed to work while waiting for accept-
able evidence of age.
LOST CERTIFICATES.
The law makes no provision for an additional certificate in case the
original is lost; but in the cities visited the issuing officer gives the
child a duplicate which, except in Buffalo, 1 is on exactly the same
form as the original, though in New York City such duplicates are
plainly stamped “Duplicate.” In the New York City offices a fee of
50 cents is asked for a duplicate; the child must sign a form 2 setting
forth the manner in which the first certificate was lost; and, accord-
ing to a ruling of the department of health, the parent must accom-
pany the child. This rule is generally adhered to, as it aids in assur-
ing the issuing officer that the child has actually lost the old certifi-
cate and is not securing the new one for another child. Since early
in 1915 the practice has been to require the child to wait at least one
month before a new certificate is issued. When assurance is given,
usually by a note, that the employer lost the certificate, the parent
need not accompany the child, and a new certificate is issued at once.
In such a case the employer, informed by the issuing officer of the
required fee, often pays it, but if he does not, the child must do so.
Occasionally, when the imposition of the fee seems an injustice, the
duplicate is given to the child free of cost. In New York City 1,555
duplicate certificates were issued in 1915.
In Buffalo, when the child wishes a duplicate certificate, he must
come to the issuing office accompanied by his parent. The stub of
the original certificate is consulted for the necessary data and the
parent is required to swear as to the manner in which the certificate
was lost. A fee of 1 1 is charged, and an attempt is made here also to
persuade the employer, if he lost the original, to pay for the duplicate
copy; but if he will not the child must do so. In Rochester the
child must apply in person and be reexamined, chiefly for defective
teeth. No fee is charged, but the child is usually required to wait a
week for the copy. If, however, the child brings a note from an
employer stating that he has lost the original certificate or that he
intends to employ the child, the duplicate is granted immediately.
In none of the other cities visited is any fee required, but the child is
sometimes questioned and required to return a second time for the
i Buffalo Form 4, pp. 159, 160.
2 New York City Form 14, p. 145.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
33
duplicate certificate. At the Utica office, if the child says that the
employer lost the original certificate, he must bring a written state-
ment from the employer to that effect before the duplicate is issued.
OVER-AGE CERTIFICATES.
In New York City the bureau of child hygiene of the department of
health issues to a child over 16 years of age a statement 1 certifying
that his proof of age has been investigated and is satisfactory. This
statement is also issued to a child who claims to be over 16 but who
can not present satisfactory proof of age, providing a physical examina-
tion made by a physician of the bureau indicates that he is over
16. It is frequently issued upon the request of an employer, and
a child can not procure a second copy.
Until October 1, 1915, in New York City the department of labor
issued to a child over 16 years of age a statement certifying that evi-
dence satisfactory under the law for an employment certificate was
filed in the office showing that the child was over 16 years of age.
This statement was also issued upon the request of an employer,
and a child could not procure a second copy.
EVIDENCE OF AGE.
Any one of four kinds of documents may be used by a child to
prove his age to an issuing officer in New York State. In order of
preference these are as follows:
(a) A duly attested transcript of a birth certificate.
( b ) A certificate of graduation from the eighth grade, provided the
school record shows that the child is at least 14.
(c) A passport or a duly attested transcript of a baptismal certifi-
cate showing the date of birth.
(d) Other satisfactory documentary evidence of age.
A fifth document may be presented in first-class cities only, namely:
( e ) A physicians’ certificate of age based on a physical examina-
tion.
When evidence other than a birth certificate is presented the par-
ent, according to law, must appear in person before the officer issuing
the certificate and must file an affidavit stating that other evidence
can not be secured. For this affidavit no fee can be collected at the
issuing office. 2
To prevent effacement, the date of birth is perforated on the
employment certificate in Buffalo and in Rochester. In the other
offices it is written.
1 New York City Form 15, p. 145.
2 Labor Law, secs. 71 and 163. For the text of these sections see pp. 120, 124.
46446°— 17 3
34 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
In New York City and in Buffalo the order of presentation pre-
scribed in the law is strictly observed. In Rochester birth certificates,
baptismal records, and passports are regarded as equally acceptable,
and a certificate of graduation is accepted not only if the child’s birth
is not recorded but also if the record is difficult to obtain. In the
second-class cities — Albany, Troy, Syracuse, and Utica — the birth
certificate is first demanded, then the baptismal record or passport.
In the absence of both these kinds of evidence the parent is required
to swear before the commissioner of deeds or designated officer in
the bureau that the child is of a certain age and that no other proof
of age can be obtained. This parent’s affidavit is frequently accepted
without any supporting evidence. In Little Falls the proofs of age
are required usually in the following order: Birth certificate, baptismal
record, and parent’s affidavit accompanied by other documentary
proof. In Tonawanda the birth certificate is preferred, then the bap-
tismal record; but occasionally some other document is accepted.
In Cohoes and Victory Mills no special order of presentation is ob-
served, but a parent’s affidavit unsupported by any other document
is the usual evidence.
Outside the first-class cities none of the offices visited demanded
the certificate of graduation, and in none of them were the officers
at the time of this investigation cognizant that such a certificate was
acceptable as evidence of age.
TRANSCRIPT OF BIRTH CERTIFICATE.
Native-born children . — A law providing for compulsory birth reg-
istration has existed in New York State since 1853 but has not been
effectively enforced until recently. In 1900, it was estimated, only
about 78 per cent of the births were recorded, but in 1914 the State
department of health claimed 99 per cent. A new law, effective
January 1, 1914, gave the State commissioner of health power to
remove local registrars and to prosecute local violators of the law.
This law, it is claimed, will for the first time guarantee birth regis-
tration in the State. New York City, however, has always had a
law different from that of the State and has enforced birth registra-
tion since 1909. In 1900 between 85 and 90 per cent of the births
were registered, and the office of the registrar of vital statistics
claims to get 99 per cent at the present time. Obviously, therefore,
the child born in New York State who applies for an employment
certificate can not yet be assured that the record of his birth will
be on file.
The law requires ‘ ‘ a duly attested transcript of the birth certificate.”
This does not necessarily mean the certified copy for which registrars
may charge a fee of SI . 1 No provision is made for searching the rec-
i Consolidated Laws 1909, ch- 45, art. 20, sec. 391, as added by Acts of 1913, ch. 69.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
35
ords, but in none of the cities visited was a fee charged for doing
so when the date of birth was wanted for school registration or
for employment. The registrars in some places, however, are not
willing to consult the records for such purposes and often, therefore,
other evidence of age is accepted by the issuing officers. In New
York City, Buffalo, and Rochester, when a request is received for
the date of birth of a child born in the city, the information is fur-
nished free to a child between 14 and 16, and in Rochester also to a
16-year old child who states that he wants it to prove his age to an
employer.
In New York City a register of the births of all children born in
Greater New York is kept in every borough office, and when such a
child applies for a transcript it can be easily ascertained whether his
birth is recorded. In Buffalo, Rochester, all the second-class cities
visited, and Tonawanda the birth records are in the offices where
certificates are issued, and for a child born in one of these cities the
records are always consulted before other age evidence is accepted.
In Little Falls, Cohoes, and Victory Mills the clerks of the boards
of health have the birth certificates, but as they are also engaged in
other business such records often are not consulted.
In Buffalo and Albany, if the name on the register differs from
that on the school record or from the one the child gives, the parent
must make a sworn statement before the commissioner of deeds that
the two names are those of the same child.
In proving the age of a child born elsewhere in the United States
difficulties are encountered, although the child is not greatly incon-
venienced. Often, it is true, his birth certificate can not be obtained,
but the answer to his request for one is soon forthcoming and other
evidence can usually be secured. The Buffalo office instructs the
child who claims to have received no reply to a request for a tran-
script of his birth certificate to send a special-delivery letter. If such
a letter is returned, it is filed in the office and accepted as proof
that the record does not exist. The office does not accept other evi-
dence of age until it has written proof that a transcript of the birth
certificate can not be obtained.
In Manhattan Borough, during the year 1913, 11,221 out of 14,367
native-born children receiving certificates, or 78 per cent, presented
transcripts of birth certificates as evidence of age.
Foreign-born children . — Before the beginning of the European war
a foreign-born child, in some offices, was required to present if pos-
sible a transcript of a foreign birth certificate. In case he did not
have one he was compelled to send for one, and a long delay often
occurred before it was received. Meanwhile the child was obliged to
stay in school. In New York City, even since the beginning of the
European war, such transcripts have frequently been demanded from
36 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
children born in countries not considered to be too seriously affected
either by the war itself or by the resulting irregularity in the mails;
but the practice has become less common as the war has continued.
Foreign-born children applying for employment certificates in New
York City, Buffalo, and Tonawanda were always required to secure
if possible copies of their birth certificates. Occasionally also they
were required to do so in Rochester, Albany, and Syracuse, but never
in Troy, Utica, Cohoes, Little Falls, or Victory Mills. Instructions
were always given in regard to securing such certificates in New York
City and Buffalo; rarely in Albany and Syracuse, and never in
Rochester and Tonawanda.
The New York City office kept thoroughly informed of conditions
in European countries which affected birth registration, and when
a child claimed to have been born in a foreign city where birth
certificates had been destroyed he was instructed what other evidence
to bring. On the other hand, a child born where birth certificates
were available was given a printed slip made out for the particular
country of his birth and was instructed to fill it in and send it, together
with the necessary fee — the amount of which was specified— to the
proper official, whose exact title and address were given him. 1 The
parent was instructed to send a registered letter and to keep the
receipt in order to present it if no reply were received. At times a
parent or child wrote to a relative or friend in the home country, ask-
ing him to secure the birth certificate. A letter received from such
a person, stating that the birth certificate could not be obtained,
was generally accepted, but in some suspicious cases the parent was
required to write, as previously instructed, to the proper person.
When such evidence was received, the office transcribed the essential
facts on a special form 2 and returned the original paper to the child.
Special difficulty was experienced with the Jewish child whose birth
often was not recorded or whose certificate was difficult to obtain. In
parts of some countries the births of Jewish children are recorded as
illegitimate because the parents were married and the children born
outside the State religion; their parents, consequently, often objected
to procuring these records; and at times the office did not insist, but
accepted other evidence.
At the Manhattan office 5,733 foreign-born children received certifi-
cates in 1913; 3,639, or 64 per cent of them, presented birth certifi-
cates as evidence of age; 543, or 9 per cent, graduation certificates;
403, or 7 per cent, baptismal records or passports; 972, or 17 per
cent, other documentary evidence; and 176, or 3 per cent, had to
resort to physicians’ certificates of age.
1 For this purpose the pamphlet of instructions, How to Obtain Foreign Birth Certificates, issued by the
New York Child Labor Committee, was constantly used.
2 New York City Form 16, p. 145.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
37
In Buffalo, when a child was instructed to write for a copy of his
birth certificate, he had to return with the copy or with a letter stating
that the birth was not recorded. He was not instructed to keep the
receipt to show, in case he received no reply, that he had actually
written, for he was required to write again and again until he received
a reply. Otherwise he could not get a certificate.
In Rochester the child or parent was simply told to write for a
transcript of the birth certificate. A statement of the date of birth
was accepted when written on a plain piece of paper if signed by the
proper official.
In Albany and Syracuse, if a child came to the office with a bap-
tismal record or passport, the document was usually accepted and the
child was not directed to write for a transcript of his birth certificate.
In Utica and Troy the issuing officers had no knowledge of the coun-
tries from which birth certificates could be secured, and consequently
a child’s statement regarding his ability to secure such a paper was
accepted; in Little Falls, Cohoes, and Victory Mills, even though the
officers had such knowledge, the child was not required to procure a
transcript of his birth certificate. In Tonawanda the health officer
usually knew whether a child had written for his certificate and ac-
cepted his word about the reply.
In Manhattan and Brooklyn Boroughs, where most of the foreign-
born children apply, there was, until early in 1915, some one in the
office to translate documents, and in the other boroughs the chief of
the division was called upon for this purpose. In other places, unless
the foreign document was easily translated, the issuing officers de-
pended upon a translation by a priest, a notary, or sometimes the
child.
CERTIFICATE OF GRADUATION.
The second evidence of age to be accepted is the grammar-school
certificate of graduation. To make such evidence acceptable proof
of age it must be accompanied by a school record showing the child to
be at least 14 years of age. The provision really means, therefore,
that the evidence of age presented and accepted is that appearing on
the records of the school the child has attended. Of the 20,100 cer-
tificates issued in Manhattan in 1913, 1,084, or 5 per cent, were
granted on this evidence of age. It is interesting to note that 9 per
cent of the foreign-born children, but only 4 per cent of the native
children, presented this evidence. If a diploma is acceptable, its
contents are transcribed in the New York City offices to a regular
form. 1 In Buffalo a note of the kind of evidence produced is made
on the application blank.
» New York City Form 17, p. 145.
38
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
In Rochester, if a child comes without his diploma, he is not re-
quired to return for it providing the school record shows that he has
finished the eighth grade.
PASSPORT OR BAPTISMAL CERTIFICATE.
A passport or baptismal certificate is the third choice as evidence
of age under the law. In New York City, when instructions are
given to a foreign-born child how to proceed in securing a birth cer-
tificate, additional instructions are usually given with regard to the
passport or baptismal record in case the birth certificate can not be ob-
tained. The evidence from a passport is copied on the same form as
that used for a birth certificate. A transcript of a baptismal certificate
must be signed by the pastor or priest and the seal of the church must
be attached. The evidence on it is transcribed in the certificate
office to a special form. 1 In Manhattan Borough 2,316 children who
received certificates in 1913 proved their ages by baptismal certificates
or passports. The majority of these children were native bom; con-
sequently more baptismal certificates than passports were accepted.
In Buffalo, when a baptismal record is accepted, it is retained in the
office if not too cumbersome; otherwise it is transcribed to a form
similar to that used in New York City. At the Rochester office a
baptismal record, even when written on a plain piece of paper with no
church seal attached, is customarily accepted from a child unless his
birth is registered in the city; and a passport is commonly accepted
from a foreign-born child.
In the second-class cities visited this evidence — a baptismal cer-
tificate or passport — is accepted if presented by a child born else-
where than in the city or by a child born in the city whose birth is not
recorded. In Albany a copy is made of the certificate, but in the
other places the original evidence is kept on file. In Little Falls,
where most of the applicants are Catholics, a baptismal certificate
is the usual evidence of age presented and accepted. In Cohoes,
also, most of the applicants are Catholics, and baptismal certificates
would be easily obtainable; but they are rarely demanded and are
accepted only if they bear the seal of the church and are accom-
panied by the sworn statement of the parent. In Tonawanda, if the
applicant can get neither a birth nor a baptismal certificate, he can
not obtain an employment certificate.
OTHER DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE OF AGE.
Under the law the issuing officer is himself permitted to accept
the different kinds of evidence of age thus far discussed. For the
acceptance of any other documentary evidence of age the approval of
iNew Yofk City Form 18, p. 146.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW Y r ORK.
' 39
the board of health is required. If a birth certificate, graduation
certificate, passport, or baptismal certificate can not be produced, but
if other documentary evidence of age satisfactory to the issuing
officer is available, the issuing officer must present to the board of
health a signed statement showing the facts, together with the
evidence of age produced, and the board of health, at a regular meet-
ing, may by resolution provide for receiving such evidence as it
approves. 1
Before other documentary evidence of age is accepted in New York
City the child is required to furnish documentary proof that a birth
certificate or certificate of graduation is not obtainable; but his
statement is usually accepted regarding his inability to procure a bap-
tismal certificate or passport, because the child, it is believed, will
bring such evidence rather than wait unnecessarily while the board
of health passes on the “ other documentary evidence” of age.
Certain kinds of documentary evidence of age have been presented
and accepted in one office and other kinds in another. But in any of
these offices any proof of this sort which a child might present, if con-
sidered authentic, would be accept ed. A life insurance policy is usually
considered the best and is accepted in all the first-class cities, as is
also a Bible record which appears to have been made near the time
of the child’s birth. A Jewish barmizvah paper 2 is accepted in
New York City but not in Rochester; and at the time of this investi-
gation such evidence had never been offered in Buffalo. The
census age certificate 3 from the bureau of attendance, though by
some considered of doubtful value as documentary evidence of age,
is frequently used in New York City. No similar records, however,
are in use in Buffalo or Rochester. Vaccination certificates, if official
and not from private doctors, are accepted in New York City. But
such certificates are not accepted in any of the other offices visited
except in Rochester. The New York City offices have accepted a
certificate from the United States Immigration Bureau, a hospital
record, a statement of age from the children’s court, and the date of
birth on a christening cup. The Buffalo office has accepted a record
of the Catholic Orphan Asylum, and the Rochester office accepts
any authentic statement regarding a child’s age — for example, an
old letter written at the time of the child’s birth to an aunt and show-
ing the exact birthday.
Of the 20,100 certificates issued in Manhattan in the year 1913,
1,529 were issued on some sort of documentary evidence of age other
than a birth or baptismal certificate, certificate of graduation, or
1 Labor Law, secs. 71 and 163. For the text of these sections see pp. 120, 124.
2 New York City Form 19, p. 146.
3 New York City jform 20, p. 146. When a child applies for a census age certificate and no record of his
age is found on file he is given a yellow card stating that fact.
40 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
passport. This evidence was accepted from 17 per cent of the
foreign-born children receiving certificates as against 4 per cent of
the native born. In Buffalo, from October 1, 1913, to September 1,
1914, only 20 children had to bring other documentary evidence of
age.
The board of health in New York City has always approved the
evidence of age accepted at the issuing office, but the board in Buffalo
has not done so in every case. In Rochester, as already shown,
other documentary evidence of age is not submitted to the board of
health but is approved by the nurse.
In Little Falls the health officer accepts from the school principal
a statement of the number of years a child has attended school and
of the age at entrance. On the strength of this statement the parent’s
affidavit is accepted and the certificate is issued. After issuance the
officer submits the facts to the board of health. Thus far the board
has not disapproved the issuance of any certificate, but it is said
that if it should do so the certificate would be revoked.
PHYSICIANS’ CERTIFICATE OF AGE.
In cities of the first class — but nowhere else — in case no satisfac-
tory documentary evidence of age can be produced for a child who is
apparently at least 14 years of age, the law provides that the issuing
officer may receive an application signed by the parent for a physi-
cians’ certificate of age. In order to allow ample time for “ an exam-
ination to be made of the statements contained” in the application,
and also probably in order to discourage the use of this evidence of
age except as a genuine last resort, the law provides that the applica-
tion must remain on file for at least 90 days before the examination
is made. In case “no facts appear within such period or by such
examination tending to discredit or contradict any material state-
ment of such application,” the issuing officer may direct the child to
appear for examination before two officially designated physicians,
and if these two physicians agree that the child is at least 14 years
of age their written certificate to that effect must be accepted as
sufficient proof of age. If the two physicians disagree, the child must
be examined by a third physician and the concurring opinions decide
the age of the child. 1
This last resort under the law is unsatisfactory, and it is important
that every means of proving age by documents be exhausted before
it is resorted to. The parents, considering that the long delay of
90 days during which the child must stay in school is a hardship,
usually present, if possible, some other evidence of age.
This examination to determine age is never made unless the child
appears to be over 14. Its exact nature could not be ascertained,
i Labor. Law, secs. 71 and 163. For the text of these sections see pp. 120, 124.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
41
but the physicians state that it is different from that for determining
physical fitness to go to work.
In Manhattan Borough, during the year 1913, only 211 certificates
were issued on physicians’ certificates of age, most of them to foreign-
born children. This evidence is rarely resorted to in the other bor-
oughs.
In Buffalo physicians’ certificates of age have been resorted to
only occasionally. The board of health always approves such evi-
dence before it is finally accepted. As in New York City, this cer-
tificate is based on the judgment of two physicians in the employ of
the board of health. In Rochester, when a physicians’ certificate of
age is accepted, the parent’s affidavit form 1 is used and the necessary
data are written on the back of the form.
PARENT’S AFFIDAVIT.
Under the law a parent’s affidavit must accompany all evidence of
age except a birth certificate. The practice differs widely, and the
Buffalo office was the only one visited in which the requirements of
the law were strictly adhered to. In New York City the affidavit
accompanies all evidence of age, but in Rochester only other docu-
mentary evidence or a physicians’ certificate of age. In Cohoes the
sworn statement of the parent must accompany the baptismal
record, a requirement in no other second or third class city visited.
A parent’s affidavit of age unsupported by documents to prove a
child’s age is not provided for in the New York labor law unless
such an affidavit is considered “satisfactory documentary evidence.”
Nevertheless, such affidavits are commonly accepted in Albany, Troy,
Utica, and Syracuse. They must be taken, however, before the
notary in the issuing office. In Cohoes and Victory Mills, almost
without exception, the parent’s sworn statement of age is the only
proof demanded. In Cohoes this statement must be made before
the clerk of the board of health; in Victory Mills the affidavit, for
which the parent must pay a fee, may be taken before any notary.
In Little Falls an unsupported affidavit is never accepted.
The forms used for affidavits are similar throughout the State.
DISPOSITION OF DOCUMENTS.
All original evidence of age presented in New York City is given
back to the child after it has been stamped to show that it has been
once used at the issuing office. This stamp, it is believed, prevents
future use of the same evidence by another child. Returned docu-
ments are not stamped in any other place visited in the State, nor
is there any uniformity about returning evidence. In Buffalo tran-
J Rochester Form 1, p. 1G1.
42
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IX NEW YORK.
scripts of birth certificates, passports, certificates of graduation, and
baptismal certificates — except those convenient for filing — are re-
turned to the children. Other documentary evidence is filed in the
office. In Rochester birth and baptismal certificates and passports
are sometimes returned to the child and sometimes filed in the
office, but certificates of graduation and other documentary evidence
are always returned to the child. At Albany and Little Falls all
original evidence except a transcript of a birth certificate is returned.
In the other places visited all original evidence is filed in the issuing
office.
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS.
The physical requirements for an employment certificate are speci-
fied in the labor law only in a general way. Provision is made that
the issuing officer shall sign and file in his office a statement that the
.child making application for an employment certificate is “in sound
health and physically able to perform the work which it intends to do,”
and also that “in every case, before an employment certificate is issued,
such physical fitness shall be determined by a medical officer of the
department or board of health, who shall make a thorough physical
examination of the child and record the result thereof on a blank to be
furnished for the purpose by the State commissioner of labor [indus-
trial commission] and shall set forth thereon such facts concerning
the physical condition and history of the child as the commissioner
of labor [industrial commission] may require.” 1 As health officers
were reminded by the department of labor when this provision went
into effect in 1913, it is a penal offense . to issue an employment
certificate to a child without first making a physical examination in
accordance with the requirements of the blank prescribed by that
department. 2
The industrial commission, it will be seen, is given power to decide
the essential points to be noted in a physical examination, and it may
be inferred that if a child is sound in all particulars mentioned he will
generally be considered physically fit to go to work. At any rate,
the data demanded by the commission are those which the local
examining physician must record, and the examination must be given
with this end in view.
The form in use, filled out and with the points checked for a typi-
cal healthy child, is shown on the opposite page.
i Labor Law, secs. 71 and 163. For the text of these sections see pp. 120, 124.
* Penal Law, sec. 1275. For the text of this section see p. 131.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
43
Record op Physical Examination— Form 119 .
44
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
When the law went into effect, in 1913, the department of labor
issued the following instructions, in addition to those on the form, as
to the method to be adopted in making the various tests: 1
Eyesight . — Use the Snellen test card. Ability to read the 20-foot section or test at
a distance of 20 feet to be considered perfect. If child is unable to read the letters cor-
rectly at that distance, move him nearer, the distance to be shortened 2 feet at each
test. Each eye to be tested separately, checking the number corresponding to the
distance at which he reads the test correctly. In the illustration the “right ” eye is
checked at 16 and the “left” at 14.
Hearing . — Test each ear separately. Use an acoumeter (a simple instrument, cost-
ing $1). Ability to hear the click of this instrument at 14 feet is to be regarded as
perfect; lessen the distance (2 feet at a time) for those who can not hear, until they
indicate their ability to count the number of clicks made by the tester. In our illus-
tration above, the child is made to hear at a distance of 10 and 12 feet, respectively.
Weight . — Use accurate scales. Beware of efforts to increase weight by heavy sub-
stances in pockets or elsewhere about the person.
Teeth. — “Bad” should indicate marked decay.
Pulse . — To be taken at v/rist, child sitting.
Condition of pharnyx — palate . — Indicate in writing if tonsils are “hypertrophied,”
palate “cleft,” or any other unusual or marked condition; if “normal,” state that
fact in writing.
Hernia . — Record should be based upon answers to inquiries, not on actual
examination.
The industrial commission furnishes to every health officer a book
of blank forms for recording the results of all physical examinations,
whether resulting in the issuance or refusal of a certificate. In these
books alternate blanks are perforated, and these perforated blanks
must be filled out, by the use of a carbon sheet, as duplicates of the
original record. All such duplicates must be sent, between the 1st
and 10th of each month, to the office of the department of labor at
Albany. 2
PROCEDURE.
In describing the physical examinations given in the places visited,
the points on the blank form will be followed and variations from
them noted.
In the New York City office all points on the form are checked.
The nurse assists the examining physician by filling out the blanks
and by questioning the child concerning the date of vaccination and
the parents’ birthplaces. She also often weighs and measures him.
For the average applicant the examination requires about 5
minutes, but for the child who has some physical defect which the
physician thinks might unfit him for work the time varies. Special
attention is given to children with heart trouble, and the bureau of
1 Circular letter to health officers issued by the New York State Department of Labor, Sept. 30, 1913.
2 Data from the physical examination blanks were used in a pamphlet entitled “Heights and Weights
of New York City Children 14 to 16 Years of Age,” by Dr. Lee K. Frankel and Dr. Louis J. Dublin, Metro-
politan Life Insurance Co., New York, 1916. Similar data for the entire State have been compiled, and will
soon be published, by the bureau of statistics and information of the industrial commission.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
45
attendance, when notified of a refusal for this cause, endeavors to
have special provision made for the child by the school principal,
such as placing him in a class on the ground floor of the school building
and seeing that he is not overstrained.
The examination in the other cities and towns visited resembles
that in New York City and requires from 3 minutes in some places
to 10 minutes in others. In Albany, Little Falls, Utica, Syracuse,
Troy, and Cohoes about 5 minutes is required for the average appli-
cant; in Rochester about 10 minutes; and in Buffalo and Victory Mills
from 3 to 5 minutes.
In New York City and in Buffalo an attendant assists the physician
during the examination. In Albany and Troy the clerk of the board
of health checks up the points on the blank during the examination,
but elsewhere the physician performs all the clerical work.
In all the offices visited a girl is examined in practically the same
way as a boy. In New York City, however, the nurse or female
attendant must be present during the entire examination ; in Albany
and Little Falls the girl’s parent must be present.
The examination for the most part aims to determine the physical
condition of the child. Physicians in Rochester, Albany, Little
Falls, Cohoes, and Victory Mills ascertain, if possible, the character
of work the child expects to do and make the examination with that
in mind. The Albany physician cited an instance of an applicant
who had no sight in one eye and defective vision in the other. The
child was attending high school regularly and wanted to work at a
newspaper stand after school hours. Ordinarily, the physician said,
he would have refused the certificate, but for such a child, who wished
to finish high school, he felt that the outdoor work would be desirable
and granted the paper. In Little Falls, where most of the children
go to work in the knitting mills, the physician thinks it is very impor-
tant to make sure that the child has no physical defect which will be
aggravated by that work. The health officer at Victory Mills stated
that he watched particularly for any defect of the lungs, as he
thought no child with lung trouble should be allowed to work in
the cotton mills. In Rochester a child is sometimes required to be
reexamined a few days after the first examination to see whether
suspicious symptoms still exist or have disappeared.
In Rochester, in addition to the information required on the form,
certain extra-legal points are ascertained from the child or from the
parent. These points, which are recorded on the regular physical
examination blank, include the father’s and mother’s occupations,
or the family’s source of support if the parents are dead; the number
of children in the family under 14 years of age and the number older,
and, if possible, the occupation of those over 14; whether the family
owns, rents, or is buying a home; the children’s diseases the child has
46 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
had before and after the age of 7. Although the facts which these
questions bring out have considerable bearing on whether or not the
child receives a certificate, still they can not legally be made the
basis for refusal. But if they show, for example, that the child
apparently does not need to go to work or that he wishes to stay in
school, the certificate may be refused on some other ground.
TESTS.
In the following descriptions the test used in New York City is
given and is used as a basis for comparison of the tests used in the
other offices visited. Evidently, however, the nature of the tests
may vary from time to time.
Eyes . — In New York City the child’s eyes are tested at a distance
of 20 feet from Snellen’s chart, each eye separately and then both
together, as prescribed on the blank. In Rochester, Troy, Little
Falls, Cohoes, and Tonawanda the test is much like that in New York.
In Utica it is made at a distance of about 12 feet from the chart, the
calculation being based on 12 feet, and the fifth line from the bot-
tom is used. In Buffalo both eyes are tested at once at a distance
of 15 feet from the chart, which is lighted by electricity; and in
Albany, Syracuse, and Victory Mills the distance is about 16 feet.
Lighting conditions differ, however, in the various offices. In New
York City the eyelids are examined to detect trachoma or other serious
eye diseases. In the other places no such examination is made
unless the appearance of the eyes arouses suspicion.
Ears . — In New York City each ear is tested by an acoumeter. In
Troy, Utica, and Albany a watch is used. • In the other offices no
special test is made, as it is believed that if the child can under-
stand what is said in an ordinary tone of voice he can hear well
enough to go to work. Special tests are made, however, in most
places if anything peculiar is noted about a child’s hearing.
Oral cavity . — In New York City the teeth and throat are examined
at the same time, and enlarged glands are determined by external
examination with the hands. In all the other offices visited the
teeth and throat are examined in a similar manner. In New York
City the test of breathing consists of closing each nostril in turn and
either feeling the breath with the hand or listening to the breathing.
In Buffalo, Albany, Syracuse, Troy, Utica, and Tonawanda the child
is questioned or his general appearance is observed. In Rochester
mouth breathing is detected by the shape of the nose and the con-
dition of the throat. In Cohoes, Little Falls, and Victory Mills no
test is made.
Lungs and heart . — In New York City the heart and the lungs are
tested in front, according to instructions, with a stethoscope on the
bare chest. During the examination the child is required to take
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
47
full breaths and sometimes to cough. At times the lungs are also
examined in the back. In Cohoes the heart and lungs are tested
as in New York City. In Utica both the front and back of the
chest are bared and examined with a stethoscope. In the Bronx,
when any indication of trouble with the lungs is found, the child's
temperature is taken and if abnormal the child must return in a few
days for another examination. In Little Falls and sometimes in
Buffalo the physician does not use a stethoscope but places his ear
on the chest over the clothing and listens. In Rochester the bare
chest is tapped during the examination, and, if any abnormal reso-
nance is found or if the child has a cough or imperfect expansion,
the temperature is taken and the back as well as the front of the
chest is examined with the stethoscope. Usually in Buffalo and
always in Albany, Troy, Syracuse, Tonawanda, and Victory Mills the
stethoscope examination is made through the clothing.
Vaccination . — In New York City the child is questioned concern-
ing vaccination and the reply is simply noted on the blank. This is
also done in Cohoes and Victory Mills. In Albany, Troy, and Utica,
and usually in Buffalo, the child must show the scar, but in Rochester
only if he is from a parochial school. In Syracuse, Little Falls, and
Tonawanda the child is not questioned.
Joints and spine . — In New York City joint and spinal trouble are
detected by feeling the joints, by running the fingers down the
spine, and by observing the child’s general carriage. This method
is also used in Troy. In Buffalo the child is required to swing the
arms and legs vigorously while walking. In Rochester he is ques-
tioned as to his ability to swim, and his general carriage is observed.
In Albany the child must move arms and legs vigorously; in Utica,
Cohoes, Tonawanda, and Victory Mills he is questioned regarding
his joints; and in Syracuse his general carriage is observed.
Hernia . — In New York- City boys are questioned regarding hernia.
In every other office visited this point is omitted.
Height and weight . — The tentative minimum standard of height in
New York City is 4 feet 8 inches; that of weight is 80 pounds. These
standards are usually adhered to, for if a child falls below either of
them and his muscular development is poor, or if he appears anemic,
it is usually considered to indicate malnutrition, and he is held to be
physically unfit to work. 1 In Buffalo, if a child is apparently in
sound health, no standards of height and of weight are observed; nor
are they in Rochester, if there is no other physical defect. No
established standards of height or of weight exist in the other places
visited.
1 Not infrequently children put heavy articles in their clothing so as to raise themselves to the required
weight. In the Manhattan office a small, apparently anemic boy, who had been previously refused because
he was underweight, appeared wearing heavy boots and begged to be weighed with them on so that he
might go to work.
48
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YT)RK.
Other tests . — The existence of anemia, goiter, clubbed or cyanotic
fingers, and the presence of a contagious disease are watched for
during the examination in every place visited.
CAUSES FOR REFUSAL OF CERTIFICATES.
In most of the issuing offices visited, if the physical examination
reveals defects which appear to be remediable by proper treatment,
the certificate is temporarily refused; that is, it is withheld until the
child comes again to the office with the defect corrected. In every
instance of a temporary refusal it may be assumed that, unless the
defect is corrected, the child is permanently refused permission to
work. Thus it may happen that in some places a certificate has never
been permanently refused because no child has ever applied who
had defects which could not be corrected.
For what physical defects any office, if actually confronted with the
problem, might refuse a certificate can not be stated definitely, as
certain defects may have come to the attention of one office but not
of another. The standards and the emphasis placed upon particular
defects differ, as might be expected, in the various offices of the State.
As a matter of fact, children in New York City are temporarily
refused certificates for signs of malnutrition as indicated by their
falling below the standard of height or weight or by their anemic
condition; for markedly defective eyes, ears, or teeth, greatly en-
larged tonsils, contagious skin diseases, prominent glands, bronchitis,
or serious physical deformity. No child ever has received a certifi-
cate who showed indications of tuberculosis or who had heart disease
or trachoma.
In Buffalo certificates have been refused for pronounced ade-
noids, heart disease, tuberculosis, and orthopedic trouble which can
be corrected.
In Rochester defective teeth are the most frequent cause for which
children are refused certificates. No matter how slight the defect,
it must be corrected and the teeth be put in sound condition before
the certificate will be granted; and if a tooth which needs specific
treatment is removed instead of being given such treatment, the child
does not receive a certificate. The health officer insists that the teeth
be in perfect condition, as he believes defective teeth have a very
close relation to a child’s general health. Indications of tubercu-
losis, heart murmurs without compensation, spinal curvature, or any
other serious deformity, such as flat foot, must also be overcome be-
fore a certificate will be granted, and no child is given a certificate
until he has been vaccinated.
In Albany certificates have been withheld from children who had
defective vision, greatly enlarged tonsils, or a contagious disease, or
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 49
who had not been vaccinated. However, if the defect is of a kind
that will not be aggravated by the work which the child proposes
to do, the certificate may be granted. When any child comes to the
bureau of health to be vaccinated he must be accompanied by his
parent or guardian or must bring a written statement from one of
them consenting to the vaccination. At Troy certificates have been
refused for physical deformity, defective vision, Pott’s disease,
neglect or refusal to be vaccinated, indications of tuberculosis, and
heart murmurs. In Syracuse certificates have been refused for de-
fective vision and for failure to be vaccinated; in Utica for defective
vision, adenoids, sore throat, or decidedly enlarged tonsils; and in
Little Falls for defective vision and also for malnutrition, as work in
mills, although not necessarily dangerous, is considered taxing enough
to sap the vitality of a child who is not strong. In Cohoes certificates
have been occasionally refused for defective vision, indications of
tuberculosis, and physical deformities which would interfere with
work; and in Tonawanda for weakness and anemia. In Victory
Mills certificates have never been refused.
TREATMENT OF REFUSED CASES.
In New York City children who are refused certificates because of
slight or serious physical defects are referred daily to the school
nurses, who visit the homes to see that the children follow the treat-
ment prescribed and who make regular reports The nurse in the office
also keeps a record of all such cases until the children return. Very
anemic children are sometimes sent into the country by the depart-
ment of health.
In Buffalo these children are placed in the care of school nurses,
but no reports are made as to whether the child follows the pre-
scribed treatment. Only when the child returns is a record made of
the correction of a defect. When the parent or child claims to be
too poor to secure treatment for defective vision or bad teeth, a note
is given him to take to the free dispensary. Before treatment is
given, all such children are reported by the dispensary to the over-
seer of the poor, who ascertains whether poverty actually exists.
In Rochester children with defective teeth may secure treatment
at the free dental clinic, and if they return to the issuing office they* are
reexamined to see whether the special defect has been corrected.
In Little Falls and Tonawanda, when the health officer refuses
a certificate to a child for any cause whatever, he notifies the super-
intendent of schools, so that the child may be returned to school.
But neither in these two places nor in the remaining places visited
is the child followed up to see that the treatment recommended for
physical defects is actually received.
46446°— 17 4
50 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION IN FACTORIES.
Additional protection is thrown around a child between 14 and 16
years of age working in a factory by the provision that any such child
shall submit to a physical examination whenever required by a medi-
cal inspector of the industrial commission. If a child refuses to
submit to the examination, or if as a result of the examination he is
found physically unfit to be employed in a factory, his employ-
ment certificate may be canceled. If the child later submits to the
examination, or if on subsequent examination the physical defects
are found to have been removed, his certificate may be restored to
him and he may be allowed to work. The child’s employer and the
local board of health are notified both of the canceling and of the
regranting of his certificate. When a certificate is canceled it must
be delivered by the employer to an authorized representative of the
industrial commission. The results of all physical examinations must
be recorded on blanks furnished for that purpose by the industrial
commission, and a special form has been devised for recording cases
of children whose certificates have been revoked because of physical
unfitness. 1
The division of medical inspection has existed since 1909, when
provision was made for at least three medical inspectors — one of
whom should be a woman — and the section providing for the physical
examination of minors in factories has been on the statute books
since 1913. Up to November, 1915, however, very few inspections
had been made for this purpose, and the law was practically a dead
letter.
EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS.
The law specifies two educational requirements which must be met
by a child in New York before he can procure an employment certifi-
cate. First he must secure a school record, and second he must pass
a literacy test.
A school record, according to law, must “ contain a statement cer-
tifying that the child has regularly attended the public schools or
schools equivalent thereto, or parochial schools, for not less than 130
days during the 12 months next preceding his fourteenth birth-
day, or during the 12 months next preceding his application for such
school record and is able to read and write simple sentences in the
English language, and has received during such period instruction
in reading, spelling, writing, English grammar and geography
and is familiar with the fundamental operations of arithmetic up to
and including fractions and has completed the work prescribed for
i Labor Law, secs. 61 and 76-a. For the text of these sections see pp. 119, 123.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
51
the first six years of the public elementary school or school equivalent
thereto or parochial school from which such school record is issued. ”*
During the period of school attendance children must be given
instruction in a public school or in some other place where reading,
spelling, wilting, arithmetic, English language, and geography
are taught in English. 2 If a child is instructed elsewhere than at a
public school, the law requires not only that the instruction shall
“be at least substantially equivalent to the instruction given chil-
dren of like age at the public school,” but that the attendance shall
be for at least as many hours a day and “no greater total amount
of holidays or vacations shall be deducted from such attendance.”
Absences, moreover, may be allowed only upon the same excuses as
would be permitted under “the general rules and practice” of the
public schools. 3
At the time of granting a certificate the issuing officer not only
must see that the child has a school record properly filled out but
must “sign and file in his office a statement that the child can read
and legibly write simple sentences in the English language.” 4
SCHOOL RECORDS.
In cities of the first class the school record from a public school
must be issued by the principal or chief executive officer of the school
the child attended; in all other cities and school districts having a
population of 5,000 or more and employing a superintendent of schools,
by the superintendent; and in school districts having a smaller popu-
lation, by the principal teacher of the school. 5 The granting of
school records by parochial schools is not supervised except in the
smaller cities, where it is in a measure under the supervision of the
superintendent of the public schools, who issues the records upon
the recommendation of the principals of these schools.
The school record, according to the compulsory education law,
must be issued to a child who ‘ 1 after due investigation and examina-
tion” is found entitled to one, and, according to the same section of
the law, it must be issued “on demand to a child entitled thereto or
to the board or commissioner of health.” 5 This latter provision
occurs also in the labor law. All school records must give the date
of birth and the residence of the child as shown on the records of the
school, and also the name of his parent or guardian. 6
1 Labor Law, sec. 73. Education Law, sec. 630, subsec. 1, and Labor Law, sec. 165, contain practi-
cally the same provisions as Labor Law, see. 73. For the text of these sections see pp. 122, 127, 124.
2 Education Law, sec. 620. For the text of this section see p. 125.
* Education Law, sec. 623. For the text of this section see p. 126.
4 Labor Law, sec. 71. For the text of this section see p. 120.
6 Education Law, sec. 630, subsec. 2. For the text of this section see p. 128.
6 Labor Law, secs. 73 and 165. For the text of these sections see pp. 122, 124.
52 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
INTERPRETATION OF GRADE REQUIREMENTS.
Considerable perplexity exists throughout the State regarding the
proper interpretation of the phrase, added to the law in October, 1913,
which reads: “* * * has completed the work prescribed for the
first six years of the public elementary school or school equivalent
thereto, or parochial school from which such school record is issued.”
In New York City the department of health has ruled that unless
the child has been promoted to the seventh grade he has not com-
pleted the first six years of the elementary school. The superintend-
ent of schools has acquiesced in this ruling and in addition, in order
to secure greater uniformity in educational standards, requires that
every public-school candidate for a working paper who has not com-
pleted at least the first half of the seventh grade must be examined
by the school authorities as to his educational fitness for a school
record. On the record used by parochial schools is printed the simple
statement that the child has completed the first six years of school.
In Buffalo, although the record shows completion only of the sixth
grade, the issuing officer does not grant a certificate unless the child
states that he has passed the examination into the seventh. But
when a child has spent two years in any grade he is considered by the
school authorities to have finished the work of that grade and is pro-
moted even though he can not pass the examination. In Albany,
Syracuse, and Tonawanda, also, two years spent in the sixth grade is
equivalent to passing an examination into the seventh.
In Rochester the department of public instruction considers ability
to be promoted into a grade as evidence of completion of the one pre-
ceding, and two years’ time in a grade is not the equivalent of com-
pletion, though a child who has spent two years in one grade may be
placed in the one next above to see whether he can do the work.
Pupils, however, who have not passed the examination into the
seventh grade are sometimes granted school records. In Utica,
Little Falls, and Victory Mills children are not supposed to be granted
school records until they can pass the examination for promotion into
the seventh grade.
In Cohoes and Troy a child is not required to have spent more
than one year in the sixth grade to be eligible for a school record.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE CLASSES.
Special classes maintained solely to aid children to gain the essen-
tials of a six years’ course in school and thus to become eligible to
receive employment certificates were found in some schools in New
York City and in one school in Buffalo. Under the old law, which
required an examination in certain subjects, such classes were com-
mon; in January, 1916, they were discontinued in New York City.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 53
In some schools in New York City special classes, composed of
foreign-born children 7 to 18 years of age, unable to speak English,
are formed to give the children a better command of the language.
As soon as possible, however, these children are transferred to regu-
lar classes and then promoted from grade to grade until they have
completed the sixth-grade work, when they may be given employment
certificates. At the time of this investigation at least one school still
maintained a special class composed of employment-certificate candi-
dates whenever enough backward children in the school at one time
desired to go to work. What are called rapid advancement classes are
also utilized for this purpose. In these classes only the branches usually
considered essential are taught, and the work of three terms is done
in two. These classes of any grade are theoretically made up of
the bright, over-age pupils, mostly foreign born or from homes speak-
ing foreign languages. In practice, however, a candidate for an
employment certificate who may be backward in the second half of
the regular sixth grade is sometimes put in one of these classes and
drilled in the requisites for the special examination.
One of these rapid advancement classes, for example, in a school
from which a great many children go to work, was composed in 1914
of about 25 boys, of whom 10 were candidates for employment
certificates, 1 or 2 were high-grade defectives, and the others were
over-age pupils who were above normal in mentality. Of the 10
candidates for employment certificates, 9 were foreign born and 1 was
native born of foreign parentage ; 9 were Hebrews, and 1 was an Italian;
8 were between 14 and 16 years of age, and 2 had become 16 since
entering the class. The two latter boys were a little backward and
had not taken the examination, but as it had not occurred to them
that they could leave school until they had finished the sixth grade,
and as the principal had not told them they were old enough to
leave, the chances were they would stay till school closed. One boy
was in the class because the proof of age he had presented had not
been accepted, and he was waiting till the birth certificate for which
he had written should arrive. He had passed the examination
and was therefore not much interested in his studies. Two boys
had failed in the last examination and were preparing for the next
one. None of the boys had been in the class more than five weeks.
The records of every boy, except one who had recently entered, were
examined. Each boy had been in the second half of the sixth
or the first half of the seventh grade ; all the boys, with the exception
of one or two recent immigrants, had spent at least a year in each
previous grade; and those who had recently arrived in this country
had skipped from the foreign class to a regular class in a few 1 weeks.
The branches in which extra drill was given were those required for the
54
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
special examination for employment certificates — arithmetic, English,
writing, and grammar. In addition, history, geography, and phonics
were added, the history and geography being combined to show the
geography of historic places. Phonics was believed to be a particu-
larly important study, and cons tan t drill was maintained in all sorts
of combinations of sounds. The 10 certificate candidates were drilled
separately from the others in the class in all studies except penman-
ship.
Whether such help was given in a regular employment-certificate
class or in a section of a rapid advancement class, its chief signifi-
cance in New York City was that the child was being drilled in the
essentials in order to pass the examination for an employment
certificate.
In Buffalo a regular employment-certificate class, in which essen-
tials only are taught, exists in one school in the Polish neighborhood,
but instruction and special help are often given to individual children
in other schools. Children from the first half of the fifth grade to the
second half of the sixth are allowed to enter this class when the princi-
pal thinks that he can not persuade them to go through the regular
grades and when the family seems to need their help. Children who
are temporarily out of work are also put in this class. The dis-
cipline and requirements are particularly interesting. In the 12
months previous to receiving his school record the child must be
present 130 whole days — half days are not added together to make
whole days — though all these days need not have been spent in
the employment-certificate class ; and he must secure his birth certi-
ficate or other satisfactory evidence of age while in the class. At the
end of each month he is given a test in every subject, and if his grade
averages 90 per cent or above, and he has complied with the require-
ments .of attendance and of age evidence, his name is put on the
honor roll and he is granted a school record. At the end of the year
a regular examination for completion of the second half of the sixth
grade — not a special examination for this class — is given, and all
those who pass, provided they have complied with the other require-
ments, are granted school records. An examination of records of
children in this class showed that most of them w^ere able to leave
after a few months’ time. Some children were put into this class,
it was found, on the day they were 14 years of age; in some cases
they were taken from the first half of the fifth grade and placed in
the employment-certificate class without first being placed in the
second half of the regular sixth grade as was done in New York City;
yet it was probably more difficult to get out of this class than out
of any class in New York City giving similar help. This class
was recognized by the Buffalo department of education, but at the
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 55
issuing office of the department of health it was said that if a child
stated he had been in this class he was not granted a certificate.
In Rochester, although children who can not fulfill regular require-
ments are “ tried out” m other grades and special classes and are
given assistance by teachers, no special classes exist for children
desiring to go to work. And none of the smaller cities visited had
such classes.
EXAMINATIONS FOR EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
The requirement that a child applying for an employment certifi-
cate who has attained only the first half of the seventh grade shall
pass an examination before receiving a school record is a ruling of the
superintendent of schools of New York City. No similar requirement
exists in any other city visited. Justification for the requirement
is found in the provision of the compulsory education law that
the school record must be issued to an applicant when, after due
investigation and examination, he shall be found entitled thereto.
Examinations are held in each district every two weeks, at a school
building designated by the district superintendent. The ruling
requires that, though these examinations shall be conducted by the
principal of the school where they are held, they shall be under the
general direction of the district superintendent. The practice fol-
lowed differs in the various schools. Often responsibility for conduct-
ing the examination is delegated by the principal to an assistant or
to a teacher. Sometimes the lists of names and ratings of children
are sent to the district superintendent, sometimes only the names,
and sometimes no report whatever. Only rarely does he see the
questions used.
The subjects to be included are: (a) The writing of a bill which
includes some simple work in fractions, with multiplication and addi-
tion in the extensions ; ( b ) the solving of three or four simple problems
in business arithmetic; (c) a simple exercise in dictation; (d) oral
reading from a Fourth Reader; and ( e ) the writing of an application
for a position or some other form of letter writing.
The ruling regarding the scope of the examination was made when
the requirement was completion of the first half of the fifth grade and
when the law stated that the child must have a knowledge of certain
branches. When the law was changed no change was made in this
ruling. Consequently wide differences are found in the examinations
given . 1 Some principals add other subjects. On the other hand, one
examination omits the test in letter writing because, according to the
principal, it is a fifth-grade, not a sixth-grade study; another test
omits not only letter writing but the oral reading and the writing of a
1 New York City Form 21, pp. 146, 147.
56 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
bill. One test is suited to a child who has just finished the sixth
grade, another to a child in the first half of the fifth grade. These
differences are due partly to the fact that the law does not require
such an examination and the ruling does not state to what grade the
examination shall be adapted. Needless to say, children taking
examinations in the districts which give the fifth-grade test have high
ratings and all pass, while in the districts giving a sixth-grade test,
many children have low ratings and often have to try the examination
several times.
CHILDREN’S RECORDS.
The pupils’ record cards found in the office of the bureau of attend-
ance of New York City furnished abundant material regarding the
educational status of children leaving school to go to work, and were
valuable for this study in so far as they showed the educational equip-
ment with which a child may start to work or the protection with
which the school surrounds the child before allowing him to work. A
bureau of attendance record card covers a child’s complete school
history from the time he enters school until he leaves and shows such
points as the dates of entrance and of promotions, the attendance,
grades, standings, and conduct, for every half year of enrollment.
Between three and four hundred of these cards were examined, the
records being chosen from those of several schools in Manhattan
Borough from which large numbers of children left school to go to
work. Every child who received a school record was looked up in
the files of the Manhattan issuing office to ascertain the lapse of time
between the issuance of the school record and that of the certificate 1
and to see whether the grade on the record card corresponded to that
on the school record presented at the certificate office.
An examination of these record cards showed the various methods
by which children are enabled to comply with the technical
requirements of the law. A child may be promoted rapidly when
he nears the age of 14; he may be tried in special classes;
the examination may be adapted to his ability; or his grades in
the examination may be raised. The child whose record is shown 2
was put into a rapid advancement class at one time and into a special
class at another. In the last year — the year before he became 14
years of age — he spent only two months in the second half of the
sixth grade and was then promoted into the first half of the seventh
grade. Another interesting record is that of a boy who had arrived
recently from Austria. He was placed in a special class for foreign-
born children and then tried in the first half of the seventh grade,
where he stayed about a month before being put back into the for-
eigners’ class. He left school before his sixteenth birthday and
See pp. 103, 104.
2 New York City Form 22, pp. 148, 149.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 57
received a certificate. Another boy doing average work progressed
through the grades of the public school up to the time of his promo-
tion to the first half of the sixth grade, when he evidently became
eager to go to work. He did not enter the second half of the regular
sixth grade, but went directly into the rapid advancement class for
that grade. The school record stated that he was in the first half of
the seventh grade, but no results of the examination were shown.
The certificate was issued March 4, 1914, and the boy was discharged
from school March 9, 1914. Another child, who went directly
from the second half of the fifth grade to the first half of the seventh
grade, failed in her regular employment-certificate examination
in April but in May presented herself for another special test,
with a note from her principal in substance as follows: “My
dear Miss : I am very anxious that pass the exam-
ination to-day, as it is necessary that she go to work. She is rather
a dull girl, and I hope you will do what you can for her. ,
Principal P. S. No. This girl, in a test adapted to comple-
tion of the second half of the fifth grade, failed in arithmetic, and
received C in reading and spelling and B in dictation and letter writ-
ing. The examining teacher marked the child as failed, but the prin-
cipal of the school in which the examination was held gave her passing
marks. At the issuing office the school record showed: Arithmetic
C, dictation B, English B, and reading B. Records were also found
of children who had progressed regularly through school, or were
hurried only just before leaving, who had failed in the special
employment-certificate examination and yet had received certificates.
ATTENDANCE REQUIREMENTS.
The requirement that a child must have attended school regularly
130 days during the 12 months next preceding his fourteenth birth-
day or during the 12 months next preceding his application for a
school record means that a child must have attended school all but
about 30 school days of an ordinary nine-months session either during
the year preceding his fourteenth birthday or during the year preced-
ing the date of his application for a school record. In other words,
he must have attended school regularly, allowing for absence due
to illness, accident, and other ordinary causes of irregularity. Such
attendance, however, need not necessarily have been in the New York
City schools. A child from New Jersey, for example, who had
attended the schools of that State the required length of time would
be granted an employment certificate, provided, of course, he had
finished the sixth grade and had met the other requirements. Though
the law does not so state, it has been interpreted by the issuing office
in New York City to mean that the child must apply for a certificate
58 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
as soon as he is given a school record. A group of 14-year old chil-
dren, who at one time had complied with the grade and examination
requirements in a certain New York City school, received school rec-
ords and then by common agreement did not apply for certificates.
The principal notified the department of health and asked that cer-
tificates be withheld. Several weeks later, when the children applied
for certificates, they were refused on the ground that their period of
attendance had not occurred “next preceding” the time of applica-
tion for a certificate. The children were obliged to return to school
to fulfill the requirement.
METHODS OF ISSUING SCHOOL RECORDS.
Wide differences exist in the advice given children with regard to
going to work and in the methods of issuing school records. These
differences are most evident in the first-class cities where each indi-
vidual school principal determines the necessary procedure.
A recent survey by the Public Education Association 1 showed that
in some New York City schools the principals believed that the mat-
ter of most importance in issuing a school record was to make sure
that the parent was willing to have the child leave school, and often
they took great pains to explain to the parent the significance of the
change and attempted to persuade him to allow the child to remain in
school. Before granting a record some principals caused a visit to be
made to the home or required the parent to come to the school.
One principal did not consult the parent at all, but was very careful
to have the child secure proper evidence of age before going to the
board of health. Still another principal took a personal interest in
each child who presented himself for a school record and gave him a
set of instructions designed to be helpful to him in going to work.
In another school the home of every child who had asked for a
school record was visited, the parent interviewed, and an attempt
made to find some way to keep the child in school. If it was decided
that the child must go to work, instructions were given as to the nec-
essary requirements of attendance, age, education, and physical
fitness, and the child was taught, if necessary, to write a letter asking
for a transcript of his birth certificate. The New York child-labor
committee’s pamphlet of information as to how to secure foreign
birth certificates was used. The child was not granted a school
record until he had brought a note consenting to his leaving school
signed by his parent and had complied with all the educational re-
quirements. He was therefore not delayed later at the issuing office.
One principal, on the other hand, stated that it was not the school’s
business to help the child obtain an employment certificate. He
1 The description of procedure in New York City schools here given is based largely upon a report made
by Miss P. K. Angell to the Public Education Association of New York City.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
59
said he simply obeyed the laws and the rules to the letter , so that if
any trouble arose about any child who left his school he would be able
to defend himself. Another principal said she felt that her responsi-
bility ended with reading the law to a child who applied for a school
record.
In Buffalo, since January, 1915, principals of public schools, in
response to requests from the vocational-guidance committee of the
public schools, have required children who ask for school records
to bring the written consent of their parents on a regular form on
which the parent states the reasons for the child’s going to work.
Unless the parent signs this statement the child is not given a school
record. Several parochial schools are cooperating in this movement.
In some schools the principal also requires the parent’s signature on
the school record in the specified place before allowing the child to go
to the issuing office, a procedure which later saves delay for the child.
Rochester children do not receive their school records until after
they have met all requirements for certificates except the physical
examination.
In the smaller cities the superintendent of schools rarely gives the
child any instructions as to the legal requirements for obtaining an
* employment certificate. Sometimes, however, teachers or principals
may give such instructions.
In Albany, Troy, and Little Falls a child is not granted a school
record until he can prove to the superintendent of schools that he
has already secured a promise of employment.
In New York City and Buffalo the records of children enrolled are
kept in the individual schools; no central control is maintained over
promotions; and when children receive records no central office is
directly notified. In Rochester, on the other hand, duplicate records
of the age; progress, and attendance of every child enrolled in the
public schools are sent at the end of every semester to the office of
the efficiency bureau. When a pupil leaves school for any cause his
permanent record card is also sent. This card shows the child’s ratings
and attendance, as does the similar bureau of attendance card in New
York City. In Troy, Little Falls, and Tonawanda the superintendent
of schools has duplicate records of the grade, ratings, and attendance
of every child enrolled in the public schools. These records are con-
sulted when the child applies for a school record, so that the super-
intendent can ascertain for himself whether the child has complied
with the educational requirements. In the other cities visited the
superintendent, in countersigning the school record, accepts the state-
ment of the principal.
In first-class cities the statements on school records issued by
parochial schools are accepted as are those on records issued by the
60 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
public schools; and even in the second and third class cities, where
careful supervision is generally maintained over the qualifications of
public-school children, superintendents of schools accept the state-
ments signed by executive officers of parochial schools.
LITERACY TEST.
As previously stated, the law provides that the officer issuing a
certificate must examine the applicant and ‘ ‘ after making such exam-
ination shall sign and file in his office a statement that the child can
read and legibly write simple sentences in the English language.”
. In New York City a Third Reader is used for this test, and from
this, reader sentences are dictated for the child to write. No read-
ing test is given. Up to January, 1915, however, different tests
were in use in the various borough offices and in some no test was
given. During 1915, 79 applicants in New York City were refused
certificates because of inability to pass this test. In Buffalo a
Fifth Reader is used. The child is instructed to open at any place
and read, and is also asked to write any sentence he wishes. In
Rochester, in case the child appears illiterate or can not speak English,
a problem in fractions is given. Otherwise there is no test. In
Albany a test in reading was formerly used, but at the time of this
investigation had been discontinued. In no other city visited was
any literacy test given, nor were the majority of issuing officers
aware that the law required one.
EVENING AND CONTINUATION SCHOOL ATTENDANCE.
In first and second class cities only, evening-school attendance is
required by law of boys who have not completed a grammar-school
course. In these cities any boy between 14 and 16 years of age who
has an employment certificate, but does not hold a school certificate
showing that he has completed the course of study required for grad-
uation from a public elementary school, must attend evening school
for not less than 6 hours a week for a period of not less than 16 weeks
a year. 1
As for continuation-school attendance, the law provides that
“when the board of education in a city or district shall have estab-
lished part-time and continuation schools or courses of instruction for
the education of young persons between 14 and 16 years of age who are
regularly employed in such city or district,” the board may require the
attendance of any child who has not completed a grammar-school
course and does not hold a certificate of graduation, unless the child
is receiving elsewhere instruction approved by the board of educa-
tion as equivalent to that given in the continuation school. The
Education Law, sec. 622, subsec. 1. For the text of this section see p. 125.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 61
'
required attendance must be from 4 to 8 hours a week for 36 weeks
a year, and must be between 8 o’clock in the morning and 5 in the
afternoon. Children attending part-time or continuation schools
are exempt from evening-school attendance. 1
To all children who attend evening, part-time, or continuation
schools as required, certificates of attendance must be given by the
school authorities at least once a month and at the close of the term. 2
The employers of children subject to compulsory school attendance
are required to keep and to “ display” in the place where the children
are employed these evening, part-time, or continuation school
certificates. 3 A penalty of $20 to $50 for the first offense and $50
to $200 for a subsequent offense is provided for failure on the part
of the employer to have such certificates on file. 4
Such is the law. In practice, evening-school attendance is enforced
in some cities and not in others; in no place has part-time or con-
tinuation school attendance been made compulsory; and evening-
school attendance certificates are issued in only a few places in the
State and are rarely if ever demanded by inspectors or attendance
officers.
In New York City evening-school attendance is believed to be a
hardship for a child who works all day, and consequently no serious
attempt is made by attendance officers to enforce the provision.
At the time of this investigation instructions as to the requirement,
however, were given to boys when they received their certificates at
the issuing office. Recently a statement to the effect that attend-
ance is required has been stamped on the certificates granted to
boys who should attend evening school. In the evening schools,
moreover, manual training shops have been maintained at great
expense per pupil, and extra activities of various kinds have been
tried in order to attract pupils of all ages. Nevertheless, during
the school year 1914-15 only 4,093 ‘‘compulsory education pupils”
were enrolled, and the average attendance of these was only 2,032. 5
The course of study for evening schools in New York City is
prepared by principals and educational experts and is approved
by the board of superintendents. High-school, trade-school, and
elementary-school courses are offered. Special provision for the boy
who is required to attend is made in the elementary-school course,
which comprises the work of the second half of the sixth to the
second half of the eighth grade of the elementary day schools. Spe-
1 Education Law, sec. 622, subsecs. 2 and 3. For the text of this section see p. 126.
2 Education Law, sec. 631. For the text of this section see p. 128.
3 Education Law, sec. 627. For the text of this section see p. 127.
4 Education Law, sec. 628. For the text of this section see p. 127.
6 New York City Department of Education: Seventeenth Annual Report of the City Superintendent of
Schools; Report on Evening Schools for the Year Ended July 31, 1915, p. 92.
■
62 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
cial provision is also made for teaching English to foreigners. No
fee is charged.
In Buffalo an effort is made to enforce evening-school attendance,
not only of boys, but also of girls who hold employment certificates.
One school in particular claimed to have no more difficulty with girls
than with boys. But when parents refuse to send girls the cases
are not followed up as are those of boys. At the first of each school
year, individual evening schools try to interest children in their
courses by sending out invitations to all those who were enrolled
during the previous year. The courses offered are prescribed by
the superintendent of schools and include English and business and
vocational branches in addition to the academic course. An initial
fee of 50 cents is required of all those enrolling, but if the student
has attended regularly this fee is returned at the end of the school
year. This requirement insures more regular attendance, and thus
enables the school to do a higher grade of work than would other-
wise be possible. The total enrollment of persons of all ages in the
evening schools during the school year 1914-15 was 14,313. Of this
number, 2,198 were working children.
In Rochester, as in New York City, the department of public
instruction is not in sympathy with the requirement of eveningrschool
attendance for employed children, and no attempt is made to enforce
the law. Evening-school courses are offered, however, in English,
stenography, citizenship, and along vocational lines. For enrollment
in the elementary evening schools a fee of $1 is charged, but this is
returned at the close of the school year to those attending regularly.
The number of pupils enrolled during the school year 1914-15 was
7,891, but of this number only 329 were children under 16 years of
age.
In Albany, according to the superintendent of schools, evening-
school attendance of all boys who hold employment certificates and
have not finished the eighth grade is enforced. The superintendent
states also that he attempts to make girls attend evening school,
but that they are not followed up carefully. He makes an earnest
effort to secure the cooperation of employers. A notice, for example,
is mailed to them instructing them in the provisions of the com-
pulsory education law and requesting the names of children em-
ployed. 1 Reports are also made to them of the progress and behavior
of the boys they employ and of the failure of any such boys to attend
regularly. 2 This system aids in keeping track of the children em-
ployed. The course of study is determined by the superintendent
of schools, and the evening-school principal reports to him. The
standard of instruction is similar to that of the day school, but is
Albany Form 1, p. 164.
2 Albany Form 2, p. 164.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
63
somewhat simplified. Business and technical courses are offered in
the evening high school, and in the evening grammar schools the
same courses are given as in the day schools, including special instruc-
tion in English to foreigners. Vocational courses were added dur-
ing the school year 1914-15, but these are not open to children
under 16 nor to children without the equivalent of eight years'
elementary-school education. No fee is charged for attendance at
evening grammar schools, but a fee of $1 is required for the high-
school or vocational courses. This fee is later returned to the child
if attendance has been fairly satisfactory.
At Troy evening-school attendance is enforced in the same way as
is day-school attendance, and th'e standard of instruction is set by
the superintendent of schools. But in neither Syracuse nor Utica
has any serious attempt been made to enforce evening-school attend-
ance, which is felt to be a hardship to a child working during the day.
The superintendents prescribe the course of study to be followed, but
no well-defined course is offered for a child under 16 years of age.
A few attempts at continuation-school instruction have been made
in the first-class cities, but attendance has been voluntary and none
of the classes conforms to the requirements of the law pertaining to
continuation schools. In New York City part-time classes for chil-
dren between 14 and 16 years of age exist in a few establishments.
Instruction is under the auspices of the board of education, and, while
employed in these particular establishments, children are required by
their employers to attend. In Buffalo a continuation school for prin-
ters' apprentices under 16 years of age was established in 1912-13.
Attendance is voluntary and, though the cooperation of employers
was obtained at first, the school has not been a continued success.
In Rochester a continuation class has -existed since September, 1914,
for girls between 14 and 16 years of age who are employed in one
department of a certain button-making establishment. These girls,
who are required by the firm to attend forenoons every other week
while employed, receive general instruction in academic subjects and,
when first employed, specific instruction in the work required at the
factory. In September, 1915, a continuation class in salesmanship
was formed of girls employed in department and specialty stores.
This class meets in the forenoon 4 days a week and the term is 12
weeks. Trade schools and vocational classes which cooperate with
employers exist not only in all the first-class cities but in other cities
throughout the State.
ENFORCEMENT.
The laws providing that children under 14 years of age shall not
be employed and that children between 14 and 16 years of age shall
have employment certificates when at work and shall attend school
64 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YY)RK.
when not at work are enforced principally by two sets of officials —
local school authorities, who are mainly interested in keeping children
in school; and inspectors of the State industrial commission, who are
solely interested in seeing that children do not work illegally.
Between these two authorities are interposed the officials of local
health departments, who open the gates of industry to children and
upon whose cooperation the other two agencies are largely dependent
in their work.
The functions of local school authorities in enforcing school attend-
ance are usually divided into three parts, the work of school prin-
cipals and teachers, that of attendance officers, and that of school-
census enumerators. As the appointment of one or more attendance
officers is mandatory for every city, school district, and township
in the State, 1 school principals and teachers rarely have any duties
beyond keeping accurate records and making reports of attendance.
Teachers in all schools, however, private as well as public, are required
by law to keep accurate daily records of the attendance of all chil-
dren under 16 years of age, and these records may be inspected or
copied at any time by attendance officers or by other persons “duly
authorized by the school authorities of the city or district.” Any
teacher, moreover, who does not “fully answer all inquiries lawfully
made by such authorities, inspectors, or other persons,” is guilty of
a misdemeanor and liable to a fine of not more than $500 or to
imprisonment for not more than one year, or both. 2
The duties of attendance officers relate, not only to children already
enrolled in school who may drop out before they have passed the
compulsory school age, but to any child in the community, enrolled
or not enrolled, who is under 16 and is illegally absent from school.
In order that attendance officers may be enabled properly to enforce
school attendance they are given legal authority to enter, during busi-
ness hours, factories and mercantile or other establishments and to ex-
amine the employment certificates and registers of children employed
in such establishments. 3 TJiey may arrest truants without warrant
and deliver them over either to the teacher or, in case of habitual
and incorrigible truants, to a police magistrate for commitment to a
truant school. A report of the disposition of each child must be made
to the school authorities. Anyone who interferes with an attendance
officer in the discharge of his duties, or any employer who refuses to
show him the register or employment certificates of children in his
employ, is guilty of a misdemeanor and liable to a fine of not more
than $500 or to imprisonment for not more than one year, or both. 4
1 Education Law, sec. 632. For the text of this section see p. 128.
2 Education Law, sec. 629; Penal Law, sec. 1937. For the text of these sections see pp. 127, 131.
3 Education Law, sec. 633, subsec. 3. For the text of this section see p. 128.
4 Education Law, sec. 634; Penal Law, sec. 1937. For the text of these sections see pp. 128, 131.
EMPLOYMEXT-CEKTIFICATE SYSTEM IX NEW YOEK.
65
Attendance officers are mainly relied upon to locate children not
enrolled in school, and inspectors of the State industrial commission
are depended upon to see that children are not illegally employed.
The law provides, indeed, that attendance officers may visit places of
employment, but that agents of the industrial commission must do so.
Inspection for violation of the minimum-age and employment-
certificate laws in factories throughout the State and in mercantile
and other establishments in first and second class cities is, in fact,
the duty of the industrial commission. “As often as practicable ”
factories must be visited by inspectors of the division of factory
inspection, 1 and mercantile and other establishments in first and
second class cities by inspectors of the division of mercantile inspec-
tion. 2
In cities other than those of the first or second class but having
3,000 or more inhabitants the boards or departments of health or health
commissioners are charged with the duty of enforcing the law relating
to mercantile and other establishments. In these cities, however, the
law does not provide that there “shall” be inspection but merely
that there “may” be inspection. 3
In all factories where women or children are employed and in mer-
cantile establishments in first and second class cities where three or
more 'women or children are employed a copy or abstract of the law
relating to their employment must be posted on each floor. 4
Inspectors and other officers charged with the duty of enforcement
have authority to enter, at reasonable hours, any (establishment
mentioned in the law to look for children and to demand the produc-
tion of employment certificates, together with a register of names,
ages, birthplaces, and addresses of all children under 16. 5 All per-
sons connected with these establishments must give the information
demanded by an inspector; and no one may interfere with or ob-
struct an inspector in the performance of his duties. 6
Penalties for violation of the child-labor law fall directly upon the
employer, but for failure to send a child to school the parent is liable
to a fine not exceeding $5 or 5 days’ imprisonment for a first offense
and to a fine not exceeding $50 or 30 days’ imprisonment, or both, for a
subsequent offense. 7 For failure on the part of the employer to have
on file an employment certificate, or for any violation of the labor law
for which no other penalty is imposed, a general penalty is provided
1 Labor Law, sec. 56. For the text of this section see p. 118.
2 Labor Law, sec. 59. For the text of this section see p. 119.
3 Labor Law, sec. 172. For the text of this section see p. 124.
4 Labor Law, secs. 99a and 173. For the text of the latter section see p. 125.
& Labor Law, secs. 56, 59, 76, 167, and 172. For the text of these sections see pp. 118, 119, 122, 124.
6 Labor Law, secs. 43, subsec. 2, and 172. For the text of these sections see pp. 117, 124.
2 Education Law, sec. 625. For the text of this section see p. 126.
46446°— 17 5
66
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
ranging from a fine of $20 to $50 for a first offense to one of $250 and
60 days’ imprisonment for a third offense. 1 2 For failure to have on
file the employment or school-record certificate required by the edu-
cation law the employer is liable to a fine of from $20 to $50 for a
first offense and from $50 to $200 for each subsequent offensei For
the employment of children under the minimum age the penalties
are the same as for the employment of children without certificates.
SCHOOL ATTENDANCE.
New York City . — Two principal methods of enforcing school attend-
ance are used, the first consisting of reports of absences sent by the
principals of schools to the bureau of attendance, and the second con-
sis ting of reports from all other sources. The first method obviously
affects only children who are already enrolled in a city school. The
second method affects all children of compulsory school age, whether
or not they have ever been enrolled in any school in New York City.
All children between 7 and 16 years of age who are absent from
public school, unless the absence is excused or known to be legal, are
reported by the principal, on the third day of absence, to the district
supervisor of the bureau of attendance. If the child is known to be a
truant, the principal must report the absence on the first day it occurs,
and if he thinks best he may report any absence on the first day.
The report of the child’s absence is made on a quadruplicate form,
one copy of which is kept by the principal; the others are sent to the
district supervisor of the bureau of attendance. The attendance
officer investigates, and if he finds the absence illegal returns the
child to school as soon as possible. Even when he finds the absence
legal he may reinvestigate if the child does not later return to school.
In either case he reports to the main office of the bureau of attend-
ance, where one copy of his report is filed. Two copies of this
report are sent back to the principal, who keeps one as a record of the
disposition of the case and returns the other to the bureau as a receipt.
After 20 days of absence the principal either is directed to discharge
the child or is notified that the case is being handled as a violation of
the compulsory education law. A child who is so seriously ill that
he can not return to school within three months may be discharged,
upon a physician’s certificate, to a “general suspense register” ; but full
particulars must be sent to the main office of the bureau of attend-
ance. In case a child who is absent can not be located, the prin-
cipal may apply, after 10 days, for permission to discharge him —
pending further investigation — to the “general suspense register.”
When a pupil transfers from one public school to another, he is
given his permanent record card and a notice of transfer. The prin-
1 Penal Law, sec. 1275. For the text ol this section see p. 131.
2 Education Law, sec. 628. For the text of this section see p. 127.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 67
cipal retains one copy of the notice and mails another copy to the
main office of the bureau of attendance. The pupil presents his
notice to the principal of the school he is entering, and the principal
in turn notifies the bureau of the child’s admission. The bureau then
notifies the principal of the first school, and the child is discharged.
But if at the end of 7 days no report has been received from the
second school, the bureau investigates; and if at the end of 10 days
the first school has not been notified of the child’s admission to the
other school, the bureau may direct the principal to discharge the
child; or, if it fails to do so, the principal may discharge him and
notify the bureau. The bureau continues its investigation of any
case not definitely settled, even though the school has discharged the
child.
The forms used by the bureau for reporting absences and transfers
are distributed among all schools, parochial and private as well as
public, and, though all parochial and private schools do not avail
themselves of the services of the bureau in every case of absence,
cooperation is said to be maintained with many of them. Pupils ad-
mitted to a public school from schools not cooperating are reported to
the bureau as though from another city.
The school census, which later is described in full, is the principal
method of detecting children of compulsory school age who have
never been enrolled in any school in New York City. Cases of truancy
discovered by census enumerators or school attendance officers, and
any such cases which may be reported from outside sources, are han-
dled exactly as are those reported by schools.
Beginning in an experimental district, the cooperation of the police
department has been secured in enforcing school attendance. When
a patrolman finds a child illegally on the street during school hours
he takes him to the nearest school, delivers him to the principal, and
receives a signed receipt. 1 If the child is not a pupil of the school to
which he is returned, the principal notifies the district supervisor to
send an attendance officer to take charge of him. A child who is ex-
cused from attendance because of physical illness or mental defect is
furnished with an identification card to show attendance officers and
patrolmen that he need not be returned to school. The child with
an employment certificate, however, is not given an identification
card, as he must be either at work or at school and therefore is not
legitimately absent from school when not employed.
If a child in this experimental district is reported absent three
times, even if found to be legally absent each time, he may be sum-
moned with his parents for a hearing before the division supervisor;
but this summons is not always issued, as in certain cases it may
1 New York City Form 23, p. 150.
68 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
appear that more patience should be used. These hearings are
intended in general to aid in maintaining personal interest between
the parents and children and the school authorities; to serve as a
basis for administering relief in the way of clothing, if necessary; to
ascertain whether or not the child should be committed to an insti-
tution or whether special treatment is needed; and to prevent, if
possible, a court record against the child. During the hearing the
details of the case are thoroughly canvassed and the parent is asked
if he is willing to have the child, in case of further absence, com-
mitted to an institution. If so, the parent signs a statement con-
senting to commitment, and the child is paroled to the attendance
officer, is transferred to another school, and, in case the offense is
repeated, is sent to an institution. If the parent is not willing, the
child is paroled as in the previous case, but if he is absent again the
case is taken before the court of domestic relations as one of parental
neglect. There the child may be once more paroled. But if the case
is not disposed of at this court, or if necessary later, the child may be
taken to the children’s court, by which he may be committed to an
institution.
Buffalo . — In Buffalo the enforcement of school attendance is
divided between the permanent census board and the department of
compulsory education. The individual principal devises his own
means of reporting absentees and reports from time to time to the
attendance officer assigned to his district. In some instances, by send-
ing out postal-card notices, he attempts to interest parents in the
regular attendance of their children. In the congested districts of
the city the attendance officers call at the schools daily. As in New
York City, all transfers between public schools are supposed to be
reported to the permanent census board. And if within a reasonable
time a return notice does not come from the school which the child
is to enter, an employee of that board telephones to ascertain whether
or not he is there. If not, the case is referred to the compulsory
education department. All schools do not report transfers, and
sometimes it is not known that a transfer has occurred until a notice
comes in from the second school. No record of attendance or
progress of children exists in any central office either while they are
in school or after they leave.
Rochester . — In Rochester the permanent census board and the
efficiepcy bureau jointly enforce school attendance. Cases of
unexcused absence or of absence suspected by the principal of a pub-
lic school to be illegal are reported daily by telephone to the perma-
nent census board. This office reports these cases by telephone to
the proper attendance officers, who investigate them. In addi-
tion, principals often notify attendance officers directly of absences.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 69
When a child transfers from one public school to another, or from a
public to a parochial school, the school he is leaving mails a transfer
card to the school he is to enter, and the latter, if a public school,
notifies the efficiency bureau whether or not the child appears. If
he does not appear, or if the parochial school does not report, the
bureau directs an attendance officer to follow him up. A further aid
in keeping track of children in the public schools is the weekly roll
call in each school for changes of address.
When for any reason a child leaves school, his permanent record
card is sent to the efficiency bureau. If the cause is unknown, princi-
pals are instructed to report the case to the attendance officer and
not to return the permanent record card marked “ Cause unknown”
until the officer’s report has been made. The bureau can easily
check up such cases to see whether the attendance officer has been
notified. Thus the names of children who have left school on a
school record, who have moved out of the city or to a new address,
who have become 16 years of age and left school, or who have left
for any other reason, are all reported to the office of the efficiency
bureau. At the end of every semester the attendance and progress
of every child enrolled in the system who has left is checked up with
the permanent record card, and cases which have not been reported
by schools during the year are then discovered.
The reports of work of the attendance officers, who follow up also
the attendance of parochial school children, are filed in the office
of the efficiency bureau.
Second-class cities . — Of the second-class cities, Albany and Troy
have systems of daily reports by telephone of unexcused or illegal
absences, which are followed up by attendance officers. In Utica
absences are reported to the attendance officer during his regular
rounds, but special calls are telephoned to him at the office of the
superintendent of schools. In Syracuse, according to the attendance
rules, “the principals of the several schools shall, within 24 hours,
notify the attendance officers, in writing, regarding all unexcused
absentees.” Such reports may also be telephoned to the attendance
officers each morning or at noon, when they are at the superin-
tendent’s office. But the rules allow a child to be out of school
one day, and if he returns the morning after being absent he need
not be reported. One principal said that she did not wait — as
the rides prescribe — until the second morning to send this written
report, but twice a day sent to the attendance officer a note containing
the names of absentees from each session. Parochial schools some-
times cooperate in reporting absences, but generally do not.
A system of checking up transfers between public schools, tfut
not between parochial schools or between public and parochial schools,
exists in all the second-class cities visited.
70 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
Third-class cities . — Daily reports by telephone and investigations
of absences are made in Little Falls and Tonawanda, and when chil-
dren transfer between public schools the superintendent’s office is
notified. At Cohoes the officer visits every school once a week,
follows up all unexplained absences at that time, and also locates,
transferred children.
Villages . — In Victory Mills, the only village visited, the attendance
officer follows up a child the first day he is absent.
SCHOOL CENSUS.
The duty of taking the school census, as has been seen, devolves
in New York City on the bureau of attendance, in Rochester
and Buffalo upon permanent census boards, and in the other cities,
towns, and villages upon the local authorities in charge of the
schools. Any parent or other person having charge of a child is
liable to a fine of not more than $20 or to imprisonment not exceed-
ing 30 days for withholding or refusing to give information or for
giving false information. 1 In Buffalo and Rochester the plan of
census enumeration provided by law is based upon a census taken
by the police commissioners under the regulations of the census
board and constantly amended by information to be reported by
parents directly to the police stations. In these cities it is the
duty of persons in parental relation to children between 4 and 18
years of age to report certain facts in regard to such children “at the
police station house of the precinct within which they severally
reside.” Thus removals from one police precinct to another or from
one school to another, new arrivals in the city, the fact that a child is
shortly to become of compulsory school age, and the fact that a child
has gone to work, must all be reported to the police and by them to the
school authorities. 2
The results of a school census have no relation in New York, as
in some States, to the distribution of State school moneys, which is
based on the number of duly licensed teachers.
Outside of first-class cities . — While a permanent census board may
be established in any city in New York State, no city not of the first
class has such a board. The law provides that if a board does not
exist, then, in October of every fourth year beginning in 1909 the
school authorities of every city of the second and third classes shall
take a census of all children between 4 and 18 years of age, including
information in regard to the employment and school attendance of
children similar to that gathered in the cities maintaining a per-
manent census board. 3 Although this census is used to check the
1 Education Law, sec. 653. For the text of this section see p. 130.
2 Education Law, sec. 650. For the text of this section see p. 129.
3 Education Law, sec. 651. For the text of this section see p. 130.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 71
school registration, it is taken so seldom that it is but little aid in the
regular enforcement of attendance laws. In villages and school dis-
tricts outside of cities the board of trustees is required to take
annually, on the 30th of August, a census, including the same points,
of children between 5 and 18 years of age. 1 A copy of this census
is filed with the teachers in these districts, so that it may be checked
with the registration.
Permanent census , New York City . — In New York City the census
is taken by the attendance officers, who enumerate all children
under 18, including even those under 4 years of age.
The census is taken by blocks; a family card is used for facts as
to each child’s physical condition, literacy, school attended and grade
attained. 2 No index or individual identification card is kept. If the
child is employed, the employment certificate number is taken and a
note is made of the last school attended. Information regarding
positions is taken on an individual schedule 3 but, as it is frequently
obtained from the parent, may not always be accurate. If a parent
does not know where a child is working, a postal is left to be filled
in and mailed to the board or given to the enumerator at another
time.
In the course of enumeration children are frequently found who
need special attention but might not otherwise be located. Their
names are all recorded on the daily reports of the officers 4 and are later
reported to the departments or agencies responsible for their care.
Children found illegally absent from school are reported to the district
supervisor of the bureau of attendance and are dealt with like other
truants. Among such children are those staying at home either
with or without employment certificates, boys working during the
day and not attending evening school, and foreign-born children who
have never been enrolled in any school.
Policemen have been cooperating in the census, experimentally at
least, by reporting to the bureau of attendance changes of address of
families in their precincts. 5
Permanent census , Buffalo . — In Buffalo no enumerators are
employed regularly in the field taking the census, but whenever it is
taken 60 policemen are transferred from their regular beats and work,
until the city has been canvassed, under the direction of the secretary
of the permanent census board. Three regular canvasses were
made from 1909 to 1914. The census is taken by blocks, as in New
York City, and a special census card 6 is used. This card calls for
information as to birthplace, date of birth, school attended, employ-
ment and literacy of the child, and nativity of the parents.
1 Education Law, sec. 652. For the text of this section see p. 130. * New York City Form 26, p. 153.
2 New York City Form 24, p. 151. 5 New York City Form 27, p. 154.
3 New York City Form 25, p. 152. 6 Buffalo Form 5, p. 160.
72 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
All this information for each child is transcribed to a regular record
card. 1 The cards are filed by school districts or under the names
of private schools, the records of children 4 to. 6 years of age being kept
separate from those of children 7 to 18 years of age. Moreover, to
aid in locating the child’s record card, an identification card, which
indicates the school district or private school, is also made out for
each child.
A complete list of children registered is sent in once a year from
all schools, and new names are sent in as they are registered. Paro-
chial schools, it is claimed, report more promptly and fully than
public schools, and the dates on registration lists and transfers on file
in the office bear out this statement.
No constant canvass is maintained during the year, but the 632
policemen of the city are expected to report the names and addresses
of all families moving into their respective districts. In addition,
the moving-van companies are asked to report the names and
addresses of families moved by them, and are furnished with blank
forms 2 for this purpose. Cooperation along this line has been fairly
successful.
During the regular canvass a child found staying at home or
working illegally is reported on a truancy card 3 to the chief of com-
pulsory education, and a duplicate record of each case is kept in the
office of the permanent census board. When such a child is located
the card is returned with a notation showing the disposition of the
case. No limit is placed on the time for reporting each child, as
it often takes weeks or months to force him back into school. The
chief of compulsory education believes that the important thing is to
locate and deal with the child rather than to make a report to the
census board which will make its records complete.
The secretary of the permanent census board sends a monthly
report of its work to the board and to the chief of the State attend-
ance division at Albany. This report covers such points as number
of changes of address, new registrations, new arrivals in the city, and
sources of information.
The office files of the census board are used to some extent by
inspectors of the department of labor or officers of other agencies for
locating and proving the ages of children.
Permanent census, Rochester .- — In Rochester six policemen are
engaged continually in taking the census of children 4 to 18 years
of age. The census is taken by streets; and the individual card 4
requires information as to birthplace of parents and child, date of
birth, proof of age, employment, physical condition, school, and
grade, and on the back of it is kept a record of the employment
1 Buffalo Form 6, p. 1G0.
2 Buffalo Form 7, p. 160.
3 Buffalo Form 8, p. 161.
* Rochester Form 2, p. 162.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
73
if the child is at work. For every child whose name appears on an
original card an index or identification card, which is an exact copy
of the original card, is made out. The addresses of children on
these cards are kept constantly up to date.
When a child is found staying at home illegally or working without
a certificate the memorandum of such fact is transferred from the
original record card to another form , 1 one copy of which is kept in
the office of the board, while the other two are sent to the attendance
officer, factory inspector, mercantile inspector, or whoever should
take charge of the case. When the officer has disposed of the case
he reports back to the office of the board on one of the slips. This
slip is filed and a duplicate record of each case is also kept by the
secretary of the permanent census board.
Often a parent can not tell where a child is working or what his
occupation is. In such a case a sheet of instructions and a postal
card are left at the house by the police officer or mailed to the parent
from the office. The postal card is to be filled in by the parent or
child and mailed to the office, where the information is copied on the
original record card.
Each year the census board copies, from the records of the efficiency
bureau, complete lists of children registered in the schools, and, from
time to time during the year, adds the new names which have been
registered. The enrollment lists sent in from the public schools are
complete and accurate, but often the parochial-school lists are not.
Twice a week the census board has the transfers occurring in the
public-school system copied from the records of the efficiency bureau
and the information secured added to the original record cards. The
address given on the transfer card is noted on the original record
card, but the old address is not changed permanently until a policeman
has found that the family is actually living at the new place.
Reports concerning new families sometimes come to the office from
other sources than police officers. The name and address of any
such family are listed on a special form and given to the proper police
officer when he canvasses the street on which the family is reported
to live. When a family concerning whom there is no record in
the office of the board is reported to have children, the police make a
special call to inquire. If such a family is reported to be moving,
the police go both to the new and to the old address.
A daily report in duplicate is required of each police officer, one copy
of which goes to the captain of the precinct and the other to the chief
of police. A report on each street is also made as soon as the canvass
of the street is finished. The information on these last reports is
transferred to a regular form for a monthly report for the entire city.
Rochester Form 3, p. 1G3.
74 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
These monthly reports, and also the reports concerning transfers and
new registrations copied from the records of the efficiency bureau,
are used in the monthly report which the secretary sends to the per-
manent census board and to the chief of the State attendance divi-
sion at Albany.
The board constantly receives from agencies and persons interested
in children requests for information regarding specific children. A
record is kept of all such information given.
IMMIGRANT CHILDREN.
The industrial commission is required by law to procure, with the
consent of the Federal authorities, complete lists of the names, ages,
and destinations within the State of New York of all “ alien’ ’ children
of school age and to furnish copies of these lists to the school authori-
ties in the localities to which the children are destined, in order to
aid them in enforcing the compulsory school-attendance law. 1
In actual practice the United States Immigration Office at Ellis
Island at irregular intervals sends to the school authorities through-
out the State the names, ages, nationalities, and intended addresses
of children of school age arriving from foreign countries. In New
York City, even though these reports come frequently to the bureau
of attendance, the enumerators often find it impossible to locate the
families because the addresses given do not exist, or are incorrect, or
merely temporary, as families may stay only a few days in the city on
their way to another part of the country.
A child who comes to this country without his parents is admitted
only if some responsible person signs a bond to take care of him until
he is 16 years of age. These “ bonded’’ children are more easily
located than ordinary immigrant children, as they are not allowed to
work but are obliged to attend day school until they are 16 and reports
of their attendance must be sent every three months to the New York
office of the United States Immigration Service. The bond states
that the signer shall make this report, but in New York City the per-
manent census board ascertains these facts and reports regularly to
the United States immigration authorities.
Bonded children obviously can not so easily escape the census
board’s enumeration as can those who arrive with parents or relatives,
and who, if they claim to be 16, can easily enter industry and may
never be found by the enumerator. The only hope of placing such a
child in school would be that the industrial inspector might by chance
discover him in the course of an inspection and challenge his age.
In Buffalo lists of immigrant children are sent to the compulsory-
education department and in Rochester to the permanent census
Labor Law, sec. 153, subsec. 2. For the text of this section see p. 124.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 75
board ; but to these cities the lists are sent only occasionally when a
considerable number of children have been recorded as bound for a
single city, and owing to this delay the attendance officers frequently
find it impossible to locate them. In the smaller cities such reports
are sent from time to time to the superintendent of schools.
APPLICANTS FOR CERTIFICATES.
New York City . — Daily reports of all children who receive or are
refused certificates are sent by the bureau of child hygiene to the
bureau of attendance. The reports of those who are granted cer-
tificates are made out in triplicate and include the name, address,
and date of birth of each child, the school attended, the grade, the date
of issuance, and the certificate number . 1 One copy is sent to the
bureau of attendance and the other two are filed. At the end of
each month a set of these daily reports is mailed to the industrial
commission, to be used for statistical purposes. When the bureau
of attendance receives notice that a child has been granted
an employment certificate it notifies 2 the school which he has
attended to that effect, and the school, unless the child is to work
only after school hours, may then take his name from the register.
The principal, however, is required to report back to the bureau that
its notice has been received and to give, if possible, the name and ad-
dress of the employer. Fifteen days after a child has been reported
as having obtained a certificate, unless meanwhile a notice has been
received that he has reentered school, an attendance officer visits his
home or the place where he is supposed to be employed to see whether
or not he is at work. If not at work, the child is returned to school
immediately, unless in the judgment of the officer he ought to be given
more time to search for work. In the latter case the officer later re-
visits the home, and if upon repeated visits he finds that the child has
not secured employment and refuses to attend school, the child and
parent are summoned to a hearing where the details of the case are
inquired into. After this hearing the child may be given additional
time to search for work, or the officer may be instructed to return
him to school immediately . 3
Reports to the bureau of attendance of children who are refused
certificates are made out in quadruplicate for each child, and include
the name and address, the name of the parent, the date of birth of
1 New York City Form 28, p. 154.
* New York City Form 29, p. 155.
8 A boy and his mother were summoned to a hearing because the boy could not obtain work and was not
at school. The testimony showed that his attempts to get work had been fruitless. The boy was re-
ferred to a woman who promised to make every effort to secure him employment; the attendance officer
was instructed to follow up the case and report again, and the boy and his parent were told that ina
short time, unless he found employment, the boy must return to school.
76
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
the child, and the cause of refusal . 1 One of these is filed at the cen-
tral office of the bureau of attendance; the others are sent to the
proper district office. The district supervisor sends one of these
three to the school which the child attends, files one, and gives the
other to an attendance officer. After the attendance officer has in-
vestigated the case, his copy of the report is returned to the central
office to be placed in a tabulation file. Children refused because of
physical defects are followed up 2 both by the school nurse and by the
attendance officer.
Within the division of employment certificates in New York City,
under the supervision of the chief, a system of reports is maintained
which tends to make the procedure uniform and the work of the
offices comparable. Each borough keeps a daily record of cases
handled, and at the end of each week summarizes these records in a
weekly report 3 to the chief of the division. These reports show the
number of applications made and of certificates granted, refused, and
pending, and a detailed classification of the reasons for refusal. From
them the chief compiles on the same form a weekly report for the
city, which he sends to the director of the bureau of child hygiene.
A similar report of certificates granted, expired, and in force is sent
at the end of each quarter from the borough offices through the chief
of the division to the director of the bureau of child hygiene.
Buffalo . — When a principal grants a school record he is supposed
to send a notification by postal card 4 to the permanent census board.
This notice, which gives the age of the child and the parent’s name,
is destroyed when the report is received from the department of health
that the child has obtained a certificate. A clerk of the permanent
census board goes to the issuing office daily for the names and addresses
of all children granted or refused certificates. These cases are re-
ported on regular blanks 5 provided for that purpose. For children
refused certificates, as for children found illegally absent from school,
truancy cards are filled in and sent to the chief of compulsory educa-
tion, and attendance officers follow up the cases. For those receiving
certificates no reports are made to the chief of compulsory education,
nor is the individual principal sent any notice whatever of children
who have received or been refused certificates. At the office of the
permanent census board the regular record cards of children who
have received certificates are filed separately in a “ labor-certificate”
file and are easily located. If a postal-card notice of the issuance of a
school record has come in and the child does not apply for a certificate
1 New York City Form 30, p. 155.
2 New York City Form 31, p. 155.
3 New York City Form 32, p. 156.
* Buffalo Form 9, p. 161.
6 Buffalo Form 10, p. 161. The forms used for listing granted or refused certificates differ so slightly
that only the former is shown.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 77
within a reasonable time, the school is notified by telephone and the
principal may ask the attendance officer to investigate the case.
Rochester . — Whenever a child is granted a school record a postal-
card notification 1 is sent by the principal of the school to the effi-
ciency bureau, and if the child intends to leave school to go to work his
permanent record card is also sent. The bureau of health telephones
to the efficiency bureau at irregular intervals — daily during the busy
season and once or twice a week at other times — the names of all
public-school children who have received employment certificates and
the school each child attended. These names are checked up in the
office of the efficiency bureau wfith the records sent from the schools,
and after an interval of ten days or two weeks the names of children
whose permanent record cards have been received and concerning
whom no report has come from the health bureau are reported to
attendance officers. The child who receives an employment certifi-
cate for work after school and on Saturdays is treated like any other
child so far as attendance is concerned. The checking of the registers
with the permanent record cards in the enforcement of school attend-
ance already discussed is a further aid toward preventing public-
school children from dropping out of school and working illegally.
But the system does not provide for finding the parochial-school
child who stays out of school after receiving a school record and does
not apply for a certificate.
The name and address of every child who has been refused or has
received a certificate are procured each week from the issuing office
by an employee of the permanent census board. A child who has been
refused a certificate is followed up by an attendance officer, and cards
containing the names of all the children w T ho have received certificates
are filed separately in the office of the permanent census board and are
used by the attendance officers from time to time to ascertain what chil-
dren have certificates. Thus all children from public and parochial
schools alike and all newcomers to the city who are refused or granted
certificates are checked up.
At the beginning of each school year the attendance officers are
given the names of all children who requested school records but did
not call for them during vacation and have not reported at school.
They are followed up to see that they return to school or secure
employment certificates, and the disposition of these cases is reported
to the efficiency bureau.
Second-class cities . — No reports are made by the bureaus of health
to the school authorities in the second-class cities studied. Hence
there is no way of knowing from that source which children have
certificates and which have not. In all these cities, except Syracuse,
Rochester Form 4, p. 163. This card is also used to report changes of address within a district.
78 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
superintendents keep lists of all children to whom they have granted
school records. In Syracuse the individual principals issue the school
records, and therefore the losses to the school system as a whole
can not be checked up until each principals report is sent in at the
end of the year.
Third-class cities . — In the third-class cities included in this study
no regular system of reporting is maintained between health officers
and superintendents of schools, but it is said to be comparatively
easy to discover children who are illegally employed. In Little Falls
and Tonawanda separate files of children who have received school
records are kept in the office of the superintendent of schools, so that
such children can easily be located. And in Little Falls, when the
health officer has temporarily or permanently refused a child a cer-
tificate, he informs the superintendent so that the child may be
expected at school.
UNEMPLOYED CHILDREN.
Local attendance authorities are responsible for the attendance at
school of a child who is not at work. Since he must be at school when
not lawfully and regularly employed, it is evident that a child who !
has received an employment certificate but has not succeeded in get-
ting a job or has lost his job must return to school. But no machinery
is provided in any New York law for enforcing such a requirement,
and since the certificate is issued to the individual child, is returned
to him when he loses employment, and is regarded as his property,
it is difficult to provide for his return to school when unemployed.
Furthermore, the law does not require that the child must be
promised employment before he receives a certificate. As a result, an
unemployed child — except in small communities where it can readily
be known that he is out of work — is generally on the streets or staying ;
at home. Even if he is found by an attendance officer, the produc-
tion of an employment certificate and the statement that he is search-
ing for work will usually exempt him from school attendance.
When a child in New York City receives his certificate the bureau
of attendance makes a serious attempt to see that he either goes to
work or returns to school. But after the child has gone to work the
bureau has no means of knowing whether he keeps his job or whether,
having lost it, he remains idle or goes back to school.
In the fall of 1914 the bureau of attendance, in cooperation with
the largest elementary school in New York City, started a continua-
tion class for unemployed boys over 14 years of age. The class was
advertised in the surrounding districts, and boys were invited to
come. Attendance was voluntary, and during the first term 81 boys,
ranging in age from 15 to 18 years, attended. Only a few of these
boys, and only 3 out of about 80 enrolled during the second term,
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
79
were under 16 years of age. Instruction is given in academic and
commercial subjects and shopwork. The boys are also advised as to
suitable vocations, and some efforts are made at placement.
In Buffalo an attempt is made, through the vocational-guidance
committee of the public schools, to follow up from time to time chil-
dren who have applied for positions, to learn what they are doing ; and
at times children out of work are persuaded to return to school.
In Albany it is the plan of the superintendent to ascertain, at the time
of granting the school record, wiiere the child is going to work. If
the evening-school principal in his daily reports shows the absence of
a boy who has received a school record, the attendance officer goes
to the place where the child has said he was employed. If the boy is
working without a certificate, he is returned to day school. If work-
ing legally, he is ordered to attend evening school ; and if his absence
continues, he is followed up in the same way as though attending day
school. In Troy a similar plan is followed during the time evening
schools are in session. Girls, after they have once received certifi-
cates, are not followed up in either Albany or Troy. Ordinarily,
moreover, there seems to be no way in either of these cities of pre-
venting boys from attending evening school and loafing during the
day.
In none of the other cities visited is provision made for the unem-
ployed child. In Utica and Syracuse a child who has received an
employment certificate is no longer obliged to go to school, whether
or not he goes to work, and no serious attempt is made to follow up
children with certificates or to enforce evening-school attendance.
One superintendent frankly stated that he regarded an employment
certificate as a permit to leave school and the school’s responsibility
as ending with the issuance of the school record.
INDUSTRIAL INSPECTION.
The procedure adopted by inspectors of the industrial commission
is similar for factories and for mercantile establishments. In a
small establishment or one of ordinary size the inspector, before
going through the workroom, secures the certificates at the office,
compares them with the names on the register, and on his rounds
tries to locate each child. In an exceptionally large establishment,
where many children are employed, an inspector does not identify
each child with a certificate, but merely tests a sufficient number to
assure himself that it is not customary for children to work without
certificates in that establishment. The certificates on file are stamped
with the inspector’s name and with the date. Some representative
of the firm usually accompanies the inspector on his tour of an
establishment.
80
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
Whenever during his rounds the inspector sees a child whom he
suspects of being under 16, he has the child sign his name on the first
line of one of the forms 1 which he carries in a book for that purpose,
and then looks over the certificates to see whether he has one for
that child. If he finds the certificate, he compares the child’s
signature on it with that in the inspection book and enters the
other facts required, particularly questioning the child as to the
time of beginning and of ending work. If he does not find the
certificate, he asks the child his age and the date of his birth. When
the answers to these questions indicate that the child is under 16,
or when the inspector doubts their truth, he has the child proceed to
work in his presence and secures — both from the child and from the
employer — the name of the person immediately responsible for the
child's employment. If the child is admittedly under 16, the inspec-
tor orders him to procure a certificate or, if he is under 14, to return
to school, and orders the employer to discontinue his employment
until he has brought a certificate.
If, however, the inspector is in doubt concerning the child’s age,
he may require the employer either to furnish within 10 days satis-
factory evidence that the child is over 16 or to discharge him. A
notice 2 requiring an employer to furnish evidence of age may be
served personally or by mail. In practice some inspectors serve it
directly upon the employer as soon as a suspected case is discovered.
Others simply tell the employer that a certain child appears to be
under 16 and that his age must be proved, and proceed to secure
whatever evidence of age is available. In the former case the
child must be discharged in 10 days if his age is not proved; and in
the latter more time may be allowed to send for documentary evi-
dence of age. The evidence of age required may be, according to
law, the same as that required for the issuance of an employment
certificate. The papers constituting this evidence are filed with the
industrial commission, and any person guilty of making a materially
false statement in such papers is liable to a fine of not more than $500
or to imprisonment for not more than one year, or to both. 3 Physi-
cians’ certificates of age are accepted, and examinations for such cer-
tificates may be given by two physicians of the department of health.
According to law, if an employer fails to produce within 10 days satis-
factory evidence of age and yet continues to employ the child, proof
that the notice was given and that the evidence was not produced is
prima facie evidence in any prosecution that the child is under 16 and
is unlawfully employed. 4 But if no formal notice has been given, the
1 Form 3, p. 135.
2 Form 4, p. 136.
8 Labor Law, secs. 76 and 167; Penal Law, sec. 1937. For the text of these sections see pp. 122, 124, 131.
4 Labor Law, secs. 76 and 167. For the text of these sections see pp. 122,124.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW Y'ORK.
81
child is allowed to work until his age is proved; and the employer
incurs no additional risk of prosecution unless he continues to employ
illegally a child who has been shown to be under 16 years of age.
When a child tells an inspector that he is working illegally or when
a violation is discovered in any other way, unless the employer is a
repeated offender, the case is generally not referred to counsel until
after a subsequent visit. If, however, the violation concerns a child
under 14 years of age, no leniency is shown and the case is sent at
once to counsel. In bringing cases for prosecution the child’s state-
ment of his illegal employment is not used as a basis of evidence, but
the individual inspector must see the child actually employed illegally.
The accompanying table shows data for several years concerning the
inspection of mercantile establishments, in so far as children are
concerned :
Inspections in mercantile establishments covered by section 161 of the Labor Law . «
Year.
Number
of inspec-
tions.
Total.
Number o
Legally.
4 children <
Total.
employed.
Illegally.
Without
certifi-
cates.
Under
age.
1909
7,235
6,070
2,949
3,121
2,365
756
1910
5,236
4,832
2,461
2,371
1,660
711
1911
5,282
3,828
2, 253
1,575
1,154
421
1912
8,395
4,925
2,823
2,102
1,346
756
1913
12, 860
6, 794
4,034
2,760
1,820
940
1914
24, 808
7,494
4, 887
2,607
1,761
' 846
a Figures taken from the Annual Report of Commissioner of Labor, New York State, 1814, p. 86.
Although inspections for child labor alone are sometimes made, yet
in a general inspection the detection of illegal child labor is but a
small part of the inspector’s duties. Inspection must also be made
for hours of labor of women, safeguards on machinery, sanitation,
and protection from fire.
Inspectors record, on a factory-inspection card 1 or a mercantile-
inspection card, information concerning an establishment received
during their tours of inspection. Violations of the child-labor law
are recorded on a child-labor form, 2 and cases of employment during
illegal hours are given on the reverse of the same form. Each day
reports of the work of the previous day are sent to the main office.
Factory inspectors in New York City report to the office in the city;
those in other parts of the State to the Albany office; and all
1 Form 5, p. 137. The factory inspection form and the mercantile inspection form differ so slightly that
only the former is shown.
2 Form 6, p. 138.
46446°— 17 6
82
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
mercantile inspectors to the main office, in New York City. When
cases of violation of the child-labor law in factories are to be referred
to counsel, the child-labor violation cards are kept in the offices of the
supervising inspectors in different parts of the State until the counsel’s
action on them is completed. They are then sent to the Albany
office. All violation records of mercantile establishments are ex-
amined by the chief mercantile inspector, who decides whether the
facts proved justify sending cases to counsel.
The accompanying table shows, for the year ended September 30,
1914, the number and results of prosecutions for violations of the labor
law concerning children in factories and in mercantile establishments.
Number and results of prosecutions for violations of the Labor Law , year ended
Sept. 30, 1914 . 1
Number of cases.
place of employment, age of child, and
cause of prosecution.
Dis-
missed,
Convicted.
Amount
of fine.
Total.
Pending.
acquit-
ted, or
with-
drawn.
Sentence
sus-
pended.
Fined.
In factories:
Under 14 years
37
1
19
14
3
$60
From 14 to 16 years—
a. Certificates
108
6
22
61
19
385
b. Hours
191
3
12
91
85
1,945
c. Prohibited occupations
7
1
1
4
1
20
In mercantile establishments, etc.:
Under 14 years
216
10
10
161
35
770
From 14 to 16 years —
a. Certificates
208
8
24
148
28
650
b. Hours
154
1
16
107
30
695
1 Figures compiled from the Annual Report of Commissioner of Labor, New York State, 1914, pp. 70,
71, 74, 75, 96, and 97.
In the third-class cities visited no health officer, when this investi-j
gation was made, had ever inspected a mercantile establishment for
woman and child labor. One officer stated frankly that it was impos-
sible for him to find time for this work. Another stated that he had
repeatedly called the attention of his board to this provision, but that
it had not authorized him to inspect establishments. A third, who
had been a health officer for 25 years, was not aware that such
inspection was one of his duties.
CONCLUSION.
The exact application of the New York minimum-age and employ-
ment-certificate laws is so complex and technical a subject that its
discussion has been placed in the appendix. But the evident intent of
the law is that children shall not be employed until they are 14 years of
age, except boys over 1 2 in the gathering of produce ; and that employed
children from 14 to 1 6 shall hold employment certificates, or in certain
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
88
occupations in the smaller cities school-record certificates. And in
practice agriculture and domestic service are the only occupations in
which any large number of children are employed under 14 years of
age or under 16 without certificates.
That the law, however, accomplishes its intent by means of a com-
plicated and in part overlapping series of provisions, applying to differ-
ent places of employment and to cities and villages of different sizes,
presents a problem which can be solved only by the bill drafter, not by
the adminis tra tor. All labor laws should be so clear and simple that at
least their main points can be readily understood, not only by lawyers
but certainly by all persons who are charged with their administration,
and, if possible, by all persons who must conform to their provisions.
As is shown in the appendix 1 the New York child-labor laws fail to meet
this fundamental requirement of good labor legislation.
General administration . — The division of authority over the ad-
ministration of the employment-certificate laws of New York State
is unusual in three respects: First, New York is the only State in
which health officers issue employment certificates; second, it is the
only State in which health officers are given authority in certain
cities and villages to inspect establishments for violations of the
child-labor laws; third, it is the only State in which a State depart-
ment of labor is given supervision both over the work of local health
officers in issuing employment certificates and, so far as blank forms
determine procedure, over the work of local school authorities in
issuing school records to children. The unique feature of the New
York system, indeed, is the prominent part played by local health
officers.
The reasons for placing the burden of decision as to a child’s fitness
for work upon health officers rather than upon school authorities
are stated to be, first, the need of having the issuing officers immedi-
ately accessible to the birth records; second, the fact that in the
health department machinery and equipment for giving physical
examinations already exist; third, the desire to avoid the feeling
which might arise if any one set of school officials should issue
certificates; and, fourth, the belief that the health officers act as a
check upon school authorities who may wish to get rid of back-
ward or disorderly children.
The present method is believed to insure a thorough physical
examination and to evade the pressure brought to bear by parents
upon teachers, principals, and superintendents to permit their
children to go’ to work. It is believed that health officers, because
generally not brought in such direct contact as school authorities
with the children and their families, are better able to withstand
the urgent entreaties of needy parents and to decide ultimately
1 See p. 111.
84 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
whether or not a child shall be given an employment certificate. It
is also believed that — at least in New York City, where the schools
are overcrowded and the classes so large as to strain the teachers’
powers to the utmost — school authorities may yield to the ever-
present temptation to allow stupid or troublesome children to leave
school for work even though they have not fulfilled the educational
requirements of the law. And the fact that, in 1915, 79 children who
brought school records showing completion of the sixth grade were
refused certificates because unable to read from a Third Reader
seems to prove this belief true.
The result of placing the responsibility of issuing certificates upon
local boards of health is undoubtedly to emphasize the physical
examination. So far, however, as the educational requirements are
concerned, it is difficult to see that this division of responsibility
creates any materially greater degree of protection for the child in
certificate offices of New York State than in those of other States
where the school authorities who issue certificates are permitted to
give applicants an educational test. The health officer in New York
State himself must certify to the child’s age and physical condi-
tion. He must certify also that the child “can read and legibly
write simple sentences in the English language.” Because of this
provision of law children are given an educational test in New York
City and in Buffalo, but in no other of the certificate offices visited.
Moreover, a child in the third grade might be able to “read and
legibly write simple sentences in the English language,” and the only
evidence ever required that the child has completed the sixth grade is
the school record, which is issued by the school authorities and
which, if “properly filled out and signed,” must be accepted without
question by the agent of the board of health who issues certificates.
In other words, though the health officers can refuse certificates to
children who are totally unable to read and write simple sentences in
English, they have no power to prevent children from going to work
without having fulfilled the real educational standard set by the law —
completion of the sixth grade. Moreover, even health officers may
not be immune from political and personal pressure to permit children
to go to work.
Conditions, possibly temporary in their nature, appear to have made,
necessary in New York this division of responsibility for the child’s
entrance into industry. There are, however, three objections to
the system. The first and most important is that divided responsi-
bility is likely to mean a weak sense of responsibility in both agencies.
The second is that the complete removal of the child at this critical
stage in his life from the jurisdiction of school authorities who have
thus far been the greatest influence in his life outside the home is
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
85
very likely to widen the tremendous gap that separates his school
from his working life. And the third is that, by taking from the
school all responsibility over the child and thus causing it to lose
interest in him as soon as he leaves its doors, this removal tends to
make much more difficult the serious constructive problem of how
best to bridge this gap between learning and doing — between school
and a gainful occupation.
In deciding whether or not a child shall go to work little discretion
is given to either school or health authorities. The school authori-
ties must issue school records to all children who are qualified.
They are, it is true, sole judges of whether or not a child has actually
met the educational requirements of the law for a school record, and
must issue a school record only after “due investigation and examina-
tion.” But if a child has completed the sixth grade, and has attended
school the requisite number of days, the school record must be issued,
under a strict construction of the law, “on demand,” regardless of
whether or not the child intends to secure an employment certificate
and go to work. In other words, though a child under 16 must go to
school unless he is “regularly employed,” the law makes it difficult
for the school authorities to say that he shall be given a school
record only after he has secured a promise of employment.
As for the discretion given to health officers to withhold certifi-
cates in individual cases, the law provides that a certificate “shall
be issued” on application of the child’s parent, but that it shall not be
issued until the school record and legal evidence of age have been
“received, examined, approved, and filed” and the child has been
examined and has been found to be “in sound health” and “physically
able to perform the work which it intends to do.” Over the school
record the issuing officer has no control whatever, except to see that
it is “properly filled out and signed.” As for evidence of age, he
must accept birth certificates, -certificates of graduation accompanied
by school records, pa’ssports, or baptismal certificates unless he has
reason to suspect their validity, but any other evidence of age not
only must be valid but must be of a kind that he considers “satis-
factory.” In most cases he is allowed probably his greatest degree
of discretion in determining whether a child’s physical condition
justifies him in granting a certificate.
Another weakness in the method of administration specified in the
employment-certificate laws of New York lies in the fact that, except
in factories, no uniform method of enforcement throughout the State
is provided. Local school-attendance officers, it appears, must
enforce not only the provisions of the education law relating to school
attendance but also certain of those relating to employment and
school-record certificates. The labor law is enforced in factories
86 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
throughout the State by factory inspectors and in mercantile and
other establishments in first and second class cities by mercantile
inspectors of the State department of labor. But outside of first
and second class cities inspection for violations of the mercantile law
is a power, not a duty, of local health officers, with no provision
whatever for State supervision. For the inspection of mercantile and
all nonfactory establishments in places of less than 3,000 inhabit-
ants, moreover, no provision is made in the law.
The most serious defect in the administration of the New York
child-labor laws, however, is probably the lack of supervision by
any State agency adequate to insure uniformity in methods and
standards. The State department of education has supervision over
school attendance and over the educational requirements for a
certificate. It prepares the form of school record to be used, and
this form is approved by the State industrial commission. But as a
matter of fact, when this investigation was made the school records
used in 1 of the 6 second-class cities and in 6 of the 24 third-class cities
from which reports were received differed in some important respect
from the approved form.
The supervision over the issuing of employment certificates given !
by the law to the State industrial commission apparently might be
made effective, but it has not been so in actual practice. Though f\
since October, 1913, the department has had access to all records in
issuing offices and has had authority to inquire into methods of
issuing certificates, its reorganization in that year and again in 1915
when it was placed under the jurisdiction of the newly created !
industrial commission has tended seriously to delay the practical ‘
exercise of its powers of supervision. Even the reports of certifi- i
cates issued and refused and the physical-examination blanks which
the law states must be sent every month to the department of labor
are sent by many offices irregularly ; and when they do not come
the department does nothing until the end of the year, when it noti-
fies the health officer to send them. As for the power of the depart-
ment of labor to require physical examinations of children at work
and to revoke certificates on the basis of such examinations, this is
rarely u-sed.
Methods of securing certificates . — Owing to the complexity of the law
and to the lack of State supervision, the procedure that the child is
obliged to follow in order to obtain an employment certificate varies
widely in different places. In some cases, as in the matter of the
appearance of the parent in person and in the matter of the literacy
test, these differences are due to ambiguities in the law which are
differently interpreted by local officials. In other cases they seem
to be due to failure rigidly to enforce plain requirements of the law.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
87
The latter is true, as later discussed in detail, 1 of the character of
evidence of age preferred or required to be brought by the child.
The number of trips and the length of time necessary to procure a
certificate depend in large part on the city or village in which the
child lives. Lack of information as to the requirements for securing
a certificate frequently necessitates additional trips. Except in New
York City and Rochester no printed instructions are issued, though
in other places the children in certain schools are sometimes told,
particularly at the close of the school year, how to secure certificates.
Sometimes, especially in the smaller places, the child is obliged to
return for his physical examination because his first visit was not
during the office hours of the examining physician. In Victory Mills
practically every child must make at least three trips, two to the
office of the clerk of the board of health and one to the health officer
in Schuylerville, a mile away. Whenever the parent makes affidavit
to the child’s age elsewhere than at the issuing office, the child gen-
erally has to come first to the office for the blank affidavit form and
to return later with it filled out. On the other hand, wherever the
parent is always required to appear at the certificate office, as in New
York City, Utica, and Little Falls, or always when required to make
affidavit as in Troy, Syracuse, and Cohoes, this requirement is likely
to result in additional trips for the child, as it is frequently not under-
stood, particularly where the parent must appear in some cases but
not in others. In Syracuse a child is obliged to make an additional
trip by reason of the fact that he must obtain a school record blanfi
at the issuing office to take to his school principal.
Delays in securing certificates may be occasioned by two other
causes; first, difficulty in securing school records during vacations,
and second, lack of a birth or baptismal certificate, a school diploma
or a passport as evidence of age. Even in cities where the school
superintendent issues school records — i. e., cities which have a popula-
tion of 5,000 or over, other than first and second class cities — though
his office is generally open the entire year, he can give children school
records during vacations only if provision has been made by the
various schools, public and private, for depositing with him the school
records of all children who may wish to go to work during the vaca-
tion. In first and second class cities and in places of less than 5,000
population the difficulty is greater because the principals of schools
who must issue school records usually have no office hours and fre-
quently go away during vacations. To overcome this difficulty in
New York City and Buffalo the children in many schools are told to
secure their records before school closes if they wish to go to work
during vacation. In Rochester a better plan is used. There the
88
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW l T ORK.
records of children who think they may wish to go to work are
made out except for the date and filed in the office of the efficiency
bureau, where they can be procured at any time. This plan, however,
does not apply to parochial-school children.
Delays due to efforts to secure the best possible evidence of age are
a necessary safeguard to the child. Wherever the law is strictly inter-
preted and children bom abroad or outside of the city in which they
are applying are obliged to send for transcripts of their birth certifi-
cates, the issuing of the employment certificate is necessarily delayed
for whatever length of time — sometimes a month or more if the
letter must go to a foreign country — may be required to receive a
reply. If a child in a first-class city is obliged to have a physicians’
examination to prove his age, he must wait, as has been noted, 90
days.
A child who presents “ other documentary evidence of age,” more-
over, is theoretically obliged to wait for its approval by the board of
health. In some places a delay of as much as two weeks may be
thus caused. In Rochester and Little Falls, however, “other docu-
mentary evidence of age” is accepted at once by the issuing officer.
In Rochester the health bureau never acts upon such evidence, and in
Little Falls a certificate would be revoked, it is said, if the board later
declined to accept the evidence of age offered. But in neither city
does the procedure seem to be in strict fulfillment of the law, which
prescribes that the issuing officer — when satisfied that the applicant is
over 14 and that he is unable to produce a birth or baptismal certifi-
cate, a passport, or a school diploma — shall present a statement of the
facts, together with whatever other documentary evidence is available,
to the board of health, and that at a regular meeting the board of
health may by resolution provide that this evidence shall be received.
In other words, the delay which the law requires in cases of this kind
is eliminated in the procedure of the issuing offices in Rochester and
Little Falls.
Delay in securing a certificate is not only an inconvenience to the
child but not infrequently the cause of a break between his school life
and his working life. When the child secures a school record and
applies for an employment certificate he has decided to leave school;
and, even when notice of delay in securing a certificate is sent to the
school authorities, it is difficult to induce him to return. Attendance
officers, moreover, knowing that he will soon leave school permanently,
often do not think it worth while to make a great effort in his case.
The plan followed in some schools of not giving a school record nor
allowing a child to leave school until he has secured satisfactory evi-
dence of age obviates a large part of this difficulty. This require-
ment, though not a provision of law, apparently could be made
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
89
general, for the child is not entitled to a school record unless he is
14 years old.
The requirement of a fee for a copy of a certificate to replace one
which has been lost, as practiced in New York City and Buffalo,
seems a hardship to the child who has actually lost the document,
particularly as the employer can not be compelled to pay the fee,
even when he himself has lost the certificate.. The plan in use in
Rochester of penalizing the child by making him wait a week unless
he can bring a statement from the employer to the effect that he lost
the certificate or that he wishes to employ the child at once is probably
quite as effective and more just. In this connection it should be noted
that additional protection against the misuse of duplicate certificates
is provided by the method in use in New York City and Buffalo of
having such certificates clearly labeled as duplicates. But the
problem of duplicate certificates can not be completely solved so
long as certificates are given to the children instead of directly to
their employers.
The office procedure itself seems in some places to be unnecessarily
complicated and confusing. In the Manhattan office, for example,
the child frequently is obliged to be interviewed by as many as four
people, and sometimes more, and often he is interviewed several
times by the same person; the office is not so arranged as to make
the order of these interviews clear and simple; the child does not
reach the clerk who has power to accept or reject documents until
the very end ; he goes through all the rest of the procedure before the
literacy test is given; and the forms, particularly different forms for
transcribing various kinds of evidence of age, and the many stamps in
use seem unnecessarily numerous and complicated. Even when the
child brings all requisites, he and his parent may be in the office over
an hour before the certificate is issued. The very fact that an
average of 75 applicants present themselves daily at the Man-
hattan office shows the need for as simple and systematic a procedure
as is consistent with absolute assurance that the legal requirements
have been fulfilled in every case.
That in Buffalo the office procedure is simpler and better organ-
ized is due largely to the greater authority given the first interviewer,
which results in clearing the office rapidly of all children except those
waiting for the physical examination — the final step before the certifi-
cate is issued. The New York City and Buffalo offices were the only
ones visited which in their procedure adhered strictly to the letter of
the law.
In Rochester, though no one can justify failure to follow law, the
children are handled in a dignified, orderly way, are made to feel the
importance of the occasion, and are given more deliberate and
90
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
thorough instruction than is customary in other offices. Applicants
usually appear with the requisites, owing, probably, to the efficiency
of the school system as well as to that of the bureau of health.
Moreover, the extralegal requirements are such that the statement
is justified that children go to work as well equipped as from any
office in the State.
In no issuing offices visited outside of those in first-class cities was
there thorough familiarity with the requirements of the existing law.
In Rochester the departures from legal requirements appear to be
deliberate efforts to secure more practical protection for the child
at less cost to him than is required by law. But outside the first-
class cities no issuing officer seemed to be aware that a certificate
of graduation is acceptable as evidence of age, that a parent’s
affidavit must accompany any evidence of age except a birth record,
or that a parent’s affidavit unaccompanied by any other evidence
of age is not acceptable, and — except in Albany — it seems never to
have occurred to any of the issuing officers that the law requires a
literacy test to be given by the officer who issues a certificate. In
fact, in the smaller cities practically no office visited was operating
under the provisions of the present child-labor law.
Lack of adequate supervision by any State agency makes possible
not only these wide differences in interpretation and even in knowl-
edge of the law, but also many differences in the form and size of
employment certificates. Though the actual requirements as well
as the forms differ widely, an employment certificate made out in one
part of the State is good anywhere else in the State. The law pro-
vides that the blank forms for certificates and school records shall
be “ approved” for first and second class cities and both prepared
and furnished for all other places by the industrial commission. Yet
1 out of the 1 1 places visited during this investigation, and 2 out of
23 other places, used old forms which are not based on the model
approved by the commission and do not conform to the present law.
In some places only one copy of a certificate is made, a record of
the essential facts being kept on a stub; in other places two copies
are made, one for the child and one as an office record; and in still
other places three copies are made, one for the child, one as an office
record, and the third to send to the State department of labor as
a report of the issuance of the certificate.
Evidence of age . — The law prescribes exactly what evidence of age
shall be accepted and the order of preference of various documents.
Yet of the issuing offices studied, only those in New York City and in
Buffalo demanded the documents in the order prescribed by law;
and the extralegal requirement in New York City that the parent’s
affidavit shall always be taken, regardless of the character of evidence
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 91
submitted, left Buffalo the only place where the exact legal procedure
was followed.
The only offices visited where foreign-born children were always
required to send for transcripts of birth certificates were those of
New York City, Buffalo, and Tonawanda. In all the other offices
baptismal records, passports, and other documents were frequently
accepted when birth certificates could easily have been procured. In
Rochester birth certificates, baptismal records, and passports ap-
peared to be regarded as equally acceptable, but particular atten-
tion was paid to physiological age which the health officer considers
of more importance than the exact date of birth. In Rochester,
Albany, and Syracuse passports from countries where birth cer-
tificates were available were commonly accepted, and foreign-born
children were only occasionally required to send for the preferred
documents. In Troy, Utica, Cohoes, Little Falls, and Victory Mills
no effort was made to have foreign-born children procure birth cer-
tificates.
In Cohoes, Little Falls, and Victory Mills, owing to the fact that the
birth certificates are kept by clerks of the boards of health who have
other and more pressing duties and consequently often find it impossi-
ble to consult the records when asked, birth certificates frequently
are not required even of children whose births are registered in those
places. Thus birth certificates as evidence of age are made practically
unavailable for the very children for whose benefit in large part these
communities maintain their systems of birth registration. The rem-
edy lies, not in permitting fees for a search of the records in such
cases, but in making it the legal duty of all registrars to examine their
records upon the request of applicants for employment certificates.
In many places, even when a child is told to write to another city or
to a foreign country for a transcript of his birth certificate, he is given
no instructions as to whom to address or what fee to send ; and only
in New York City and Buffalo is evidence demanded that he actually
has written. The methods used in both places, however, are open to
objection. The registry receipt demanded in New York City proves
that the child has written, but nothing prevents a child from conceal-
ing the receipt of a reply which might show him to be under age.
On the other hand, the Buffalo method of compelling a child to wait
until he can produce a certificate or a returned letter seems an undue
hardship upon the child by placing him at the mercy of careless or in-
different officials.
At the time of inserting in the law the provision that a certificate
of graduation should be preferred as evidence of age to a passport or
baptismal certificate if the school record showed the child to be over
14 years of age, it was believed that this provision would furnish the
92
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
child with a special incentive to complete the elementary school
course before going to work. Little evidence can be found, how-
ever, that this provision is of any practical value and, as the child’s
age does not appear on the diploma, it practically amounts to the ac-
ceptance of a school record as evidence of age in the case of grammar-
school graduates. As a matter of fact the requirement of a school
diploma as evidence of age in preference to a baptismal certificate,
passport, or any other documentary evidence except a birth certifi-
cate, is unknown outside the three cities of the first class and is fre-
quently used there in a way which appears not to have been intended.
In Queens Borough, for example, a child born in New York City
applied with a card showing his birth was not recorded, a baptismal
record, and a school diploma. Instead of demanding a school record
and accepting the diploma as evidence of age, in strict accordance
with the law, the diploma was accepted as the school record and the
baptismal record as evidence of age — a logical if not a legal procedure.
Only thorough State supervision and instruction of issuing officers
could make this provision of any practical value.
The examination for a physicians’ certificate of age, as permitted
in first-class cities, must necessarily show not only whether a child
has probably reached a certain chronological age, but also whether
he “has reached the normal development of a child of [his] age” —
a requirement for all children regardless of the evidence of age
furnished; and if physiological age could be determined by proper
standards, it certainly would be a good supplementary measure of the
child’s fitness for work. But without such standards and without
any method of correlating physiological and chronological age the
physicians’ certificate amounts simply to adding to a physical require-
ment which, if literally interpreted, is applicable to all children, a
physician’s guess as to the chronological age of the particular child
who can not produce documentary evidence. It means, moreover,
that a child who would not be allowed to go to work on the guess of
one set of official physicians would have no difficulty in securing a
certificate from a set in another office. The period, however, which
must precede the granting of a physicians’ certificate serves to make
children and parents leave no stone unturned to secure some form
of documentary evidence of age.
Parents’ affidavits alone appear not to be acceptable under a strict
interpretation of the law, but must accompany documentary evi-
dence other than a birth certificate, school diploma, baptismal record,
or passport. The parent’s affidavit, moreover, is primarily an affidavit
that better evidence of age than that offered can not be procured
and is only secondarily an affidavit concerning the age of the
child. As a matter of fact, the greatest confusion prevails as to
when parents’ affidavits are required and when not. In New York
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW Y'QRK.
93
City a parent’s affidavit must accompany any evidence of age
whatever. On the other hand, parents’ affidavits unaccompanied
by any other documentary evidence are constantly accepted in Al-
bany, Troy, Utica, Syracuse, Cohoes, and Victory Mills. In Cohoes
and Victory Mills, though baptismal records could be easily secured
because most of the applicants are Catholics, they are not asked for,
and parents’ affidavits without supporting evidence are accepted as a
matter of course.
Theoretically a child in other than a first-class city — where a physi-
cians’ certificate of age is acceptable — who has no documentary
evidence of age can not secure an employment certificate. But
practically the acceptance of parents’ affidavits is so general that
Tonawanda and Little Falls were the only places investigated outside
of first-class cities where a child could not in actual practice secure a
certificate without some other form of documentary evidence of age.
In general, because of lack of State supervision, children are going
to work in New York State, in spite of excellent legal provisions, on
the widest possible variety of evidence of age. The same child who,
if he applied in New York City, would be required to produce either
a birth certificate or proof that he could not secure one, in Cohoes
would have to present merely an affidavit signed by his parent. If
he came to any one of the New York City offices, his evidence of age
would be stamped to show that it had been used, and he would be
unable to pass it on for use by a younger child; but this would not be
done anywhere else in the State. If he received his certificate in
Buffalo or Rochester, the date of birth on it would be perforated to
prevent effacement in an effort to appear over 16 and therefore not
subject to the law regulating hours; but if he received it anywhere
else in the State, the date of birth would simply be written.
An effort is now made in New York City to have a child bring
satisfactory evidence of age when he first enters school. If this were
generally done, the child would not have so much difficulty in proving
his age when he wished to go to work. Such evidence is more easily
secured when a child is young and less incentive to falsify age exists.
There is, however, difficulty in the strict enforcement of such a
regulation; for though under the compulsory education law a child
may be debarred from leaving school, he could hardly be debarred
from entering school because of lack of evidence of age. Neverthe-
less, in the great majority of cases the evidence of age can easily be
produced when the child enters school, and a regulation of this kind
would be a decided assistance in proving the child’s age when he wished
to go to work.
Physical requirements . — As in the matter of evidence of age, the lack
of any centralized supervision over the physical requirements for an
94
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
employment certificate in New York State has led to a wide variety
of standards for the child who is entering industry. Though the law
requires that a child to be granted a certificate must be in “sound
health/’ instead of in “ sufficiently sound health/’ as in most States
requiring a physician’s certificate, the physical examination, except
in Rochester, is given in so short a time that it is doubtful whether
any but the most obvious defects are detected. The points to be
covered in an examination are determined by the State industrial
commission, but the instructions for giving the examination issued by
the department of labor are totally inadequate to secure uniformity
of standards as to the nature or degree of defect for which a certifi-
cate shall be refused. As a result children are allowed to go to work
in one community with physical defects which in another would be
considered serious enough to \Yarrant refusal of a certificate. In
practice the individual examining physician establishes his own
standard of “sound health,” and no uniformity in the physical con-
dition of working children is maintained in the State.
In New York City the department of health has attempted to
establish tentative minimum standards of height and weight which
an applicant must attain before he is considered to have “reached
the normal development of a child of its age.” No similar standards
were found in any of the other offices investigated.
As for the child’s being “physically able to perform the work which
it intends to do,” in most places the examining physician makes no
inquiry whatever into what the child intends to do, and under the
existing law such an inquiry would serve no purpose. As the physi-
cal examination is given only when the child first goes to work and
as he may have a dozen occupations before he is 16, this provision is
generally held to mean, indeed, that he shall be physically able to do
any work which is legal for a child under 16. Even in the offices
where information is secured as to what the child expects to do — *
i. e., in Rochester, Albany, Cohoes, Little Falls, and Victory Mills —
this information relates only to the first job, and the examining physi-
cian has no means of knowing whether the child will keep that position
for more than a day or a week or where he will be employed afterwards.
Nor has the examining physician any legal power to tell the child
that he may not enter this occupation but that he may enter another.
As a result, knowledge of the work which the child in the first in-
stance “intends to do” has little or no effect on the character of the
physical examination. Even if the examining physician attempted
in each case to consider the kind of work proposed, his acquaintance
with the demands made by different occupations on the strength and
vitality of children is generally too meager to permit of valuable dis-
crimination, In New York State, therefore, enforcement of the pro-
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
95
vision that the child must be “ physically able to perform the work
which it intends to do” is made impossible by the fact that the phys-
ical examination is made only before the first position.
Medical inspection of- schools, though new and incomplete, is general
in the larger cities of New York State, and it would be easy for the
examining physician at the certificate office to have the benefit of all
information secured in the schools as to the physical condition of
applicants for employment certificates. But in only one place
visited — Rochester — is any effort made to correlate the certificate
office examination with the school examination. The requirement in
Rochester that a child applying for a certificate shall bring a health-
record card showing the results of his school examinations ought to be
in force in every city in the State. If necessary the law should be
amended to this end.
Withholding certificates until minor physical defects are corrected
has the excellent result that, by furnishing an economic motive for
soundness, it induces many children to secure treatment for defects
which otherwise would be neglected. The extent to which this can
be carried without undue hardship to the child and his family depends,
of course, upon the opportunities which the given city offers for free
medical treatment. If there is a dental dispensary capable of accom-
modating all applicants, the rule in force in Rochester, for example,
that no child with defective teeth shall go to work, seems a reasonable
interpretation of the law; for physicians state that no child with
defective teeth can be in perfectly “sound health.”
Additional protection is furnished the child who is either tempo-
rarily or permanently refused a certificate by the follow-up work of
school nurses to whom such cases are referred in New York City and
Buffalo. In the other places the refusal is a warning to the child’s
parents and a protection from a specific danger. Where medical in-
spection of schools exists the child remains under the care of the
school physician. The value of the examination to the child who
is found physically unfit for work depends largely, of course, upon
whether or not some one supervises what he does in place of the con-
templated work and sees that he receives whatever treatment he needs.
The most serious defect in the physical protection of working
children in New York State, however, lies in the lack of any effective
supervision after they have entered industry. The certificate office
merely opens for the child the door to wage earning. It has no legal
right to inquire what happens to him after he has passed through
that door.
When it is remembered that physical defects and weaknesses may
become apparent only after a child has been tested by the strain of
work, and also that young children are particularly liable to suffer
96
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
specific injuries as the result of certain occupations, this lack of com-
plete provision for medical supervision during the early years of the
child’s industrial career seems a very serious matter. The medical
inspectors of the industrial commission may require any child em-
ployed in a factory to have a physical examination, and the child’s
employment certificate may be revoked if he is found in bad condi-
tion. But the power of the medical inspectors to require children in
factories to have physical examinations is so rarely exercised as to be
of little or no practical value. And for a child employed anywhere
else than in a factory no provision is made for physical examination
after entering industry.
Educational requirements . — The sixth-grade requirement of the New
York law constitutes an unusually high educational standard. Here
again, however, lack of control by any central State agency leads to
material differences in standards in different places. First, there is
the usual difference in standards among schools, especially among
unsupervised private and parochial schools. In first-class cities the
law does not even provide for the countersigning, by the superin-
tendent, of school records issued by the principals of such private and
parochial schools. Second, there is the lack of uniformity in the inter-
pretation of what is meant by completion of “the work prescribed
for the first six years of the public elementary school or school equiva-
lent thereto or parochial school.” 1 The interpretation given to this
phrase by the chief of the compulsory-attendance division of the State
department of education, in answer to an inquiry from the Children’s
Bureau, was as follows:
This department holds that when a child has gone down through the grades, as
outlined in the Elementary Syllabus, to the end of the sixth grade, he has met the
educational requirements for a school-record certificate. The word “completed” is
not interpreted to mean that the child shall have passed an examination out of the
sixth grade, or any other examination, but that he has gone through the work of the
first six years of the public elementary school or school furnishing a course of instruc-
tion equivalent to the course maintained in a public school. The reason why the
child is not required to pass an examination is the fact that examination papers in
rural schools are examined by the teacher in charge of the school; and, as there are
about 10,000 variable standards of marking examination papers, the child under the
marking of one teacher might be able to pass out of the sixth grade into the seventh,
and fail if he were marked by teachers in other schools. We therefore hold that the
word “completed” in the statute is not to be interpreted as referring to the passing
of examinations.
This interpretation, however, is not generally known through-
out the State, and in many cities where it is known superintend-
ents are unwilling to follow it, holding, as seems more reasonable,
1 Labor Law, secs. 73 and 165. For the text of these sections see pp. 122,124. An amendment to the
law, effective Feb. 1, 1917, requires that a child under 15 years of age must have completed the eighth
grade. Acts of 1916, ch. 465. For the text of this act see Appendix, pp. 132-133.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 97
that the legislature intended that a child should not go to work until
he was able to pass an examination out of the sixth grade. As a
result the actual educational acquirements of children leaving even
public schools for work differ according to the locality. A child who
lives in New York City, Utica, Little Falls, or Victory Mills must have
been graduated from the sixth grade. But one who lives in Buffalo,
Albany, Syracuse, or Tonawanda needs only to have sat for two years,
and in Rochester, Cohoes, or Troy for one year, in a sixth-grade
classroom.
Though the law provides that the form of all school records used in
first and second class cities must be approved by the industrial com-
mission and that all those used in other cities, towns, or villages
must be furnished by this commission, the supervision thus made
possible has been delegated by the commission to the State depart-
ment of education and has never been effectively exercised. As a
result, not even a standard form of school-record blank is in use
throughout the State. Out of 17 third-class cities from which blanks
were secured but which were not visited the school-record form used
in 6 did not mention the sixth-grade requirement.
Even in the same public-school system central supervision is not
always maintained over the issuing of school records. Lack of uni-
formity is practically inevitable, indeed, under a law which in one sec-
tion } places upon the principal of each school the responsibility for
issuing school records anywhere in the State, and in another section 1 2
places it upon the same officer in first-class cities and in school dis-
tricts having less than 5,000 population and upon the superintendent
of schools in other cities and school districts. It is not at all sur-
prising to find that at least in the first-class cities, where according
to both sections of the law school records are issued by the individual
principals, the educational standard for these records differs widely
according to the ideas of the various persons who issue them. In
New York City, though examinations for school records are given
by the principal of one school in each district, nominally under the
direction of the district superintendent, no provision is made for uni-
formity of or for central supervision over the district examinations.
In Buffalo no central control is exercised over promotions and no
central office is notified when children leave school.
Under such a law, moreover, it is not surprising that in at least
one city, Syracuse, where school records are supposed under the
more recent amendment to be issued by the superintendent, the
principals should be issuing them. Nor is it surprising that in all the
1 Labor Law, sec. 73. Sec. 105 also makes the same provision. For the text of these sections see
pp. 122, 124.
2 Education Law, sec. 630, subsec. 2. For the text of this section see p. 128.
46446°— 17 7
98 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW Y’ORK.
other cities included in this study where the superintendent signs
school records, except Troy, Little Falls, and Tonawanda, he keeps
in his office no register of the standing of individual pupils and there-
fore must depend wholly upon the statement of the principal as to
the grade of an applicant for a such a record.
In some schools in New York City and Buffalo children have been
coached in special classes in order to enable them to reach the educa-
tional standard for a school record. Under the present law such a
class is legal only if it provides better methods of instruction and
not if its course of study differs in any way from that of the regular
sixth grade. In these classes, however, particular attention is usually
paid to the so-called “essentials” — reading, writing, spelling, English
grammar, geography, and arithmetic. And the very existence of
such a class shows a frank and open desire to assist children to leave
school for work.
In other schools, undoubtedly, especially in New York City but
also in Buffalo, a child sometimes is shoved up, without any special
coaching, from grade to grade, until it is made falsely to appear that
he is entitled to a school record. Even the special examination given ■
in New York City before a school record is issued, the purpose of which
is to bring about uniformity of standards, does not always accom-
plish this purpose because ratings are sometimes modified and because
the examinations themselves are not uniform, being in some cases
adapted to fifth rather than to sixth grade pupils. In Rochester, it
is said, an effective check is placed upon pushing up through the
grades by the fact that duplicate records of each child’s ratings are ,
sent to the efficiency bureau at the end of each semester. But in >
New York City, though formerly similar records were kept in the
office of the bureau of attendance, they were never used as a check. \
In general it is safe to say that where no supervision exists over the :
issuing by principals of school records children can be easily pushed up
through the grades so they can go to work when of legal age, and that
this is very likely to be done when occasion arises. It is not uncom-
mon in the congested districts of New York City and Buffalo to
find a parent beseeching the principal of a school to let his child go
to work. If there seems to be exceptional economic pressure in the j
home, or if the child is backward or troublesome, the principal is i
seriously tempted to yield to these entreaties and to give the child a
school record. This action, however, not only deprives the child of |
the education to which the community has decided he is entitled j
before assuming the burden of self-support, but as it is done with his
full knowledge it tends to diminish his respect for law.
The requirement of 130 days’ school attendance either during the
12 months preceding the child’s fourteenth birthday or during the 12
months preceding his application for a school record has been inter-
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
99
preted in New York City to mean that a child must secure an employ-
ment certificate as soon as he leaves school. In other parts of the
State, however, the school-record blanks in use show quite different
interpretations of this attendance requirement. The Rochester form,
for example, provides only for a statement of the number of days’
attendance since the child became 13 years of age. If the child was
nearly 16, therefore, the 130 days’ attendance entered might either
have been scattered over nearly three years or have ended more than
two years before his application for a school record.
The New York City interpretation seems to stretch the law in
two different ways. In the first place it assumes that the 130 days
of attendance must have been during the 12 months preceding
application for a certificate, whereas the law says during the 12 months
preceding application for* a school record. In the second place it
assumes that this attendance must always be before application,
whereas the law says it can be either before becoming 14 years of age
or before application, and fails to specify in which cases it may be one
and in which cases the other.
Unless the law is stretched in these ways the requirement seems of
little value and may become a great hardship to certain children.
For a child who has been living for a year in New York or any other
State having a compulsory education law and who has never before
held a certificate it is no hardship because it means simply compliance
with that law, nor is it a hardship for an immigrant child under 16,
for such a child can rarely secure a certificate inside of a year because of
lack of knowledge of the English language. On the other hand, this
attendance requirement, to which there are no exceptions and which
can not be waived as in Massachusetts, may become, if the law is lit-
erally enforced, a serious hardship to the child who comes into New
York State after having been legally at work on an employment certi-
ficate in some other State. ' Such a child, even if he meets the sixth-
grade requirement of the New York law, may not have been in school
130 days during the year before becoming 14 or during the year pre-
ceding his application, and so is not entitled to a New York certificate.
Yet he has complied with every law of the State where he has lived,
and also has attained the educational standard of the New York law.
As for the literacy test required by the provision that the issuing
officer, after examination, must file a statement “that the child can
read and legibly write simple sentences in the English language,” the
degree of education required by this provision is so far below that
required to obtain a school record that it seems natural for issuing
officers to accept the school record as sole evidence of educational
fitness for work and to give no examination for literacy. Indeed, a
literacy examination is given only in New York City and Buffalo, and
in Rochester an arithmetic examination in case the child appears
100 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
illiterate or can not readily speak English. Even in these places
recognition is shown of the discrepancy between the grade require-
ments and the test — in New York City by using a third-grade reader
for the test, in Buffalo by using a fifth-grade reader, and in Rochester
by testing the child in fractions instead of in reading or writing.
Naturally the only children refused certificates as a result of such tests
as these are children whose school records are virtually fraudulent.
Nevertheless the number of refusals in New York City because of
failure to pass the literacy test shows the great need for such a test in
other cities.
In spite of the legal provision that a school record must be issued
on demand “to any child who, after due investigation and examina-
tion, may be found to be entitled to the same/’ 1 in some cities the
school authorities have introduced certain highly desirable extra-
legal requirements for obtaining such a record. In Buffalo, for exam-
ple, no school record is issued until the parent has signed a blank form
giving his or her consent and stating the reason for the child’s going
to work. In Albany, Troy, and Little Falls the child has to prove
that he has been promised employment before he is given a school
record. This procedure practically means that, whatever periods of
idleness he may have later, he goes straight from school to work. In
no other place visited, however, is any such method used to prevent
the child’s securing a school record merely in order to avoid going to
school. And the law' makes no effective provision for the prevention
of this unfortunate break in the child’s life.
The New York law makes no exception of children who are
mentally defective. Such children, if unable to complete the sixth
grade, can not legally go to work until they are 16. In Buffalo, how-
ever, retarded children are sometimes given the Binet test and, if
found mentally defective, are occasionally permitted to go to work
without having fulfilled the educational’ requirements of the law.
The problem thus dealt with is one frequently encountered in other
certificate offices throughout the country, but it is doubtful whether
this solution, clearly illegal in New York, is one which it would be
well to incorporate into law, even if special supervision were to be
exercised over these children after they had gone to work. The
problem should be considered as primarily one of education and not
of labor regulation.
The lack of compulsory continuation schools for employed children
and of enforcement of the compulsory evening school attendance law
have already been mentioned. The present legal provisions relating
to continuation schools do not adequately protect the child, as there
is no law requiring that the hours of attendance shall be included in
Education Law, sec. 630, subsec. 2. For the text of this section see p. 128.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
101
the legal hours of labor. As for evening-school attendance, if the child
needs more education than that with which he goes to work, he should
be permitted to secure it during working hours at a part-time or con-
tinuation school and should not be compelled to spend in a schoolroom
the leisure he needs for rest and recreation.
Enforcement . — In the actual prevention of employment of children
under 14 and under 16 without certificates there is probably almost as
great lack of uniformity between cities as in the application of the stand-
ards for going to work. Though factory inspectors are supposed to
cover the entire State, and mercantile inspectors the first and second
class cities, with a fairly uniform degree of thoroughness, these inspec-
tors can not visit establishments often enough — inspections are made
usually only about once a year — to do more than a small part of the
work of enforcing the child-labor law. The rest must be done by local
school authorities, who are expected to see that children once in school
stay there until legally released and that children not in school are
sent there as soon as possible. If the work of local teachers, attend-
ance officers, census enumerators, and other school officials is not
thoroughly done, it is practically impossible effectively to enforce
any child-labor law.
To keep children in school it is necessary that all absences be
promptly reported, that transfers be reported both by the school
which the child leaves and by the one to which he goes, and that
attendance officers investigate within a reasonable period every case
of absence. This applies to children attending private as well as
public schools. In New York City the system devised for keeping
children in school is excellent, and the forms for reporting absences and
transfers are used by many private and parochial schools as well as
by public schools. In Buffalo, although the law gives the permanent
census board power “to make such rules and regulations as may be
necessary to carry out ” the provisions in regard to school attendance,
individual principals devise their own methods of reporting both
absences and transfers, and some of them make no report to the per-
manent census board of a child who has left to go to another school.
In such a case, if the child did not enter the other school he might stay
at home or on the street; or if nearly 14 years of age, he might drift
into illegal employment and be found only accidentally by an attend-
ance officer or an inspector. Conceivably the same thing might
occur in Rochester, where the school the child is leaving merely
notifies by telephone the school to which he is to go of the transfer,
leaving it to the latter to notify the efficiency bureau whether or
not the child appears. In Rochester, however, it is said that between
the check-up systems of the efficiency bureau and of the permanent
census board it is almost impossible for a child of school age to escape
the authorities. The weekly roll call for changes of address in the
102
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
Rochester schools is also of great assistance in keeping track of
children. In the smaller cities investigated reports of absences and
transfers are made with more or less regularity to attendance
officers ; but since as a rule no records of individual schools are kept
at the office of the superintendent and reports are only occasionally
received from private and parochial schools, there is no way of know-
ing how well school attendance is enforced.
The extent to which school attendance of children not enrolled can
be enforced depends on the time attendance officers have for other
work than following up reported absences, on their vigilance in this
work, on the cooperation of police officers and others, and on the
thoroughness with which the school census is taken and its results
checked with the school records. In general the school census is of
more assistance in enforcing school attendance in the rural districts,
where an annual enumeration is made, than in any city except those
of the first class, which have permanent census boards. In the other
cities, indeed, the census is of practically no use for more than one
year in four, because it is taken only every fourth year. This con-
dition should be remedied by an amendment to the law requiring a
thorough school census to be taken in every part of the State at least
annually.
In the three first-class cities the permanent census boards not only
locate children 4 to 18 years of age in order that the school-attendance
laws may be enforced but also collect facts relating to the employ-
ment of children. This system of census enumeration has been of
great assistance in locating children from other parts of the United
States and immigrant children of school age not enrolled in any school-
It also aids in finding children illegally absent from a school, public,
private, or parochial, which does not regularly report its absentees.
Permanent census boards, indeed, seem to be needed in other cities.
Too little use is made of the opportunity which the certificate office
affords to discover children wffio ought to be in school. The names of
children who receive or are actually refused certificates are generally
sent sooner or later by the health department to the school depart-'
ment. But except in the New York City offices it is not customary
in the cities visited even to take the names of children who apply at
the certificate office without the requisite documents and are sent
away without having either received or been refused certificates.
Thus an opportunity is lost of locating newcomers to the city who,
not being enrolled in any school, may easily go to work without
certificates when they find they can not meet the requirements of the
certificate law. In the New York City offices, moreover, these names
until recently were taken simply as a matter of convenience and were
not reported to the school authorities.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 103
One difficult problem is the enforcement of school attendance of
children who have completed the grade requirements for a school
record. If such a child simply refuses longer to go to school without
taking out a school record the parents are, of course, subject to a
penalty, though if the child is over 14 years of age it is always difficult
to secure a conviction for nonattendance at school. But in many
such cases the same measures may be taken as in the case of a cer-
tain 14-year-old Buffalo girl. This girl was repeatedly told by the
attendance officers that she could not receive her school record when
she wanted it unless she returned to school, but attempts to force her
back into school were unsuccessful even after court procedure. Several
months later, when she applied for a school record, it was not granted
and she had to return to school for several months in order to have
attended 130 days next preceding the date of receiving the record.
If, however, a child takes out a school record and then fails to
apply for a certificate, or if for some reason the granting of the cer-
tificate is delayed, the problem is more difficult. In at least one case
in New York City the group of children already mentioned who had
taken out school records and failed to apply immediately for em-
ployment certificates were later refused certificates on the ground
that the 130 days’ school attendance required by law had not been
during the year preceding their applications for certificates. But if
the parents had chosen to take the matter into court, it is doubtful,
as has been pointed out, whether this interpretation would have
been upheld, for as the law now reads the school attendance must
have been during the year preceding the child’s fourteenth birth-
day or “his application for such school record.” 1 It is even doubt-
ful, as will be seen later, whether in cities or school districts having
less than 5,000 inhabitants the parent could be punished in such a
case for violation of the compulsory education law.
Breaks between school and work which occur as a result of delay in
securing certificates are not uncommon. In New York City, school
principals do not report to any central authority the fact that a school
record has been issued to a child, although such reports might easily
be required by the bureau of attendance and might assist in
keeping the child in school. In theory the name of a child is not
removed from the school register until the school is officially notified
that the child has received a certificate, and the absence of a child
with a school record is supposed to be reported like that of any
other child. But in practice these children are frequently not kept in
school, as principals expect them soon to leave permanently. Cases,
indeed, in which children have been out of school for several months
before receiving employment certificates can be found by comparing
i Labor Law, secs. 73 and 165. For the text of these sections see pp. 122, 124.
104 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
the records of the bureau of attendance with those of the certificate
office in New York City. One child, for example, received his school
record on November 25, 1914, and his certificate on February 13,
1915; another received his school record on January 21 and his cer-
tificate on April 30, 1915. In at least one case in which three months
elapsed between the giving of a school record and the granting of a
certificate the attendance officer had called almost every week and
each time had found the child waiting for his birth record and having
his teeth treated.
In other places the same breaks undoubtedly occur. In Buffalo,
on account of the lack of effective regulation by the permanent
census board, a child who has received a school record may easily
drop out of school without the attendance department even know-
ing about it, for only a few principals report to the board the issuing
of a school record. In one week, indeed, it was said that out of
43 applicants for certificates at the issuing office, 13 of whom
were refused certificates, in only 4 cases had the permanent cen-
sus board been notified of the issuing of a school record. In
Rochester, on the other hand, not only is the school record
withheld until all other requirements for a certificate have been
fulfilled, but the efficiency bureau receives word whenever a school
record is issued to a child and checks up all records with the reports
of certificates issued. But in the second and third class cities visited
no regular system of notifying the school authorities of certificates
granted or refused was found.
In general it is safe to say that many children do not stay in or
return to school during periods of waiting for their certificates, and
that to make them do so would be an almost impossible task for the
attendance officers. Indeed, only a rigid follow-up system could
prevent children from absenting themselves from school after they
have their school records. And such a system would seem worth
while only if it were for the purpose of making certain that the child
passed directly from the school into some sort of profitable work.
But if it were once determined that the child had to have a job as
well as a certificate before he could leave school, and that he had to
keep a job or else return to school, it would seem desirable to educate
children and parents to the idea that the school record and the promise
of employment were both prerequisites to an employment certificate
and that such a promise was a prerequisite to leaving school.
Another difficult problemuis presented by children who wish or whose
parents wish them to stay at home to help in nongainful ways. The
law provides that a school-record certificate shall be issued to any
child who has completed the sixth grade 1 and that a child regularly
employed under an employment certificate in a city or school district
i Education Law, sec. 630, subsec. 1. For the test of this section see p. 1?7.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 105
having a population of 5.000 or more or regularly employed elsewhere
under either an employment or a school-record certificate shall be
exempt from school attendance. 1 Another section says that to he
exempt from school attendance a child must be “ regularly and law-
fully engaged in any useful employment or service.” 2
There is evidence that in many places “any useful employment or
service” is interpreted to mean housework or chores at home; that
children are often permitted to stay at home for such work on school-
record certificates; and that their “ employment” varies all the way
from household drudgery to idleness. Until the fall of 1913, when
the law was amended, this was the interpretation in Rochester; but
at that time it was decided that henceforth every child between 14
and 16 must be in possession of an employment certificate or be in
school. In Rochester, therefore, as would be expected, approxi-
mately the same number of employment certificates are regularly
granted in a given time as the number of school records issued by
all the public, private, and parochial schools. From September 1,
1913, to July 1, 1914, for example, 1,315 employment certificates and
only about 762 public-school records were issued, the remaining cer-
tificates being granted on records from private and parochial schools.
In Albany, on the other hand, during the same period only 299 em-
ployment certificates but 483 public-school records were issued; and
in Troy, from October 1, 1913, to July 1, 1914, the reports showed 131
certificates and 137 public-school records. As in both Albany and
Troy a considerable number of children with parochial-school records
must have been granted certificates, it is evident that many children
in these cities secure school records who do not at once secure cer-
tificates or enter any gainful employment. These children may later
go to work illegally.
Staying at home on a school record alone is plainly contrary to the
compulsory education law in any city or school district having a popu-
lation of 5,000 or over, but does not appear to be so in the smaller places
if a child can show he is engaged “in any useful employment or serv-
ice.” A child who holds an employment certificate anywhere in
the State may stay out of school to work at home as well as in a
gainful occupation.
As for unemployed children, or those who hold certificates but are
not at work, though the compulsory education law requires that such
children shall be in school, the certificate law contains no provision
which could aid in the enforcement of school attendance. When a
child has left the office of the department of health with his employ-
ment certificate he is still responsible to two officials, the factory
inspector if he is employed and the attendance officer if he is not
1 Education Law, sec. 624. For the text of this section see p. 126.
s Education Law, sec. 621. For the text of this section see p. 125.
106
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
employed; but in both cases the officer has to catch the child before
he can exercise in any effective way his authority. Unless a factory
inspector or an attendance officer happens to come his way the child
is free to do as he pleases — work in any occupation, legal or illegal, or
loaf on the streets. He carries his license to work in his pocket and,
if he finds a job, gives it to his employer to keep until he quits, when
he may put it back in his pocket or may carry it to another employer.
No public authority is notified when he begins work or when he stops,
and no public authority knows where he is or what he is doing. If an
attendance officer challenges him on the street, he produces his certifi-
cate and claims to be hunting for work; and generally the attendance
officer tells him merely that if he does not find a job soon he must
return to school. But the attendance officer has no means of know-
ing when or where or whether he finds work. In New York City the
bureau of attendance attempts to see that when a child receives
a certificate he goes to work, but it has no means of knowing how long
he continues to work, whether a day or a week or a year. The same
thing is true in the other cities where the child must have a job before
securing a certificate. In other words, the child, when he leaves the
health office wfith his certificate, has practically escaped from any
effective supervision by the school authorities who up to that time
have bounded his horizon.
In spite of this lack of provision for knowing when children are
out of work, unemployed children are sometimes returned to school
by vigilant attendance officers. In New York. City a special contin-
uation class for unemployed boys is maintained in one of the elemen-
tary schools, but most of the boys attending are over 16 years of age
and attendance is voluntary. In Buffalo unemployed boys under 16
are sometimes put in the special employment-certificate class. But
outside of the first-class cities it seems to be generally considered that
an employment certificate is itself a license to stay out of school, and
in the other cities investigated no attempt is made to return unem-
ployed children to school. Whatever effort is exerted anywhere to
return an unemployed child is perfunctory, because the attendance
officers know that if they take such a case into court the judge is
almost certain to hold that the child must be given an opportunity
to hunt for work and that a violation of school attendance under
such circumstances is purely technical.
Proper provision for the unemployed child in the school system
would, of course, make it much easier as well as better worth while to
send such children back to school. But it should not be forgotten
that permitting these children to stay out of school is a plain and
direct violation of the law which says that, for exemption from school
attendance, the child from 14 to 16 years of age must not only hold
a certificate but must be 11 regularly and lawfully engaged in any
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 107
useful employment or service.” 1 If the law is to be enforced, the
problem of the unemployed child must be faced. 2
Industrial inspection is at best an incomplete method of enforcing
a child-labor law. Children move so often from place to place that
no reasonable frequency of inspection is a guaranty against illegal
employment. In New York State experience has shown that an
inspector himself must see a child working illegally to have an
adequate basis for prosecution. In large establishments inspectors
do not have time to look up each child and find his certificate, but
can make a test only of a sample of the children who appear to be
under 16 years of age. The child’s signature on the certificate, how-
ever, is a help in identification and assists the inspectors in their
work.
One of the important problems of inspection is, of course, what
action to take when a child is found who is suspected to be under 16
but claims to be over that age. If the inspector challenges the ages
of a considerable number of children in an establishment it not only
antagonizes the employer toward the child-labor law but is likely to
lead to the discharge of children who later may be found to be over
16 and legally employed. It is because of this danger of unnecessary
hardship to the child, as well as to secure evidence of violation, that
inspectors in doubtful cases themselves often undertake to secure
evidence of the ages of the children instead of serving the legal notice
which requires that the employer within 10 days either furnish such
evidence or discharge the child. In any event it depends upon the
judgment of the individual inspector whether or not the age of any
child is challenged.
One hindrance to strict enforcement of the law, indeed, is lack of
any uniform provision for issuing statements of age to children over
16. In New York City such statements of age are issued, but
nowhere else in the State is there any provision for documentary
evidence of the ages of children who are over 16. The simplest way
to prevent an employer’s evading the law by hiring a child whom he
states he believes to be over 16 and discharging the child when the
inspector challenges the age is to require employers to keep on file
for older children, perhaps for all minors, statements of age issued
by some responsible agency upon the same evidence of age as is re-
quired for an employment certificate. Inspectors could then demand
either employment certificates or statements of age for all children
up to whatever age might be determined upon as likely to cover ah
1 Education Law, sec. 621. For the text of this section see p. 125.
2 It has been suggested in NewY orkCity, first, that employers be required to send to the bureau of attend-
ance a notice of termination of employment for each child; second, that attendance officers inspect monthly
all places of employment and check up the lists of children to see what children have left and to force an
explanation from employers who fail to report the names of children who have left their employ; and, third,
that as a further means of discovering changes of employment made by children employers be required to
enter on the back of each employment certificate before returning it to the child the dates of beginning and
of terminating employment, the character of the work, and their own names and addresses.
108 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
suspicious cases. But if an employer is held rigidly responsible for
knowing the age of any child employed and if instead of merely
being required to discharge the child he is penalized when one is
found without a certificate, employers themselves will desire such
certificates of age as a means of self-protection.
Though probably children under 14 are not often employed in large
manufacturing establishments in New York State, it seems likely
that the certificate law may be violated frequently and in all places
by two classes of children between 14 and 16 years of age; first, new-
comers to the State, especially foreigners; and second, other children
who have escaped from the jurisdiction of the school by securing
employment certificates but who try to avoid the legal disabilities of
their age by pretending to be over 16. As one of the supervising
inspectors says: "A child between the ages of 14 and 16 years fre-
quently fails to acknowledge that he has an employment certificate or
even states that he has none and represents himself to the employer
as over 16 years of age. He may claim to be unable to secure a birth
certificate, school record, or record of any kind by which to identify
himself or establish his age in order to work longer hours, obtain
higher wages, or be allowed employment on machinery. When such
cases are found by the inspector the only option the inspector has, in
justice to the employer, is to require proof of age or dismiss the child
within 10 days of notice, the result being in most cases that the child
hires out at some other establishment and awaits detection again.” 1
Except in factories and in mercantile and other establishments in
first and second class cities there was found no industrial inspection
in the places visited, and only school-attendance officers, who are at
best little interested in what occurs during vacations and outside of
school hours, concern themselves with the employment of children.
The labor law, in fact, does not provide for supervision by any central
agency over the inspection of mercantile establishments in other cities
and in villages of 3,000 or over, and the State department of labor has
no more authority to demand that such inspection be made than has
the State department of health. For inspection of mercantile estab-
lishments in villages of less than 3,000 no legal provision whatever
exists. It seems safe to say, therefore, that outside of first and second
class cities little is known in regard to the employment of children
anywhere except in factories.
Summary . — Lack of uniformity between cities due to lack of State-
wide supervision is so conspicuous in the administration of the New
York child-labor laws that it is difficult to say what are the strong or
weak features of the system as a whole. In spite of repetitions and
even contradictions and ambiguities in the law, the standard set is
high; the evidence of age required seems adequate; the physical ex-
1 Thirteenth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor, State of New York, 1913, p. 47.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK. 109
animation must show not only that the child is in “sound health” but
that he is physically able to do the work proposed ; and the require-
ment of completion of the sixth grade 1 is an unusually high educa-
tional standard for the employment of children under 16 years of age
in a large industrial State.
These standards probably are as rigidly enforced as could reason-
ably be expected in many places, including New York City, which
contains more than half the working children of the State, and where
the foreign element makes the problem particularly difficult. New
York State had in 1910, however, over 60,000 working children, and,
as has been seen, in most of the cities included in this study the
methods of administration in use were found to have both good and
bad features. If all three of the first-class cities, where private
agencies have done much to secure efficient enforcement, were assumed
to have developed the best possible methods under existing laws,
the fact would still have to be faced that in 1910 New York State had
over 18,000 working children 14 and 15 years of age — not far from
double the entire number of gainfully employed children in Connecticut
in that year — scattered among second and third class cities # and
towns and villages and protected only by the methods, sometimes
good and sometimes bad, in use in these smaller places. Even if all
the children working in agricultural pursuits and all those working
in personal and domestic service outside of the first-class cities are
deducted, New York State in 1910 had over 10,000 children at work
in other gainful occupations elsewhere than in first-class cities —
about the same number as were engaged in all gainful occupations
in the entire State of Connecticut. All these children, as well as
those in first-class cities, are dependent for protection upon the State
child-labor laws and their efficient enforcement.
The trouble is that in one city the administrative machinery breaks
down at one point and in another city at another point. In some
places parents’ affidavits are regularly taken as evidence of age; in
some the physical examination is merely perfunctory; and in some
the sixth-grade requirement is sometimes nullified in practice by shov-
ing children up in grades and by other means. In short, the lack of
careful supervision by any central office means that the high legal
standards set for entering industry are so unevenly enforced that it is
impossible to point out any one uniformly strong feature of the system
as a whole.
The first, and perhaps greatest, need in New York, therefore, is
machinery for securing uniformity throughout the State on three
points: First, evidence of age; second, physical condition; and third,
educational attainments. Under the present system such uniformity
can be secured only by cooperation among three separate departments
1 This provision has been amended by Acts of 1916, ch. 464. For the text of this act see pp. 132-133.
110
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
dealing with health, labor, and education. A curious feature of the
situation, moreover, is that, though the health department has juris-
diction over evidence of age, the labor department practically
determines the minimum number of points to be covered in physical
examinations given by health officers. If health officers are to issue
employment certificates, it certainly would seem more logical for the
State department of health to supervise not only evidence of age, which
rests upon vital statistics, but all matters relating to the physical ex-
amination. The issuing officers should also have power to give all
children an educational test suited to the grade which they are sup-
posed to have attained, and some central authority — most reasonably
the State department of education — should determine the character
of test to be given.
The need for greater centralization is further shown by the lack of
cooperation between the various agencies which at present are charged
with the duty of enforcing the law. No systematic plan of reporting
between the department of labor and the school authorities exists
anywhere in the State. When an inspector orders an employer to
discharge a child or orders a child who is working illegally to return to
school, he has no way of knowing whether or not the child actually
returns. The inspector’s authority ends with seeing that the em-
ployer discharges the child. In other words, the department of labor
has authority only over the employment of children. In New York
City for a few years the department of labor regularly reported to the
compulsory-education department the names of children found work-
ing illegally; but many of them proved to be working only on Satur-
days or after school hours, and as the department of labor did not know
whether or not children reported were followed up and returned to
school the plan was finally dropped. At the time of this investiga-
tion, when a child found illegally employed by an inspector anywhere
in the State was discharged, he was allowed — because of this lack,
in the laws themselves or in their administration, of provision for
following him up — to sKp from under the protection of any law.
Greater cooperation among the various agencies could remove many
of the present evils, but such cooperation is difficult both to arrange
and to maintain in effect. The only remedy, therefore, for the evils
of the present system seems to be centralization of authority over the
administration of child-labor laws in some State agency which can
supervise the work of all the local agencies concerned and can itself
be held rigidly to account for its responsibilities toward the children
of the State.
Even with thorough enforcement, however, such a law as that of
New York, under which children who are at work on certificates' are
released from all supervision except the infrequent visits of inspec-
tors, does not offer adequate protection to young wage earners in the
first years of their working lives.
APPENDIX.
APPLICATION OF LAWS.
The child-labor laws of New York State are complex and verbose.
Many sections overlap each other in content. Sometimes this over-
lapping involves merely useless repetition, but sometimes it involves
real or apparent contradiction. Five long sections are repeated,
practically word for word, applying in one case to employment in
factories and in the other case to employment in mercantile and other
establishments in cities having 3 , 000 or more inhabitants. 1 The provi-
sions in regard to the powers and duties of inspectors in relation to
child labor are scattered through at least six different sections. 2 The
labor law says that school records shall be “ signed by the principal or
chief executive officer of the school which such child has attended,” 3
while the education law, which takes precedence merely because
more recently amended, says that they shall be signed —
“a In a city of the first class by the principal or chief executive
of a school.
“b In all other cities and in school districts having a population of
5,000 or more and employing a superintendent of schools, by the super-
intendent of schools only.
u c In all other school districts by the principal teacher of the
school.” 4
The greatest degree of complexity, however, appears only when
an attempt is made to discover the exact application of the minimum-
age and employment-certificate provisions — the corner stone upon
which rests the entire structure oi child-labor legislation.
No single minimum-age or employment-certificate law applies to
all places of employment in all localities and at all times. Instead,
five sections of the labor and compulsory education laws apply to
different industries, or to places of different sizes, or only to the time
when schools are in session. The accompanying chart shows the
exact application of each of these sections.
1 Labor Law, secs. 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, and secs. 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, and 167. For the text of these sections
see pp. 120-122, 124.
2 Labor Law, secs. 43, 56, 59, 76, 1G7, and 172. For the text of these sections see pp. 116, 118, 119, 122, 124.
3 Labor Law, secs. 73 and 165. For the text of these sections see pp. 122, 124.
4 Education Law, sec. 630, subsec. 2. For the text of this section see p. 128.
112
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
The minimum age of 14 applies to employment, first, in any place
in the State in factories at any time; 1 second, in cities and villages
having a~ population of 3,000 or more in mercantile establishments,
business offices, telegraph offices, restaurants, hotels, apartment
houses, theaters and other places of amusement, bowling alleys,
barber shops, and shoe-polishing establishments, in the distribution
or transmission of merchandise, articles, or messages, and in the dis-
tribution or sale of articles at any time; 2 and third, anywhere in
the State “in any business or service whatever” during “any part
of the term during which the public schools of the district or city in
which the child resides are in session.” 3 But the section of the law
which prohibits employment under 14 in factories specifically pro-
vides that ‘ ‘ nothing herein contained shall prevent a person engaged
in farming from permitting his children to do farm work for him
upon his farm;” and also that “boys over the age of 12 years may
be employed in gathering produce, for not more than six hours in
any one day, subject to the requirements” of the education law. 4 The
employer is responsible for violation of any minimum- age require-
ment.
Employment certificates are required of children from 14 to 16
years of age for employment, first, in any place in the State in fac-
tories, 5 mercantile establishments, business or telegraph offices, res-
taurants, hotels, and apartment houses, and in the distribution or
transmission of merchandise or messages; 6 second, in first and
second class cities in any occupation; 7 and third, in cities and vil-
lages having a population of 3,000 or more in theaters and other
places of amusement, bowling alleys, barber shops, and shoe-polishing
establishments, in the distribution of articles other than merchandise
and messages, and in the sale of articles. 8 In addition, school-record
certificates are required for employment of children 14 to 16 years
of age in any occupation and in any place where employment certifi-
cates are not required, 9 i. e., in places of less than 3,000 inhabitants
in theaters and other places of amusement, bowling alleys, barber
shops, shoe-polishing establishments, in the distribution or trans-
mission of articles other than merchandise or messages, and in the
distribution or sale of articles; and anywhere outside of first and
second class cities in any occupation whatever not specifically men-
tioned, except that in places of over 5,000 inhabitants children must
hold employment certificates in order to be exempt from school
attendance. It is to be noted particularly that children employed
by peddlers or in places of amusement in the smaller cities are not
required to hold employment but only school-record certificates. The
principal significance of this lies in the fact that amusement resorts,
1 Labor Law, sec. 70. For the text of this section see p. 120.
2 Labor Law, sec. 162. For the text of this section see p. 124.
3 Education Law, sec. 626, subsec. 1. For the text of this section see p. 126. In order to receive their
full apportionment of public moneys all schools must be in session at least 180 days. Education Law, sec.
492 as amended by Acts of 1913, ch. 511.
^ Labor Law, sec. 70. For the text of this section see p. 120.
6 Labor Law, sec. 70; Education Law, sec. 626, subsecs. 2 and 3. For the text of these sections seepp. 120,
126.
c Education Law, sec. 626, subsecs. 2 and 3. For the text of this section see p. 126.
i Education Law, sec. 626, subsec. 3. For the text of this section see p. 126. Cities of the first class have a
population of 175,000 or more; cities of the second class, a population of between 50,000 and 175,000; cities of
the third class, a population of less than 50,000; villages may vary widely in population; towns are munici-
pal corporations comprising the inhabitants within their boundaries. The village is a part of the town
but the city is not. Towns have no stipulated population in New York State.
8 Labor Law, sec. 162. For the text of this section see p. 124.
s Education Law, sec. 626, subsec. 2. For the text of this section see p. 126.
ANALYSIS OF AF
[Ce
Places of empli
(1) Factories
(2) Mercantile establishments
Business offices
Telegraph offices
Restaurants
Hotels
Apartment houses
Distribution or transmissio:
sages
(3) Theaters or other places of
Bowling alleys
Barber shops
Shoe-polishing establishme
Distribution or transmissic
merchandise or messages
Distribution or sale of artic
(4) Other occupations
i The compulsory educatic
superintendent of schools" and
assumed that every city or sch
46446° — 17. (To fae
ANALYSIS OF APPLICATION OF EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE LAWS OF NEW YORK STATE
[Certificate requirements for employment and for exemption from school attendance of children 14 to 16 years of age.]
Places of employment.
Law.
Purpose for which
certificate is re-
quired.
Kind of certificate in specified localities.
(1) Cities of first and
second class.
Cities or school districts having population of—
(2) 5,000 and over.’
(3) 3,000 to 5, 000. (4) Under 3,000.
(1) Factories
Labor
(1) Sec. 70
(1) Employment
Employment certificate (enforced by factoiy inspectors)
Education
(3) Sec. 626
Employment certificate
(4) Sec. 621
(2) Exemption from
school attendance
Employment certificate and regular
employment
Regular and lawful employment in
useful work
(5) Sec. 624
Employment certificate and regular
employment
(2) Mercantile establishments
Business offices
Telegraph offices
Restaurants
Hotels
Apar tment houses
Distribution or transmission of merchandise or mes-
sages
Labor
(2) Sec. 162
(1) Employment
Employment certificate
(Enforced by mer- I (Enforced by local health depart- No P r °vision
cantile inspectors) ments)
Education
(3) Sec. 626
Employment certificate
(4) Sec. 621
(2) Exemption from
school attendance
Employment certificate and regular
employment
Regular and lawful employment in
useful work
(5) Sec. 624
Employment certificate and regular
employment
(3) Theaters or other places of amusement
Bowling alleys
Barber shops
Shoe-polishing establishments
Distribution or transmission of articles other than
merchandise or messages
Distribution or sale of articles
Labor
(2) Sec. 162
(1) Employment
Emp
(Enforced by mer-
cantile inspectors)
iloyment certificate
(Enforced by local health depart- No P rovision
ments)
Education
(3) Sec. 626
Employment cer-
tificate
School-record certificate
(4) Sec. 621
(2) Exemption from
school attendance
Employment certificate and regular
employment
Regular and lawful employment in
useful work
(5) Sec. 624
School-record certificate and regular
employment
(4) Other occupations
Labor
No provision
Education
(3) Sec. 626
(1) Employment
Employment cer-
tificate
School-record certificate
(4) Sec. 621
(2) Exemption from
school attendance
Employment certificate and regular
employment
Regular and lawful employment in
useful work
School-record certificate and regular
employment
(5) Sec. 624
1 The compulsory education law, secs. 621 and 624, distinguishes between a child “residing in a city or school district having a population of 5,000 or moreand employing a
‘■perintendent of schools” and one “residing elsewhere than in a city or school district having a population of 5, 000 or more and employing a superintendent of schools.” It is here
assumed that every city or school district having a population of 5,000 or more employs a superintendent of schools.
46446°— 17. (To face page 112.)
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
113
including dance halls, skating rinks, etc., are frequently situated in
small suburbs of large cities. The occupations not mentioned
would include, of course, domestic work — for example, nurse maid;
farm work, such as picking fruit; and other miscellaneous oc-
cupations. Though the majority of employers and of children
are covered by the employment-certificate provisions there appear
to be many for whom only school-record certificates are required.
The first thing discovered in examining the various sections of the
law is that the minimum age for employment and the ages when
either employment or school-record certificates are required do not
exactly dovetail because they do not apply to exactly the same places
of employment. For a child under 16 to stay out of school anywhere
for any purpose he must have some form of certificate. 1 For employ-
ment out of school hours or during school vacations, however, three
out of the five sections relating to employment certificates, each of
which has a different application, provide only for issuing certificates
to children from 14 to 16 years of age and therefore make no provision
for children under 14 who, nevertheless, may be employed in certain
places during school vacations. The section of the labor law relating
to factories, for example, specifically permits boys over 12 to be em-
ployed in gathering produce. If between 14 and 16 years of age such
a boy apparently might be required to have an employment certifi-
cate 2 whether working during vacation or during the term that schools
were in session; but if between 12 and 14 — the very period when it is
most important to prove that he is actually of an age to be legally
employed — nothing in the law appears to prevent his working during
vacations without any documentary evidence of the legality of his
employment. 3 Moreover, no minimum age is fixed and no form of
employment certificate is required during school vacations for chil-
dren under 14 for any occupation or in any place not specifically men-
tioned in the labor law — i. e., (1) employment anywhere in the State
in factories 4 and (2) employment in cities of over 3,000 inhabitants
in mercantile establishments, business offices, telegraph offices, res-
taurants, hotels, apartment houses, theaters or other places of amuse-
ment, bowling alleys, barber shops, shoe-polishing establishments,
or in the distribution or transmission of merchandise, articles, or mes-
sages, or in the distribution or sale of articles. 5 In the former case
the child who can gather produce during vacation without a certificate
from the time he is 12 until he is 14, apparently may have to obtain a
certificate, even for vacation work, as soon as he becomes 14. In the
latter case, too, the child who from the time he is physically capable
of any useful labor until he is 14 can be legally employed without a
1 Education Law, sec. 624. For the text of this section see p. 126.
2 Labor Law, sec. 70. For the text of this section see p. 120.
3 Such a case is not covered (1) by Labor Law, sec. 70, because this section requires certificates only for
children "between the ages of 14 and 16”; (2) by Labor Law, sec. 162, because this type of employment is
not mentioned as covered by this section, and even if it could by any stretch be considered to be covered,
this section applies only to cities and villages having a population of over 3,000; (3) by Education Law,
sec. 626, because this section requires certificates only for children "between 14 and 16 years of age”; (4)
by Education Law, sec. 624, because this section applies only to school attendance, and therefore does not
cover vacation employment; or (5) by Education Law, sec. 621, for both of the two last-given reasons. A
child under 14 is not exempted from school attendance, even for employment, and Education Law,
sec. 626, subsec. 1, makes it illegal to employ a child "in any business or service whatever, for any part of
the term during which the public schools of the district or city in which the child resides are in session.”
This appears to make it illegal to employ any child under 14 after school hours while school is in session,
and therefore restricts their employment to school vacations.
* Labor Law, sec. 70. For the text of this section see p. 120.
5 Labor Law, sec. 162. For the text of this section see p. 124.
46446°— 17 8
114 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
certificate during the long school vacations — in some nonfactory
occupations anywhere and in any nonfactory occupation in a com-
munity which has less than 3,000 inhabitants — apparently has to ob-
tain some kind of a certificate for such work after he becomes 14
years of age. 1
An analysis 2 of the exact application of the sections of the labor and
education laws 3 which require certificates for employment or for
exemption from school attendance of children from 14 to 16 years of
age increases rather than decreases the complexity. To discover
for what occupations, in what localities, and at what times such a
child must have either an employment certificate or a school-record
certificate requires the careful consideration of four different places
of employment or groups of such places, 4 four classes of localities, 5
and two elements of time. 6 These provisions are contained in five
separate sections of two distinct laws.
Of these five sections only two apply to the same places of employ-
ment and the same localities at the same times, and even these two
differ somewhat in their requirements. 7 One section of the labor
law" 8 applies only to factories, but to factories anywhere in the State.
The other section of the labor law applies to mercantile establishments
and to a list of other places 9 — some but not by any means all of
which are covered by one section of the education law. In other
words, the places of employment mentioned in the section of the
labor law referring to mercantile establishments must be divided into
two groups, one of which is covered by requirements similar to those
of the labor law relating to factories and the other by entirely
different requirements in the education law. Moreover, the
occupations not mentioned at all in the labor law constitute a
fourth group covered only by the education law. 10 The section of
the labor law relating to mercantile and other establishments 11 does
not apply to cities and villages of less than 3,000 population; two
sections of the education law 12 create differences between cities and
1 Doubt is thrown upon this interpretation, however, by the fact that the first part of sec. 626 of the edu-
cation law, the only one relating to employment and not merely to school attendance, prohibits the employ-
ment of a child under 14 “in any business or service whatever” only during “any part of the term dining
which the public schools of the'district or city in which the child resides are in session.” Though in the
subsections relating to certificates no mention is made of this limitation to school-terms, it might be argued
that this first provision limited the application of the entire section.
2 The results of such an analysis are presented in tabular form on the chart facing p. 112.
3 Labor Law, secs. 70 and 162; Education Law, secs. 621, 624, and 626. For the text of these sections see
pp. 120, 124, 125, 126.
4 (1) Factories; (2) mercantile establishments, business offices, telegraph offices, restaurants, hotels,
apartment houses, distribution or transmission of merchandise or messages; (3) theaters or other places
of amusement, bowling alleys, barber shops, shoe-polishing establishments, distribution or transmission
Of articles other than merchandise or messages, distribution or sale of articles; and (4) ofher occupations.
6 (1 ) Cities of the first and second classes; and (2) cities or school districts having over 5,000, (3) from 3,000
to 5,000, and (4) under 3,000 inhabitants.
6 Employment (1) during school hours and (2) outside of school hours.
7 Education Law, secs. 621 and 624. For the text of these sections see pp. 125, 126. The first of these sec-
tions provides that every child must attend school, and the second that every person in parental relation to
a child must send the child to school. These two sections both distinguish between (1 ) childr en residing in
cities or school districts having a population of 5,000 or more and employing a superintendent of schools,
and (2) children residing elsewhere. For the first class of children the provisions of the two sections are
practically the same, that children from 14 to 16 years of age must attend school unless they have employ-
ment certificates and are regularly employed. They are worded differently, however. For the second
class of children— those living in cities or school districts having less than 5,000 inhabitants— the first
section provides for exemption from school attendance if “regularly andlawfully engaged in any useful
employment or service,” and the second requires for such exemption either an employment certificate
and regular employment in a factory or mercantile establishment, business or telegraph office, restaurant,
hotel, apartment house, or in the distribution or transmission of merchandise or messages; or else a school-
record certificate and regular employment in some other occupation or place.
8 Labor Law, sec. 70. ' For the text of this section see p. 126.
9 Labor Law, sec. 162. For the text of this section see p. 124.
10 Education Law, secs. 621, 624, and 626. For the text of these sections see pp. 125,126.
11 Labor Law, sec. 162. For the text of this section see p. 124.
12 Education Law, s6cs. 621 and 624. For the text of these sections see pp. 125,126.
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YT)RK.
115
school districts of under 5,000 population and those of 5,000 and over;
and the third section of the education law 1 establishes for cities of the
first and second classes different requirements from those for the rest
of the State. Finally, two sections of the education law 2 relate only
to school attendance and therefore do not affect vacation employment
or employment before or after school hours, while the third section
of the education law and both sections of the labor law 3 relate to
employment at any time.
Careful analysis makes the law finally comprehensible, as it brings
out the fact that everywhere in the State a child between 14 and 16
must have either an employment or a school-record certificate, and
that “regular employment’ ’ is required for exemption from school
attendance — in other words, such a child must be either at school or
at work while the schools are in session. This fact does not, how-
ever, obviate the practical disadvantages — especially from the point
of view of enforcement — of laws so complicated that their exact
application is difficult to determine. Nor are these disadvantages
obviated by the fact that, if overlapping provisions apparently re-
quiring both employment and school-record certificates are overlooked
on the assumption that the latter can be ignored as themselves pre-
requisites to obtaining the former, it is possible after careful study to
discover where and at what times employment certificates, and where
and at what times only school-record certificates are necessary for
the employment of children from 14 to 16 years of age.
1 Education Law, sec. 626. For the text of this section see p. 126.
2 Education Law, secs. 621 and 624. For the text of these sections see pp. 125,126.
3 Labor Law, secs. 70, 162; Education Law, sec. 626. For the text of these sections see pp. 120, 124, 126.
LAWS RELATING TO EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
In effect Jan. 1, 1916.
Note. — f The duties, authority, and powers relating to the enforcement of labor laws here-
tofore exercised by the commissioner of labor, the deputy commissioner of labor, and the
industrial board, have been transferred by chapter 674 of the Acts of 1915 to the industrial
commission. In every case the new enforcing authority has been indicated in the text by
an insertion in brackets, the former enforcing powers being omitted .]
REGULATED OCCUPATIONS.
DEFINITIONS.
Terms used in labor laws. — Employee. The term “ employee/’ when used in this
chapter, means a mechanic, workingman or laborer who works for another for hire.
Employer. The term “employer,” when used in this chapter, means the person
employing any such mechanic, workingman or laborer, whether the owner, proprietor,
agent, superintendent, foreman or other subordinate.
Factory; work for a factory. The term factory, when used in this chapter, shall
be construed to include any mill, workshop, or other manufacturing or business
establishment and all buildings, sheds, structures or other places used for or in con-
nection therewith, where one or more persons are employed at labor, except dry
dock plants engaged in making repairs to ships, and except power houses, generating
plants, barns, storage houses, sheds and other structures owned or operated by a
public service corporation, other than construction or repair shops, subject to the
jurisdiction of the public service commission under the public service commission
law. Work shall be deemed to be done for a factory within the meaning of this chapter
whenever it is done at any place, upon the work of a factory or upon any of the mate-
rials entering into the product of the factory, whether under contract or arrangement
with any person in charge of or connected with such factory directly or indirectly
through the instrumentality of one or more contractors or other third persons.
*******
Mercantile establishment. The term “mercantile establishment,’ ’ when used in
this chapter, means any place where goods, wares or merchandise are offered for sale.
Tenement house. The term “tenement house,” when used in this chapter, means
any house or building, or portion thereof, which is either rented, leased, let or hired
out, to be occupied, or is occupied in whole or in part as the home or residence of three
families or more liying independently of each other, and doing their cooking upon the
premises, and includes apartment houses, flat houses and all other houses so occupied,
and for the purposes of this chapter shall be construed to include any building on the
same lot with any such tenement house and which is used for any of the purposes
specified in section one hundred of this chapter.
" Whenever, in this chapter, authority is conferred upon the [industrial commission],
it shall also be deemed to include [its] deputies or a deputy acting under [its] direc-
tion. [Consolidated Laws 1909 volume 3 Labor Chapter 31 article 1 section 2 as
amended by 1913 Chapter 529, by 1914 Chapter 512, and by 1915 Chapter 650]
Court decision . — A factory is a structure or plant where something is made or manufactured from raw
or partly wrought materials into forms suitable for use.— Shannahan v. Empire Engineering Corporation,
204 N. Y. 543 (1913).
Opinion.— Departments maintained in department stores, clothing stores, and millinery shops, in which
articles are made are factories.— Attorney General (1913).
ALL REGULATED OCCUPATIONS.
ENFORCEMENT.
Industrial commission to be head of the department of labor. — There shall be a depart-
ment of labor, the head of which shall be the industrial commission. * * * [C L
1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 3 s 40 as amended by 1915 C 674]
Towers of industrial commission; hindering commissioners or their deputies , etc., pro-
hibited. — 1. The commissioners, deputy commissioners, secretary and other officers
116
LAWS RELATING TO EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES. 117
and assistants of the commission may administer oaths and take affidavits in matters
relating to the powers and duties of the commission.
2. No person shall interfere with, obstruct or hinder by force or otherwise the com-
missioners, deputy commissioners, or any officer, agent or employee of the department
of labor while in the performance of their duties, or refuse to properly answer ques-
tions asked by such officers or employees pertaining to the provisions of this chapter,
or refuse them admittance to any place which is affected by the provisions of this
chapter. * * * [CL 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 3 s 43 as amended by 1915 C 674]
Powers of industrial commission; investigations , etc. — The commission shall have
power to make investigations concerning and report upon the conditions of labor
generally and upon all matters relating to the enforcement and effect of the provisions
of this chapter and of the rules and regulations of the commission. Each member of
the commission and the secretary shall have power to administer oaths and take affi-
davits and to make personal inspections of all places to which this chapter applies.
The commission shall have power to subpoena and require the attendance of wit-
nesses and the production of books and papers pertinent to the investigations and
inquiries hereby authorized, and to examine them in relation to any matter it has
power to investigate, and to issue commissions for the examination of witnesses who
are out of the State or unable to attend before the commission, or excused from attend-
ance. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 3-a s 51 as added by 1913 C 145 and amended by
1915 C 674]
Regulations of industrial commission. — (1) The commission shall have power to make,
amend and repeal rules and regulations for carrying into effect the provisions of this
chapter, applying such provisions to specific conditions and prescribing means, meth-
ods and practices to effectuate such provisions.
*******
(5) The rules and regulations of the commission shall have the force and effect of
law and shall be enforced in the same manner as the provisions of this chapter.
(6) No provision of this chapter specifically conferring power on the commission to
make rules and regulations shall limit the power conferred by this section. [C L 1909
v 3 Labor C 31 art 3-a s 51-a as added by 1915 C 674]
Opinion .—' The [industrial commission] may adopt rules and regulations for the safety of factories more
stringent than corresponding provisions of the Labor Law.— Attorney General (1913).
First deputy industrial commissioner to be inspector general; bureau of inspection; divi-
sions— The bureau of inspection, subject to the supervision and direction of the [in-
dustrial commission], shall have charge of all inspections made pursuant to the provi-
sions of this chapter, and shall perform such other duties as may be assigned to it by
the [industrial commission]. The first deputy [industrial commissioner] shall be the
inspector general of the State, and in charge of this bureau subject to the direction
and supervision of the [industrial commission], except that the division of industrial
hygiene shall be under the immediate direction and supervision of the [industrial
commission]. Such bureau shall have four divisions as follows: Factory inspection,
homework inspection, mercantile inspection and industrial hygiene. There shall be
such other divisions in such bureau as the [industrial commission] may deem necess-
ary. In addition to their respective duties as prescribed by the provisions of this
chapter, such divisions shall perform such other duties as may be assigned to them by
the [industrial commission], [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 4 (as renumbered by 1913
C 145) s 53 as amended by 1913 C 145]
Appointment of factory and mercantile inspectors. — 1 . Factory inspectors. There
shall not be less than one hundred and twenty-five factory inspectors, not more than
thirty of whom shall be women. Such inspectors shall be appointed by the [indus-
trial commission] and may be removed by [it] at any time. The inspectors shall be
divided into seven grades. Inspectors of the first grade, of whom there shall not be
more than ninety-five, shall each receive an annual salary of one thousand two hundred
.dollars; inspectors of the second grade, of whom there shall be not more than fifty,
'shall each receive an annual salary of one thousand five hundred dollars; inspectors of
the third grade, of whom there shall be not more than twenty-five, shall each receive an
annual salary of one thousand eight hundred dollars; inspectors of the fourth grade,
of whom there shall be not more than ten, shall each receive an annual salary of two
thousand dollars and shall be attached to the division of industrial hygiene and act as
investigators in such division; inspectors of the fifth grade, of whom there shall be
not more than nine, one of whom shall be able to speak and write at least five European
languages in addition to English, shall each receive an annual salary of two thousand
five hundred dollars and shall act as supervising inspectors; inspectors of the sixth
grade, of whom there shall be not less than three and one of whom shall be a woman,
shall act as medical inspectors and shall each receive an annual salary of two thousand
118
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
five hundred dollars; inspectors of the seventh grade, of whom there shall be not less
than four, shall each receive an annual salary of three thousand five hundred dollars;
all of the inspectors of the sixth grade shall be physicians duly licensed to practice
medicine in the State of New York. Of the inspectors of the seventh grade one shall
be a physician duly licensed to practice medicine in the State of New York, and he
shall be the chief medical inspector; one shall be a chemical engineer; one shall be a
mechanical engineer, and an expert in ventilation and accident prevention; and one
shall be a civil engineer, and an expert in fire prevention and building construction.
2. Mercantile inspectors. The [industrial commission] may appoint from time to
time not more than twenty mercantile inspectors not less than four of whom shall be
women and who may be removed by [it] at any time. The mercantile inspectors may
be divided into three grades but not more than five shall be of the third grade. Each
mercantile inspector of the first grade shall receive an annual salary of one thousand
dollars; of the second grade an annual salary of one thousand two hundred dollars;
and of the third grade an annual salary of one thousand five hundred dollars. [C L
1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 4 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 54 as amended by 1913 C 145]
Factory-inspection districts; appointment of chief factory inspectors , etc. — For the in-
spection of factories, there shall be two inspection districts to be known as the first
factory inspection district and the second factory inspection district. The first fac-
tory inspection district shall include the counties of New York, Bronx, Kings, Queens,
Richmond, Nassau and Suffolk. The second factory inspection district shall include
all the other counties of the State. There shall be two chief factory inspectors who
shall be appointed by the [industrial commission] and who may be removed by [it]
at any time and each of whom shall receive a salary of four thousand dollars a year.
The inspection of factories in each factory inspection district shall, subject to the
supervision and direction of the [industrial commission], be in charge of a chief fac-
tory inspector assigned to such district by the [industrial commission]. The [indus-
trial commission] may designate one of the supervising inspectors as assistant chief
factory inspector for the first district, and while acting as such assistant chief factory
inspector he shall receive an additional salary of five hundred dollars per annum.
[C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 4 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 55 as added bv 1913
C 145]
Duties and poivers of industrial commission , factory inspectors , etc. — 1 . The [indus-
trial commission] shall, from time to time, divide the State into sub-districts, assign
one factory inspector of the fifth grade to each sub-district as supervising inspector,
and may in [its] discretion transfer such supervising inspector from one sub-district
to another; [it] shall from time to time, assign and transfer factory inspectors to each
factory inspection district and to any of the divisions of the bureau of inspection;
[it] may assign any factory inspector to inspect any special class or classes of factories
or to enforce any special provisions of this chapter; and [it] may assign any one or
more of them to act as clerks in any office of the department.
2. The [industrial commission] may authorize any deputy [industrial commissioner]
or assistant and any agent or inspector in the department of labor to act as a factory
inspector with the full power and authority thereof.
3. The [industrial commission], the first deputy [industrial commissioner] and his
assistant or assistants, and every factory inspector and every person duly author-
ized pursuant to sub-division two of this section may, in the discharge of [its or] his
duties enter any place, building or room which is affected by the provisions of this
chapter and may enter any factory whenever [it or] he may have reasonable cause to
believe that any labor is being performed therein.
4. The [industrial commission] shall visit and inspect or cause to be visited and
inspected the factories, during reasonable hours, as often as practicable, and shall
cause the provisions of this chapter and the rules and regulations of the [industrial
commission] to be enforced therein.
5. Any lawful municipal ordinance, 1 by-law or regulation relating, to factories, in
addition to the provisions of this chapter and not in conflict therewith, may be ob-.
served and enforced by the [industrial commission]. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 4*
(as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 56 as amended by 1913 C 145]
Duties of division of homework inspection. — The division of homework inspection
shall be in charge of an officer or employee of the department of labor designated by
the [industrial commission] and shall, subject to the supervision and direction of the
[industrial commission], have charge of all inspections of tenement houses and of labor
therein and of all work done for factories at places other than such factories. [C L
1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 4 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 57 as added by 1913 C 145]
1 With the possible exception of New York City ordinances (City of New York v. Trustees, of Sailors’
Snug Harbor, 85 App. Div. 355, ail’d 180 N. Y. 527, and opinion by Attorney General, Jan. 16, 1904).
LAWS RELATING TO EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
119
Appointment of chief mercantile inspector. — The division of mercantile inspection
shall be under the immediate charge of the chief mercantile inspector, but subject to
the direction and supervision of the [industrial commission]. The chief mercantile
inspector shall be appointed and be at pleasure removed by the [industrial commission] ,
and shall receive an annual salary not to exceed four thousand dollars. [C L 1909 v 3
Labor C 31 art 4 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 58 as amended by 1914 C 333]
Mercantile inspection districts; duties and powers of industrial commission , mercantile
inspectors, etc. — 1 . The [industrial commission] may divide the cities of the first and
second class of the State into mercantile inspection districts, assign one or more mer-
cantile inspectors to each such district, and may in his discretion transfer them from
one such district to another; he may assign any of them to inspect any special class
or classes of mercantile or other establishments specified in article twelve of this
chapter, situated in cities of the first and second class, or to enforce in cities of the
first or second class any special provision of such article.
2. The [industrial commission] may authorize any deputy [industrial commissioner]
or assistant and any agent or inspector in the department of labor to act as a mercan-
tile inspector with the full power and authority thereof.
3. The [industrial commission], the chief mercantile inspector and his assistant or
assistants and every mercantile inspector or acting mercantile inspector may in the
discharge of [its or] his duties enter any place, building or room in cities of the first
or second class which is affected by the provisions of article twelve of this chapter,
and may enter any mercantile or other establishment specified in said article, situated
in the cities of the first or second class, whenever [it or] he may have reasonable cause
to believe that it is affected by the provisions of article twelve of this chapter.
4. The [industrial commission] shall visit and inspect or cause to be visited and
inspected the mercantile and other establishments specified in article twelve of this
chapter situated in cities of the first and second class, as often as practicable, and shall
cause the provisions of said article and the rules and regulations of the [industrial com-
mission] to be enforced therein.
5. Any lawful municipal ordinance, by-law or regulation relating to mercantile or
other establishments specified in article twelve of this chapter, in addition to the pro-
visions of this chapter and not in conflict therewith, may be enforced by the [industrial
commission] in cities of the first and second class. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 4 (as
renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 59 as amended by 1913 C 145]
Duties and powers of division of industrial hygiene. — The inspectors of the seventh
grade shall constitute the division of industrial hygiene, which shall be under the
immediate charge of the [industrial commission]. The [industrial commission] may
select one of the inspectors of the seventh grade to act as the director of such division,
and such director while acting in that capacity shall receive an additional compensa-
tion of five hundred dollars a year. The members of the division of industrial hygiene
shall make special inspections of factories, mercantile establishments and other places
subject to the provisions of this chapter, throughout the State, and shall conduct spe-
cial investigations of industrial processes and conditions. The commissioner of labor
[industrial commission] shall submit to the industrial board [industrial commission]
the recommendations of the division regarding proposed rules and regulations and
standards to be adopted to carry into effect the provisions of this chapter and shall
advise said board [commission] concerning the operation of such rules and standards
and as to any changes or modifications to be made therein. The members of such
division shall prepare material for leaflets and bulletins calling attention to dan-
gers in particular industries and the precautions to be taken to avoid them; and shall
perform such other duties and render such other services as may be required by the
[industrial commission]. The director of such division shall make an annual report
to the [industrial commission] of the operation of the division, to which may be at-
tached the individual. reports of each member of the division as above specified, and
same shall be transmitted to the legislature as part of the annual report of the [in-
dustrial commission]. [0 L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 4 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145)
s 60 as added by 1913 C 145]
Duties and powers of medical inspectors. — The inspectors of the sixth grade shall con-
stitute the section of medical inspection which shall, subject to the supervision and
direction of the director of the division of industrial hygiene, be under the immediate
charge of the chief medical inspector. The section of medical inspection shall inspect
factories, mercantile establishments and other places subject to the provisions of this
chapter throughout the State with respect to conditions of work affecting; the health
of persons employed therein and shall have charge of the physical examination and
medical supervision of all children employed therein and shall perform such other
duties and render such other services ao the [industrial commission] may direct. [0
L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 4 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 61 as added by 1913 C 145]
120 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
Powers of industrial commission; information to be furnished upon request ; hindering
commissioners or their deputies , etc., prohibited; penalty. — The owner, 'operator, mana-
ger or lessee of any mine, factory, workshop, warehouse, elevator, foundry, machine
shop or other manufacturing establishment, or any agent, superintendent, subordi-
nate, or employee thereof, and any person employing or directing any labor affected
by the provisions of this chapter, shall, when requested by the [industrial commission],
furnish any information in his possession or under his control which [said commission]
is authorized to require, and shall admit [it] or [its] duly authorized representative to
any place which is affected by the provisions of this chapter for the purpose of inspec-
tion. A person refusing to admit such [industrial commission], or person authorized
by [it], to any such establishment, or to furnish [it] any information requested, or who
refuses to answer or untruthfully answers questions put to him by such [industrial
commission], in a circular or otherwise, shall forfeit to the people of the State the sum
of one hundred dollars for each refusal or untruthful answer given, to be sued for and
recovered by the [industrial commission] in [its] name of office. The amount so re-
covered shall be paid into the State treasury. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 5 (as renum-
bered by 1913 C 145) s 64 as amended by 1913 C 145]
Factories to be registered with State department of labor. — The ov T ner of every factory
shall register such factory with the State department of labor, giving the name of the
owner, his home address, the address of the business, the name under which it is car-
ried on, the number of employees and such other data as the [industrial commission]
may require. . Such registration of existing factories shall be made within six months
after this section takes effect. Factories hereafter established shall be so registered
within thirty days after the commencement of business. Within thirty days after a
change in the location of a factory the. owner thereof shall file with the [industrial
commission] the new^ ad dress of the business, together with such other information as
the [industrial commission] may require. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 6 s 69 as added
by 1912 C 335]
FACTORIES.
MINIMUM AGE AND EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
Employment under 14 prohibited; certificates required from 14 to 16; farm worh excepted
under certain conditions. — No child under the age of fourteen years shall be employed,
permitted or suffered to work in or in connection with any factory in this State, or for
any factory at any place in this State. . No child between the ages of fourteen and six-
teen years shall be so employed, permitted or suffered to work unless an employment
certificate, issued as provided in this article, shall have been theretofore filed in the
office of the employer at the place of employment of such child. Nothing herein con-
tained shall prevent a person engaged in farming from permitting his children to do
farm work for him upon his farm. Boys over the age of twelve years may be employed
in gathering produce, for not more than six hours in any one day, subject to the re-
quirements of chapter twenty-one of the laws of nineteen hundred and nine, entitled
“An act relating to education, constituting chapter sixteen of the Consolidated Laws, ”
and all acts amendatory thereof. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 6 s 70 as amended by
1913 C 529]
Court decisions .— Under a former section, of which this is an amendment, the following decisions were
rendered: Violation is a misdemeanor and prima facie evidence of negligence on the part of the employer;
and a child employed in violation of the statute does not assume the risk of such employment and can not
be held guilty of contributory negligence.— Marino v. Lehmaier, 173 N. Y. 530, 66 N. E. 572 (1901); Sitts v.
Waiontha Co., 94 App. Div. 38 (1904); Lee v. Sterling Silk Mfg. Co., 115 App. Div. 589, 93 N. Y. S. 560 (1906);
Fortune v. Hall, 122 App. Div. 250 (1906); Kenyon v. Sanford Mfg. Co., 119 App. Div. 570 (1907); Danaher v.
American Mfg. Co., 126 App. Div. 385 (1908); Koester v. Rochester Candy Works, 194 N. Y. 92 (1909). The
prohibition is absolute and ignorance of the child’s age is no defense.— City of New York v. Chelsea Jute
Mills, 43 Misc. 266, 88 N. Y. S. 1085 (1904). But an officer of a corporation who has directed that no child
shall be employed contrary to law is not liable if a subordinate, without his knowledge, illegally employs a
child.— Peopled. Taylor, 192 N. Y. 398 (1908). Where a girl, 15 years old, without an employment certifi-
cate, was injured by defects in machinery, the master was liable.— Crowley v. American Druggist Syndicate,
138 N. Y. S. 642, 152 App. Div. 775 (1912).
Opinion. — A child under 14 years of age may not be employed in a factory or mercantile establishment
which is owned or controlled by the child’s parents.— Attorney General (1912).
EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES AND RECORDS.
Commissioner of health to issue certificates; age , school, and health records required;
method of issuing. — Such certificate shall be issued by the commissioner of health or
the executive officer of the board or department of health of the city, town or village
where such child resides, or is to be employed, or by such other officer thereof as may
be designated by such board, department or commissioner for that purpose, upon the
LAWS RELATING TO EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
121
application of the parent or guardian or custodian of the child desiring such employ-
ment. Such officer shall not issue such certificate until he has received, examined,
approved and filed the following papers duly executed, viz: The school record of such
child properly filled out and signed as provided in this article; also, evidence of age
showing that the child is fourteen years old or upwards, which shall consist of the
evidence thereof provided in one of the following subdivisions of this section and
which shall be required in the order herein designated as follows:
(a) Birth certificate: A duly attested transcript of the birth certificate filed accord-
ing to law with a registrar of vital statistics or other officer charged with the duty of
recording births, which certificate shall be conclusive evidence of the age of such child .
(b) Certificate of graduation: A certificate of graduation duly issued to such child
showing that such child is a graduate of a public school of the State of New York or
elsewhere, having a course of not less than eight years, or of a school in the State of
New York other than a public school, having a substantially equivalent course of
study of not less than eight years’ duration, in which a record of the attendance of such
child has been kept as required by article * * * [23] of the education law: Pro-
vided, That the record of such school shows such child to be at least fourteen years
of age.
(c) Passport or baptismal certificate: A passport or a duly attested transcript of a
certificate of baptism showing the date of birth and place of baptism of such child.
.(d) Other documentary evidence: In case it shall appear to the satisfaction of the
officer to whom application is made, as herein provided, for an employment certificate,
that a child for whom such certificate is requested, and who has presented the school
record, is in fact over fourteen years of age, and that satisfactory documentary evidence
of age can be produced, which does not fall within any of the provisions of the pre-
ceding subdivisions of this section, and that none of the papers mentioned in said
subdivisions can be produced, then and not otherwise he shall present to the board of
health of which he is an officer or agent, for its action thereon, a statement signed by
him showing such facts, together with such affidavits or papers as may have been pro-
duced before him constituting such evidence of the age of such child, and the board of
health, at a regular meeting thereof, may then, by resolution, provide that such evi-
dence of age shall be fully entered on the minutes of such board, and shall be received
as sufficient evidence of the age of such child for the purpose of this section.
(e) Physicians’ certificates: In cities of the first class only, in case application for
the issuance of an employment certificate shall be made to such officer by a child’s
parent, guardian, or custodian who alleges his inability to produce any of the evidence
of age specified in the preceding subdivisions of this section, and if the child is appar-
ently at least fourteen years of age, such officer may receive and file an application
signed by the parent, guardian or custodian of such child for physicians’ certificates.
Such application shall contain the alleged age, place and date of birth, and present resi-
dence of such child, together with such further facts as may be of assistance in deter-
mining the age of such child. Such application shall be filed for not less than ninety
days after date of such application for such physicians’ certificates, for an examination
to be made of the statements contained therein, and in case no facts appear within such
period or by such examination tending to discredit or contradict any material state-
ment of such application, then and not otherwise the officer may direct such child to
appear thereafter for physical examination before two physicians officially designated
by the board of health, and in case such physicians shall certify in writing that they
have separately examined such- child and that in their opinion such child is at least
fourteen years of age such officer shall accept such certificates as sufficient proof of the
age of such child for the purposes of this section. In case the opinions of such physi-
cians do not concur, the child shall be examined by a third physician and the concur-
ring opinions shall be conclusive for the purpose of this section as to the age of the
child.
Such officer shall require the evidence of age specified in subdivision (a) in prefer-
ence to that specified in any subsequent subdivision and shall not accept the evidence
of age permitted by any subsequent subdivision unless he shall receive and file in
addition thereto an affidavit of the parent showing that no evidence of age specified
in any preceding subdivision or subdivisions of this section can be produced. Such
affidavit shall contain the age, place and date of birth, and present residence of such
child, which affidavit must be taken before the officer issuing the employment cer-
tificate, who is hereby authorized and required to administer such oath and who shall
not demand or receive a fee therefor. Such employment certificate shall not be issued
until such child further has personally appeared before and been examined by the
officer issuing the certificate, and until such officer shall, after making such examina-
tion, sign and file in his office a statement that the child can read and legibly write
122
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
simple sentences in the English language and that in his opinion the child is fourteen
years of age or upwards and has reached the normal development of a child of its age,
and is in sound health and is physically able to perform the work which it intends to do.
Every such employment certificate shall be signed, in the presence of the officer
issuing the same, by the child in whose name it is issued. In every case, before an
employment certificate is issued, such physical fitness shall be determined by a
medical officer of the department or board of health, who shall make a thorough
physical examination of the child and record the result thereof on a blank to be fur-
nished for the purpose by the State [industrial commission] and shall set forth thereon
such facts concerning the physical condition and history of the child as the [indus-
trial commission] may require. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 6 s 71 as amended by 1912
C 333]
Court decision .— Employment of a child between 14 and 16 in violation of the two preceding sections
is negligence. The child can not be guilty of contributory negligence or assume the risks of employment.—
Pragotto v. Plunkett, 99 N. Y. 361, 113 App. Div. 648 (1906).
Opinion . — The requirement of an examination as to physical fitness is of State-wide application and is
not limited to cities of the first class. Attorney General (1912).
Contents of certificate. — Such certificate shall state the date and place of birth of
the child, and describe the color of the hair and eyes, the height and weight and any
distinguishing facial marks of such child, and that the papers required by the preced-
ing section have been duly examined, approved and filed and that the child named
in such certificate has appeared before the officer signing the certificate and been
examined. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 6 s 72]
Contents of school record; educational requirements. — The school record required by
this article shall be signed by the principal or chief executive officer of the school
which such child has attended and shall be furnished, on demand, to a child entitled
thereto or to the board, department or commissioner of health. It shall contain a
statement certifying that the child has regularly attended the public schools or schools
equivalent thereto, or parochial schools, for not less than one hundred and thirty days
during the twelve months next preceding his fourteenth birthday, or during the
twelve months next preceding his application for such school record and is able to
read and write simple sentences in the English language, and has received during
such period instruction in reading, spelling, writing, English grammar and geography
and is familiar with the fundamental operations of arithmetic up to and including
fractions and has completed the work prescribed for the first six years of the public
elementary school or school equivalent thereto or parochial school from which such
school record is issued. Such school record shall also give the date of birth and resi-
dence of the child as shown on the records of the school and the name of its parent
or guardian or custodian. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 6 s 73 as amended by 1913
C 144] ‘
Enforcement: duties and powers of industrial commission; list of certificates to he sent
to industrial commission; blank certificates, etc. — The board or department of health or
health commissioner of a city, village or town, shall transmit, between the first and
tenth day of each month, to the [industrial commission], a list of the names of all chil-
dren to whom certificates have been issued during the preceding month together with
a duplicate of the record of every examination as to the physical fitness, including
examinations resulting in rejection. In cities of the first and second class all employ-
ment certificates and school records required under the provisions of this chapter
shall be in such form as shall be approved by the [industrial commission]. In towns;
villages or cities other than cities of the first or second class, the [industrial commission]
shall prepare and furnish blank forms for such employment certificates and school
records. No school record or employment certificate required by this article, other
than those approved or furnished by the [industrial commission] as above provided,
shall be used. The [industrial commission] shall inquire into the administration and
enforcement of the provisions of this article by all public officers charged with the
duty of issuing employment certificates, and for that purpose the [industrial commis-
sion] shall have access to all papers and records required to be kept by all such officers.
[C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 6 s 75 as amended by 1913 C 144]
Lists required under 16; certificates to he returned to child or parent; evidence of age may
he required for child apparently under 16; false statement a misdemeanor; evidence of ille-
gal employment. — Each person owning or operating a factory and employing children
therein shall keep, or cause to be kept in the office of such factory, a register, in which
shall be recorded the name, birthplace, age and place of residence of all children so
employed under the age of sixteen years. Such register and the certificate filed in
such office shall be produced for inspection upon the demand of the [industrial commis-
sion]. On termination of the employment of a child so registered, and whose certifi-
LAWS RELATING TO EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
123
cate is so filed, such certificate shall be forthwith surrendered by the employer to the
child or its parent or guardian or custodian. The [industrial commission] may make
demand on any employer in whose factory a child apparently under the age of six-
teen years is employed or permitted or suffered to work, and whose employment
certificate is not then filed as required by this article, that such employer shall either
furnish [it] within ten days, evidence satisfactory to [it] that such child is in fact
over sixteen years of age, or shall cease to employ or permit or suffer such child to
work in such factory. The [industrial commission] may require from such employer
the same evidence of age of such child as is required on the issuance of an employment
certificate; and the employer furnishing such evidence shall not be required to fur-
nish any further evidence of the age of the child. A notice embodying such demand
may be served on such employer personally or may be sent by mail addressed to him
at said factory, and if served by post shall be deemed to have been served at the time
when the letter containing the same would be delivered in the ordinary course of the
post. When the employer is a corporation such notice may be served either personally
upon an officer of such corporation, or by sending it by post addressed to the office or
the principal place of business of such corporation. The papers constituting such
evidence of age furnished by the employer in response to such demand shall be filed
with the [industrial commission] and a material false statement made in any such
paper or affidavit by any person, shall be a misdemeanor. 1 In case such employer
shall fail to produce and deliver to the [industrial commission] within ten days after
such demand such evidence of age herein required by [it], and shall thereafter con-
tinue to employ such child or permit or suffer such child to work in such factory,
proof of the giving of such notice and of such failure to produce and file such evidence
shall be prima facie evidence in any prosecution brought for a violation of this article
that such child is under sixteen years of age and is unlawfully employed. [C L 1909
v 3 Labor C 31 art 6 s 76]
Certificates of physical fitness may he required from 14 to 16; revocation of employment
certificates. — 1. All children between fourteen and sixteen years of age employed in
factories shall submit to a physical examination whenever required by a medical
inspector of the State department of labor. The result of all such physical exami-
nations shall be recorded on blanks furnished for that purpose by the [industrial com-
mission], and shall be kept on file in such office or offices of the department as the
[industrial commission] may designate.
2. If any such child shall fail to submit to such physical examination, the [industrial
commission] may issue an order canceling such child’s employment certificate.
Such order shall be served upon the employer of such child who shall forthwith deliver
to an authorized representative of the department of labor the child’s employment
certificate. A certified copy of the order of cancellation shall be served on the board
of health or other local authority that issued the said certificate. No such child whose
employment certificate has been canceled, as aforesaid, shall, while said cancellation
remains unrevoked, be permitted or suffered to work in any factory of the State before
it attains the age of sixteen years. If thereafter such child shall submit to the physical
examination required, the [industrial commission] may issue an order revoking the
cancellation of the employment certificate and may return the employment certificate
to such child. Copies of the order of revocation shall be served upon the former em-
ployer of the child and the local board of health as aforesaid.
3. If as a result of the physical examination made by a medical inspector it appears
that the child is physically unfit to be employed in a factory, such medical inspector
shall forthwith submit a report to that effect to the [industrial commission] winch shall
be kept on file in the office of the [industrial commission], setting forth in detail his
reasons therefor, and the [industrial commission] may issue an order canceling the
employment certificate of such child. Such order of cancellation shall be served,
and the child’s employment certificate delivered up, as provided in subdivision two
hereof, and no such child while the said order of cancellation remains unrevoked shall
be permitted or suffered to work in any factory of the State before it attains the age
of sixteen years. If upon a subsequent physical examination of the child by a medical
inspector of the department of labor it appears that the physical infirmities have
been removed, sucn medical inspector shall certify to that effect to the [industrial
commission], and the [industrial commission] may thereupon make an order revoking
the cancellation of the employment certificate and may return the certificate to such
child. The order of revocation shall be served in the manner provided in subdivi-
sion two hereof. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 6 s 76-a as added by 1913 C 200]
1 For penalty for misdemeanor, see page 131 (Consolidated Laws 1909, volume 4, Penal, chapter 40, article
174, section 1937).
124
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS.
COMPULSORY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE.
Enforcement: lists of alien children to he procured hy industrial commission . —
***** •* *
2. The [industrial commission] shall procure with the consent of the Federal authori-
ties complete lists giving the names, ages, and destination within the State of all alien
children of school age, and such other facts as will tend to identify them, and shall
forthwith deliver copies of such lists to the commissioner of education or the several
boards of education and school boards in the respective localities within the State to
which said children shall be destined, to aid in the enforcement of the provisions of
the education law relative to the compulsory attendance at school of children of
school age. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 11 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 153 as
added by 1910 C 514 and amended by 1912 C 543]
MERCANTILE ESTABLISHMENTS, THEATERS, STREET TRADES, MES-
SENGERS, ETC.
APPLICATION OF ACT.
Certain cities. — The provisions of this article shall apply to all villages and cities
which at the last preceding State enumeration had a population of three thousand or
more. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 12 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 160]
MINIMUM AGE AND EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES AND RECORDS.
Employment under 14 prohibited; certificates required from 14 to 16. — No child under
the age of fourteen years shall be employed or permitted to work in or in connection
with any mercantile or other business or establishment specified in the preceding
section [mercantile establishment, business office, telegraph office, restaurant, hotel,
apartment house, theater or other place of amusement, bowling alley, barber shop,
shoe-polishing establishment, or in the distribution or transmission of merchandise,
articles or messages, or in the distribution or sale of articles]. No child under the age
of sixteen years shall be so employed or permitted to work unless an employment
certificate, issued as provided in this article, shall have been theretofore filed in the
office of the employer at the place of employment of such child. [C L 1909 v 3 Labor
C 31 art 12 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 162 as amended by 1911 C 866]
Commissioner of health to issue certificates; age , school , and health records required;
method of issuing. — [This section is practically identical with section 71, article 6 of
this chapter.] [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 12 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 163
as amended by 1913 C 144]
Contents of certificates. — [This section is practically identical with section 72, article
6 of tills chapter.] [C L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 12 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 164]
Contents of school records; educational requirements .—-[This section is practically
identical with section 73, article 6 of this chapter.] [G L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 12
(as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 165 as amended by 1913 C 144]
Enforcement: duties and powers of industrial commission; lists of certificates to he
sent to industrial commission; hlanh certificates, etc. — [This section is practically iden-
tical with section 75, article 6 of this chapter.] [0 L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 12 (as
renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 166 as added by 1913 C 144]
Lists required under 16; certificates to he returned to child or parent; evidence of age
may he required for child apparently under 16; false statement a misdemeanor; evidence
of illegal employment. — [This section is practically identical with section 76, article
6 of this chapter, except that in section 76 the provisions are enforced by the [in-
dustrial commission] and in this section by the [industrial commission] in cities of the
first and second classes and by the health officers in other cities, villages, etc.] [C L
1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 12 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 167 as amended by 1913
O 145]
ALL REGULATED OCCUPATIONS.
ENFORCEMENT.
Duties and powers of industrial commission, health commissioners, etc . — Except in
cities of the first and second class the board or department of health or health com-
missioners of a town, village or city affected by this article shall enforce the same
LAWS RELATING TO EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
125
and prosecute all violations thereof. Proceedings to prosecute such violations must
be begun within sixty days after the alleged offense was committed. All officers and
members of such boards or department[s], all health commissioners, inspectors and
other persons appointed or designated by such boards, departments or commissioners
may visit and inspect, at reasonable hours and when practicable and necessary, all
mercantile or other establishments herein specified within the town, village or city
for which they are appointed. No person shall interfere with or prevent any such
officer from making such visitations and inspections, nor shall he be obstructed or
injured by force or otherwise while in the performance of his duties. All persons
connected with any such mercantile or other establishment herein specified shall
properly answer all questions asked by such officer or inspector in reference to any
of the provisions of this article. In cities of the first and second class the [indus-
trial commission] shall enforce the provisions of this article, and for that purpose [said
commission] and [its] subordinates shall possess all powers herein conferred upon town,
village, or city boards and departments of health and their commissioners, inspectors,
and other officers, except that the board or department of health of said cities of the
first and second class shall continue to issue employment certificates as provided in
section one hundred and sixty-three of this chapter. [0 L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 12
(as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 172 as amended by 1913 C 145]
Copy of law to be posted under certain conditions. — A copy or abstract of applicable
provisions of this chapter and of the rules and regulations of the [industrial commission]
to be prepared and furnished by the [industrial commission] shall be kept posted by
the employer in a conspicuous place on each floor of every mercantile or other estab-
lishment specified in article twelve of this chapter situated in cities of the first or second
class, wherein three or more persons are employed who are affected by such pro-
visions. [G L 1909 v 3 Labor C 31 art 12 (as renumbered by 1913 C 145) s 173 as
amended by 1913 0 145]
EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS.
COMPULSORY SCHOOL AND EVENING AND CONTINUATION SCHOOL ATTENDANCE.
Instruction required. — The instruction required under this article shall be:
1 . At a public school in which at least the six common school branches of reading,
spelling, writing, arithmetic, English language and geography are taught in English.
2. Elsewhere than a public school upon instruction in the same subjects taught in
English by a competent teacher. [C L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 23 s 620]
Children from 7 to 14 in certain cities, from 8 to 14 in certain other cities, and from 14
to 16 if not regularly and lawfully employed. — 1. Every child within the compulsory
school ages, in proper physical and mental condition to attend school, residing in a
city or school district having a population of five thousand or more and employing a
superintendent of schools, shall regularly attend upon instruction as follows:
(a) Each child between seven and fourteen years of age shall attend the entire
time during which the school attended is in session, which period shall be not less
than one hundred and sixty days of actual school.
(b) Each child between fourteen and sixteen years of age not regularly and law-
fully engaged in any useful employment or service, and to whom an employment
certificate has not been duly issued under the provisions of the labor law, shall so
attend the entire time during which the school attended is in session.
2. Every such child, residing elsewhere than in a city or school district having a
population of five thousand or more and employing a superintendent of schools, shall
attend upon instruction during the entire time that the school in the district shall be
in session as follows:
(a) Each child between eight and fourteen years of age.
(b) Each child between fourteen and sixteen years of age not regularly and law-
fully engaged in any useful employment or service. * * * [0 L 1910 v 8 Educa-
tion C 16 art 23 s 621 as amended by 1911 C 710 and by 1913 C 511]
Boys from 14 to 16 to attend evening or continuation schools and girls from 14 to 16 to
attend continuation schools under certain conditions. — 1. Every boy between fourteen
and sixteen years of age, in a city of the first class or a city of the second class in pos-
session of an employment certificate duly issued under the provisions of the labor
law, who has not completed such course of study as is required for graduation from
the elementary public schools of such city, and who does not hold either a certificate
of graduation from the public elementary school or the preacademic certificate issued
by the regents or the certificate of the completion of an elementary course issued by
the education department, shall attend the public evening schools of such city, or
126 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
other evening schools offering an equivalent course of instruction, for not less than
six hours each week, for a period of not less than sixteen weeks.
2. When the board of education in a city or district shall have established part-
time and continuation schools or courses of instruction for the education of young
persons between fourteen and sixteen years of age who are regularly employed in such
city or district, said board of education may require the attendance in such schools or
on such courses of instruction of any young person in such a city or district who is in
possession of an employment certificate duly issued under the provisions of the labor
law, who has not completed such courses of study as are required for graduation from the
elementary public schools of such city or district, or equivalent courses of study in
parochial or other elementary schools, who does not hold either a certificate of gradua-
tion from the public elementary school or a preacademic certificate of the completion
of the elementary course issued by the education department, and who is not other-
wise receiving instruction approved by the board of education as equivalent to that
provided for in the schools and courses of instruction established under the provisions
of this act. The required attendance provided for in this paragraph shall be for a
total of not less than thirty-six weeks per year, at the rate of not less than four and not
more than eight hours per week, and shall be between the hours of eight o’clock in the
morning and five o’clock in the afternoon of any working day or days.
3. The children attending such part-time or continuation schools as required in
paragraph two of this section shall be exempt from the attendance on evening schools
required in paragraph one of this section. [0 L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 23 s 622 as
amended by 1913 C 748]
Regulations for attendance at other than public schools. — If any such child shall so
attend upon instruction elsewhere than at a public school, such instruction shall be
at least substantially equivalent to the instruction given to children of like age at the
public school of the city or district in which such child resides; and such attendance
shall be for at least as many hours each day thereof as are required of children of like
age at public schools; and no greater total amount of holidays and vacations shall be
deducted from such attendance during the period such attendance is required than is
allowed in such public schools to children of like age. Occasional absences from such
attendance, not amounting to irregular attendance in the fair meaning of the term,
shall be allowed upon such excuses only as would be allowed in like cases by the gen-
eral rules and practice of such public school. [C L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 23
s 623]
Children from 7 to 14 in certain districts and from 14 to 16 unless regularly and lav fully
employed; from 8 to 16 in other districts , unless regularly and lawfully employed , etc . —
Every person in parental relation to a child within the compulsory school ages and in
proper physical and mental condition to attend school, shall cause such child to
attend upon instruction, as follows:
1. In cities and school districts having a population of five thousand or above,
every child between seven and sixteen years of age as required by section six hundred
and twenty-one of this act unless an employment certificate shall have been duly issued
to such child under the provisions of the labor law and he is regularly employed
thereunder.
2. Elsewhere than in a city or school district having a population of five thousand
or above, every child between eight and sixteen years of age, unless such child shall
have received an employment certificate duly issued under the provisions of the labor
law and is regularly employed thereunder in a factory or mercantile establishment,
business or telegraph office, restaurant, hotel, apartment house or in the distribution
or transmission of merchandise or messages, or unless such child shall have received
the school record certificate issued under section six hundred and thirty of this act
and is regularly employed elsewhere than in the factory or mercantile establishment,
business or telegraph office, restaurant, hotel, apartment house or in the distribution
or transmission of merchandise or messages. [C L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 23 s 624]
Penalty for preceding section. — A violation of section six hundred and twenty-four
shall be a misdemeanor, punishable for the first offense by a fine not exceeding five
dollars, or five days’ imprisonment, and for each subsequent offense by a fine not
exceeding fifty dollars, or by imprisonment not exceeding thirty days, or by both
such fine and imprisonment. * * * [CL 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 23 s 625]
ALL OCCUPATIONS -EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS.
MINIMUM AGE AND EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
j Employment under 14 prohibited during school hours; employment and school record
certificates required from 14 to 16 for employment in certain occupations elsewhere them in
cities of the first and second class; employment certificates required from 14 to 16 in cities of
the first and second class. — It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation:
LAWS RELATING TO EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
127
1. To employe [employ] any child under fourteen years of age, in any business or
service whatever, for any part of the term during which the public schools of the
district or city in which the child resides are in session.
2. To employ, elsewhere than in a city of the first class or a city of the second class,
in a factory or mercantile establishment, business or telegraph office, restaurant,
hotel, apartment house or in the distribution or transmission of merchandise or mes-
sages, any child between fourteen and sixteen years of age who does not at the time of
such employment present an employment certificate duly issued under the provisions
of the labor law, or to employ any such child in any other capacity who does not at
the time of such employment present a school record certificate as provided in section
six hundred and thirty of this chapter.
3. To employ, any child between fourteen and sixteen years of age in a city of the
first class or a city of the second class who does not, at the time of such employment,
present an employment certificate, duly issued under the provisions of the labor law.
[C L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 23 s 626]
Note.— [T he provisions for employment certificates as provided for in this article are apparently super-
seded by articles 6 and 12, chapter 31, volume 3, Labor, Consolidated Laws 1909.]
Certificates to be displayed from 14 to 16. — The employer of any child between four-
teen and sixteen years of age in a city or district shall keep and shall display in the
place where such child is employed, the employment certificate and also his evening,
part-time or continuation school certificate issued by the school authorities of said city
or district or by an authorized representative of such school authorities, certifying
that the said child is regularly in attendance at an evening, part-time or continuation
school of said city as provided in section six hundred and thirty-one of this chapter.
[C L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 23 s 627 as amended by 1913 C 748]
Penalty for illegal employment. — Any person, firm, or corporation, or any officer,
manager, superintendent or employee acting therefor, who shall employ any child
contrary to the provisions of sections six hundred and twenty-six and six hundred
and twenty-seven hereof shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and the punishment
therefor shall be for the first offense a fine of not less than twenty dollars nor more than
fifty dollars; for a second and each subsequent offense, a fine of not less than fifty
dollars nor more than two hundred dollars. [C L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 23 s
628 as amended by 1913 C 748]
Court decision.— The section of which this is an amendment was held constitutional.— City of New York
v. Chelsea Jute Mills, 43 Misc. 266, 88 N. Y. S. 1085 (1904). #
COMPULSORY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE.
Enforcement: duties of teachers; misdemeanor. — An accurate record of the attendance
of all children between seven and sixteen years of age shall be kept by the teacher of
every school, showing each day by the year, month, day of the month and day of the
week, such attendance, and the number of hours in each day thereof; and each
teacher upon whose instruction any such child shall attend elsewhere than at school,
shall keep a like record of such attendance. Such record shall, at all times, be open
to the attendance officers or other person duly authorized by the school authorities of
the city or district, who may inspect or copy the same; and every such teacher shall
fully answer all inquiries lawfully made by such authorities, inspectors, or other per-
sons, and a willful neglect or refusal so to answer any such inquiry shall be a mis-
demeanor. 1 [C L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 23 s 629]
SCHOOL-RECORD CERTIFICATES.
. School authorities to issue certificates; contents of certificate. — 1. A school-record cer-
tificate shall contain a statement certifying that a child has regularly attended the
public schools, or schools equivalent thereto, or parochial schools, for not less than
one hundred and thirty days during the twelve months next preceding his fourteenth
birthday or during the twelve months next preceding his application for such school
record, and that he is able to read and write simple sentences in the English language
and has received during such period instruction in reading, writing, spelling, English
grammar and geography and is familiar with the fundamental operations of arithmetic
up to and including fractions, and has completed the work prescribed for the first
six years of the public elementary school, or school equivalent thereto, or parochial
school, from which such school record is issued. Such record shall also give the date
of birth and residence of the child, as shown on the school records, and the name of
the child’s parents, guardian or custodian.
1 For penaltv for misdemeanor,
174, section 1937).
see p. 131 (Consolidated Laws 1909, volume 4, Penal, chapter 40, article
128
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
2. A teacher or superintendent to whom application shall be made for a school-
record certificate required under the provisions of the labor law shall issue a school-
record certificate to any child who, after due investigation and examination, may be
found to be entitled to the same as follows:
a. In a city of the first class by the principal or chief executive of a school.
b. In all other cities and in school districts having a population of five thousand or
more and employing a superintendent of schools, by the superintendent of schools only.
c. In all other school districts by the principal teacher of the school.
d. In each city or school district such certificate shall be furnished on demand
to a child entitled thereto or to the board or commissioner of health. [C L 1910 v 8
Education C 16 art 23 s 630 as amended by 1913 C 101]
School authorities to issue evening or continuation school certificates; requirements
for and contents of certificates. — The school authorities in a city or district, or officers
designated by them, are hereby required to issue to each child lawfully in attendance
at an evening, part-time or continuation school, an evening, part-time or continuation
school certificate at least once in each month during the months said evening, part-time
or continuation school is in session and at the close of the term of said evening, part-
time or continuation school: Provided, That said child has been in attendance upon
said evening school, for not les3 than six hours each week or upon said part-time or
continuation school for not less than four hours each week, for such number of weeks
as will, when taken in connection with the number of weeks such evening, part-time
or continuation school respectively, shall be in session during the remainder of the
current or calendar year, make up a total attendance on the part of said child in said
evening school, of not less than six hours per week for a period of not less than sixteen
weeks or in said part-time or continuation school, of not less than four hours per week
for a period of not less than thirty-six weeks. Such certificate shall state fully the
period of time which the child to whom it is issued was in attendance upon such even-
ing, part-time or continuation school. [C L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 23 s 631 as
amended by 1913 C 748]
ENFORCEMENT.
Duties and powers of attendance officers and superintendent of schools, etc. — 1 . The
school authorities of each city, union free school district, or common school district
whose limits include in whole or in part an incorporated village, shall appoint and
may remove at pleasure one or more attendance officers of such city or district, and
shall fix their compensation and may prescribe their duties not inconsistent with this
article and make rules and regulations for the performance thereof; and the superin-
tendent of schools shall supervise the enforcement of this article within such city or
school district.
2. The town board of each town shall appoint, subject to the written approval
of the school commissioner of the district, one or more attendance officers, whose
jurisdiction shall extend over all school districts in said town, and which are not by
this section otherwise provided for, and shall fix their compensation, which shall be
a town charge; and such attendance officers, appointed by said board, shall be remov-
able at the pleasure of the school commissioner in whose commissioner district such
town is situated. [C L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 23 s 632]
Po wers of truant officers . —
*******
3. A truant officer in the performance of his duties may enter, during business hours,
any factory, mercantile or other establishment within the city or school district in
which he is appointed and shall be entitled to examine employment certificates or
registry of children employed therein on demand. [C L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art
23 s 633]
PENALTIES.
Hindering attendance officers, etc., a misdemeanor .—Airy person interfering with an
attendance officer in the lawful discharge of his duties and any person owning or operat-
ing a factory, mercantile or other establishment who shall refuse on demand to exhibit
to such attendance officer the registry of the children employed or the employment
certificate of such children shall be guilty of a misdemeanor. 1 [C L 1910 v 8 Educa-
tion C 16 art 23 s 634]
School moneys may he withheld from cities and districts not enforcing law. — 1. The com-
missioner of education shall supervise the enforcement of this law and he may with-
hold one-half of all public school moneys from any city or district, which, in his judg-
' Fc r penalty for misdemeanor, see page 131 (Consolidated Laws 1909, volume 4, Penal, chapter 40, article
Iri, section 1937).
LAWS RELATING TO EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
129
ment, willfully omits and refuses to enforce the provisions of this article, after due
notice, so often and so long as such willful omission and refusal shall, in his judgment,
continue. * * * [CL 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 23 s 636]
SCHOOL CENSUS.
Enumeration of children from 4 to 18; duties of permanent census hoard in cities of the
first class except New York. — A permanent census board is hereby established in each
city of the first class, except the city of New York. In the city of New York provision
shall be made by the board of education for taking a school census in connection with
the work of enforcing the compulsory education law. Such permanent census board
shall consist of the mayor, the superintendent of schools, the police commissioner or
officer performing duties similar to those of a police commissioner. The mayor shall be
the chairman of such board. Such board shall have power to make such rules and
regulations as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this article. Such
board shall have power to appoint a secretary and such clerks and other employees
as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this article and to fix the salaries
of the same. Such board shall ascertain through the police force, the residences and
employments of all persons between the ages of four and eighteen years residing
within such cities and shall report thereon from time to time to the school authorities
of such cities. Under the regulations of such board, during the month of October,
nineteen hundred and nine, it shall be the duty of the police commissioners in such
cities of the first class to cause a census of the children of their respective cities to be
taken. Thereafter such census shall be amended from day to day by the police, pre-
cinct by precinct, as changes of residence occur among the children of such cities
within the ages prescribed in this article and as other persons come within the ages
prescribed herein and as other persons within such ages shall become residents of
such cities, so that said board shall always have on file a complete census of the names
and residences of the children between such ages and of the persons in parental rela-
tion thereto. It shall be the duty of persons in parental relation to any child residing
within the limits of said cities of the first class to report at the police station house of
the precinct within which they severally reside, the following information:
1. Two weeks before any child becomes of the compulsory school age the name of
such child, its residence, the name of the person or persons in parental relation
thereto, and the name and location of the school to which such child is sent as a pupil.
2. In case a child of compulsory school age is for any cause removed from one
school and sent to another school, or sent to work in accordance with the labor law,
all the facts in relation thereto.
3. In case the residence of a child is removed from one police precinct to another
police precinct, the new residence and the other facts required in the two preceding
subdivisions.
4. In case a child between the ages of four and eighteen becomes a resident of one
of said cities of the first class for the first time the residence and such other facts as the
census board shall require. Such census shall include all persons between the ages
of four and eighteen years, the day of the month and the year of the birth of each of
such persons, their respective residences by street and number, the names of their
parents or guardians, such information relating to illiteracy and to the enforcement
of the law relating to child labor and compulsory education as the school authorities
of the State and of such cities shall require and also such further information as such
authorities shall require. [0 L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 24 s 650 as amended by
1914 C 480] #
Enumeration of children from 4 to 18 in New York City; duties of bureau of compulsory
education, school census , and child ivelfare. — The board of education shall have power
to establish a bureau of compulsory education, school census and child welfare and
subject to the provisions of law and of this act, the said board shall have power to
make by-laws, rules, regulations and prescribe forms for the proper performance of
the duties of all persons employed in and under the direction of said bureau. On
the nomination of the board of superintendents the board of education shall have
power to appoint a director and an assistant director of the said bureau for a term of
six years each, and such attendance officers, enumerators, clerks and other employees
as may be necessary, and to fix their salaries within the proper appropriation; to
assign a chief attendance officer, and one or more attendance officers as supervising
attendance officers for such periods as may be prescribed in the by-laws of the board
of education. No person shall be eligible for the position of director or of assistant
director of the said bureau who has not one of the following qualifications: (a) Gradua-
tion from a college or university recognized by the University of the State of New
46446°— 17 9
130 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
York, together with five years’ experience in teaching or supervision since graduation,
(b) A principal’s license for any of the boroughs of the city of New York obtained as
the result of an examination, together with ten years’ experience in teaching or super-
vision. The director and assistant director shall be participants in the teachers’
retirement fund under section ten hundred and ninety-two of the charter of the
city of New York and be subject to its provisions. Attendance officers employed
under the direction of the said bureau shall perform duties in connection with the
enforcement of the compulsory education law, in the taking of a school census,
and in connection with the employment of children under the labor law, and
such other duties, not inconsistent with this act, as the director of the bureau or
the board of education may prescribe. It shall be the duty of persons in parental
relation to any child between the ages of four and eighteen years residing in the city
of New York to give to the educational authorities of the district within which they
severally reside, all the information prescribed in section six hundred and fifty of
article twenty-four of the education law of the State relating to such child, and such
other information as may be required. Persons in parental relation who withhold
such information shall be liable to the penalty prescribed in section six hundred and
fifty-three of article twenty-four of the education law of the State. It shall be the
duty of attendance officers, acting as census enumerators, to collect the information
prescribed in section six hundred and fifty of article twenty-four of the education
law and such other information as the State commissioner of education or the board
of education may require. The director of the bureau of compulsory education,
school census and child welfare, herein established, shall, subject to the by-laws of
the board of education and in its name, enforce the compulsory education law, direct
attendance officers in their duty, commit and parole truant and delinquent children
and proceed against those in parental relation in the manner provided in section six
hundred and thirty-five of chapter one hundred and forty of the laws of nineteen
hundred and ten as amended, any provision of the said law os of section ten hundred
and seventy-eight of the charter of the city of New York to the contrary notwith-
standing. The assistant director shall perform such duties in connection with the
supervision of the school census, or otherwise, as the director, subject to the by-laws
of the board of education, may prescribe. Under the direction of the board of edu-
cation the city superintendent of schools shall have a general supervision of the
bureau of compulsory education, school census and child welfare. On or about May
first, nineteen hundred and fourteen, the board of education shall ascertain the infor-
mation required by section six hundred and fifty of article twenty-four of the educa-
tion law of the State relating to a census of all persons within the city of New York
between the ages of four and eighteen years of age. Thereafter such census shall
be amended from day to day by attendance officers, clerks and other employees
under the supervision of the director, as changes of residence occur among children
of such city within the ages prescribed in this article, and as other persons come
within the ages prescribed, and as other persons within such ages shall become resi-
dents of such city, so that the said board of education in its census bureau shall always
have on file a complete census of the names and residences of the children between
such ages and of the persons in parental relation thereto. [Greater New York Charter
1901 C 461 s 1069 subdivision 8 as added by 1914 C 479]
Enumeration of children from 4 to 18; duties of permanent census hoard or school authori-
ties in other than cities of the first class. — A permanent census board may be established
in any city not of the first class, in accordance with the provisions of this article. If
a census board shall not be established in such cities, then, during the month of Oc-
tober, nineteen hundred and nine, and in the month of October every fourth year
thereafter, the school authorities of every city, not a city of the first class, shall take a
census of the children of their respective cities. Such census shall include the infor-
mation required from the cities of the first class as provided in section six hundred
and fifty of this chapter. [C L 1910 v 8 Education C 16 art 24 s 651]
Enumeration of children from 5 to 18; duties of hoards of trustees in school districts . —
The board of trustees of every school district shall annually on the thirtieth day of
August cause a census of all children between the ages of five and eighteen years to
be taken in their respective school districts. Such census shall include the infor-
mation required from cities as provided in this article. [C L 1910 v 8 Education C
16 art 24 s 652]
Penalty for false information, etc. — A parent, guardian or other person having under
his control or charge a child between the ages of four and eighteen years who with-
holds or refuses to give information in his possession relating to such child and required
under this article, or any such parent, guardian or other person who gives false infor-
mation in relation thereto, shall be liable to and punished by fine not exceeding twenty
dollars or by imprisonment not exceeding thirty days. [C L 1910 v 8 Education C 16
art 24 s 653]
LAV/S RELATING TO EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
131
ALL REGULATED OCCUPATIONS.
PENALTIES.
Violation of labor laws and false statements . — Any person who violates or does not
comply with any provision of the labor law, any provision of the industrial code,
any rule or regulation of the [industrial commission] * * * or any lawful order
of the [industrial commission]; and any person who knowingly makes a false state-
ment in or in relation to any application made for an employment certificate as to any
matter required by articles six * * * of the labor law to appear in any affidavit,
record, transcript or certificate therein provided for, is guilty of a misdemeanor and
upon conviction shall be punished, except as in this chapter otherwise provided, for
a first offense by a fine of not less than twenty nor more than fifty dollars ; for a second
offense by a fine of not less than fifty nor more than two hundred and fifty dollars,
or by imprisonment for not more than thirty days or by both such fine and imprison-
ment; for a third offense by a fine of not less than two hundred and fifty dollars, or
by imprisonment for not more than sixty days, or by both such fine and imprison-
ment. [C L 1909 v 4 Penal C 40 art 120 s 1275 as amended by 1913 C 349]
Misdemeanor . — A person convicted of a crime declared to be a misdemeanor, for
which no other punishment is specially prescribed by this chapter, or by any other
statutory provision in force at the time of the conviction and sentence, is punishable
by imprisonment in a penitentiary, or county jail, for not more than one year, or by
a fine of not more than five hundred dollars, or by both. [C L 1909 v 4 Penal C 40
art 174 s 1937]
AMENDMENTS TO EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE LAW.
In effect Feb. 1, 1917.
[Acts of 1916, eh. 465, sec. 1, amending Labor Law, sec. 71. Section 2 of the same act amends Labor Law,
sec. 163, to read exactly like section 71 as amended. Portions in brackets were in the original law but are
omitted in the amendment; portions in italics were not in the original law but are added in the amendment.!
Employment certificate , how issued. — Such certificate shall be issued by the com-
missioner of health or the executive officer of the board or department of health of the
city, town or village where such child resides[,] or is to be employed, or by such other
officer thereof as may be designated by such board, department or commissioner for
that purpose, upon the application of the parent [or], guardian or custodian of the
child desiring such employment. Such officer shall not issue such certificate until
he has received, examined, approved and filed the following papers duly executed,
namely: The school record of such child properly filled out and signed as provided in
this article; also, evidence of age showing that the child, is fourteen years old or up-
wards, which shall consist of the evidence thereof provided in one of the following
subdivisions of this section and which shall be required in the order herein designated
as follows:
(a) Birth certificate [:],* passport or baptismal certificate. A duly attested transcript
of the birth certificate filed according to law with a registrar of vital statistics or other
officer charged with the duty of recording births [, which certificate shall be conclusive
evidence of the age of such child.]; or a passport; or a duly attested transcript of a cer-
tificate of baptism showing the date of birth of such child.
[(b) Certificate of graduation. A certificate of graduation duly issued to such
child showing that such child is a graduate of a public school of the State of New York
or elsewhere, having a course of not less than eight years, or of a school in the State of
New Y r ork other than a public school, having a substantially equivalent course of
study of not less than eight years’ duration, in which a record of the attendance of
such child has been kept as required by article twenty of the education law, provided
that the record of such school shows such child to be at least fourteen years of age.
(c) Passport or baptismal certificate. A passport or a duly attested transcript of a
certificate of baptism showing the date of birth and place of baptism of such child.]
[(d)] (6) Other documentary evidence. In case it shall appear to the satisfaction
of the officer to whom application is made, as herein provided, for an employment
certificate, that a child for whom such certificate is requested [,] and who has presented
the school record, is in fact over fourteen years of age, and that satisfactory documen-
tary evidence of age can be produced, which does not fall within any of the provisions
of the preceding subdivisions of this section, and that none of the papers mentioned
in said subdivisions can be produced, then and not otherwise he shall present to the
board of health of which he is an officer or agent, for its action thereon, a statement
signed by him showing such facts, together with such [affidavits or] papers as may have
been produced before him constituting such evidence [of the age of such child, and
the board of health, at a regular meeting thereof, may then, by resolution, provide
that such evidence of age shall be fully entered on the minutes of such board, and
shall be received as sufficient evidence of the age of such child for the. purpose of this
section]. The commissioner of health , or when officially authorized , the issuing officer of
the board or department of health may then accept such evidence as sufficient as to the age
of such child, and a record of such evidence shall be fully entered on the minutes of the board
at the next meeting thereof .
l( e )] ( c ) Physicians’ certificates. In cities of the first class only, in case application
for the issuance of an employment certificate shall be made to such officer by a child’s
parent, guardian or custodian who alleges his inability to produce any of the evidence
of age specified in the preceding subdivisions of this section, and if the child is appar-
ently at least fourteen years of age, such officer may receive and file an application
signed by the parent, guardian or custodian of such child for physicians’ certificates.
Such application shall contain the alleged age, place and date of birth, and present
residence of such child, together with such further facts as may be of assistance in
determining the age of such child. Such application shall be filed for not less than
[ninety] sixty days after date of such application for such physicians’ certificates, for
an examination to be made of the statements contained therein, and in case no facts
132
LAWS RELATING TO EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES.
133
appear within such period or by such examination tending to discredit or contradict
any material statement of such application, then and not otherwise the officer may
direct such child to appear thereafter for physical examination before two physicians
officially designated by the board of health, and in case, such physicians shall certify
in writing that they have separately examined such child and that in their opinion
such child is at least fourteen years of age such officer shall accept such certificates as
sufficient proof of the age of such child for the purposes of this section. In case the
opinions of such physicians do not concur, the child shall be examined by a third
physician and the concurring opinions shall be conclusive for the purpose of this section
as to the age of such child.
Such officer shall require the evidence of age specified in subdivision (a) in prefer-
ence to that specified in any subsequent subdivision and shall not accept the evidence
of age permitted by any subsequent subdivision unless he shall receive and file in
addition thereto an affidavit of the parent showing that no evidence of age specified
in any preceding subdivision or subdivisions of this section can be produced. Such
affidavit shall contain the age, place and date of birth, and present residence of such
child, which affidavit must be taken before the officer issuing the employment certifi-
cate, who is hereby authorized and required to administer such oath and who shall
not demand or receive a fee therefor.
Such employment certificate shall not be issued until such child further has per-
sonally appeared before and been examined by the officer issuing the certificate, and
until such officer shall, after making such examination, sign and file in his office a
statement that the child can read and [legibly] write correctly simple sentences in the
English language and that in his opinion the child is fourteen years of age or upwards
and has reached the normal development of a child of its age, and is in sound health
and is physically able to perform the work which it intends to do. Every such em-
ployment certificate shall be signed, in the presence of the officer issuing the same, by
the child in whose name it is issued. In every case, before an employment certificateis
issued, such physical fitness shall be determined by a, medical officer of the department
or board of health, who shall make a thorough physical examination of the child and
record the result thereof on a blank to be furnished for the purpose by the [State com-
missioner of labor] industrial commission and shall set forth thereon such facts con-
cerning the physical condition and history of the child as the [commissioner of labor]
industrial commission may require.
In case the evidence of age , filed as in this section provided, shows such child to he fourteen
years old hut fails to show such child to he fifteen years old, no employment certificate shall
he issued unless such child, in addition to complying with all the requirements of this section
and producing the school record described in section seventy-three, shall also present a cer-
tificate of graduation properly issued in the name of such child, from a public elementary
school, or school equivalent thereto or parochial school, or a preacademic certificate issued
by the regents, or a certificate of the completion of an elementary course issued by the education
department .
FORMS USED IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF EMPLOYMENT-
CERTIFICATE LAWS.
[The words in italics are as entered by hand on the blank forms, but all names and addresses, except those
of some of the officials, are fictitious. Lines inclosed in brackets [] are interpolated and do not appear in
the forms as used.]
[Form 1. See p. 13.]
University of the State of New York,
The State Department of Education.
SCHOOL RECORD.
To the Board of Health City of Little Falls :
Gentlemen: I hereby certify that Rosa Spence was a pupil in Lincoln school in the city of Little
Falls, State of New York; that her attendance at the said school was not less than 130 days during
the 12 months next preceding her 14th birthday or the 12 months next preceding her application for a
school-record certificate ; that she is able to read and write simple sentences in the English language and
received during such period instruction in English in reading, writing, spelling, English language and
geography and is familiar with the fundamental operations of arithmetic up to and including fractions
and has completed the work prescribed for the first six years of the public elementary school, or school
equivalent thereto, or parochial school; that according to the records of the above-named school said pupil
was born on the 10th day of Sept., 1900 resides at 110 W. Main St. in the city of Little Falls and
the name of her parent, guardian, or custodian is John Spence.
[Signed] John De Long,
Superintendent, principal or chief executive officer of school.
(Dated) Oct 12, 1914.
This certificate when issued should be given to the child entitled to it, who should present it to the local
board of health if an employment certificate is desired; otherwise it is to be retained by the child.
An exact record of all certificates issued shall be kept on file. Such record in part should contain the
name, age and residence of each child to whom a certificate was granted, with the number of days’ attend-
ance credited to each within the period prescribed in the statute; also the date on which the' certificate
was issued.
Section 1275 of the penal law:
Any person who knowingly makes a false statement in or in relation to any application made for an
employment certificate as to any matter required by articles 6 and 11 of the labor law to appear in any
affidavit, record, transcript or certificate therein provided for, is guilty of a misdemeanor and upon con-
viction shall be punished for a first offense by a fine of not less than $20 nor more than $50; for a second
offense by a fine of not less than $50 normore than $250, or by imprisonment for not more than 30 days, or
by both such fine and imprisonment; for a third offense by a fine of not less than $250, or by imprisonment
for not more than 60 days, or by both such fine and imprisonment.
John Huston Finley,
President of the University.
Approved by State Department of Labor.
[Form 2a. See p. 31.]
This certificate is effective throughout the State and until the owner is 16 years of age unless sooner re voked-
No. 846. EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATE.
Issued pursuant to sections 71 and 163 of the labor law of the State of New York, chapter 36, laws of 1909,
as amended.
The Department of Health of Syracuse, N. Y., upon application duly made pursuant to law, grants
this certificate to John Baker and it is hereby certified that this child, who is described below, personally
(Name of child.)
appeared before the undersigned official and was by him examined and found qualified for employment
under the labor law; it is further certified that documentary evidence of the age and education of said
child, as required by law, has been duly examined, approved, and made a part of the records of the above
department, and that by careful examination the physical fitness of the said child has been determined
by the medical examiner of the above department and that such physical examination has been recorded
as required by law.
DESCRIPTION OF CHILD.
Place of birth Utica, N. Y. Date of birth June 21, 1900.
Color of hair Brown. Color of eyes Blue.
Height 4 feet 6 inches. Weight 100.
Distinguishing facial marks none.
The Board of Health.
JonN Baker, By F. W. Sears,
Signature of child named in the above certificate. Signature of official issuing certificate.
Date July 2, 1915.
N. B.— This certificate must be filed with the employer, and must be kept on file in the office at the
place of employment during the period of such employment. It shall be surrendered to the child, its parent,
guardian, or custodian upon the termination of the child’s employment.
(OVER)
134
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION,
135
[Form 2b. See p. 31.]
This certificate is effective throughout the State and until the owner is 16 years of age unless sooner revoked.
No. 7548. EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATE.
Issued pursuant to sections 71 and 163 of the labor law of the State of New York, chapter 36, Laws of 1909,
as amended.
The Department of Health of City of New York, upon application duly made pursuant to law, grants
this certificate to Laurence Flynn and it is hereby certified that this child, who is described below, per-
(Name of child.)
sonally appeared before the undersigned official and was by him examined and found qualified for employ-
ment under the labor law; it is further certified that documentary evidence of the age and education of
said child, as required by law, has been duly examined, approved, and made a part of the records of the
above department, and that by careful examination the physical fitness of the said child has been deter-
mined by the medical examiner of the above department and that such physical examination has been
recorded as required by law.
DESCRIPTION OF CHILD.
Place of birth Rochester , N. Y.
Color of hair Brown.
Height 5 feet 5\ inches.
Distinguishing physical marks
Date of birth Aug. 7, 1899.
Color of eyes Blue.
Weight 103 lbs.
sex Male.
The Board of Health.
Laurence Flynn By John J. O’Brien,
Signature of child named in the above certificate. Signature of official issuing certificate.
Address 173 W. 21st. St. Date March 12, 1914.
N. B.— This certificate must be filed with the employer, and must be kept on file in the office at the place
of employment during the period of such employment. It shall be surrendered to the child, its parent,
guardian, or custodian upon the termination of the child’s employment.
(OVER)
[Forms 2a and 2b (reverse). See p. 31.]
IMPORTANT.
NOTICE TO EMPLOYERS.
Factories: In factories the child presenting this certificate shall not be permitted to work before 8 o’clock
in the morning or after 5 o’clock in the afternoon, or for more than 8 hours in any one day or more than
six days in any one week. (Section 77, Labor Law.)
Special attention is called to occupations at which children can not be employed, enumerated in
section 93, Labor Law.
Mercantile establishments: In mercantile establishments the child presenting this certificate shall
not be permitted to work before 8 o’clock in the morning or after 6 o’clock in the evening, or for more
than 8 hours in any one day or more than six days in any one week. (Section 161, Labor Law.)
(Form 3. See p. 80.]
Thomas Blake.
Signature of child.
14 Pitt St.
Home address.
London, Eng' Nov. 10, 1899
Place and date of birth.
John & Mary Blake.
Father’s and mother’s name.
Packing.
Work actually engaged in.
July 9, 1914. $5. 8 i
When employed. Wages. Daily hours.
8 5 i
Commence. Stop work. Noon day recess
Roibt. Walton, foreman.
By whom employed.
National Cigar Co.
Business title of firm or company.
17 Monroe St.
Address.
J. K. Smith, supt. of factory.
Person in authority seen by deputy.
Nov. 3, 1914 • 3 p. m.
Date of inspection. Time of day.
J. C. Howard.
Factory inspector.
136 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK
[Form 4. See p. 80.]
State of New York,
[seal] Department of Labor,
Bureau of Factory Inspection.
Albany, April 13, 1914.
In accordance with the provisions of section 76 of chapter 36, Laws of 1909, as amended, you are hereby
directed to furnish to this department, within ten days, proper evidence that the child named herein and
who is now employed, permitted or suffered to work in your manufacturing establishment, is in fact over
sixteen years of age: (For the kind of evidence that will be considered, see the back of this sheet.)
Name and address of child (as furnished to inspector at time of inspection).
Mary J . Dixon, 43 Williams Street.
Failing to furnish the evidence herein called for you must immediately cease to employ or permit or
suffer such child to work in your factory.
M. Lewis,
(over) Chief Factory Inspector.
[Form 4 (reverse). See p. 80.]
Evidence herein called for shall consist of:
(a) Birth certificate: A duly attested transcript of the birth certificate filed according to law with a
registrar of vital statistics or other officer charged with the duty of recording births, which certificate shall
be conclusive evidence of the age of such child.
(b) Certificate of graduation: A certificate of graduation duly issued to such child showing that such
child is a graduate of a public school of the State of New Y ork or elsewhere, having a course of not less than
eight years, or of a school in the State of New Y ork other than a public school, having a substantially equiva-
lent course of study of not less than eight years’ duration, in which a record of the attendance of such child
has been kept as required by the compulsory education law, provided that the record of such school shows
such child to be over sixteen years of age.
(c) Passport or baptismal certificate: A passport or a duly attested transcript of a certificate of baptism
showing the date of birth and place of baptism of such child.
(d) Other evidence: In cases where it is impossible to produce any one of the above-mentioned docu-
ments, there shall be sent to the commissioner of labor a duly acknowledged affidavit from the parent or
guardian of said child; the affidavit shall state the name, residence, date, and place of birth of said child,
and that none of the documentary evidence mentioned above can be produced. There shall also be sub-
mitted in connection therewith a further affidavit or affidavits, from at least two physicians, stating that
after due examination they are of the opinion that said child is upwards of the age of sixteen years.
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION
137
[Form 5. See p. 81.]
CO
Building file No. 348765.
^ ! co
Formerly
(Reg. insp. No. 436 L. B.— S. B. No. 28.
; ^
Give old business title or address if
F. I.\
o •
changed in 12 months.
(Special Dist. No. 2-49.
%
Name John Doc Co.
Co
A *S ®
If unincorporated and operating under
Purpose of visit.
an assumed business title, also add
name of proprietor.
No. 265 Elm St. City or village N. Y. County N. Y. Boro. Man.
Front or rear.
/
Incorporated — President’s name J.B. Jones Address 295 Monroe A ve., N. Y. C.
V
Owner, agent, or lessee of building George Blake Address 32 Wall St., N . Y. C.
No. of buildings 1 1 Stories 12
In entire plant. Building covered by this report. (Of bldg, insp.)
]/
9th. Ten.— Factory.
Floors occupied. T. H. Sep. shop. Registered.
Women’s coats & suits. Coats.
Chief product manufactured or work done. Specific product of bldg. insp.
Wool. ’ yt
Principal raw material used. Work done outside factory.
9/ 14/15 James Green. Peter Spruce. Mgr.
Date of last inspection. By whom. Person in authority seen. His position.
S*
Employees.
Hours.
Sex and age.
In office, mes-
sengers, etc.
In workshops.
[ Total.
xA
&
3
Pi
o
[ On short day.
[ Total per week. 1
M 18+
37
37
9
5
50
M 16 18
M 14 16
F 21+ .
3
3
10(9)
5
54
F 16-21..
2
8
10
10(9)
5
54
F 14-16..
1
1
8
5
45
Total
2
49
51
X
X
X
C. under 14
X
X
X
Largest
no.inyr.
2
49
51
X
X
X
SUMMARY REPORT AND CERTIFICATE OF INSPECTOR.
This is to certify that on careful inspection of the
factory workrooms, conditions were found to be in
substantial compliance with the law and Industrial
Code rules, relative to subjects enumerated below,
except where indicated in the negative, supplemented
by orders on back of card.
Employment and hours of labor of children— Male
minors— Women Yes. §8-A Yes.
V V »/ |/
Health— Comfort— Ventilation— Sanitary conditions
and conveniences No. ]/
Guarding switchboards — Elevators — Machinery— In-
spection of boilers No.
Work rooms: Lighting— Maintenance— Occupancy-
Exits— Fire prevention Yes.
Rules: Special to foundries Special to milling
industry
Posting : L a w s— R u 1 es— S ch edul es— N otices— Certifi-
cates— Permits No Mealtime Yes Wages Yes.
Ten.-Factory— No. hor. exits 0 No. exit stairs 2
(§94)
No. fire escapes 0 — No. elevators 2.
(Rule 380.)
Proprietors at work 0 W ork in 1 shifts
Work nights?^ No. at work 37 On Sunday? 0 No. at work —
4/17/16 Rose Richards,
Date of inspection. Factory inspector.
[Form 5 (reverse). See p. 81.]
Orders:
Post laws and hours of labor. Complied.
Prohibit the use of towels in common.
Provide a dressing room for the use of females, such room to have at least one window opening to the outer air
and to be inclosed by means of solid partitions or walls and to contain at least sixty (60) square feet for the first
ten (10) persons and an additional two (2) square feet for each person in excess of ten (10).
Provide at least two couches or beds in your factory for the use of females.
Whitewash walls of water-closet compartments used by males.
Orders on building card to owner.
Examined by G.G. H. 4/27/16. Notice sent 4/29/16.
Date. Occ.-L. D.— C. L.— S. R.— I. H.— C. Card filed.
138 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
[Form 6. See p. 81.]
C. L.
Insp. No Supv. Dist.
S. I
Purpose of visit (if special).
Name American Candy Co.
Or business title of firm
or corporation.
Name and address John Bruce.
Of person directly responsible for
hiring children.
Address New York City.
City or village.
County.
Superintendent.
Relation to busi-
Dcc. 6, 1914.
Date of inspection.
Children under 14 years or without certificates.
Name and address.
Bessie Jennings.
Statement of inspector.
Place of birth.
Jersey City, N. J.
Date of birth.
Nov. 4, 1901.
Work engaged in.
Packing.
Child stated she told employer she was over 16; child is small.
A. J. Green .
Inspector.
Children alleged to be over 16 but apparently under 16, employed without certificate.
Name and address.
James Lanson.
Place of birth.
N. Y. City.
Alleged date of birth. Work engaged in.
Mar. 4, 1899. Cleaning.
A. J. Green j Inspector.
Date notice mailed. Person mailing. Time. Place mailed. Evidence received. Examined by.
[Form 6 (reverse). See p. 81.]
[Both sides of this form are never used at the same time.]
Insp. No. 127. Supv. Dist. 1-37.
I. H.
S. I. A. 366.
Purpose of visit (if special).
Name Jones & Smith. Address 145 Main St., N. Y. N. Y.
Or business title Of firm or City or village. County
corporation.
Name and address John Jones. Partner.
Of person directly responsible Relation to business,
for fixing hours of labor of
child.
Date of inspection 1/13/16. 5.30 p. m.
When child was found working illegal hours. Hour and minute.
Employed j/ over 8 hours daily— before 8 a. m. — (/after 5 p. m. (/Certificate filed. Prohib. employment.
Name and address Mary Brown, 68 Howe St., N. Y. C. 9 8 a. m. 6 p. m.
Of child found at work. Daily hours. Commence work. Stop work.
60 m.
Noonday recess.
I found Mary Brown, who will be 16 yrs. old Sept. 13, ’16, employed at 5.30 p. m. cleaning chocolate pans.
Subsequent visit (within 48 hours, if violation was not clearly established at time of inspection).
Date
Of reinvestigation. Hour and minute. Violation continued. Evidence secured.
Person in authority seen. Date referred to counsel.
Remarks
Statement of counsel: Prosecution begun.
Report on children employed illegal hours.
A . J. Green,
Inspector.
Adolph Rutgers.
Counsel.
2/3/16.
Date.
[New York City Form 1. See p. 23.]
Name Belisario MantiTli.
Address 229 E. 14th St.
New York Dec. 12, 1913.
Application for an employment certificate.
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
BUREAU OF CHILD HYGIENE
Passport.
[On margin:]
M 43827.
7a.
FORMS USED 1 1ST ADMINISTRATION,
139
[New York City Form 2. See p. 23.]
Department of Health,
Of the City of New York,
Division of Child Hygiene.
State of New York,]
City of New York Ass:
County of Queens \
Marie Klein, being duly sworn, deposes and says that she resides at No. 47 Stockholm Street, New
York City, and is the parent of Mary Klein, that she is unable to accompany said child to the office
of the Department of Health, and hereby authorizes Anna Klein to act as custodian of said child in
obtaining her employment certificate.
Marie Klein.
(Witnesses, if signature is by mark “X.”)
Name of Witness
Address of Witness
Name of Witness
Address of Witness.
Subscribed and sworn to, before me,l
this 3rd day of April 191 4 I
[SeaZ.] ' August Sellars,
Notary Public ,
i $438 A. Y. County.
(If this affidavit is made by mark “ X,” there must be two witnesses to the mark “X,” and each witness
must sign his or her name and state his or her address directly beneath his or her name.)
[New York City Form 3. See p. 23.]
STATEMENT OF PERSON SIGNING APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT CERTIFI6ATE.
I Sarah Small residing at 1245 George St., Manhattan having been duly sworn, depose and say
that in the case of Harry James applying for an employment certificate this day, mother is dead
and father is in Idaho and that he is residing with me for the year.
I furthermore depose and say that under these circumstances, I am acting in the capacity as guardian
of said Harry James.
Subscribed and sworn to, before me, this 12th day of March, 191 5.
J. V. Mann.
[New York City Form 4. See p. 24.]
Department of Health,
Of the City of New York,
Bureau of Records.
Borough of Manhattan.
No. of certificate 17469.
This is to certify that
John P. Wallace
was born on Jan. 18, 1899,
Mar. 26, 1914.
according to the records of this department.
Shirley W. Wynne, M. D.,
Assistant Registrar.
[New York City Form 5. See p. 24.]
Department of Health,
The City of New York,
Bureau of Records.
Borough of Manhattan.
This is to certify that a search has been made of the records of birth of this borough and the name of
George A. Halley, said to have been born I eh. 19, 1900, has not been found.
Shirley W. Wynne, M. D.,
Assistant Registrar.
A pril 4, 191 4-
140 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
[New York City Form 6. See p. 24.]
SCHOOL RECORD.
To the Board of Health of the Department of Health of the City of New York.
Gentlemen:
This is to certify that George Kelley of No. 4 Madison St., has attended school No. St. Agnes
School situated at N o. 153 E. 13 Street in the Borough of Man., City of New York, 1\0 days dining
the twelve months next preceding its fourteenth birthday (or next preceding its application for this school
record); and that said child is able to read and write simple sentences in the English language, and has
received during such period instruction in reading, spelling, writing, English grammar and geography,
is familiar with the fundamental operations of arithmetic up to an including fractions, and has completed
the work prescribed for the first six years of the public elementary schools, or school equivalent thereto,
or parochial schools.
The school record gives the date of birth of said child as Sept. 30, 1899; name of parent (guardian or
3ustodian) John Kelley.
Dated, Mar. 4, 1914.
Sister Mary Antoinette.
Signature of principal or chief executive officer of the school.
(The law requires the school record to be signed by the principal or chief executive officer of the school
and it must be furnished to any child who after due examination and investigation may be entitled thereto.
The school record must contain, among other things, a statement certifying that the child has regularly
attended the public schools or schools equivalent thereto, or parochial schools, for not less than 130 days
during the twelve months next preceding its fourteenth birthday, or during the twelve months next pre-
ceding its application for this school record.
Section 384L of the Penal Code makes it a misdemeanor for any person to make a false statement in or in
relation to any application for an employment certificate.)
this is not a permit to work.
[New York City Form 7. See p. 24.]
To the Board of Health, the City of New York.
I hereby certify that Charles Willey, residing at
attended-
P. S. No.
Department of Education,
The City of New York.
Borough of Man.,
Date May 19, 191 4 .
77 Madison St., in the City of New York has
5 Dist.
7 Borough
160 days
Borough .
days
Borough.
days
Borough .
days
Principal
Principal
Principal
Principal.
An aggregate of 160 days during the twelve months next preceding his fourteenth birthday, or during
the twelve months next preceding the date of this certificate ; that said child is able to read and write simple
sentences in the English language and has received instruction during such period in reading, spelling,
writing, English grammar, and geography, and is familiar with the fundamental operations of arithmetic
up to and including fractions, and has competed the work prescribed for the first six years of the public
elementary school or school equivalent thereto, or parochial school; and is in the 7 A grade and further-
more, that said child, according to the records of above-named school, was born on Jan. 10, 1899, and
that its parent, guardian, or custodian is Henry Willey.
Mary Bruce,
Principal.
Results of academic examination conducted by district superintendent.
On May 4 , 1914-
Arithmetic, B. Writing from dictation, C.
English, C. Oral reading, B.
(Written composition.)
(Signed) Mary Bruce.
Principal, P. S. No. 5.
Penal Law— Art. 120— Sec. 1275— Subd. 8.
“Any person who makes a false statement in or in any relation to any application made for an employ-
ment certificate as to any matter required by Articles 6 and 11 of the Labor Law to appear in any affidavit,
record, transcript, or certificate therein provided for, is guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction shall
be punished for a first offense by a fine of not less than twenty nor more than fifty dollars; for a second
offense by a fine of not less than fifty nor more than two hundred dollars, or by imprisonment for not more
than thirty days, or by both such fine and imprisonment; for a third offense by a fine of not less than two
hundred and fifty dollars, or by imprisonment for not more than sixty days, or by both such fine and
imprisonment.”
Note. — This is a certificate of school attendance only. A permit to work must be obtained from the
board of health.
A school certificate must not be issued to any child under fourteen years of age, or in any grade lower
than 7 A (seventh year, first half.)
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION,
141
[New York City Form 8. See p. 25.]
> Department of Health, The City of New York,
Borough of Manhattan, 149 Centre Street.
APPLICATION AND AFFIDAVIT FOR EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATE.
State of New York, City of New York, County of N. Y. ss .:
Abraham Goldstein being duly sworn, deposes and says: That he is the applicant above named, and
resides at No. 123 E. 20th St., in the City of New Y ork, Borough of Man.; that deponent is the parent,
guardian, custodian of Isidore Goldstein and hereby makes application for an employment certificate
Name of child.
to be issued in the name of said child; that the said child was born at Russia in on the 10th day
of Aug. in the year 1899 and is 15 years of age.
Deponent further says that he is informed by the officer to whom this application is made for an employ-
ment certificate, that the evidence of age of said child must be presented in the following order, namely,
(a) birth certificate; (b) certificate of graduation; (c) passport or baptismal certificate; (d) other docu-
mentary evidence; (e) physicians’ certificates.
And deponent further says that the paper now produced for filing in the Department of Health of the
City of New Y ork, is the transcript of birth record of the said child ; and that the child who is named in the
said paper as Isidore Goldstein is the child now appearing with me, whose true name is , and for
whom deponent makes the application aforesaid, and no evidence of age specified in any of the preceding
subdivisions of the law, as above set forth, can be produced.
Sworn to before me this 22 day of Sept., 1914.
Abraham Goldstein.
Signature of parent, guardian, custodian,
Isidore Goldstein,
Signature of child.
John J. O’Brien.
Signature of officer issuing the certificate.
STATEMENT OF A MEDICAL OFFICER OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.
I hereby certify that Isidore Goldstein, the above-named child, has in my opinion, reached the
normal development of a child of its age, and is in sound health and is physically able to per-
form the work which it intends to do.
Wm. T. Gardner, M.D.
Signature of a medical officer of the board of health.
STATEMENT OF OFFICER ISSUING THE CERTIFICATE.
I hereby certify —
1. That the following papers relating to the above-named child have been filed in this office:
(a) Its school record, filled out and signed, as required by law.
(b) Transcript of birth record (its transcript of birth record, certificate of graduation, passport or
baptismal certificate, other documentary evidence or physicians’ certificate).
(c) Affidavit and application of the parent, guardian, or custodian of the child, showing the place and
date of its birth.
2. That said child has appeared before me and has been examined and that said child is able to read and
legibly write simple sentences in the English language, and is, in my opinion, 14 years of age or upwards.
3. That said child has in my opinion, reached the normal development of a child of its age, and
is in sound health and is physically able to perform the work which it intends to do, as appears
by the statement of the examining physician.
John J. O’Brien,
Signature of officer issuing the certificate.
[New Yorlt City Form 8 (reverse). See p. 25.]
Application No. 7043.
Name of child, Isidore Goldstein.
Address, 123 E. 20th St.
Date of birth, Aug. 10, 1899.
Place of birth, Russia.
Color of hair, Black.
Color of eyes, Black.
Height, 5 ft. 5-3/4 in.
Weight, 102 lbs.
Color, White.
Mother tongue, Hebrew.
Birthplace of father, Russia.
Distinguishing characteristics:
142
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK,
[New York City Form 9. See p. 25.]
Name, James Collins. Address, 75 Monroe St.
Held for Defective vision.
Date held, May 10, 1015.
Treated for Astigmatism.
Date treated, May 20, 1915.
Treated by Dr. Philip Snow.
Final disposition, Certificate granted.
Remarks:
Wm. T. Gardner.
Medical Inspector.
CASES TEMPORARILY WITHHELD.
Bureau of child hygiene.
Division of employment certificates.
[New York City, Form 10. See p. 26.]
Department of Health, the City of New York,
Sanitary Bureau, Division of Child Hygiene.
Borough of Manhattan,
New York, Mar. 27, 191^.
Mrs. Levy.
Sir: You are informed that your application made for an employment certificate for Sol Levy can not
be granted on account of physical incapacity.
Respectfully,
S. Josephine Baker, M. D.,
Director of the Bureau of Child Hygiene.
[New York City, Form 11. See p. 20.]
Name, De Pina Luige.
Residence, 4& Driggs A re.
Date of refusal, 2/27/1 f.
REFUSED.
CAUSE OF REFUSAL.
Malnutrition.
Refusal No.
1287.
[New York City Form 12. See p. 27.]
Department of Health, the City of New York,
Sixth Avenue and 55th Street,
Sanitary Bureau, Division of Child Hygiene,
New York, Mar. 26, 1914.
To the Board of Health:
Gentlemen:
In the following case it appears to my satisfaction that
August Mathews,
residing at Columbus Ave., in the Borough of Manhattan, City of New York, the child for whom an
employment certificate is requested, and who has presented a schoolrecord, is in fact over fourteen years
of age; that satisfactory documentary evidence of age can be produced which does not fall within any of the
provisions of the subdivisions preceding subdivision (d), of sections 71 and 163 of chapter 291 of the laws of
1907, and that none of the papers mentioned in said preceding subdivisions can be produced, and I therefore
present to the board of health, for its action, this statement signed by me showing such facts, and I also
submit the following affidavits and papers which have been produced before me constituting evidence of
age of such child, viz:
Census record.
Respectfully submitted.
Mary Taylor ,
Clerk.
(The board may , by resolution, provide that such evidence shall be entered on the minutes of the board,
and shall be received as sufficient evidence of the age of such child for the purposes of this section.)
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION.
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143
By order of the chief of division.
144
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK,
[New York City Form 13. See p. 27.]
Department of Health, the City of New York,
Borough of Manhattan.
APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATE AND FOR PHYSICIANS’ CERTIFICATE OF AGE.
New York, Sept. 25, 1913.
To the Board of Health, City of New York:
Gentlemen:
I, the undersigned, hereby make application for an employment certificate under the provisions of the
labor law of the State of New York, to be issued to and in the name of
Ida Goldmark,
the child of which I am the mother , and who resides at 653 Fifth Street, in the City of New York,
Borough of Manhattan; and I hereby further make application for physicians’ certificates.
Ida Goldmark,
Signature of child.
Her
X Celia Goldmark.
mark. Signature of parent.
AFFIDAVIT.
State of New York,
City of New York, County of JV. Y. ss.:
Celia Goldmark , being duly sworn, deposes and says:
That she is the applicant above named and resides at No. 653 Fifth Street, in the City of New York,
Borough of Manhattan.
Deponent is the parent mother of the child above named.
That deponent asks for the issuance of physicians’ certificates on which, together with a school record,
an employment certificate may be issued in accordance with the labor law of the State of New York.
Her
X Celia Goldmark.
Sworn to before me this 25 day of September 1913.
mark.
Mary Taylor.
Signature oi officer issuing certificate.
I hereby certify that the child above named was produced before me and is apparently at least fourteen
years of age, and I hereby receive the foregoing application for physicians’ certificates and file the same
this date.
Dated New York, Sept. 25, 1913.
Mary Taylor.
Not less than ninety days having elapsed since the date of the filing of this application for physicians’
certificates, and no facts appearing within such period nor after an examination of the statements con-
tained in said application tending to discredit or contradict any material statement of such application,
I hereby direct the child named in said application to appear ior physical examination before two phy-
sicians designated by the board of health.
Dated New York, Mar. 26, 191 4 .
John J. O'Brien.
We, Wm. T. Gardner, M. D., and J. L. Blumcnthal, M. D., physicians officially designated by
the board of health, hereby certify that the child named in the within application, appeared
this day before us for physical examination; and we hereby severally further certify that we have sepa-
rately examined such child, and that in our opinion, the said child is at least fourteen years of age.
Wm. T. Gardner, M. D.
J. L. Blumenthal, M. D.
(In case the opinions of such physicians do not concur, the child shall be examined by a third physician
and the concurring opinion shall be conclusive for the purpose oi the law as to the age of the child.)
Deponent further says that the said child is 15+ years of age; that she was born at Russia on the
14 day of August, 1898, and that the present residence of said child is 653 Fifth St., in the Borough
of Manhattan, City of New York.
This deponent, your petitioner for physicians’ certificates, also alleges that she is unable to produce any
of the evidence of age of said child above mentioned, specified in sections 71 and 163 oi the labor law of the
State of New York, namely:
(a) Birth certificate;
(b) Certificate of graduation;
(c) Passport or baptismal certificate;
(d) Other documentary evidence.
That the following facts are presented for the consideration of the officer to whom application is made
for the issuance of an employment certificate, to assist in determining the age of said child, namely:
Goldmark.
Application No. 2369.
PHYSICIANS’ CERTIFICATE.
Sept. 25, 1913.
Dec. 25, 1913.
Notified 31241191/,.
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION.
145
[New York City Form 14. See p. 32 ]
Department of Health, The City of New York,
Division of Child Hygiene,
New York, March 15, 1914.
I, Harry K. Fellows , an applicant for duplicate employment certificate, hereby state: That emuloy-
ment certificate No. 7023 issued by the Department of Health of the City of New York on the tenth
day of March, 1914, has been lost in the following manner: Fell out of a hook on my way home, and,
after making a diligent search I have been unable to find same.
1 therefore request that a duplicate certificate be issued.
(Signature) Harry K. Fellows,
(Address) 143 West 20th St.
[New York City Form 15. See p. 33 ]
Eugene W. Scheffer, Secretary.
Department of Health, City of New York,
Bureau of Child Hygiene,
Date Dec. 7, 1916.
This is to certify that the department of health has investigated the proof of age of
John Smith,
who resides at 7,25 Spruce St.,
and whose signature is hereto affixed, and is satisfied that the said minor is over sixteen years of age, and
therefore entitled to work without an employment certificate.
This application for an employment certificate is hereby refused, as the applicant is over age.
The department of health will not issue duplicates of this paper.
Mary L. Morrison,
Chief, Division of Employment Certificates.
John Smith.
(Signature of child.)
S. J. Baker,
Director, Bureau of Child Hygiene.
[New York City Form 16. See p. 36 ]
Department of Health,
The City of New York.
I, the undersigned, hereby certify that the information noted below is a correct copy of the facts
contained in a certain birth certificate presented as documentary evidence of age of the child whose name
(birth certificate passport)
appears thereon.
Name of child, Rose Pokrvisky.
Date of birth or age given, Nov. 14, 1899.
Name of father, Levi Pokrvisky.
Name of mother, Sarah Pokrvisky.
Birthplace, Austria.
(Signed) John O'Brien. .
(Officer issuing paper.)
Copy or translation made by J. V. Madison.
Original returned to Rose Pokrvisky.
(Signature of child.)
Jacob Sobel, M. D.,
Borough Chief.
Date May 3, 1914.
New York City Form 17. See p. 37.]
Department of Health, The City of New York,
Division of Child hygiene.
I, the undersigned, hereby certify that a certain diploma bearing date Jan. 29 191 4, was this day
presented and exhibited to the department of health of the City of New York to aid in securing an employ-
ment certificate under the provisions of the labor law of the State of New York and in lieu of the school
record required by said law. That said diploma was issued to and bears the name of Ida Goddard; that
said diploma was issued by Dept, of Educ. (Public School. No. 15), situated in the City of New York,
Borough of Man., and certifies, among other things, that said child has satisfactorily” completed the
course for elementary schools.
Jacob Sobel, M. D.,
Chief of the Division.
New York, Mar. 25, 1914.
46446°— 17 10
146
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK,
[New York City Form 18. See p. 38.]
New York,
To the Board of Health.*
Gentlemen:
I hereby certify that, according to the records of the church or congregation of
Church of Our Lady of Loretto,
(Corporate name of church.)
Mar. 27, 191$.
situated at 303 Elizabeth St.
Messina Blandino was born at
(Child’s full name.)
Oct. 29, 1899, and that
(Date of baptism.)
[Place seal here.]
N. Y. C. on September 26, 1899,
(Place of birth.) (Date of birth.)
she was 1 month of age at that date.
was baptized at said church
(Signed) Enrico C. Luigi,
Minister.
Church of Our Lady of Loretto,
Church.
Jacob Sobel, M. D.
[New York City Form 19. See p. 39.]
City of New York, State of New York, County of New York, ss:
Max Mushnitzky, being duly sworn, deposes and says: That on the 1st day of March, 1913, deponent
was the rabbi of the congregation situated at 228 Christopher Ave. t Brooklyn, and that on said date
Leon Spielman was Barmitzvah at the synagogue of the above-mentioned congregation.
Deponent further states that he was present on said date, at which time said Leon Spielman began
to lay the phylacteries according to Jewish rites. That a record was made in the said congregation of the
date 'when the said boy was Barmitzvah as aforesaid and the date, according to said records, is March 1,
1913, and that no boy can be Barmitzvah until he has reached thirteen years of age.
Sworn to before me this 27th day of March, 191L
Max Mushnitzky.
Delia Jacobson.
[Seal of Commissioner of deeds— Notary public, New York City, applied at foot of paper.]
[New York City Form 20. See p. 39.]
Department of Education, the City of New York,
Bureau of Attendance, 154-156 East 68th Street.
CENSUS AGE CERTIFICATE.
Nov. 14, 1914.
This is to certify that according to the records of this office dated Mar. 10, 1914, Bessie Poland, residing
at that time at 11 Mulberry St., Man., was recorded by the census enumerator as follows:
Date of birth, Jan. 4, 1900.
John W. Davis,
Director.
[New York City Form 21. See p. 55.]
EXAMINATIONS FOR SCHOOL RECORDS.
March 19, 1914.
Dictation:
“ Here, Harold,” I said, “is some money. Go buy yourself some more marbles, and when you have them,
keep them to play with. But don’t play for keep's;' it is gambling, and the gambler deserves to lose.”
Bill:
Mrs. White bought of Blank & Company 14 yards silk at $2 1/2 per yard, 6 doz. rolls tape at 450 a dozen,
6 waists at $2 1/3 each, 16 bolts ribbon at 12 1/20 each. Make out a receipted bill for same.
Arithmetic:
1. A chest containing 62 5/16 pounds was found to hold 12 1/4 pounds spoiled tea. How many pounds
of good tea were there left?
2. What is the cost of 25 bushels of wheat at 81 1/20 a bushel?
3. A ship sails 7,812 miles in 36 days. How far does it sail in one day?
Beading:
Fourth year. Character Building Reader. “The Boy Who Tried.” Page 36.
March 5, 1914.
Dictation:
Long, long ago, a ship full of people was sailing across the ocean to this land. These people were called
Pilgrims. Pilgrim means wanderer, and these people were wandering from place to place in search of a
home where they could worship God as they thought right.
Bill:
Mr. James Blank bought of Thomas Smith 3 yards of lace at 650 a yard, 3 doz. handkerchiefs at $4.75
a dozen, 44 yards silk at $1.15 a yard, and a table cloth for $8. Make out and receipt bill for the same.
Arithmetic:
1. A farmer had 275 sheep and sold 3/5 of them. How many had he left?
2. William is 11 3/4 years old and Thomas is 9 5/12 years old. How much older than Thomas is William?
3. At $7.50 each how many barrels of flour can be bought for $637?
Reading:
Heath’s Fourth Reader. “The Three Giants.” Page 18.
(Six took the examination of March 5th and passed.]
[Continued on opposite page.]
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION,
147
February 6, 1914.
Arithmetic:
1. If I place $30 in a savings bank at 3 1/2% interest, how much interest will be due me at the end of
6 months?
2. Market prices are as follows: Round steak, 25>
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M42C31.
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION,
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Permanent Census Board. employment record. The City of New York.
152
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
Employer. Employer. Employer.
Place of business. Place of business. Place of business.
Occupation. Occupation. Occupation.
Date taken— Date given up. Date taken— Date given up. Date taken— Date given up.
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION.
153
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. I hereby certify that the above report is correct: James Brown,
Date 4127116. Shield No. 92. Enumerator.
154 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK,
[New York City Form 27. See p. 71.]
Department of Education. Bureau of Attendance.
PATROLMAN’S REPORT ON FAMILY’S CHANGE OF RESIDENCE.
Number.
Street.
Floor.
Apt. No.
Place from which removed, 17
W. 11th
3
302
Place to which removed, 25
E. 17 th
5
■ 517
Family name of father or mother.
Given name.
Number
children
under 16.
Given names of children.
Schultz
Sara
S
Henrn . Mam.
Frederick.
The foregoing information was obtained at the first address /.
“ “ “ “ “ “ “ second address
Precinct.
Mo. da. yr.
Shield No.
Patrolman’s signature.
5
817115
317
Michael Doyle.
[New York City Form 28. See p. 75.]
(A copy of this form is sent daily to the compulsory attendance department.]
Department of Health,
The City of New York.
To the Commissioner of Labor.
Sir: In compliance with the requirements of the labor law you are hereby notified that the department
of health has issued the following employment certificates during the month of April 1916.
Borough of Manhattan.
No. of
certifi-
cate.
Date of issue.
Names.
!
Residence.
School
Issued
by
Date of birth.
Month.
Day.
No.
Street.
record.
public
school.
M 1+968
M 1+969
M 1+970
M 1+971
M 1+972
M 1+973
M 1+971+
M 1+97 5
M 1+976
M 1+977
M 1+978
Apr.
1
Brown, Harold
Grade.
grad . .
11
Maple
19
Bk.
July 211' 01.
Apr. ll+\'00.
Nov. SO/’OO.
Feb. 161’ 02.
Feb. 281’ 01.
Jones, Mary
7 A..
22
Birch
39
tt
U
Smith John
. 8 A..
33
Elm
- 19
89
Ci
u
White Tinrn
.. 8 B .
U
55
Evergreen . . .
87
(l
((
Block, Max
7 A..
Poplar
. 1
77
u
U
(Ireen. Nora
7 B .
66
Spruce
90
Oct. l+,!’0l.
Nov. 91’ 00.
(i
u
Holstein , Celia,
...7 B .
Walnut
Par.
<(
((
TiPiisky Ella, ,
8 B
88
Pine
\
62
Jan. 101’ 02.
((
<1
Murphy , Louis
75..
99
Willow
1
Par.
May 7)’ 01.
u
u
Steinhaus Rachel
7 A.
187
Hickory
62
Sept. 281’ 00.
Dec. 29/ ’01.
u
((
~ Pn . rn . tim . Anna
8 A
298
Redwood.
56
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION
155
[New York City Form 29. See p. 75.]
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION— NOTICE TO DISCHARGE ON ISSUANCE OF EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATE.
1 .
2 .
3.
4.
6 .
7.
27
1 Bx |
4-13-16
7594
School in which registered.
Boro.
Mo. Da. Yr.
E mplo y .cer t . number.
Newton.
Nelly.
| 9-12-01
Family name of child.
Given name.
Born Mo. Da. Yr.
483
Jackson.
| 3 j Man.
Number.
Street.
Floor. Boro.
7. |
3579
1 47
Class or grade.
Investigation number.
Discharge number.
White & Co.
1
Tailor.
Name of employer.
Nature of business.
57 Washington St.
Place of business.
Sewing.
Nature of employe’s work or position.
$4.25
Wages.
O
[New York City Form 30. See p. 76.]
Department of Education. Original. Bureau of Attendance.
NOTICE OF REFUSAL OF EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATE BY DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.
Brown.
Family name of child. I
Samuel. 2
Given name. | Born— Month. |
10 01
Day. | Year.
V
1 Boy.
| Girl.
Joseph.
Family name of parent or guardian. | Father’s given name.
16-18. 1 Park. [
Mary.
Mother ’s.
1 V 1 3 1
18
Number.
Street. | Front.
| Rear. |
Floor, j
Apt. No.
Cause of refusal.
Phys. inc. 10147.
77654
Consecutive ref. No.
132246
Dist. assignment No.
Officer’s report, Attending Johnson High.
5th term.
4/24/16 p.m. 4/25/16 2.10. 4/25/16.
4/26/16 9 a. m. McDvffg,
Attendance Officer.
Date received.
Date referred.
Date reported.
Disposition
Family unbroken.
[New York City Form 31. See p. 76.]
Name, John Brown. Age 14 . Yrs. 3. Mos.
Address, 12 E. 9th St. School, 17. Grade, 7 A.
Refused.
Height.
Weight.
Cause of refusal.
Med. insp.
May 4, ’ 15
5 ft. 5 in
90
Cardiac
Brice.
Revisits
|
' 1
1
Granted.
No. of certificate.
PHYSICAL INCAPACITY CARD.
156
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
[New York City Form 32. See p. 76.]
Department of Health, City of New York,
Bureau of Child Hygiene, Division of Employment Certificates,
Borough of Manhattan,
New York, Aprils, 1915.
To the Borough Chief.
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report in relation to the issuance of employment certifi-
cates during the week ending April 22, 1916.
Summary of action taken on employment certificates.
Applications pending beginning of week 125
New applications received 113
Employment certificates granted 126
Employment certificates refused is
Applications made pending 94
Duplicates
238
238
19
Employment certificates refused.
Insufficient tuition „ .
Insufficient education
Under age 2
Overage 3
Physical incapacity 13
18
Malnutrition 3
Cardiac 1
Pulmonary
Miscellaneous 9
Number previously withheld
New cases
Certificates granted
Cases otherwise terminated. . .
Cases now pending
Number examined
Defective teeth only
Defective associated
Defective vision
Acute eye diseases
Defective hearing
Teeth
Cardiac
Pulmonary
Mouth breathing
Hypertrophied tonsils . . .
Palate
Glands
Anemia
Malnutrition
Hernia
Nervous diseases
Skin
Goitre
Orthopedic
Respectfully submitted.
Applications temporarily withheld.
80
9
21
9
59
Physical examinations.
89
89
101
107
28
0
25
1
0
7
13
0
n
1
3
0
0
0
2
1
John J. O’Brien,
Issuing officer
Katherine E. Mary son.
Medical examiner.
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION.
157
No. 76.
[Buffalo Form 1. See p. 28.]
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, BUFFALO— APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATE OF CHILD BETWEEN
THE AGES OF 14 AND 16 YEARS IN MANUFACTURING, MERCANTILE, AND OTHER ESTABLISHMENTS.
Germany.
To the Department of Health, Buffalo, N. Y.
Application is hereby made for an employment certificate for Elsie Samuels.
Signature of child.
Pauline Samuels,
Signature of parent or guardian or custodian.
Address, 346 Davey St.
School record of Elsie Samuels.
According to the laws of 1903 the principal or chief executive officer of the school which such child
attended shall furnish, on demand, a certificate containing the following facts:
To the Department of Health of the City of Buffalo, N. Y.
Gentlemen: I, the undersigned, the principal (or chief executive officer) of the public school No.
43, situated at No. Lovejoy & Gold St., in the city of Buffalo, do hereby certify that Elsie Samuels,
the child hereinafter referred to, has regularly attended the said school one hundred and eighty-eight days
(Write the number of days.)
during the twelve months next preceeding its fourteenth birthday ( or next preceding its application for
this school record); and that said child is able to read and write simple sentences in the English language,
and has received during such period instruction in reading, spelling, writing, English language and geogra-
phy, and is familiar with the fundamental operations of arithmetic up to and including fractions, and has
completed the work of the first six years of the public elementary school or school equivalent thereto or
parochial school from which such school record is issued.
The said school record gives the date of birth of said child as July 16, 1899, residence, 346 Dasey St.;
and the name of its parents (guardian or custodian) as Herman Samuels.
Frederick W. Frost,
Principal or chief executive officer of the school.
Dated, June 25.
(The law requires the school record to be signed by the principal or chief executive officer of the school
and it must be furnished to any child who, after due examination and investigation, may be entitled
thereto. The school record must contain, among other things, a statement certifying that the child has
regularly attended the public schools or schools equivalent thereto, or parochial schools, for not less
than 130 days during the twelve months next preceding its fourteenth birthday, or during the twelve
months next preceding its application for this school record.)
(over)
[On the left margin:]
This is not a child-labor certificate and must not be accepted as such.
[Buffalo Form 1 (reverse). See p. 28 ]
Filing No. 2443.
Date, 9/3/14.
I hereby certify that the within-named applicant
personally appeared before me on this date, was ex-
amined, and complied with all legal requirements,
and is entitled to an employment certificate.
J. D. Baldwin,
Officer issuing the certificate.
[On the right margin, running down:]
Section 384, 1, 5, of the Penal Code as amended by chapter 507, Laws of 1907.
Any person who knowingly makes a false statement in or in relation to any application made for an
employment certificate as to any matter required by articles 6 and 11 of the labor law to appear in any
affidavit, record, transcript, or certificate therein provided for, is guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon con-
viction shall be punished for a first offense by a fine of not less than 20 nor more than 50 dollars; for a second
offense, by a fine not less than 50 nor more than 200 dollars, or by imprisonment for not more than 30 days
or by both such fine and imprisonment; for a third offense by a fine of not less than 250 dollars, or by
imprisonment for not more than 60 days, or by both such fine and imprisonment.
158
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK,
[Buffalo Form 2. See p. 28.]
No. 85.
State of New York, County of Erie, City of Buffalo, ss:
Rose Jackson, being duly sworn, deposes and says that she is the mother of John Jackson, the
child for whom an employment certificate is desired; that the said child was born in Rochester, TV. Y.,
on the 3d day of Aug., 1899; but that it is impossible to produce any of the documentary evidence
relative to the age of this child, as required by subdivision two of section 71, and section 163, chapter 518,
laws of 1905, for the following reasons: Birth is not recorded. ( See letter.) Has no diploma ana has not
been baptized. Metropolitan Life Insurance Policy No. 33098, dated June 10, 1909, gives child’s age at next
birthday as 10 years, and this affidavit is, therefore, made in accordance with subdivision three of said
section.
Rose Jackson.
Subscribed and* sworn to before me this 3rd day of Sept., 1914.
J. C. Lynch.
To the Board of Health of Buffalo, N. Y.:
I hereby certify that I have investigated and examined all the facts and evidence submitted relative to
the application of John Jackson for an employment certificate, and am satisfied that said child is entitled
to such certificate, and, therefore, recommend that a certificate be granted.
J. C. Lynch.
At a meeting of the Board of Health of Buffalo, N. Y.,held on the 7th day of Sept., 1914, the following
action was taken on the above application of Rose Jackson for employment certificate for John Jackson.
Certificate granted.
Ac oust Sawyer,
Secretary Board of Health.
[Buffalo Form 3. See p.28.]
Department of Health,
The City of Buffalo, N. Y.
APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATE AND FOR PHYSICIANS’ CERTIFICATE OF AGE.
Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 1, 1914.
To the Department of Health, City of Buffalo, N. Y.
Gentlemen:
I, the undersigned, hereby make application for an employment certificate under the provisions of the
labor law of the State of New York, to be issued to and in the name of John Jardine, the child of which
I am the mother, and who resides at 9 E. Balcom Street, in the City of Buffalo, N. Y.; and I hereby
further make application for physicians’ certificates.
John Jardinr, Rose Jardine,
Signature of child. Signature of parent.
AFFIDAVIT.
State of New York, City of Buffalo, County of Erie, ss:
Rose Jardine, being duly sworn, deposes and says:
That she is the applicant above named and resides at No. 9 E. Balcom Street, in the City of Buffalo,
Deponent is the parent mother of the child above named.
Deponent further says that the said child is 14 years of age; that he was born at Amiens, France,
on the 16th day of July, 1 900, and that the present residence of said child is 9 E. Balcom St., Buf-
falo, N. Y.
This deponent, your petitioner for physicians’ certificates, also alleges that she is unable to produce any
of the evidence of age of said child above mentioned, specified in sections 71 and 163 of the labor law of
the State of New York, namely:
(a) Birth certificate;
(b) Certificate of graduation;
(c) Passport or baptismal certificate;
(d) Other documentary evidence.
That the following facts are presented for the consideration of the officer to whom application is made
for the issuance of an employment certificate, to assist in determining the age of said child, namely,
birth is not recorded. ( See letter.) Has no diploma and has not been baptized; is not insured, and has no docu-
mentary evidence of any sort.
[Buffalo Form 3 (reverse). See p. 28.]
That the school record filed herewith is the school record of the child above named, and deponent asks
for the issuance of physicians’ certificates on which, together with the said school record, an employment
certificate may be issued in accordance with the labor law of the State of New York.
Rose Jardine.
Sworn to before me this 1st day of Aug., 19 14-
J. C. Lynch,
Signature of officer issuing certificate.
I hereby certify that the child above named was produced before me and is apparently at least fourteen
years of age, and I hereby receive the foregoing application for physicians’ certificates and file the same
this date.
Dated Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 1, 1914-
J. C. Lynch.
Not less than ninety days having elapsed since the date of the filing of this application for physicians’
certificates, and no facts appearing within such period nor after an examination of the statements con-
tained in said application tending to discredit or contradict any material statement of such application,
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION.
159
I hereby direct the child named in said application to appear for physical examination before two physicians
designated by the department of health.
Dated Buffalo, N. Y„ No>\ 1, 19/4-
J. C. Lynch.
We, D. V. McClure, M. D.,and J. A . Wahlz, M. D., physicians officially designated by the depart-
ment of health, hereby certify that John Jardine, the child named in the within application, appeared
this day before us for physical examination; and we hereby severally further certify that we have sepa-
rately examined such child, and that in our opinion, the said child is at least fourteen years of age.
D. V. McClure, M. D.
J. A. Wahlz M. D.
(In case the opinions of such physicians do not concur, the child shall be examined by a third physician,
and the concurring opinion shall be conclusive for the purpose of the law as to the age of the child.)
[Along right margin, below printed matter:]
Application No. 2003.
PHYSICIANS’ CERTIFICATE.
[Buffalo Form 4. See p. 32.]
TRANSCRIPT OF LABOR CERTIFICATE. \
No. of transcript, 1000. \
Buffalo, N. Y., Nov. 12, 194.
No. of employment certificate
Fee, $1.00. 'g
State of New York, County of Erie, City of Buffalo, ss. -2
Florence Price being duly sworn deposes and says that she is the mother of Rose Price: §
that said child had an employment certificate; that according to my information and belief, said
employment certificate was destroyed in the following manner: ®
Placed in the bottom of clothes basket and was put in water. — .
Subscribed and sworn to before me this 12th day of Nov., 19T5.
J. Lynch, \
Officer issuing certificate. :
[To right of stub:]
Fee, $1.00.
TRANSCRIPT OF LABOR CERTIFICATE, DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, BUFFALO, N. Y.
Nov. 12,
No. of transcript, 1000.
194 .
I Hereby Certify that the following is a true copy of the record of child labor certificate on file in the
department of health of the city of Buffalo, N. Y., the original having been destroyed as per sworn
statement filed this day.
Francis E. Fronzak, M. D.,
Health Commissioner.
Attest:
This certificate is effective throughout the State and until the owner is 16 years of age unless sooner revoked.
No.
EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATE.
Issued pursuant to sections 71 and 163 of the labor law of the State of New York, chapter 36, Laws of 1909,
as amended.
The department of health of Buffalo, N. Y., upon application duly made pursuant to law, grants this
certificate to
Rose Price,
(Name of child.)
and it is hereby certified that this child, who is described below, personally appeared before the under-
signed official and was by him examined and found qualified for employment under the labor law; it is
further certified that documentary evidence of the age and education of said child, as required by law,
has been duly examined, approved, and made a part of the records of the above department, and that
by careful examination the physical fitness of the said child has been determined by the medical exam-
iner of the above department and that such physical examination has been recorded as required by law.
Description of child.
Place of birth, Buffalo, N. Y. Date of birth, Mar. 5, 1899.
Color of hair, Black. Color of eyes, Brown.
Height, 5 feet 2 inches. Weight, 98.
Distinguishing facial marks. Large mole.
Rose Price,
Signature of child named in the above certificate.
The Health Commissioner,
By J. Lynch,
Signature of official issuing certificate.
Date Feb. 6, 1914.
N. B. — This certificate must be filed with the employer, and must be kept on file in the office at the place
of employment during the period of such employment. It shall be surrendered to the child, its parent,
guardian, or custodian upon the termination of the child’s employment.
(OVER)
160 EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
[Buffalo Form 4 (reverse). See p. 32.]
IMPORTANT.
NOTICE TO EMPLOYERS.
Factories: In factories the child presenting this certificate shall not he permitted to work before 8 o’clock
in the morning or after 5 o’clock in the afternoon, or for more than 8 hours in any one day or more than
six days in any one week. (Section 77, Labor Law.)
Special attention is called to occupations at which children can not be employed, enumerated in sec-
tion 93, Labor Law.
Mercantile establishments: In mercantile establishments the child presenting this certificate shall
not be permitted to work before 8 o’clock in the morning or after 6 o’clock in the evening, or for more
than 8 hours in any one day or more than six days in any one week. (Section 161, Labor Law.)
[Buffalo Form 5. See p. 71.]
Precinct. Block.
BUFFALO SCHOOL CENSUS.
Name, Mary Kelley. Sex, Female.
Month, day, and year of birth, Mch. 15, 1902. Address, 4 Prospect St.
Birthplace, Buffalo. School, No. 7.
Defects, Color, White.
Employed? No. Employer’s name,
Labor cert.?
How many years working?
Can read and write English? Yes.
Patrolman’s shield No. 17.
Leave this
space blank.
Parent.
Name, James Kelley.
Birthplace, Ireland.
Years in IT. S., 20. Native language, English.
[Buffalo Form 6. See p. 72.]
Precinct, 5. buffalo school census.
Name, Mary Kelley.
Sex,
Female.
Color,
White.
Parent’s name, James Kelley.
Where born, Ireland. Years in U. S., 20.
Address,
4 Prospect St.
School,
No. 7.
Block, 94.
Month, dav, and year of birth.
Mch. 15, 1902.
Where born.
Buffalo.
Years in U. S.
Physical or mental defects,
Read or write English, Yes. Other, No.
Employer’s
name.
Employer’s address.
Truant report.
Remarks.
Labor cert.
Enumerate
W Ti rnu ' i
i. ’ 17
[Buffalo Form 7. See p. 72.]
BUFFALO SCHOOL CENSUS.
I have this 4th day of June 1915, move
43 Highland jig 6
By order of
F. F. Klincr,
J. B. Wall,
Police Commissioners.
M. Regan,
Supt. of Police.
Thomas Ryan from 27 Williams 'gY^j. 6 to
John L. Bowers,
Owner.
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION
161
[Buffalo Form 8. See p. 72.]
BUFFALO SCHOOL CENSUS.
Name, Jane Brown. School, 7.
Age, 14. Address, 14 Prospect St.
Parent’s name, James Brown.
Remarks,
Date,
[Buffalo Form 9 (postal card). See p. 76.]
School No. 3. Date, April 15, 1915.
The following person has heen furnished to-day with attendance papers for the purpose of securing
labor certificate:
Name, Walter J. Blake.
Address, 3 Dustin Place.
Age, 14. Day, month, and year of birth, Aprils , 1901.
Parent’s name, Samuel K. Blake.
Remarks,
Grade,
Cornelius Pearson,
Principal.
£3
£3*
0
[Buffalo Form 10. See p. 76.]
BUFFALO SCHOOL CENSUS— CHILD-LABOR CERTIFICATE REPORT.
The following certificates were issued by the board of health during the week ending June 7 1915.
Child’s name.
Address.
Age.
School.
Cert. No.
Sarah Green
5 Whitest
14
No. 16
70S
Charles Fowler
875 River St
15
“ 8
70' t
Louis Poiriet
9 Riverside Ave
14
- 11
7 05
Signed William B. Drake.
[Rochester Form 1. See p. 41.]
Office of the Board of Health.
State of New York, County of Monroe, City of Rochester, ss.
Mary Welch, being duly sworn, says that she is the ■ fath e r- mother, guardian, duly appointed person
having legal custody and control of Fred Welch, an infant; that said infant is aged 14 years; was born
at Rochester, in the State of New York, on the 22 day of October, 1 899.
That deponent makes this affidavit for the purposes mentioned in section 2 of chapter 409 of the Laws
of 1886, as amended by chapter 991 of the Laws of 1896, and section 3 of chapter 384 of the Laws of 1896,
regulating the employment of women and children in manufacturing and mercantile establishments,
Mary Welch.
Subscribed and sworn to this 17 day of June 1900, before me.
Florence Weis,
Commissioner of Deeds.
Extract from chapter 384 of Laws of 1896.
“It shall be unlawful for any notary public or other officer authorized and empowered by law to admin-
ister to any person an oath, to demand or receive a fee for taking or administering an oath, to a parent of,
guardian of, or person in parental relation to any child as to the age of such child, where the affidavit thus
taken is used or intended to be used for the purpose of obtaining a certificate as provided for in the foregoing
section, from any board or department of health or health commissioner or commissioners as herein set
forth.”
[Stamped across face:]
This to certify that this child is 14 years of age or more.
46446°— 17 11
162
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK,
[Rochester Form 2. See p. 72.]
Street.
(5)
No.
Ii
Date, Nov. 6, 19 15.
Street.
(9)
a 4 N 15.
No.
(4).,. .
(3)
(8) :
(2)
(7)
(1) Arlington Place
15
(6)
Child’s name, Annie L. Bray
Beyv White.
Girl. Negro.
Occupation.
Milliner’s assistant.
Age last Bom, month,
birthday, Sept.
14
Day. Year. Born in
7 1901 Rochester.
Years
in IT. S.
V
School.
Grade.
School
Grade.
Age Birth Bapt.
proven cert. cert,
by V
Pass- Bible. Other document (state
port. kind).
1
2
3
4
Parent or guardian, Born in, Salem , Mass.
Frank Bray.
Years
in U. S.
i/
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Physically Out of school.
Mentally unable to attend until— y' 191
13
14
Cause, ^ I Doctor, y 1
15
16
17
18
If working, reason for leaving school. Economic need. Work cert. 7U.
Left school 1 Trade desired, Milliner.
in the month of Sept., 1915.
19
20...,.
Remarks
Information from tether— mother. Form 13. 1 Precinct 1
| No. 13. \
Shield
No. 45.
[On the left margin:]
School Census Board, Rochester, N. Y.
[Rochester Form 2 (reverse). See p. 72.J
FOR ALL POSITIONS WHICH THE CHILD HAS HELD.
Employer’s name.
Kind of work done by
child.
Time of start-
ing.
Time of leav-
ing.
Weekly wages.
Month.
Year.
Month.
: Year.
At
the
start.
Next
can-
vas.
.
Next
can-
vas.
At
the
time
of
leav-
ing.
1. Jordan & Co
Assistant milliner
Sept...
1915
V
V
1
93
V
V
V
2
3
4
1 1
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
..
12
13
14
FORMS USED IN ADMINISTRATION,
163
No. 23.
[Rochester Form 3. See p. 73.]
SCHOOL CENSUS BOARD.
Wallace B. Scaggs.
Nov.
7.
Jan. 13,
Boy.
’01.
19 16.
I In
7
n
Name.
14 White St.
Born Mo. I Day. I Year.
Address.
Horace L. Scaggs.
Left Peabody School at the 6 Grade.
Parent’s name.
Not
attending.
\ Home
In. w. c.
Unlawful
absence.
No.
White & Co. W. C.
5 Wingate Lane.
Employed by
Messenger.
Doyle.
Working without certificate.
Kind of work of child.
Reported to
Remarks.
Required to obtain certificate.
Disposition.
Signed
Allen Rowley.
No. 3.
[Rochester Form 4 (postal card.). See p. 77.]
REPORT ON CHANGE OF ADDRESS WITHIN DISTRICT AND ISSUING SCHOOL RECORD.
Rochester, N. Y., Jan. 15, 1915.
School No. 17. Grade, 7. Teacher, Mary Tompkins.
Name, Susan Kennedy.
New address.
Former address.
Date of birth, February 16, 1900.
Month. Day. Year.
Date school record issued, Jan. 12, 1915.
Pupil -wiU (will not) remain in school.
N. B.— Send permanent record card to efficiency bureau if pupil obtaining school record leaves school.
[Utica Form 1. See p. 30.]
Department of Public Safety,
City of Utica, N. Y.,
Bureau of Health.
APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATE, MANUFACTURING, MERCANTILE, AND OTHER ESTABLISHMENTS
To the Health Officer, City of Utica.
Application is hereby made for an employment certificate for
Mary Evans.
Mary Evans.
Signature of child.
Address, 80 Canal St.
Lena Evans,
Signature of parent, guardian, or custodian.
Address, 80 Canal St.
AFFIDAVIT.
State of New York, Oneida County, ss.
Lena Evans, being duly sworn, says that she is f ath e r ; mother, g uardia n of M ary Evans; that the
said Mary Evans was born at Cadasia, N. Y., on the ' 20th day of February, 1898, and that she
is 14 years of age.
Lena Evans.
Sworn to before me this 18th day of June, 1912.
Chas. L. Pringle,
Commissioner of Deeds in and for the City of Utica, N. Y.
[OVER]
[Utica Form I (reverse). See p. 30.]
STATEMENT OF OFFICER ISSUING THIS CERTIFICATE.
I hereby certify :
1. That the following papers relating to the above-named child have been filed in this office.
(a) Its school record filled out and signed as required by law.
(b) Affidavit (its passport or a transcript of its birth certificate or baptismal certificate or a religious
record showing its date and place of birth.)
(c) j/Affidavit of the parent, guardian, or custodian of the child, showing the place and date of its birth.
That said child has appeared before me and has been examined.
Chas. L. Pringle,
Signature of officer issuing the certificate.
164
EMPLOYMENT-CERTIFICATE SYSTEM IN NEW YORK.
[Albany Form 1. See p. 62.]
To George W. Barrows,
25 So. Main St.
Office of the
Superintendent of Public Schools,
Albany, N. Y., April 1 , 191 4.
Your attention is respectfully called to the following extract from the act of the Legislature of the State
of New York, entitled “An act to provide for the compulsory education of children,” passed May 12, 1894,
as amended by chapter 140 of the Laws of 1910.
EXTRACT FROM THE LAW.
§ 626. Unlawful employment of children and penalty therefor. It shall be unlawful for any person,
firm, or corporation:
1. To employe 1 any child under 14 years of age, in any business or service whatever, for any part of the
term during which the public schools of the district or city in which the child resides are in session.
2. To employ, elsewhere than in a city of the first class or a city of the second class, in a factory or mer-
cantile establishment, business or telegraph office, restaurant, hotel, apartment house, or in the distribu-
tion or transmission of merchandise or messages, any child between 14 and 16 years of age who does not at
the time of such employment present an employment certificate duly issued under the provisions of the
labor law, or to employ any such child in any other capacity who does not at the time of such employment
present a school-record certificate as provided in section 630 of this chapter.
3. To employ any child between 14 and 16 years of age in a city of the first class or a city of the second
class who does not, at the time of such employment, present an employment certificate, duly issued under
the provisions of the labor law.
§ 627. Employer must display record certificate and evening certificate. The employer of any child
between 14 and 16 years of age in a city of the first class or a city of the second class shall keep and shall
display in the place where such child is employed, the employment certificate and also his evening school
certificate issued by the school authorities of said city or by an authorized representative of such school
authorities, certifying that the said boy is regularly in attendance at an evening school of said city as pro-
vided in section 631 of this chapter.
§ 628. Punishment for unlawful employment of children. Any person, firm, or corporation, or any
officer, manager, superintendent or employee acting therefor, who' shall employ any child contrary to the
provisions of section 626 hereof, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and the punishment therefor shall be for
the first offense a fine of not less than $20 nor more than $50; for a second and each subsequent offense,
a fine of not less than $50 nor more than $200.
Please record the names of all children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years, employed in
your establishment, on this paper, and mail the same to
C. Edward Jones,
Superintendent of Public Schools, Albany, N. Y.
1 So in original.
Name.
Age.
Residence.
Employment
certificate
(yes or no).
Sarah Graham
15
Uh
15\
10 North Ave
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
James Brewster
131 Auburn St
Herman Schultz
77 Arlington St
Respectfully submitted.
(Sign here) George W. Barrows.
Albany Form 1 (reverse). See p. 62.]
Children employed
By
...191..
Herman Schultz,
Your cooperation
is earnestly desired.
[Albany Form 2 (postal card). See p. 62.]
Evening School No. 5.
Albany, N. Y., Jan. 26, 1915.
reported as being in your employment, was absent from school last night.
in the administration of the compulsory law relative to attendance at evening school
C. Edward Jones,
Supt. Schools.
W. Jones,
Principal Evening School No. 5.
O
A
Ut'i'-’'
' ;ir °riLUHOr<
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
CHILDREN’S BUREAU * j
JULIA C. LATHROP. Chief
LIST OF REFERENCES ON
CHILD LABOR
LIBRARY
COMPILED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
H. H. B. MEYER
CHIEF BIBLIOGRAPHER. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
LAURA A. THOMPSON
LIBRARIAN. CHILDREN’S BUREAU
INDUSTRIAL SERIES No. 3
Bureau Publication No. 18
V/ASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1916
PUBLICATIONS OF THE CHILDREN’S BUREAU.
Annual Reports:
First Annual Report of the Chief, Children’s Bureau, to the Secretary of Labor,
for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1913. 20 pp. 1914.
Second Annual Report of the Chief, Children’s Bureau, to the Secretary of Labor,
for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1914. 19 pp. 1914.
Third Annual Report of the Chief, Children’s Bureau, to the Secretary of Labor,
for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1915. 26 pp. 1915.
Care of Children Series:
No. 1. Prenatal Care, by Mrs. Max West. 41 pp. 3d ed. 1913. Bureau pub-
lication No. 4.
No. 2. Infant Care, by Mrs. Max West. 87 pp. 1914. Bureau publication No. 8.
Dependent, Defective, and Delinquent Classes Series:
No. 1. Laws Relating to Mothers’ Pensions in the United States, Denmark, and
New Zealand. 102 pp. 1914. Bureau publication No. 7.
No. 2. Mental Defectives in the District of Columbia: A brief description of local
conditions and the need for custodial care and training. 39 pp. 1915. Bureau
publication No. 13.
Infant Mortality Series:
No. 1. Baby-saving Campaigns: A preliminary report on what American cities
are doing to prevent infant mortality. 93 pp. 4th ed. 1914. Bureau pub-
lication No. 3.
No. 2. New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children: An example
of the methods of baby-saving work in small towns and rural districts. 19 pp.
1914. Bureau publication No. 6.
No. 3. Infant Mortality: Results of a field study in Johnstown, Pa., based on
births in one calendar year, by Emma Duke. 93 pp. and 9 pp. illus. 1915.
Bureau publication No. 9.
No. 4. Infant Mortality in Montclair, N. J.: A study of infant mortality in a
suburban community. 36 pp. 1915. Bureau publication No. 11.
No. 5. A Tabular Statement of Infant- Welfare Work by Public and Private
Agencies in the United States. 114 pp. 1916. Bureau publication No. 16.
Industrial Series:
No. 1. Child Labor Legislation in the United States, by Helen L. Sumner and
Ella A. Merritt. 1131 pp. 1915. Bureau publication No. 10.
Analytical tables of laws of all States and text of laws of each State.
No. 2. Administration of Child Labor Laws:
Part I. Employment Certificate System, Connecticut. 69 pp. 2 charts.
1915. Bureau publication No. 12.
Part II. Employment Certificate System, New York. — pp. 3 charts.
1916. Bureau publication No. 17.
No. 3. List of References on Child Labor. 161 pp. 1916. Bureau publication
No. 18.
Miscellaneous Series:
No. 1. The Children’s Bureau: A circular containing the text of the law estab-
lishing the bureau and a brief outline of the plans for immediate work. 5 pp.
1912. Bureau publication No. 1.
No. 2. Birth Registration: An aid in preserving the lives and rights of children.
20 pp. 3d ed. 1914. Bureau publication No. 2.
No. 3. Handbook of Federal Statistics of Children: Number of children in the
United States, with their sex. age, race, nativity, parentage, and geographic
distribution. 106 pp. 2d ed. 1914. Bureau publication No. 5.
No. 4. Child-Welfare Exhibits: Types and preparation, by Anna Louise Strong,
Ph. D. 58 pp. and 16 pp. illus. 1915. Bureau publication No. 14.
No. 5. Baby Week Campaigns. Suggestions for communities of various sizes.
64 pp. 1915. Bureau publication No. 15.
2
14uaO«( v . 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
6&(f.7
IAiS.vs
/^ki\ TS
Page.
Letter of tra nsmittal 5
Bibliographies:
Child labor 7-8
Related subjects:
Apprenticeship 8
Compulsory education 8
Eight-hour day 8
Industrial education 8-9
Industrial hygiene 9
Minimum wage 9-10
Mothers’ pensions 10
Vocational guidance 10-11
ted States and General 11-44
Legislation :
State legislation and enforcement 44-54
Uniform legislation 54
Federal control 54-59
Speeches in Congress 59-62
Statistics 62-63
sign countries:
General 63-65
Austria-Hungary 65-66
Belgium . . 66-67
France 67-69
Germany 69-73
Great Britain 73-82
Colonies 82-83
Italy 83-84
The Netherlands 84
Russia 84-85
Norway and Sweden 85
Spain 85-86
Switzerland 86-87
Other countries 87-88
ustries :
Agriculture 88-90
Canneries 90-92
Clothing 92
Glass 92-94
Home work 94-97
Mercantile establishments 98-99
Mines and quarries 99-100
x
3
4
TABLE OF CONTEXTS.
Industries — Continued. Page.
Textiles 101-105
Miscellaneous industries 106-107
Stage 107-108
Street trades 109-116
Educational aspects 117-132
Juvenile occupations and Employment bureaus 133-136
Health of working child 136-141
Author index 143-152
Subject index 153-161
*
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U. S. Department of Labor,
Children's Bureau,
Washington, June 30, 1916.
Sir: Herewith I transmit a list of references on child labor.
The first edition of this list was compiled by Mr. A. P. C. Griffin and
was published by the Library of Congress in 1906. This second edi-
tion was begun in 1914, under the direction of Mr. H. H. B. Meyer,
chief bibliographer of the Library of Congress, but the material was
transferred to the Children’s Bureau because the Library of Congress
was committed to the completion of certain larger publications, which
made it impracticable for the Library to publish this list at present.
Miss Laura A. Thompson, librarian of the Children’s Bureau, has
assisted in the preparation of the list, but the great bulk of the work
has been done by the Library of Congress.
The Children’s Bureau wishes to express its appreciation of the
privilege of being associated with the Library of Congress in this
publication.
Respectfully submitted.
Julia C. Latiirop, Chief.
Hon. William B. Wilson,
Secretary of Labor.
NOTE.
The reports of the State bureaus of labor and the reports of the
departments of factory inspection have been included only where a
special investigation has been made or where special statistics have
been given. Most of the reports of the bureaus of labor contain sta-
tistics of children employed and reference to the inspection of child
labor where there is no special department of factory inspection. No
reference has been made to the child-labor laws as found in these or
similar reports, as these are covered by the compilation made by the
Children’s Bureau. (See No. 577 in this list.)
The numbers at‘ the end of the titles are the shelf numbers of the
books in the Library of Congress.
6
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR
BIBLIOGRAPHIES.
CHILD LABOR.
1 Bloomfield, Meyer. The school and the start in life; a study of the relation
between school and employment in England, Scotland, and Germany. Wash-
ington, Govt, print, off., 1914. 143 p. 23 cm . (U. S. Bureau of education.
Bulletin, 1914, no. 4. Whole no. 575.) HF5381.B5
Bibliography: p. 133-142.
2 British association for labour legislation. Child labour in the United King-
dom. A study of the development and administration of the law relating to the
employment of children. By Frederic Keeling. London, P. S. King & son,
1914. xxxii, 326 p. 25£ cm , ‘ HD6250.G7B75
“ Bibliography of the employment of children in the United Kingdom”: p. [309]— 319.
3 Bullock, Edna Dean, comp. Selected articles on child labor. 2d and enl. ed.
White Plains, N. Y., and New York city, The H. W. Wilson company, 1915.
xxvi, 238 p. 20 cm . (Debaters’ handbook series) HD6250.U3B85 1915
Bibliography: p. [xi]-xxvi.
4 Clopper, Edward Nicholas. Child labor in city streets. New York, The Mac-
millan co., 1912. ix, 280 p. 18 cm . HD6231.C5
Bibliography: p. 245-254.
5 Freeman, Arnold. Boy life & labour; the manufacture of inefficiency. Lon-
don, P. S. King & son, 1914. 252 p. 22 cm . HD6250.G75B5
“Bibliography of juvenile labour”: p.233-248.
6 Keeling, Frederic. The labour exchange in relation to boy and girl labour.
London, P. S. King & son, 1910. 76 p. 21 cm .
Bibliography: p. 73-76.
7 Massachusetts. Bureau of statistics. Industrial home work in Massachu-
setts . . . Boston, Wright & Potter print, co., 1914. 183 p. 23 cm . (Its Labor
bulletin no. 101) HC107.M4A3,no.l01
Bibliography: p. 152-177.
8 Labor bibliography. 1912-1914. Boston, 1913-1915. 3 v. 23^ cm .
Z7164.L1M4
Found also in Annual report on the statistics of labor, 1912, 1914, 1915.
1912: Child labor: p. 7-9. 1913: Child labor: p. 4-10. 1914: Child labor: p. 6-9.
9 Tennessee. State library, Nashville. Legislative reference dept. Index
of legislative reference material. Nashville, Tenn., McQuiddy printing com-
pany, 1915. 85 p. 22 cm . Z7161.T38
Child labor: p. 67-69.
10 Texas. University. Dept, of extension. Public discussion and infor-
mation division. Compulsory education and child labor. Austin, Tex.,
University of Texas [1910] 11 p. 23 cm . (Bulletin of the University of Texas.
Extension ser.) Z7161.T45,no.7a
. 7
8
n
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR,
IT. S. Bureau of labor statistics. Subject index of the publications of the
United States Bureau of labor statistics up to May 1, 1915. September, 1915.
Washington, Govt, print, off., 1915. 233 p. 23^ cm . (Bulletin of the United
States Bureau of labor statistics, whole no. 174. Miscellaneous series, no. 11)
„ . . . , . _ Z1223.L184
C hildren m industry: p. 43~4o.
Library of Congress. Division of bibliography. List of books
(with references to periodicals) relating to child labor. Comp, under the direc-
tion of Appleton Prentiss Clark Griffin, chief bibliographer. Washington,
Govt, print, off., 1906. 66 p. 25| cm . Z881.U5
RELATED SUBJECTS.
APPRENTICESHIP.
Bray, Reginald Arthur. Boy labour and apprenticeship. London, Constable
& co., 1911. xi, 248 p. 19 cm .
"List of authorities”: p. 241-244.
Dunlop, Olive Jocelyn, and Richard D. Denman. English apprenticeship &
child labour; a history, by O. J. Dunlop, with a supplementary section on the
modern problem of juvenile labour, by 0. J. Dunlop and R. D. Denman.
London [etc.] T.F. Unwin, 1912. 390 p. 23 ( ’ m . HD4885.G7D8
Bibliography: p. 355-363.
Wright, Carroll Davidson. The apprenticeship system in its relation to indus-
trial education. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1908. 116 p. 23 cm .. (U. S.
Bureau of education. Bulletin, 1908, no. 6) Llll.A6,1908,no6
" List of references relating to the education of apprentices”: p. 87-92.
COMPULSORY EDUCATION.
Compulsory school attendance. Washington, Govt, print, oh., 1914. 137 p.
23 em . (U. S. Bureau of education. Bulletin, 1914, no. 2. Whole no. 573)
Llll.A6,1914,no.2
Bibliography of compulsory education in the United States: p. 131-134.
EIGHT -HOUR DAY.
U. S. Library of Congress. Division of bibliography. List of books, with
references to periodicals, relating to the eight-hour working day and to limita-
tion of working hours in general. Comp, under the direction of Appleton Pren-
tiss Clark Griffin, chief bibliographer. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1908.
24 p. 25| cm . Z881.U5
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.
Brundage, Howard D., and Charles R. Richards. A selected bibliog-
raphy on industrial education. (In National education association. Journal
of proceedings and addresses, 1910. Winona, Minn., 1910. p. 766-773.)
L13.N4 1910
Columbia university. Teachers college. School of industrial arts. An-
notated list of books relating to industrial arts and industrial education. New
York city, Teachers college, Columbia university, 1911. 50 p. 23 cm . (Tech-
nical education bulletin, no. 6) Z7911.C73
Dean, Arthur Davis. The worker and the state; a study of education for indus-
trial workers. New York, The Century co., 1910. 355 p. 20 cm .
"Bibliography of vocational education”: p. 345-355.
Kansas City, Mo. Public library. A reading list*on vocational education.
Kansas City, Mo., Kansas City public library, 1915. 44 p. 16£ x 9 cm . (Special
library list. no. 10) Z5814.T4K2
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
9
22 Lapp, John A., and Carl H. Mote. Learning to earn; a plea and a plan for voca-
tional education. Indianapolis, The Bobbs-Merrill company, [ < T915] 9 p. 1.,
421 p. 19 Y m . LC1045.L3
Bibliography: p. [379J-389.
“ Organizations interested in vocational training”: p. [391]— 394.
23 New York (State). Department of labor. A selected bibliography on
industrial education. (In its Annual report. 8th, 1907-08. Albany, 1909.
p. 357-394) HD8053.N7A2,pt.3
24 Education dept. Division of vocational schools. A list of helpful
publications concerning vocational instruction. Prepared by Lewis A. Wilson.
Albany, The University of the state of New York, 1914. 41 p. 23 cm . (Uni-
versity of the state of New York bulletin, no. 569) Z7911.N52
25 Richards, Charles R. Selected bibliography on industrial education. [Asbury
Park, N. J., Kinmonth press] 1907. 32 p. 23 cm . (National society for the
promotion of industrial education. Bulletin no. 2) T61.N27,no.2
26 Sadler, Michael Ernest. Continuation schools in England & elsewhere; their
place in the educational system of an industrial and commercial state. 2d ed.
Manchester, University press, 1908. 779 p. 23 cm . (Publications of the Uni-
versity of Manchester. Educational series, no. 1) LC5215.S25
“Short bibliography”: p. 750-754.
27 IT. S. Bureau of education. Bibliography of industrial, vocational, and trade
education. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1913. 92 p. 23 cm . (Its Bulletin,
1913, no. 22. Whole no. 532) LC1043.U6
28 Bureau of labor. Industrial education. Washington, Govt, print.
off., 1911. 822 p. 23 cm . (Annual report of the commissioner of labor. 25th.
1910) * HD8051.A3 1910
“Selected bibliography on industrial education”: p. 519-539.
INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE.
29 Bibliography on industrial hygiene. Trial list of references on occupational
diseases and industrial hygiene prepared by the American association for labor
legislation, United States Bureau of labor [and] Library of Congress. American
labor legislation review, June, 1912, v. 2: 367-417. LID7833.A55,v.2
30 Rambousek, Josef. Industrial poisoning from fumes, gases and poisons of
manufacturing processes; . . . tr. and ed. by Thomas M. Legge. London,
E. Arnold, 1913. xiv, 360 p. illus. 22 cm . HD7263.R4
“References”: p.339-354.
31 TJ. S. Bureau of labor statistics. Library. Books and periodicals on acci-
dent and disease prevention in industry in the library of the Bureau of labor
statistics. [Washington, Govt, print. off7~1916] 23 p. 23 Y m -
Z7164.L1U667
32 Surgeon-general’s office. Library. Occupations and trades (Dis-
eases and hygiene of). (In its Index catalogue. Washington, 1881-1916. 1st
ser. v. 10, p. 67-83; 2d ser. v. 5, p. 481-482, v. 12, p. 69-74) Z6676.U6
References to current material will be found in the Index medicus. Z6660.I4
MINIMUM WAGE.
33 New York. Public libr ary . The minimum wage; a preliminary list of selected
references. New York, 1913. 9 p. 26£ em . Z7164.W1N5
Prepared by G. C. Williamson.
“Reprinted at the New York public library from the Bulletin, August, 1913.”
10
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
34 Reeder, Charles Wells. Bibliography on the minimum wage. {In Ohio
Industrial commission. Dept, of investigation and statistics. Report, no. 1.
Columbus, O., 1914. 24 cm . p. 23-33) HD8053.O3A3,no.l
35 Ryan, John Augustine. A living wage; its ethical and economic aspects.
New York, London, The Macmillan co., 1912. 346 p. 19 cm . (The Macmillan
standard library) HB301.R98
“Works of reference”: p. 333-340.
36 Verrill, Charles Henry. Minimum-wage legislation in the United States and
foreign countries. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1915. 335 p. 23 cm . (Bul-
letin of the United States Bureau of labor statistics, whole no. 167. Miscella-
neous series, no. 8) Z7164.W1Y3
Issued also as House doc. 1676, U. S., 63d Cong., 3d sess.
A select list of references to books and periodicals (in English) on the minimum wage: p. 321-328.
37 Williamson, Charles C. A list of selected references on the minimum wage.
{In New York (State). Factory investigating commission. Third report, 1914.
Albany, 1914. 23 cm . Legislature, 1914. Assembly doc. 28. p.383-413)
HD8053.N7A5 1914
MOTHERS’ PENSIONS.
38 Meyer, H. H. B. Select list of references on pensions for mothers, motherhood
insurance, etc. {In Special libraries, Nov. 1913, v. 4: 177-183.)
Z671.S71,v.4
•
39 New York (State) Commission on relief for widowed mothers. A
bibliography of mothers’ pensions. {In its Report. 1914. Albany, 1914.
23 cm . Legislature, 1914. Senate doc. 64. p. 570-577) HY699.N52
40 U. S. Children’s bureau. Laws relating to “Mothers’ pensions” in the
United States, Denmark and New Zealand. Washington, Govt, print, off.,
1914. 102 p. 25 cm . (Dependent children series, no. 1. Bureau publication
no. 7) HY697.U5
Prepared by Miss Laura A. Thompson, librarian of the Bureau.
“List of references on ( Mothers ’ pensions ’ p. 98-102.
VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE.
41 Bloomfield, Meyer. Youth, school, and vocation. Boston, New York [etc.]
Houghton Mifflin co. [1915]. 273 p. 19£ cm . HF5381.B63
Bibliography: p. 262-267.
42 Brooklyn. Public library. Choosing an occupation; a list of books and refer-
ences on vocational choice, guidance, and training, in the Brooklyn public
library. Brooklyn, N. Y., The Brooklyn public library, 1913. 63 p. 19 cm .
Z5814.T4B8
43 Chicago school of civics and philanthropy. Dept, of social investigation.
Finding employment for children who leave the grade schools to go to work;
report to the Chicago woman’s club, the Chicago association of collegiate alum-
nae, and the Woman’s city club. [Chicago, Manz engraving company, The
Hollister press, 1911] 56 p. 26 cm . HF5381.C6
Selected' bibliography relating to employment supervision, p. 53-56.
44 Hall, Mary E. Yocational guidance through the library . . . with select bib-
liography by John G. Moulton. Chicago, American library" association pub-
lishing board, 1914. 22 p 19 Y m . Z7164.C81H2
Reprinted from the Massachusetts library club bulletin, January, 1914.
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
11
45 Jacobs, Charles Louis, comp. A vocational guidance bibliography, prepared
for school and public libraries and arranged especially for youths, teachers, and
specialists. Comp, for the commissioner of industrial and vocational educa-
tion, by C. L. Jacobs. Jan. 1916. [Sacramento] California state print, off.,
1916. 24 p. 22£ cm . (California. State board of education. Bulletin no. 12)
46 New York (State) Education dept. Division of vocational schools. A
list of helpful publications concerning vocational instruction. Prepared by
Lewis A. Wilson. Albany, The University of the state of New York, 1914.
cover-title, [3]^1 p. 23 cm . (University of the state of New York bulletin,
no. 569) Z7911.N52
47 Parsons, Frank. Choosing a vocation. Boston and New York, Houghton
Mifflin company, 1909. 165, [1] p. incl. tables. 21 cm . HF5381.P24
Bibliography: p. 106-110.
48 Philadelphia. Board of public education. Pedagogical library. A work-
ing library on vocational guidance, with some additional titles on vocational
education. [Philadelphia, Philadelphia trades school, 1913] 12 p. 23 em .
(Library bulletin no. 2) Z5811.P45,no.2
49 U. S. Bureau of education. Library. List of references on vocational guid-
ance, June, 1914- [Washington, 1914-.] 23 cm . Z7164.C81U5
Supplementary editions pub. irregularly.
UNITED STATES AND GENERAL.*
50 Abbott, Edith. A study of the early history of child labor in America. AmerL.
can journal of sociology, July, 1908, v. 14: 15-37. HMl.A7,v.l4
51 Women in industry; a study in American economic history. New York
and London, D. Appleton and company, 1910. xxii, 408 p., 11. incl. tables.
20| cm . HD6095.A2
Child labor in America before 1870, p. 327-351.
52 Abelsdorff, Walter. Frauen- und kinderarbeit in den Vereinigten Staaten von
Nordamerika. Leipzig, 1914. p. 166-206. 22| cm .
“ Sonder-abdruek aus dem Archiv fur soziale hygiene und demographie, 9. bd., 2. hft. ”
53 Abolition of child labor possible. Journal of education, Feb. 18, 1915, v. 81:
182. Lll.J5,v.81
54 Adams, Thomas Sewall, and Helen L. Sumner. Labor problems; a text
book. New York, London, The Macmillan company, 1905. xv, 579 p. 21 om .
HD8072.A25
Bibliography: p. 15-16.
Woman and child labor, by H. L. S.: p. 19-67.— Appendix a. Woman and child labor laws in the
United States.
55 Addams, Jane. Child labor. {In National education association. Journal of
proceedings and addresses, 1905. Winona, Minn., 1905. 23i cm . p. 259-261)
L13.N4 1905
56 Child labor and pauperism. {In National conference of charities and
correction. Proceedings, 1903. [Columbus, O.] 1903. 23| cm . p. 114-121)
HV88.A3 1903
57 Child labor legislation, a requisite for industrial efficiency. American
academy of political and social science, Annals, May, 1905, v. 25: 542-550.
Hl.A4,v.25
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 2, p. 130-138.
HD6250.U3N2 no.2
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 13, 9 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l3
* For individual states see Subject index.
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
12
58 Addams, Jane. Democracy and social ethics. New York, The Macmillan
company [etc., etc.] 1902. ix, 281 p. 19£ cm . (The citizen’s library of eco-
nomics, politics, and sociology, ed. by R. T. Ely) HN64.A2
Child labor, p. 40-46, 167-170; Educational methods, p. 187-220.
59 National protection for children. American academy of political and
social science, Annals, Jan. 1907, v. 29: 57-60. Hl.A4,v.29
National child labor committee, Pamphlet no. 47. 4 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.47
Newer ideals of peace. New York, London, The Macmillan company,
1907. xviii, 243 p. 19 cm . (The citizen’s library of economics, politics, and
sociology, ed. by R. T. Ely) HN64.A25
Protection of children for industrial efficiency, p. 151-179.
61 A plea for more play, more pay, and more education for our factory girls
and boys. [Chicago?] Printed for private distribution [the Chicago association
of commerce, 1914?] 24 p. 17£ cm . HQ796.A25
62 The spirit of youth and the city streets. New York, The Macmillan com-
pany, 1909. 162 p. 19£ cm . HQ796.A3
The spirit of youth and industry, p. 107-135.
63 Ten years experience in Illinois. American academy of political and
social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38: 114-148. Hl.A4,v.38
63a What does child labor reform cost the community. National child labor
committee. Pamphlet no. 155. 6 p. HD6250.U3N2, no. 155
64 Adler, Felix. The attitude of society toward the child as an index of civiliza-
tion. American academy of political and social science, Annals, Jan. 1907,
v. 29: 135-141. Hl.A4,v.29
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 56. 7 p.
HD5250.U3N2,no.56
65 The basis of the anti-child labor movement in the idea of American
civilization. American academy of political and social science, Annals,
Supplement, July, 1908, v. 32: 1-3. Hl.A4,v.32
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 70. 3 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.70
66 Child labor a menace to civilization. American academy of political and
social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38: 1-7. Hl.A4,v.38
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 156. 8 p.
IlD6250.U3N2,no.l56
67 Child labor in the United States and its great attendant evils. American
academy of political and social science, Annals, May, 1905, v. 25: 417-429.
Hl.A4,v.25
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 2, p. 1-17; Pamphlet no. 11.
2d ed. 1907. 13 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.2;no.ll
Same. {In Louisiana. Bureau of statistics of labor. Report. New Orleans,
La. 1906. 23 cm . p. 16-26) HC107.L8A2 1904-05
68 Adler, Nettie. Child employment and juvenile delinquency. {In Woman in
industry from seven points of view. London, 1908. p. 121-141)
HD6053.W7
69 Alabama. Dept, for inspection of jails, almshouses, cotton mills, fac-
tories, etc. Children eligible for employment in the mills, factories, and
manufacturing establishments in the state of Alabama for the year 1913. W. H.
Oates, M. D., inspector. Montgomery, Ala., Brown printing company [1913].
41 p. 23 cm . IID6250.U4A3 1913
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
13
Alabama. Department for inspection of jails, almshouses, cotton mills,
factories, etc. Children ineligible for employment in the mills, factories,
and manufacturing establishments in the state of Alabama. W. H. Oates,
M. D., inspector. Montgomery, Ala., Brown printing company [1913]. 30
p. 23 cm . HD6250.U4A3 1913a
Copies of reports of Dr. Bragg, inspector of jails, cotton mills, and
almshouses. To the governor, July, 1907. Montgomery, Ala., Brown printing
co. [1907] 15 p. 23£ cm . HD3663.A2A5 1907
Governor, 1915- (Charles Henderson) Message to the Legislature
of Alabama. Jan. 18, 1915. Montgomery, Brown printing co., 1915. 47 p.
23 cm . J87.A22 1915 Jan.l8a
Child labor: p. 43-44.
Alabama child labor committee. Child labor in Alabama; an appeal to the
people and press of New England, with a resulting correspondence. Letters from
Mr. J. Howard Nichols and Mr. Horace S. Sears, of Boston, and from Edgar
Gardner Murphy, of Montgomery, Alabama, in relation to the child labor bill,
[n. p., 1901?] 40 p. 15i cm .
American academy of political and social science. Social legislation and
social activity. New York, Published for the American academy of political
and social science of Philadelphia, by McClure, Phillips & company, 1902. vii,
304 p. 25 cm . HD8057.A5
Pt. IV. The child labor problem: Child labor legislation, by Mrs. Florence Kelley. Child labor
in the department store, by F. N. Brewer. Necessity for factory legislation in the South, by H.
Robbins. Child labor in New Jersey, by H. F. Fox. Child labor in Belgium, by E. Dubois.
Armstrong association of Philadelphia. A comparative study of the occu-
pations and wages of the children of working age in the Potter and Durham
schools, Philadelphia. [Philadelphia, Printed by pupils at the Philadelphia
trades school] 1913. 20 p. 23 cm . HD6250.U5P4
Aronovici, Carol. The Newport survey of social problems. [Fall River, Mass.,
Munroe press, 1912] cover-title, 59 p. incl. tables. 26 eiu . HN80.N67A7
Boy problem: Occupations, wages, unemployment, !). 3-4; Girl problem: Employment, p. 6,
42-43.
Atherton, Sarah H. Survey of wage-earning girls below sixteen years of age in
Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, 1915. New York city, National consumers’
league [1915] 65 p. 23^ cm . (Women in industry series no. 11)
Bailey, Mrs. E. L. Conditions of child employing industries in the South:
Mississippi. Child labor bulletin, v. 2, no. 1: 128-133. HD.6250.U3N4,v.2.
Baldwin, B. J. History of child labor reform in Alabama. American academy
of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38: 111-
113. Hl.A4,v.38
Barnard, Kate. The new state and its children. American academy of politi-
cal and social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1908, v. 32: 173-175.
Hl.A4,v.32
Through the windows of destiny: how I visualized my life work. Good
housekeeping, Nov. 1912, v. 55: 600-606. TXl.G7,v.55
Child labor banished from Oklahoma, p. 602.
Blascoer, Frances. The industrial condition of women and girls in Honolulu;
a social study. Honolulu [Paradise of the Pacific printers] 1912. 99, [1] p.
23£ cm . (Honolulu social survey, 1st study) HD6220.Z6H62
Boswell, Helen Varick, chairman. Industrial and child labor committee.
Federation bulletin, Mar. 1909, v. 6: 165-166. IIQ1871.F3,v.6
Industrial conditions and child labor. Federation bulletin, Oct. 1909,
v. 7: 18-19. * IIQl871.F3,v.7
14
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
Boswell, M. Louise. Child labor and need. Child labor bulletin, v. 2, no. 1:
17-26. HD6250.U3N4,v.2
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 194, 1913. 11 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l94
Bowen, Louise Hadduck (de Koven) “ Mrs. J. T. Bowen.” Safeguards for city-
youth at work and at play. New York, The Macmillan co., 1914. 241 p.
19| cm . HY1437.C4B6
Legal protection in industry: p. 52-93.
Britton, James A. Child labor and the juvenile court. American academy of
political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1909, v. 33: 111-115.
Hl.A4,v.33
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 95. 5 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.95
Brooks, John Graham. Past and present arguments against child labor.
American academy of political and social science, Annals, Mar. 1906, v. 27 :
281-284. Hl.A4,v.27
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 20, p. 23-26; Pamphlet no.
24. 4 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.20,no.20a;no.24
The social unrest; studies in labor and soc ialist movements. New York,
The Macmillan company; [etc., etc.] 1903. 4 p. 1., 394 p. 20£ cm .
HN64.B9
Child labor, p. 27-29, 207-208, 252-257.
Brown, Edward F. The neglected human resources of the Gulf coast states.
Child labor bulletin, v. 2, no. 1: 112-116. HD6250.U3N4,v.2
Bullock, Edna Dean, comp. Selected articles on child labor. 2d and enl. ed.
White Plains, N. Y., and New York city, The H. W. Wilson company, 1915.
xxvi, 238 p. 20 cm . (Debaters’ handbook series) HD6250.U3B85 1915
Butler, Elizabeth Beardsley. Sharpsburg: a typical waste of childhood. ;
(In Wage-earning Pittsburgh. New York, 1914, p. 279-304) HD8085.P6P6
“The working children”: p. 287-302.
California. Bureau of labor statistics. Child labor. (In its Report,
1911-12, p. 21-88, 521-529; 1913-14, p. 20-21, 41-45) HC107.C2A2 ;
Industrial welfare commission. Biennial report. 1st, 1913-1914.
[Sacramento?] 1915. 1 v. 22£ cm . HD6093.C2 !
Campbell, M. Edith. State child labor relief . American academy of political !
and social science, Annals. Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38: 80-84.
Hl.A4,v.38
Can Georgia do it? Outlook, Aug. 15, 1914, v. 107 : 888-889. AP2.08,v.l07
Carlton, Frank Tracy. The history and problems of organized labor. Boston,
New York [etc.] D. C. Heath & company [ c 1911] xi, 483 p. 20 cm .
HD6508.C2
Child labor: p. 379-407.
The industrial situation; its effect upon the home, the school, the wage
earner and the employer. New York, Chicago [etc.] Fleming H. Revell com-
pany [ c 1914] 159 p. m cm . HD8072.C26
Women and children in industry: p. 7S-92.
Catheron, Allison G. The Massachusetts committee on social welfare. Sur-
vey, Oct. 11, 1913, v. 31: 47-48. HVl.C4,v.31
Chicago. Child welfare exhibit, 1911. The child in the city; a handbook of j
the Child welfare exhibit at the Coliseum, May 11-May 25, 1911. [Chicago,
The Blakely printing co., 1911] 96 p. illus. 25^ cm . HQ741.C6
Saving the barren years, p. 25-27.
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
U1
112
113
114
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
15
Chicago. Child welfare exhibit, 1911. The child in the city; a series of
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Part V.— The working child: The standard for factory inspection in Illinois, by Mary E. Mc-
Dowell: p. 273-277; Efficiency in factory inspection, by Florence Kelley: p. 278-286; The Illinois
department of factory inspection, by Edgar T. Davies: p. 287-289; The street trader under Illinois
law, by Florence Kelley: p. 290-301; The artist child, by S. H. Clark: p. 302-309; The effect of
•irregular hours upon the health of the child, by F. S. Churchill: p. 310-312.
Child labor conference. Hartford, Conn., 1908. Report of the proceedings
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of working children in Connecticut, by Julia Corcoran, p. 4-5; Future results of child labor, by
Florence Kelley, p. 5-8; The critical character of the age period from fourteen to sixteen, by Oliver
C. Smith, p. 8-13; The effect of premature toil upon wages and standards of labor, by Owen It.
Lovejoy, p. 13-16; State industrial supervision of children in Germany and in Connecticut, by
E. W. Lord, p. 16-18; Legislation advocated by the National child labor committee, by Owen R;
Lovejoy, p. 18-21; Legislation proposed by the labor unions, by Edward M. Roszelle, p. 21-23.
Enforcement of factory laws in Connecticut, by Giles Porter, p. 23; Proper minimum age for
working children, by John Mitchell, p. 26-32.
Child labor in New Jersey. American academy of political and social science,
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115 Clopper, Edward N. Child labor in the Ohio Valley states. American
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116 Child labor in the smaller towns of Missouri. National child labor com-
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17
127 Connecticut. Commission to investigate conditions of wage-earning
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21
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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211 Leupp, Constance. A substitute for charity. Pearson’s magazine, Jan. 1915,
v. 33:103-113. AP2.P35,v.33
212 Levasseur, Emile. The American workman. An American translation by
Thomas S. Adams ... ed. by Theodore Marburg. Baltimore, The Johns Hop-
kins press, 1900. xx, 517 p. 23| cm . [Johns Hopkins university studies in
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213 Ley, Frank T. The child labor problem in Michigan: address at Ann Arbor,
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nual report. Lansing, 1906. 23| cm . p. 319-324.) HC107.M5A2 1906
214 Lindsay, Samuel McCune. Child labor: a national disgrace. American
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Overland monthly, Sept. 1906, v. 48: 166-170. AP2.09,v.48
Federation bulletin, Oct. 1906, v. 4:5-6. HQ1871.F3,v.4
215 — — — Child labor a national problem. American academy of political and
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216 Child labor in the United States. American economic association.
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218
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
23
Lindsay, Samuel McCune. Child labor. Report of the [National child
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Discussion on child labor, p. 520-525.
Exploring the new world for children. National child labor committee.
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Same. {In Child conference for research and welfare, Proceedings, 1909,
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Lindsey, Ben B. Juvenile delinquency and employment. Survey, Nov. 4,
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The cost of child labor. Good housekeeping, Oct. 1913, v. 57:
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The great American cancer: Child labor is an evil; it is eating at
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TXl.G7,v.57
Why do children toil? Good housekeeping, Aug. 1913, v. 57:
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London, Jack. The apostate; a parable of child labor. Girard, Kan., The
Appeal to reason, 1906. cover-title, 15 [1] p. 19 cm . HD6250.U3L7
Lord, Everett W. Child labor in New England. American academy of
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 74. 9 p.
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Love joy, Owen It. Aims and achievements of the National child labor com-
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National child labor committee, New York. 1909. Pamphlet no. 119. 8 p.
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Child labor. Philadelphia, Boston [etc.] American Baptist publication
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Child labor and family disintegration. Independent, Sept. 27, 1906,
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24
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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Seven years of child labor reform. American academy of political and
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 161. 8 p.
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A six years’ battle for the working child. American review of reviews,
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Luther, Seth. An address to the working-men of New-England on the state of
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With particular reference to the effect of manufacturing (as now conducted) on
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Miscellaneous pamphlets, v. 1161, no. 2. AC901.M5,v.ll61
His pamphlet is valuable . . . eases of cruelty to children are described in detail . . . the
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250
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
25
McCleary, G. F. The state as over-parent. Albany review, Oct. 1907, v. 2:
46-59. AP4.A343,v.2
McCullough, J. A. Conditions of child employing industries in the South:
South Carolina. Child labor bulletin, May, 1913, v. 2, no. 1: 133-138.
IID6250.U3N4,v.2
McEnnis, John T. The white slaves of free America: being an account of the
sufferings, privations, and hardships of the weary toilers in our great cities as
recently exposed by Nell Nelson, of the Chicago times. Female labor, child
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& company, 1888. ix, 128 p. incl, illus. 23 cm . HD8072.M2
Macfadyen, Irene M. Ashby. Abolish child labor. American federationist,
Jan. 1902, v. 9: 19-20. IID8055.A5A2,v.9
Child life vs. dividends. American federationist, May, 1902, v. 9:
215-223. HD8055.A5A2,v.9
In part in Current literature, July, 1902, v. 33: 77-79. AP2.C95,v.33
The fight against child labor in Alabama. American federationist, May,
1901, v. 8: 150-157. IlD8055.A5A2,v.8
Report to the Executive committee of the state, on the history of child
labor legislation in Alabama. By Irene M. Ashby. Montgomery, Ala., 1901.
cover-title, 35 p. 21xlO om . (Child labor in Alabama. Document no. 1)
IID6250.U4A3
McKelway, A. J. The awakening of the South against child labor. American
academy of political and social science, Annals, Jan. 1907, v. 29: 9-18.
Hl.A4,v.29
National child labor 'committee. Pamphlet no. 42. 10 p.
IID6250.U3N2,no.42
The child against the man. Child labor bulletin, Nov. 1913, v. 2, no. 3:
52-59. HD6250.TJ3N4,v.2
Answer to George F. Stratton. The man behind the child.
Child labor and citizenship. (In National conference of charities and
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HV88.A3 1908
Child labor and its attendant evils. Sewanee review, Apr. 1908, v. 16:
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National child labor committee. Pamplilet no. 68. 16 p.
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Child labor and poverty. Survey, Apr. 12, 1913, v. 30: 60-62.
HVl.C4,v.30
Child labor and social progress. Charities and the Commons, Apr. 18,
1908, v. 20: 104-107. HVl.C4,v.20
Child labor and the home. (In National conference of charities and
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Child labor and the minimum wage. (In National conference of chari-
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Child labor campaign in the South. Survey, Oct. 21, 1911, v. 27: 1023-
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26
264
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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Child labor in Georgia. Child labor bulletin, Aug. 1913, v. 2, no. 2,
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Child labor in Mississippi. National child labor committee, New York,
1911. Pamphlet no. 169. 20 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.l69
Child labor in southern industry. American academy of political and
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 2, p. 20-24; Pamphlet no.
12, 7 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.2;no.l2
Child labor in Tennessee. National child labor committee. New
York, 1911. Pamphlet no. 150. 16 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.l50
Child labor in the Carolinas; account of investigations made in the
cotton mills of North and South Carolina, by Rev. A. E. Seddon, A. H. Ulm,
and Lewis W. Hine, under the direction of the southern office of the National
child labor committee. [New York? 1909] [20] p. illus. 23 em . (Pam-
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Child labor in the Carolinas. Charities and the Commons, Jan. 30,
1909, v. 21: 743-757. HVl.C4,v.21
Child labor in the South. American academy of political and social
science, Annals, Jan. 1910, v. 35: 156-164. Hl.A4,v.35
Child labor in the South. {In National conference of charities and cor-
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HV88.A3 1909
Child labor in the South. Outlook, Apr. 27, 1907, v. 85: 999-1000.
AP2.08,v.85
Child labor in Virginia. National child labor committee, New York.
1911. Pamphlet no. 171. 12 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.l71
The child labor problem — a study in degeneracy. American academy
of political and social science, Annals, Mar. 1906, v. 27: 312-326.
Hl.A4,v.27
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 20, p. 54-68.
HD6250.U3N2,no.20;no.20a
The extent of child labor in the South and needed legislation. {In
Southern sociological congress. 2d , Atlanta, 1913. The South mobilizing for
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The fight for child labor reform in the Carolinas. Charities and the
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The fight to save the children. World to-day, Apr. 1907, v. 12: 427-430.
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The Florida child labor campaign. Survey, July 12, 1913, v. 30: 497-
498. HVl.C4,v.30
How the fight for the children was won in Georgia. Woman ’s home com-
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
27
282 McKelway, A. J. New territory. American academy of political and social
science, Annals, July, 1911, supplement, v. 38: 139-143. Ill.A4,v.38
283 Protecting negro child workers in Virginia. Survey, Aug. 15, 1914,
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284 Ten years of child labor reform. {In National conference of charities and
correction. Proceedings, Memphis, Tenn., 1914. Fort Wayne, Ind., 1914.
23 cm . p. 138-146) HV88.A3 1914
285 Ten years of child labor reform in the South. Child labor bulletin, Feb.
1914, v. 2, no. 4: 35-39. HD6250.U3N4,v.2
286 Two corrections: twelve-year states. Survey, Mar. 9, 1912, v. 27: 1918.
HVi.C4,v.27
287 McLeod, Malcolm J. The child labor question: address at Detroit, Aug. 22,
1905. {In Michigan. Bureau of labor. Twenty-third annual report. Lan-
sing, 1906. 23i cm . p. 315-319) HC107.M5A2 1906
288 Women wage earners and child labor in Michigan. {In Michigan.
Bureau of labor. Twenty-fourth annual report, 1907. Lansing, 1907.
23i cm . p. 323-329) * 1IC107.M5A2 1907
An address . . . before the State federation of women’s clubs at Benton Harbor, Mich. Oct.
18, 1906.
289 Magruder, Julia. The child-labor problem: fact versus sentimentality.
North American review, Oct. 1907, v. 186: 245-256. AP2.N7,v.l86
290 Maine. Bureau of industrial and labor statistics. Annual report of the
Bureau of industrial and labor statistics . . . lst-24th, 1887-1910. Augusta,
1888-1910. 24 v. plates, maps, tables. 23 cm . HC107.M2A3
21st, 1907: Women and children in sardine factories, by Eva L. Shorey: p. 121-137; Child labor
[Portland] by Eva L. Shorey: p. 159-160; Report of the Inspector of factories: Child labor: p.
500-503.
22d, 1908: Child labor: p. xi-xiv; Industrial conditions surrounding women and children
in the textile industry: p. 1-83. Early factory labor in New England: p. 63-81; Shorter workday
for women and minors: p. 340-355.
23d, 1909: Statistics of children employed in various mills, with number of certificates filed:
p. 465.
291 Dept, of labor and industry. Biennial report. lst-2d. 1911-1914.
Waterville, Me., 1913-1915. 2 v. plates. 24 cm . HD8053.M2A3
Continuation of the “Annual report of the Bureau of industrial and labor statistics.”
1st, 1911-12: Child labor, p. 13-18.
2d, 1913-14: Child labor, p. 160-183. (Includes results of investigation of the home conditions
of all 14-year-old minors employed on June 10, 1913.)
292 Mangold, George Benjamin. Child problems. New York, The Macmillan
company, 1910. xv, 381 p. 19 cm . (The citizen’s library of economics,
politics, and sociology, ed. by R. T. Ely) I1Q769.M25
Child labor, p. 159-217; Street trades, p. 198-199, 232.
293 Problems of child welfare. New York, The Macmillan company, 1914.
xv, 522 p. 20| cm . (Social science text-books, ed. by R. T. Ely)
' HV713.M3
Child labor: p. 269-341.
294 Markham, Edwin. Children in bondage; a complete and careful presenta-
tion of the anxious problem of child labor — its causes, its crimes, and its cure,
by Edwin Markham, Benjamin B. Lindsey, and George Creel, with an intro-
duction by Owen R. Lovejoy. New York, Hearst’s international library co.,
1914. 411 p. front., plates. 21 cm . JID6250.U3M3
“A brief bibliography”: p. 403-405.
295 Marot, Helen. Progress in Pennsylvania. Protection for children in mills and
mines. Charities, June 10, 1905, v. 14: 834-836. HVl.C4,v.l4
28 LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
29G Marx, David. Some ancient standards of child protection. Child labor bul-
letin, May, 1913, v. 2, no. 1: 42-51. HD6250.U3N4,v.2
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 198. 11 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l98
297 Maryland. Bureau of industrial statistics. Report. lst-24th, 1893-1915,
Baltimore, 1894-1916. 24 v. tables, maps. 23-23£ cm . HC107.M3A15
Contents relating to child labor:
1893: Child labor: p. 179-199. An investigation undertaken at the suggestion of the Knights
of Labor in Baltimore as to the effects of child labor in that city; with letters on the subject
from Cardinal Gibbons, Sidney Sherwood, and others.
1901: Employment of children: p. 175-178.
1906: The new child labor law: Results of the work for first five months: p. 11-45.
1907: Results of work in enforcing the child labor law: p. 13-70.
1908: Child labor law: p. 9-10, 193-244, 256.
1909: Child labor: p. 7-8, 13-67, 81.
1910: Child labor: p. 7-8, 11-32; Law against messenger service: p. 8, 14-15.
1911: Child labor: p. 7-8, 12-67.
1912: Child labor: p. 14-28; New child labor law: p. 29-46; Children on the stage: p. 46-47
1913: Child labor: Statistics and information: p.7-75; Child labor inspection of the canning
industry: p.76-84; General child-labor inspection: p.85-92; Newsboy regulations: p.93-106;
Children on the stage: p. 107-122.
1914: Special report on child labor: Issuance of employment certificates: p.9-67; A study of
the fifteen largest child employing industries, by Mildred Rankin: p. 68-99; Report of medical
examiner for female applicants, by Anna S. Abercrombie: p. 100-107; Report of medical
examiner for male applicants, by John C. Travers: p. 108-138; Issuance of employment cer-
tificates in the counties, by Marie L. Rose: p. 139-161; Child labor inspection: p. 162-190;
Street traders: p. 191-197; Children on the stage: p. 198-214.
1915: Maryland child laborers: General summary and introduction, p. 1-14; Retrospect of
tlrree years’ work under the present child labor law, p. 15-35; The bureau’s stewardship during
1915, p. 36-39; The contribution of the children of Baltimore tothe world ’s work of 1915,by Aimee
Guggenheimer, p. 40-75; Why children seek new jobs, p. 76-88; Report of medical examiners,
p. 89-100; Newsboys and other street traders, by Lettie L. Johnston, p. 101-129; Children on
the stage, p. 130-148; Control of child labor in western Maryland (Allegany, Washington, and
Frederick counties), by Marie L. Rose, p. 149-179; Issuance of employment certificates in the
counties other than western Maryland, by Mathilde L. Selig, p. 180-191; The bureau inspection
during 1915, by Anna Herkner, p. 192-201; Child labor inspection of the eastern shore of
Maryland, by Mathilde L. Selig, p. 202-217.
298 Massachusetts. Commission on minimum wage boards. Report of the
Commission on minimum wage boards. January, 1912. Boston, Wright &
Potter printing co., state printers, 1912. 326 p. 23 CD1 . ([General court]
House [doc.] 1697.) HD4918.M4
Includes statistics on the employment of children.
299 — — — Commission to investigate the inspection of factories, work-
shops, mercantile establishments, and other buildings. Report, Janu-
ary, 1911. Boston, Wright & Potter printing co., state printers, 1911. 112 p.
23 cm . HD3663.M4A5 1911
The appendix includes the inspection systems of Great Britain, Germany, New York, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and Wisconsin.
The enforcement of child labor laws is one of the duties in all of the systems.
300 Constable of the commonwealth. Report of the Hon. Henry K.
Oliver, deputy state constable, especially appointed to enforce the laws
regulating the employment of children in manufacturing and mechanical
establishments. Boston, Wright & Potter, state printers, 1868. 95 p. 23 cm .
([General court, 1868] Senate [doc.] no. 21) HD6250.U4M4
331 Factory children. Report upon the schooling and hours of
labor of children employed in the manufacturing and mechanical establish-
ments of Massachusetts. By George E. McNeill, deputy state constable.
Boston, Wright & Potter, state printers, 1875. 76 p. 23£ cm . ([General court,
1875] Senate. [Doc.] no. 50) HD6250.U4M47 1875
LIST OF PREFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
29
302 Massachusetts. General court. House of representatives. Report of
the special committee appointed . . . 1913 to investigate the conditions
under which women and children labor in the various industries and occupa-
tions. January, 1914. Boston, Wright & Potter printing co., 1914. 194 p.
25 cm . (House. [Doc.] no. 2126)
“Labor laws of other states relating to women and children”: p. 107-194.
303 Minimum wage commission. Annual report. Boston, 1914-15.
2 v. in 1. tables (part fold.) diagrs. 23 era . HD4918.M5
Bulletin No. 1-11. Boston, 1914-16. HD4918.M55
304 Massachusetts child labor committee. Report . . . Jan. 1, 1912, 1914,
1915. [Boston, 1912-1915.] 3 v. 23 cm .
305 Miller, Marion Mills, ed. Great debates in American history, from the debates
in the British Parliament on the colonial Stamp act (1764-1765) to the debates
in Congress at the close of the Taft administration (1912-1913). [The national
ed.] New York, Current literature publishing company [ c 1913] 14 v. fronts.,
illus., plates, ports. 24 cm . E173.M64,v.ll
Child labor, v. 11, p. 288-320.
306 Miller, Wallace E . The child labor situation in Ohio and border states. Amer-
ican academy of political and social science, Annals, Jan. 1907, v. 29: 71-76.
Ill.A4,v.29
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 49. 6 p.
IID6250.U3N2,no.49
307 Minnesota. Bureau of labor. Biennial report. St. Paul [etc.] 1888-1915.
fold, charts. 23 cm . * HC107.M6A2
Contents relating to child labor:
1889-1890: The second chapter, p. 154-233, is devoted to child labor and presents from the
“ Report on the factory system of the United States,” by Carroll D. Wright, a short review
of English legislation, with a synopsis of the Factory act of 1898, as far as it applies to textile
factories.
1901-1902: Child labor: p. 405-419.
1903-1904: Child labor: v. 1, p. 83-91. A general review of the conditions of employment of
children in the various industries.
1905-1906: Child labor in Minnesota: p. 269-342.
1907-1908: Child labor: p. 11-23; Statistics: p. 235-237. The child woman: the girl away
from home: p. 235-240.
1909-1910: Child labor: p. 7-8, 58-123; Messenger service: p. 609-610; Compulsory education
law: p. 611-613.
1911-1912: Child labor: p. 310-317.
1913-1914: Child labor legislation: p. 23-25; Report on women and children: p. 122-144.
308 Child labor bulletin no. 2. March, 1908. St. Paul, 1908. 1
pam. 23 cm . HD6250.U4M63
309 Special report of child-labor in Minnesota. 1905. Minneapolis,
Press of Murphy-Travis co. [1905] cover-title, 8 p. 22£ em .
I1D6250.U4M65 1905
310 Missouri. Bureau of labor statistics and inspection. Toilers of Missouri.
Statistics covering organized labor. Jefferson City [1911]. 236 p. plates,
ports, (partly fold.) 23 cm . HD6517.M8A4
Child labor problem, p. 145-147.
311 — Senate wage commission for women and children. Report to the
Senate of the 48th General assembly of Missouri. [Jefferson City?] 1915.
108 p. 23 cm . IID6061.M8
Michael Kinney, chairman.
312 Mitchell, John. Organized labor, its problems, purposes, and ideals, and the
present and future of American wage earners. Philadelphia, Pa., American
book and Bible house [1903] xii, 436 p. front., plates, ports. 23£ cm .
IID6508.M6
The work of women and children: p. 131-141.
30
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
313 Montgomery, Louise. The American girl in the stockyards district. Chi-
cago, 111., The University of Chicago press [1913] vi, 70 p. illus. (plan)
plates, diagrs. 24 cm . (A study of Chicago’s stockyards community . . . An
investigation carried on under the direction of the Board of the University of
Chicago settlement and the Chicago alumnae club of the University of Chi-
cago. ii) HN80.C5B6
314 Morgan, John H. Essentials in factory inspection. American academy of
political and social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1908, v. 32: 101-107.
Hl.A4,v.32
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 80. 7 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.80
315 Mosby, Thomas Speed. The problem of child idleness. North American
review, July 5, 1907, v. 185: 515-517. AP2.N7,v.l85
31G Murdoch, Mrs. W. L. Conditions of child employing industries in the South:
Alabama. Child labor bulletin, May, 1913, v. 2, no. 1: 124-128.
HD6250.U3N4,v.2
317 Murphy, Edgar Gardner. The child labor question in Alabama: a plea for
immediate action. National child labor committee. New York, 1908. Pam-
phlet no. 59. 12 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.59
318 Problems of the present South ; a discussion of certain of the educational,
industrial and political issues in the southern states. New York [etc.] Long-
mans, Green, and co., 1909. xi, 335 p. incl. tables. 20 cm . IJC107.A13M8
The industrial revival and child labor: p. 95-125; Child labor and the industrial South: p. 127,
149, 309-329.
319 Mussey, Mabel Hay B. Holding the mirror up to industry: The Philadelphia
exhibit. Charities and the Commons, Jan. 5, 1907, v. 17: 591-598.
HVl.C4,v.l7
320 National child labor committee, New York. [Child labor. Proceedings of
the first annual meeting.] Philadelphia, American academy of political and
social science, 1905. 1 p. 1., 221 p. 26 cm . (The annals of the American acad-
emy of political and social science, vol. xxv, no. 3) Hl.A4,v.25
Contents.— Child labor in the United States [by] F. Adler.— Child labor in southern industry
[by] A. J. McKelway. — Children in American street trades [by] M. E. Adams. — Thetest of effective
child labor legislation [by] O. R. Lovejoy. — Child labor legislation and methods of enforcement in
northern central states [by] H. Erickson. — Child labor legislation and enforcement in NewEngland
and the middle states [by] Mrs. Florence Kelley.— Child labor legislation in the South [by] N. L.
Anderson. — Child labor legislation and methods of enforcement in the western states [by] B. B.
Lindsey. — The work of the General federation of women’s clubs [by] Mrs. A. O. Granger. — The
operation of the new child labor law in New Jersey [by] H. F. Fox. — Child labor legislation [by]
Jane Addams. — Child labor from the employer’s point of view [by] E. G. Hirsch. — The school as
a force arrayed against child labor [by] J. H. Kirkland. — Proceedings of the annual meeting of the
National child labor committee.— Book department.— Municipal indebtedness: a symposium.
Also published as National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 2.
HD6250.U3N2, no.2
321 [Child labor a menace to industry, education and good citizenship.
Proceedings of the second annual meeting.] Philadelphia, American academy
of political and social science, 1906. 203 p. 26 cm . (The annals of the Ameri-
can academy of political and social science, vol. xxvn, no. 2)
Hl.A4,v.27
Contents. — Child labor in the southern cotton mills [by] A. J. McKelway. — Child labor at the
national capital [by] C. P. Neill. — Past and present arguments against child labor [by] J. G.
Brooks. — The physical and physiological effects of child labor [by] G. M. Kober. — The federal
government and the working children [by] Florence Kelley. — Child labor in the coal mines [by]
O. R. Lovejoy. — Child labor in the glass industry [by] O. R. Lovejoy. — The child labor problem—
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
31
a study in degeneracy [by) A. J. McKelway.— The operation of the Illinois child labor law [by]
Jane Addams. — Child labor a national problem [by] S. McC. Lindsay. — Organized labor’s attitude
toward child labor [by] S. Gompers. — Overwork, idleness or industrial education [by] W. Noyes.—
Parental responsibility for child labor [by] G. Taylor. — The operation of the Wisconsin child
labor law [by] E. W. Frost.— A business man’s view of child labor [by] S. W. Woodward. —
The essentials of a child labor law for the District of Columbia [by] H. J. Harris.— Proceedings
of the second annual meeting of the National child labor committee.— Civic organizations and
municipal parties— a symposium on reform organizations. — Book department.— Department of
philanthropy, charities and social problems.
Also published as National child labor committee, Pamphlet no. 20.
HD6250.U3N2,no.20
322 National child labor committee. Child labor. Proceedings of the third
annual meeting. Philadelphia, American academy of political and social
science, 1907. 243 p. illus. 26 cm . (The annals of the American academy
of political and social science, vol. xxix, no. 1) Hl.A4,v.29
Contents.— Poverty and parental dependence as an obstacle to child labor reform [by] H.
Folks.— The awakening of the South against child labor [by] A. J. McKelway. — Some of the ulti-
mate physical effects of premature toil [by] A . H . Freiberg. — Child labor in the soft coal mines [by]
O. R. Lovejoy. — The extent of child labor in the anthracite coal industry [by] O. R. Lovejoy.—
Obstacles to the enforcement of child labor legislation [by] Florence Kelley. — National protection
for children [by] Jane Addams.— The child labor laws of the Ohio Valley [by] J. H. Morgan.—
The child labor situtation in Ohio and border states [by] W. E. Miller.— Children in the glass
works of Illinois [by] Harriet Van der Vaart. — Child labor and the public schools [by] N. C.
Schaeffer.— The value of publicity in reform [by] A. T. Vance.— The enforcement of child labor
legislation in Illinois [by] E. T. Davies.— Child labor and the public schools [by] S. McC. Lind-
say.— Child labor and the public schools [by] C. W. Dabney. — Child labor and the nation [by]
A. J. Beveridge. — The difficulties of a factory inspector [by] E. T. Davies. — The enforcement of
child labor legislation [by] S. Cadwallader. — The attitude of society toward the child as an
index of civilization [by] F. Adler. — Reports from state and local child labor committees and
consumers’ leagues. — The struggle against preventable diseases.— A symposium.
Also published as National child labor committee, Pamphlet no. 40.
HD6250.U3N2,no.40
323 Child labor and social progress. Proceedings of the fourth annual meet-
ing of the National child labor committee. Philadelphia, The American
academy of political and social science, 1908. iv, 177 p. 26 cm . (Supple-
ment to the Annals of the American academy of political and social science.
July, 1908.) IIl.A4,v.32
Contents.— The basis of the anti-child labor movement in the idea of American civilization [by]
F. Adler.— The new view of the child [by] E. T. Devine.— Social cost of accident, ignorance and
exhaustion [by] C. R. Henderson.— The leadership of the child [by] A. J. McKelway.— Child labor
in New England [by] E. W. Lord.— Compulsory education, the solution of the child labor problem
[by] L. W. Parker. — Compulsory education in the South [by] G. F. Milton.— Why the children
are in the factory [by] J. M. Gordon. — The education of mill children in the South [by] A. E.
Seddon.— The function of education in abolishing child labor [by] O. R. Lovejoy. — Ethical and
religious aspects of child labor [by] J. H. Kirkland. — The duty of the people in child protection
[by] H. Smith. — Essentials in factory inspection [by] J. H. Morgan.— The responsibility of the
consumer for child labor [by] Florence Kelley.— Children on the streets of Cincinnati [by] E. N.
Clopper. — Reports from state and local child labor committees. — National child labor committee:
Abstract of secretary’s report and treasurer’s report. For the year ending Sept. 30, 1907. — •
Proceedings of the fourth annual meeting.
Also published as National child labor committee, Pamphlet no. 69.
HD6250.U3N2,no.69
324 The child workers of the nation. Proceedings of the fifth annual con-
ference, Chicago, Illinois, January 21-23, 1909. New York, 1909. iv, 256 p.
23 cm . [Pamphlet no. 94] HD6250.U3N2,no.94
tl The papers in this volume are reprinted from the March, 1909, supplement to the Annals of the
American academy of political and social science, in which they were originally published as the
Proceedings of the fifth annual conference on child labor held under the auspices of the National
child labor committee, Chicago, 111., January 21-23, 1909. ”
Contents.— Conserving childhood, by A. S. Draper.— (i) Duty of a rich nation to take care of her
children, by I. N. Seligman. (n) Duty of a rich nation to take care of her children, by C. R. Hen-
32
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR,
derson.— The federal Children’s bureau, a symposium, by L. D. Wald, Jane Addams, Leo Am-
stein, B. B. Lindsey, H. B. Favill, C. R. Henderson, Florence Kelley, S. McC. Lindsay. — Some
unsettled questions about child labor, by O. R. Lovejoy.— The child and the law, by A. J. McKel-
way.— Child labor in the textile industries and canneries of New England, by E. W. Lord. —
Child labor in the Ohio Valley states, bj^ E. N. Clopper.— Practical restrictions on child labor in
textile industries; higher educational and physical qualifications, by Howell Cheney.— Scholar-
ships for working children, by Mrs. Florence Kelley.— Some effects of improper posture in factory
labor, by A. H. Freiberg.— Child labor and the juvenile court, by J. A. Britton.— Overworked
children on the farm and in the school, by Woods Hutchinson. — Handicaps in later years from
child labor, by W. E. Harmon.— Accidents to working children, by E. W. He Leon.— Uniform
systems of child labor statistics, by John Williams.— The present situation in Illinois, by E. T.
Davies.— The forward step in Louisiana, by J. M. Gordon.— The difficulties of child-labor legis-
lation in a southern state, by J. R. McDowell. — Reports from state and local child labor com-
mittees.— National child labor committee, fourth annual report of the general secretary and
treasurer.— The proceedings of the fifth annual conference on child labor.— State and local com-
mittees in co-operation or affiliation with the National child labor committee. — Recent publica-
tions of the National child labor committee. — Members of the National child labor committee.
325 National child labor committee. Child employing industries. Proceedings
of the sixth annual meeting of the National child labor committee. Phila-
delphia, The American academy of political and social science, 1910. v, 274 p.
26 em . (Supplement to the Annals of the American academy of political and
social science. March, 1910) Hl.A4,v.35
HD6250.U3N2
Contents.— Annual address, by Felix Adler.— Child labor legislation in Massachusetts, by
Curtis Guild, jr. — Antagonistic forces — a symposium: 1. False economic ideas, by Charles F.
Smith; 2. Unequal laws an impediment to child labor legislation, by S. McC. Lindsay; 3. Indif-
ference of the church to child labor reform, by John Haynes Holmes; 4. Inadequate schools, by
Everett W. Lord.— Justice to the child, by Stephen S. Wise.— Children in the textile industry, by
John Golden.— The cotton mill a factor in the development of the South, by Mrs. J. Borden Harri-
man.— The mill or the farm, by A. J. McKelway. — “ Poor white folks,” by Hooper Alexander.—
The Federal children’s bureau, by Owen R. Lovejoy.— Vocation— a symposium, by Everett W.
Lord, David Snedden.— Enforcement of child labor laws, by Homer Folks.— Enforcement of child
labor laws in South Carolina, by E. J. Watson.— Enforcement of child labor laws in New Hamp-
shire, by Henry C. Morrison.— The health of young persons in Massachusetts factories, by William
C. Hanson.— Child labor statistics, by Fred S. Hall.— Proof-of-age records, by Jeanie V. Minor —
The Providence school census system, by Gilbert E. Whittemore.— The Massachusetts bureau of
statistics, by Frank S. Drown.— Child labor in street trades, by Edward N. Clopper.— Child labor
in home industries, by Mary Van Kleeck.— New England’s lost leadership, by Mrs. Florence
Kelley.— Child labor in canneries, by Pauline Goldmark.— Relation of National child labor com-
mittee to state and local committees, by Edward W. Frost..— Reports from state and local child
labor committees.— Reports from Southern states, by A. J. McKelway.— Annual report of the
general secretary.
326 Uniform child labor laws. Proceedings of the seventh annual confer-
ence of the National child labor committee. Philadelphia, The American
academy of political and social science, 1911. v, 224 p. 25 em . (Supplement
to the Annals of the American academy of political and social science. July,
1911) I!l.A4,v.38
HD6250.U3N3
Contents.— Child labor a menace to civilization— Annual address, by Felix Adler.— The con-
servation of childhood, by Theodore Roosevelt. — Standards proposed by United States commis-
sion on uniform laws, by A. T. Stovall.— What should we sacrifice to uniformity? by Florence
Kelley.— Seven years of child labor reform, by Owen R. Lovejoy.— The cotton mill: The Herod
among industries, by A. J. McKelway.— The public school and the day’s work, by Herman
Schneider.— Child labor on the stage— a symposium, by Jane Addams, Henry B. Favill, and Jean
M. Gordon.— Poverty and parental dependence in relation to child labor reform— a symposium:
1. Scholarships, by George A. Hall; 2. State child labor relief, by M. Edith Campbell; 3. The
dinner toter, by Charles L. Coon.— Exclusion of children from dangerous trades, by William C.
Hanson.— Child labor in street trades and public places— a symposium: 1. The nickel theatre, by
Maurice Willows; 2. The newsboy, by George A. Hall; 3. The night messenger boy, by Edward
N. Clopper; 4. Street trades and reformatories, by Richard K. Conant; 5. Street trades, by
Florence Kelley.— History of child labor reform in Alabama, by B. J. Baldwin.— Child labor legis-
lation in the Carolinas, by John P. Hollis.— Child labor in the Gulf coast canneries, by Lewis W.
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
33
Hine.— The glass industry and child labor legislation, by Charles L. Chute. — The coal mines of
Pennsylvania, by Owen R. Lovejoy.— New territory, by A. J. McKelway. — Ten years’ experience
in Illinois, by Jane Addams.— The forward movement in Missouri, West Virginia, and Indiana,
by Edward N. Clopper.— The state and the nation in child labor regulation, by William E.
Borah. — Reports from state and local child labor committees.— Annual report of the general
secretary.
327 National child labor committee. Child labor and education. [Proceedings
of the eighth annual conference] New York, National child labor committee
[1912] cover-title, 31., 223 p. diagrs. 23 cm . (The child labor bulletin, v. 1,
no. 1) IID6250.U3N4
Contents.— National aid to education, by Felix Adler.— A substitute for child labor, by P. r.
Claxton.— Child labor and vocational work in the public schools, JiyE.O. Holland.— C hild labor
and vocational guidance, by Helen T. Woolley. — Child labor and the future development of the
school, by C. G. Pearse.— The dangers and possibilities of vocational guidance, by Alice P. Bar-
rows. — Relation of industrial training to child labor, by W. E. Elson.— Economic value of educa-
tion, by M. Edith Campbell.— Need of compulsory education in the South, by W. H. Hand.— A
federal children’s bureau, by A. J. Peters.— Federal aid to education a necessary step in the solu-
tion of the child labor problem, by S. McC. Lindsay.— Part time schools, by Florence Kelley. —
Social cost of child labor, by J. P. Frey.— Child labor and democracy, by A. J. McKelway.—
Extending medical inspection from schools to mills, by G. F. Ross, M. D.— Child labor in the can-
neries of New York state, by Z. L. Potter.— How to interest young people, by Mrs. Frederick
Crane.— The educational test for working children, by R. K. Conant.— A legislative program for
South Carolina, by J. P. Hollis.— Rejuvenation of the rural school, by Ernest Burnham.— Rural
child labor, by J. M. Gillette.— Symposium: Unreasonable industrial burdens on women and
children, by Florence Kelley, Millie R. Trumbull, J. A. Ryan, Jean M. Gordon. — Report of the
general secretary for seventh fiscal year. — Proceedings of the eighth annual conference.
328 Child labor and poverty; the papers and addresses and discussions of the
ninth National conference on child labor, held at Jacksonville, Fla., March 13-
17, 1913, under the auspices of the National child labor committee. New York
city, National child labor committee [1913] 2 p. 1., 174 p. front. 23 cm .
(The child labor bulletin, v. 2, no. 1) HD6250.U3N4
Contents.— The child breadwinner and the dependent parent [by] Mrs. Florence Kelley.—
Child wages in the cotton mills [by] Dr. A. J. McKelway. — Child labor and need [by] M. L. Bos-
well.— Child labor and poverty: both cause and effect [by] J. A. Kingsbury.— Shall charitable
societies relieve family distress by finding work for children. Asymposium: i [by] R.T.Solen-
sten. n [by] M. H. Newell. — Ancient standards of child protection [by] Rabbi David Marx.—
Child labor and low wages [by] Jerome Jones. — The federal Children’s bureau [by] J. C. Lathrop.—
How to make child labor legislation more effective [by] Dr. S. McC. Lindsay.— From mountain
cabin to cotton mill [by] J. C. Campbell.— Social welfare and child labor in southern cotton mills
[by] Rev. C. E. Weltner.— The textile industry and child labor [by] R. K. Conant.— The cam-
paign in North Carolina. The mountain whites, by one of them [by] W. H. Swift.— The burden
on children in shrimp and oyster canneries [by] L. W. Hine.— Neglected human resources of Gulf
coast states [by] E. F. Brown.— Child labor and health [by] Dr. W. H. Oates.— Developing normal
men and women [by] J. M. Gordon.— Conditions in child employing industries in the South. A
symposium: Alabama: i [by] Mrs. W. L. Murdoch, n Mississippi: [by] Mrs. E. L. Bailey.
South Carolina: m [by] J. A. McCullough, iv [by] E. F. Brown.— An eight-hour day in a ten-
hour state [by] Henry Nichol.— Proceedings of the ninth National conference on child labor.
329 Child labor a national problem; proceedings of the tenth annual con-
ference Gil child labor, held at New Orleans, La., March 15-18, 1914, under the
auspices of the National child labor committee. New York city, National
child labor committee (incorporated) 1914. 2 p. 1., 200 p. 23 cm . (The child
labor bulletin, v. 3, no. 1) IIDG250.U3N4
Contents.— The child labor movement: a movement in the interests of civilization, by Felix
Adler; The need of a constructive appeal, by Jane Addams; Protection for American children,
by Florence Kelley; The abolition of child labor a national duty, by Felix Adler; National child
labor standards, by Samuel McCune Lindsay; Law without enforcement, by A. J. McKelway;
Child labor, a menace, by Pauline M. Newman; Enlightening the public, by Mrs. Percy V.
Pennypacker; The child in the street, by James H. Blenk, Archbishop of New Orleans; Why
overlook the street worker? by Edward N. Clopper; Cutting child labor out of the vicious circle,
by Owen R. Lovejoy; The high cost of child labor, by Lewis W. Hine; Neglected childhood and
defectiveness, by Alexander Johnson; Why it is hard to get good child labor laws in the South,
by Wiley H. Swift; A report from South Carolina, by Joseph A. McCullough; Child labor reform
44193°— 16 3
34
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR,
in Alabama, by Mrs. W. L. Murdoch; The last stand of the one business which opposes child
labor legislation in the South [cotton manufactures] by Wiley H. Swift; The eight-hour day in
Massachusetts factories, by Richard K. Conant; Tasks in the tenements, by Lewis W. Hine;
Ideal child labor in the home, by Jessie P. Rich; Sixteen years of childhood for Ohio girls, by
Ella M. Haas; Proper issuance of work permits, by George A. Hall; Woman’s place in law enforce*
ment, by Anna Herkner; European and American methods of training factory inspectors, by
Herschel H. Jones; Enforcing officials and the courts, by Mornay Williams; Newspapers and
child labor, by Anna Rochester; Cooperation of the schools in reducing child labor, by Frank M.
Leavitt; Heckling the schools, by Edward N. Clopper; Agricultural labor and school attendance,
by Harry M. Bremer; What is a child worth? by Josephine J. Eschenbrenner; Present needs and
activities of the National child labor committee, by Owen R. Lovejoy; Proceedings of tenth
annual conference; Directory of state and local child committees,
330 National child labor committee. Proceedings of the eleventh annual con-
ference. Part 1, held at Washington, D. C., Jan. 1915. Part 2, held at San
Francisco, Cal., May, 1915. New York, National child labor committee, 1915.
131 p. 23 cm . (The child labor bulletin, v. 4, no. 1, 2) HD6250.U3N4
Contents.— Part 1. Child labor and illiteracy, by Mrs. Florence Kelley; Cooperative administra-
tion of child labor laws, by A. Herkner; Effect of uniform labor standards on interstate competi-
tion, by H. P. Kendall; Demand for a square deal for the cotton manufacturers of the South, by
David Clark, with discussion; Symposium on a national child’s charter; Some secondary con-
siderations, by W. H. Swift; Precedents for federal child labor legislation, by T. I. Parkman.
Part 2. The child labor movement, by Felix Adler; Social responsibility for child labor, by Bishop
Edwin H. Hughes; Enforcement in Wisconsin, by James D. Beck; Federal control of child labor,
by Owen R. Lovejoy; Responsibility of the federal government, by Mrs. Florence Kelley; Child
labor in the West; Some local child labor problems in California, by Lewis W. Hine; A charter for
childhood: New ideals in the schools, Jessica B. Peixotto; The right to play, by E. D. DeGroot;
The seven sins of child labor, by Felix Adler.
330a Proceedings of the twelfth annual conference on child labor, Asheville,
N. C., February 3-6, 1916. New York, National child labor committee, 1916
78 p. 23cm. (The child labor bulletin, v. 5, no. 1.)
Contents. — Vocational scholarships, by Lillian D. Wald; Attempted child labor legislation in
North Carolina, by Zebulon Weaver; True preparedness in greater protection to childhood, by
Samuel McCune Lindsay; Moving forward in Alabama, by Mrs. W. L. Murdoch; The effects of
child labor on social standards, by Mrs. Thomas W. Lingle; The effect of child labor upon com-
munity life, by Eunice Sinclair; Pan-American child welfare, by Edward N. Clopper; Organized
labor and child labor reform, by James F. Barrett; The citizen and the National child labor commit-
tee, by Josephine J. Eschenbrenner; Two conceptions of child employment, by Wiley H. Swift;
Federal child labor legislation, by Edward Keating; Child labor in North Carolina, by Dr. George
T. Winston; What will be left for the States to do after the Keating bill becomes a law? by Florence
Kelley.
331 8th-llth annual reports of the general secretary. Owen R. Lovejoy.
Child labor bulletin, Nov. 1912, v. 1; 1-25; Nov. 1913, v. 2: 12-32; Nov. 1914,
v. 3: 8-29; Nov. 1915, v. 4: 144-154. HD6250.U3N4
For earlier reports see Proceedings of the committee.
332 An address to the citizens of twelve states on the child labor laws you
should enact in 1914. Child labor bulletin, Nov. 1913, v. 2, no. 3: 33-43.
HD6250.U3N4,v.2
333 The campaign against child labor; a monthly department officially fur-
nished. Woman’s home companion, ‘Jan.-Oct. 1907, v. 34: 24; 58-59; 46-47;
28; 24, 57; 22; 20; 22; 25; 13. AP2.W714,v.34
334 Can we afford child labor? Including the exhibit handbook prepared
to accompany the twenty-five panel exhibit at the exposition in San Francisco.
New York city, National child labor committee, incorporated, 1915. 48 p.
illus., diagrs. 22 } om . (The child labor bulletin, v. 3, no. 4)
HD6250.U3N4
Contents.— Notes. -Book review [by] Anna Rochester.— Gilds at work and why they work [by]
Helen C. Dwight. — Child flower-makers in New York tenements [by] Eleanor H. Adler.— What
the government says about cotton mills [by] Anna Rochester and Florence Taylor.— The high cost
of child labor; exhibit handbook, with photographs by the staff photographer, Lewis W. Hine.
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR,
35
335 National child labor committee. Child labor, a study course on its extent,
causes, effects, and prevention. New York city, National child labor com-
mittee [1912?] 40 p. '23 cm . (National child labor committee. Pamphlet
no. 183)
336 The child labor bulletin. Pub. by National child labor committee.
v. 1, June, 1912-v. 5, May, 1916. New York, 1912-1916. 5 v. 23 cm .
I1D6250.U3N4
337 Child labor facts for sermon use. New York city, 1915. 4 p. 23 cm .
(Its Pamphlet no. 239, Jan. 1915) HD6250.U3N2,no.239
338 Child labor in 1912. New York, National child labor committee, 1912.
84 p. 23 cm . (The child labor bulletin, v. 1, no. 3) HD6250.U3N4,v.l
Contents. — Child labor in 1912. Eighth annual report of National child labor committee.—
Home work in the tenement houses of New York city, by Owen R. Lovejoy; Elizabeth C. Wat-
son.— Employment of children on the stage, by Owen R. Lovejoy. A study course on child labor.
339 Child labor, statistics, causes, effects, prevention. New York city
[1912?] 22 p. 23 cm . ( Its Pamphlet no. 185)
340 Child labor stories for children. New York city, National child labor
committee [1913] 81 p. illus. (1 col.) 23 cm . (The child labor bulletin, v. 2,
no. 2) HD6250.U3N4,v.2
Contents. — A song of the factory [by] J. F. Montague. — The story of the medicine bottle. —
Hymn for the working children [by] Fanny J. Crosby. — The story of my cotton dress. — Dolly
dear. — Mr. Coal’s story. — “To little sister.” — Declaration of dependence. — The toll. — Two little
members. — What some children have done for the working children. — The story of old [by] Jemima
Luke.— We need love’s tender lesson taught [by] Whittier.— Child labor in Georgia, a story for
grownups [by] A. J. McKelway.
341 Child labor ten years after. New York, National child labor committee,
1914. 75 p. 23 cm . (Child labor bulletin, v. 3, no. 3)
HD6250.U3N4,v.3
Contents. — Editorial notes; Tenth annual report of the General secretary; The extent of child
labor officially measured, by Edward N. Clopper; Child labor and delinquency, by Fred S. Hall;
Children who weave silk, by Eleanor H. Adler; Mortality among cotton operatives, by Florence
Taylor; Dangerous machines in the metal trades, by Helen C. Dwight.
342 : Child labor in canneries . . . with other special articles. New York
city, National child labor committee, 1913. 3 p. 1., 95 p. incl. plates, maps.
23 cm . (The child labor bulletin, v. 1, no. 4) HD6250.U3N4,v.l
Contents. — Child labor and poverty: advance program of the 9th National conference on child
labor. — The important provisions of existing child labor laws. — Child labor in New York canning
factories [by] E. F. Brown. — Day and night in a vegetable canning factory: a personal experi-
ence [by] J. J. Eschenbrenner. — Photographic reproductions of children in fruit and vegetable,
oyster, and shrimp canneries.— Child labor and health [by] O. R. Lovejoy.— Some dangers in the
present movement for industrial education [by] John Dewey. — Overwork, idleness or industrial
education [by] William Noyes. — The child that toileth not; a reply to Mi’. Dawley.
343 The clinker, and some other children. New York, National child
labor committee, incorporated, 1914. 62 p. illus., pi. 23 cm .
“Stories and verse about children who work. ” — Foreword. HD6250.U3N5 1914
344 Constitution. American academy of political and social science,
Annals, Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38:202-207. Hl.A4,v.38
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 148. 4 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l48
345 The eight-hour day and prohibition of night work. American academy
of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1910, v. 35:239-274.
Hl.A4,v.35
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 137. 36 p.
HD6250.U3N2.no.137
36
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
346 National child labor committee. The federal child labor bill; program of
tenth annual conference on child labor, New Orleans, La., March 15-18,1914,
with a copy of the federal child labor bill and a memorandum on its constitu-
tionality. New York city, National child labor committee, 1914. 79 p. illus.,
col. diagr. 23 cm . (The child labor bulletin, v. 2, no. 4) HD6250.U3N4
Contents. — Editorial notes.— Program of tenth annual conference on child labor. — Federal
government and child labor, and memorandum on the Palmer child labor bill [by] O. R. Love-
joy.— Ten years of child labor reform in the South [by] A. J. McKelway. — The eight-hour day
[by] Anna Rochester.— The majesty of the law in Mississippi [by] E. N. Clopper.— Present condi-
tions in the South [by] L. W. Hine.— Strawberry pickers of Maryland [by] H. M. Bremer.— The
work of England’s certifying surgeons [by] H. H. Jones.
347 High cost of child labor . . . exhibit- handbook. [New York city,
1915] 20 p. 23 cm . ( Its Pamphlet no. 241, Jan. 1915)
HD6250.U3N2,no.241
High cost of child labor. Reprint of exhibit handbook. Child labor bulle-
tin, Feb. 1915, v. 3: 25-45. HD6250.U3N4,v.3
348 How to obtain foreign birth certificates. National child labor commit-
tee. New York, 1909. Pamphlet no. 116. 8p. HD6250.U3N2,no.ll6
349 Leaflets] New York, 1904-1913. 38 pams. illus. 15£ cm .
HD6250.U3N19
350 Little comrades who toil. New York city, 1914. 84 p. 23 cm . (Child
labor bulletin, Aug. 1914, v. 3, no. 2, pt. 1) HD6250.U3N4,v.3
351 Pamphletjs]. National child labor committee. New York, 1905-1916.
260 pams. illus. 23-24 cm . IID6250.U3N2
The pamphlets, which are consecutively numbered, comprise addresses and proceedings
(reprinted from the “Proceedings”), annual reports, etc.
352 Stories about the other child. [New York, 1913] 79 p. 25 cm . (Sup-
plement to the Child labor bulletin, v. 2, no. 3, Dec. 1913)
HD6250.U3N4,v.2
353 The voice of the church against child labor. National child labor com-
mittee. New York, 1908. Pamphlet no. 89. [4] p. HD6250.U3N2,no.89
354 National conference of charities and correction. Proceedings. Boston
[etc.] 1875-1915. ports., map, tables. 22^-24 cm .
A guide to the study of charities and correction by means of the Pro-
ceedings of the National conference of charities and correction, using thirty-four
volume 1874 to 1907. Comp, by Alexander Johnson. [Indianapolis?] 1908.
xi, 353 p. 23 cm . HV88.A3
Child labor: p. 144-150. See also Indexes to subsequent volumes.
355 National consumers’ league. The consumer’s control of production: the
work of the National consumers’ league. Philadelphia, The American acad-
emy of political and social science, 1909. 1 p. L, 83 p. 25£ cm . (Supplement
to the Annals of the American academy of political and social science. July,
1909) HD6957.U6N3
HI.A4,v.34
Partial contents.— Work at night by girls and boys under 21 years. The eight hours day for
working children. Investigations, (a) The standard of living of working girls and women away
from home, (b) Children illegally at work.
356 National federation of settlements. Young working girls; a summary of
evidence from two thousand social workers, ed. by Robert A. Woods and Albert
J. Kennedy, its secretaries; with an introduction by Jane Addams. Boston
and New York, Houghton Mifflin company, 1913. xiii, 185, [1] p. 19| cm .
HQ798.N3
357 Nearing, Scott. The history of a Christmas box. Charities and the Commons,
Dec. 29, 1906, v. 17: 555-558. HVl.C4,v.l7
358
359
3G0
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
37
Nearing, Scott. Social adjustment. New York, The Macmillan company;
1911. xvi-p., 1 1., 377 p. 19Y m . HN64.N42
Child labor, p. 243-265.
— Social religion; an interpretation of Christianity in terms of modern life.
New York, The Macmillan company, 1913. xvi p., 2 1., 227 p. 19J cm .
The factory child: p. 73-88. HN31.N4
The solution of the child labor problem. New York, Moffat, Yard and
company, 1911. viii, 145 p. 18Y m - HD6231.N4
Neill, Charles Patrick. Child labor at the national capital. [Philadelphia?
1906?] 11 p. 23 cm . HD6250.U4D6 1906a
Also published as National child labor committee. Pamphletno. 20, p. 12—22;
Pamphlet no. 21. 11 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.20,21
Charities and the Commons, Mar. 3, 1906, v. 15: 795-800. IiVl.C4,v.l5
{In TJ. S. Congress. House. Committee on the District of Columbia.
Report of hearings . . . 1906, ... to regulate child labor in the District of
Columbia . . . Washington, 1906. 23 cm . p. 55-59) LC132.D6A3
New Jersey. Bureau of statistics of labor and industries. 26th
Annual report, 1903. Trenton, 1903. illus. 23f cm . HC107.N5A2
The social aspect of child labor in New Jersey, 1903: p. 241-421.
Inspector of child labor. Annual report, 1st, 1883. Trenton, N. J.,
1883. 1 v. 22i° m . IID6250.U4N5
New York {State) Bureau of labor statistics. Conditions of entrance and
advancement in individual industries. {In its 26th annual report, 1908. Pt.
1: p. 51-189) HC107.N7A3 1908
Factory investigating commission. Preliminary report. Trans-
mitted to the Legislature March 1, 1912. Albany, The Argus company,
printers, 1912. 3v. plates (part fold.) diagrs. 23 cm . HD8053.N7A4 1912
Robert F. Wagner, chairman.
The appendices are issued also separately, as reprints.
Child labor: Extent of child labor in New York state: v. 1, p. 101-106; Appendix VII: Home
work in the tenement houses of New York city, Memoranda by Owen R. Lovejoy, Elizabeth C.
Watson; Photographs: p. 571-584. Answers to Questionnaire on Employment of women and
children: p. 646-649. See also Index of witnesses: v. 2, p. iii-xxvi for references to child labor.
— Second report. Transmitted to the Legislature January 15, 1913.
Albany, J. B. Lyon company, printers, 1913. 2 v. plates, plans, diagrs. (part
fold.) 23 cm . [Legislature, 1913. Senate doc. 36] HD8053.N7A5 1913
Robert F. Wagner, chairman.
Report: Child labor in the canneries: p. 127-143; Child labor: p. 176-192. Report on manu-
facturing in tenements in New York state, by Elizabeth C. Watson, v. 2, p. 667-755; Industrial
conditions in the canning industry of New York state, by Z. L. Potter, v. 2, p. 757-915; Prelimi-
nary report on employment of women and children in mercantile establishments, by Pauline
Goldmark and George A. Hall, v. 2, p. 1193-1270.
See also Indexes to Third and Fourth reports.
New York child welfare exhibit, 1911. Handbook of the New York child
welfare exhibit in the 71st regiment armory from Jan. 18 to Feb. 12, 1911.
[New York, Blanchard press, 1911] 82 p. illus. 21 cm . HV709.N5 1911
Work and wages, p. 33-35.
Newell, Mary H. Shall charitable societies relieve family distress by finding
work for children? Child labor bulletin, May, 1913, v. 2, no. 1: 39-41.
HD6250.U3N4,v.2
Nichol, Henry. An eight-hour day in a ten-hour state [Tennessee]. Child
labor bulletin, May, 1913, v. 2, no. 1: 142-144. HD6250.U3N4,v.2
38 LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
370 North Carolina. Bureau of labor and printing. Annual report. 20th-
27th. 1906-1913. Raleigh, N. C. [etc.] 1906-1913. 8 v. plates, tables.
24| cm . HC107.N8A2
1906-1908: Contain letters from wage-earners, manufacturers, mill men, editors and publishers,
and farmers in regard to child labor.
1913: Statistics of average wages paid children, 1899-1912: p. 210-212.
371 Noyes, William. Overwork, idleness, or industrial education? American
academy of political and social science, Annals, Mar. 1906, v. 27: 342-353.
Hl.A4,v.27
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 20, p. 84-95; Pamphlet
• no. 32. 2d ed. 1907. 12 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.20;no.32
372 Obenauer, Marie Louise, and Mary Conyngton. Employment of children
in Maryland industries. {In U. S. Bureau of labor. Bulletin, Sept. 1911,
no. 96: 466-4S7) HD8051.A5,no.96
373 — and Bertha von der Nienburg. Effect of minimum-wage determi-
nations in Oregon. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1915. 108 p. 23 em . (Bul-
letin of the United States Bureau of labor statistics, whole no. 176. Women in
industry series, no. 6) HD8051.A62,no.l76
Issued also as House doc. 1709, TJ. S., 63d Cong., 3d sess. Rates of pay before and after minimum-
wage determinations of girls under 18 years of age: p. 19-20.
374 Ohio. Industrial commission. Dept, of investigation and statistics.
Industrial accidents in Ohio, January 1, 1914, to June 30, 1915. Columbus, O. ,
1916. 231 p. 23| cm . {Its Report no. 21)
Also forms Bulletin of the Industrial commission, v. 3, no. 1, Mar. 1, 1916.
Includes statistics of accidents to minors under 18 years of age.
375 Oregon. Board of inspectors of child labor. Report. Salem, Or. 1913-15.
2 v. 23 cm . HD6250.U4O7
376 Child welfare commission. Biennial report, 1913-14. [Portland?
Or.] 1915. 23 em .
377 Industrial welfare commission. Biennial report. 1st, 1913-14,
Salem, Or., 1915. 15 p. 23 cm . HD6G93.072
378 Pennsylvania. Governor, 1915. (Martin G. Brumbaugh) Inaugural
address, Jan. 19, 1915. Harrisburg, Pa., W. S. Ray, 1915. 11 p. 23 cm .
Child labor recommendations: p. 9. J87.P42 1915 Jan. 19
379 Pennsylvania child labor committee. Child labor and the people of Penn-
sylvania. Third annual report, 1906-7. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania child
labor committee 1907. 31 p. 15| cm . (Child labor leaflet, no. 2)
HD6250.U4P6
380 Pennsylvania three-ply child labor campaign. Survey, Mar. 18, 1911, v. 25:
993-994. HVl.C4,v.25
Glass factories: messengers: mines.
381 Pratt, E. E Child labor: a rational statement. Arena, June, 1907, v. 37:
613-619. AI*2.A6,v.37
382 Pray, K. L. M. Child labor, mothers, and manufacturers. Survey, Mar. 27,
1915, v. 33: 865. HVl.C4,v.33
383 The Problem of child labor with special reference to Philadelphia. Addresses
by Samuel Zane Batten; Charles Edwin Fox; Henry J. Gideon; Joseph II.
Hegedorn; and Mrs. Florence Kelley. City club of Philadelphia. City club
bulletin, Feb. 5, 1913, v. 6: 216-224. . JS1216.C47,v.6
384 Progressive party. New York. Legislative committee. Statement as
to the official proposal of the National progressive party in the state of New
York for a minimum wage act (also containing the text of the party’s official
bill) prepared for introduction into the Legislature of the state of New York.
[New York] The Legislative committee of the National progressive party in the
state of New York, 1913. 14 p. 23 cm . [Its Publications, 6] HD4918.P8
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
39
Rauchberg, Heinrich. Die Erhebung iiber Frauen- und Kinderarbeit in den
Vereinigten Staaten. Archiv fur soziale Gesetzgebung und Statistik, 1898,
v. 12: 135-147. H5.A8,v.l2
Rhode Island. Bureau of industrial statistics. Fifth annual report, 1891.
Providence: E. L. Freeman & son, 1892. xiv, 191 p. 23 cm .
HC107.R4A2 1891
Contents. — Laws of the several states relative to the employment and education of children,
p. 3-21; Opinions and remarks of superintendents, members of committees, principals and
teachers of schools, clergymen, and physicians relative to child labor, p. 22-62; Census of children
employed by occupations, age, place of birth, parent nativity, and sex, p. 63-165; Wages of
children, p. 166-181; School attendance and absentees, p. 185— i88.
Richmond, Mary Ellen. The good neighbor in the modern city. Philadel-
phia and London, J. B. Lippincott company, 1907. 152 p., 11. 16| cm . (Sage
foundation publication) HV4028.R53
The child at work, p. 44-53.
Roberts, Peter. Child labor in eastern Pennsylvania. Outlook, Dec. 17,
1904, v. 78: 982-985. AP2.08, v.78
Robinson, Clarence C. The wage-earning boy. New York [etc.] Association
press, 1912. 108 p. 17% cm .
Bibliography: p. [106J-108.
Rochester, Anna. The eight-hour day for children. National child labor
committee. New York, 1914. Pamphlet no. 212. 16 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.212
Reprinted from Child labor bulletin, Feb. 1914, v. 2, no. 4.
HD6250.U3N4,v.2
— ; — What do American people want for their children? Survey, Apr. 11,
1914, v. 32: 49. ' HVl.C4,v.32
Roosevelt, Theodore. The conservation of childhood. American academy
of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38: 8-16.
Hl.A4,v.38
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 163. 8 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l63
The conservation of womanhood and childhood. Outlook, Dec. 23,
1911, v. 99: 1013-1019. AP2.08,v.99
The conservation of womanhood and childhood. New York and London,
Funk & Wagnalls company, 1912. 2 p. 1., 84 p. 14^ cm . [The leather-bound
pocket series] HD6095.R7
Where I stand on child labor reform. Woman’s home companion, Jan.
1907, v. 34: 15. AP2.W714,v.34
Roseboro, Viola and Marie Best. ‘Nora Mahoney — a human document: a
true story of child slavery in Philadelphia. Woman’s home companion, Aug.
1906, v. 33: 3-4. AP2.W714,v.33
Ross, William Edward. What do you care? Pearson’s magazine, Apr. 1913,
v. 29: 482. AP2.P35,v.29
National child labor committee, New York. Leaflet no. 49, Sept. 1913.
HD6250.U3N19,no.49
Sanville, F. L. Daybreak for Pennsylvania’s working children. Survey, Feb.
6, 1915, v. 33: 481-486. HVl.C4,v.33
Seligman, Isaac N. Duty of a rich nation to take care of her children. Ameri-
can academy of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1909,
v. 33: 15-19. Hl.A4,v.33
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 111. 5 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.lll
40
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
400 Sewall. Hannah It. Child labor in the United States. U. S. Bureau of labor.
Bulletin, May, 1904, no. 52: 485-637. HD8051.A5,no.52
401 Smith, Charles F. False economic ideas: an obstacle to child labor reform.
American academy of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar.
1910, v. 35: 13-15. IIl.A4,v.35
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 133. 3 p.
HD6250.U3N2, no.133
402 Smith, Hoke. The duty of the people in child protection. American academy
of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1908, a/. 32: 97-100.
Hl.A4,y.32
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 79. 4 p.
HD6250.U3N2, no.79
403 Smyth, Ellison A. Child labor in the South. Outlook, Mar. 30, 1907, v. 85:
769-771. AP2.08,v.85
404 Solensten, R. T. Shall charitable societies relieve family distress by finding
work for children? Child labor bulletin, May, 1913, v. 2, no. 1: 35-39.
HD6250.U3N4,v.2
405 Sorge, F. A. Frauen- und Kinderarbeit in den Vereinigten Staaten. Neue
Zeit, Mar. 5, 12, 1904, 22. Jahrg.: 716-723; 757-765. IiX6.N6,v.22
406 Southern conference on woman and child labor. [Proceedings] 1913.
[Memphis, 1913] 24 p. 23 cm .
407 Spahr, Charles B. America’s Avorking people. New York, London, and Bom-
bay, Longmans, Green and co., 1900. vi p., 1 1., 261 p. 20 cm . HD8072.S72
Factory towns in New England: Child labor: p. 8-9; Child labor at the South: p. 36-41.
408 Spargo, John. The bitter cry of the children; AAdth an introduction by Robert
Hunter. New York, London, The Macmillan company, 1906. xxiii, 337 p.
front., plates, facsim., diagrs. 20 cm . HV713.S7
The Avorking child: p. 125-217; Remedial measures: Child labor: p. 256-.260; A commissioner
of charities on child labor: p. 305-306; Notes and authorities; The working child: p. 314-319.
409 Stratton, George Frederic. The man behind the child. Outlook, Sept. 20,
1913, v. 105: 137-140. AP2.O8,v.l05
AnsAvered by A. J. McKelway. The child against the man.
410 Sumner, Mary BroAvn. What the government found when it broadened out
its interest in boll-A\ r eevils and began to study children. Survey, Dec. 16,
1911, v. 27: 1375-1377. HVl.C4,v.27
411 SAvan, Charles Herbert. Le travail des enfants aux Etats-Unis d’Amerique.
Revue economique internationale, July, 1906, v. 3: 69-115.
IIB3.R5,1906,v.3
412 SAvift, W. H. The campaign in North Carolina. The mountain whites — by one
of them. Child labor bulletin, ifray, 1913, v. 2, no. 1: 96-104.
HD6250.U3N4,v.2
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 200, 1913.
II D6250 . U3N2, no . 200
413 Talbert, Ernest Lynn. Opportunities in school and industry for. children of
the stockyards district. Chicago [University of Chicago press] 1912. vi, 64 p.
24|- cm . (A study of Chicago’s stockyards community ... an investigation
carried on under the direction of the Board of the University of Chicago
settlement. 1) HN80.C5B6
414 Taylor, Graham. Parental responsibility for child labor. American academy
of political and social science, Annals, Mar. 1906, v. 27: 354-356.
Hl.A4,v.27
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 20, p. 96-98; Pamphlet no.
33. 2d ed. 1907. 3 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.20;no.33
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
41
415 Tennessee. Dept, of shop and factory inspection. First annual report.
v. 1 and suppl. Nashville, Tenn., Benson ptg. co., 1914. 2 v. 22| fim .
HD3663.T2A2&suppl.
Special child labor report — Results of enforcement of minor labor laws: suppl. p. 6-13.
416 Todd, Helen M. Why the children work. The children’s answer. McClure’s
magazine, Apr. 1913, v. 40: 68-79. AP2.M2,v.40
417 Tompkins, Juliet Wilbor. Turning children into dollars. Success magazine,
Dec. 1905, v. 8: 799-801, 859-860; Jail. 1906, v. 9: 15-17, 45-56.
HF5386.A2S4,v.8,9
418 Towson, C. R. The employer of boys. (In Applied ideals in work with boys,
by C. W. Crampton, and others. New York, 1910. 18 cm . p. 239-256)
IIQ797.A7
419 TJlm, Aaron Hardy. The plea of the child laborer. North American review,
June, 1909, v. 189: 890-899. AP2.N7,v.l89
420 TJ. S. Bureau of labor. Index of all reports issued by bureaus of labor statis-
tics in the United States, prior to March 1, 1902. Washington, Govt, print, off.,
1902. 287 p. 23~2 cm . Z7164.L1U6
IID8053.A25 1902
Contains references to the material on child labor contained in the various reports.
421 Report on condition of woman and child wage-earners in the
United States. In 19 volumes. Prepared under the direction of Chas. P.
Neill, commissioner of labor. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1910-13. 19 v.
tables. 23 cm . (61st Cong., 2d sess. Senate. Doc.645) IID6093.A4
Contents.— i. Cotton textile industry. 1910.— ir. Men’s ready-made clothing. 1911.— m.
Glass industry. 1911.— iv. The silk industry. 1911— v. Wage-earning women in stores and fac-
tories. 1910. — vi. The beginnings of child labor legislation in certain states; a comparative study
... by Elizabeth Lewis Otey. 1910.— vir. Conditions under which children leave school to go
to work. 1910.— vm. Juvenile delinquency and its relation to employment. 1911.— ix. History
of women in industry in the United States ... by Helen L. Sumner. 1910.— x. History of
women in trade unions ... by John B. Andrews and W. D. P. Bliss. 1911.— xi. Employment
of women in the metal trades ... by Lucian W. Chaney. 1911.— xu. Employment of women in
laundries. 1911.— xm. Infant mortality and its relation to the employment of mothers. 1912. —
xiv. Causes of death among woman and child cotton-mill operatives ... by Arthur R. Perry,
M. D. 1912.— xv. Relation between occupation and criminality of women, by Mary Conyngton.
1911.— xvi. Family budgets of typical cotton-mill workers . . . by Wood F. Worcester and Daisy
Worthington Worcester. 1911. — xvn. Hookworm disease among cotton-mill operatives ... by
Ch. Wardell Stiles. 1912.— xvm. Employment of women and children in selected industries.
1913. — xix. Labor laws and factory conditions. 1912.
422 Work and wages of men, women, and children. Washington,
Govt, print, off., 1897. 671 p. 23 cm . (Annual report of the commissioner of
labor, 11th, 1895-96) IID8051.A3 1895-96
Carroll D. Wright, commissioner.
Issued also in the Congressional series, no. 3545, as House Doc. 341, 54th Cong., 2d sess.
Contains statistics relative to the occupations and earnings of women and children; relative
elficiency of women and children and of men engaged in same occupations; comparison of earn-
ings of women and children and of men of the same grade of efficiency; reasons for the employment
of women and girls.
423 Bureau of labor statistics. Summary of the report on condition of
woman and child wage earners in the United States. December, 1915. Wash-
ington, Govt, print, off., 1916. 445 p. 23 cm . (Bulletin of the United States
Bureau of labor statistics, whole no. 175. Women in industry series, no. 5)
HD8051.A62,no.l75
424 Children’s bureau. Annual report. lst-3d, 1913-1915. Washington,
Govt, print, off., 1914-16. 3 v. 23 cm HV741.A3
1913: Child labor studies: p. 9-10, 14-15.
1914: Child labor: p. 11-12.
1915: Physical standards for industry: p. 21-24.
42
LIST OF REFERENCES 0 N CHILD LABOR.
425 TJ. S. Industrial commission. Reports. Washington, Government print-
ing office, 1900-1902. 19 v. 23 cm . HC101.A3
Vols, 5, 7, 9, 12—1 7, 19, contain Evidence, etc., on child labor.
426 Valesh, Eva McDonald. Three notable lines of labor work. American
federationist, Nov. 1901, v. 8: 457-462. HD8055.A5A2,v.8
Child labor, p. 459-462.
427 Van Vorst, Bessie 11 Mrs. John Van Vorst.” The cry of the children;
human documents in the case of the new slavery. Saturday evening post, Mar.
10, Apr. 14, 28. May 5, 19, July 7, 28, Aug. 18, 1906, v. 178: 1-3, 28-29; 3-5;
10-11; 11-13; 12-13; 26-27; v. 179: 12-13; 17-18; 17-18.
AP2.S2,v.l78,179
428 The cry of the children; a study of child-labor; with an introduction by
Albert J. Beveridge. New York, Moffat, Yard and company, 1908. xiii,
9-246 p. 19Y m HD6250.U3V3
429 and Marie Van Vorst. The woman who toils; being the experiences
of two ladies as factory girls. New York, Doubleday, Page & company, 1903.
ix p., 3 1 ., 303 p. front., plates, ports. 20-| cm . HD6068.Y2
Contents.— Van Vorst, Mrs. J.: Introductory. In a Pittsburg factory. Perry, a New York
mill town. Making clothing in Chicago. The meaning of it all.— Van Vorst, M.: Introductory.
A maker of shoes at L ynn. The southern cotton mills. The child in the southern mills .
The Library of Congress has also the French ed. HD6068.V23
430 Wald, L. D. Children and work. Atlantic monthly, June, 1915, v. 115: 806-
817. AP2.A8,v.ll5
431 Walling, William English. Child labor in the North: a great national evil.
Ethical record, Dec. 1902-Jan. 1903, v. 4: 39-42. BJl.E6,v.4
432 Watson, E. J. South Carolina and the child labor problem. An address at
Boston, Jan. 14, 1910, before the National child labor conference. (In South
Carolina. General assembly. Reports and resolutions. Columbia, S. C.,
1910. 24 Rm . v. 3, p. 379-388.) J87.S6 1910p,v.3
433 Watson, Frank D. The child labor situation in Pennsylvania. Charities and
the Commons, Mar. 30, 1907, v. 17: 1110-1112. HVl.C4,v.l7
434 Waudby, William S. Children of labor. Frank Leslie’s popular monthly,
Apr. 1903. v. 55: 545-556. AP2.A346,v.55
435 Wayne, Flynn. Shall our children be foot-pounds of mechanical power?
National magazine, Boston, Apr. 1914, v. 40: 147-150. AP2.N34,v.40
436 Weaver, Eli W. Getting in touch with the employer. Journal of education,
Apr. 10, 1913, v. 77: 396-398. Lll.J5,v.77
437 Wells, Emilie Louise. Woman and child wage earners in the United States.
American economic review, June, 1912, v. 2: 436-442. HBl.E26,v.2
438 Weyl, Walter Edward and A. M. Sakolski. Conditions of entrance to the
principal trades. (In U. S. Bureau of labor. Bulletin 67. Washington,
1906, p. 680-780) HD8051.A5,no.67
The employment of women and children: p. 720-731.
439 White, Frank Marshall. The babies who work. Harper’s weekly, Jan. 8,
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440 White child slavery; a symposium: I. Helen Campbell. II. Solomon Schind-
ler. III. Florence' Kelley Wischnewetzsky. IV. Jennie June (Jane C.
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441
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443
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
43
Willoughby, William Franklin, i. Child labor, by William F. Willoughby,
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The first paper by William F. Willoughby is treated under the following divisions: Introduc-
tion. Child labor in England. Child labor in the United States. The political economy of
child labor, and Social aspect of child labor.
Wilmarth, Raymond O. Child labor, District of Columbia. Survey, Sept. 11,
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Wilmer, C. B. Humanity and economics, with special reference to child labor.
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Wisconsin. Bureau of labor and industrial statistics. Biennial report.
Madison, 1884-1911. 23| cm . HC107.W6A2
8th, 1897-98: Special inspections; Child labor: p. 490-554.
9th, 1899-1900: Child labor in the United States: p. 264-406.
14th, 1909-1910: Child labor in Wisconsin: p. 499-574.
15th, 1910-11: Child labor: p. 59-96.
Child labor. [From the Ninth biennial report of the Bureau of
labor and industrial statistics of Wisconsin] Madison, Democrat printing com-
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Child labor in England, p. 275-286. HD6250.U4W6 1900
Child labor in Wisconsin during 1898 and 1899, p. 287-384.
“The child labor law and the state as parens patriae. By August Charles Backus”: p. 385-404.
Industrial commission. Bulletin, v. i. Madison, Wis., 1912. 300 p.
22^ cm . HD8053.W6A3
Partial contents.— No. 2. Child labor law: Essential points of the law; Opinions of courts
and experts; List of books and articles.
No. 4. The Industrial commission and its predecessors; Child labor: p. 183-188; Street trades, p.
189-190; Compulsory education, p. 191-201; Apprenticeship, p. 202-206.
No. 4 A. Apprenticeship law.
No. 5. Compulsory school attendance. Essential points of the law; Comment and explanation;
Opinions of the courts.
Women and children in industry. Data for women’s clubs and
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Wise, Stephen S. Justice to the child. American academy of political and
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 135. 7 p.
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United States should abolish child labor. Pacific monthly, Aug. 1909,
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Womer, Parley Paul. The church and the labor conflict. New York, The
Macmillan company, 1913. x p., 1 1., 302 p. 20 cm . HD6338.W7
The protection of the wage-earning woman and child: p. 162-183.
Wood, Mrs. Mary I. (Stevens) The history of the General federation of
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Arousing sentiment for the working child, p. 144-148, 173-174, 201, 233.
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44
453
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 20, p. 103-105; Pamphlet
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LEGISLATION.
STATE LEGISLATION AND ‘ENFORCEMENT.
Addams, Jane. The operation of the Illinois child labor law. American
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Hl.A4,v.27
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 20, p. 69-72; Pamphlet no.
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HV8320.A17
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Anderson, Neal L. Child labor legislation in the South. American academy
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Hl.A4,v.25
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 2. p. 79-95.
IlD6250.U3N2,no.2
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Barnard, J. Lynn. Factory legislation in Pennsylvania: its history and ad-
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(Publication of the University of Pennsylvania. Series in political economy
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
45
465 Breckinridge, Sophonisba P. Child-labor legislation. Elementary school
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466 Bremer, H. M. Iowa’s gains in child labor laws and a woman’s reformatory.
Survey, May 8, 1915, v. 34: 145-146. HVl.C4,v.34
467 Bureau of municipal research, New York. A report on the Division of child
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4f>8 Cadwallader, Starr. The enforcement of child labor legislation. American
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Hl.A4,v.29
469 California child labor law sustained. Charities and the Commons, Feb. 3, 1906,
v. 15: 573-574. IIVl.C4,v.l5
470 Campbell, Robert Argyll. Child labor law — District of Columbia. American
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471 Labor legislation — Oklahoma. American political science review,
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472 Campbell, Willard A. Pennsylvania’s new child labor law. American indus-
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Editorial comment: p. 8-9.
473 Carrigan, Thomas Charles. The law & the American child. [Worcester,
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Lll.P4,v.l8
474 Chandler, H. A. E. With Arizona’s first legislature. Survey, Aug. 17, 1912,
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475 Child labor. Elementary school journal, Jan. 1915, v. 15: 232-233.
Lll.E6,v.l5
476 Child labor and legislation in Pennsylvania. Addresses by Rudolph Blanken-
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477 Child labor bills pending in twenty-seven legislatures. Survey, Mar. 6, 1915,
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478 Child labor legislation. Schedules of existing statutes and the standard child
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Hl.A4,v.31
Supplement containing changes in laws, May, 1908, to August, 1909. Pre-
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479 Chute, Charles L. Child labor laws of Illinois unchanged. Survey, May 27,
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46
480
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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Uniform law for night work in Pennsylvania. Survey, Apr. 15, 1911,
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Clopper, Edward N. The needs of Indiana in child labor legislation. National
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Ohio’s child labor relief law. Survey, Mar. 26, 1910, v. 23: 981-982.
HVl.C4,v.23
Commons, John Rogers and John B. Andrews. Principles of labor legisla-*
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Tables showing child labor — employments prohibited, hours of labor, certificates, etc.: p.56-77.
Conflicting reports on child labor law of Massachusetts. Survey, Jan. 24, 1914.
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Connecticut. Board of education. Report of the Board of education, 1912-
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Summary of the important features of the enforcement of the child labor law: p. 73-93.
Construction of child labor statutes. Yale law journal, Dec. 1913, v. 23:
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Davies, Edgar T. The enforcement of child labor legislation in Illinois.
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 54. 11 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.54
and Barney Cohen. Proposed Illinois child labor law. Child,
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Denson, Daisy. The first child labor law enacted in North Carolina. Chari-
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Dewavrin, Maurice. La protection legale du travail des femmes et des enfants
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Downey, Ezekiel Henry. History of labor legislation in Iowa. Iowa City,
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Child labor legislation: p. 110-147.
Notes and references: p. 239-246.
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HBl.A5,3d ser.v.8
Child labor, p. 1-73; Hours of labor, and the economic effects of the restrictions on child and
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Erickson, Halford. Child labor legislation and methods of enforcement in
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Annals, May, 1905, v. 25: 467-479. Hl.A4,v.25
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 2, p. 55-67; Pamphlet no. 7,
13 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.2;no.7
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
47
496 Evans, Orrena Louise. The children’s code of Ohio. American political
science review, Nov. 1913, v. 7: 647-650. JAl.A6,v.7
Child labor, p. 649-650.
497 Fairchild, Fred Rogers. The factory legislation of the state of New York.
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Child labor, p. 109-143.
498 Farnam, Henry W. The relation of state and federal legislation to the child
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HD6250.U4C8 1908
499 Folks, Homer. Enforcement of child labor laws. American academy of
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500 Fox, Hugh F. The operation of the new child labor law in New Jersey. Ameri-
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 2, p. 110-129; Pamphlet
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501 Freeman, William. The legal regulation of labor. Lawyer and banker, June,
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Construction of child labor statutes, p. 193-197.
502 Frost, Edward W. The operation of the Wisconsin child labor law. American •
academy of political and social science, Annals, Mar. 1906, v. 27: 357-360.
Hl.A4,v.27
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 20, p. 99-102; Pamphlet
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503 Gordon, Jean M. New Louisiana child labor law. Charities and the Com-
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504 Guild, Curtis. Child labor legislation in Massachusetts. American academy of
political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1910, v. 35: 7-12.
Hl.A4,v.35
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 129. 7 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l29
505 Hall, Fred S. Pennsylvania’s child labor laws. Survey, May 29, 1909, v. 22:
321-324. HVl.C4,v.22
506 — ‘‘Poverty exceptions” in child labor laws. National child labor com-
mittee, New York, Leaflet no. 26. Mar. 1909. 15 p. 15| cm .
HD6250.U3N19,no.26
507 Hall, George A. New child labor legislation in New York. Survey, Oct. 25,
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508 Proper issuance of work permits. National child labor committee, New
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HD6250.U3N4,v.3,no.l
509 Harris, Henry J. The essentials of a child labor law for the District of Co-
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48
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
510 Haynes, Frederick Emory. Child labor legislation in Iowa. Iowa City, la.,
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HD6250.U4I8 1914
511 Hollis, John Porter. Child labor legislation in the Carolinas. American
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 159. 5 p.
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512 Huber, Mrs. C. J. Enforcing the child labor law in Florida. Charities and the
Commons, Jan. 9, 1909, v. 21: 652. * IIVl.C4,v.21
513 Kelley, Mrs. Florence. Child labor legislation. American academy of politi-
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515 Child labor legislation. Case and comment, Jan. 1911. v. 17: 379-382.
516 Child labor legislation and enforcement in New England and the Middle
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 2, p. 68-78.
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517 An effective child-labor law. American academy of political and
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518 Die gesetzliche Regelung der Kinderarbeit im Staate Illinois. Archiv
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519 Has Illinois the best laws in the country for the protection of children?
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520 The Illinois child-labor law. American journal of sociology, Jan. 1898, ■
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521 Illinois child labor law. Survey, June 10, 1911, v. 26: 414.
HV1.C4,v.26
522 Laws for the children’s welfare. An ideal attainable in 1920: Child
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523 — Obstacles to the enforcement of child labor legislation. American
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 46. 7 p.
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524 On some changes in the legal status of the child since Blackstone. Inter-
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525 Some ethical gains through legislation. New York, London, The Mac-
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“The right to childhood: Young children working in tenement houses; Young children in
domestic work ; Children in street occupations; Telegraph and messenger boys; Children in retail
trade; Children in manufacture; The glass bottle industry; ” p. 3-57; “ The child, the state, and
the nation:” p.58-104.
526
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531
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
49
Kelley, Mrs. Florence. What constitute effective ch ild labor laws. (In Louisi-
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Kingsbury, Susan Myra, ed. Labor laws and their enforcement, with special
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search. Studies in economic relations of women, vol.n )
HD6083.U6M2
Contents.— Preface, by E. F. Gay.— Introduction, by S. M. Kingsbury.— The early history of.
factory legislation in Massachusetts, by C. E. Persons.— Unregulated conditions in women’s work,
by Mabel Parton and Caroline Manning. — Weakness of the Massachusetts child labor laws, by
Grace F. Ward.— Administration of labor legislation in the United States, wi ( h special reference to
Massachusetts, by Edith Reeves and Caroline Manning.— Labor laws of Massachusetts, 1902-1910,
by Edith Reeves. — The regulation of private employment agencies in the United States, by Ma-
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See Index under Child labor and Child labor legislation.
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HD6250.U3N4,v.2
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 197. 12 p.
HD6250.TJ3N2,no.l97
When Congress acts as a state legislature. [Child labor law for the
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Lindsey, Ben B. Child labor legislation and methods of enforcement in the
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Child labor laws not drastic. Independent, June 26, 1913, v. 74: 1444-
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Legislation advocated by the National child labor committee. (In
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44193°— 16 4
50
LIST OF REFERENCES OFT CHILD LABOR.
538 McDowell, James R. The difficulties of child labor legislation in a southern
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 109. 6 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l09
539 McKelway, A. J. Arkansas child labor law secured by the initiative. Survey
Oct. 10, 1914, v. 33: 44. ‘ HVl.C4,v.33*
540 The child and the law. American academy of political and social
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541 Child labor and child labor legislation in the South. ( In National con-
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542 Standards of legislation for women and children in the southern states.
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543 Maryland. Bureau of statistics and information. 23d-24th annual report
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1915: Contribution of children of Baltimore to world’s work of 1915, p. 40-75; Issuance of em-
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544 Massachusetts. State board of labor and industries. Brief on the laws
relating to employment of women and children. Boston, 1914. 4 p.
545 Bulletin no. 1-3. August, 1913-November, 1913. Boston, 1913.
3 v. 23£ cra .
Contents.— 1. Laws relating to the employment of women and children; with a summary for
the information of employers of labor. 63 p. — 2. Laws relating to school attendance and the em-
ployment of minors ; with an explanation for the use of school authorities. 49 p.— 3. Laws relating
to labor enforced by the State board of labor and industries. 1913. 104 p.
546 Report on the effect of the child labor law of 1913 to the State
board of labor and industries. March 27, 1914. Boston, Wright & Potter
printing co., state printers, 1914. 94 p. 23 cm . ([General court, 1914] House.
[Doc.] 2552) HD6250.U4M48 1914
The report of an investigation made under the supervision of Mr. Robert A. Woods, of Boston
by direction of the State board of labor and industries, and issued as a supplement to its annual
report.
547 The Massachusetts child labor law. Textile world record, Sept. 1913, v.
45: 65. TS1300.T36,v.45
548 Mending the Maryland child labor law. Survey, Apr. 25, 1914, v. 32: 87.
Hyi.C4,v.32
549 Minor, Jeanie V. Proof-of-age records. American academy of political and
social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1910, v. 35: 127-129. Hl.A4,v.35
550 Morgan, J. H. The child labor laws of the Ohio valley. American academy
of political and social science, Annals, Jan. 1907, v. 29: 61-70. Hl.A4,v.29
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 48. 10 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.48
551 Morrison, Henry C. Enforcement of child labor laws in New Hampshire.
American academy of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar.
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
51
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
National child labor committee, New York. Child labor laws in all states.
New York, National child labor committee [1912] cover-title, 3 1., 124 p.
224 em . (The child labor bulletin, v. 1, no. 2) IID6250.U3N4
HD6243.U5N3
Contents.— Summary of state laws.— The uniform child labor law.— The enforcement of child
labor laws [by] Charles L. Chute. — Street trades and their regulation: a symposium [by] Edward
N. Clopper, Zenas L. Potter, Lillian A. Quinn.
For later compilation see no. 571 in this list.
More protection for working children. Child labor bulletin, Nov. 1913,
v. 2, no. 3. 72 p. HD6250.U3N4,v.2,no.3
Summary of laws enacted in 1913, supplements issue of bulletin for Aug. 1912.
New child labor law for Pennsylvania. Survey, May 15, 1915, v. 34: 149.
HVl.C4,v.34
New Hampshire. Children’s commission. Report of the Children’s com-
mission to the governor and legislature, January, 1915. Concord, N. H.
[Printed by J. B. Clarke co., Manchester] 1914. 136 p. 22J cm .
HV742.N4A5 1914
Child labor conditions: p. 43; Digest of child labor laws: p. 127-129.
New York (City) Bureau of child hygiene. The Bureau of child hygiene
of the Department of health of the city of New York, by S. Josephine Baker . . .
3d ed., rev. and enl. [New York] 1915. 160 p. 23 cm . (Dept, of health of
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Issuance of employment certificates: p. 147-157. RA122.N585,no.4
New York (State) Bureau of factory inspection. Children’s employ-
ment certificates issued by local boards of health. {In its Annual report, 1908,
p. 134-143; 1909, p. 164-173; 1910, p. 172-181; 1911, p. 224-235)
HC107.N7A2
Department of labor. Bureau of inspection. Number of chil-
dren’s employment certificates issued by Boards of health in first and second
class cities. New York. Dept, of labor. Bulletin, Sept. 1913, v. 15: 458.
HC107.N7A5
Nicholes, Anna E. From school to work in Chicago; a study of the central
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Ogburn, William Fielding. Progress and uniformity in child-labor legislation;
a study in statistical measurement. New York, Columbia university; [etc.,
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HD6243.U505
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Pennsylvania. Bureau of vocational education. A digest of the decisions
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The Pennsylvania child labor act and continuation schools.
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Pennsylvania child labor association. [Pamphlets] Philadelphia, 1912-
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52
505
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
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576
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
Roszelle, Edward M. Legislation proposed by the labor unions. (In Child
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Scott, Laura. Summary of laws in force 1910; child labor. New York, 1910.
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Sheets, Nellie F. Notes on current legislation: Child labor: Mississippi and
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JAl'.A6,v.2
Stimson, Frederic Jesup. Handbook to the labor law of the United States.
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Treats of laws regulating child labor in the various states. HD 7834. S8
Popular law-making; a study of the origin, history, and present tenden-
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Taylor, Florence I. comp. Child labor laws in all the states. Comp, by
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TJ. S. Bureau of labor. Report on condition of woman and child wage-
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Doc. 645. v. 6) HD6093.A4,v.6
Contents.— Employment of children iu the colonies; Public opinion and child labor in the
nineteenth century; Children in the cotton industry; a historical sketch; Child labor legislation
prior to 1860: Introduction; Massachusetts; Rhode Island; Connecticut; Vermont; New Hamp-
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Bureau of labor statistics. Decisions of courts affecting labor. 1912,
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See Indexes for decisions relating to the employment of children.
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HD7833.A4 1914
See Index, v. 2, p. 2450-2453 for laws relating to employment of children in various trades, age
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HY741.A32
Pt. 1. Employment certificate system, Connecticut, by Helen L. Sumner and Ethel E. Hanks.
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579
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581
582
583
584
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
53
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HV741.A32,no.l0
" Analytical tables”: p.27-475.
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Separates, numbered 1 to 54, have also been issued, as reprints. No. 1 contains the “ Analytical
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Child labor in the District of Columbia. Report. Apr. 6, 1906. [Washington,
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Report. [To accompany II. R. 16063] [Washington, Govt, print, off., 1908]
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IID6243.U5A4 1908
Report of hearings of March 13 and 16, 1906, on S. 1243,
providing for compulsory education in the District of Columbia; and H. R.
375 and 5974, to regulate child labor in the District of Columbia . . . Wash-
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Valesh, Eva McDonald. Child labor. American federationist, Mar. 1907,
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Abstract of state laws, p. 158-161.
Child labor legislation. American federationist, Aug. 1909, v. 16: 672-
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Van der Vaart, Harriet. Has the Illinois child labor law brought distress?
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American academy of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Jan. 1901.
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54
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
589 Williamson, Emily E . Child labor legislation. American academy of political
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590 Woolley, Mrs. Helen Bradford (Thompson). The issuing of working permits
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UNIFORM LEGISLATION.
591 Conference of commissioners on uniform state laws. Proceedings.
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593 Special committee on a uniform child labor law. Report of the
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595 Kendall, Henry P. The effect of uniform labor standards on interstate compe-
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596 Lindsay, Samuel McCune. Unequal laws an impediment to child labor legis-
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598 Massachusetts. Commissioners for promotion of uniformity of leg-
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600 Uniform child labor law; an act to regulate the employment of children and to
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FEDERAL CONTROL.
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602
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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620
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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Contents. — Editorial notes.— Program of tenth annual conference on child labor. — Federal
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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National child labor committee, New York. Supporters of the Keating-
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Why you should support the Palmer-Owen bill. Pamphlet no. 240.
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Constitutionality of Keating-Owen child labor bill. Statement . . .
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Pierce, Franklin. Federal usurpation. New York, D. Appleton and com-
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“This book is a plea for the sacredness of the Constitution of the United States. ”
Unconstitutionality of federal control of child labor: p. 289-29L
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Survey [Editorial]. Progress of the federal child labor bill. Survey, Sept. 19,
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Troutman, Robert B. Constitutionality of a federal child labor law. Green
bag, Apr., 1914, v. 26:154-160
An argument in favor of the constitutionality of a federal child labor law.
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on labor. Child labor bill. Hear-
ings before the Committee on labor, House of representatives, Sixty-third
Congress, second session, on H. R. 12292, a bill to prevent interstate commerce
in the products of child labor, and for other purposes. February 27 [and
March 9] 1914. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1914. 9, ii, 11-83 p. 23 cm .
David J. Lewis, chairman. HD6250.U3A4 1914
— February 27 and March 9 [also May 22] 1914. Washington,
Govt, print, off., 1914. 83, ii, 85-147 p. 23£ cm . HD6250.U3A4 1914a
58
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on labor. Child -lab or bill. Report.
Feb. 13,1915. [Washington, Govt, print,
off., 1915.] 50 p. 23§ cm> (63d Cong. 3d sess. House. Rept. 1400.)
HD6250.U3A4 1914c
Appendix: Statements of Mrs. Florence Kelley, Julia 0. Lathrop, Arthur Iteed Perry, and A.
J. McKelway; The eight-honr day for children, by Anna Rochester; The operation of the eight-
hour law for children in Massachusetts, by Richard K. Conant; Medical opinions upon eight-
hour day; Constitutionality of Palmer bill, by Jasper Y. Brinton; The federal power to regu-
late child labor in the light of Supreme court decisions, by William Draper Lewis; Constitution-
ality of a federal child labor law, by Owen R. Lovejoy.
Report amending by substitute H. R. 12292, to prevent
interstate commerce in products of child labor. Aug. 13, 1914. [Washington,
Govt, print, off., 1914.] 2 p. 23 em . (63d Cong. 2d sess. House. Rept.
1085.)
Child labor bill. Hearings . . . on H. R. 8234, a bill to
prevent interstate commerce in the products of child labor and for other pur-
poses. Jan. 10, 11, and 12, 1916. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1916. 317 p.
234 cra . HD6250.U3A4 1916
Child labor laws in all the states: p. 208-234.
— — — — To prevent interstate commerce in the products of child
labor. Report. Jan. 17, 1916. To accompany H. R. 8234. [Washington,
Govt, print, off., 1916.] 41 p. 23| cm . (64th Cong. 1st sess. House. Rept. 46.)
HD6250.U3A4 1916c, pt. 1
Same. Views of the minority. Jan. 24, 1916. [Washington, Govt, print,
off., 1916.] 14 p. 23-?> om . (64th Cong. 1st sess. House. Rept. 46, pt. 2.)
HD6250.U3A4 1916c, pt.2
The appendix to pt. 1, p. 17-41, contains statements by A. J. McKelway, Mrs. Florence Kelley,
Julia C. Lathrop; The eight-hour day for children, by Anna Rochester; The operation of the
eight-hour law for children in Massachusetts, by Richard K. Conant; Medical opinions upon
eight-hour day; Summary of investigations made by Penn. Child labor assoc.; Constitutionality
of Keating bill, by Jasper Y. Brinton; The Federal power to regulate child labor in the light
of Supreme court decisions, by William Draper Lewis.
The views of the minority deal mostly with the constitutionality of the bill.
— Committee on the judiciary. Jurisdiction and authority of
Congress over the subject of woman and child labor. Report. [Washington, Govt, print, off.] 1907. 8 p. 23 cm . (59th
Cong., 2d. sess. House. Rept. no. 7304)
Senate. Committee on interstate commerce. Interstate com-
merce in products of child labor. Report.
[Washington, Govt, print, off., 1915] 2 p. 24V’ m . (63d Cong., 3d sess.
Senate. Rept. 1050) HD6250.U3A4 1915
Interstate commerce in products of child labor. Hearings
before the Committee on interstate commerce, IT. S. Senate, Sixty-fourth Con-
gress, first session, on H. R. 8234, an act to prevent interstate commerce in the
products of child labor, and for other purposes. Washington, Govt, print, off.,
1916. 290, ii, 291-319 p. 23 om . HD6250.U3A41916g
To prevent interstate commerce in the products of child
labor. Report. [Washington, Govt, print,
off., 1916] 23 p. 23 cm . (64th Cong., 1st sess. Senate. Rept. 358)
Submitted by Mr. Robinson. Ordered printed April 19, 1916. HD6250.U3A41916d
Laws, statutes, etc. 63d Cong., 3d sess. II. R. 12292. An act to
prevent interstate commerce in the products of child labor, and for other pur-
poses. Feb. 19 (calendar day, March 1) 1915. 4 p. J301913-15,v.33
64th Cong. 1st sess. H. R. 8234. A bill to prevent interstate
commerce in the products of child labor, and for other purposes. Introduced
in the House of representatives, Jan. 7, 1916, by Mr. Keating. 5 p. 27^°®.
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
59
Villard, O. G. The federal child labor bill. Nation, Jan. 31, 1907, v. 84: 98.
AP2.N2,v.84
Speeches in Congress as printed in the Congressional Record.
59TH CONG., 1ST SESS. VOL. 40.
TJ. S. Congress. House. Child labor in the District of Columbia. Debate
in the House, Apr. 9, 1906. pt. 5: 4967-4971.
Messrs. Morreii, Fitzgerald, Tawney, Madden, and Crurnpacker.
Senate. Child labor in the District of Columbia. Debate in the
Senate, June 6, 1906. pt. 8: 7914-7915.
Senators Dubois, Hale, Lodge, Scott, and Tillman.
59TH CONG., 2D SESS. VOL. 41.
Bacon, Augustus O. Remarks in the Senate, Feb. 4, 1907, on employment
of child labor, pt. 3: 2214-2216.
Contains text of the Georgia law.
Beveridge, Albert J. Speeches in the Senate, Jan. 23, 28, 29, 1907, on
employment of child labor in the District of Columbia, pt. 2: 1552-1557,
1792-1826, 1867-1883.
Crurnpacker, Edgar D. Woman and child workers in the United States.
Speech in the House of representatives, Jan. 21, 1907. pt. 2, p. 1458-1460,
1461, 1473.
Gardner, Augustus P. Woman and child workers in the United States.
Speech in the House of representatives, Jan. 21, 1907. pt. 2, p. 1462-1463.
GOTH CONG., 1ST SESS. VOL. 42.
Fulton, Charles W. Employment of child labor. Speech in the Senate
May 6, 1908. Appendix, p. 474-475.
TJ. S. Congress. House. Child labor in District of Columbia. May 9, 1908,
pt. 6: 6030-6035.
Text ©f bill.
Senate. Employment of child labor [in the District of Columbia]
May 6, 1908. pt. 6: 5785-5802.
Employment of child labor in the District of Columbia. Debate
in Senate, May 21, 1908. pt. 7: 6982-6985.
Conference report on child-labor law. May 22, 1908. pt. 8:
7077-7078.
63D CONG., 2D SESS., VOL. 51.
Rogers, John Jacobs. Out-Heroding Herod. Extension of remarks in the
House, Sept. 29, 1914. Appendix: 1046-1054.
Gives a summary of the legislation enacted in the various states.
U. S. Congress. House. Debate in the House, Mar. 18, 1914, on an amend-
ment relating to child labor to bill H. R. 14330, relating to convict-made goods,
pt. 5: 505-5-5066.
Messrs. Kelley (Mich.), Bartlett, Mann, McLaughlin, Howard, Fordiiey, Madden, and others.
63D CONG., 3D SESS., VOL. 52.
Clark, David. A demand for a square deal. Speech before the National child
labor conference, recently held in the city of Washington. Appendix:
169-170.
Introduced into the Record, Jan. 23, 1915, by Mr. Webb.
Opposed to federal bill.
60 LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
675 Georgia. Laws, statutes, etc. An act regulating the employment of chil-
dren. Aug. 14, 1914. pt. 4: 4122-4123.
Introduced, with a few remarks, by Mr. Palmer.
676 Knowland, Joseph R. Child-labor. Speech in the House, Feb. 18, 1915.
pt. 4: 4022-4023.
677 News & Observer, Raleigh, N. C. Editorial, ‘“Trying to push back the
ocean”, pt. 5: 5338.
Introduced by Mr. Norris.
678 TJ. S. Congress. House. Child labor. Debate in the House, Feb. 15, 1915,
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The rules were suspended and the bill passed.
64TH CONG., 1ST SESS. VOL. 53 (CURRENT FILE).
679 Ayres, William A. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Feb. 2,
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680 Blackmon, Fred L. Child labor. Speech in the House, Feb. 2, 1916. no. 39
(current file) : 2541.
681 Borland, William P. The child -labor bill. Extension of remarks in the House,
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682 Carter, William H. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Jan. 26,
1916. no. 30 (current file): 1843.
683 Cary, William J. The child labor bill. Extension of remarks in the House,
Jan. 26, 1916. no. 39 (current file): 2542.
684 Church, Denver S. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Feb. 2,
1916. no. 40 (current file): 2610-2611.
685 Cline, Cyrus. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Jan. 26, 1916.
no. 36 (current file) : 2269.
686 Cooper, John G. Child-labor bill. Extension of remarks in the House,
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687 Cox, William E. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Jan. 26,
1916. no. 33 (current file): 2055-2056.
688 Dough ton, Robert L. Child labor. Speech in the House, Feb. 2, 1916.
no. 36 (current file): 2268-2269.
689 Gallivan, James A. Child labor in mills, factories, and mines. Extension of
remarks in the House, Jan. 26, 1916. no. 33 (current file): 2056.
Includes an editorial from Boston Post of Sunday, Jan. 23, 1916, on “Child-labor Sunday.”
690 Gray, Finly H. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Feb. 2, 1916.
no. 39 (current file) : 2538-2539.
691 Green, William R. The constitutionality of law forbidding the transportation
in interstate commerce of the products of child labor. Speech in the House,
Feb. 2, 1916. no. 38 (current file) : 2476.
692 Hicks, Frederick C. Right of Congress to regulate the shipment of the prod-
ucts of child labor as a part of interstate commerce. Extension of remarks
in the House, Feb. 2, 1916. no. 39 (current file): 2544.
693 Johnston, A. S. Child labor. Letter favoring the passing of the Keating
child-labor bill. Jan. 11, 1916. no. 29 (current file) : 1785.
Introduced into the Record by Mr. Dyer, Jan. 26, 1916.
694 Keating, Edward. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Feb. 2,
1916, on the bill (II. R. 8234) no. 35 (current file): 2189-2195.
695
696
697
698
699
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702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR,
61
Kennedy, Ambrose. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House,
Jan. 26, 1916. no. 33 (current file): 2048-2049.
Kenyon, William S. National child labor law. Speech in the Senate, Feb. 24,
1916. no. 56 (current file): 3661-3694.
Contains digest of comparative state legislation, and digest of child labor laws of Austria,
Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, and Switzerland.
Lenroot, Irvine L. Child labor. Speech in the House, Jan. 26, 1916. no. 30
(current file): 1843-1844.
London, Meyer. Child labor. Speech in the House, Jan. 26, 1916. no. 39
(current file): 2537-2538.
McCracken, Robert M. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House,
Feb. 2, 1916. no. 44 (current file): 2855-2856.
McCulloch, Roscoe C. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Jan.
26, 1916. no. 33 (current file): 2066.
Nolan, John I. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Feb. 2, 1916.
no. 39 (current file): 2539-2540.
Page, Robert N. Child labor. Speech in the House, Jan. 26, 1916. no. 38
(current file) : 2465-2466.
Platt, Edmund. The child-labor bill. Extension of remarks in the House,
Feb. 2, 1916. no. 40 (current file): 2613-2614.
Randall, Charles H. Child labor and humanitarian laws. Extension of
remarks in the House, Feb. 2, 1916. no. 39 (current file) : 2541.
Ricketts, Edwin D. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Jan. 27,
1916. no. 30 (current file): 1845-1846.
Schall, Thomas D. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Feb. 2,
1916. no. 38 (current file): 2470-2471.
Scott, John R. K. Child-labor bill. Extension of remarks in the House, Feb.
2, 1916. no. 39 (current file): 2543-2544.
Sears, William J. Child labor. Speech in the House, Feb. 2, 1916. no. 38
(current file) : 2475.
Shouse, Jouett. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Jan. 26,
1916. no. 35 (current file): 2203.
Siegel, Isaac. Child labor — Keating bill. Extension of remarks in the
House, Jan. 26, 1916. no. 35 (current file): 2204-2205.
Smith, Addison T. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Feb. 2,
1916. no. 36 (current file): 2262-2264.
TJ. S. Congress. House. Keating child-labor bill. Remarks in the House,
Jan. 19, 1916, on the bill (H. R. 8234). no. 22. (current file): 1424-1425.
Messrs. Lewis of Md., Ragsdale, Watson of Va., Mann.
Child labor. Debate in the House, Jan. 26, 1916, on the bill
(H. R. 8234) to prevent interstate commerce in the products of child labor, and
for other purposes, no. 29 (current file): 1744-1768.
Messrs. Lewis, Mann, Moore of Pa., Keating, Vare, Byrnes of S. C., Britt, Tague, Nicholls
of S. C., Quin, Rogers, Sherley, Ragsdale, Cannon, Pou, Austin, Hardy, Howard, Dallinger,
Adamson, Watson of Va.
Child-labor bill. Debate in the House, Feb. 2, 1916, on the bill
(H. R. 8234) no. 35 (current file): 2149-2174.
The bill was passed: p. 2174.
Van Dyke, Carl C. Child-labor bill. Extension of remarks in the House, Jan.
29, 1916. no. 33 (current file): 2049-2050.
Vare, William S. Child labor. Extension of remarks in the House, Jan. 26, -
1916. no. 29 (current file): 1789-1790.
62
LIST OF REFERENCES OX CHILD LABOR.
717
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725
’ 726
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732
Watson, Walter A. Child labor. Speech in the House, Jan. 26, 1916. no. 40
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— — Child labor in the United States, based on unpublished information de-
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HA201.1900.A12,no.69
HD6250.U3A3
Manufactures, 1915. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1907-08.
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— Thirteenth census of the United States, 1910. VoL. IV. Popu-
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occupations, states, and cities. See also volumes on Manufactures, and Mines and quarries.
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Extracts and reports regarding employment of women, children, and young persons.
64
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
744 Holland, Robert Wolstenholme. The law relating to the child, its protec-
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745 International association for labor legislation. Memorandum on the
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1913. 63 p. 27* cm . ' HD6064.I5
Issued also as Bulletin of the United States Bureau of labor statistics, whole no. 118, Miscella-
neous series, no. 3; and as House doc. 1463, 62d Cong. 3d sess.
746 Memorandum on the international prohibition of the industrial night
work of young persons. Washington [Govt, print, off.] 1913. 66 p. 28 cxn .
HD5113.I6
Issued also as Bulletin of the United States Bureau of labor statistics, whole no. 117, Miscella-
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747 The International congress of women, London, 1899. The International
congress of women of 1899; ed. by the Countess of Aberdeen, vi. Women in
industrial life. London, T. F. Unwin, 1900. 252 p. 20^ cm .
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748 International labor office. Bulletin, v. 1, 1906-v. 10, 1915. London, The
Pioneer press, ltd., 1906-1915. 10 v. 24§ cm . HD7801.I6
Contains the laws and decrees relating to the protection of children, young persons and women;
apprenticeship.
749 First comparative report on the administration of labour laws. Inspec-
tion in Europe. London, P. S. King & son, 1911. xv, 109 p. fold, tables.
23 cm . HD3656.I7
750 Kenyon, William S. National child labor law. Speech in the Senate, Feb.
24, 1916. Congressional record, 64th Cong., 1st sess., v. 53, no. 56 (current file) :
3661-3694.
Contains digest of child labor laws of Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy,
and Switzerland.
751 Page, Anna B. Labour laws for women and children at home and abroad.
Women’s industrial news, no. 63, Oct. 1913; p. 171-186.
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R6glementation du travail des femmes et des enfants: Germany, p. 382-387; Austria, p. 410-
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A summary of all laws relating to child labor in the various countries.
753 Rich, Edith J. Child labor in Europe. American academy of political and
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754 Shadwell, Arthur. Industrial efficiency; a comparative study of industrial
life in England, Germany and America. London, New York and Bombay.
Longmans, Green and co., 1906. 2 v. 23^ cm . IIC53.2.S5 t
Protection of children: Factory laws in England, v. 2, p. 7-19; in Germany, v. 2, p. 19-27; in
the United States of America, v. 2, p. 35-46.
755 Soziale Rundschau. Hrsg. vom Arbeitsstatistischen Amte im K. K. Han-
delsministerium. 1900-1914. Wien, A. Holder [1900-1914] 23£ cm ’
monthly. HD8401.A2
Contains translations in German of laws of various countries relating to child labor.
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
* 65
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757 TJ. S. Bureau of labor. Laws relating to child labor in European countries.
(In its Bulletin. July, 1905, no. 59: 302-319) HD8051.A5,no.59
A resume of the laws regulating child labor in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Great. Brit-
ain, Italy, and Switzerland.
758 Bureau of labor statistics. Administration of labor laws and factory
inspection in certain European countries. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1914.
310 p. 23J tm . (Bulletin, whole no. 142. Foreign labor laws series, no. 1)
U. S. 63d Cong. 2d sess. House. Doc. 905. HD8051.A62,no.l42
For information concerning child labor in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain
and Switzerland, see Index, p. 303.
759 Veditz, Charles William A. Child labor legislation in Europe. U. S. Bureau
of labor. Bulletin, July, 1910, no. 89: 1—113. HD8051.A5,no.89
760 Zanten, J. K. van. Die Arbeiterschutzgesetzgebung in den europaischen
Landern. Jena, G. Fischer, 1902. xii, 338 p. 20 cm . HD7874.Z2
AUSTRIA.
761 Agahd, Konrad. Kinderarbeit und gesetzlicher Kinderschutz in Osterreich
und Deutschland. Zeitschrift fiir Social wissenschaft, May, 1904, v. 7: 330-
335. H5.Z6,v.7
762 Austria. Arbeitsstatistisches Amt. Erhebung liber die Kinderarbeit in
Osterreich im Jahre 1908. Wien, A. Holder, 1910-1913. 3 v. 30^ pm .
HD6250.A9A3
Also printed in Soziale Rundschau, 1907, v. 2, p. 395-397; 1908, v. 2, p. 353-357, 414-449, 560-613;
1909, v. 1, p. 64-87, 218-327, 539-570, 733-761, 995-1027; 1909, v. 2, p. 56-81, 375-445, 561-008, 749-802;
1911, v. 1, p. 17-21, 95-131; 1912, v. 1, p. 14-15. HDS401.A2
763 Die Erhebung iiber die Kinderarbeit in Osterreich im Jahre 1908. Germany.
Statistisches Amt. Abteilung fiir Arbeiterstatistik. Reichs-Arbeitsblatt,
Feb. 1912, v. 10: 113-116. HD8441.A3,v.lO
764 Erhebung iiber die Kinderarbeit (Bayern). Soziale Rundschau, Nov. 1908,
v. 2, p. 614-615. HD8401.A2 1908, v.2
From Zeitschrift des koniglich bayerischen statistisclien Bureaus, 1908.
765 Fehlinger, Hans. Child labor in Austria. American federationist, July, 1903,
v. 10: 565. HD8055.A5A2,v.l0
7t)G Freundlich, Emmy. Kinderarbeit in Osterreich. Neue Zeit, Mar. 10, 1911,
v. 29, pt. 1: 815-818. HX6.N6,v.29,pt.l
767 Hauck, Karl. Die Nachtarbeit der Jugendlichen in der osterreichischen In-
dustrie. Wien, F. Deuticke, 1907. 59 p. diagrs. 23£ cm . (Schriften der
Osterr. Gesellschaft fiir Arbeiterschutz . xi. Hft.) HD5113.II36
768 Herbst, Rudolf. Die gewerbliche Nachtarbeit der jugen.dlichen Arbeiter und
Kinder in Osterreich. Wien, F. Deuticke, 190G. 45 p. 24 rm . (Schriften
der Osterr. Gesellschaft fur Arbeiterschutz. vm. Hft.) HD5113.H53
Bibliography: p. [5].
769 Jeuschik, A. L ’organisation la jeunesse ouvriere en Autriche. Mouvement
socialiste, July-Aug. 1913, v. 34: 77-89. HX5.M9,v.34
770 Die Kinderarbeit in Osterreich. Soziale Praxis, May 2, 1912, v. 21: 969-971/.
H5.S7,v.21
44193°— 16 5
66
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
Kraus, Siegmund. Kinderarbeit und gesetzlicher Kinderschutz in Oster-
reich. Wien und Leipzig, F. Deuticke, 1904. vi, 203 p. 24^ cm . (Wiener
staatswissenschaftliche Studien. 5. Bd., 3. Hft.) HB41.W6,v.5
“ Literaturnachweis”: p. [200]— 203.
Lederer, Max. Zur gesetzlichen Regelung der Kinderarbeit in Osterreich,
Soziale Praxis, July 17, 1913, v. 22: 1175-1176. H5.S7,v.22
Mises, Ludwig von. Zur Geschichte der osterreichischen Fabrikgesetzge-
bung. Zeitschrift fur Volkswirtschaft, Sozialpolitik und Verwaltung, 1905.
v. 14: 209-271. HB5.Z5,v.l4
Popp, Adelheid. Die Kinderarbeit in Osterreich. Neue Zeit, Sept. 26, 1913,
v. 31, pt. 2: 1012-1021. JIX6.N6,v.31,pt.2
Schiff, Walter. Die Kinderarbeit in Oesterreich. Archiv fur Sozialwissen-
schaft und Sozialpolitik, July, Sept. 1913, v. 37: 131-174; 483-520.
H5.A8,v.37
Trauttmansdorif, Ferdinand Graf von. Kinderarbeit. Osterreichische
Rundschau, July 15, 1914, v. 40: 121-133. AP30.03,v.40
Veditz, Charles William August. Child-labor legislation in Austria. ( In
U. S. Bureau of labor. Bulletin, July, 1910. no. 89. Washington, 1910.
p. 3-92) HD8051.A5,no.89
HUNGARY.
Heller, Wolfgang. Die Kinderarbeit in Ungarn. Jena, G. Fischer, 1912.
38 p. 24 cm . (Schriften der ungarischen Vereinigung fur gesetzlichen
Arbeiterschutz, Hft. 10.) HD6250.A97H7
Ruffy, Paul de. La protection de Penfance par l’etat et le travail des enfants.
Revue de Hongrie, Sept. 15, 1909, v. 4: 302-317. AP25.R4,v.4
La protection de Penfance par l’etat et le travail des enfants. (In
Bosnyak, Zoltan. Le droit de l’enfant abandonne et le systeme hongrois de
protection de Penfance. Budapest, 1909, p. 165-180) HV759.H8B7
Schwimmer, Rosika. Staatlicher Kinderschutz in Ungarn. Deutschland,
Jan., 1905, v. 5: 429-435. AP30.D6,v.5
BELGIUM.
Belgium. Corps legislatif. Chambre des representants. Documents
relatifs au travail des enfants et des femmes dans les manufactures, les mines,
etc. Etat de la question en Belgique et a l’£tranger. Bruxelles, F. Gob-
baerts, imprimeur du roi, 1871. 462 p. incl. tables. 32£ cm .
HD6250.N3A4
— — — Laws, statutes, etc. Act to amend the act of 13th December, 1889,
relating to the employment of women, young persons, and children. (Dated
May 26, 1914.) International labor office. Bulletin, 1915, v. 10, nos. 1, 2:
14-16. HD7801.I6 ,v.10
Lois et reglements concernant la police du travail et le regime
des etablissements classes. Bruxelles, Office de publicity, J. Lebegue et cie
[etc.] 1909. 374 p. m cm . HD7896.A5
Travail des femmes, des adolescents et des enfants dans les etablissements industriels: p. 5-83.
Wetten en verordeningen betreffende den arbeid der vrouwen
en kinderen, de politie der ingedeelde inrichtingen en der open groeven, het
betalen van het loongeld aan de werklieden, de werkplaatsverordeningen, de
arbeidsovereenkomst en het arbeidsopzicht. Brussel, J. Lebegue en cie,
1903. 313 p. 19 cm . HD6083.N3A5- 1903
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
67
786 Belgium. Ministere de l’interieur. Enqu§te sur les conditions du travail
des enfants et des femmes dans les manufactures. [Bruxelles, 1860] At head
of title (No. 41) Chambre des representants. Session de 1859-1860. 116 p.
31 cm . HD6156.A5 1860
787 Office du travail. Rapports annuels de l’lnspection du travail. 1.-17.
annee, 1895-1911. Bruxelles, 1896-1912. 8 v. pi. (partly col.) plans, diagr.
24-p m . HD8501.A5
Included, 1895-1904: Administration des mines. Rapport general sur l’application . . . de la
loi du 13 d4cembre 1889 sur le travail des femmes, des adolescents et des enfants.
788 (Territory under German occupation, 1914-) Laws, statutes,
etc. Notification by the Governor-General in Belgium with respect to the
text of the act relating to the employment of women and children. Dated
Dec. 15, 1914. International labor office. Bulletin, 1915, v. 10, nos. 1, 2:
61-64. HD7801.I6,v.l0
789 Dubois, E. Child labor in Belgium. American academy of political and social
science, Annals, July, 1902, v. 20: 201-220. Hl.A4,v.20
790 Ducpetiaux, Edouard. De la condition physique et morale des jeunes ouvriers
et des moyens de Fameliorer. Bruxelles, Meline, Cans et compagnie, 1848.
2 v. 24 cm . HD6231.D8
791 McLean, Francis H., and Emile Waxweiler. Child labor in Belgium.
American academy of political and social science, Annals, Sept. 1906, v. 28:
303-313. ' Hl.A4,v.28
792 Ramaix, de. La legislation du travail en Belgique. ( In Belgium. Ministere
des affaires etrangeres. Recueil des rapports des secretaires de legation de
Belgique. Bruxelles, 1890. v. 7, p. 1-53) HC5.B5,v.7
Reglementation du travail des femmes et des enfants: p. 41-43.
793 Rowntree, B. Seebohm. Land & labour; lessons from Belgium. London,
Macmillan and co., limited, 1910. xx, 633 p. plates, maps, plans, tables,
diagrs. 23 cm . HC315.R8
See Index under Child labour and Juvenile workers.
794 Veditz, Charles William August. Child-labor legislation in Belgium. (In
U. S. Bureau of labor. Bulletin, July, 1910, no. 89. Washington, 1910.
p. 93-143) * HD8051.A5,no.89
795 Vermeersch, Arthur. Manuel social, la legislation et les oeuvres en Belgique,
avec une preface de M. Gerard Cooreman. Nouv. ed., entierement refondue.
Louvain, A. Uystpruyst; [etc., etc.] 1904. xxxix, 1009 p. 23| cm .
La loi sur le travail des femmes et des enfants: p. 185-193. HD8506. V3
FRANCE.
796 Bouquet, Louis. La reglementation du travail dans l’industrie. 5. ed. en-
tierement refondue et mise a jour. Paris [etc.] Berger-Levrault & cie, 1904.
viii, 398 p. 22f cm . I1D7883.B7
Enfants . . . employes a des travaux agricoles, p. 16-18; Age d’admission au travail, p. 37-46;
Duree du travail des enfants, p. 49-57; Travail de nuit des enfants, p. 63-89; Reglementation des
travaux soutterrains: Travail des enfants, p. 105-117; Interdiction aux enfants . . . d’eflectuer
certains travaux dangereux, p. 135-153.
797 Brunh.es, H. J., and F. H. McLean. Child labor in France. Charities, Apr.
22, 1905, v. 14: 676-682. HVl.C4,v.l4
798 Bry, Georges Ernest. Cours elementaire de legislation industrielle; lois du
travail et de la prevoyance sociale, questions ouvrffires. 4. ed. entierement
rev. Paris, L. Larose & L. Tenin, 1909. viii, 778 p. 22\ om . HD3621.B82
Reglementation du travail des enfants et des femmes: p. 318-356.
68
LIST OF REFEREXCES OX CHILD LABOR.
799 Courcelle, Louis. Code annote des lois ouvrieres. Paris, Marchal et Billard,’
1902. xxiv, 321 p. 19-J em .
“ Loi du 2 novembre 1892. Sur le travail des enfants, des lilies mineures et des femmes dans les
etablissements industries p. 263-304.
800 Traite de legislation ouvriere. Avec une preface de Paul Beauregard.
Paris, V. Giard & E. Briere, 1902. (2), iii, (1) xv, (1), 584 p. 23 cm .
“Surveillance, hygiene etsecurite des ouvriers: Enfants, filles mineures et femmes”: p. 115-189.
801 Dagan, Henri. Les enfants “ industrialises ”. Nouvelle revue, June 15, 1903,
v. 22: 433-444. AP20.N8,v.22
802 France. Assemblee nationale, 1871. Chambre des deputes. Com-
mission du travail. Rapport fait au nom de la Commission du travail
chargee d ’examiner la proposition de loi de M. Lemire tendant a supprimer le
travail de nuit des enfants dans les usines a feu continu, par M. Lemire, depute.
[Paris, Martinet, imprimeur de la Chambre des deputes, 1910] 13 p. 26 cm .
(Chambre des deputes. 10. legisl. Sess. extr. de 1910, no. 599. Annexe au
Proces- verbal. 16 decembre 1910) IID6250.F8A5
803 Bureau des manufactures. Rapport du Bureau des manufactures
sur les r^ponses a la circulaire du 31 juillet relative a l’emploi des enfants dans
les fabriques. [Paris, Imprimerie royale, 1837] 17 p. 22§ cm . [With France.
Conseil general de 1 ’agriculture, des manufactures et du commerce. Proc&s-
verbaux. Paris, 1838] HC271.A2 1837-8
804 Conseil superieur du travail. Age d ’admission au service de la
clientele dans les auberges, hotels, etc. Rapport de M. Abel Craissac, au nom
de la Commission permanente. Proces-verbaux, enquete et documents.
Paris, Imprimerie nationale. 1913. x, 82 p., 1 1. incl. tables. 27h cm .
HD6073.W3F8
805 Laws, statutes, etc. Code du travail et de la prdvoyance sociale,
avec renvois aux ouvrages de MM. Dalloz, pub. sous la direction de MM.
Gaston Griolet . . . [et] Charles Yergd . . . avec la collaboration de M.
Henry Bourdeaux. 5. ed., rev., cor. et augm. Paris, Dalloz, 1914. vii,
[1], 330, 32 p. 15| cm . (Petite collection Dalloz)
See Index: p. 22-23, under Enfants.
806 Ministere du travail et de la prevoyance sociale. L ’application,
en 1912, des lois reglementant le travail. Travail des femmes et des enfants.
(In its Bulletin, Oct.-Dec. 1913, v. 20: 976-985; 1073-1090; 1206-1215.)
HD8421.A17,v.20
807 Deere t concernant les travaux dangereux interdits aux enfants.
et aux femmes. (In France. Journal officiel, Mar. 26, 1914. p. 2777-2783.)
J7F2A, Mar., 1914
An English translation of this decree is contained in the Bulletin of International labor office for
Oct. 1915, v. 10: 103-105.
808 Parlement, 1910. Chambre des deputes. Proposition de loi
tendant a la repression de 1 ’exploitation de l’enfance, presentee par M. Georges
Berry, depute. (Renvoyee a la Commission relative au vagabondage et a la
mendicite) Dec. 5, 1910. (In its Documents parlementaires, 1911. Annexe
no. 547. [Paris, 1911] F°. p. 170-174.)
809 [Hutchins, Miss B. Leigh] Labour laws for women in France. [London]
Women’s industrial council, 1907. cover-title, 11, [1] p. 21% cm .
HD6083.F8H8
810 Laufer, Rene. La protection del’enfance ouvriere. Les donnees scientifiques
sur le ddveloppement des apprentis et jeunes ouvriers. Nouvelle revue,
Apr. 15, 1911, 3d ser. v. 20: 433-451; May 1, 1911, 3d ser. v. 21: 3-18.
AP20.N8,v.20,21
811
812
813
814
815
81G
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
G9
Masse, Daniel- Legislation du travail et lois ouvrieres; classification, corn-
men taire, jurisprudence, legislation comparee, projets et propositions de lois.
Paris, Nancy, Berger-Levrault et cie, 1904. xii, 974 p. tables. 25£ cm .
“ Protection generate des enfants, des filles mineures et des femmes,” p. 253-303.
Pandectes frangaises. Nouveau repertoire de doctrine, de legislation et de
jurisprudence, v. 57. Paris, F. Pichon et Durand-Auzias, 1905. 855 p.
27 lem
Titre I, chapitre deuxieme: Travail des enfants et des femmes: p. 480-548.
Titre II, chapitre troisieme, Droit eompard (Comparative law) p. 800-831, contains a summary
of the principal laws relating to child labor in Germany, Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Bel-
gium, Denmark, Spain, United States, Italy, Luxemburg, Norway, the Netherlands, Portugal,
Russia, Sweden and Switzerland.
Payen, Edouard. L’application de la loi de 1892 sur le travail des enfants et
des femmes. Economiste frangais, Oct. 23, 1909, v. 37: 599-601.
HB3.E3,v.37
Renard, Georges. L ’enfant dans 1 Industrie modern: Le droit de 1 ’enfant.
Revue politique et litteraire, Revue bleue, Dec. 17, 23, 1910, 48.annee:
780-783; 809-812. AP20.R64,48.annee
Veditz, Charles William August. Child-labor legislation in France. (In
U. S. Bureau of labor. Bulletin, July, 1910, no. 89. Washington, 1910.
p. 143-231) HD8051.A5, no.89
Villerme, Louis Rene. Tableau de l’etat physique et moral des ouvriers em-
ployes dans les manufactures de coton, de laine et de soie. Paris, J. Renouard
et cie, 1840. 2v. 22 cm . HD8039.T42F89
Dur6e journalifcre du travail: v. 2, p. 83-109; Enfants employes dans les manufactures: v. 2, p.
110-125.
GERMANY.
Abelsdorff, Walter. Gewerbsmassige Kinderarbeit. Leipzig, Felix Diet-
rich, 1913. 26 p. 20^ cm . (Kultur und Fortschritt, no. 455-56)
Inhalt: Einleitung.— 1. Deutschland. 2. Oesterreich. 3. Italien. 4. Schweiz. 5. Nieder-
lande. 6. Grossbritannien. 7. Frankreich. 8. Japan. 9. Danemark. 10. Vereinigt6 Staaten.
Literatur.
Adler, Georg and Bernard Harms. Jugendliche Arbeiter. (In Elster,
Ludwig. Worterbuch der Volkswirtschaft. 3. Aufl. Jena, 1911. 27 cm .
v. 1, p. 1392-1397) IIBGl.E53,v.l
Literatur: p. 1397.
Contains statistics for the year 1907.
Agahd, Konrad. [Child labor in Germany.] (In United States. Report of
the Commissioner of education, 1899-1900, v. 1, p. 816-825. Washington,
1901. 23| cm .) L111.A3 1899-1900
Die Erwerbsthatigkeit schulpflichtiger Kinder im Deutschen Reich.
(In Archiv fur soziale Gesetzgebung und Statistik, v. 12, p. 373-428.
Berlin, 1898. 8°) II5.A8,v.l2
Die gewerbliche Kinderarbeit in Kiel. (In Soziale Praxis, v. 12, Aug.
6, 1903, cols. 1184-1186) I15.S7,v.l2
Kinderarbeit in Chemnitz. (In Soziale Praxis, v. 11, Jan. 16, 1902,
cols. 404-406) H5 S7,v.ll
Kinderarbeit und Gesetz gegen die ausnutzung kindlicher Arbeitskraft
in Deutschland. (Unter Beriicksichtigung der Gesetzgebung des Auslandes
und der Besehaftigung der Kinder in der Landwirtschaft) Jena, G. Fischer,
1902. xii, 206 p. 24 cn> . IID6243.G3A4
70 LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
824 Agahd, Konrad. Zu den Grundziigen der gesetzlichen Regelung der gewer-
blichen Kinderarbeit ausserhalb der Fabriken. {In Soziale Praxis, v. 10,
Sept. 12, 1901, cols. 1257-1262) H5.S7.vlO
825 Zur Wiirdigung der Statistik liber die gewerbliche Kinderarbeit ausser-
halb der Fabriken in Deutschland. {In Soziale Praxis, v. 10, Oct. 18, 1900,
cols. 52-56) . H5.S7,v.l0
826 and M. von Schulz. Gesetz betreffend Kinderarbeit in gewerblichen
Betrieben. Vom 30. marz 1903. 3. Aufl. Jena, G. Fischer, 1905. xvi,
408 p. 22 em . (Schriften der Gesellschaft fur soziale Reform. Hrsg. von dem
Vorstande. lift. 10) HD6243.G3A44
827 Anton, Gunther Kurt. Geschichte der preussischen Fabrikgesetzgebung bis
zu ihrer Aufnahme durch die Reichsgewerbeordnung. . . . Leipzig,
Duncker & Humblot, 1891. xvi, 202 p. 8°. (Staats- und socialwissen-
schaftliche Forschungen. Bd. ll.hft. 2) HB41.S7,v.ll,pt.2
Geschichte der preussischen Gesetzgehung zum Schutze der jugendlichen Fabrikarbeiter,
p. 1-132.
828 Berger, T. Ph. and L. Wilhelmi, Gewerbeordnung fur das Deutsche Reich,
nebst den fur das Reich und Preussen erlassenen Ausfuhrungsbestimmungen.
18. vehinderte Aufl. bearb. von Karl Flesch ... in verbindung mit Friedrich
Hiller [und] Hermanu Luppe. Berlin, J. Guttentag, 1910. 1 p. 1., [5]-971,
[1] p. 13£ cm . (Guttentag’sche Sammlung deutscher Reichsgesetze. Nr. 6)
Erganzungsheft zur achtzehnten Auflage der Gewerbeordnung fur
das Deutsche Reich. Berlin, J. Guttentag, 1912. 103 p. 13^ cm .
829 Bierer, Willy. Die hausindustrielle Kinderarbeit im Kreise Sonneberg; ein
Beitrag zur Kritik des Kinderschutzgesetzes. Tubingen, J. C. B. Mohr
(P. Siebeck) 1913. vip., 1 1., 167 p. 24 cm (Archiv fur Sozialwissenschaft und
Sozialpolitik. Erganzungsheft xi) HD6250.G4B5
“Gesetz betr. Kinderarbeit in gewerblichen Betrieben. Vom. 30. Marz 1903”: p. 159-1G5.
830 Bloomfield, Meyer. The school and the start in life; a study of the relation
between school and employment in England, Scotland, and Germany. Wash-
ington, Govt, print, off., 1914. 143 p. 23 cm . (U. S. Bureau of education.
Bulletin, 1914, no. 4. Whole no. 575) HF5381.B5
Bibliography: p. 133-142.
831 Child labor in Germany. Square deal, July, 1914, v. 14: 547-548.
HD6500.S7,v.l4
Shows number of children employed in various mills and factories during 1910 and 1911.
832 Child labor in Germany outside of factories. {In United States. Report of
the commissioner of education, 1900-1901, v. 1, p. 54-80. Washington,
1902. 23^ cm ) L111.A3 1900/01
“ Translated from Vierteljahrshefte des Kaiserlichen Statistischen Amts. 1900, Heft III.”
Results of an official inquiry (1898) by the Imperial Chancellery.
Contents.— Purpose and nature of inquiry; Results of the inquiry: Number of children
employed outside of factories; Kinds of occupation of children; Age of wage-earning children;
Daily working hours; Arrangement of workrooms; Legal conditions of child labor; Wages of
children; Police regulations concerning child labor; Propositions for the future regulation of indus-
trial child labor; Supplement 1 . Regulations concerning industrial occupation of school children
in some foreign countries: England; France; Austria; Other countries; Supplement 2. Dis-
cussion (A translation of an article by Dr. Wiese in the Berlin Tagliche Rundschau, No. 275, 1899).
833 Daumay, Maxime. L’enquete allemande sur le travail des enfants hors de la
fabrique. {In Questions pratiques de legislation ouvriere et d ’economie sociale,
v. 2, 1901, p. 105-109. Paris, 1902. 23 cm )
834
835
836
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844
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
71
De Voss, Emilia V. Kanthack. The child in Germany. Child, Oct. 1910,
v. 1: 25-35. HQ750.A2C4,v.l
State measures regarding the employment of children, p. 33.
Edlmann, Edith. Juvenile labour exchanges and apprenticeship bureaux in
Germany. Contemporary review, Aug. 1913, v. 104: 230-239.
AP4.C7,v.l04
Esche, Arthur. Der gesetzliche Arbeitsschutz der gewerblich beschaftigten
Jugend. Vortrag gehalten im Ferienkursus der Gehe-stiftung zu Dresden (26.
april 1905) Dresden: v. Zahn & Jaensch, 1905. 52 p. 23^ cm . (ZnNeue
Zeitund Streitfragen, hrsg. von der Gehe-stiftung zu Dresden. Dresden, 1905.
2. jahrg.) H5.N4
Jahrbuch der Gehe-stiftung zu Dresden, bd. xr, p. [247]— 298.
Falkenbach, Joseph. Employment of children in German factories. (In
United States. Consular reports, v. 30, no. 106, July, 1889, p. 380-381)
HCl.R2,v.30
Feld, Wilhelm. Die Kinder der in fabriken arbeitenden Frauen und ihre
Verpflegung, mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Crimmitschauer Arbei-
terinnen. Dresden, O. V. Bohmert, 1906. 4 p. 1., 87, [1] p. incl. tables.
25^ cm . (Probleme des Ftirsorge; Abhandlungen der Centrale fur private Fiir-
sorge in Frankfurt am Main. 3. Bd.) HV764.F8F5
Findeisen, H. Das Reichsgesetz betreffend Kinderarbeit in gewerblichen
Betrieben vom 30. Marz 1903 systematisch dargestellt nebst Ausfiihrungsbe-
stimmungen aus dem Reich, den konigreichen Preussen, Bayern und Sachsen,
sowie den thuringischen Staaten. Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot, 1904. viii,
104 p. 22£ cm . HD6243.G3F4
“ Literatur verzeichnis ’ ’ : p. [vii]-viii.
Francke, E. Die “ Jugendlichen”. (Kinderarbeit-, Kriminalitat und-
Schutz) Soziale Praxis, May 11, 1911, v. 20: 986-988. H5.S7,v.20
Fiirth, Henriette. Gewerbliche Kinderarbeit in Deutschland. Dokumente
der Frauen, Dec. 1, 1900, v. 4, p. 533-541.
Germany. Laws, statutes, etc. Gewerbeordnung fur das Deutsche Reich
in ihrer neuesten Fassung, mit samtlichen Ausfuhrungsbestimmungen fur das
Reich und fur Preussen, sowie mit dem Kinderschutzgesetz, dem Stellenver-
mittlergesetz, dem Hausarbeitsgesetz und dem Gewerbegerichtsgesetz . 2.
Aufl. Berlin, F. Vahlen, 1912. 2 v. 25 cm .
The following laws relate to the employment of children and are
published in the Reichsgesetzblatt as follows:
March 30, 1903, p. 113.
Feb. 17, 1904, p. 62.
June 16, 1905, p. 548.
Feb. 17, 1907, p. 36.
Feb. 21, 1907, p. 65.
May 16, 1907, p. 235.
July 1, 1907, p. 404.
Dec. 28, 1906, p. 667.
May 31, 1909, p. 471.
July 3, 1909, p. 546.
Nov. 25, 1909, p. 968.
Dec. 8, 1909, p.909.
Nov. 24, 1911, p. 958.
Dec. 20, 1911, p. 976.
May 20, 1912, p.311.
Dec. 13, 1912, p. 565.
March 7, 1913, p. 125.
March 9, 1913, p. 129.
Dec. 8, 1913, p. 777.
Nov. 11, 1914, p. 474.
Prepared by the Leg. Ref. Div
Statistisches Amt. Statistisches Jahrbuch fur das Deutsche Reich.
1914. Berlin, Puttkammer & Miihlbrecht, 1914. 472, 138* p. 24 cm .
HA1232.A3 1914
Die in den Jahren 1911 und 1912 im Deutschen Reich in Betrieben mit mindestens 10 Arbeitern
und in den diesen gleichgestellten Betrieben beschaftigten Arbeiter (crwachsene und jugendliche
beiderlei Geschlechts): p. 64-65.
72
845
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Gesellschaft fur Soziale Reform, Berlin. Die jugendlichen Arbeiter in
Deutschland, i-yi. Jena, G. Fischer, 1910-12. G v. 21J cm . (Sehriften der
Gesellschaft fur Soziale Reform, iv. 13d., lift. 1-7; lift. 34-40 der ganzen
Reihe) IID6250.G3G4
Contents:
I. Arbeitsverlialtnisse der den §§135-139“ der Gewerbeordnung unterstellten minderjahrigen
Arbeiter. Von Dr. Karl Bittman. 1910.
II. Kriminalitat und sittliehes Verhalten der Jugendlichen. Von Dr. Paul Kohnc. 1910.
III. Schadigung von Leben und Gesundheit der Jugendliche. Von Dr. J. Kaup. 1911.
IV. Bildung und Erziehung ausserhalb der Schule (jugendpflege) Von Hans Weicker.
1911.
V. Verhandlungen der 5. G eneralversammlung der Gesellschaft fur Sccialc Reform am 12.
u. 13. Mai 1911 in Berlin. 1911.
VI. Die Fortbildungsschule. Von Dr. Alfred Kiihne. 1912.
846 Gorres, K[arl] Ilandbuch der gesammten Arbeitergesetzgebung des Deutsclien
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847 Juvenile labor in Germany. Economic review, Jan. 1913, v. 23: 14-23.
HBl.E4,v.23
848 Die Kinderarbeit in gewerblichen Betrieben. Arbeiterwohl, July-Dee. 1903,
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849 Lesser, Ernest. Juvenile labour in Germany. Economic review, Jan. 1913,
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850 London. County council. Education committee. Report by education
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many and how it is being dealt with . [London, Printed for the London county
council by Southwood, Smith & co., ltd.] 1910. cover-title, 14 p. 33 cm .
HD6250.G4L7
Reviewed by N. B. Dearie, Economic journal, Dec. 1910, v. 20: 652-G55. HBl.E3,v.20
851 Lord, E. W. State industrial supervision of children in Germany and in Con-
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proceedings . . . [Hartford] 1909. 22 Pm . p. 16-18.) IID6250.U4C8 1908
852 Muench, Hugo. Employment of children in Germany. (In United States.
Consular reports, v. 75, no. 283, Apr. 1904, p. 121-124) HCl.R2,v.75
853 Niczky, Walther. Die Entwicklung des gesetzlichen Schutzes der gewerblich
tatigen Kinder und j ugendliehen Arbeiter in Deutschland . (Unter besonderer
Beriicksichtigung des Kinderschutzgesetzes vom 30. Miirz 1903.) . . . Borna-
Leipzig, Buchdr. R. Noske, 1905. vi, 130 p. 23 cm . HD6243.G3N5
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854 Pieper, August, and Helene Simon. Die Ilerabsetzung der Arbeitszeit fiir
Frauen und die Erhohung des Schutzalters fiir jugendliche Arbeiter in Fa-
briken. Jena, G. Fischer, 1902. 164 p. 2H em . (Sehriften der Gesellschaft
fiir Soziale Reform, lift. 7-8) HD6064.P4
855 Prelle de la Nieppe, E. de. Rapport sur le projet de r^glementation en Alle-
magne du travail des enfants dans les industries autres que les fabrique3 et
usines. (In Belgium. Ministere des affaires etrangeres. Recueil des rap-
ports des secretaires de legation de Belgique. Bruxelles, 1905. v. 12, p.
91-100) HC5.B5,v 12
856 Ruble, Otto. Das proletarische Kind, eine Monographic. Munchen, A.
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Die Barbarei der Kinderarbeit: p. 130-161.
857 Schultze. Das Kinderschutzgesetz in der Praxis. Soziale Praxis, May 23. 30,
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73
858
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8G0
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Spangenberg, Hans. Reichsgesetz, betreffend Kinderarbeit in gewerblichen
Betrieben. Yom 30. Marz 1903. Berlin, J. Guttentag, 1903. 148 p. 13|- cm .
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Stieda, W. Child laborers and their protection in Germany. Chautau-
quan, Oct. 1893, v. 18: 88-91. AP2.C48,v.l8
Veditz, Charles William August. Child-labor legislation in Germany. (In
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“ Bibliography on child life. Compiled for the author by the British institute of social service":
p. 172-184.
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Bloomfield, Meyer. The school and the start in life; a study of the relation
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London, Constable & co., 1912. xi, 248 p. 19 cm .
“List of authorities": p. 241-244.
The town child. London, T. F. Unwin, 1907. viii, 333, [1] p. 22-| cm .
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British association for labour legislation. Child labour in the United
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Clark, Victor S. Woman and child wage-earners in Great Britain. (In U. S.
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HD8051.A5,no.80
Clarke, Allen. The effects of the factory system. Written 1895-6; rev. 1897-8.
London, G. Richards, 1899. 2 p. 1., vii-viii, 178 p. 17£ cm .
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Collet, Clara Elizabeth. Report by Miss Collet on the statistics of employ-
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of Her Majesty. London, Printed for H. M. Stationery off., by Eyre and Spot-
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Committee on wage-earning children. London. Report. A statement of
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llth-12th annual report . . . 1911-1912. London, 1911-1912. 2 v.
21lcm
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR. 75
889 Dunlop, Olive Jocelyn. English apprenticeship & child labour; a history
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890 Freeman, Arnold. Boy life & labour; the manufacture of inefficiency.
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Reviewed in American economic review, Dec. 1914, v. 4 : 921-922. HBl.E26,v.4
891 Garnett, William Hubert Stuart. Children and the law . . . with an intro-
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AP4.E523,v.l7
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896 Board of trade. Abstract of labour statistics, 1912-13. London,
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897 Censusoffi.ee. Census of England and Wales. 1911. Yol. X. Occu-
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898 Children’s employment commission. First report of the commis-
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Second report. Trades and manufactures. Appendix and index to second
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J301.K6 1843, v. 13-15; 1845, v.42
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AP4.E3,v.79
76 LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
899 Gt. Brit. Children’s employment commission (1862). First-[sixth]
report, with appendix. 1863-1867. 6 v. 33 em . J301.K6
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Second report, Same. 1864, v. 22.
Third report, Same. 1864, v. 22.
Fourth report, Same. 1865, v. 20.
Fifth report, Same. 1866, v. 24.
Sixth report, Same. 1867, v. 67.
V. 1, p. 325-336, contains “Laws and regulations of foreign countries respecting the labour and
education of children and young persons employed in trades and manufactures. ”
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1S65, v. 49: 332-356. Quarterly review, Apr. 1866, v. 119: 364-393.
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Transactions, Oct. 1865, p. 291-301. H11.N2 1865
900 Factories inquiry commission. First [second and supplementary]
report of the Central board, . . . as to the employment of children in factories
and as to the propriety and means of curtailing the hours of their labour;
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Second report, Same. 1833, v. 21.
Supplementary report, Same. 1834, v. 19, 20, pt. 1-2. JK301.K6 1833, v. 20, 21 1834, v. 19,20
901 Foreign office. Correspondence respecting the introduction into and
employment in this country of Italian children. Presented to both houses of
Parliament by command of Her Majesty. 1877. London, Harrison and sons,
[1877] 5 p. 33 cm . (Parliament. Sessional papers, 1877, v. 88. C. 1764.)
J301.K6 1877, v.88
902 Home dept. Form no. 39. Factory and workshop acts, 1901 to 1911.
Form prescribed by the Secretary of state for certificates of school attendance.
London, 1912. Authorized ed. HD6250.G67 1912
The L. cf C. has many other editions.
903 Employment of children act, 1903. Report to His Majesty’s
principal secretary of state for the Home department on the byelaws made by
the London County council under the Employment of children act, 1903, by
Chester Jones. Presented to both houses of Parliament by command of Ilis
Majesty. London, Printed for H. M. Stationery off., by Darling & son, ltd.,
1906. 28 p. 32| em . ([Parliament. Papers by command] Cd. 2809)
HD6243.G8A5 1906
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904 Factory and workshop orders. (1914 ed.) London, Printed for
II. M. Stationery off., by Darling & son, ltd., 1914. (8), 220 p. 24£ om .
HD7875.A4 1914
905 Factories and workshops. Summary of returns under S . 130 of the
Factory and workshop act, 1901, of persons employed in 1907 in textile factories
[and in non-textile factories, and in workshops] (including statistics of marriage-
state of women over 18) . . . London, Printed for H. M. Stationery off., by
Darling & son, ltd., 1909-11. 3 v. in 1. 33 cm . ([Parliament. Papers by
command] Cd. 4692, 5398, 5883) HD8381.A5 1907
906 Form no. 71, Oct. 1908. Factory and workshop act, 1901. Pt.
1 1 of the General register, being the prescribed form of register of young persons
(under 18 years o! age) employed full time, and certificates of fitness for em-
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77
907 Gt. Brit. Home dept. Committee on Employment of children act,
1903. Report of the Departmental committee on the Employment of
children r act, 1903, appointed by His Majesty’s principal secretary of state
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and index] Presented to both houses of Parliament by command of His
Majesty. London, Printed for H. M. Stationery off., by Eyre and Spottis-
woode, ltd. [1910] 2 v. in 1. 33§ cm . ([Parliament. Papers by command]
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908 — — Committee on employment of school children. Report of
the inter-departmental Committee on the employment of school children,
appointed by II. M. principal secretary of state for the Home department . . .
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909 — Night work committee. Report of the departmental com-
mittee on the night employment of male young persons in factories and work-
shops. Minutes of evidence and appendices. London, Pub. by II. M.
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Found also in Gt. Brit. Parliament. Sessional papers, 1912-13, v. 26; 1913, v. 23
J301.K6
910 Van boys and warehouse boys committee. Report of the
departmental committee on the hours and conditions of employment of van
boys and warehouse boys, appointed by His Majesty’s principal secretary of
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by H. M. Stationery off., printed by Eyre and Spottiswoode, ltd., 1913.
2 v. in 1. 33£ cm . ([Parliament. Papers by command] Cd. 6886-6887)
IID6250.G7A4 1913
911 Inter- departmental committee on partial exemption from
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912 Laws, statutes, etc. The following laws relate to the employment of
children:
Factory and workshop act, 1891, 54 and 55 Viet. c. 75; 1895, 58 and 59 Viet. e. 37; 1901, 1 Edw. VII
c. 22; 1907, 7 Edw. VII c. 39.
Prohibition of Child labor underground act, 1900, 63 and 64 Viet. c. 21.
Employment of Children act, 1903, 3 Edw. VII. c. 45.
Prevention of Cruelty to children act, 1904, 4 Edw. VII c. 15.
Children act, 1908, 8 Edw. VII c. 67.
Dangerous performances act, 1897, 60 and 61, Viet. c. 52.
Children (Employment abroad) act 1913. 3 and 4 Geo. V, c. 7.
Prepared by the Leg. Ref. Div.
913 Children. A bill to provide for the more effectual treatment and
prevention of destitution and sickness among children, and to regulate the
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914 — — Children (employment and school attendance). A bill to amend
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78 LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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916 Committee on employment of boys in sweeping of
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917 Committee appointed to examine the several
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918 Committee on Bill to regulate labour of children
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JK301.K6 1831-32, v.15
919 Select committee on the act [to regulate the
labour of children and young persons in] mills and factories. First- ;
[sixth] report, together with the minutes of evidence taken before them,
appendices, and index. Ordered, by the House of commons, to be printed 3 ,
April, 1840-17 July, 1840. 6 pts. Facsimiles. 33 cm . (Gt. Brit. Parlia- ,
ment. Sessional papers, 1840, v. 10) J301.K6 1840, v. 10
— — Report. Ordered, by the House of Commons, to be
printed 18 February, 1841. vi, 33 p. 33 cm . (Gt. Brit. Parliament. Ses-
sional papers, 1841, v. 9) , J301.K6 1841, v. 9
920 Standing committee on bills, A. Report on the j
Children (employment and school attendance) bill with the proceedings of the ;
committee. Ordered, by the House of commons to be printed, 16th April,
1914. London, J. B. Nichols and sons, 1914. 13 p. 33 cm . (Reports and
papers. 1914. 190.)
921 Post office. Standing committee on boy labour. Reportfs] of
Standing committee on boy labour in the Post office, together with instruc-
tions issued by the postmaster general in connection therewith. London,
Pub. by H. M. Stationery off., printed by Eyre and Spottiswoode, ltd., 1911-15.
5v. 32^ cm . ([Parliament. Papers by command] Cd. 5504, 5755, 6959, 7556,
8019.) HE6939.E5A4 1912 1912a
922 Royal commission on labour. Report[s], [minutes of evidence,
indexes, answers to questions] London, Printed for H. M. Stationery off., by .
Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1892-94. 35 v. in 14. tables, diagrs. 33 cm . [Parlia-
ment. Papers by command] HD8381.C3 1892
Contains much valuable information on child labor in the various industries. Consult the
Indexes under Apprentices, Boy labour, Child labour, etc.
923 Royal commission on poor laws and relief of distress. Report by
Mr. Cyril Jackson on boy labour together with a memorandum from the general
post-office on the conditions of employment of telegraph messengers . . .
London, printed for H. M. Stationery off., by Wyman & sons, 1909. 230 p.
33| cm . ' ([Gt. Brit. Parliament. Papers by command] Cd. 4632)
Appendix v. 20 to reports of the Poor law commission. HD6250.G7A4 1909a
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
79
924 Greenwood, Arthur. Juvenile labour exchanges and after-care. With an
introduction by Sidney Webb. London, P. S. King & son, 1911. xi, 112 p.
HD6250.G7G7
Bibliography: p. [101]-112.
925 Juvenile labour problems. Child, Oct. 1911, v. 2: 25-34.
HQ750.A2C4,v.2
926 — — Next steps in factory and workshop reform. Political quarterly, Sept.
1914, no. 3: 38-70.
Short bibliography on the factory acts, p. 69-70.
927 and John E. Kettle well. Some statistics of juvenile employment and
unemployment. Royal statistical society. Journal, June, 1912, v. 75:
744-753. HAl.R8,v.75
928 Hall, William Clarke. The Queen’s reign for children; with an introduction
by Benjamin Waugh. London, T. F. Unwin, 1897. xvi, 208 p. front, (port.)
19-| cm . HV751.A6H2
Contents. — I. The employer and the child. — n. The state and the child. — m. The parent and
the child. — Appendices: a. Cases of cruelty, b. Chronological table of statutes.
929 Halsey, O. S. Directing the work life of English children. Survey, May 16,
1914, v. 32: 195-196. HVl.C4,v.32
930 Hanway, Jonas. A sentimental history of chimney-sweepers, in London &
Westminster. Shewing the necessity of putting them under regulations to
prevent the grossest inhumanity to the climbing boys. With a letter to a
London clergyman, on Sunday schools calculated for the preservation of the
children of the poor. London, Dodsley [etc.] 1785. 1 p. 1., xl, 191 p. front.,
pi. 16i cm . I1V887.G7L87
931 Harvey, E. C. Labour laws for women and children in the United Kingdom.
[London] The Women’s industrial council, 1909. cover-title, 24 p. 21 0m .
Bibliography: p. 23-24. HD6083.G8H2
932 Harwood, W. Child labour. Child, Nov. 1912, v. *3: 131-133.
HQ750.A2C4,v.3
933 Hoffman, Frederick Ludwig 1 . Industrial accident statistics . . . March,
1915. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1915. 210 p. 23 cm . (Bulletin of the
United States Bureau of labor statistics, whole no. 157. Industrial accidents
and hygiene series, no. 5) HD8051.A62,no.l57
Children and young persons, killed or disabled, United Kingdom, 1908-1913: p. 166-167.
934 Holland, Robert W. The law relating to the child, its protection, education,
and employment. London, Pitman, 1914. xxiv, 142 p. 22 cm .
935 Hutchins, Miss B. Leigh, and Amy H. Spencer. A history of factory legisla-
tion. With a preface by Sidney Webb. 2d ed. rev., with a new chapter.
London, P. S. King & son, 1911. xvi, 298 p. 22 cm . (Studies in economics
and political science. Ed. by . . . W. P. Reeves . . . no. 10 in the series of
monographs by writers connected with the London school of economics and
political science) HD7876.H92
Appendices: a. Orders in council: p. [273]-278. B. Select bibliography: p. [279]-284.
Children’s labour in the 18th century, p. 3-13; Cotton mills before 1831, p. 19, 22, 26, 31, 37, 41;
Education of factory children, p. 76-81; Children’s employment commission, p. 150-157, 170-172.
936 Independent labour party. London branch. Commercialism and child
labour. An indictment and some remedies. London, City branch, Inde-
pendent labour party, 1900. 16 p. 22ixll^ cm . (City branch pamphlets,
no. 4) ~ HD6250.G714
937 Jackson, Cyril. Unemployment and trade unions; with a preface by Rt. Hon.
Viscount Milner. London, New York [etc.] Longmans, Green, and co., 1910.
xiii, 92 p. 19^ cm . HD5767.J2
Boy labour, p. 55-67.
80
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
938 Jevons, H. W. Industrial prospects for boys and girls. Charity organisation
review, Sept. 1906, n. s. v. 20: 125-138. HYl.C6,n.s.v.20
Bibliography: p. 139.
939 Keeling, Frederic. The present position of child labour regulation. Women’s
industrial news, no. 66, July, 1914, p. 259-267.
940 Kittermaster, D. B. Unemployment and boy labour. Saint George, Jan.
1907, v. 10: 1-10. IJN381.S2,v.l0
941 [Kydd, Samuel] The history of the factory movement, from the year 1802 to
the enactment of the ten hours’ bill in 1847. By Alfred [pseud.] London,
Simpkin, Marshall, and co., 1857. 2 v. 22 om . IID2356.G7K4
942 The Labour year book. [v. 1] 1916. Issued under the auspices of the Parlia-
mentary committee of the Trades union congress, the Executive committee of
the Labour party, the Fabian research department . . . London [etc.] Co-
operative printing society limited [1916?] 704 p. 19 cm . IID8385.L3
Child labour and the factory acts: p. 86-91.
Child and juvenile labour and apprenticeship: p. 279-302.
943 Leeds, Eng. Education committee. Employment of children. Report on
children attending school full time and working out of school hours, [n. p.,
1910] 7 p. 24 em .
944 Lightbody, W. M. The problem of unskilled labour. Economic review, Oct.
15, 1909, v. 19: 423-431. IIBl.E4,v.l9
945 Lovejoy, Owen R. Child labor legislation in England. Chautauquan, Apr.
1907, v. 46: 217-225. AP2.C48,v.46
946 McMillan, Margaret. Child labour. (In Oliver, Sir Thomas, ed. Dangerous
trades. London, J. Murray, 1902. p. 91-97) IID7262.05
947 Minton-Senhouse, Robert Metcalfe. Work and labour: being a compen-
dium of the law affecting the conditions under which the manual work of the
working classes is performed in England. London, Sweet & Maxwell, Id.,
1904. xcviii, 379 p. 25Y m . IID7875.M5
See Index under Child.
948 Moulder, Priscilla E. Factory girls’ life in England. World’s work (London)
Oct. 1910, v. 16: 469-472. * AP4.W85,v.l6
949 Mundella, A. J. The fight for the child. ReAdew of reviews, London, Mar.
1915, v. 51: 207-209. AP4.R4,v.51
950 Die Nachtarbeit von Knaben in Fabriken und Werkstattcn in Grossbritannien.
Germany. Statistisches Amt. Abteilung fur Arbeiterstatistik. Reichs-Ar-
beitsblatt, Sept. 1913, v. 11: 687-689. 1JD8441 .A3,v.ll
951 National conference on the prevention of destitution. 1st, London ,
1911. Report of the proceedings of the National conference on the prevention
of destitution, held at the Caxton hall, Westminster, on May 30th and 31st, and
June 1st and 2nd, 1911, president: the Rt. Hon. the Lord Mayor of London.
London, P. S. King & son, 1911. xxvi, 766 p. incl. tables, diagrs. 25J cm .
HY244.N3 1911
The public organisation and control of juvenile employment: Juvenile employment: the
Edinburgh method of co-operation between the education authorities and the labour exchange,
by J. W. Peck: p.219-237; Working of the London juvenilo advisory committee, by R. D. Den-
man: p. 238-246; The limitation of juvenile labour, by N. Adler: p. 247-253; The social organisa-
tion of adolescence, by Mrs. Ogilvie Gordon: p. 253-264; Discussion: p. 265-272.
952 2d, London, 1912. Report of the proceedings of the unemployment &
industrial regulation section . . . London, P. S. King & son, 1912. 147 p.,
1 1. 24£ cm . IID8384.N3
The care and training ol juvenile Avorkers. Tapers by R. A. Bray, W. Main, R. H. Tawney.
Miss C. Smith, and A. Greenwood: p. 78-112. Discussion: p. 113-118.
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
LIST OF INFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
81
Pelham, Herbert Sidney. The training of a working boy. London, Macmil-
lan and co., limited, 1914. xv, 165 p. front., plates. 19 cm . HQ775.P4
Child employment: p. 55-68; Boy labour: p. 69-86.
Pope, Samuel. Employment of children act, 1903. Report to His Majesty’s
principal secretary of state for the Home department on the byelaw made by
the Devon County council under the Employment of children act, 1903, and
on the objections thereto. London, II. M. Stationery off., by Darling and son,
ltd., 1913. 15 p. 33 cm . ([Gt. Brit. Parliament. Papers by command]
Cd. 6988) HD6250.G73A5 1913
“ Byelaw as recommended for approval”: p. 15.
Also found in Gt. Brit. Parliament. Sessional papers, 1913, v. 23. J301.K6 1913, v.23
Porter, George Richardson. The progress of the nation in its various social
and economic relations from the beginning of the nineteenth century. A
completely new ed., rev. and brought up to date by F. W. Hirst . . . Lon-
don, Methuen & co. ltd. [1912] xvi p., 1 1., 735, [1] p. incl. tables. 23 cm .
HC255.P86 1912
Child labour: occupational statistics: p. 23-28; Effect on unemployment: p. 56; Child labour
in agricultiire: p. 200; Cotton: p. 302, 315, 318; Silk: p. 347; Wool, p. 327.
Rowntree, B. Seebohm and Bruno Lasker. Unemployment, a social
study . . . London, Macmillan and co., limited, 1911. xx, 317 p. tables
(partly fold). 23^ cm . IID5768.Y6R6
Youths under 19 years of age, p. 1-28.
Sandiford, Peter. The half-time system in the textile trades. (In Sadler,
M. E., ed. Continuation schools in England & elsewhere. 2d ed. Manches-
ter, 1908, p. 318-351) LC5215.S25
Sherard, Robert Harborough. The child-slaves of Britain. London, Hurst
and Blackett, limited, 1905. 3 p. 1., [ix]-xix p., 2 1., 267, [1] p. 8 pi. 21 cm .
1ID6250.G7S4
Contents.— 1. On child-slavery in London in general; 2. On child-slavery in London in detail;
3. On the alien immigration and its effects; 4. On child-slavery in Manchester; 5. In Binning
ham; 6. In Grimsby; 7. In Scotland; 8. In Liverpool and other large towns; Appendix.
Simson, Frau. Child labour outside the factory laws. (In International con-
gress of women, London, 1899. London, 1900. 20| cta . v. 6, p. 76-81)
HQ1106 1899, v.6
Smith, A. E. Stanley. The child and the [English] law. Child, Jan. 1911,
v. 1: 363-369. HQ750.A2C4,v.l
Tawney, R. H. “Blind alley” occupations and the way out, an educational
policy for the government. Women’s industrial news, no. 52, Oct. 1910,
p. 1-10.
The economics of boy labour. Economic journal, Dec. 1909, v. 19:
517-537. * HBl.E3,v.l9
Tuckwell, Gertrude M. The state and its children. London, Methuen & co.,
1894. vi p., 1 1., 164 p. 18J cm . (Social questions of to-day)
HV751.A6T8
Canal and van children, p. 90-101; Post office and telegraph boys, p. 151-154; Circus and theatre
children, p. 118-126; Half-timers and full-timers, p. 137-157.
TJrwick, Edward Johns, ed. Studies of boy life in our cities, written by
various authors for the Toynbee trust. London, J. M. Dent & company, 1904.
xv, 320 p. 19^- cm . HQ775.U83
Cloete, J. G. The boy and his work. I. The general conditions of boy labour. II. Special
occupations: messenger-boys, office-boys . . . van-boys, and street traders . . . p. 103-138.
TJrwick, E. J. The boy’s physique and physical training: The boy’s mind and education . . .
Home, school, and street, p. 255-318.
44193°— 16 6
82
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
965 Webb, Beatrice (Potter) “ Mrs. Sidney Webb,” ed. The case for the factory
acts. London, G. Richards, 1901. xvi, 233 p., 1 1. 19| cm . HD7876.W3
Children’s labour, p. 76-108, 113-114.
966 Webb, Sidney, and Beatrice Webb. Industrial democracy. London, New
York [etc.] Longmans, Green, and co., 1897. 2 v. diagrs. (1 fold.) 22b cm .
Bibliography: p. 879-900. HD6664.W4
Boy-labor: v. 2, p. 482-489, 573, 704-715, 768-769, 811.
967 Whitehouse, John Howard, ed. Problems of boy life. London, P. S. King &
son, 1912. viii, 342 p. 22 cm . HQ797.W5
The economics of boy labour, by R. H. Tawney: p. 17-51; Boy labour: some studies in detail,
by Spencer J. Gibb: p. 52-78; Boy labour: towards reform, by Spencer J. Gibb and J. H. White-
house: p. 79-96; Boy labour and the factory system, by A. K. Clark Kennedy: p. 97-122.
968 Williamson, Robert. Training the “ dead-end er”. World’s work, London,
Mar. 1914, v. 23: 443-446. AP4.W85,v.23
969 Woman in industry from seven points of view, by Gertrude M. Tuck well, Con-
stance Smith [and others] . . . with a preface by D. J.. Shackleton, M. P.
London, Duckworth and co., 1908. xiv, 217 p. 19 cm . HD6053.W7
v. Child employment and juvenile delinquency . By Nettie Adler: p.121-141; vi. Factory and
workshop law. By Adelaide M. Anderson: p. 143-181.
970 Wood, George Henry. Factory legislation, considered with reference to the
wages, &c., of the operatives protected thereby. Royal statistical society,
Journal, June, 1902, v. 65: 284-324. HAl.R8,v.65
971 An outline of the history of the employment of women and children in
industry. (In Co-operative wholesale societies limited. Annual, 1904.
Glasgow [1904] 8°. p. 209-238) HD3325.C76 1904
972 The Year-book of social progress . . . 1914-15, being a summary of recent
legislation, official reports, and voluntary effort, with regard to the welfare of
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H9.Y5 1914-15
Boy and girl workers (Statistics): p. 26-28; Juvenile labor exchanges: p. 414-416; Boys and the
post office: p. 420; Children employment and school attendance: p. 551, 626.
GREAT BRITAIN: COLONIES.
973 Edwards, Mrs. Henrietta (Muir) Labour laws in Canada that affect women
and children. Women’s industrial news, no. 55, Oct. 1911, p. 117-127.
974 France. Direction du travail. Legislation ouvriere et sociale en Australie et
Nouvelle-Z61ande. Mission deM. Albert Metin. Paris, Imprimerie nationale,
1901. vii, 200 p. 24 cm . HD7960.F8
Lois pour prot^ger les femmes et les enfants employSs dans 1’industrie: p. 77-81; Lois pour
proteger les femmes et les enfants employes dans les magasins: p. 81-84.
975 Kelley, Mrs. Florence. Child labor in Ontario. Charities and the Commons,
Apr. 27, 1907, v. 18: 116. HVl.C4,v.l8
976 New South Wales. Royal commission of inquiry into the hours and general
conditions of employment of female and juvenile labour in factories and shops.
Report. 1912. lix, 58 p.
977 Statistician’s office. The official year book of New South Wales.
1914. [Sydney] W. A. Gullick, 1915. illus., plates, fold. maps. 25? cm .
Child labour [With statistics]: p. 357-360, 662. DU150.N5 1913
978 Nova Scotia. Factories inspector. Child labor. (In its Report, 1912,
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979 Ontario. Laws, statutes, etc. An act for the protection of persons employed
in factories, shops, and office buildings. Assented to 6th May, 1913. Inter-
national labour office. Bulletin, Aug. 1914, v. 9: 133-157. HD7801.I6,v.9
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
83
980 Page, Anna B. Labour laws for women and children at home and abroad.
Women’s industrial news, no. 63, Oct. 1913, p. 171-186.
981 Smart, G. Bogue. Juvenile emigrants in Canada. Empire review, June,
1914, v. 27: 310-315. DA10.E4,v.27
982 Victorian year-book, 1914-15, by A. M. Laughton . . . government statist.
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ITALY.
983 Baudoin, Lionel. La reglementation legale du travail des femmes et des en-
fants dans l’industrie italienne. Paris, H. Paulin et cie, 1905. 2 p. 1., 160 p.
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“Bibliographic”: p. [157]— 158.
Contents. — Texte de la loi du 19 juin 1902. — Introduction. — 1. ptie. La loi du 19 juin 1902. — 2.
ptie. La Convention franco-italienne du 15 avril 1904 et la reglementation legale du travail indus-
triel en France k l’egard des femmes et des enfants italiens.
984 Brants, V. La legislation italienne sur le travail des enfants. Reforme
sociale, Mar. 1, 1890, v. 19: 273-282. H3.R3,v.l9
985 Ferraris, Carlo F. Das neue italienische Gesetz betr. die Frauen- und Kinder-
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986 Giretti, Edoardo. La legge sul lavoro . . . forzato delle donne. Giornale
degli economisti, Oct. 1903, ser. 2, v. 27: 399-401. HB7.G5,2d,v.27
On the Italian law of July 19, 1902, in regard to the labor of women and children.
987 Italy. Laws, statutes, etc. Royal decree relating to the temporary suspen-
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1914. ' International labor office. Bulletin, 1915, v. 10, nos. 1, 2: 73.
HD7801.I6,v.l0
988 1 — Uniform text of the Act relating to the employment of women
and children, sanctioned by Royal decree no. 818. (Nov. 10, 1907) Inter-
national labor office. Bulletin, 1907, v. 2, no. 4: 578-582.
HD7801.I6,v.2
989 — — — Ministero di agricoltura, industria e commercio. Relazione
sull’ applicazione della legge 11 febbraio 1886, N. 3657 (Serie 3.) sul lavoro dei
fanciulli nelle fabbriche e nelle miniere dal 1. luglio 1896 al 31 dicembre 1898.
Roma, Tip. della Camera dei deputati, 1901. 51 p. 28 cm . (Atti parlamen-
tari. Legis. xxi, Prima sessione 1900-1901. Camera dei deputati, Doc. 24)
Same. 1 gennaio 1899 al 31 dicembre 1900. Roma, Tip. della Camera
dei deputati, 1901. 80 p. 28 cm . (Atti parlamentari . Legis. xxi, Prima
sessione 1900-1901. Camera dei deputati, Doc. 26) HD6250.I8A4
990 Relazione sull’ applicazione della legge 19 giugno 1902, N. 242
sul’ lavoro delle donne e dei fanciulli (1° luglio 1903-25 luglio 1907) Presentata
dal ministro di agricoltura, industria e commercio (Cocco Ortu) nella seduta del
10 luglio 1909. Roma, Tip. della Camera dei deputati, 1909. 208 p. incl.
tables. 29 cm . HD6152.A5 1909
991 Ufficio del lavoro. Operai ed orari negli opifici soggetti alia legge sul
lavoro delle donne e dei fanciulli (anno 1907) Roma, Officina poligrahca
Italiana, 1908. 16, cv p. 3L| cm . (Pubblicazioni dell’ Ufficio del lavoro,
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Reviewed by Meerwarth, in Archiv fur Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, Sept. 1909, v. 29:
G39-640. H5.A8,v.29
992 Loriga, Giovanni. Lavoro dei fanciulli e crescenza del corpo. Roma, 1910.
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84
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
993 Okey, Mrs. Thomas. Labour laws for women in Italy. [London, The Women’s
industrial council] 1908. cover-title, 11 p. 21 em . I1D6083.I8O6
994 Ortu, F. Cocco. Circolare e istruzioni per l’applicazione della legge sul lavoro
delle donne e dei fanciulli. Italy. Bollettino dell’ Ufficio del lavoro, Nov.
1909, v. 12: 806-821. ‘ HD8471.A4,v.l2
995 Profumo, L. G. Le assicurazioni operate nella legislazione sociale. Torino
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sociali, vol. 43} HD7091.P8
“Le leggi sul lavoro delle donne e dei fanciulli,” p. 122-132.
996 Reina, Ettore. I pubblici spettacoli e le provvidenze di legislazione sociale
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Part I gives the results of an investigation into the employment of children in theatrical per-
formances.
997 Rossi, Alessandro. Perche una legge? Osservazioni e proposte sul progetto
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998 Veditz, Charles William August. Child-labor legislation in Italy. (In
U. S. Bureau of labor. Bulletin, July, 1910. no. 89. Washington, 1910. p.
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THE NETHERLANDS.
999 Kramers, Martina G. Special legislation for children under the factory laws.
[Holland] (In International congress of women, London, 1899. London,
1900. 20J cm . v. 6, p. 66-71) HQ1106 1899, v.6
1000 Netherlands (Kingdom) 1815- Commissie belast met het onderzoek naar
den toestand der kinderen in fabrieken arbeidende. Rapport. Uitgegeven
op last van den minister van binnenlandsche zaken ... ’s Gravenhage,
Algemeene landsdrukkerij , 1869-72. 4 v. tables (partly fold.) diagrs. (partly
fold.) 27^x23 cm . HD6250.N2A4
1001 Directie van den arbeid. Onderzoekingen naar de toestanden in de
Nederlandsche huisindustrie . . . Uitg. voor rekening van het Departe-
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HD2336.N2A3
Contents. — deel I. Voedings-en genotmiddelen.— deel II. Dlamantbewerking. Drukkers-
bedrijf. Chemische industrie. Hout- en stroobewerking. Metaalbewerking. Papierbewerking.
Schoenmakers.— deel 3. Textielindustrie. Kleeding en reiniging.
1002 — — — Laws, statutes, etc. Text of the labour act, 1911. International
labor office. Bulletin, 1912, v. 7, no. 1, 2: 47-91. HD7801.I6,v.7
The following laws relate to the employment of children:
Staatsblad, 1889, No. 48; 1895, No. 138; 1896, No. 259; 1902, No. 185; 1903, No. 107; 1906, No. 97,
204, 243; 1909, No. 244, 290, 1911, No. 319, 352, 353, 355, 356; 1912, No. 282, 283, 284.
Prepared by the Leg. Ref. Div.
1003 Ort, Jan. Die Beschaftigung jugendlicher Arbeiter in den Niederlanden.
Jahrbuclier fur Nationalokonomie und Statistik, June, 1910, in. Folge,
v. 39: 815-817. IIB5.J3,3d ser.,v.39
RUSSIA.
1004 The Russian year-book for 1914. Compiled and edited by Howard P. Ken-
nard, M. D., assisted by Netta Peacock. London, Eyre and Spottiswoode
[1914?] 753 p. 20* cm . 1 HC331.R7 1914
Child labour: p. 622.
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
85
1005' Schroeter, Jakob. Zur russischen Fabrikschutzgesetzgebung und ihrer Ge*?
schichte. Darmstadt, H. Uhde, 1904. 184 p. 24 cm . HD7905.S38
“Litteraturverzeichnis”: p. 177-180.
“Schutz der jugendlichen Arbeiter, ” p. 71-82.
1006 Schwittau, G. Russland. Der gesetzliche Schutz der Kinderarbeit. An-
nalen fur soziale Politik und Gesetzgebung, 1913, v. 2: 644-654.
HD6951.A6,v.2
1007 Woycicki, Alexandre. La protection du travail des femmes et des mineurs
dans l’industrie russe. Mouvement social, Jan. 15, 1914, v. 77: 84-87.
H3.M6,v.77
NORWAY AND SWEDEN.
1008 Legge, James G. Children’s workshops in Sweden. Monthly review, Oct.
1901, v. 5: 103-113. AP4.M882,v.5
1009 and M. E. Sadler. Note on children’s workshops in Sweden. ( In
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v. 8, p. 143-147. London, 1902. 23 pm .) L341.A7,v.8
1010 Norway. Laws, statutes, etc.
The following laws relate to the employment of children:
Norsk Lovtindende: Sept. 10, 1909, p. 418; July 25, 1910, p. 453; April 24, 1906, p. 189; July 29,
1911, p. 426. Prepared by the Leg. Ref. Div.
1011 Sweden. Kvinnors och minderarigas anvandande vid fabriker och bergverk
i Sverige ar 1912. (Die Beschaftigung der Frauen und Minderjahrigen in
den Fabriken und Bergwerken in Schweden 1912) Sweden. Socialstyrel-
sen. Sociala meddelanden, 1914, no. 4: 299-309. (Statistiska meddelanden,
ser. F. Bd. V: 4) HD8571.A25 1914
Annual since 1901.
1012 Kommitte for ordnande af fosterbamsvarden, 1894. Under-
danigt forslag till ordnande af fosterbamsvarden m. m. afgifvet af den af
Kongl. Maj.t for andamalet tillsatta komit6. Stockholm, K. L. Beckmans
boktryckeri, 1897. 1 p. L, [2], 198 p. incl. tables. 23J x 19| cm .
HV790.A4 1897
1013 Laws, statutes, etc. Act in regard to the protection of labour.
(Dated June 29, 1912) International labor office. Bulletin, 1913, v. 8, no. 2:
84-97. HD7801.I6,v.8
Special directions as to the employment of minors: p. 87-89.
SPAIN.
1014 Chauvet, Emile. La protection legale des travailleurs en Espagne. Paris:
Societe nouvelle de librairie et d ’edition (G. Bellais) 1903. 132 p. 25 cm .
HD7916.C5
“Bibliographic”: p. [127J-129.
Appendice : Loi du 15 mars 1900 rdglementant le travail des femmes et des enfants: p. [119]-126.
1015 Delas, Joseph-Marie. La reglementation du travail des enfants et des
femmes en Espagne. (In Congres international de legislation du travail tenu
a Bruxelles du 27 au 30 septembre 1897, p. 121-127. Bruxelles, 1898. 23 cm .)
1016 Marmel, Tarrida del. Children’s work in Spain. (In International congress
of women, London, 1899. London, 1900. 20| cm . v. 6, p. 82-84)
IIQ1106 1899, v.6
1017 Spain. Instituto de reformas sociales. Seccion primera. Legislacion
del trabajo. Madrid, Impr. de la sucesora de M. Minuesa de los Rios, 1905.
4 p. L, [3]— 358 p. 24 cm . IID7916.A5
Ap&ndice 1-8, Julio, 1905-1912. Madrid, 1906-1913. 8 v. 24 cm .
86
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
Spain. Instituto de reformas sociales. Proyecto de reglamentacion
especial del trabajo de la mujeres y ninos [redactado por la Seccion segunda
tecnico-administrativa] Madrid, Impr. de la Compania arrendataria de la
“Gaceta de Madrid,” 1905. 2 p. 1., [7]-29 p. 22§ cm . HDG083.S7A4
Laws, statutes, etc. The following laws relate to the employment
of children:
March 13, 1900; July 26, 1878; July 23, 1903; Aug. 12, 1904; Jan. 24, 1908; March 21, 1909;
Feb. 8, 1911. Prepared by Leg. ref. div.
Consejo superior de proteccion a la infancia; leyes y disposi-
ciones vigentes de proteccion a la infancia. Madrid, imprenta del Asilo de
Iluerfanos, 1908. 128 p.
Villota y Presilla, Isidro de. El trabajo industrial de los menores de 18 anos
en Espana; . . . con notas estadisticas por Antonio Revenga y Alzamora.
Madrid, Imp. de la sue. de M. Minuesa de los Rios, 1908. 50 p., 1 1. 23 cm .
(Asociacion internacional para la proteccion legal de los trabajadores. Sec-
cion espanola. — num. 8) HD6250.S7V6
SWITZERLAND.
Bertoni, B. La protezione dell’infanzia nella nuova legislazione svizzera.
Rivista italiana di sociologia, May-Aug. 1909, v. 13: 389-405.
H7.R7,v.l3
Deutsch, Julius. Die Kinderarbeit und ihre Bekampfung. Zurich, Rascher
& co., Meyer & Zeller’s nachf., 1907. xi, 247 p. 21| cm . (Zwei von der
Universitiit Zurich preisgekronte Arbeiten liber Kinderschutz . . .[1])
HD6250.S9D6
Die Erwerbstatigkeit der Schulkinder im Kanton St. Gallen. Germany.
Statistisehes Amt. Abteilung fur Arbeiterstatistik. Reichs-Arbeitsblatt,
June, 1912, v. 10: 441-444. HD8441.A3,v.lO
Goldstein, Fanny. Der Arbeiterschutz zu gunsten der Kinder und Frauen in
der Schweiz. Zeitschrift fur schweizerische Statistik, 1904, v. 40, Bd. 1:
306-359. HAl.Z5,v.40
Literaturverzeiclmis: p. 357-359.
Landmann, Jul. Die Nachtarbeit der jugendlichen Arbeiter in der Schweiz.
Schweiz. Blatter fur wirtschaft-und soziale Politik, 1906, p. 523-533.
Morant, R. L. The national organisation of education of all grades as practised
in Switzerland. (In Great Britain. Board of education. Special reports on
educational subjects. London, 1898. 24| cm . v. 3, p. 1-82)
L341.A7,v.3
“Federal law in compulsory primary education; Federal law on child labour,” pp. 13-14.
Ryff, Mme. Children under the factory laws of Switzerland. (In Inter-
national congress of women, London, 1899. London, 1900. 20J cm . v. 6,
p. 60-66) HQ1106 1899, v.6
Schwyzer, Eugen. Die jugendlichen arbeitskrafte im handwerk und
gewerbe, in der hausindustrie und in den fabriken. Zurich, E. Leemann,
1900.
Separatabdruck aus der “Schweiz, zeitschrift fur gemeinniitzigkeit ” xxxix. jahr, heft m
Veditz, Charles William August. Child-labor legislation in Switzerland.
(In U. S. Bureau of labor. Bulletin, July, 1910, no. 89. Washington, 1910.
p. 326-413) HD8051.A5,no.89
Wirth, Max. Aper?u des legislations suisse et anglaise, sur le travail des
enfants dans les manufactures. Revue de droit international, 1869, v. 1:
172-189. JX3.R4,v.l
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
87
1032
1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
1045
Zinsli, Ph. Die Beschaftigung der schulpflichtigen Kinder in Hausindustrie
und andern Erwerbsarten im Kanton Appenzell A.-Rh. Zeitschrift fiir
schweizerische Statistik, 1905, v. .41, bd. 1: 164-183. HAl.Z5,v.41
Literatur: p. 181.
Ziircher, E. Die Gesetzgebung fiber die Arbeit von Kindern und Jugend-
iichen. Bericht, erstattet an der 10. General versammlung der Schweizer.
Vereinigung zur Forderung des internationalen Arbeitersschutzes am 18.
Juni 1909 in Zurich. Schweiz. Blatter fiir Wirtschafts-und Sozialpolitik,
1910, p. 417-430.
Die Gesetzgebung iiber Kinderarbeit und die intern. Vereinigung
fiir gesetzlichen Arbeiterschutz. Schweiz. Blatter fiir Wirtschafts-u.
Sozialpolitik, 1912, no. 20, u. 21.
OTHER COUNTRIES.
Argentine Republic. Departamento nacional del trabajo. Trabajo de
mujeres y de menores. {In its Boletin, Dec. 31, 1913, no. 25: 858-875)
HD8261 .A3, no .25
* El trabajo de los menores en la via publica. {In its Boletin,
Dec. 31, 1913, no. 25: 836-843) HD8261.A3,no.25
Regelung der Frauen-Kinder-und Jugendlichenarbeit (Argentinien, Gosetz
und Verordnung). Soziale Rundschau, Feb. 1914, v. 1, p. 58-61; v. 2, p.
61-73. HD8401.A2 1914
Kinderarbeit in Brasilien. Soziale Praxis, Jan. 11, 1912, v. 21: 456-457.
H5S7,v.21
Bulgaria. Laws, statutes, etc., 1905. Loi sur le travail des femmes et des
enfants dans les etablissements industriels. Votee et adoptee par 1 ’Assem-
ble nationale, ratifiee par oukaze princier du 25 mars 1905. Sofia, Impri-
merie “Sainte-Sophie,” 1906. 12 p. 18^ om . HD6083.B9A5 1905
Denmark. Laws, statutes, etc. The following laws relate to the employ-
ment of children:
Lovtidende: Apr. 29, 1913, p. 481; Apr. 11, 1901, p. 317; Nov. 1, 1902, p. 554; June 11, 1904,
p. 518; Apr. 6, 1906, p. 635; May 7, 1906, p. 523; June 4, 1908, p. 680; July 17, 1907, p. 226; July
22, 1908, p. 759; Jan. 23, 1908, p. 25; May 10, 1912, p. 104; June 8, 1912, p. 165.
Prepared by Leg. Ref. Div.
— — — Gesetz iiber die Arbeit in Fabriken und damit gleichgestellten
Betrieben sowie iiber deren offentliche Ueberwachung. Bulletin des Inter-
nationalen Arbeitsamts, Jan.-Mar.' 1902, v. 1: 13-21. IID7801.B9,v.l
Act regulating work in bakeries and confectionery businesses.
(No. 171, 1906) Apr. 6, 19Q6. International labor office. Bulletin, 1906,
v. 1, nos. 4-8: 177-182. HD7801.I6,v.l
Notification of an Order for the commercial town of Esbj erg . . .
relating to the employment of children and young persons for purposes of
gain in certain specified classes of occupations. Dated July 17, 1907. Inter-
national labor office. Bulletin, 1908, v. 3, no. 2: 145-146. HD7801.I6,v.3
Act (No. 155) respecting work in bakeries and confectionery
businesses. (Dated June 8, 1912.) International labor office. Bulletin,
1913, v. 8, no. 6, 7: 272-277. HD7801.I6,v.8
— : Act relating to work in factories, etc., and the public inspection
of the same. (Dated April 29, 1913.) International labor office. Bulletin,
1913, v. 8, no. 8: 324-343. HD7801.I6,v.8
88
1046
1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
1053
1054
1055
1056
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
Greece. Laws, statutes, etc. Act no. 4029 concerning the work of women
and minors. (Dated 24th Jan. -6th Feb. 1912.) International labor office.
Bulletin, Nov. 1912, v. 7: 285-290. IID7801.I6,v.7
Royal decree, respecting the execution of the act no. 4029,
concerning the work of women and minors in factories, workshops, com-
mercial firms, and stores of any kind. (Dated 14th-27th Aug. 1913.) Inter-
national labor office. Bulletin, Sept. 1914, v. 9: 219-225. HD7801.I6,v.9
The Legislative efforts of England and Greece for the regulation of child labor.
Craftsman, July, 1912, v. 22: 457-458. Nl.C87*,v.22
Portugal. Laws, statutes, etc. Act no. 297 to amend various sections of
the order relating to the employment of minors and women in industrial un-
dertakings. (Dated 22nd Jan. 1915.) International labor office. Bulletin,
Oct. 1915, v. 10: 109-111. HD7801.I6,v.l0
INDUSTRIES.
AGRICULTURE.
Adams, M. Bridges. Rural child workers and free school meals. Nation,
London, Feb. 13, 1915, v. 16: 620. AP4.N15,v.l6
Agahd, Konrad. Die gesetzliche Regelung der Kinderarbeit in Landwirt-
schaft und Haushalt. (In Sozialo Praxis, June 22, 29, 1905, v. 14, cols. 985-
989; 1009-1012) H5.S7,v.l4
Albrecht, Otto. Kinderarbeit in Gartnereien Generalkommission der Ge-
werkschaften Deutschlands. Correspondenzblatt, Aug. 9, 1913, v. 23:
487-489. IID8443.G3,v.23
Die Beschaftigung von Schulkindern mit gewerb lichen landwirtschaftlichen
und sonstigen Arbeiten in Osterreich. Soziale Rundschau, Aug. 1903, v. 1,
p. 277-285. HD8401.A2 1903, v.l
Bremer, Harry M. Agricultural work and school attendance. Child labor
bulletin, May, 1914, v. 3, no. 1: 153-158. HD6250.U3N4,v.3,no.l
People who go to tomatoes; a study of four hundred families. New
York, National child labor committee, 1914. 16 p. 23 em . (Pamphlet
no. 215) IID6250.U3N2
Strawberry pickers of Maryland. Child labor bulletin, Feb. 1914, v. 2,
no. 4: 70-75. • LID6250.U3N4,v.2
Carleton, Ernest E. Agricultural training for British lads oversea. Empire
review, Apr. 1914, v. 27: 170-176. DA10.E5,v.27
Child labor in agriculture. Nation, London, Mar. 13, 1915, v. 16: 735-736.
AP4.N15,v.l6
Child labor in agriculture. New statesman, Feb. 13, 1915, v. 4: 453-454.
AP4.N64,v.4
Chute, Charles L. The cost of the cranberry sauce. Survey, Dec. 2, 1911,
v. 27: 1281-1284. ” HVl.C4,v.27
Clopper, Edward N., and Lewis W. Kine. Child labor in the sugar-beet
fields of Colorado. Child labor bulletin, Feb. 1916, v. 4, no. 4; 176-206.
IID6250.U3N4,v.4,no.4
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 259. 34 p.
Gillette, John M. Rural child labor. Child labor bulletin, v. 1, no. 1, June
1912, p. 154-160. HD6250.U3N4,v.l
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
89
1062
1063
1064
1065
1066
106'
1068
HB6073.A4G7
17; 1868-69, v. 13; 1870,
J301.K6
Gt Brit. Commission on employment of children, young persons, and
women in agriculture (1867). Reports, with appendices] London,
Printed by G. E. Eyre and W. Spottiswoode, for II. M. Stationery off., 1868-70.
7 v in 3. 33 cm . [Parliament. Papers by command]
Found also in Gt. Brit. Parliament. Sessional papers, 1867-68, v
v. 13.
Poor law commissioners. Reports of special assistant poor law
commissioners on the employment of women and children in agriculture.
London, Printed by W. Clowes and sons, 1843. xiv p., 1 L, 378 p., 1 1.
illus. 22 cra . 1ID6135.A5 1843
Also found in Gt. Brit. Parliament. Sessional papers, 1843, v. 12. 510
JK301.K6 1843, v. 12
Royal commission on labour. The agricultural labourer . . .
[Assistant commissioners’ reports] Presented to both houses of Parliament
by command of Her Majesty. London, Printed for H. M. Stationery off., by
Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1893-94. 5v.in4. fold, map, diagrs. 34 cm . ([Par-
liament Papers by command] C. 6894 — i-vi, xm-xxii, xxiv-xxv)
HD1532.A3 1893
Contains much general information and statistics relating to child labor in agriculture in
England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales; and vol. 5, pt. 2, contains “ Memorandum on the reports
and proceedings of the Children’s employment commission, 1862, and the Commission on the
employment of children, young persons, and women in agriculture, 1867, by William C. Little. ”
Also found in Gt. Brit. Parliament. Sessional papers. 1893-94, v. 35-37.
J301.K6,v. 35-37
Greenwood, Arthur. Agriculture and child labour. Political quarterly,
London, May, 1915, no. 6; 119-144. JA8.P7 May, 1915
Hasbach, Wilhelm. A history of the English agricultural labourer. Newly
ed. by the author and tr. by Ruth Kenyon. With a preface by Sidney Webb .
London, P. S. King & son, 1908. xvi, 470 p. 22| cm . (Studies in economics
and political science, no. 15 in the series of monographs by writers connected
with the London school of economics and political science) HD1534.H34
See Index under Child-labour: p. 452-453.
Kine, Lewis W. Children or cotton? Raising the question of cotton picking
in Texas. Survey, Feb. 7, 1914, v. 31: 589-592. HVl.C4,v.31
Hutchinson, Woods. Overworked children on the farm and in the school.
American academy of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar.
1909, v. 33: 116-121. IIl.A4,v.33
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 105. 6 p.
IID6250.U3N2,no.l05
Nation, London, Feb.
1069 Lennard, Reginald. Child labor in the counties.
1070
1071
1072
1073
1074
10 /
20, 1915, v. 16: 648-649.
Love joy, Owen R. The cost of the cranberry sauce.
1911, v. 25: 605-610, 711.
Jersey cranberry bogs. Survey, Dec. 26, 1914, v
AP4.N15,v.l6
Survey, Jan. 7, 28,
HV1.C4.V.25
. 33: 342.
HVl.C4,v.33
Good housekeeping,
TXl.G7,v.57
MacCulloch, Campbell. Who picked your cranberries?
Nov. 1913, v. 57: 669-677.
Macdonald, N. C. The case of the country boy. Interview with N. C. Mac-
donald, state inspector of rural and graded schools, [n. p. J 1912.
“In the Fargo Courier-news of February 4th, 1912. ”
McKelway, A. J. The mill or the farm? American academy of political and
social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1910, v. 35:52-57. Hl.A4,v.35
Sanger, Robert C. “Cost of the cranberry sauce.
v. 25: 711.
Survey, Jan. 28, 1911,
* IIVl.C4,v.25
90
1076
1077
1078
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1084
108J)
1086
1087
1088
1089
1090
1091
1092
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
Selley, Ernest. Employment of boy labor of farms. Nation, London, Apr.
3, 1915, v. 17: 17-18. AP4.N15,v.l7
CANNERIES.
Bache, Rene. Shrimps and babies. Technical world magazine, Jan. 1912,
v. 16: 497-504. Tl.T2,v.l6
Brown, Edward F. The neglected human resoures of the Gulf Coast states.
National child labor committee, New York. The child labor bulletin, May,
1913, v. 2, no. 1: 112-116. HD6250.U3N4,v.2,no.l*
— The toiling children of the Gulf coast canneries: a field investigation,
January-March, 1913. National child labor committee, New York. 1913.
Pamphlet no. 193. p. 14-29. HD6250.U3N2,no.l93
California. Bureau of labor statistics. Special report of the Bureau of
labor statistics, state of California. Labor conditions in the canning industry.
Sacramento, Cal., F. W. Richardson, superintendent of state printing, 1913.
34 p. incl. tables, diagrs. 22§ cm . HD6073.C32U73
Children — Employment, p. 4, 7-16, 18.
Chamberlain, Mary Louise. Children in bondage: baby toilers in New York
canneries. Good housekeeping, May, 1913, v. 56: 618-625.
TXl.G7,v.56
— The new bean bag. Survey, Feb. 15, 1913, v. 29: 664-665.
Brief note on child labor in the canneries of New York. H\ 1.C4,V.29
Child labor in the canneries [New York] Literary digest, Dec. 14, 1912, v. 45:
1110-1112. AP2.L58,v.45
Goldmark, Pauline. Child labor in canneries. American academy of
political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1910, v. 35: 152-154.
Hl.A4,v.35
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 128. 8 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l28
Gompers, Samuel. Child labor in the New York canneries. American fed-
erationist, Feb. 1913, v. 20: 133-136. HD8055.A5A2,v.20
Hine, Lewis W. Baltimore to Biloxi and back: The child’s burden in oyster
and shrimp canneries. Survey, May 3, 1913, v. 30: 167-172. HVl.C4,v.30
Baltimore to Biloxi and back. National child labor committee. New
York. 1913. Pamphlet no. 193. p. 6-13. HD6250.U3N2,no.l93
Child labor in Gulf coast canneries. American academy of political
and social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38: 118-122.*
H1.A4,B.38
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 158. 6 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l58
The child’s burden in oyster and shrimp canneries. Child labor
bulletin, May, 1913, v. 2, no. 1: 105-111. HD6250.U3N4,v.2
Not a vacation farm: just a Maryland cannery. Survey, Mar. 21, 1914,
v. 31: 765. HVl.C4,v.31
Kelley, Mrs. Florence. A privileged industry. New York city, National con-
sumers’ league [1912] 7 p. illus. 24 cm . HD5119.C2K4
“Reprinted from the Twentieth century magazine, Boston, July, 1912,” v. 6: 32-37.
AP2.TS8,v.6
Lord, Everett W. Child labor in the textile industries and canneries of New
England. American academy of political and social science, Annals, Supple-
ment, Mar. 1909, v. 33: 73-78. HLA4,v.33
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 107. 6 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l07
list of references on child labor.
91
1093 Maryland. Bureau of statistics and information. Child labor inspection
of the canning industry. {In its Report, 1913, p. 76-84)
HC107.M3A15 1913
1094 National child labor committee, New Y ork. Child labor in canneries . . .
with other special articles. New York city, National child labor committee,
1913 3 r> 1 95 p. incl. plates, maps. 23 cm . (The child labor bulletin, \ ■ 1 >
’’ ^ HD6250.U3N4
no. 4) ,
Contents.— Child labor and poverty: advance program of the 9th National conference on
child labor.— The important provisions of existing child labor laws.— Child labor in New \ ork
canning factories [by] E. F. Brown.-Day and night in a vegetable canning factory: a personal
experience [by] J. J. Eschenbrenner.— Photographic reproductions of children in fruit and vege-
table, oyster, and shrimp canneries.— Child labor and health [by] O. R. Lovejoy.— Some dangers
in the present movement for industrial education [by] John Dewey.-Overwork, idleness, or
industrial education [by] William Noyes.-The child that toileth not: a reply to Mr. Dawley.
1095 The child’s burden in oyster and shrimp canneries. [New York, 1913]
32 p. 23 cm . (Pamphlet no. 193) IID6250.U3N2,no.l93
Contents.— Baltimore to Biloxi and back, by Lewis W. Hine; Toiling children of the ( ulf
coast canneries, by Edward F. Brown; Needs in Mississippi and Florida, by Owen R. Lovejoy;
Interstate commerce, by Owen R. Lovejoy.
1096 New York (State) Bureau of labor statistics. Report on the work of
children and women in canneries. {In New York (State) Bureau of factory
inspection. Annual report, 1908, p. 333-507) HC107.N7A2 1908
10 9 7 Bureau of statistics and information. Special report on can-
neries and day of rest law. {In New York (State) Dept, of labor. 14th
annual report of the commissioner of labor, 1914, p. 132-175)
HD8053.N7A2 1914
1098 Obenauer, Marie L., and Mary Conyngton. Employment of children in
Maryland industries. U. S. Bureau of labor. Bulletin, Sept. 1911, v. 23,
no. 96: 466-487. HD8051.A5,v.23,no.96
Deals principally with the canning industry, but includes some information concerning the
candy, biscuit, and paper-box factories.
1099 Potter, Zenas L. Child labor in the canneries of New York state. Child
labor bulletin, June, 1912, v. 1: 135-139. HD6250;U3N4,v.l
HOO Industrial conditions in the canning industry of New York state. (In
New York (State) Factory investigating commission. Second report, 1913.
Albany 1913. 23 cm . v. 2, p. 757-915. [Legislature, 1913. Senate doc. 36])
HD8053.N7A5 1913
See also Report, v. 1, p. 127-143: Child labor in the canneries.
1101 Shorey, Eva E. Women and children in sardine factories. {In Maine. Bu-
reau of industrial and labor statistics. Annual report . . . 21st, 1907.
Augusta, 1907. 23 cm . p. 121-137) HC107.M2A3 1907
1102 Three bits of testimony for the consumers of shrimp and oysters. [Canneries
at Pass Christian, Miss.] Survey, Feb. 28, 1914, v. 31: 663. H\ l.C4,v.31
1103 U. S. Bureau of labor. Report on condition of woman and child wage-
earners in the United States, v. 18. Employment of women and children
in selected industries. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1913. 531 p. 23 om .
(61st Cong., 2d sess. Senate. Doc. 645, v. 18) HD6093.A4,v.l8
Canning and preserving: p. 39-56.
1104 Bureau of the census. Thirteenth census of the United States:
1910. Bulletin. Manufactures: 1909. Statistics for canning and preserving.
[Washington, Govt, print, off., 1913] 23 p. incl. tables, diagr. 3U m .
ITD9321.1.A3 1909
Contains the statistics of employment of children under 16 years of age.
92
1105
HOG
1107
1108
1100
1110
1111
1112
1113
1114
1115
111G
1117
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
TJ. S. Congress. House. Committee on rules. Investigation of can-
neries. Hearings . . . on II. Res. 738 providing for the investigation of
canneries of the United States. Jan. 11, 1913. Washington, Govt, print,
off., 1913. 42 p. 23 cm . RA601.U6 1913
Alfred G. Allen, Chairman.
Statements of Mary Boyle O’Reilly, Frank C. Fraete, J. Harry Covington, and Frank E.
Gorrell.
Washington (State) Bureau of labor. Biennial report. 9th, 1913-1914.
Olympia, Wash., 1914. 320 p. plates, tables, diagrs. 23^ cm .
IIC107.W2A2 1913-1914
Female and child labor in canneries: p. 94-96. Child labor violations: p. 171-178.
Whitin, E. S. Children in the canning industry. Outlook, Jan. 21, 1905,
v. 79: 177-179. AP2.08,v.79
CLOTHING.
Dodd, Edward Arthur. Die Wirkung der Schutzbestimmungen fur die
jugendlichen und weib lichen Fabrikarbeiter und die VerMltnisse im Kon-
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Merriman, C. Searchlight turned on child labor and the tailoring trades.
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Rochester, Anna. Children at work on men’s clothing. Child labor in the
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ton, Govt, print, off., 1911. 878 p. 23cm. (61st Cong. 2d sess. Senate.
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Van Kleeck, Mary. Women and children who make men’s clothes. Survey,
Apr. 1, 1911, v. 26: 65-69. , HVl.C4,v.26
GLASS.
Beschaftigung von Arbeiterinnen und jugendlichen Arbeitern in Glashiitten
usw. Generalkommission der Gewerkschaften Deutschlands. Correspond-
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Chute, Charles L. The glass industry and child labor legislation. American
academy of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1911,
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 157. 11 p.
IID6250.U3N2,no.l57
Women and children in the glass industry. Survey, June 17, 1911,
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Germany. Bekanntmachung, betreffend die Beschaftigung von Arbeiterin-
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beizereien sowie Sandblasereien. Vom 9. Marz 1913. Germany. Statis-
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Gesellsehaft fur Soziale Reform. Das Y erbot der Nachtarbeit jugendlicher
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93
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Kelley, Mrs. Florence. Boy-destroying trade; the glass bottle industry of New
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Kestner, Fritz. Die Nachtarbeit jugendlicher Arbeiter in Walzwerken, Ham-
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Compiled from vol. 3 of the Report on the condition of woman and child wage-earners in the
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U. S. Bureau of labor. Report on condition of woman and child wage-
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Bureau of the census. Thirteenth census of the United States:
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I1D9623.U45A5 1909
Contains statistics of the employment of children under 16 years of age.
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1I1.A4,v.29
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HD6250.U3N2, no.50
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1133
1134
1135
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1137
1138
1139
1140
1141
1142
1143
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1146
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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See Index under Children, Employment of. HD2336 .G6 A4 1907
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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LIST OF REFERENCES OX CHILD LABOR.
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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101
TEXTILES.
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1237 Beeks, Gertrude. Welfare work and child labor in southern cotton mills.
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1239 Byington, Margaret F. Making income equal outgo: what the struggle
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1240 Campbell, John C. From mountain cabin to cotton mill. Child labor bul-
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1243 Child workers in North Carolina cotton mills. Survey, Feb. 27, 1915, v. 33:
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1247 Crosby, Ernest Howard. Broad-cast. New York, Funk and Wagnalls com-
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Reprinted from the Survey, Feb. 7, 1914, v. 31: 589-592. HVl.C4,v.31
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v. 31: 737. HVl.C4,v.31
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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2d sess. Senate Doc. 645. v. 18) HD6093.A4,v.l8
The following industries have been investigated: Canning and preserving; Cans and boxes,
tin; Cigar boxes; Cigarettes; Cigars; Clocks and watches; Confectionery; Core making; Corsets;
Crackers and biscuits; Hardware and metal specialties; Hosiery and knit goods; Jewelry; Needles
and pins; Nuts, bolts, and screws; Paper boxes; Pottery; Rubber and elastic goods; Shirts,
overalls, and underwear; Stamped and enameled ware; Tobacco (smoking and chewing) and
snuiT; Woolen and worsted goods.
A statement of the general sanitary conditions is given for most of the industries.
Reviewed by Louise C. Odencrantz in Survey, Jan. 24, 1914, v. 31: 498-499. HVl.C4,v.31
1321
1322
1323
1324
1325
1326
1327
1328
1329
1330
1331
1332
1333
1334
1335
1336
1337
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Women’s educational and industrial union, Boston. Dept, of research.
The boot and shoe industry in Massachusetts as a vocation for women. Octo-
ber, 1915. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1915. 109 p. 23 cm . (Bulletin of
the United States Bureau of labor statistics, whole no. 180. Women in in-
dustry series, no. 7) HD8051.A5,no.l80
Employment of minors as related to women’s earnings in shoe factories: p. 96-9S.
STAGE.
Addams, Jane. Children on the stage. American academy of political and
social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38: 60-65. Hl.A4,v.38
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 165. p. 1-7.
HD6250.U3N2,mo.l65
Stage children. Survey, Dec. 3, 1910, v. 25: 342-343.
HVl.C4,v.25
Barker, Henry A. Stage children. Survey, Aug. 12, 1911, v. 26: 703-704.
HVI.C4,v.26
Bates, Blanche. Child labor on the stage. Survey, Aug. 5, 1911, v. 26:
633-636. HTI.C4,v.26
The stage and stage children. New York dramatic mirror, May 3,
1911, v. 65: 5. PN2000.N6,v.65
Stage children. New York, National child labor committee, 1912.
7 p. 23 cin . (National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 176)
HD6250.U3N2,no.l76
Blydenburgh, Benjamin B . The child and the theater. Case and comment,
Mar. 1912, v. 18: 584-586.
Children barred from the Baltimore stage. New York dramatic mirror, Jan. 18,
1913, v. 57: 21. PN2000.N6,v.57
Children of the stage. Facts about illogical laws. New York dramatic mirror,
Mar. 15, 1911, v. 65: 8. PN2000.N6,v.65
Children on the Colorado stage. Survey, Oct. 14, 1911, v. 27: 995.
HYI.C4,v.27
Children readmitted to Louisiana’s stage. Survey, Aug. 10, 1912, v. 28: 629-
630. HVl.C4,v.28
Clark, S. H. The artist child. {In Chicago. Child welfare exhibit, 1911.
The child in the city. Chicago, 1912. 22 cm . p. 302-309) HV741.C4
Concerning 1 the stage child. New York dramatic mirror, June 21, 1911, v.
65: 3. PN2000.N6,v.6>3
Favill, Henry Baird. Child labor as related to the stage. American academy
of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38:
66-73. Hl.A4,v.38
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 163. p. 8-13.
HD6250 . U 3N2 r no . 165
Gordon, Jean M. Child labor on the stage. American academy of political
and social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38: 74-76.
Hl.A4,v.38
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 165. p. 16-18.
HD625CLU 3N2, no . 165
Great Britain. Laws, statutes, etc. An act to prohibit and restrict chil-
dren and young persons being taken out of the United Kingdom with a view
to singing, playing, performing, or being exhibited, for profit. 15th Aug.,
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Bulletin, Mar. 1914, v. 9: 12-14. HD7801.I6,v.9
108 LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
1338 Interview with Francis Wilson concerning child actors. New York dramatic
mirror, July 9, 1910, v. 64: 5. PN2000.N6,v.64
1339 Kelley, Mrs. Florence. Colorado’s stage and field children. Survey, Oct. 14,
1911, v. 27: 996. HVl.C4,v.27
1340 Krows, A. E. Francis Wilson’s definition of the stage child. New York
dramatic mirror, Sept. 11, 1912, v. 68: 8. PN2000.N6,v.68
1341 Lord, Everett W. Child labor on the stage. Survey, May 21, 1910, v. 24:
317-320. HVl.C4,v.24
1342 Children of the stage. National child labor committee, 1910. Pam-
phlet no. 137a, 31 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.l37a
1343 Lovejoy, Owen It. Employment of children on the stage. Child labor bul-
letin, Nov. 1912, v. 1, no. 3, p. 72-82. HD6250.U3N4,v.l
1344 MacGowan, K. Liberating the stage child. Theatre, Oct. 1914, v. 20: 173-
175, 196. PN2000.T5,v.20
1345 Maryland. Bureau of statistics and information. Children on the stage.
(In its Report, 1912, p. 46-47; 1913, p. 107-122; 1914, p. 198^214; 1915, p.
130-148.) HC107.M3A15
1346 Mason, John. Education of the stage child. New York dramatic mirror,
Mar. 8, 1911, v. 65: 5. PN2000.N6,v.65
1347 National alliance for the protection of stage children. New York dramatic
mirror, Mar. 1, 1911, v. 65: 14. PN2000.N6,v.65
1348 Quimby, Harriet. Shall children be barred from the stage? Leslie’s weekly
July 21, 1910, v. Ill: 55. AP2.L52,v.lll
1349 Reina, Ettore. I pubblici spettacoli e le provvidenze di legislazione social©
. . . Roma, L. Cecchini, 1915. 153 p. 31 cm . (Pubblicazioni dell’ Ufficio
del lavoro, serie B, n. 46)
At head of title: Ministero di agricoltura, industria e commercio. Consiglio superiore del
lavoro.
Part I gives the results of an investigation into the employment of children in theatrical
performances.
1350 Boyle, E. M. A plea for the stage child. New York dramatic mirror, May 24,
1911, v. 65: 5-6. PN2000.N6,v.65
1351 Stage children. Dial, Mar. 1, 1911, v. 50: 145-147. AP2.D48,v.50
1352 Stage children barred in Louisiana. Survey, Sept. 18, 1909, v. 22: 817.
HVl.C4,v.22
1353 To save children from the stage. Literary digest, Nov. 12, 1910, v. 41: 797—
798. AP2.L58,v.41
1354 Why children play in the theaters. Survey, June 10, 1911, v. 26: 401.
HVl.C4,v.26
1355 Wilson, Francis. Child labor on the stage. Survey, June 18, July 23, 1910,
v. 24: 496-498, 635-636. HVl.C4,v.24
1356 The child on the stage. Collier’s, May 21, 1910, v. 45: 19.
AP2.C65,v.45
1357 Defending the child actors. Literary digest, Nov. 12, 1910, v. 41: 861.
AP2.L58,v.41
1358 Persecution of the stage child. New York dramatic mirror, Feb. 1,
1911, v. 65: 5. PN2000.N6,v.65
1359 Wolff, Solomon. The child on the stage. National child labor committee
New York. 1912. Pamphlet no. 177. 10 p. HD6250.U3N2,no.l77
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
109
STREET TRADES.
1360 Ackroyd, Thomas R. Child welfare work in Manchester. Child, Nov. 1912,
v. 3:158-161. HQ750.A2C4,v.3
Street trading, p. 159.
1361 Adams, M^ron E . Children in American street trades. America^ academy
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Hl.A4,v.25
‘^ National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 2, p. 25-46.
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1362 Municipal regulations of street trades. {In National conference of
charities and correction. Proceedings, 1904. [Columbus, O.] 1904. 23 cm .
p. 294-300) HV88.A3 1904
1363 Addams, Jane. The spirit of youth and the city streets. New York, The
Macmillan company, 1909. 6 p. 1., 3-162 p. 19^ cm . HQ796.A3
The spirit of youth and industry, p. 107-135.
1364 Adler, Nettie. Child workers and wage-earners. Royal society of arts,
Journal, June 12, 1908, v. 56: 738-747. Tl.S64,v.56
1365 Juvenile wage-earners and their work. Progress, July, 1906, v. 1: 204-
210. HN381.P9,v.l
1366 — [and others']. Boy labour. Child, Mar. 1912, v. 2: 522-523.
HQ750.A2C4,v.2
1367 Aronvia, B. C. The newsboy problem in New York city. Kindergarten
primary magazine, Mar. 1907, v. 19: 483-491. ‘ LB1141.K5,v.l9
1368 Benedict, Leonard. Waifs of the slums and their way out. New York,
Chicago [etc.] F. H. Revell company [ c 1907] 234 p. incl. front. Plates,
map, chart, tab. 20 cm . HV878.B5
The newsboy and his real life, p. 99-115.
1369 Blenk, James H., archbishop. The child in the street. Child labor bulletin,
May, 1914, v. 3, no. 1: 52-55. HD6250.U3N4,v.3,no.l
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 225. 4 p.
1370 The Bootblack: a city problem. Woman’s home companion, Sept. 1907, v.
34: 25. AP2.W714,v.34
1371 Boston. Public schools. Regulation of street trades in Boston. School
document no. 15, 1909, p. 34-37; no. 14, 1910, p. 42-44; no. 19, 1910, p. 132-
138.
1372 Brown, Edward F. The demoralizing environment of night messengers in
southern cities. Child labor bulletin, May, 1913, v. 2, no. 1: 138-141.
HD6250.U3N4,v.2
1373 The night messenger service : A child labor problem. Editorial review,
Jan. 1911, v. 4:31-41. AP2.E26,v.4
1374 Brown, Emma Elizabeth. The child toilers of Boston streets. Boston, D.
Lothrop & co. [1879] 45 p. front., illus., plates. 23§ cm .
HD2350.U5B72
1375 Brown, John George. [Pictures of street boys. Quoted interview on
“street boys”]. Survey, June 14, 1913, v. 30: facing p. 364, 380-381.
HVl.C4,v.30
1376 Burke, Thomas. The street-trading children of Liverpool. Contemporary
review, Nov. 1900, v. 78: 720-726. AP4.C7)v.78
1377 Butler, Elizabeth B. New Jersey children in the street trades. Charities
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1378 Campagnac, E. T., and C. E. B. Russell. The education, earnings, and
social condition of boys engaged in street-trading in Manchester. (In Gt.
Brit. Board of education. Special reports on educational subjects, v. 8.
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1379 Chicago. Vice commission. The social evil in Chicago . . Chicago,
Gunthrop-Warren print, co., 1911. 399 p. 24 cm . HQ146.C4V5
Newsboys, street venders, messenger boys: p. 241-245.
1380 Child welfare exhibit, 1911. The child in the city; a handbook of
the Child welfare exhibit at the Coliseum, May 11-May 25, 1911. [Chicago,
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Saving the barren years, p. 25-27.
1381 Chute, Charles L. Protection for the newsboys and other street workers in
Philadelphia . . . Philadelphia, Pennsylvania child labor association,
1912. 10 p. 23| cm . (Leaflet no. 30, June 5, 1912)
1382 Clopper, Edward Nicholas. Child labor in city streets. New York, The
Macmillan company, 1912. ix, 280 p. incl. pi. 18 cm . HD6231.C5
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1383 Child labor in street trades. American academy of political and social
science. Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1910, v. 35: 137-144. Hl.A4,v.35
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 126. 12 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l26
1384 The child merchants of the streets. Child (Lond.) July, 1913, v. 3,
924-926. HQ750.A2C4,v.3
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 203. 8 p.
1385 Children on the streets of Cincinnati. American academy of political
and social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1908, v. 32: 113-132.
Hl.A4,v.32
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no: 82. 11 p.
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1386 Effects of street trading on the health of school children. New York,
National child labor committee [1913] 8 p. 23 cm . (Pamphlet no. 218)
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1387 The night messenger boy. American academy of political and social
science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38: 103-104. Hl.A4,v.38
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p. 114-118. HD6250.U3N4,v.l,no.2
Child labor laws In all states.
1389 Street work and juvenile delinquency. New York, National child
labor committee [1913] 6 p. 23 cm . (Pamphlet no. 221) HD6250.U3N2
1390 Why overlook the street worker? Child labor bulletin, May, 1914,
v. 3, no. 1: 56-58. HD6250.U3N4,v.3
1391 Conant, Richard K. Night messenger service. New Boston, Jan. 1911, v. 1:
379-382.
1392 Street trades and reformatories. American academy of political and
social science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38: 105-107.
Hl.A4,v.38
1393 Davis, Philip. Child life on the street. (In National conference of charities
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
Ill
1394 Davis, Philip. Street-land, its little people and big problems . . . assisted
by Grace Kroll; illustrated from photographs. Boston, Small, Maynard &
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1395 Dowdall, H. Chaloner. The new Liverpool bye-laws regulating street trad-
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1396 Dwight, Helen C. The menace of street trading by children. American city,
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1397 The Employment of children, and street trading. Child, Nov. 1911, v. 2:
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Digest of by-laws by the London county council.
1398 Forbush, William Byron. A western newspaper and its newsboys. [Grand
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1399 Garnett, William Hubert Stuart. Children and the law. London, J. Mur-
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1400 German regulation of child labour. Progress, Jan. 1911, v. 6: 48.
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1401 Goldmark, Josephine C. Street labor and juvenile delinquency. Political
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1404 Report of the Departmental committee on the Employ-
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Majesty. London, Printed for H. M. Stationery off., by Eyre and Spottis-
woode, ltd. [1910] 2 v. in 1. 33^ cm . ([Parliament. Papers by command]
Cds. 5229, 5230) ~ HD6250.G7A4 1910
“ The present report is mainly a report on street trading.”
1405 Royal commission on the poor laws and relief of distress.
Report by Mr. Cyril Jackson on boy labour, together with a memorandum
from the General post office on the conditions of employment of telegraph
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1406
1407
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1409
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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“ Gunck” of Toledo. Technical world magazine, Dec. 1913, v. 20: 585-586.
Tl.T2,v.20
John E. Gunckel. President of the Toledo newsboys association.
Hall, George A. The newsboy. American academy of political and social
science, Annals, Supplement, July, 1911, v. 38: 100-102.
Hl.A4,v.38
Hard, William. “De kid wot works at night.” Everybody’s magazine,
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Hartford regulates child street- trades. Survey, Dec. 31, 1910, v. 25: 511-512.
HVl.C4,v.25
Heaton, J. Henniker. The express letter and the express messenger. Corn-
liill magazine, Dec. 1910, v. 102: 751-757. AP4.C8,v.l02
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1439 Messenger boys should have attention. Editorial review, Jan. 1911, v. 4:
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1440 Milwaukee regulates its street trades: Other Wisconsin child labor advances.
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1445 Nearing, Scott. The city newsboy. Woman’s home companion, Oct. 1907,
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1446 The newsboys at night in Philadelphia. Charities and the Commons,
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1447 One district messenger. Independent, Feb. 22, 1912, v. 72: 412-413.
AP2.I53,v.72
1448 New South Wales. State children’s relief dept. Street-trading by chil-
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1449 New York state in the lead: a victory for child labor legislation. Woman’s
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Boys who sell papers on the streets, p. 22.
1450 New York’s newsboys licensed. Charities, Sept. 5, 1903, v. 11: 188-189.
HVl.C4,v.ll
1451 The Newsboy, v. 1-3. Feb. 1909-Apr. 1910. Pittsburgh, M. D. Hays co.,
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1452 [Newsboy-bootblack] Survey, June 14, 1913, v. 30: 380-381.
HVl.C4,v.30
1453 Newsboys’ and children’s aid society, Washington, D. C. Annual report.
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HV885.W3N5
1454 Newsboys elect their own judge. Survey, Nov. 26, 1910, v, 25: 312-313.
HVl.C4,v.25
1455 News boys’ home association, Washington , D. C. Report. 1863-64.
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1456
1457
1458
1459
1460
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1462
1463
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LIST OP REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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Oates, Austin. Street-trading- children and the Act of 1903. Month, Apr.
1911, v. 117: 383-395. AP4.M65,v.ll7
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Charities, June 10, 1905, v. 14: 836-837. HYl.C4,v.l4
Peacock, Robert. Employment of children with special reference to street
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Philadelphia. Vice commission. Report. [Philadelphia] 1913. 164 p.
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Children on the stage: p. 76-78; Messenger hoy service: p. 78-83.
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Contents. — The newsboy. — Bootblacks. — Peddlers.
Newsboy wanderers are tramps in the making. Charities, Feb. 14,
1903, v. 10: 160-162. HVl.C4,v.lO
: Waifs of the street. McClure’s magazine, May, 1903, v. 21: 40-48.
AP2.M2,v.21
Porter, H. F. J. The strike of the messenger boys. Survey, Dec. 10, 1910,
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Potter, Zenas L. Street trading and the school. Child labor bulletin, Aug.
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Child labor laws in all states.
Protection for the child street worker. School and society, Mar. 6, 1915, v. 1:
350-351.
Quinn, Lillian A. Enforcement of street trades regulation. Child labor bul-
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Child labor laws in all states.
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Russell, Charles E. B. City lads. Child, London, Apr. 1911, v. 1: 587-594.
HQ750.A2C4,v.l
Some reflections on Home office schools and juvenile street trading.
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HVl.C6,n.s.,v.28
Sherard, Robert Harborough. The child-slaves of Britain. London, Hurst
and Blackett, limited, 1905. 3 p. 1., [ix]-xix p., 2 1., 267, [1] p. 8 pi. 21 cm .
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[Smith, Elizabeth Oakes, “ Mrs. Seba Smith.”] The newsboy. New York,
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front. 18£ cm . PZ3.S6459N
Spargo, J ohn. The bitter cry of the children, with an introduction by Robert
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Street trades, p. 184-188, 258-260.
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Street trades and delinquency. Survey, May 20, 1911, v. 26: 285.
HVl.C4,v.26
116
1476
1477
1478
1479
1480
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
1486
1487
1488
1489
1490
1491
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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Immigration commission. Abstract of the report on the Greek
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What of the newsboy of the second cities? Charities, Apr. 11, 1903, v. 10: 368-
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Winship, A. E. John E. Gunckel of Toledo, the newsboys’ evangelist. World
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Wisconsin. Bureau of labor and industrial statistics. Fifteenth biennial
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117
EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS.
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1499 American academy of political and social science, Philadelphia. Indus-
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tion, by M. Edith Campbell. — Need of compulsory education in the South, by W. H. Hand.—
A federal children’s bureau, by A. J. Peters. — Federal aid to education a necessary step in the
solution of the child labor problem, by S. McC. Lindsay. — Part time schools, by Florence Kel-
ley.— Social cost of child labor, by J. P. Frey. — Child labor and democracy, by A. J. McKelway.—
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Crane.— The educational test for working children, by R. K. Conant. — A legislative program for
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National society for the promotion of industrial education. Bulletin
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National vocational guidance association. Vocational guidance; papers
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Whole no. 587) “ L111.A6 1914.no.14
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New Jersey. Commission on industrial education. Report submitted
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New York (State) Bureau of labor statistics. 26th report, 1908. Parti.
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HC107.N7A3 1908, pt.l
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A summary of the compulsory attendance and child
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National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 20, p. 84-95; Pamphlet
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44193°— 16 9
130
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1669 Paeuw, Leon de. La cooperation des instituteurs primaires allemands a la loi
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1670 Page, Arthur W. Training for the trades; the next step in public school
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1671 Parker, Lewis W. Compulsory education, the solution of the child labor
problem. American academy of political and social science, Annals, Supple-
ment, July, 1908, v. 32: 40-56. Hl.A4,v.32
1672 Perrin, John W. Indirect compulsory education: the factory laws of Massa-
chusetts and Connecticut. Educational review, Apr. 1906, v. 31: 383-394.
Lll.E5jV.31
1673 Philippine Islands. Bureau of printing. A brief description of the Bureau
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1674 Pollitzer, Johann. Die Lage der Lehrlinge im Kleingewerbe in Wien.
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1675 Puffer, Joseph Adams. Vocational guidance ; the teacher as a counselor . . .
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1676 Reed, Mrs. Anna Y. Seattle children in school and in industry with recom-
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1677 Reigart, John F. Enforcement of school attendance in London. Survey,
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1678 Rhode Island. Commissioner of public schools. Special report of the
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T74.R4A5 1911
1679 Sadler, Michael Ernest. Continuation schools in England & elsewhere; their
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chester, University press, 1907. xxvi, 779 p. incl. fold, tables, diagrs. fold
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“Short bibliography’’: p. 750-754.
1680 Savoy, Emile. L ’apprentissage en Suisse. Louvain, C. Peelers; [etc., etc.]
1910. viii, 616 p. inch tables. 24 cm . (Ecole des sciences politiques et
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“Bibliographie”: p. 597-616.
1681 Schaeffer, Nathan C. Child labor and the public schools. American
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Hl.A4,v.29
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 51. 3 p.
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1682 Schneider, Herman. The public school and the day’s work. American
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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Scott, Jonathan French. Historical essays on apprenticeship and vocational
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HD4885.G7S4
Bibliography: p. [83J-96.
Seddon, Alfred A. The education of mill children in the south. American
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Snedden, David. Child labor. Compulsory attendance. (In Monroe, Paul,
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TT. S. Bureau of labor. Industrial education. Washington, Govt, print,
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“Selected bibliography on industrial education”: p. 519-539.
— — — - Report on condition of woman and child wage-earners in the
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Commission on national aid to vocational education. Voca-
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Congress. House. Committee on the District of Columbia.
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Urwick, Edward Johns, ed. Studies of boy life in our cities, written by
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Vocational guidance survey, New York. Report of the Vocational guid-
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Reprinted from the fourteenth Annual report of the city superintendent of schools, New
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132
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
1697 Watson, Frank D. What the scholarships are doing. Woman’s home com-
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1698 Weaver, Eli W. Getting in touch with the employer. Journal of education,
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1699 Welpton, W. P. Primary artisan education. New York, Bombay [etc.]
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1700 Weyl, W. E., and A. M. Sakolski. Conditions of entrance to the principal
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1701 White, Frank Marshall. School children who want to work. Harper’s
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1703 Winslow, Charles Henry. Report on the relations of European industrial
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1704 Wisconsin. Commission upon the plans for the extension of industrial
and agricultural training. Report of the Commission . . . submitted to
the governor January 19, 1911 . . . Madison, Wis., Democrat printing com-
pany, state printer, 1911. 135 p. 23 cm . S534.W6A5 1911
1705 State board of industrial education. Bulletin, no. 1-7. Madison,
1912. 7 v.
Contents. — 1. Laws of Wisconsin relating to employment of women and children, industrial
education and truancy, by C. P. Cary. LB2529.W6
2. Wisconsin legislation governing industrial and continuation education, by H. E. Miles.
LC1046.W 5M5
3. Industrial education. The impending step in American educational policy; its significance
to the boy, the parent, the community, the state, the nation, by H. E. Miles. LC1081.M5
4 . The education of the girl. Th e necessity of fitting her education to her life, by L. D . Harvey.
LC1481.H2
5. Industrial and continuation schools. Their foundation, organisation, and adjustment to
the life of the community, by Louis E. Reber. LC5215.R4
6. Public school manual arts. An agency for vocational education, by F. D. Crawshaw.
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7. Annual report of the public continuation schools of Wisconsin, 1912-13.
1706 Woolley, Mrs. Helen T. Facts about the working children of Cincinnati, and
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1707 Wright, Carroll Davidson, The apprenticeship system in its relation to indus-
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“ List of references relating to the education of apprentices”: p. 87-92.
1708 Zentralstelle fiir Volkswohlfahrt. 5. Konferenz, Elberfeld, 1911. Das
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wohlfahrt; hft. 7 der neuen Folge der Schriften der Zentralstelle fiir Arbeiter-
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“ Literaturverzeichnis ’ ’ : p. [ixpxii.
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
133
1709
1710
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1712
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1715
1710
1717
<
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1722
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JUVENILE OCCUPATIONS AND EMPLOYMENT BUREAUS.
Apprenticeship and skilled employment association, London. Trades
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Trades for London girls and how to enter them ; a companion
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Ayres, Leonard Porter. Constant and variable occupations and their bear-
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Birmingham, Eng. Education committee. Report of the special subcom-
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Central care committee. Explanatory statement of the
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lst-2d annual report . . . 1912-1913. Birmingham
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Information concerning certain trades for women and
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Bradford, Eng. Education committee. Occupations open to young peo-
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Engineering trade section, [n. p., n. d.] 23 p. 24J cm .
Printing trade, shop assistants, sheet metal workers,
tramway employees, boot and shoe trade, saddlers, leather goods manufac-
turers [etc.] [n. p., n. d.] 38 p. 24£ cm .
Professions. Accountants, architects, auctioneers, bank-
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24 cm .
Women’s section. Nurses, dressmakers, milliners, ma-
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1726
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
1727 Chicago school of civics and philanthropy. Dept, of social investiga-
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Contents.— The school and the working-child: a plea for employment supervision in city
schools [by] S. P. Breckinridge and E. Abbott.— Preliminary report on opportunities of employ-
ment in Chicago open to girls under sixteen [by] A. S. Davis.— Public care of working-children in
England and Germany: some notes on juvenile labour exchanges, by E. Abbott. — Trade and
technical classes for girls in Chicago.— Selected bibliography relating to employment super-
vision (p. 53-56)
1728 Cincinnati. Chamber of commerce and merchants’ exchange. Sur-
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1729 Davis, Anne. Occupations and industries open to children between fourteen
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1730 Dearie, N. B. Report of the special subcommittee of the City of Birmingham
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1731 Dodge, Harriet Hazen. Survey of occupations open to the girl of fourteen
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1732 Edlmann, Edith. Juvenile labour exchanges and apprenticeship bureaux in
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1733 Gordon, Mrs. Maria Matilda. A handbook of employments specially pre-
pared for the use of boys and girls on entering the trades, industries, and pro-
fessions. Aberdeen, The Rosemount press, 1908. 3 p. 1., 444 p. 2L[ cm .
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1734 Juvenile employment bureaux. Contemporary review, June, 1911,
v. 99: 723-732. * * AP4.C7,v.99
1735 Gt. Brit. Board of trade. Handbooks on London trades . . . Prepared
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juvenile employment in Greater London. London, 1914-15. 13 pam.
24^ cm . HF53S1.G83
Contents. — Clothing trades, pt. 1. Girls; pt. 2. Boys. 1915.
Commercial occupations. 1914.
Engineering. 1914.
Food, drink, and tobacco trades. 1915.
Gas and electricity supply trades. 1915.
The Glass trades. 1914.
Laundry work, dyeing and cleaning. 1915.
Leather, fur, brush making, and feather trade. 1915.
Precious metal, instrument making and sport trades. 1914.
Printing, bookbinding and stationery trades. Pt. 1. Boys. Pt. 2. Girls. 1915.
Vehicle making and miscellaneous metal trades. 1915.
1736 Labour exchanges act, 1909. Special rules with regard to regis-
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regulation no. ix of the general regulations for labour exchanges managed by
the Board of trade. London, Printed for II. M. Stationery off., by Eyre and
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1737 Greenwood, Arthur. Juvenile labour exchanges and after-care. London,
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
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1738 Greenwood, Arthur. The organisation of the juvenile labour market.
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1739 Hartford vocational guidance committee. Report of the Vocational
guidance committee, Hartford, Conn., January, 1914. [Hartford, 1914] 22 p.
20 cm . HF5381.H2
1740 Hiatt, James Smith. The child, the school, and the job. [Philadelphia,
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1741 Iowa state teachers’ association. Committee on vocational education
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1742 Jevons, H. Winefrid. Apprenticeship and skilled employment committees;
with an account of the work of the Cambridge boys’ employment registry by
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1743 Juvenile labor bureaus and vocational guidance in Great Britain. U. S.
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1744 Keeling, Frederic. The labour exchange in relation to boy and girl labour.
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1745 Kelley, Mary R. G. Juvenile workers’ bureau. (In Philadelphia. Municipal
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1746 Knowles, G. W. Junior labour exchanges (a plea for closer cooperation
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1747 Laselle, Mary Augusta, and Katherine E. Wiley. Vocations for girls.
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18 cm . HD6058.L3
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1748 Mangold, George Benjamin. Industrial opportunities of children in St.
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“Reprinted from Washington university studies, v. 1, pt. 2, no. 1, Oct. 1913.”
1749 Minneapolis vocational survey committee. A vocational survey of Minne-
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90 p. diagrs. 23 cm .
1750 Parsons, James. Skilled employment committees. Charity organisation
review, July, 1907, n. s. v. 22: 19-35. HVl.C6,n.s.v.22
1751 Peck, J. W. Juvenile employment: the Edinburgh method of co-operation
between the education authorities and the labour exchanges. (In National
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1752 Richmond, Va. Vocational education survey. Vocational education
survey of Richmond, Va. August, 1915. Washington, Govt, print, off.,
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labor statistics, whole no. 162. Miscellaneous series, no. 7)
HD8051.A62, no.162
1753 Russell, Charles Edward B., and Lilian M. Rigby. Working lads’ clubs.
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LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
1754 Talbert, Ernest Lynn. Opportunities in school and industry for children of
the stockyards district. Chicago [University of Chicago press] 1912. vi, 64 p.
24J cm . (A study of Chicago’s stockyards community . . . an investigation
carried on under the direction of the Board of the University of Chicago
settlement. I) HN80.C5B6
1755 Ueland, E. Juvenile employment exchanges. American labor legislation
review, June, 1915, v. 5: 203-237. HD7833;A55,v.5
1756 U. S. Bureau of labor. Vocational guidance. Washington, Govt, print.
off., 1911. iii, 411-497 p. 23£ cm . HF5381.U6
Part of 25th Annual report of the commissioner of labor, 1910.
1757 Vocation bureau, Boston. Vocational guidance and the work of the Voca-
tion bureau of Boston. Boston, 1915. 15 p. 23 cm .
1758 Vocations for Boston boys, issued by the Vocation bureau of
Boston. [Bulletin no. 1-71 [Boston? c 1911- 1 7 v. 204 cm .
HF5381.V5
Contents.— No. 1, The machinist; no. 2, Banking; no. 3, The baker; no. 4, Confectionery
manufacture; no. 5, The architect; no. 6, The landscape architect; no. 7, The grocer.
1759 Vocations for boys and young men. Boston, 1911-1913. 3 v.
Contents.— Banking. 1911. The department store and its opportunities. 1912. Allen, F.J.
The law as a vocation. 1913.
1760 Vocation office for girls, Boston. Vocations for Boston girls, issued by the
Vocation office for girls . . . [Bulletin no. 1-14] Boston, Mass., The Girls
trade educational league, c 1911-1912. 14 pam. 20^ cm . I1D6058.V7
Contains "References. ”
Contents.— 1, Telephone operating; 2, Bookbinding; 3, Stenography and typewriting; 4,
Nursery maid; 5, Dressing; 6, Millinery; 7, Straw hat making; 8, Manicuring and hairdressing;
9, Nursing; 10, Salesmanship; 11, Clothing machine operating; 12, Paper box making; 13, Confec-
tionery manufacture; 14, Knit goods manufacture.
1761 Weaver, Eli Witwer, and J. Frank Byler. Profitable vocations for boys.
New York and Chicago, The A. S. Barnes co., 1915. 282 p. 19 cm . (The
vocational series) HF5381.W3
Contains bibliographies.
1762 ed. Profitable vocations for girls, prepared by a committee of teachers
under the direction of E. W. Weaver. New York and Chicago, The A. S.
Barnes co., 1915. 212 p. 19 cm . (The vocational series) HD6058.W27
A new edition of "Vocations for girls, ” pub. 1913. Contains bibliographies.
HEALTH OF WORKING CHILD.
1763 Adler, Felix. Conservation of the human assets of the nation. American
academy of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1910,
v. 35: 1-6. Hl.A4,v.35
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 125. 7 p.
HD6250.U3N2, no.125
1764 Alden, Percy. The child and the state. Chautauquan, Oct. 1910, v. 60:
183-202. AP2.C48,v.60
1765 Bruere, Robert W. Physiological age and child-labor. (In National educa-
tion association, Journal of proceedings and addresses . . . 1908. Winona,
Minn. 1908. 23|- cm . p. 924-932) L13.N4 1908
1766 Brown, H. Maugham Schoolboys as wage earners. Child, London, Sept.
1912, v. 2: 1026-1030. HQ750.A2C4,v.2
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR. 137
1767 Cheney, Howell. Practical restrictions on child labor in textile industries;
higher educational and physical qualifications. American academy of
political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1909, v. 33: 86-99.
Hl.A4,v.33
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 96. 14 p.
HD6250.U3N2, no.96
1768 Churchill, F. S. The effect of irregular hours upon the child’s health. (In
Chicago. Child welfare exhibit, 1911. The child in the city. Chicago,
1912. 22 cm . p. 310-312) HV741.C4
1769 Clopper, Edward N. Effects of street trading on the health of school children.
New York, National child labor committee, [1913] 8 p. 23 cm . (Pamphlet
no. 218) HD6250.U3N2,no.218
1770 Corcoran, Julia. Actual present physical state of working children in Con-
necticut. (In Child labor conference. Hartford, Conn., 1908. Report of
the proceedings . . . [Hartford] 1909. 22 em . p. 4-5)
HD6250.U4C8 1908
1771 Crampton, Charles Ward. The significance of physiological age in educa-
tion. [Washington, Govt, print, off., 1913] 13 p. 23 cm . Reprinted from
the Transactions of the fifteenth International congress on hygiene and de-
mography, [v. 3: 224-235] RA122.N585 1912, v.3
1772 De Leon, Edwin W. Accidents to working children. American academy
of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1909, v. 33: 131-
143. Hl.A4,v.33
1773 Dwight, Helen C. Dangerous machines in the metal trades. Child labor
bulletin, Nov. 1914, v. 3, no. 3: 66-75. HD6250.U3N4,v.3,no.3
1774 Frankel, Lee K., and Louis I. Dublin. Heights and weights of New York
city children 14 to 16 years of age; a study of measurements of boys and girls
granted employment certificates. New York, Metropolitan life insurance co.,
1916. 53 p.
1775 Freiberg, Albert, H. Some effects of improper posture in factory labor.
American academy of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar.
1909, v. 33: 104-110. Hl.A4,v.33
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 102. 7 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l02
1776 Some of the ultimate physical effects of premature toil. American
academy of political and social science. Annals, Jan. 1907, v. 29: 19-25.
H1.A4, v. 29
National child labor committee, Pamphlet no. 43. 7 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.43
■ 1777 Goldmark, Josephine Clara. Fatigue and efficiency; a study in industry.
Containing also the substance of four briefs in defense of women’s labor laws
by Louis D. Brandeis and Josephine Goldmark. New York, Charities publi-
cation committee, 1912. xvii, 302 p., 1 1., 591 p. incl. illus., charts. 24 cm .
(Russell Sage foundation [publication]) HD5106.G7
1778 Gordon, Jean M. Developing normal men and women. Child labor bulle-
tin, May, 1913, v. 2, no. 1: 121-123. HD6250.U3N4,v.2
1779 Gt. Brit. Board of education. Annual report of the chief medical officer
of the Board of education. 1911-1914. London, Printed for II. M. Stationery
off., by Eyre and Spottiswoode, ltd., 1912-1915. 4 v. 25 cm . [Parliament.
Papers by command]
1911: Medical inspection and juvenile employment: p. 245-268.
1912: Medical inspection and juvenile employment: p.309-327.
1913: Examination of leavers: II. Relation to juvenile employment: p. 271-284.
1914: Juvenile employment and the war; examination of leavers: p. 223-239.
138
1780
1781
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786
1787
1788
1789
1790
1791
LIST OF REFERENCES 017 CHILD LABOR.
Gt. Brit. Inter- departmental committee on partial exemption from
school attendance. Report. Presented to both houses of Parliament by
command of His Majesty. London, Printed for H. M. Stationery off., by J.
Truscott & son, ltd., 1909. 2 v. in 1. tables. 33 cm . ([Parliament. Papers
by command] Cd. 4791, 4887) HD6250.G7A4 1909
Educational results, v. 1, p. 7-8.
Effect on health of the children, v. 1, p. 6-7.
Physical effects of mill life: Extract from report by Dr. Arthur Greenwood. Appendix no.
16, p. 282-285.
Greenwood, Arthur. The medical supervision of juvenile workers. (In
National conference on the prevention of destitution. 2d, London, 1912.
Report of the proceedings of the unemployment and industrial section.
London, 1912. 24^ cm . p. 98-106.) HD8384.N3
Hall, George A. Physical examination for working papers in New York.
Survey, Dec. 13, 1913, v. 31: 297. HVl.C4,v.31
Hanson, William C. Exclusion of children from dangerous trades. American
academy of political and social science. Annals, Supplement, July, 1911,
v. 38: 90-94. Hl.A4,v.38
The health of young persons in Massachusetts factories. American
academy of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1910, v.
35: 111-113. Hl.A4,v.35
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 131. 3 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l31
Harmon, William E. Handicaps in later years from child labor. American
academy of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1909, v.
33: 122-130. IIl.A4,v.33
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 104. 8 p.
HD6250.U 3N 2, no . 104
Henderson, Charles R. Social cost of accident, ignorance, and -exhaustion.
American academy of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, July,
1908, v. 32: 11-18. Hl.A4,v,32
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 72. 8 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.72
Hoffman, Frederick L. The social and medical aspects of child labor. (In
National conference of charities and correction. Proceedings, 1903. [Co-
lumbus, O.] 1903. 23£ cm . p. 138-157) HV88.A3 1903
Hutchinson, Woods. Overworked children on the farm and in the school.
American academy of political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar.
1909, v. 33: 116-121. Hl.A4,v.33
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 105. 6 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l05
Johnston, John. Wastage of child life, as exemplified by conditions in
Lancashire. London, A. C. Fifield, 1909. 95 p. 19 cm . (The Fabian
socialist series, no. 7) HQ769.J7
“References”: p. 94-95.
Jones, H. H. The work of England’s certifying surgeons. Child labor bul-
letin, Feb. 1914, v. 2, no. 4: 76-79. HD6250.U3N4,v.2
Kelley, Mrs. Florence. Insanitary conditions amongst home workers. (In
International congress of women, London, 1899.. London, 1900. 20 Y m - v.
6, p. 21-25) HQ1106 1899, v.6
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
139
1792 Kober, George M. The physical and physiological effects of child labor.
American academy of political and social science. Annals, Mar. 1906, v. 27:
285-288. Hl.A4,v.27
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 20, p. 27-30; Pamphlet
no. 25, 4 p. HD6250.U3N2, no.20 ;no*.20a;no. 25
1793 Loriga, Giovanni. Lavoro dei fanciulli e crescenza del corpo, per il Prof.
Giovanni Loriga. Roma, Officina poligrafica italiana, 1910. 107 p. 31 cm .
(Italy. Ufficio del lavoro. Pubblicazioni, serie B, n. 26)
“Bibliografia”: p. 73-74.
1794 Lovejoy, Owen R. Child labor and health. National child labor committee,
New York. 1913. Pamphlet no. 189. 13 p. Reprinted from Child labor
bulletin, Feb. 1913, v. 1, no. 4, p. 57-68. HD6250.U3N2,no.l89
1795 A six years’ battle for the working child. American review of reviews,
Nov. 1910, v. 42: 593-596. AP2.R4,v.42
1796 Some unsettled questions about child labor. American academy of
political and social science, Annals, Supplement, Mar. 1909, v. 33: 49-62.
Hl.A4,v.33
National child labor committee. Pamphlet no. 108. 14 p.
HD6250.U3N2,no.l08
1797 Luther, Seth. An address to the working-men of New-England, on the state
of education, and on the condition of the producing classes in Europe and
America. With particular reference to the effect of manufacturing (as now
conducted) on the health and happiness of the poor, and on the safety of our
republic. Delivered in Boston, Charlestown, Mass., Portland, Saco, Me.,
and Dover, N. H. By Seth Luther. Boston, The author, 1832. 39 p.
22J em . Miscellaneous pamphlets, v. 1161, no. 2. AC901.M5,v.ll61
1798 McKelway, A. J. Child labor and its consequences. By A. J. McKelway.
[New York? 1908?] 16 p. 23£ em . (National child labor committee. Pam-
phlet no. 68) " HD6250.U3N2,no.68
"Reprinted from the Sewanee review for April, 1908”.
1799 McMillan, Margaret. The effects of monotonous toil in the years preceding
adolescence. {In International congress of hygiene and demography. Trans-
actions, 15th, 1912, v. 3: 985-1000) RA122.N585 1912, v.3
1800 Malcolm, A. G. The influence of factory life on the health of the operative, as
founded upon the medical statistics of this class at Belfast. Royal statistical
society, Journal, June, 1856, v. 19: 170-181. HAl.R8,v.l9
1801 Maryland. Bureau of industrial statistics. Report of medical exam-
iners, 1913, 1914, 1915. {In its Annual report, 1913, p. 40-47; 1914, p. 100-
138; 1915, p. 84-100, 174-179) HC107.M3A2 1913-1915
1802 Medical testimony of the evils of child labor. Charities, April 14, 1906, v. 16:
92-93. . HVl.C4,v.l6
1803 Mitchell, John. Proper minimum age for working children. {In Child labor
conference. Hartford, Conn., 1908. Report of the proceedings . . . [Hart-
ford] 1909. 22 cm . p. 26-32) HD6250.U4C8 1908
1804 Montgomery, Louise. The American girl in the stockyards district.
Chicago, 111., The University of Chicago press [1913] vi, 70 p. illus. (plan)
plates, diagrs. 24 cm . (A study of Chicago’s stockyards community . . .
An investigation carried on under the direction of the Board of the
University of Chicago settlement and the Chicago alumnae club of the
University of Chicago, n) HN80.C5B6
Health, p. 2S-32, 55-57.
140
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
\
1805 Mosso, Angelo. Fatigue. Tr. by Margaret Drummond and W. B. Drum-
mond. New York, G. P. Putnam’s sons; London, S. Sonnenschein & co.,
ltd., 1904. xiv, 334 p. illus. 19 cm . (The science series) QP421.M91
1806 Nation (London) [Editorial] The waste of child labor. Nation (London),
Feb. 28, 1914, v. 14: 891-892. AP4.N15,v.l4
1807 National child labor committee, New York. Night-work and day-sleep;
what it means to a man, woman, or child to invert nature’s order for work and
sleep. [New York] 1911. 15 p. 23 cm . (Pamphlet no. 149)
HD6250.U3N2, no.149
1808 Nearing, Scott. Can the state afford to pay the cost of overworking its chil-
dren? Charities and the Commons, Feb. 3, 1906, v. 15: 602-606.
HY1.C4.V.15
1809 Noble, D. On the influence of the factory system in the development of pul-
monary consumption. Royal statistical society, Journal, Oct. 1842, v. 5:
274-280. HAl.R8,v.5
1810 Oates, W. H. Child labor and health. Child labor bulletin, v. 2, no. 1:
117-120. HD6250.U3N4,v.2
1811 Ohio. State board of health. A survey of industrial health-hazards and
occupational diseases in Ohio, by E. R. Hayhurst. Columbus, The F. J.
Heer printing co., 1915. 2 p. 1., iii-xviii, 438 p. illus. 22 cm . RA787.04
HD7263.04
1812 Oliver, Sir Thomas, ed. Dangerous trades: the historical, social, and legal
aspects of industrial occupations as affecting health, by a number of experts.
London, J. Murray, 1902. xxiii, 891, [1] p. incl. illus., tables, diagrs. plates.
24 cm . HD7262.05
1813 Diseases of occupation from the legislative, social, and medical points
of view. . . . London, Methuen & co. [1908] xix, 427, [1] p. 2 pi. 22\ cm .
(The new library of medicine; ed. by C. W. Saleeby) RA787.06
1814 Pearson, Robert H. Occupational diseases. New York, N. Y., The Weekly
underwriter [1915] 32 p. illus. 18J cm . RA787.P4
1815 Roberts, Charles. The physical requirements of factory children. Royal
statistical society, Journal, Dec. 1876, v. 39: 681-733. HAl.R8,v.39
1816 Ross, George F. Extending medical inspection from schools to mills. Child
labor bulletin, v. 1, no. 1, June 1912, p. 128-134. HD6250.U3N4,v.l
1817 Rotch, Thomas Morgan. Child labor and work of children should be adapted
to the individual child. {In International congress of hygiene and demog-
raphy. Transactions, 15th, 1912, v. 3: 975-984) RA122.N585 1912, v. 3
1818 Royal society of arts, London. Shaw lectures on industrial hygiene. De-
livered before the Royal society of arts in November and December, 1907 ; and
February and March, 1908. London, Printed by W. Trounce, 1908. 63 p.
incl. illus., tables, diagrs. 25 cm . RA787.R88
Also publ. in Royal society of arts, Journal, June, 12, 1908, v. 56: 738-747. Tl.S64,v.56
1819 Smith, Oliver C. The critical character of the age period from fourteen to six-
teen. {In Child labor conference. Hartford, ‘Conn., 1908. Report of the
proceedings . . . [Hartford] 1909. 22 em . p. 8-13)
HD6250.U4C8 1908
1820 Stetson, George R. Industrial classes as factors in racial development.
Arena, Feb. 1909, v. 41: 177-189. AP2.A6,v.41
1821 Taylor, Florence. Mortality among cotton operatives. Child labor bulletin,
Nov. 1914, v. 3, no. 3: 62-65. HD6250.U3N4,v.3,no.3
LIST OF REFERENCES ON CHILD LABOR.
141
1822 Teleky, Ludwig. Altersprobleme gewerblicher Hygiene. {In International
congress of hygiene and demography. Transactions, 15th, 1912, v. 3: 957-
974) RA122.N585 1912, v.3
1823 Altersprobleme gewerblicher Hygiene. [Wien, 1913?] 17 p. “Sepa-
ratabdruck aus heft 2, I. jahrg. (1913) der Zeitschrift fur offentliche gesund-
heitspflege”.
1824 Thackrah, Charles Turner. The effects of arts, trades, and professions, and
of civic states and habits of living, on health and longevity: with suggestions
for the removal of many of the agents which produce disease, and shorten the
duration of life. 2d ed., greatly enl. London, Longman, Rees, Orme,
Brown, Green, & Longman; [etc., etc.] 1832. 1 p. 1., [vii]-viii p., 1 1., 238 p.
22| cm . RA787.T37
Children: p. 35-37; 77-84; 148-149; 177-179.
1825 Thompson, William Gilman. The occupational diseases; their causation,
symptoms, treatment, and prevention. New York and London, D. Apple-
ton and company, 1914. xxvi, 724 p. illus., diagrs. 24J cm . RC964.T4
1826 Travers, J. C. Some physical effects of industry upon the working children of
Maryland. Maryland medical journal, Mar. 1914, v. 57: 59-64.
Rll.M32,v.57
1827 tT. S. Bureau of labor. Laws relating to factory inspection and the health
and safety of employees. {In its Bulletin, Nov. 1907, no. 73: 817-986.)
HD8051.A5,no.73
1828 Woolley, Mrs. Helen (Thompson), and Charlotte Rust Fischer. Mental
and physical measurements of working children. Princeton, N. J., and Lan-
caster, Pa., Psychological review company [1914] 2 p. 1., 247 p.incl. tables,
diagrs. 25 cm . (Psychological review publications. The psychological
monographs . . . vol. xviii, no. 1; whole no. 77. Dec. 1914)
BF1 .P8, vol. 18,no.l
AUTHOR INDEX,
(The numbers refer to
Abbott, Edith r 50,51,1727
Abelsdorff, Walter 52, 734, 817
Abercrombie, Anna S 297
Aberdeen, T. M. Gordon, countess of 747
Ackroyd, Thomas R 1360
Adams , Jo hn C 102
Adams,, M. Bridges 1049
Adams, Myron E 320, 1361, 1362
Adams, Thomas S 54,212
Adamson, William C 713
Addams , Jane 55-63a, 320, 321, 322, 324 , 326,
329, 356, 457, 862, 1322, 1323, 1363, 1494-1496, 1498
Adler, Eleanor H 334,341, 1133, 1234
Adler, Felix 64-67,226,
320, 322, 323, 325, 326, 327, 329, 330, 1652, 1763
Adler, Georg 818
Adler , Nettie 68, 951, 969, 1364-1366
Agahd, Konrad 761,819-826, 1050
Alabama. Department for inspection of jails,
etc 69-71,458,459
Alabama. Governor, 1915 72
Alabama child labor c ommittee 73
A1 Priddy, pseud. See Brown, F. K.
Albrecht, Otto 1051
Alden, Mrs. Margaret P 863,864
Alden, Percy 1135,1764
Alexander, Hooper 325
Allen, Alfred G 1105
Allen, Carrie W 1235
Allen, F.J 1759
American academy of political and social
science 74,1499
American association for labor legislation 29, 460
American federation of labor 1500, 1501
American year book 461
Anderson , Adelaide M 969
Anderson, Neal L 226,320,462
Andrews, John B 484
Anton , Gunther Kurt 827
Apprenticeship and skilled employment as-
sociation, London 1709,1710
Arendt, Henriette, sister 736
Argentine Republic 1035, 1036
Armstrong association of Philadelphia 75
Arastein, Leo 324
Axono vie i, Carol 76
Aronvia, B . C 1367
Ashby , Irene M . See Mac fady en , Irene M . A .
Astor , W aldor f 1502
Atherton, Sarah H 77
Austin, Richard W 713
Austria. Arbeitsstatistisches Amt 762
Ayres, Leonard P 1711
Ayres, Will jam A 679
Bach6, Rene 1077
Backus, August C 445
Bacon, Augustus O 663
Bacon, Mary A 1236,1236a
Baggallay, F. W 865
Bailey, Mrs. E. L 78,328
items, not to pages.]
Baker, S. Josephine 556
Baldwin, B.J 79,326
Ballantyne, A 1136
Barker, Henry A 1324
Barnard, Henry 1503
Barnard, J. Lynn 463
Barnard, Kate 80,81
Barrett, J. F 330a
Barrows, Alice P 327, 1652, 1696
Bartlett, Charles L 673
Bates, Blanche 1325-1327
Batten, Samuel Z 383
Baudoin, Lionel 983
Beauregard, Paul 800
Beck, James D 330
Beckwith , H o Imes 1504
Seeks, Gertrude 1237
Belgium. Corps legislate 782
Laws, statutes, etc 783, 785
Ministere de Pint6rieur 786
Office du travail 787
Belgium (Territory under German occupa-
tion, 1914-). Laws, statu tes, etc 788
Benedict, Leonard 1368
Berger, T. Ph 828
Berry, Georges 808
Bertoni, B 1022
Best, Marie 396
Best, Ro bert H 1505
Betts, Lillian W 1 1137,1190
Beveridge, Albert J 322, 601-605, 664 , 1301
Beveridge, William H 1506
Bierer, Willy 829,1138
Birmingham, England. Education commit-
tee 1712-1716,1730
Bittman,Karl 845
Black, Clementina 867
Blackmon, Fred L 680
Blankenburg, Rudolph. 476
Blaseoer, Frances 82
Blenk, James H., archbishop 329, 1369
Bliss, II. L 720
Bloomfield, Meyer 1, 41, 830, 868, 1507-1512
Blydenburgh, Benjamin B 1328
Booth, Charles 1139
Borah, William E 326,606
Borland, William P 681
Bosanquet, Helen, Mrs. B 869,870
Boston. Post £89
Public schools 1371
Boswell, H elen V 83, 84
Boswell, M. Louise 85, 328
Bouquet, Louis 796
Bowen, Louise II 86,1191,1309
Bower, J . W . N 1404
Bradford, Eng. Education committee. . . 1717-1723
Bragg, Shirley 71
Brants, V 984
Bray, Reginald Arthur. . . 13, 871, 872, 952, 1513, 1514
Breckinridge, S. P 464,465,1727
143
144
AUTHOR INDEX,
Bremer, Harry M 329,346,466,1053-1055
Brereton, Cloudesley 1515
Brewer, Franklin N 74,1192
Brinton, Jasper Y 607, 650, 653
British association for labour legislation . . 2, 873, 874
Britt, James J 713
Britton, James A 87, 324
Brooke, Emma F 737
Brooklyn. Public library 42
Brooks, J ohn G 88, 89, 321
Brown, Edward F 90,
328, 342, 1078, 1079, 1094, 1095, 1372, 1373
Brown, Emma E . . . 1374
Brown, Frederic K 1238
Brown, H. Maughan 1516, 1766
Brown, John George 1375
Bruce, Andrew A 608
Bru4re, Robert W 1765
Brumbaugh, Martin G. . . 378
Brundage, Howard D 18, 1654
Brunhes, H. J 797
Brussels. Exp. du travail a domicile 1140
Bry, Georges Ernest 798
Bryan, William J . 609
Buckmaster, Stanley 0 875
Bulgaria. Laws, statutes, etc 1039
Bullock, Edna D 3, 91
Bureau of municipal research, New York — 467
Burke, Thomas 1376,1517
Burnham, Ernest 327, 1652
Busser, Ralph C 1518
Butler, Elizabeth B 92,1193,1377
Byington, Margaret F 1239
Byler, J. Frank 1761
Byrnes, James F 713
Cadwallader, Starr 322, 468
California. Bureau of labor statistics 93, 1080
Industrial welfare commission 94
Campagnac, E. T 1378,1519
Campbell, Helen 440
Campbell, John C 328, 1240
Campbell, M. Edith 95, 326, 327, 1652, 1724
Campbell, Robert A 470,471
Campbell, Willard A 472
Canada. Royal commission on industrial
training 1520
Cannon, Joseph G 713
Cape of Good Hope. Laws, statutes, etc 1521
Capen, Edward W 1522
Cardiff. Education committee 1725
Carleton, Ernest E 1056
Carlton, Frank T 97,98,1654
Carrigan, Thomas C 473
Carter, William H 682
Cary, C. P 1705
Cary, W illiam J 683
Cat heron, Allison G .99
Chamberlain, Mary L 1081,1082
Chamberlain, Norman 876,1726
Chandler, H. A. E 474
Chapman, Sydney J 1241, 1523
Chauvet, Emile 1014
Chenery, William L 1524
Cheney, Howell 324, 1242, 1767
Cherouny, Henry W 1525
Chesser, Elizabeth S 1526
Chevaillier, A. A 440
Chicago. Child welfare exhibit, 1911 . . 100, 101, 1380
Chicago school of civics and philanthropy 43,
101, 1727
Chicago. Vice commission . 1379
Child, Richard W 610
Child labor conference, Hartford, Conn 102
Church, Den ver S 684
Churchill, F. S . . 101, 1768
Chute, Charles L 109, 110,
326, 476, 479-481, 1059, 1114, 1115, 1210, 1381
Cincinnati. Chamber of commerce, etc 1728
City Club of Chicago 1529
Clapham, J. H 1547
Clark, David 330,674
Clark, Davis W Ill
Clark, S. H 101, 1333
Clark, Victor S 878
Clarke, Allen 879
Claxton, P. P 327,1652
Cleland, Ethel . 112
Cline, Cyrus 685
Cloete, J. G 964,1480
Clopper, Edward N... 4,113-121,323,
324, 325, 326, 329, 330a, 341, 346, 482, 483, 721,
722, 1060, 1211, 1382-1390, 1442, 1530-1532, 1769
Cochrane, Thomas 743
Cohen, Barney 490
Collet, Clara E 880,1141,1244
Colorado. Bureau of labor statistics 122
Columbia typographical society, Wash 1533
Columbia University . Teachers’ college 19
Committee on wage-earning children,
London 881,882
Commons, John R 123,124,484
Conant, Richard K 326,
327, 328, 329, 650, 653, 1245,
1246, 1391, 1392, 1536, 1652
Condy, George 883
Conference of commissioners on uniform state
laws 591-593
Congr^s inter, du patronage de la jeunesse
ouvrifcre 738
Connecticut. Board of education 487
Bureau of labor statistics 102, 125, 126
Commission to investigate conditions of
wage-earning women and minors 127
Consumers’ league of Connecticut 102
Conyngton, Mary 372,421,1098
Cooley, Edwin G. 1537
Cooley, Jane C 440
Coon, Charles L 128,326
Cooper, John G 686
Cooreman, Gerard 795
Corcoran, Julia 102,1770
Coulter, Ernest K 129
Courcelle, Louis 799,800
Covington, J. Harry 1105
Cox, Irene 884
Cox, William E 687
Craighead, Erwin 1538
Craissac, Abel 804
Crampton, Charles W 1771
Crane, Mrs. Frederick 327,1652
Cranston, Mary R 885,1194,1539
Crawshaw, F. D — 1705
Creel, George 220-223,294
Crosby, Ernest H 1247
AUTHOR INDEX,
145
Crosby, Fanny J 340
Crowley, R. H A 1594
Crumpacker, Edgar D 661,665
Cunningham, William .71". 886
Cunnington, B 1540
Dabney, Charles W 322, 1541
Dagan, Henri 801
Dallinger, Frederick W 713
Daniels, Annie S 1142
Daniels, Harriet McD 130
Daurnay, Maxime 833
Davies, Edgar T 101, 131, 322, 324, 489, 490
Davis, A. S 1727
Davis, Anne 1729
Davis, Philip 132, 1393, 1394
Dawley, Thomas R 133, 342, 1094, 1248
Dawson, Lucile F 134
Dealey, James Q 135
Dean, Arthur D 20, 135a, 1542
Dearie, Norman B 850, 1543, 1730
Deffenbaugh, W. S 1535
DeGroot, E. D.. 330
De Lacy, William H 136
Delas, Joseph M 1015
Delaware. General assembly. Senate 137
De Leon, Edwin W 139, 324, 1772
Denman, Richard D 14,889,951,1547
Denmark. Laws, statutes, etc 1040-1045
Denson, Daisy 491
Deutsch, Julius 1023
Devine, Edward T 140, 323, 723
Devon. County council 954
De Voss, Emilia V. Kanthack 834
Dewar, David 887
Dewavrin, Maurice 492
Dewey, John 342, 1095
Dodd, Edward A 1108
Dodge, Harriet H 1731
Doherty, J. B 141
Dooley, L. W 1544
Dorr, Rheta C 1143, 1195, 1249, 1250, 1545
Dough ton, Robert L. 688
Dowdall, H. Chaloner 1395
Downey, Ezekiel H 493
Drage, Geoffrey 888
Draper, Andrew S 142, 324, 1546
Dron, Gustave 1558
Drown, Frank S 325, 724
Drummond, Margaret 1805
Drummond, W. B 1805
Dublin, Louis 1 1774
Dubois, E 74,789*
Dubois, Fred. T 662
DucpStiaux, Edouard 739,790,1208
Dunckley, Henry 877
Dunlop, Olive J 14, 889, 1547
Durham, Miss 850
Durland, Kellogg 143, 1212
Dutton, Samuel T 1548
Dwight, Helen C 334, 341, 1311, 1396, 1773
Eagleston, A. J. . 1403
E astman , Crystal 144
Edlmann, Edith 835,1732
Edwards, Alba M 494
Edwards, Mrs. H. M 973
Eldman, Benjamin W 145
Ellis, Leonora B 1251, 1252, 1549
Elson, W. E 327, 1652
44193°— 16 10
Emery, James A 613
Engel, Sigmund 147
Erickson, Halford 320, 495
Esche, Arthur 836
Eschenbrenner, Josephine J 148,
329, 330a, 342, 478, 1094
Evans, Orrena L 496
Fairchild, Fred R 497
Fahey, Charles P 1253
Falkenbach, Joseph 837
Farnam, Henry W 498,614
Favill, Henry B 324,326,1335
Fehlinger, Hans 765
Feld, Wilhelm 838
Ferraris, Carlo F 985
Field, Arthur S 149
Findeisen, H 839
Fischer, Alfons 740
Fischer, Charlotte R 1828
Fish, Frederick P 150
Fitzgerald, John J 661
Fleisher, Alexander 148S
Flesch, Karl 828
Flexner, Mary 1551
Folks, Homer 151, 322, 325, 499
Forbush, William B 152, 1398
Fordney, Joseph W 673
Foster, Thomas 1254
Fox, Charles E 383
Fox, Hugh F 74, 153, 320, 500
France. Assemblee nationale, 1871, Chambre
des deputes 802
Bureau des manufactures 803
Comm, de 1 'enseignement professionnel — 1552
Conseil gdn^ral de 1 ’agriculture 1553
Conseil superieur du travail 804, 1554
Direction du travail 974, 1555-1557
Laws, statutes, etc 805, 1558, 1559
Ministere des affaires 4t.rangeres 741
Min. du travail etde la pr6 vo yancesociale. 806, 807
Par lement, 1910. Chambre des d6put6s 808
Francke, E 840
Frankel, Lee K 1774
Fraser, Patrick F 1560
Freeman, Arnold 5,890
Freeman, William 501
Freiberg, Albert H 322, 324, 1775, 1776
Freundlich, Emmy 766
Frey, John P 155, 327, 1652
Frost, Edward W 321, 325, .502
Fulton, Charles W 667
Furman, Paul N 156
Furth, Henriette 841
Gallivan, James A 689
Gardner, Augustus P 666
Garnett, William H. S 891, 1399
Gaskell, P 892
Gay, E. F 527
Georgia. Laws, statutes, etc 675
Gerard, Claire 1255
Germany 1116,1214
Komm. fur Arbeiterstatistik 1562
Laws, statutes, etc 842, 843
Statistisches Amt 742, 844
Gesellschaftfiir Soziale Reform 845, 1117, 1312
Gibb, Spencer J 157, 967
Gibbons, James, Cardinal 297
AUTHOR INDEX.
146
r
Giddings, Franklin H 1563
Gideon, Henry J 383
Gillette, J. M 327, 1061, 1652
Gilman, Charlotte P 216, 1564
Giretti, Edoardo 986
Gorres, Karl 846
Golden, John 325, 1256
Goldmark, Josephine C 325, 478, 1401, 1777
Goldmark, Pauline 366,1084,1144,1196,1402
Goldstein, Fanny 1025
Gompers, Samuel 321, 158-164, 1085
Gordon, F. G. R 1257
Gordon, Jean M 165,
166, 323, 324, 326, 327, 328, 503, 1336, 1652, 1778
Gordon, Mrs. Martha M. 0 894,951,1733,1734
Gorrell, Frank E 1105
Gottschalk, Alfred 1145
Graffenried, Clare de 441
Granger, Mrs. A. O 167,320
Gray, Benjamin K 1565
Gray, Finly H 690
Gt. Brit. Board of education 895, 1566-1570, 1779
Board of trade 896,1735,1736
Sea fishing trade com 1571
Census office 897
Children’s employment commission (1842)
898,1215,1313
(1862) 899,1064
(1867) 1062,1064
Education dept 1572, 1573
Factories inquiry commission 900
! Foreign office 901
Home dept. .743, 902-910, 1197, 1216, 1403, 1404, 1574
Interdepartmental com 911, 1575, 1780
Laws, statutes, etc 912-914,1217,1337
Parliament, House of Commons select
committees 915-919, 1146, 1147
Standing committee on bills 920
Poor law comm 1063
Post office 921
Royal comm, on labour 922,1064
Royal comm, on poor laws 923, 1405
Greece. Laws, statutes, etc 1046
Green, William R 691
Greenwood, Arthur 924-927,
952, 1065, 1576, 1737, 1738, 1780, 1781
Griffin, Appleton Prentiss Clark 12, 17
Griinzel,H 1118
Guggenheimer, Aimee 297
Guild, Curtis 168, 325, 504, 1258
Gunckel , J ohn E 1406
Gunton, George 169
Haas, Ella M 329
Hadley, A. T 588
Hale, Edward Everett 170
Hale, Eugene 662
Hall, Fred S 325, 341, 505, 506, 725, 1119, 1577
Hall, George A 171,326,329,
366, 507, 508, 1148, 1149, 1196, 1408, 1578, 1782
Hall, Granville S 1579
Hall, Mary E 44
Hall, William C 928
Halsey, O. S 929
Hampke,Thilo 1580
Hand, W. H 327, 1535, 1581, 1582, 1652
Hanks, Ethel E 576
Hanson, William C 325, 326, 1783, 1784
Hanus, Paul H 1583
Hanway, Jonas 930
Hard, William 1409
Hardy, Rufus 713
Harmon, William E 324,1785
Harms, Bernard 818
Harriman, Mrs. J. Borden 325,1259
Harris, Henry J 321, 509
Hartford vocational guidance com 1739
Harvey, E. C 931
Harvey, George 172
Harvey, Lorenzo D 1584,1705
Harwood, W 932
Hasbach, Wilhelm 1066
Hauck, Karl 767
Haworth, Paul L 173
Hayes, Denis A 1120
Hayhurst, E. R 1811
Haynes, Frederick E 510
Heaton, J. Henniker 1411
Hedges, Anna C 1585
Hegedom, Joseph H 383
Heller, W olfgang 778
Henderson, Charles 72
Henderson, Charles H 174
Henderson, Charles R 175, 176, 323, 324, 1786
Henderson, Ernest N 1654
Henry, A. S 1382
Herbst, Rudolf 768
Herkner, Anna 297,329,330
Hiatt, James S 1740
Hicks, Frederick C 692
Hiller, Friedrich 828
Hine, Lewis W 177, 178
190, 269, 326, 328, 329, 330, 334, 346, 1060, 1067,
1086-1090, 1095, 1150, 1151, 1260-1262, 1272, 1586
Hird, Frank 1152
Hirsch, Emil G 179,320
Hirst, F. W 955
Hochfelder, Julius 1587
Hoffman, Frederick L 933, 1787
Hogg, Mrs. E. F 1153,1412,1413,1588
Holland, E. O 327,1652
Holland, Robert W 744,934
Hollis, John P 326, 327, 511, 1652
Holloway, Charlotte M 126
j Holmes, John H 180,325
i Hopkins, Mary Alden 1154,1155,1198,1263
j Horton, Isabelle 181
j Hourwich, Isaac A 182
j Howard, William S 673,713
Hubbard, Elbert 183
Huber, Mrs. C. J 512
Hughes, Edwin H., bishop 330
Hunter, Robert 184, 185, 408, 1472
Hutchins, Miss B. Leigh 809,935
Hutchinson, W oods 324, 1068, 1589, 1788
Ihlder, John 1414
Illinois. Bureau of labor statistics 186
Office of inspectors of factories and woik-
sliops 187
Independent labour party 936
Indiana. Comm, on ind. and agri. educ 1590
Inglis, William 1415
International association for labor legisla-
tion 745,746,1121
International congress of women, London, 1899 747
AUTHOR INDEX,
147
International labor office 748, 749
Iowa state teachers’ association 1741
Ireland. Street-trading children com 1416
Iseman, Myre St. W 189
Italy. Laws, statutes, etc 987,988
Ministero di agri., ind., e comm 989-990
Ufficio del lavoro 991
Jackson, Cyril 923, 937, 1406, 1592
Jacobs, Charles Louis 45
Jebb, Eglantyne 1742
Jeuschik, A 769
Jevons, H. Winefrid 938,1593,1594,1742
Johnson, Alexander . 329, 354
Johnston, A. S 693
Johnston, John 1264,1595,1789
Johnston, Lettie L 297, 1417, 1436
Jones, Chester 903
Jones, Herschel H 190, 329, 346, 1790
Jones, Jerome 191,328
June, Jennie, pseud. See Cooley, Jane C.
Kandel, I. L 192
Kansas City, Mo. Public Library 21
Kaup, J 845
Keating, Edward . 330a, 694, 713
Keeling, Frederic 2, 6, 873, 939, 1744
Kelley, Mrs. Florence 74, 101,
102, 125, 193-202, 226, 320, 321, 322, 323, 3^, 325,
326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 330a, 383, 440, 476, 513-526,
594, 618, 619, 650, 653, 975, 1091, 1122, 1157, 1158,
1317, 1339, 1418-1421, 1596, 1597, 1652, 1791
Kelley, Mary R. G 1745
Kelley, Patrick H 673
Kellogg, Paul U 1318
Kendall, Henry P 330,595
Kennard, Howard P 1004
Kennedy, A. K. Clark 967
Kennedy, Albert J 356
Kennedy, Ambrose 695
Kennedy, James B 1598
Kenypn, Ruth 1066
Kenyon, William S 696,750
Kestner, Fritz 1123,1314
Kettlewell, John E •- 927
Key, Ellen K. S 204
Kildare, Owen F 1422
King, Frederick A 1423
Kingsbury, John A 207,328
Kingsbury, Susan M 527, 1599
Kinney , Michael 311
Kirkland, James H 208,320,323,1600
Kitchin, William W 620
Kittermaster, D. B 940
Know land, Joseph R 676
Knowles, G. W 1746
Kober, George M 321,1792
Kohne, Paul 845
Kohn, August 1265, 1266
Kramers, Martina G 999
Kraus, Sigmund 771
Kroll, Grace 1394
Krows, A. E 1340
Kuechle, B. E 1424
Kiihne, Alfred 845
Kydd, Samuel 941
Labour year book 942
Ladoff, Isador 209
Landmann , Jul 1026
Lapp, John A 22,1601
Larcom, Lucy 1267
Laselle, Mary A 1747
Lasker, Bruno 956
Lathrop, Julia C 328,424,476,650,653
Laufer, Rene 810
Laughton, A. M 982
Leake, Albert H 1602
Leavitt, Frank M 329,1603,1604
Lederer, Max 772
Leeds, Eng. Education committee 943
Legge, James G 1008, 1009
Legge, Thomas M 30
Lemire, Jules A 802
Lennard, Reginald 1069
Lenroot, Irvine L 697
Leonard, Robert J 210, 1605
Lesser, Ernest 849
Leupp, Constance 211
Levasseur, Emile 212
Lewis, David J 649,712,713
Lewis, Ervin E 1606
Lewis, W illiam D 621, 622, 650, 653
Ley, Frank T. 213
Lightbody, W. M 944
Lindsay, Samuel McCune 214-218,
321, 322, 324, 325, 327, 328, 329, 330a,
528, 529, 596, 623, 624, 1607, 1652
Lindsey, Benjamin B 219-223, 294, 320, 324, 530
Lingle, Mrs. T. W 330a
Little, William C 1064
Lodge, Henry C 662
Logue, Charles H 1608
London, Jack 224
London, Meyer 698
London. County council 850,
1397, 1425, 1426, 1609-1613
Loos, Isaac A 531
Lord, Everett W 102, 225, 323, 324,
325, 851, 1092, 1268, 1341, 1342, 1427, 1614-1616
Loriga, Giovanni 992, 1793
Louisiana. Bureau of statistics of labor 226
Lovejoy, Owen R 102,227-244,294,
320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 329, 330, 331, 338,
342, 346, 365, 476, 532-537, 597, 625, 626, 633, 650,
945, 1070, 1071, 1094, 1095, 1124, 1125, 1159-1161,
1218-1223, 1343, 1428-1430, 1618-1626, 1794-1796
Lowell offering 1269
Luetgebrune, Walter 1315
Luke, Jemima 340
Luppe, Hermann 828
Luther, Seth 245,1797
Macarthur, W 246
MacChesney, Nathan W 627,639
McCleary, G. F 247
McCracken, Robert M 699
MacCulloch, Campbell 1072
McCulloch, Roscoe C 700
McCullough, Joseph A 248, 328, 329
Macdonald, Nv C 1073
McDowell, James R 324,538
McDowell, Mary E 101
McEnnis, John T 249
Macfadyen, Irene M. Ashby . 250-253,1270
Mac Go wan, K 1344
McKelway, A. J 254-286,
320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328,
329, 340, 346, 409, 539-542, 628, 629, 650, 653,
1074, 1271-1277, 1431, 1432, 1627, 1652, 1798
148
AUTHOR INDEX,
McLaughlin, James C . 673
McLean, Francis H 216, 791, 797
McLeod, Malcolm J 287,288
McMillan, Margaret 946, 1628, 1629, 1799
McNeill, George E . 301
McWilliams, David 1254
Madden, Martin B 661, 673
Magruder, Julia 289
Main, W 952
Maine. Bureau of industrial and labor statis-
tics 290,291,1278
Committee on industrial education 1630
Department of labor and industry 291
Malcolm, A. G 1800
Mangold, George B . . . ’. 292, 293, 1433, 1748
Mann, James R 673, 712,713
Manning, Caroline 527
Manning, Henry Edward, cardinal 877
Mansie, Alexander 1631
Marburg, Theodore 212
Markham, Edwin 294,
1126, 1162-1164, 1225, 1226, 1279, 1280, 1316, 1434
Marmel, Tarrida del 1016
Marot, Helen 295
Marshall, Florence M 1632
Martin, George H 1633
Marx, David 296,328
Maryland. Bureau of industrial statistics 297, 1801
Bureau of statistics and information 543,
1093, 1345, 1435, 1436
Commission on industrial education 1634
Mason, John 1346
Massachusetts. Board of education 1635, 1636
Bureau of statistics 8, 1165
Bureau of statistics of labor. 1637
Commissioners for promotion of uniformity
of legislation 598
Commission on industrial education . . . 1638, 1639
Commission on minimum wage-boards 298
Commission to investigate the inspection of
factories, workshops, etc 299
Constable of the commonwealth 300,301
General court. House of representatives.. 302
Minimum wage commission 303
State board of labor and industry 544-546
Massachusetts child labor committee 304, 1437
Massd, Daniel 811
Mather, Sir William 1638
Maxey, Edwin 630
Medley, K. I. M 1199
Meerwarth 991
Meny, Georges 1166
Merriman, C 1109
Merritt, Ella A 577
Meyer, H. H. B 38
Michigan. State commission on industrial
education 1640
Miles, H. E 1641, 1649-1651, 1705
Miller, Marion Mills 305
Miller, Wallace E 306,322
Milton, George F 323,1642,1643
Minneapolis vocational survey committee. . . 1749
Minnesota. Bureau of labor 307-309
Minor, Jeanie V 325, 549
Minton-Senhouse, Robert M 947
Mises, Ludwig von 773
Missouri. Bureau of labor statistics and in-
spection : 310
Senate wage committee for women and
children . 311
Mitchell, John. 102, 312, 1227, 1803
Montague, J. F 340
Mcntessori, Marie 1228
Montgomery, Louise ......: 313, 1804
Moore, J. Hampton 713
Moore, John T 1281
Morant, R. L 1027
Morgan, John H 314,322,323,550
Morrell, E. de V r 661
Morrison, Henry C 325,551
Mosby, Thomas S ¥ 315
Moses, Mabelle 527
Mosso, Angelo 1805-
Mote, Carl H 22, 1601
Motley, James M 1644
Moulder, Priscilla E 948,1645
Moulton, John G 44
Muench, Hugo . . . ’ 852
Muensterberg, Hugo.. 1646
Mundella, A. J 949
Murdoch, Mrs. W. L 316,328,329,330a
Murphy, Edgar G 73,317,318,631,632
Musick, Samuel H 1647
Mussey, Mabel H. B 319
National association of manufacturers of the
United States 1649-1651
National child labor committee, N. Y 320-353,
552, 553, 633-636, 726, 1094, 1095, 1127,
1167, 1272, 1282, 1442-1444, 1652, 1807
National civic federation review 1200
National conference of charities and correc-
tion 354
National conference on prevention of desti-
tution 951,952
National conference on vocational guidance. . 1653,
1658,1659
National consumers’ league 355
National education association 1654, 1655
National federation of settlements 356
National society for the promotion of indus-
trial education 1656, 1657
National vocational guidance association . 1658, 1659
Nearing, Scott 357-360,
1168, 1283, 1445-1447, 1660, 1808
Neill, Charles P 321, 361, 421
Nelson, Nell 249
Netherlands (Kingdom), 1815 1000
Directie van der arbeid 1001, 1169
Laws, statutes, etc 1002
New Hampshire. Children’s commission 555
New Jersey. Bureau of statistics of labor and
industries 362,363
Commission on industrial education 1661
New South Wales. Royal commission 976
State children’s relief department 1448
Statistician’s office 977
New York (City). Bureau of child hygiene... 556
New Y ork (State). Bureau of factory inspec-
tion 557
Bureau of labor statistics 364, 1096, 1170, 1662
Bureau of stat istics and information 1097
Commission on relief for widowed mothers. . 39
Department of labor 23,558,1284
AUTHOR INDEX.
149
New York (State). Education department. 24,
46, 1663, 1664
Factory investigation commission 365,366
New York. Public library 33
New York child welfare exhibit, 1911 367
Newell, Mary H 328,368
Newman, Pauline M 329
News and Courier, Charleston, S. C 1265,1266
News and Observer, Raleigh, N. C 677
Nichol, Henry 328,369
Nicholes, Anna E 559
Nicholls, Samuel J 713
Nichols, Francis H 1229
Nichols, J. Howard 73
Niczky , W alther 853
Nienburg, Bertha von der 373
Noble, D 1309
Nolan, John 1 701
North Carolina. Bureau of labor and print-
ing 370
Norway. Laws, statutes, etc 1010
Nova Scotia. Factories’ inspector 978
Noyes, William 321, 342, 371, 1094, 1665
Nudd, Howard W 1666
Oates, Austin 1456
Oates, W. H 69, 70,328, 1810
Obenauer, Marie Louise 372,373,1098
Odencrantz, Louise C 1320
Ogburn, William F * 560, 1667
Ogden, C. K 1505
Ohio. Industrial commission . 374,561,1201
State board of health 1811
Okey, Mrs. Thomas 993
O’Leary, Wesley A ;... 1668
Oliver, Henry K 300
Oliver, Sir Thomas 1812, 1813
Ontario. Laws, statutes, etc 979
(frchardson, C 440
Oregon. Board of inspectors of child labor... 375
Child welfare commission 376
Industrial welfare commission 377
O'Reilly, Mary Boyle 1105
Ort, Jan 1003
Ortu, F. Cocco 990,994
Otey, Elizabeth L 572, 1285
Paeuw, L4on de 1669
Page, Anna B 751,980
Page, Arthur W 1670
Page, Robert N 702
Palmer, Walter B 1286
Park, Robert E 1233
Parker, Lewis W 323, 1671
Parkinson, Thomas 1 638-643
Parkman, T. 1 330
Parsons, Frank 47
Parsons, James 1750
Parton, Mabel 527
Paul, Eden 147
Pauling, James K 1457
Payen, Edouard 813
Peacock, Netta 1004
Peaeock, Robert 1403, 1458
Pearse, C. G.. 327,1652
Pearson, Robert H 1814
Peck, J. W 951,*1751
Peixotto, Jessica B 330
Pelham, Herbert S 953
Pennsylvania. Bureau of vocational educa-
tion 562,563
Department of labor and industry 1202
Governor 378
Pennsylvania child labor committee. 188,
379,564,653
Pennypacker, Mrs. Percy V 329
Perrin, John W 1672
Perry, Arthur R 650, 1298
Persons, Charles E 527
Peters, A. J 327,1652
Philadelphia. Board of public education.
Pedagogical library 48
Vice commission 1459
Philippine Islands. Bureau of printing 1673
Pieper, August 854
Pierce, Franklin 644
Platt, Edmund 703
Pollitzer, Johann 1674
Poole, Ernest 1460-1462
Pope, Samuel 954
Popp, Adelheid 774
Porter, George R 955
Porter, Giles 102
Porter, H. F. J 1463
Portugal. Laws, statutes, etc 1048
Potter, Zenas L . . 327, 366, 1099, 1100, 1442, 1464, 1652
Pou, E. W 713
Praete, Frank C 1105
Pratt, E.E 381
Pray, K. L. M 382
Prelie de la Nieppe, E . de 855
Price, W. D 1318
Profumo, L. G 995
Progressive party, New York 384
Prosser, Charles A — 1635
Puffer, Joseph Adams 1675
Quimby, Harriet : — 1348
Quin, Percy E. 713
Quinn, Lillian A 1442, 1466
Rafter, Charles H 1403
Ragsdale, J. Willard 712,713
Ramaix, de 752, 792
Rambousek, Josef 30
Randall, Charles H. 704
Rankin, Mildred 297
Rauchberg, Heinrich 385
Reber, Louis E 1705
Reed, Mrs. Anna Y 1676
Reeder, Charles Wells 34
Reeves, Edith 527
Reigart, John F 1677
Reina, Ettore 996,1349
Renard, Georges 814
Revenga y Alzamora, Antonio 1021
Rhode Island. Bureau of industrial statistics. 386
Commissioner of public schools 1678
Rich, Edith J 753
Rich, Jessie P 329,1150
Richards, Charles R 18, 25, 1654, 1662
Richmond, Mary E 387
Richmond, Va. Vocational education sur-
vey . 1752
Ricketts, Edwin D 705
Rigby, Lilian M 1753
Riis, Jacob A 129, 1171, 1172, 1467
Robbins, H 74
I Roberts, Charles 1815
150
AUTHOR INDEX,
Roberts, Peter 388, 1230, 1288
Robinson, Clarence C 389
Robinson, Harriet J 1289
Robinson, Joseph T 657
Rochester, Anna 329,
334, 346, 390, 391, 645, 650, 653, 1110, 1290
Rogers, John J 672,713
Roosevelt, Theodore 326,392-395
Rose, Marie L 297
R oseboro , Viola 396
Ross, G. F 327,1652,1816
Ross, William E 397
Rossi, Alessandro 997
Roszelle, Edward M 102,565
Rotch, Thomas M 1817
Rowntree, B. Seebohm 793,956
Royal society of arts, London. 1818
Royle, E.M 1350
Riihle, Otto 856
Ruffy, Paulde 779,780
Runciman, Walter 891
Russell, Charles E 178
Russell, C. E . B 1378, 1403, 1468, 1469, 1519, 1753
Russian year book 1004
Ryan, John Augustine 35,327, 1652
Ryan, W. C.,jr 1535
Ryff, Mme 1028
Sadler, Michael E 26,890,1009,1679
Sakolski, A. M 438, 1700
Samuel, Herbert 743
Sand iford, Peter 957,1291
Sanger, Robert C 1075
Sanville, Florence L 398, 1292, 1293
Sargent, Frank B 727
Savoy, Emile 1680
Schaeffer, Nathan C 322, 1681
Schall, Thomas D 706
Schiff, Walter 775
Schindler, Solomon 440
Schneider, Herman 326, 1682
Schroeter, Jakob 1005
Schultze 857
Schulz, M. von 826
Schwimmer, Rosika 781
Schwittau, G 1006
Schwyzer, Eugen 1029, 1173
Scott, John R. K 707
Scott, Jonathan French 1683
Scott, Laura 125, 566
Scott, Nathan B 662
Sears, Horace S 73
Sears, William J 708
Seddon, A. E 269,323,1272
Seddon, Alfred A 1294, 1684
Seidl, E 1231
Selig, Mathilde L 297
Seligman, Isaac N 324, 399
Selley, Ernest 1076
Sergeant, Elizabeth S 1174, 1175
Sewall, Hannah R 400
Shadwell, Arthur 754
Sheets, Nellie F 567
Sherard, Robert H 958, 1470
Sherley , Swagar 713
Sherwood, Sidney 297
Shorey , Eva L 290, 1101
Shouse, Jewett 709
Siegel, Isaac 710
Sigg, Jean 1176
Simon, Helene 854
Simson, Frau 959, 1177
Sinclair, Eunice 330a
Smail, J. C 1612
Smart, G. B ; 98I
Smith, A. E. Stanley •» 960
Smith, Addison T 711
Smith, Anna T 1535
Smith, Charles F 325, 401
Smith, Constance 874, 952, 969
Smith, Elizabeth Oakes 1471
Smith, Hoke 402
Smith, Oliver C . . 102, 1819
Smyth, Ellison A 403
Snedden, David ...... 325, 1548, 1685
Solensten, R. T 328,404
Sorge, F. A. 405
Southern conference on woman and child
labor 406
Spahr, Charles B 407
Spain. Instituto de reformas sociales. . . 1017, 1018
Laws, statutes, etc 1019, 1020
Spalding, John L 1686
Spangenberg, Hans 858
Spargo, John 408,1472
Spaulding, F. E 1687
Spencer, Amy H 935
Stelze, Chas 1473
Stephens, George A 1688
Stetson, George R 1820
Stevens, Alzina P 108, 202
Stieda, Wilhelm 756,859
Stiles, Ch. Wardell 1298
Stimson, Frederic J 568, 569
Stoddard, William L 1248
Stovall, A. T 326,599
Stowe, Lyman B 1474
Stratton, George F 255, 409
Sullivan, James D 1663, 1664
Sumner, Helen L 54, 123, 576, 577
Sumner, Mary B 410
Swan, Charles H 411
Swaysland, E 1638
Sweden 1010,1012
Laws, statutes, etc 1013
Swift, W. II 328, 329, 330, 330a, 412, 570,1295
Tague, Peter F 713
Talbert, Ernest L 413, 1754
Tawney, James A 661
Tawney, R. H 952, 961, 962, 967
Taylor, Florence 1 341, 571, 1290, 1296,1821
Taylor, Graham 321,414
Teleky, Ludwig 1822, 1823
Tennessee. Dept, of shop and factory in-
spection 415
State library , N ash ville 9
Terhune, Leola B 1476
Texas. University. Department of exten-
sion 10
Thackrah, Charles T 1824
Thompson, Holland 1297
Thompson, Laura A 40
Thompson, William G 1825
Tillman, Benjamin R 662
Todd, Helen M 416
AUTHOR INDEX,
Tumpkins, Juliet W 417
Towson, C. R 418
Trauttmansdorff, Ferdinand, Graf von 776
Travers, John C 297 , 1826
Tremenheere, H. S 899
Troutman, Robert B 648
Trumbull, Millie R 327, 1652
Tuckwell, Gertrude M 963, 969, 1179
Tyler, Ina 1482
Ueland, E 1755
Ulm, Aaron H 269, 419, 1272
UnitedStates. Bureau of education. 16,27,485,1535
Library 49
Bureau of labor 28,29,420-422,572,573, 757,
1103, 1111, 1129, 1203, 1298, 1319,
1320, 1477, 1690, 1691, 1756, 1827
Bureau of labor statistics 11, 423, 574, 575, 758
Library 31
Bureau of the census 728-731,
1104, 1130, 1299, 1300
Children’s bureau 40, 424, 576, 577
Commission on national aid to vocational
education 1692
Congress. House 661,668,673,678,712-714
Committee on labor 649-653
Committee on rules 1105
Committee on the District of Colum-
bia 578-580,1693
Committee on the judiciary 654
Senate 662,669-671
Committee on interstate commerce. . . 655-657
Immigration commission 1478, 1479
Industrial commission 425
Laws, statutes, etc 581,658,659
Library of Congress. Division of bibliog-
raphy 12,17, 29, 38
Surgeon-general’s office. Library 32
Urwick, Edward J 964, 1480, 1694
Vaiden, V 1695
Valesh, Eva McD 426,582,583
Van der Vaart, Mrs. Harriet 322, 584, 1131
V an Dyke, Carl C 715
Van Kleeck, Mary 325, 1112, 1180-1182, 1204
Van Vorst, Bessie 427-429, 1301, 1302
VanVorst, Mrs. John. See Van Vorst, Bessie.
Van Vorst, Marie 429,1302
Vance, A. T 322
Vare, William S 713,716
Veditz, Charles William A 759,
777, 794, 815, 860, 998, 1030
V ermeer sch , Arthur 795
Verrill, Charles Henry : 36
V ictor ian year book 982
Villard, O. G 660
Villerme, Louis Rene 816, 1303
Villota y Presilla, Isidro de 1021
Vocation bureau, Boston , . . 1757-1759
V ocation office for girls , B oston 1760
Vocational guidance survey, N. Y 1696
Wagner, Robert F 365,366
Wald, L. D 324, 330a, 430
Walling, William E 431
Ward, Grace F 527
Warner, C. F 1638
Washington, Booker T 1233
Washington (State) Bureau of labor 1106
Washington University, St. Louis 1482
151
j
Watson, Elizabeth C . . . 338, 365, 366, 1161, 1183-1185
Watson, E. J 325,432,585
Watson, Frank D 433,1697
Watson, Walter A 712,713,717
Waudby, William S 434, 1232
Waugh, Benjamin 1483
Waxweiler, Emile 791
Wayne, Flynn 435
Weaver, Eli W 436, 1698, 1761, 1762
W eaver , Zebulon . 330a
Webb, Beatrice P 965,966
Webb, Edwin Y 718
Webb, Sidney 924,935,966
Weicker, Hans 845
Wells, EmilieL 437
Welpton, W. P 1699
Weltner, C. E 328, 1304
Wentworth, Laura F 1511
Weyl, Walter E 438, 1700
White, Frank M 439, 1701
White, Henry 1186
White, Sophie D 586
Whitehouse, John H 967
Whitin, Ernest S 587, 1107
Whittelsey, Sarah S 588
Whittemore, Gilbert E 325,732,1702
Whitt ier , John G 340
Wiese, Dr 832
Wilcox, W. R 1206
W iley , Katherine E 1747
Wilhelmi, L 828
Will, Thomas E 108
Williams, John 324,733
Williams, Mornay 329, 1485
Williams, Talcott 1305
Williamson, Charles C 33,37
Williamson, Emily E 589
Williamson, Robert 968, 1207
Willis, W. N 1187
Willoughby, William F 441
Willows, Maurice 326, 1486
Wilmarth, Raymond O 442
Wilmer, C. B 443
Wilson, Francis 1338, 1355-1358
Wilson, Hilda 1594
Wilson, Lewis A 24,46
Winship, A. E 1487
Winslow, Charles H 1501, 1703
Winston, G. T 330a
Wirth, Clara 1188
Wirth, Max ' 1031
Wischnewetzsky, Florence Kelley. See
Kelley, Mrs. Florence.
Wisconsin. Bureau of labor and industrial
statistics 444, 445, 1488
Commission upon plans for experiments of
industrial and agricultural training 1704
Industrial commission 446,447
Laws , statutes , etc 1489
State board of industrial education 1705
Wise, Stephen S 325,448,449
Wolff, Solomon 1359
Women’s educational and industrial union,
Boston 1321
Womer, Parley P..’ 450,1490
Wood, George H 970,971
Wood, Mrs. Mary I. S 451
152
AUTHOR INDEX,
Wood, William R 719
Woodbridge, Alice L 108
Woods, Robert A 356,546
Woodward, Margaret 452
Woodward, S.W 321,453
Woolley, Mrs. Helen B. T 327,
454, 455, 590, 1652, 1706, 1828
Woolley, R. W 1306
Woolston, Florence 1491
Worcester, Daisy W 456,1298
Worcester, Wood F 1298
Woycicki, Alexandre 1007
Wright, Carroll D 15, 307, 422, 1707
Wright, Livingston 1493
Year-book of social progress 972
Young, Thomas M 1307
Zanten, J. H. van 760
Zentralstelle fur V olksw’ohlfahrt 1708
Zinsli, Ph 1032
Zuicher, E . 1033,1034
SUBJECT INDEX.
{Numbers refer to items, not to pages.)
Accidents 31,139,144,374,933,1319
Age, physiological 1765, 1771, 1793, 1817, 1822
Age limit 201, 285, 575, 577, 1227, 1287
Connecticut 125
Illinois 186
France 796,804
Germany 832
See also Legislation.
Agricultural work 1049-1076
Austria 1052
France 796
Germany 823 1050,1051
Gt. Brit 895,
955, 1049, 1056-1058, 1062-1066, 1069, 1076
U. S... 1053-1055, 1059-1061, 1037, 1068, 1070-1075
Alabama .... 69-73, 79, 190, 252, 253, 317, 328, 329, 330a
Comp, educ 458,577
Cotton 1301
Inspection 69-71
Legis 253, 458, 459, 572, 573, 575, 577
Alaska, legislation 577
American Federation of Labor 97,
102, 124, 158-164,312,565
Apprenticeship 364,
438, 1513, 1514, 1525, 1533, 1540, 1571, 1592, 1683
Bibl 13-15,1680,1683
Austria 1674
British Guiana 1631
Cape of Good Hope 1521
France 1552-1559
Germany 1562,1580,1639,1708
Great Britain 871,872,
889,922,942, 1547, 1571, 1610, 1612, 1613
Massachusetts 1637
New York 364
Fhil. Is 1647,1673
Scotland . . .’ 1560
Switzerland 1680
United States . . . 1608, 1644, 1649-1651, 1700, 1707
Wisconsin 446
Argentine Republic 1035, 1036. 1037
Arguments, pro and con 88,91
Arizona, legis *. 474, 573, 575, 577
Arkansas, legis 539, 573, 575, 577
Artificial flowers:
Great Britain 1152
New York City 1133, 1180
Artist child. See Stage children.
Australia 974,976,977,982
Austria 696, 734, 742, 752, 758, 761-777, 817
Agri 1052
Bibl 768,771
Coal 1231
Legis 735, 750, 757, 777, 812
Night work 767,768
School children 832, 1528
Bags, paper 1152
Baltimore 297,543,1826
Agri 1054
Mer. estab 1193
Stage 297,1329
Beet fields of Colorado 1060
Belgium 758,782-795
Home work 1140
Legis 696, 757, 783-786, 788, 792, 795
Mines 782,1208
Beveridge child-labor bill 601-605, 608, 630, 632
Bibliographies:
Apprenticeship 13-15,1680,1683
Child labor 1-12,
108, 111 , 294, 389, 420, 446, 447, 473, 734, 756,
817, 818, 839, 853, 863, 864, 873, 889, 890, 1027
Comp, educ 16,1535
Cont. schools 1679
Eight-hour day 17
Indus, educ 18-28,
1504, 1537, 1602, 1604, 1630, 1654, 'l683
Indus, hyg 29-32
Juv. employ, bur 1737,1744
Minimum wage 33-37
Mothers’ pensions 38-40
Vocational guidance 41-49, 1508-1510
Street trades 1382,1394
Birth certificates 348, 549
Birmingham, Eng 890,958
Juv. employ, bur 1712-1716, 1730, 1737
Street trades 1403
Biscuit factories, Maryland 1098
“ Blind alley” occupations. 961, 1506, 1544, 1576, 1696
See also Juvenile occupations.
Boot and shoe industry, Mass 429, 1321
Bootblacks 1370, 1382, 1394, 1452, 1460, 1476, 1479
Boston:
Employ, cert 576
Juv. occup 1731, 1758, 1759, 1760
Newsboys’ court 1382, 1394, 1454, 1493
Newsboys’ Republic 1394
Street trades 1371, 1374, 1394, 1402
Voc. bureau 1757
See also Massachusetts.
Box factories 357, 109S, 1152, 1316, 1317, 1320
Bradford, Eng.:
Juv. employ, bur. . 1723
Juv. occup 1717-1722
Brazil 1038
Bricks and tiles 1315, 1316
British Guiana 1631
Building trades 1612, 1613, 1752
Bulgaria 1039
Caddies, Great Britain 893
California 93,94,330
Canneries 1080
153
154
SUBJECT INDEX,
California, legis 469,573,575,577
Cambridge, Eng., Juv. emp. bur 1742
Canada 975,981
Indus, educ 1520
Legis 973,979,980
Candy factories 357, 1098, 1310, 131G, 1317, 1326
Canneries. 1077-1107
Statistics 1103,1104
California 1080, 1091
Florida 1095
Gulf coast 1078, 1079, 1086-1088, 1095
Illinois 1091
Maine 1101
Maryland 297, 1090, 1093, 1098
Mississippi 1095,1102
New England 1092
New York State 1081-1085,
1091, 1094, 1096, 1097, 1099, 1100, 1105
Washington (State) 1106
Cans and boxes, tin 1320
Cape of Good Hope 1521
Cardiff, Wales . . . 1725
Juv. employ, bur 1725
Care committees. Sec Juvenile employment
bureaus.
Cash girls. See Mercantile establishments.
Causes of child labor 186,
294, 335, 338, 339, 422, 1142, 1691
Parental dependence 151,
193, 223, 230, 269, 326, 368, 404
Poverty .... 56, 151, 185, 207, 209, 258, 326, 328, 506
Certificates. See Birth certificates; Employ-
ment certificates.
Chain making:
Great Britain 1174
Massachusetts 1165
Chemnitz, Germany 822
Chicago 100,101,429
Candy factories 1310
Employ, cert 559
Juv. employ, bur 1727
J uv. occup 1727, 1729, 1754
Stockyards 313,413
Street trades 1379,1380
Voc. train 1529
Child idleness 315
Chimney sweeps:
Great Britain 916,917.930,1547
Church and child labor 180, 229, 232, 353, 386, 450
Cigars and cigarettes 1168, 1320
Cincinnati 454,1706
Juv. employ, bur 1724
Street trades 1385
Voc. guid 1724
Clocks and watches 1320
Clothing 429, 1108-1112, 1178, 1320
Coal. See Mines.
Colonies, Great Britain 973-982
Colorado 122
Beet fields 1060
Legis 573, 575, 577
Stage.. 1331, 1339
Compulsory education 485,
522, 1534, 1535, 1563, 1566
Bibliography 16, 1535
Alabama 458
Compulsory education, Connecticut 1672
District of Columbia 580, 1693
European countries. 1570
France 1685
Germany . 1685
Great Britain. 895, 920, 1566, 1568, 1569, 1574, 1685
Kentucky 113,1530
Louisiana 1617
Massachusetts 545,1672
Minnesota... 307
South 1538, 1581, 1582, 1642, 1643, 1652
South Carolina 1598
Switzerland 1027
United States 577, 1548,
1570, 1587, 1591, 1596, 1618,
1619,1633,1667, 1671, 1685
Legis 1535,1663,1664
Wisconsin.. 446
Confectionery. See Candy factories.
Connecticut 102,125-127
Age limit 125
Comp, educ 1522,1672
Employ, cert 576
Legis 125, 487, 494, 572, 573, 575, 577
Physical condition 1770
See also Hartford.
Conservation of childhood 142, 392-394, 1546
Constitutionality of Federal law 602,
607, 608, 610, 613, 622, 627, 630, 638-
643, 641, 648, 650, 653, 654, 691, 692
Consumer and child labor 200
Continuation schools 1679
Bibliography 1679
Germany 845,1505
Great Britain 1569,1611
Pennsylvania 563,573,575,1641
United States 1649-1651
Wisconsin 1705
Core making 1320
Corset manufacture 127, 1320
Cotton mills 572, 1094,
1235, 1238, 1239, 1240, 1247, 1248, 1249,
1254, 1258, 1275, 1282, 1286, 1290, 1295
History 1285
Mortality of operators 1296, 1298
Statistics 729,1298,1300
Workers’ budgets 1298
Alabama 1301
Connecticut 127
France 816,1303
Georgia 1236a, 1262, 1301
Great Britain 955
Lancashire, Eng . # 1241,1264,1287
New Orleans 1261
North 1301
North Carolina 1243, 1272, 1297
South 1236, 1237, 1252, 1259, 1260-1262,
1270-1277, 1281, 1294, 1295, 1302, 1306
South Carolina 1265, 1266, 1272, 1304
United States 1298, 1307
Cotton picking, Texas 1087, 1260
Court decisions. See Decisions of courts.
Crackers and biscuits 1320
Cranberries 1059, 1070-1072, 1075
Crime, and child labor. See Juvenile delin-
quency.
SUBJECT INDEX
155
Dangerous occupations 703,807,
912, 1228, 1311, 1773, 1783, 1811-1814
Employment s prohibited 485, 577
See also Accidents; Occupational diseases.
Decisions of courts 574,575. 586
Delaware 137,138
Agri 1054
Legis 572,573,575,577
Democracy and child labor 327
Denmark 734,752,817, 1550
Legis 812,1040-1045
Department stores. See Mercantile establish-
ments.
Devon, Eng 954
Dinner toters 128
District of Columbia 104, 105, 136, 361,
442, 453, 578-580, 661, 662, 664, 668-671, 1432
Comp, educ 580, 1693
Legis 470, 509, 529, 573, 575, 577, 581
Statistics 728
Edinburgh 951
Juv. employ, bur 1751
Educational aspects 58,
122, 149, 186, 198, 327, 386, 149 1, 1708
Educational test for working children 1536
See also Employment certificates.
Effects of child labor 66,
67, 122, 155, 184, 214. 215, 221, 222, 226, 257,
275, 294, 321 , 329, 330, 335, 338, 339, 1142, 1808
Adult wages 102, 191, 212, 422
Health 1768-1770,1774-1781,
1784-1788, 1791-1794, 1798-1802, 1807, 1810,
1812, 1813, 1815, 1817, 1819, 1822-1826, 1828
Morals. . . 199, 790, 1372, 1379, 1403, 1423, 1459, 1816
See also Juvenile delinquency; Social cost
of child labor.
Efficiency, relative, of men, women, and
children 422
Eight-hour day. See Hours.
Employers’ attitude 146,
179, 186, 370, 382, 436, 928, 1698
Employment certificates 485, 508, 535, 575, 590
Chicago 559
Connecticut 576
Great Britain 906
Maine 290
Maryland 297,543,576
Massachusetts 576
New York City 467,556,1774,1782
New York State 557, 558, 576
Ohio 561,576
Pennsylvania 562
Wisconsin 576
Employment offices. See Juvenile employ-
ment bureaus.
Employment prohibited. See Dangerous oc-
cupations.
England. See Great Britain.
Entrance to trades. See Apprenticeship.
Ethical aspects 208
European countries 734-760, 899
Comp, educ 1535,1570
Indus, educ 1537,1638
Statistics 817
See also under names of countries.
European war and child labor 1567, 1568
Factories 689,718
France 799,803
Germany 837,854
Great Britain 865, 879, 883, 892, 898,
900, 905, 915, 918, 919, 926, 941, 942, 948, 965, 967
See also under name of industry.
Factory inspection 314, 749
Alabama 69-71
France 800
Germany 299
Great Britain 299
Illinois 101,299
Maine 290
Maryland 297
Massachusetts 299, 300
New York State 299
New Jersey 299
Nova Scotia 978
Ohio 299,455
Pennsylvania 299
Pittsburgh 195,1317
United States 1827
Wisconsin 299
Factory schools 1668
, See also Continuation schools; Industrial
education.
Fatigue 1777,1805
Federal control 330a, 601-660
Speeches in Congress 661-719
Flax 1244
Florida 279
Canneries 1095
Legis 512, 533, 573, 575, 577
Flower makers. See Artificial flowers.
France 790-816,1685
Apprent 1552-1559
Comp, educ 1685
Homework 1166
Indus, educ 1558,1559
Legis 606,734,744,752,757,
758, 798-800, 805-809, 81 1-815, 817
School children 832, 1574
Textiles i 1303,1553
Furniture 1152,1555
Gary, Ind 1594
General Federation of Women’s Clubs 167,451
Georgia 96,264,265,280
Cotton 1236a, 1262, 1301
Factories 1251
Legis 572,573,575,577,663,675
Germany 734, 742, 744, 752,
754.758, 817-860, 1315, 1685
Agri 823,1050,1051
Apprent 1562,1580,1037,1708
Comp, educ 1535, 1685
Cont. schools 845, 1505
Fact, insp 299, 758
Glass 1113,1116-1118,1123,1132
Homework 829,1138,1145,1183
Ind. educ 1504, 1518, 1708
Juv. employ, bur 1727,1732
Legis 696, 757, 812, 823, 824, 826-829,
832, 836, 839, 842, 843, 845, 846, 857-860
Mines 1214
Night work 950, 1117, 1118, 1123
Statistics 825,831,844
156
SUBJECT INDEX.
Germany, Street trades 1400
School attend 1574
Class industry 340,525,1115-1132,1735
Germany 1113, 1116-1118, 1123, 1132, 1314
Illinois 1131
New Jersey 1122
Ohio 1122
Pennsylvania 380,1122,1125
Grand Rapids, Mich., newsboys 1398,1414
Great Britain 441,445,861-972
Accidents 933
Agri 895,
955, 1049, 1056-1058, 1062-1066, 1069, 1076
Apprent 871, 872, 889, 922, 942, 1547, 1571
Chimney sweeps 916,917,930
Commissions 89S-900, 922, 923
Comp, educ . . 895, 920, 1566, 1568, 1569, 1574, 1685
Coni, schools 1569,1679
Employ, cert 906
Factories 865,879,883,892,898,900,
905, 915, 918, 919, 926, 941, 942, 948, 965, 967
Factory inspec 299, 758
“Half-timers” 877,
885, 908, 911, 914, 943, 957, 964, 1291, 1526,
1567, 1572, 1573, 1575, 1595, 1629, 1645
History 883, 889, 892, 89S-900,
915-919, 928, 930, 935, 941, 955, 971, 1066
Home work 1134, 1136, 1139, 1141, 1146,
1147, 1152, 1153, 1157, 1174, 1177, 1179, 1187
Hours 900,910,913
Ind. educ 1593
Juv. employ, bur 868,876,
877, 951, 972, 1593, 1726, 1727, 1733,
1734, 1738, 1743, 1744, 1746, 1750, 1753
Juv. occup 896, 897, 922, 1709, 1710, 1733, 1735
Legis 696,734,744,752,
754, 757, 758, 812, 817, 873, 874, 881, 883, 884,
887, 888, 891, 902-904, 912-914, 928, 931, 934,
935, 942, 945, 947, 960, 969, 970, 1047, 1217
Medical super 1779, 1781, 1790
Mess, boys 923, 964
Mines 739, 912, 1208, 1213, 1215-1217
Min. wage 867,872,877
Night work 909,950
Office boys 964
Post-office boys 866, 921, 923, 963, 972
Stage 901,963,1337
Statistics 880, 896, 897, 905, 927, 955, 972, 1216
street trades . 891,964, 1403-1405, 1468-1470, 1481
Textiles 905, 955, 957, 1241, 1244
Unemploy 927,937,940,955,956
Van boys 963, 964, 96S, 1199
Voc. guid 1508, 1593, 1742, 1743
See also Blind-alley occupations; Bir-
mingham, Bradford, Cambridge, Lan-
caster, London, Manchester.
Great Britain, colonies 973-982
Greece, legislation 1046, 1047
Greek padrone system 1476, 1478, 1479
Grimsby, Eng 958
Gulf Coast States 90
Canneries 107S, 1079, 1086-1088, 1095
See also South, and names of States.
Gunckel, John E., and newsboys. . . 1406, 1407, 14S7
Gymnasts 226
See also Stage children.
| “Half-timers.” See Great Britain, “Half-
timers.”
Hammond, Ind 210
Hartford, Conn 1410
Voc. guid 1739
Hawaii, legislation 573,575.577
See also Honolulu.
Health of working children 102, 149, 186,
245, 297, 386, 845, 964, 1188, 1546, 1763-1S28
History:
Great Britain 307,883,889,892,898-900,
915-919, 928, 930, 935, 941, 955, 971, 1066
United States .50,
51, 123, 245, 263, 463, 464, 572, 587, 588
Home work 329, 525, 1133-1189
Belgium 1140
France 1166
Germany 829, 1138, 1145, 1188
Great Britain 1134-1136,1139,1141,1146,
1147, 1152, 1153, 1157, 11/4, 1177, 1179, 1187
Massachusetts 1165
Netherlands 1169
New York City 1133,1144,1148,1149,
1151, 1159, 1161, 1167, 1171, 1172, 1175, 1182-1185
New York State 1148,1170,1185
Switzerland 1173, 1176, 1189
United States 1133,1137,
1143, 1144,1148-1151, 1154-1165, 1167,
1170-1172, 1174, 1175, 1178, 1180-1186
Honolulu 82
Hosiery and knit goods 1320
Hotels and restaurants 804,1309
Hours of labor 485,575, 577, 1091
Eight-hour day 168, 345, 355, 369, 390, 650, 653
Bibl 17
Ten-hour day 745
Colorado 122
Connecticut 494
France 796
Germany 832
Great Britain 900,910,913
Maine 290
Massachusetts 236, 588, 650, 653
Ohio 1201
Hours, irregular, effect on health 1768,1807
Hungary 752,778-781
Idaho, legis _. 573,575,577
Illinois 63,131,186,187
Fact, insp 101,299
Glass 1122,1131
Legis 457,
479, 489, 490, 495, 518-521, 550, 573, 575,577, 584
Street trades 101,1420
See also Chicago.
Immigration, Child labor and 182
Indiana 112,114,119
Glass 1122
Indus, educ 1590
Legis 482, 495, 550, 573, 575, 577
See also Hammond.
Industrial education 1499-1501,
1551, 1601, 1602, 1604, 1683, 1C99
Bibl . . 18-28, 1504, 1537, 1602, 1604, 1630, 1654, 1683
Infl. on wages 1C87
Canada 1520
Europe 1537,1638
SUBJECT INDEX.
157
Industrial education, France 1558,1559
Germany 1504,1518,1708
Great Britain 1543, 1593, 1609-1613
Illinois 1529
Indiana 1590,1594,1605
Maine 1630
Maryland 1634
Massachusetts 1583, 1605, 1635, 1638, 1639
Michigan 1640
New Jersey 1661
New York 1662
Pennsylvania 1651
Rhode Island 1678
Switzerland 1680
United States 1542, 1583,1594,
1649-1651, 1654-1657, 1665, 1670, 1690, 1692
Wisconsin 1650, 1651, 1704, 1705
Industrial hygiene, bibl 29-32
See also Occupational diseases.
Inspection. See Factory inspection.
Iowa 1605
Legis 466, 493, 510, 531, 573, 575, 577
Voc. guid 1606,1741
Ireland:
Agriculture 1064
Street trades 1416
See also Great Britain.
Irregular employment : 157
Italy 734, 742, 744, 752, 817, 983-998
Glass 696
Legis 757,812,983-991,993-998
Stage 1349
5 Japan 734,817
Jewelry 1165,1320
Jute 1244
Juvenile delinquency 68,
87, 204, 219, 421, 840,845, 969, 1431, 1579
Rel. to street trades 1389,
1392, 1394, 1399,1401, 1403, 1475, 1477
Juvenile employment bureaus 1506, 1755
Bibl 1737,1744
Cooperation with schools 830, 1506, 1508,
1512, 1515, 1524, 1594, 1727, 1730, 1751
Birmingham, Eng 1712-1715, 1730
Boston 1757
Bradford, Eng 1723
Cambridge, Eng 1742
Chicago 1727
Cincinnati 1724
Edinburgh 1751
Germany 1727,1732
Great Britain 876,877,951,972,
1593, 1709, 1710, 1726, 1727, 1733, 1734,
1736, 1738, 1743, 1744, 1746, 1750, 1753
Philadelphia 1745
Juvenile occupations 75, 76,
896, 897, 922, 1709-1762
Occupations for boys 1709, 1717-1720, 1722,
1729,1733,1735,1748,
1754, 1758, 1759, 1762
Occupations for girls 1710,
1716,1721,1727,1729,1731,
1733, 1735, 1747, 1760, 1762
Sec also Juv. employ, bur.; Voc. guid.
Kansas, legis 573,575,577
Keating-Owen hill 330a,
613, 620, 634, 635, 638, 640, 641, 653, 059
Keating-Owen bill, Speeches in Congress.. 679-719
Kentucky 203
Comp, educ 113,1530
Legis 550,567,573,575,577
Kiel, Germany 821
Knit goods 1320
Lancashire, Eng 1519, 1595
Cotton 1241,1264
Legal status of child 524
Legislation, foreign countries. See under
names of countries.
Legislation, United States 652,672,696
Econ. effects 494
State legislation and enforcement 457-590
Uniform legis 591-600
See also Names of states.
Licenses, Street trading. See Street trades.
Linen, France 816, 1303
Liverpool, Eng 958
Street trades 1376, 1395, 1403
London. 951,952,958
Apprent 1610, 1612, 1613
Cont. schools 1611
Homework 1139
Ind. educ. 1543, 1609-1613
Juv. employ, bur 1709,1710
Juv. occup . 1709, 1710, 1735
School attend 1677
Street trades 1397, 1425, 1426
Louisiana... 165,226
Comp, educ 1617
Legis 503,573,575,577
Stage 1332,1352
See also New Orleans.
Lowell, Mass 1267, 1269, 1289
Luxemburg 752
Legis 812
Lynn, Mass 429
Maine:
Canneries 1101
Emp. cert 290
Fact, insp 290,291
Ind. educ 1630
Legis 572,573,575,577,587
Stat 290
Textiles 1278
See also Portland.
Manchester, Eng 958
Street trades 1360, 1378, 1403
Maryland 297,372,1826
Agri 1054, 1055
Canneries . . . 297, 1086, 1087, 1090, 1093-1095, 1098
Employ, cert 297, 543, 576
Factories 1098
Factory insp 297
Ind. educ 1034
Legis 297, 548, 572, 573, 575, 577
Med. super 1801
Stage 1345
Street trades 1435, 1436
Massachusetts 99,
107, 123, 236, 301-304, 1321, 1437, 1638, 1784
Apprent 1637
Comp, educ 545,1535,1072
Emp. cent 576
Factory insp 299-300
Homework 1165
158
SUBJECT INDEX,
Massachusetts, Hours 650,653,1245
Ind. edue 1583, 1635, 1638, 1639
Leg is 486,
504, 527, 544r-547, 572, 573, 575. 577, 588, 1535
School attend 545
Statistics 298,724
Street trades 1371, 1374, 1394, 1402, 1437
Medical supervision 1774,
1779, 1781, 1782, 1790, 1801, 1816, 1828
Men’s clothing. See Clothing.
Mercantile establishments. . 127, 357, 1190, 1207, 1759
Messenger boys 357, 1372, 1373,
1379, 1382, 1387, 1391, 1405, 1409, 1411, 1418,
1428, 1429, 1438, 1439, 1447, 1459, 1463, 1480
Great Britain 923, 964
Minnesota 307
Pennsylvania 380
Metal trades 341, 1311, 1313, 1317-1320
Connecticut 127
Germany 1123,1312
Michigan 213,287,288
Ind. educ 1640
Legis 495,573,575,577
Mills. See Factories.
Milwaukee:
Newsboys’ Republic ... . . 1424, 1441
Street trades 1440, 1488
Mines and quarries 689, 718, 1208-1233
Austria 1231
Belgium 739,1208
France 796
Germany 1214
Great Britain 739, 912, 1208, 1213, 1215-1217
Pennsylvania 295,
380, 1210, 1212, 1220, 1221, 1224, 1230
United States 1209-1212,
1218-1227, 1229, 1230, 1232
Minimum age. See Age limit.
Minimum wage 197, 261, 303, 373, 384
Bibliography 35-37
Great Britain 867,872,877
Minneapolis 1749
Minnesota 307-309
Comp, educ 307
Legis 573,575,577
Messenger boys 307
Statistics 307
See also Minneapolis.
Missouri 1 16, 1 19, 310, 31 1
Legis 573,575,577
Mississippi '. 78, 120, 266, 328
Canneries 1095,1102
Legis 538,567,573,575,577
Montana, legis 573, 575, 577
Mothers’ pensions, bibliography 38-40
Mountain whites 412
National child labor committee:
Aims 227
Constitution 344
Proceedings 320-330a
Secretary’s reports 331
Nebraska, legis 573,575,577
Needles and pins 1320
Netherlands 734, 742, 752, 817, 999-1003
Homework 1169
Legis 812,1002
Nevada, legis 573, 575, 577
New England 125, 225, 245, 290, 407
Canneries 1092
Street trades 1427
Textiles 1263, 1267-1269, 1289
See also names of states.
New Hampshire, legis 551, 555, 572, 573, 575, 577
New Jersey 1 . 103, 149, 153, 362, 363
Fact, insp 299
Glass 1122
Ind. educ 1661
Legis 500, 572, 573, 575, 577
Silk 1293
Street trades 1377
See also Newark, Paterson.
New Mexico, legis 573,575,577
New Orleans, La., cotton mills 1261
New South Wales 976,977
Street trades 1448
New York City 130,145,367
Employ, cert 467, 556, 576, 1774, 1782
Home work 1133, 1144,
1148, 1149, 1151, 1159, 1161, 1167,
1171, 1172, 1175, 1180, 1182-1185
Mer. est 1200,1204,1206
Newsboys 1367, 1368, 1457, 1467
School census 1666
Voc. guid. survey 1696
New York State 171, 365, 366
Apprent 364
Canneries 1081-1085,
1094, 1096, 1097, 1099, 1100, 1105
Employ, cert 557,558,576
Fact, insp 299
Home work 1148, 1170, 1185
Ind. educ 1662
Legis 497, 507, 572, 573, 575, 577
Mer. est 1196
New Zealand, legis 974
Newark, N. J., newsboys 1457
Newport survey 76
Newsboys 577, 1408, 1415,
1445, 1451,1452, 1460, 1461, 1471, 1484, 1587
Boston... 1493
Chicago 1379
Grand Rapids, Mich 1398, 1414
Maryland 297,1435,1436
Milwaukee 1424, 1441, 1488
Newark 1457
New York City 1367, 1368, 1457, 1467
New York State 1449, 1450
Philadelphia 1381,1446
St. Louis 1482
Toledo 1406,1407,1487
Wash. U. C 1453,1455
Newsboys’ Court, Boston 1382, 1394, 1454, 1493
Newsboys’ Republic, Boston 1394
Newsboys’ Republic, Milwaukee 1424,1441
Night work 345, 355, 575, 740, 746, 1121
Austria 767,768
France 796, 802
Germany 950,1117,1118,1123
Great Britain 909,950
Pennsylvania 481
Switzerland 1026
Northern States 431
See also New England, and names of
states.
st*/
SUEJECT INDEX
159
North Carolina 164,
194, 269, 270, 277, 330, 330a, 370, 412
Cotton 1243, 1272, 1297, 1301
Legis 491,511,572,573,575,577
North Dakota, legis 573, 575, 577
Norway 752
Legis 812,1010
Nova Scotia 978
Occupational diseases 1809,
1811-1814, 1821, 1824, 1825
Bibl 29-32
Occupations. See Juvenile occupations.
Office hoys, Great Britain 964
Ohio 306
Accidents 374
Comp, educ 1535
Employ, cert 561,576
Fact, insp 299,455
Glass 1122
Hours 1201
Legis 483, 495, 496, 550, 572, 573, 575, 577, 1535
Mer. estab 1201
Wages 1201
See also Cincinnati.
Ohio Valley states 115, 306, 550
See also names of states.
Oklahoma 80, 81
Legis 471,573,575,577
Ontario 975,979
Oregon 375-377
Legis 573,575,577
Min. wage. 373
Organized labor and child labor 97,
102, 124, 158-163, 312, 330a
See also American Federation of Labor;
Trade unions, Great Britain.
Paimer-Owen bill 625,
626, 633, 636, 637, 649, 650, 651, 655, 658
Speeches 672-678
Paper boxes. See Box factories.
Parental dependence. Sec Causes of child
labor.
Parental responsibility 382, 414
Part time schools 1636, 1652
See also Continuation schools, Great
Britain “Half-timers.”
Paterson, N. J 123
Pauperism. See Causes of child labor.
Peddlers. See Street trades.
Pennsylvania 109,110,143,156,
196, 209, 295, 378-380, 388, 398, 433, 564, 653
Cont. schools 563, 1641
Employ, cert 562
Fact, insp 299
Glass.... 1122,1125
Ind. educ 1651
Legis 463,472,476,
505, 550, 554, 563, 564, 572, 573, 575, 577
Mines. . . 295,380, 1210, 1212, 1220, 1221, 1224, 1230
Night work 481
Street trades 1438
Textiles 1288,1293
See also Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Wilkes-
Barre.
Perry, N. Y 429
Philadelphia 123, 188, 383, 396, 1561
Philadelphia, Juv. employ, bur 1561, 1745
Juv. occup 75
Mer. est 1202
Stage 1459
Street trades 1381, 1446, 1459
Philanthropy and child labor 231
Philippine Islands:
Apprent 1647,1673
Legis 577
Physical standards 424, 1765,
1771, 1774, 1793, 1817, 1819, 1822, 1S23, 1828
Physiological age. Sec Age, physiological.
Pittsburgh, Pa 92, 195, 429, 1168, 1317, 1318
Portland, Me 290
Porto Rico, legis 577
Portugal 752
Legis 812,1048
Post-office boys, Great Britain. 866,921,923,963,972
Pottery 1320
Poverty. See Causes of child labor.
Preserving. See Canneries.
Printing trades 1533, 1550, 1647, 1673, 1735, 1752
Providence, R. I., School census 1702
Rag stripping 1178
Religious aspects. See Church and child
labor.
Remedial measures 294, 335, 338, 339, 408, 11-12
Restaurants. See Hotels and restaurants.
Rhode Island 3S6
Ind. educ 1678
Legis 572,573,575,577
See also Newport, Providence.
Richmond, Va., Voc. educ. survey 1752
Rolling mills, Germany 1123, 1312, 1314
Roumania 752
Rubber abd elastic goods 127, 1320
Russia 100 1— 1007
Legis 752,812
St. Louis, Mo.:
Juv. occup 1748
Newsboys 1482
Scavengers, child 1437
School attendance:
France 1574
Germany 1574
Great Britain 868, 892, 895,
908, 914, 920, 943, 972, 1566-1569, 1572-1575, 1677
See also Great Britain, “Half-timers.”
New York 1666
Rhode Island 386
Switzerland 1574
See also Compulsory attendance; Contin-
uation schools.
School children as wage earners 1498
Austria 832
France 832
Germany 820
Great Britain 832, 1516, 1517, 1572, 1588, 1766
See also Gt. Brit. “Half-timers:”
Street trades.
Switzerland 1189
Schools, relation to employmeut 534,1230.1508,
1512, 1515, 1519, 1524, 1541, 1600, 1603, 1607, 1614-
1616, 1618-1623, 1632, 1666, 1669, 1677, 1681, 1682
See also Comp, educ.; Cont. schools; In-
dus. educ.; Juv. employ, bur.; Voc.
guid.
160
SUBJECT IXDEX,
Scholarships for working children 330a,
1577, 1578, 1597, 1689, 1697
Scotland 958
Agri 1064
Apprent 1560
Yoc. guid 1733,1751
See also Edinburgh, Great Britain.
Seattle, Wash 1676
Sharpsburg, Pa 1317
Shoes. See Boot and shoe industry.
Silk mills 1234, 1280, 1283, 1298
Statistics 1298,1299
Connecticut 127
France 816,1393
Great Britain 955
New Jersey 1293
Pennsylvania 1293
Social cost of child labor. ... 64, 155, 184, 221, 235, 259,
347, 441, 1563, 1785, 1786, 1808
See also Effects of child labor.
Sonneberg, Germany 829
South 106,160,169,
177, 183, 226, 254, 262, 267, 271-273, 276, 285, 316,
318, 320, 329, 403, 406, 407, 429, 628, 629, 631, 633
Comp, educ 1531,
1535, 1538, 1549, 1581, 1582, 1642, 1643, 1652, 1684
Cotton 1252,
1259, 1260-1262, 1270-1277, 1281, 1302, 1306
Legis 462,541,542,570
See also names of states.
South Carolina 194, 248, 269, 270, 277, 328, 329, 432
Comp, educ 1598
Cotton 1265, 1266, 1272, 1304
Legis. ..................... 511, 5< 3, 5* 5, 5/ 1 , 58o
South Dakota, legis 573,575,577
Spain 744,752
Legis 812,1014-1021
Speeches in Congress 305,661-719
Stage children 1322-1359
Legis : 577
Baltimore 1329
Colorado 1331,1339
Great Britain 901,963,1337
Italy 1349
Louisiana 1332,1352
Maryland 297
State and child labor 525, 928, 963
State and Federal legislation, relation of 498, 606, 614
See also Federal control.
State laws. See Legislation, United States.
Statistics:
Austria 762
European countries 817
Germany 818, 825, 831, 844
Great Britain. 880, 896, 897, 905, 927, 955, 972, 1216
Massachusetts 298
Minnesota 307
New South Wales 977
New York State 1284
Rhode Island 386
Russia 1004
Switzerland 1188
United States 189,339,422
720-733, 1104, 1129, 1130, 1285, 1286, 1298, 1300
Victoria 982
Stockyards, Chicago 313,413
Stores, department. See Mercantile estab-
lishments.
Stories, Child labor 340, 343, 350, 352
Strawberry pickers 1055
Street trades 292, 329, 1360-1493
Bibl 1382, 1394
Effect on health 1769
Regulation 577, 1388, 1395, 1397, 1399,
1400, 1403, 1404, 1417, 1418, 1420, 1425, 1426, 1435,
1442, 1449, 1450, 1456, 1458, 1464-1466, 1481, 1489
Boston 1371, 1374, 1394, 1402
Cincinnati 1385
Hartford 1410
Great Britain 891,
964, 1360, 1376, 1378, 1403, 1404, 1425
Illinois 1420
Ireland 1116
Maryland 1435,1436
Milwaukee 1440,1488
New Jersey 1377
New South Wales 1448
Wisconsin 446,1488
See also Bootblacks; Messenger boys;
Newsboys.
Sugar beet industry. See Beet fields of Col-
orado.
Sulphur mines 1233
Sweden 752, 1008, 1009, 1011, 1012
Legis 812,1013
Switzerland 734, 752, 758, 817, 1023, 1024, 1027
Apprent 1680
Bibl 1025
Comp, educ 1027
Home work 1 173, 1176, 1188, 1189
Indus, educ 1680
Legis 696,757,812,
1022, 1025, 1027, 1028, 1030, 1031, 1033, 1034, 16S0
Night work 1026
School attend 1574
Tailoring. See Clothing.
Telegraph boys. See Messenger boys.
Tenement-house manufacture. See Home
work.
Tennessee 208, 369, 415, 1253
Legis 573,575,577
Texas:
Cotton picking 1260
Legis 573,575,577
Textiles 729a, 1234-1307
France 1553
Gt. Brit 905,955,957
See also Cotton; Linen; Silk; Woolen.
Tobacco. See Cigars and cigarettes.
Toledo, Ohio, Newsboys 1406, 1407
Tomatoes 1054
Trade unions, U. S. See American Federation
of Labor.
Trades. See Juvenile occupations.
Unemployment, Gt. Brit 927,937,940,955,956
Uniform legislation 552, 560, 591-600
United States and general 50-456,
734,742,752,754,817, 1685
Agri. . . 1053-1055, 1059-1061, 1067, 1068, 1070-1075
Apprent 1608, 1644, 1649-1651, 1700, 1707
Canneries 1077-1107
SUBJECT INDEX.
161
United States, Comp educ 1535, 1548,
1570, 1587, 1591, 1596, 1618, 1619,
1633, 1663,1664, 1667, 1671, 1685
Cotton 1298,1307
Glass 1114, 1115, 1119, 1120, 1122, 1124-1131
Homework 1133,1137,
1143, 1144, 1148-1151, 1154, 1165, 1167,
1170-1172, 1174, 1175, 1178, 1180-1186
Ind. educ 1542,1583,
1594, 1605, 1649-1651, 1654-
1657, 1665, 1670, 1690, 1692
Legis 54, 302, 457-590, 812
Uniform 591-600
Mer. est 1190-1207
Mines 1209-1212, 1218-1227, 1229, 1230, 1232
Statistics . . . 189, 339, 422, 720-733, 1104, 1129, 1130
Voc. guid 1624-1626, 1652, 1655
See also names of states.
Utah, legis 573, 575, 577
Vermont, legis 572, 573, 575, 577
Vagrancy and child labor 132
Van boys, Gt. Brit 963,964,968,1199
Victoria 982
Vienna 1674
Virginia 141,274,283
Legis 573,575,577
Vocational education. See Industrial educa-
tion.
Vocational guidance 325, 1507-1512,
1646, 1675, 1696, 1747, 1756, 1761, 1762
Bibl 41-49, 1508-1509
National conferences 1653,1658,1659
Birmingham, Eng 1712-1716,1730
Boston 1731, 1757-1760
Bradford, Eng 1717-1722
Cardiff, Wales.... 1725
Chicago 1727,1729,1754
Cincinnati 1724
Edinburgh 1751
Germany 1508
Gt. Brit 1508, 1593, 1742, 1743
Hartford, Conn 1739
Iowa 1606,1741
London 1709,1710,1735
Minneapolis 1749
Vocational guidance, New York City 1696
Philadelphia 1561, 1740,1745
Richmond, Va 1752
St. Louis 1748
Seattle 1676
United States 1594, 1624, 1625, 1652, 1655
Wages 212,1188
Boot and shoe ind 1321
Cotton mills 1274
Germany 832
Illinois 186
Iowa 1606
Newport 76
Ohio 1201
North Carolina 370
Oregon 373
Phila 75
Rhode Island 386
United States 421, 422
Wages, effects on adults. Sec Effects of child
labor.
Wales, Agri 1064
See also Cardiff; Great Britain.
Washington, D. C. See District of Columbia.
Washington (State):
Canneries 1106
Legis 573, 575, 577
West Virginia 117-119,1211
Legis 550,573,575,577
Western States 530
See also names of states.
Wilkes-Barre, Pa 77
Wisconsin 340,444-447
Apprent 446
Comp, educ 446
Employ, cert 576
Fact, insp 299
Ind. educ 1650, 1651, 1 704, 1705
Legis 446, 495, 502, 573, 575, 577, 1705
Street trades •. . . 1489
See also Milwaukee.
Woolen and worsted goods 955, 1320
Work permits. Sec Employment certificates.
Wyoming, legis 573, 575, 577
441S3°— 16-
-11
O
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OP THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
20 CENTS PER COPY
A
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
CHILDREN’S BUREAU
JULIA C. LATHROP. Chief
MATERNAL MORTALITY
FROM ALL CONDITIONS CONNECTED
WITH CHILDBIRTH
IN THE UNITED STATES
AND CERTAIN OTHER
COUNTRIES
BY
GRACE L. MEIGS, M. D.
MISCELLANEOUS SERIES No. 6
Bureau Publication No. 19
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1917
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
10 CENTS PER COPY
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CONTENTS.
Letter of transmittal
Page.
5
Summary - <
Part I. General discussion
Statistics relating to childbirth in the United States and in certain foreign
countries
Introduction
Are the diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement preventable
diseases?
Reliability of data
Number of deaths in the United States from childbirth
Death rates in the United States from childbirth
Is the death rate from childbirth falling?
Diagram 1. Death rates per 100,000 population from typhoid, diph-
theria and croup, and diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement
in the death-registration area of the United States, 1900 to 1913
Diagram 2. Death rates per 100,000 population from tuberculosis and
pneumonia in the death-registration area of the United States,
1900 to 1913
Death rates from childbirth in urban and rural districts
Death rates from childbirth in different States
Death rates from childbirth of white and colored population
Comparison of the average death rates from childbirth in certain
foreign countries and in the United States
Conclusions
Part II. Detailed analysis of methods and statistical data
Discussion of certain terms and methods used in this report
International Classification of Causes of Death
Death-registration area
Provisional birth-registration area
Methods of computing the death rates from all causes connected with
pregnancy and confinement
Sources of error in the study of death rates from childbirth
Inaccuracy of returns
Limited area and short period of time represented by figures
Methods of computation
Sources of error in comparisons of death rates of different years
Sources of error in a study of foreign statistics
Foreign statistics
Comparison of the average death rates from childbirth in certain
foreign countries and in the United States
Comparison of the changes in the death rates from childbirth in certain
foreign countries for the years 1900 to 1913
9-27
9-27
9
10
13
14
14
16
13
19
20
21
22
22
23
29-17
29-34
29
31
31
34-43
35
36
37
37
41
43-47
43
44
3
4
CONTENTS.
Page.
Fart III. General tables 49-66
Table I. Population, deaths, and death rates per 100,000 population in the
death-registration area from diseases caused by pregnancy and confine-
ment, 1890 and 1900 to 1913 49
Table II. Deaths and death rates per 100,000 population in the 8 States
within the death-registration area in 1890 from diseases caused by
pregnancy and confinement, 1890 and 1900 to 1913 49
Table III. Deaths and death rates per 100,000 population in the 11 States
within the death-registration area in 1900 from diseases caused by
pregnancy and confinement, 1900 to 1913 50
Table IV. Death rates per 100,000 female population in the 11 States within
the death-registration area in 1900 from diseases caused by pregnancy
and confinement, 1900 to 1910 50
Table Y. Number of deaths of women from 15 to 44 years of age in the
death-registration area from each cause and class of causes included in
the abridged International List of Causes of Death (revision of 1909),
1913 51
Table YI. Population, live births, deaths, and death rates per 100,000 pop-
ulation and per 1,000 live births from diseases caused by pregnancy and
confinement, by States and principal cities in the provisional birth-
registration area, 1910 52
Table VII. Death rates per 100,000 population in the death-registration
area from certain important causes of death, 1890 and 1900 to 1913 53
Table VIII. Deaths and death rates per 100,000 population in cities of at
least 8,000 population and in smaller cities and rural districts in the
death-registration States from diseases caused by pregnancy and confine-
ment, 1900 to 1913 53
Table IX. Death rates per 100,000 population in cities that had at least
200,000 population in 1900, and were within the death-registration States
of 1900, from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement, 1900 to 1913. 54
Table X. Death rates per 100,000 population in the 11 States within the
death-registration area in 1900 from diseases caused by pregnancy and
confinement, 1900 to 1913 > 54
Table XI. Deaths and death rates per 100,000 population in the death-
registration area from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement,
by color of decedent, 1910 to 1913 56
Table XII. Average death rates per 100,000 population in certain countries
from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement, 1900 to 1910 56
Table XIII. Average death rates per 1,000 live births in certain foreign
countries from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement, 1900 to
1910 56
Table XIV. Deaths in certain countries from diseases caused by preg-
nancy and confinement and number and per cent of such deaths from
puerperal septicemia, 1900 to 1910 57
Comment on sources of statistics for foreign countries 57
Table XV. Population, births, deaths, and death rates per 100,000 popula-
tion, per 1,000 births, and per 1,000 live births from diseases caused by
pregnancy and confinement in certain foreign countries for specified
years 60
Table XVI. Average death rates per 100,000 population and per 1,000 live
births from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement in certain
foreign countries for specified periods of years 66
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U. S. Department of Labor,
Children’s Bureau,
Washington, September 25, 1916.
Sir: I transmit herewith a report entitled “Maternal Mortality
from all Conditions Connected with Childbirth in the United States
and Certain Other Countries,” by Dr. Grace L. Meigs, in charge of the
hygiene division of this bureau. This report has been prepared
because the bureau’s studies of infant mortality in towns and rural
districts reveal a connection between maternal and infant welfare so
close that it becomes plain that infancy can not be protected without
the protection of maternity.
In this study Dr. Meigs undertakes to do no more than to assemble
and interpret figures already published by the United States Bureau
of the Census and by the statistical authorities of various foreign
countries, and to state accepted scientific views as to the proper care
of maternity. She points out clearly that maternal mortality is in
great measure preventable, that no available figures show a decrease
in the United States in recent years, and that certain other countries
now exhibit more favorable rates. This report reveals an unconscious
neglect due to age-long ignorance and fatalism. It is earnestly be-
lieved that whenever the public realizes the facts it will awake to
action and that adequate provision for maternal and infant welfare
will become an integral part of all plans for public health protection.
The generous assistance of the United States Bureau of the Census
in the preparation of this report is gratefully acknowledged.
Dr. Meigs desires that special mention be made of the assistance
of Miss Emma Duke, head of the statistical division of the Chil-
dren’s Bureau, and of Miss Viola Paradise, research assistant in the
division of hygiene.
Respectfully submitted.
Julia C. Lathrop,
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. William B. Wilson,
Secretary of Labor .
5
MATERNAL MORTALITY FROM ALL CONDITIONS CONNECTED
WITH CHILDBIRTH*
SUMMARY.
In 1913 in this country at least 15,000 women, it is estimated, died
from conditions caused by childbirth; about 7,000 of these died from
childbed fever, a disease proved to be almost entirely preventable,
and the remaining 8,000 from diseases now known to be to a great
extent preventable or curable. Physicians and statisticians agree
that these figures are a great underestimate.
In 1913 the death rate per 100,000 population from all conditions
caused by childbirth was little lower than that from typhoid fever;
this rate would be almost quadrupled if only the group of the
population which can be affected, women of childbearing age, were
considered.
In 1913 childbirth caused more deaths among women 15 to 44 years
old than any disease except tuberculosis.
The death rate due to this cause is almost twice as high in the col-
ored as in the white population.
Only 2 of a group of 15 important foreign countries show higher
rates from this cause than the rate in the registration area of the
United States. The rates of 3 countries, Sweden, Norway, and Italy,
which are notably low, show that low rates for these diseases are
attainable.
The death rates from childbirth and from childbed fever for the
registration area of this country apparently are not falling to any
great extent; during the 13 years from 1900 to 1913 they have shown
no demonstrable decrease. These yearn have been marked by a
revolution in the control of certain other preventable diseases, such
as typhoid, diphtheria, and tuberculosis. During that time the
typhoid rate has been cut in half, the rate from tuberculosis markedly
reduced, and the rate from diphtheria reduced to less than one-half.
During this period there has been a decrease in the death rate from
childbirth per 1,000 live births in England and Wales, Ireland, Japan,
New Zealand, and Switzerland.
These facts point to the need in this country and in foreign countries
of higher standards of care for women at the time of childbirth.
The low standards at present existing in this country result chiefly
from two causes: (1) General ignorance of the dangers connected
8
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
with childbirth and of the need for proper hygiene and skilled care in
order to prevent them; (2) difficulty in the provision of adequate care
due to special problems characteristic of this country. Such prob-
lems vary greatly in the city and in the rural districts. In the
country inaccessibility of any skilled care is a chief factor.
Improvement will come about only through a general realization
of the necessity for better care at childbirth. If women demand
better care, physicians will provide it, medical colleges will furnish
better training in obstetrics, and communities will realize the vital
importance of community measures to insure good care for all classes
of women.
PART I. GENERAL DISCUSSION,
STATISTICS RELATING TO CHILDBIRTH IN THE UNITED STATES
AND IN CERTAIN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
Introduction.
For the last two decades civilized countries have been absorbed in
the problem of preventing the enormous and needless waste of human
life represented by their infant death rates. The importance of this
problem has been felt more keenly in the last two years in the coun-
tries now at war; in these countries the efforts toward saving the
lives of babies have redoubled since the war began. Side by side
with this problem, another, which is only of late finding its true
place, is that of the protection of the lives and health of mothers dur-
ing their pregnancy and confinement. This is a question so closely
bound up with that of the prevention of infant mortality that the
two can not be separated.
It is now realized that a large proportion of the deaths of babies
occur in the first days and weeks of life, and that these deaths can
be prevented only through proper care of the mother before and at
the birth of her baby. It is also realized that breast feeding through
the greater part of the first year of the baby’s life is the chief pro-
tection from all diseases; and that mothers are much more likely to
be able to nurse their babies successfully if they receive proper
care before, at, and after childbirth. Moreover, in the progress of
work for the prevention of infant mortality it has become ever clearer
that all such work is useful only in so far as it helps the mother to
care better for her baby. It must be plain, then, to what a. degree
the sickness or death of the mother lessens the chances of the baby
for life and health.
This question has also another side. Each death at childbirth is
a serious loss to the country. The women who die from this
cause are lost at the time of their greatest usefulness to the State and
to their families; and they give their lives in carrying out a function
which must be regarded as the most important in the world.
Questions then of the most vital interest to the whole Nation are
these: How are the lives of the mothers in this country and other
countries being protected ? To what degree are the diseases caused by
pregnancy and childbirth preventable ? If preventable, how far are
they being prevented in this country? Has there been the same
great decrease in the last few years in sickness and death from
these causes as that which has marked the great campaigns against
64614°— 17 2 9
10
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
other preventable diseases such as typhoid, tuberculosis, or diph-
theria? How do the conditions in the United States compare with
those in other countries ?
In the following report the attempt has been made to derive
answers to these questions from the official records of this country
and of foreign countries.
Are the diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement preventable
diseases?
These diseases 1 fall naturally into two groups, which differ con-
siderably as to the degree to which they are preventable:
1. Childbed fever, or puerperal septicemia (an infection arising
in connection with miscarriage or confinement), which is to a great
degree a preventable disease.
2. All other, diseases and complications caused by pregnancy and
confinement, including conditions varying very much in the degree
to which they can be prevented or cured.
Puerperal septicemia ( childbed fever ) . — The fact is now well kriowm
that puerperal septicemia, or childbed fever, is in reality a wound
infection, similar to such an infection after an accident or an opera-
tion, and that it can be prevented by the same measures of cleanliness
and asepsis which are used so universally in modern surgery to prevent
infection. The proof of the nature of this disease is one of the tre-
mendous results of the scientific discoveries which were made in the
latter part of the nineteenth century.
During the early part of that century childbed fever was one of the
greatest hospital scourges known. It occurred also in private prac-
tice; but in hospitals where there was great opportunity for the
spreading of infection the death rate from this disease was appalling.
The average death rate in hospitals in all countries was 3 to 4 per cent
of all women confined; sometimes it reached 10 to 20 per cent and
even over 50 per cent during short periods of epidemics. 2 In the face
of this terrific mortality many obstetrical hospitals were closed . Com-
missions were appointed to investigate the cause of these epidemics,
and medical congresses devoted sessions to the discussion of the
problem. In 1843 Oliver Wendell Holmes, and in 1847 Semmelweiss,
published articles stating the theory that this fever was similar to a
wound infection and was due chiefly to the carrying of infectious
material on the hands of attendants from one case to another. The
1 Throughout this report when reference is made to causes of death the term “childbirth” will be used as
sjmonymous with “all diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement”; and each of these terms will be
used as being the sum of the two groups, “puerperal septicemia” and “all other diseases caused by preg-
nancy and confinement.” It will be noted that diseases of the breast during lactation are included in
the latter group. For a fuller discussion of these causes of death, and the titles of the International List
of Causes of Death to which they correspond, see p. 29.
2 Williams, J. W. “Obstetrics and animal experimentation.” Defense of Research Pamphlet XVIII,
Amer. Med. Assn., Chicago, 1911, pp. 5-19.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
11
same ideas had been published much earlier but had not received
attention.
At the time of the publications of Holmes and Semmelweiss it was
not known that the infection of wounds is caused by the action of
bacteria or germs. This discovery followed the pioneer discovery of
living bacteria causing fermentation, made by Pasteur about 1863,
which has revolutionized all surgery and preventive medicine.
In 1867 Lister began to apply to surgery the work of Pasteur; he
taught that wound infection at operation could be prevented by the
destruction of bacteria through disinfection or antisepsis. Though
these methods have been supplemented in later years by the better
methods of absolute surgical cleanliness or asepsis, they represented
at that time a great advance.
About 1875 Lister’s methods began to be generally accepted and
applied in hospitals to the prevention of infection at childbirth.
This movement gained great support in 1879 when Pasteur proved
definitely that childbed fever is caused by bacteria.
Gradually the methods of antisepsis or disinfection and later the
better methods of asepsis were accepted in obstetrical hospitals; and
at the same time the mortality, once so high, dropped enormmusly.
At present the death rate from puerperal septicemia amongWises
delivered in hospitals is extremely low. Williams says: “At the
present time it is safe to say that in well-regulated hospitals the mor-
tality from puerperal infection is less than 0.25 per cent. This is in
great contrast with the average mortality of 3 to 4 per cent observed
[in hospitals] throughout the world prior to the introduction of anti-
septic methods, and means that only 1 woman now dies as compared
with 15 or 20 formerly.” 1
This experience in hospitals has proved definitely that puerperal
septicemia is to a very large degree preventable. One fact, however,
complicates the whole question and makes it impossible to say that
the disease is in all cases absolutely preventable, namely, that a very
small number of cases develops even under conditions of the best
hospital or private care, when every method for avoiding infection
has been used. This fact has led to much controversy. In general
obstetricians of the greatest experience believe that a small number
of cases of infection after childbirth may develop from bacteria
which were already in the body of the patient before confinement;
but that in the main such cases are of mild severity and that only a
few fatal cases are due to this cause. Another point which must be
borne in mind is that, in a certain number of cases, women may infect
themselves through improper hygiene during pregnancy or just
before or at confinement. Therefore the teaching of proper hygiene is
an essential part of the work for the prevention of infection.
Williams, J. W. Supra cit., p. 19.
12
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
To sum up, experience has shown that by far the major part of all
serious cases of infection at childbirth may be prevented by the
application of such principles of hygiene and of strict surgical cleanli-
ness as are now established beyond question.
AU other diseases caused by 'pregnancy and confinement . — The dis-
eases and complications included under this heading are those
given on page SO as being included under “ Other puerperal acci-
dents of pregnancy and labor.’ ’
A definite statement such as that made above regarding the pre-
vent ability of puerperal septicemia can not be made about this second
group of diseases, which includes many different conditions. How-
ever, it is a fact well proved in practice that a large number of these
complications can be prevented through proper hygiene and super-
vision during pregnancy and through skilled care at labor. Certain
other complications which can not, be prevented can be detected
before serious harm is done, and treatment can be given which will
save the mother’s life. We can see this more clearly if we consider
as examples two of the most important complications.
Puerperal albuminuria and convulsions, called also eclampsia, or
toxemia of pregnancy, is a disease which occurs most frequently
during pregnancy but may occur-at or following confinement. It is a
relatively frequent complication among women bearing their first
children. When fully established its chief symptoms are convulsions
and unconsciousness. In the early stages of the disease the symp-
toms are slight puffiness of the face, hands, and feet; headache;
albumen in the urine; and usually a rise in blood pressure. Very
often proper treatment and diet at the beginning of such early
symptoms may prevent the development of the disease; but in
many cases where the disease is well established before the physician
is consulted, the woman and baby can not be saved by any treatment.
In the prevention of deaths from this cause it is essential, therefore,
that each woman, especially each woman bearing her first child,
should know what she can do, by proper hygiene and diet, to prevent
the disease; that she should know the meaning of these early symp-
toms if they arise, so that she may seek at once the advice of her
doctor; and that she should have regular supervision during preg-
nancy, with examination of the urine at intervals.
Some obstruction to labor in the small size or abnormal shape of the
pelvic canal causes many deaths of mothers included in the class
1 1 other accidents of labor” and also many stillbirths. If such diffi-
culty is discovered before labor, proper treatment will in almost all
cases insure the life of mother and child; if it is not discovered until
labor has begun, or perhaps until it has continued for many hours,
the danger to both is greatly increased. Every woman, therefore,
should have during pregnancy — and above all during her first preg-
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
13
nancy — an examination in which measurements are made to enable
the physician to judge whether or not there will be any obstruc-
tion to labor. A case in which a complication of this kind is found
requires the greatest skill and experience in treatment/ but with
such treatment the life and health of the mother are almost always
safe.
These two examples will suffice. In the same way it could be
shown, with regard to all the other complications of pregnancy and
labor, that those which can not be prevented can be treated success-
fully in most cases if detected in time.
It can be regarded, then, as a generally accepted fact that all
illness and death connected with childbearing is, to a certain and
large degree, preventable, through the application of the scientific
knowledge which is now well established. The next questions
are, How far are these diseases being prevented in the United
States? How many deaths do they cause each year? Wliat are
the death rates from these causes, and are they decreasing or in-
creasing? The statistics gathered by the United States Bureau of
the Census have been studied for answers to these questions.
There are other equally important questions to which these figures
will not give answers. In addition to the number of deaths and
death rates, it is important to know how much illness is caused by
the diseases of pregnancy and confinement. How many women do
they disable for months or years ? Undoubtedly the health of these
mothers affects enormously the welfare of their children. Unfortu-
nately such questions can not be answered; puerperal septicemia
is not a reportable disease in this country as it is in many others.
We can only remember that for each woman who died there are
surely many who were ill for days, weeks, or months, but who finally
recovered.
The following pages give a brief summary of the data, published
by the United States Bureau of the Census, dealing with deaths
from childbirth. These are discussed in further detail in other
sections of the report.
Reliability of data.
The statement is frequently made that all statistics on this subject
are incomplete. This is undoubtedly true with regard to the figures
available in each country. A detailed discussion of the many sources
of error in the statistics of the United States and of foreign countries
on this subject will be found in another section, beginning on page 34.
1 The public must be taught that the conduct of labor complicated by a moderate degree of pelvic con-
traction is quite as serious as a case of appendicitis, and that its proper management requires the highest
degree of judgment and skill, while eclampsia or placenta prsevia are even more serious. — Williams, J. W.
“ The midwife problem and medical education in the United States.” Trans. Amer. Assn, for Study and
Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1911, p. 189.
14
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
From that discussion several conclusions may be drawn:
1. Though the figures of the number of deaths from puerperal
septicemia and from all other diseases connected with childbirth are
certainly incomplete, yet they are reliable as far as they go; they
may be accepted as a statement of the minimum number of deaths
which have actually occurred as a result of these diseases.
2. All conclusions as to comparative death rates in various years
and in various countries can be made only with caution and by
bearing in mind the many statistical pitfalls connected with such
comparisons.
With a full understanding of the limitations of the figures avail-
able, it has seemed worth while to publish the following figures of
the deaths in the United States due to childbirth.
Number of deaths in the United States from childbirth.
In 1913 in the “death-registration area” 1 of the United States
10,010 deaths were reported as due to conditions caused by preg-
nancy and childbirth. Of these deaths, 4,542 were reported as
caused by puerperal septicemia or childbed fever.
Using the death-registration area as a basis, we are justified in
estimating that in 1913 in the whole United States 15,376 deaths
were due to childbirth, and 6,977 of these were due to childbed fever.
As will be shown later, these figures are without doubt a gross under-
estimate. As it is, they are striking enough — almost 7,000 deaths in
one year in this country due to childbed fever, a disease to a large
degree easily preventable; and over 8,000 due to the other diseases
caused by pregnancy and confinement, most of which are preventable
or curable by means well known to science.
Death rates in the United States from childbirth.
The death rate from all diseases caused by pregnancy and con-
finement in 1913 in the registration area was 15.8 per 100,000 popu-
lation (which includes all ages and both sexes). The death rate
from puerperal septicemia was 7.2.
These figures, however, mean little to us unless we compare them
with the death rates from other preventable diseases. In the same
year and area the typhoid rate was 17.9 per 100,000 population; the
rate from diphtheria and croup 18.8. The highest death rate from any
one disease was that from tuberculosis, 147.6 per 100,000 population.
Any such comparison with the rates from diseases to which both sexes
and all ages are liable is of course very misleading; but in spite of
that fact it is interesting to note that t}^phoid fever, the disease
1 The death-registration area comprises the States and cities in which the registration of deaths is
returned as fairly complete. — U. S. Census. Mortality Statistics, 1911, p. 9. It is estimated that in 1913
the death-registration area included 65.1 per cent of the population of the United States. (See Table I,
p. 49.)
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
1 5
against which so great an amount of effort is now directed, has a
rate at present but 2 per 100,000 population higher than that from the
diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement.
Death rates 'per 100,000 women. — The death rates from childbirth
are aj^proximately doubled when worked on the basis of 100,000
women. This will be seen when Tables IV and III (p. 50) are com-
pared. The former gives for the period 1900 to 1910, the annual
death rates per 100,000 women in the group of 11 States which were
in the death-registration area in 1900, the latter the death rates per
100,000 population in the same group of States for the same period.
It is evident that the rates in Table IV for each year are slightly
more than twice those in Table III for the same year.
Death rates per 100,000 women of childbearing age . — Again, a much
higher but a more accurate death rate from these diseases is found
when the basis taken is the group which alone is affected by these
diseases — women of childbearing age. When the rate is based not
upon 100,000 population of both sexes and all ages but upon 100,000
women 15 to 44 years of age, the rate as ordinarily given is multi-
plied several times.
In 1900, 1 the only year for which the rates can be computed, the
death rate in the registration area per 100,000 women 15 to 44 years
of age from all diseases of pregnancy and confinement was 50.3 ; from
puerperal infection, 21.6. (See p. 32.) The corresponding rates
for the same year per 100,000 population were 13.1 and 5.6. In this
year, therefore, the rates are almost quadrupled when based on that
group of the population which alone can be affected by these diseases.
Moreover, the death rates as ordinarily given per 100,000 popula-
tion conceal the fact that the diseases of pregnancy and childbirth
are indeed among the most important causes of death of women
between 15 and 44 years of age; the actual number of deaths shows
this to be the case. In 1913 in the registration area these diseases
caused more deaths than any other one cause of death except tuber*
culosis. In that year there were, among women 15 to 44 years of age,
26,265 deaths from tuberculosis; 9,876 deaths from the diseases of
pregnancy and confinement; 6,386 from heart disease; 5,741 from
acute nephritis and Bright’s disease; 5,065 from cancer; and 4,167
from pneumonia. Other diseases, such as typhoid, appendicitis, and
the infectious diseases show far fewer deaths. (See Table V, p. 51.)
Death rates per 1,000 live births. — This rate, as will be shown repeat-
edly throughout the report (see p. 32), gives a far clearer picture of
the actual risk of childbirth than do any of the rates so far con-
sidered. This rate can be given only for one year, 1910, and only for
the provisional birth-registration area for that year. The rate from
all diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement is 6.5, from puer-
i Census year ending May 31.
16
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
peral septicemia, 2.9, and from all other diseases of pregnancy and
confinement, 3.6 per 1,000 live births. That is, in this area for
every 154 babies born alive one mother lost her life. (See Table
VI, p. 52.)
Is the death rate from childbirth falling?
Has there been in the last few years any decrease in the death rates
from puerperal septicemia and from other diseases caused by preg-
nancy and confinement? The general opinion of the medical pro-
fession and of the laity is that these death rates, and especially the
rate from puerperal septicemia, are fast decreasing. The fact that
hospital epidemics of puerperal septicemia are now things of the
past is thought to be evidence that deaths from this disease are now
rare. On the other hand, many obstetricians of wide experience
believe that outside of hospitals there has been no great decrease in
the death rate from puerperal septicemia.
Dr. Williams , 1 professor of obstetrics, Johns Hopkins University, be-
lieves that there has been no great improvement in this country; Dr.
Webster , 2 professor of obstetrics. Rush Medical College, University of
Chicago, and Dr. Powell 3 hold the same opinion; Dr. De Lee, 4 professor
1 In private practice it is doubtful whether the results are materially better to-day than they were before
the introduction of antiseptic methods, for the reason that the doctrines of asepsis have not yet permeated
the rank and file of medical men, much less of midwives, to whose care is committed a very large propor-
tion of obstetrical cases. Though, at the same time, it must be admitted that we rarely hear of outbreaks
of puerperal infection such as are mentioned in the historical work of Hirseh, who gives the particulars of
216 epidemics occurring between the years 1652 and 1862.
Boehr stated in 1875 that 363,324 wofnen had died from puerperal infection in Prussia during the preced-
ing 60 years, and calculated that every thirtieth married woman eventually perished from it; while Ehlers
contended that outside of the well-regulated hospitals the results were equally bad in 1900. Furthermore,
Fromme stated, in 1910, that at least 5,000 women succumb each year in Prussia to this preventable malady.
Bacon, in an article based upon the records of the health department of Chicago, showed that for the 40
years prior to 1896 puerperal infection was assigned as the cause of death in 12.75 per cent of the women
dying between the ages of 20 and 50 years, varying between 20 per cent in 1873 and 7.3 per cent in 1895.
Similar results were reported by Ingerslev, who stated that, even at the present time in Denmark, with
the single exception of tuberculosis, puerperal infection is the most frequent cause of death in women during
the childbearing period.
The investigations of Boxall, Byers, and Lea show a similar condition in England, where it may be
said that outside of the lying-in hospitals this preventable scourge claims as many and perhaps more vic-
tims than it did 20 or even 40 years ago.
Moreover, in trying to determine the frequency of puerperal infection, one can not be guided altogether
by the mortality statistics, inasmuch as the largest proportion of these cases do not end fatally. On the
other hand, anyone who deals much with gynecological patients can not fail to be impressed with the
very large proportion whose troubles have originated from febrile affections during the puerperium, which
in many instances were clearly due to the neglect of aseptic precautions on the part of the obstetrician
or midwife. — Williams, J. W. Obstetrics, 1913, pp. 900,901.
2 It is the general impression that there has been a marked diminution in the mortality of puerperal
sepsis since the introduction of antiseptics. This is probably true only as regards hospital prac-
tice. * * * As regards private practice, it is doubtful if there has been much diminution in mortality,
either in Europe or America. — Webster, J. C. A Text-book of Obstetrics, 1903, p. 640.
3 1 am quite sure it is the belief of all who have given attention to this subject, that the mortality from
puerperal infection has been diminished little if any in private practice. — Powell, H. H. “Mortality from
puerperal infection.” Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, 1906, Vol. Ill, p. 11.
4 I do not fear to hazard the statement that 8,000 women die annually in the United States from child-
bed infections. When one considers that the majority of cases of puerperal infection get well, the con-
clusion is inevitable that the disease is still — in these modern aseptic and antiseptic times— very preva-
lent , — De Lee, J. B. Principles and Practice of Obstetrics, 1913, p. 870.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
17
of obstetrics, Northwestern University, comments on the great preva-
lence of puerperal septicemia in spite of our present knowledge of asep-
sis. Ur. Moran 1 points out the lack of decrease in the figures as given
in the census reports, as does also Ur. Uavis 2 in a recent volume. Ur.
Edgar, 3 professor of obstetrics and clinical midwifery, Cornell Univer-
sity Medical College, on the other hand, believes that there has been
a decrease.
We need a definite answer to this question, based on a study of
unassailable statistics. Unfortunately the available figures on this
subject for this country and foreign countries have many possibilities
of error, as will be shown in a later section (see p. 34). The errors
have been avoided as far as possible; those which can not be avoided
must be considered in reading the following summary. Especially
to be remembered is the fact that in recent years great improvement
has been made in the registration of deaths from childbirth and
childbed fever.
According to the evidence available, these death rates are appar-
ently not decreasing. Uuring the 23 years ending in 1913 in this coun-
try no definite decrease in the death rate from the diseases caused by
pregnancy and confinement can be demonstrated; nor can any
decrease in the death rate from puerperal septicemia be shown.
In the registration area as a whole the death rates have shown no
decline in the years between 1890 and 1913. The death rate from
all diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement, which was 15.3
in 1890, fell to 13 in 1902, and then with annual fluctuations rose to
16 in 1911; in 1913 the rate was 15.8. The annual average for the
period 1901 to 1905 was 14.2; for the period 1906 to 1910, 15.5.
(See Table I, p. 49.)
The death rate from all diseases caused by pregnancy and con-
finement for the group of eight States which have been included in
the death-registration area from 1890 to 1913 4 also has shown no
decrease during the course of these 23 years. There-was a slight fall
in the rate for the year 1900 as compared with that for the year 1890,
followed by a slight rise. (See Table II, p. 49.) In 1890 the rate
was 14.1 per 100,000 population; in 1900, 12.6; in 1913 it was 14.3.
The death rates for a second group of States 4 (those included in
the death-registration area since 1900) show between 1900 and 1913 a
1 Moran, J. F. “ The endowment of motherhood/’ Jour. Amer. Med. Assn., 1915, Vol. LXIV, p. 122.
2 It is probable that very few physicians realize that with the great progress of preventive medicine and
aseptic surgery that there has not been a similar increase in the safety of maternity.— Davis, C. H. Pain-
less Childbirth, Eutocia, and Nitrous Oxid-Oxygen Analgesia, 1910, p. 62.
3 It is very difficult to estimate the frequency of puerperal infection outside of hospitals * * * but
it is undoubtedly much less than it used to be.— Edgar, J. C. The Practice of Obstetrics, 1903, p. 752.
* Selected for study because good methods of death registration may be assumed to have become estab-
lished, and also because comparisons of the rates of such a group of States are not open to the error due to
the changing character of the registration area.
64614°— 17 3
18
MATERIAL MORTALITY.
slight increase, from 12.9 to 14.9, with, the high point 15.5 in 1911.
(See Table III, p. 50). These rates are more fully discussed on
page 38.
The death rates from puerperal septicemia or childbed fever
during these years in each group of States have run parallel with
those from the whole group of diseases connected with childbirth;
they, too, have shown practically no change in 13 years.
It is probable that the improvement in reporting deaths from child-
birth may account for the apparent rise in the rates since 1900; it
may also perhaps conceal a slight improvement in actual conditions
since that time; but it is safe to say that any marked decrease in the
actual death rate from childbirth during the last 13 yearn could not
have been masked by this error.
In these years what has been the change in the death rates from
other preventable diseases? These death rates tell a very different
story from that of the rates from childbirth. They give a bare out-
line of the remarkable achievements of modern medicine in the
prevention of certain diseases.
DIAGRAM I.— DEATH RATES PER 100,000 POPULATION FROM TYPHOID, DIPHTHERIA AND
CROUP, AND DISEASES CAUSED BY PREGNANCY AND CONFINEMENT IN THE DEATH-
REGISTRATION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, i900 TO 1913.
RATE.
V
\
V
1 . >
"■ 1 "I
\
\
\
X
, '
X
X
- - -
1
^
|
i
i
•
V.
X.
V
X
\ \
X
X
V
V
1/
\
\
\
X
x X
Lx..
V
i
i .
1 S I
! 8
3 %
§888 8 23 22
~ ~ ~ ~ 04 - ' -
rH
YEAR.
TYPHOID.
DIPHTHERIA AND CROUP.
DISEASES OF PREGNANCY AND CONFINEMENT.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
19
DIAGRAM 2.— DEATH RATES PER 100,000 POPULATION FROM TUBERCULOSIS AND PNEU-
MONIA IN THE DEATH-REGISTRATION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1913,
RATE.
TUBERCULOSIS,
PNEUMONIA.
20
MATERIAL MORTALITY.
Between 1890 and 1913 the death rate from typhoid fever in the
death-registration area fell from 46.3 to 17.9; that from diphtheria and
croup from 97.8 to 18.8; from tuberculosis from 252 to 147.6; from
pneumonia from 186.9 to 132.4; from diarrhea and enteritis under 2
years from 139.1 to 75.2. (See Table VII, p. 53.)
If we consider only the 13 years since 1900, for which we have
annual reports, the changes are just as startling. In that time the
death rate from typhoid fever has been cut in half; that from diph-
theria and croup has dropped to less than half; those from tubercu-
losis and pneumonia have both shown a marked fall. These changes,
together with the lack of change in the death rates from the diseases
caused by pregnancy and childbirth, are shown graphically in diagrams
1 and 2.
Death rates from childbirth in urban and rural districts.
Besides the questions applying to the death rates of the country
as a whole, there are further questions which it would be interesting
to answer from the data given by official figures. Is the rate higher
in the cities than in rural districts ? Does a comparison of the rates
of different sections of the country reveal any significant facts ? Is
there any difference in rate among different groups of the population ?
No figures, 1 unfortunately, are available for the death rates from
these diseases in what is generally understood as the rural portion
of this country; that is, among the population scattered in districts
outside of even the smallest towns and cities. In view of the fact
that standards of obstetrical and prenatal care differ so widely in
these rural districts from those in large cities a comparison of the
rates would have been extremely significant.
The death rates for the group of cities of 8,000 2 or more inhabitants
in the registration States 3 have been studied, as contrasted with the
death rates of the smaller cities, towns, and rural districts classed
together. The rates in each year are higher for the larger cities of
the registration States than for the smaller cities and rural districts.
(See Table VIII, p. 53.) Part of this difference may be due to greater
incompleteness of the returns from the second group. Further than
this, many factors may be involved in the higher rate in the larger
1 In the publications of the Bureau of the Census on Mortality Statistics figures are given for the popula-
tion classified into urban and rural or of cities and rural districts. For the years 1900 to 1909 urban is
defined as including the population of all cities of 8,000 or more inhabitants at the census of 1900; rural as
including that of all cities and towns of less than 8,000 inhabitants, as well as of the districts outside of
any cities, towns, or villages. For the years 1910 to 1913 the division is made between cities having a
population of 10,000 or more in 1910 and those cities having less than 10,000 inhabitants, together with
rural districts.
2 Ten thousand inhabitants, 1910 to 1913.
3 It has been thought better to compare the urban and rural rates in the group of registration States in
each year rather than to compare these rates for the whole registration area as constituted in each year.
As the registration area includes cities in several States of which the smaller towns and rural districts are
not included, the latter comparison would seem to be scarcely fair.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
21
cities. While some of the larger cities afford better provision for
obstetrical and prenatal care than do the smaller cities and rural
districts, this is not true of all; moreover, the larger cities probably
show a much higher rate among the. less favored than among the
more favored groups of their inhabitants. Overcrowding, over-
work, low incomes, ignorance of the need for good obstetrical care
and how it can be obtained may all play their part in producing this
high rate in the larger cities.
The figures do not show a decrease in the death rates from child-
birth in the larger cities in recent years. The death rates of the
whole group of cities of 8,000 1 or more inhabitants in the registration
States for the years 1900 to 1913 (see Table VIII, p. 53) show no
decline. The rate in 1900 was 14.9; in 1913, 17.2.
The rates from childbirth for the same period in a group of 7 large
cities have been studied. (See Table IX, p. 54.)
The rates for New York City alone show a definite and steady
decline; in 1905 the rate per 100,000 inhabitants was 20.3; in 1913,
14.1.
The rates of Boston, Buffalo, Detroit, Jersey City, and Washington
show wide annual fluctuations, but no general tendency to increase
or decrease. The rate of Newark, on the other hand, shows an
increase.
Death rates from childbirth in different States.
The death rates of only 1 1 States (including the District of Colum-
bia) can be studied through a period of time (1900 to 1913) long
enough to justify any conclusions. These States, unfortunately, do
not represent any widely different sections of the country, as they
include only the New England States, two Middle Atlantic States
(New York and New Jersey), the District of Columbia, and two
North Central States (Indiana and Michigan). The western and
southern sections of the country are unrepresented.
Though the rates for each State vary considerably from year to
year, it will be noted that certain States show high average rates;
among these are the District of Columbia, Michigan, and Rhode
Island, whose rates are 17.6, 17.1, and 16.8, respective^. (See
Table X, p. 54.) Other States show comparatively low average
rates; for example, New Hampshire (11.2) and Maine (11.8). It
seems premature at this time to draw any conclusions as to the
cause of these differences in rates in different States. When the rates
are available for all sections of the country, a comparison of rates
for different large sections presenting similar problems will be very
useful.
Ton thousand inhabitants, 1910 to 1913.
22
MATERIAL MORTALITY.
Death rates from childbirth of white and colored population.
No facts brought out in this study are as striking as the difference
in rates from childbirth of the white and colored population of the
death-registration area. In some cases the rates for the colored popu-
lation are almost double those for the white. Table XI, page 56, which
gives the rates so divided, demonstrates this difference. In 1913
the death rate from all diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement
was 15.2 per 100,000 white population and 26.1 per 100,000 colored.
In the same year the rate from puerperal septicemia was 6.9 for the
white population and 11.5 for the colored. A similar relation is
shown by the rates for each year from 1910 to 1913. Although the
rates can be given only for four years, and are based on small figures,
yet they show differences so marked that they picture without doubt
a very great difference in standards of care at childbirth in these
two groups. When all the Southern States are included in the death-
registration area the magnitude of this problem undoubtedly will be
shown by the death rates from childbirth in these States. At pres-
ent but a small percentage of the colored population of the United
States is represented by the figures available.
Comparison of the average death rates from childbirth in certain
foreign countries and in the United States.
Are the death rates from these diseases in the death-registration
area of the United States higher or lower than those in other civilized
countries ? Have these rates in other countries been falling or rising in
the last 13 years, while the rates of this country have been apparently
stationary? These questions, like all those of comparative interna-
tional statistics, are of immense interest, but they involve many diffi-
culties and sources of error. These are discussed on page 41. They
should be considered in reading the following summary.
In order to make possible a comparison of the death rates from these
causes for 15 foreign countries with those for the United States, an
average rate has been computed for the years 1900 to 1910 1 for each
of the countries, using the same method as that in use in the United
States. When the 16 countries studied are arranged in order, with the
one having the lowest rate first, the death-registration area of the
United States stands fourteenth on the list. (See Table XII, p. 56.)
Only two countries, Switzerland and Spain, have higher rates; many
of the countries, however, show rates differing but little from that of
the United States. Markedly low rates are those of Sweden (6),
Norway (7.8), and Italy (8.9); a strikingly high rate is that of Spain
(19.6).
The death rate from childbirth per 1,000 live births is not available
for the death-registration area of the United States, but can be given
1 Or for that portion of this period for which figures are available.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
23
only for the small number of States and cities included in the pro-
visional birth-registration area and for one year, 1910. (See p. 31.)
This rate, 6.5, is consider ably higher than that for 1910 of any of the
countries studied. When the average rates for a number of years
of the 15 countries are reckoned per 1,000 live births and arranged
in order, it will be seen that the same group of countries — Sweden,
Italy, and Norway — shows the lowest rates. (See Table XIII,
p. 56.) Spain in this table shows the rate which is next to the
highest, while Belgium now has the highest rate. For a comparative
study of the rates of these countries the rates per 1,000 live births give
undoubtedly the clearest picture of the actual conditions.
These rates show a wide variation. While in Sweden but one
mother is lost for every 430 babies born alive, in Belgium one mother
dies for every 172 babies, and in Spain one for every 175 babies born
alive. The rates in Belgium and Spain are two and a half times as
high as the rate in Sweden.
Far more significant than a comparison of actual death rates of
various countries is a comparison of the changes which have occurred
in these death rates in each country in recent years. England and
Wales, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, and Switzerland have shown
a decrease in the death rate per 1,000 live births from all diseases
caused by pregnancy and confinement; but, in this group, only in
England and W ales and in Ireland has the death rate from puerperal
septicemia decreased; in the other three countries this rate has
remained practically the same, though the total rate has decreased.
In Australia, Belgium, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Prussia, Spain,
and Sweden both the rate from childbirth and that from puerperal
septicemia remained almost stationary during the periods studied.
The total rate for Scotland shows a definite increase, though the
rate from puerperal septicemia has decreased. (See Table XVI, p. 66.)
Conclusions.
In the foregoing pages the attempt has been made to draw, from
available statistics, answers to certain important and urgent ques-
tions relating to the hazards of childbirth in this country and in
other countries. It has been shown that a large number of women
die year after year in this country from childbed fever, a disease
proved over 40 years ago to be almost entirely preventable; and
that a still larger number die from other conditions connected with
childbirth which are known to be to a large degree preventable or
curable. The proportionately small number of women lost from
these causes in certain foreign countries demonstrates the needless-
ness of the greater part of our losses. There is no evidence, moreover,
of any great advance made during the last 13 years in this country in
the prevention of disease and death due to childbirth, though the
24
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
same period has been marked by a notable decrease in the death rates
of certain other diseases which have been proved preventable.
What is the cause of these conditions in this country? At the
root of the matter, apparently, lie two chief causes: First, general
ignorance of the dangers connected with childbirth and the need of
skilled care and proper hygiene in order to prevent them; second,
such difficulties related to the provision of proper obstetrical care
as are characteristic of conditions in this country.
A general realization of certain of the fundamental facts related to
the bearing of children has only begun; this function has always
been looked upon with a mixture of ignorance and fatalism. The
hazards to health and life connected with childbirth have been
either ignored or accepted as unavoidable accidents. By most
people childbirth is regarded as an entirely normal process, and,
happily, in the great majority of cases this is true. But the figures
given in this report show that it is not true of all. Each year there is
a vast number of normal deliveries, and among them the relatively
small but absolutely very large number of complicated cases is lost
sight of. On the other hand, most people regard such illness and
deaths as do occur as unprevent able. Only very gradually and
incompletely are women beginning to realize the simple facts that
certain accidents and complications occur in a definite percentage
of cases of childbirth, but that almost always these may be avoided
or cured if women exercise the proper hygiene during pregnancy,
secure proper supervision during that time, and have skilled attend-
ance at labor. Like other essentials of hygiene and preventive
medicine these principles are at last becoming public property in-
stead of being the exclusive possession of physicians. But in this
case progress has been very slow. Knowledge of the need for good
care at childbirth is essential; the lack of such knowledge and of a
demand for this care has been, probably, the chief factor in producing
the present indifference to this phase of preventive medicine.
The husbands of women bearing children do not realize that
money paid for skilled service at childbirth is one of the most neces-
sary family expenditures; hence, obstetrics has become one of the
worst paid though one of the most taxing branches of medicine.
Dr. Williams 1 speaks of the small fees usually paid for maternity
care and says that “ doctors who are obliged to live from their prac-
tice can not reasonably be expected to give much better service
than they are paid for.” Naturally enough, the lack of interest of
physicians in obstetrics is partly due to this fact. No doubt another
reason why many able physicians dislike this branch of practice is
the fact that they feel strongly the responsibility assumed in the care of
1 Williams, J. W. “The midwife problem and medical education in the United States.” Trans. Amer.
Assn, for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1911, p. 190.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
25
women at childbirth; jet they are frequently called upon to take this
responsibility in the face of conditions which they can not control
and which threaten the safety of their patients. A conscientious
physician does not willingly undertake the conduct of a difficult case
of labor outside a hospital and without skilled assistance; but fre-
quently he must do so, either because there is no hospital or trained
nurse available, or because the patient and her family are unable or
unwilling to pay for the needed help. The physician either must
give up the case to an attendant who is less skillful and careful than
himself or must take the risk that puerperal septicemia or some other
complication may occur. If either follows he has the blame. Alto-
gether a physician has little incentive to specialize and acquire great
skill in this branch.
Necessarily the same apparent indifference to the importance of
obstetrics is reflected in the courses of many medical colleges. Dr.
Williams 1 pointed out in 1911 that in the majority of medical col-
leges in the United States instruction in this subject was grossly
neglected; that graduates from these colleges beginning their prac-
tice were totally unprepared to manage any but absolutely normal
cases of confinement, and that they were untrained in the practice of
the principles of asepsis as applied to this branch. Other papers and
discussions in the Transactions of the American Association for
Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality have emphasized the same
facts. In the five years since the article of Williams was written
some improvement in these conditions has undoubtedly taken place,
as would be expected in connection with the present remarkable
tendency toward the raising of standards of medical education in
the United States. However, there is no question that further im-
provement is greatly needed.
Communities are still to a great extent indifferent to or ignorant of
the number of lives of women lost yearly from childbirth; many
communities which are proud of their low typhoid or diphtheria ra tes
ignore their high rates from childbed fever. Communities are only
beginning to realize that among their chief concerns is the protection
of the babies born within their limits, and necessarily also of the
mothers of those babies before and at confinement.
The second fundamental cause of the high death rates from child-
birth in this country previously spoken of — that is, the difficulty of
obtaining adequate care — is seen to depend to a large extent on the
first, the general ignorance of need for good care. As women, their
husbands, physicians, and communities realize the absolute need
of skilled care for the prevention of needless deaths from childbirth,
methods for providing such care will be developed. In this develop-
ment special problems will have to be solved in each type of commu-
64614°— 17 4
i Williams, J. W. Supra cit., p. 182.
26
MATERIAL MORTALITY.
nity, and in eacli section of the country — North, South, East, and
West. These problems are different from those of foreign countries.
While the methods being employed in such countries for reducing the
maternal death rate may be suggestive, special methods adapted to the
conditions in this country will probably have to be worked out. Of
the greatest value, however, as examples, are pieces of work such as
that now being carried on in England and other European countries
for maternal and infant welfare, that of the New Zealand Society for
the Health of Women and Children, the work of the Victorian Order
of Nurses of Canada, and of the mayor of the little French town of
Villiers-le-duc. 1
Certain typical problems, characteristic of especial types of com-
munities in this country, may be outlined briefly. In many of the
larger cities excellent prenatal and obstetrical care can be obtained
by those who can pay considerable sums for it and who realize its
importance sufficiently to be willing to do so. In many cities, also,
much progress has been made in the provision, through obstetrical
clinics and hospitals, of good prenatal and obstetrical care, free or at
low cost, for those who otherwise could not afford it. Yet even in a
city well supplied with such clinics the number of women reached is
relatively small in comparison with the total number of women who
bear their children without adequate care during pregnancy and labor.
In many large cities, especially those with a large percentage of for-
eign or of colored population, the untrained midwife is a mueh-
discussed problem. It is well known, moreover, that women of
moderate means, who represent a very large proportion of women
bearing children, have, in most modern cities, received least benefit
from improvements in standards of prenatal and obstetrical care. In
working out plans for decreasing the death rate from childbirth in
large cities the interests of this group can not be ignored. The
problem must be considered as one which must be solved for all
classes in a community; it must be realized that it is a problem of the
greatest importance to the community as a whole, A very hopeful
tendency is the one shown already hi some cities, to look upon such
service not as a charity but as a concern of the municipality as truly
as the protection of its homes from fire and burglary or its milk and
water supply from contamination.
In rural districts the problems are essentially different. In many
such districts, especially in the North and West, where pioneer con-
ditions still prevail, the question is not one of good or bad obstetrical
care but of the inaccessibility of any care at all at this time. Many
women bear their children with no attendant other than the hus-
1 Rapport sur un Arrete Municipal pris par M. Morel de Villiers. Bulletin de 1’ Academic de Medocine.
1904. 3 d serie, Vol. LI, p. 222. Moore, S. G. “The Milroy lectures on infantile mortality and the rela-
tive practical value of measures directed to its prevention.” Lecture III, Lancet, 1910. VoL. CXC, p. 943.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
27
band, a relative, or a neighbor. The nearest physician may be many
miles away, the nearest hospital much farther. The expense of
calling a physician must necessarily be great, and usually is not
considered justifiable. These women have of course no care during
pregnancy; if complications develop they are unforeseen, and help
is not available. As help in household tasks is usually unprocurable,
many women must take up their work much sooner than they should.
It may be urged that in practice it would be quite impossible for
women living under rural conditions to be provided with such skilled
supervision during pregnancy and such care at and after confinement
as are now considered ideal. It certainly is not true, however, that
a feasible community plan could not be worked out, if the interest
of the community demanded it. Such a plan would necessarily recog-
nize two main problems: (1) The best practical care of normal cases
and (2) the detection of abnormal cases and their care.
A unit plan for a rural county would perhaps include:
1. A rural nursing service, centering at the county seat, with
nurses especially equipped to discern the danger signs of pregnancy.
The establishment of such a service would undoubtedly be the most
economical first step in creating the network of agencies which will
assure proper care for both normal and abnormal cases. In the
rural counties in the United States which already have established
nurses, the growth of this work will be watched with the greatest
interest.
2. An accessible county center for maternal and infant welfare at
which mothers may obtain simple information as to the proper care
of themselves during pregnancy as, well as of their babies.
3. A county maternity hospital, or beds in a general hospital, for
the proper care of abnormal cases and for the care of normal cases
when it is convenient for the women to leave their homes for confine-
ment. Such a hospital necessarily would be accessible to all parts
of the county. *
4. Skilled attendance at confinement obtainable by each woman
in the county.
As examples have been chosen the special problems in large cities
and in pioneer rural districts. Other types of communities in this
country present some of the same problems or others just as urgent.
In each community, large or small, the essential problem is the same —
how to bring about a general realization of the need for adequate
care for each woman at childbirth, and how to secure such care.
This report attempts to open for lay discussion and medical study
the subject of the preventable loss of life caused by childbirth in this
country. Greater interest in the subject surely will lead to the
development of new and successful methods for the prevention of
these needless deaths.
PART II. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF METHODS AND
STATISTICAL DATA. 1
DISCUSSION OF CERTAIN TERMS AND METHODS USED IN THIS
REPORT.
International Classification of Causes of Death.
Official mortality statistics are derived from the returns of the
causes of the deaths which occur annually. Such a return is made
on the death certificate by the attending physician or by some person
assumed to be familiar with the facts as regards the cause of death.
Before the establishment in 1900 of the International Classification
of Diseases and Causes of Death many different methods were used
in different countries for the classification of these causes as returned
on the certificates. The resultant confusion made difficult or impos-
sible the comparison of the mortality statistics of various countries
and led to the proposal of this uniform method of classification,
called the ‘‘International Classification.” Various countries have
adopted this system of classification at various times; the United
States Bureau of the Census adopted it for use in the calendar year
1900; Great Britain for use in 1911. It is planned to keep this clas-
sification up to date through revisions at 10-year intervals. The
second revision was made in 1909, and a considerable number of
changes were made. Differences in classification between the Inter-
national List of Causes of Death and the lists in use in countries
where the International has not been adopted and between the dif-
ferent revisions of the International List are extremely important,
as will be shown, in any comparison of the death rates of various
countries and of the same country for a series of years. 2
In the detailed International List of Causes of Death, second de-
cennial revision, Paris, 1909, the heading “VII — The Puerperal
State” includes: (134) Accidents of pregnancy; (135) Puerperal
haemorrhage; (136) Other accidents of labor; (137) Puerperal septi-
chsemia; (138) Puerperal albuminuria and convulsions; (139) Phleg-
masia alba dolens, embolus, sudden death; (140) Following child-
birth (not otherwise defined) ; (141) Puerperal diseases of the breast.
The abridged International List of Causes of Death (same revi-
sion) makes but two divisions of all the causes of death included in
the detailed list under The Puerperal State. These divisions are:
(31) Puerperal septichaemia (puerperal fever, peritonitis), corre-
sponding to number (137) of the detailed list.
1 Part II will be of interest chiefly to students of statistics.
2 For a discussion of this subject see Bureau de la statistique g£n6rale de la France: Statistique Inter-
nationale du Mouvement de la Population, 1913, p. 155*.
29
30
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
(32) Other puerperal accidents of pregnancy and labor, corre-
sponding to Nos. (134), (135), (136), (138), (139), (140), and (141)
in the detailed list.
In this report in the discussion of the Census figures and the tables,
the classification of deaths according to the International List of
Causes of Death, second revision, is used. The names for the differ-
ent groups have been slightly changed, as it was felt that the names
used in the International List give a misleading or obscure impression
to those unfamiliar with this list.
In giving deaths and death rates the following terms and classi-
fication are used :
(a) Childbirth, or all diseases caused by 'pregnancy and confine-
ment, which is the sum of (b) and (c) and corresponds to VII — The
Puerperal State of the detailed International List and to the sum of
(31) and (32) of the abridged International List.
(b) Puerperal septicemia , or childbed fever, which corresponds to
(31) Puerperal septichremia of the abridged International List, and
to (137) Puerperal septichgemia of the detailed International List.
(c) All other diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement, which
corresponds to (32) Other puerperal accidents of pregnancy and labor
of the abridged International List, (134) to (136), and (138) to (141)
of the detailed International List.
A few words of explanation may be useful with regard to these
diseases and complications. In the term “ accidents of pregnancy”
the word “accident” is not used in its ordinary sense but in the
sense of complications due to the pregnant condition. It includes
miscarriage, severe hemorrhage during pregnancy, uncontrollable
vomiting, and other complications.
“Puerperal haemorrhage” includes severe hemorrhage at or follow-
ing labor. It includes placenta praevia.
“Other accidents of labor” includes cases of difficult labor, opera-
tive delivery, rupture of the womb, and other complications, except
hemorrhage, occurring at the time of labor.
“Puerperal septichsemia” (childbed or milk fever) is an infection
coming on after labor or miscarriage.
“Puerperal albuminuria or convulsions,” or “eclampsia,” is an
acute toxemia occurring during pregnancy, or during or after confine-
ment, characterized, in its severest form, by convulsions.
“Phlegmasia alba dolens,” often known as “milk leg,” is a disease
characterized by the swelling of a leg after confinement or miscarriage.
The cause is the stoppage of a large vein of the thigh by a blood clot.
“Embolus” means blood clot. Sudden death may result from
the carrying of such a blood clot to the heart or lungs.
“Following childbirth” (not otherwise defined) includes among
other conditions insanity occurring after pregnancy or labor.
mateknal mortality.
31
“ Puerperal diseases of the breast” include inflammation or in-
fection of the breast during lactation.
Death-registration area.
The statistics of causes of death are available only for a certain
portion of the United States, included in the so-called “death-
registration area.” Unlike other civilized countries, the United
States has no uniform laws for the registration of births and deaths.
Moreover, the efficiency of enforcement of existing laws varies greatly
in the different States. The Bureau of the Census in 1880 therefore
established a “death-registration area,” which comprises “States
and cities in which the registration of deaths is returned as fairly
complete (at least 90 per cent of the total), and from which trans-
scripts of the deaths recorded under the State laws or municipal
ordinances are obtained by the Bureau of the Census.” 1 In 1880
this area included but 17 per cent of the total population of the
United States. As States and cities have passed better la’ws and
obtained better enforcement they have been added to the registra-
tion area; the latter has increased greatly in size, but even in 1913
included only 65.1 per cent of the population of the United States.
For the remaining 34.9 per cent of the population of the country we
have no reliable statistics. This 34.9 per cent includes the popula-
tion of the greater number of the Southern States and of many Middle
Western and Western States outside of certain registration cities in
these States which are included in the area. No statements can be
made, therefore, of the number of deaths from any cause in the
United States as a whole; only an estimate can be made on the
assumption that for any cause of death the same rate prevails in the
remainder of the United States as in the death-registration area.
Provisional birth-registration area.
The registration of births is still more incomplete in this country
than is the registration of deaths. For 1910 the United States Bu-
reau of the Census established a “provisional birth-registration area,”
including the New England States, Pennsylvania, Michigan, New
York City, and Washington, D. C. 2
Methods of computing the death rates from all causes connected
with pregnancy and confinement.
(1) Death rates 'per 100,000 inhabitants. — Trask 3 gives the defini-
tion, “Death rates may be expressed as the ratio of the total number
of deaths, taken as a unit, to the population. For example: 1 in 60.
The usual method, however, is to express these rates in terms of the
1 U. S. Census. Mortality Statistics, 1911, p. 9.
2 U. S. Census. Mortality Statistics, 1911, p. 25.
3 Trask, J. W. “Vital statistics.” TJ. S. Public Health Service, Supp. to the Public Health Reports,
No. 12, p. 59.
32
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
number of deaths per 1,000 population, or in some instances per
10.000 or even 100,000, or 1,000,000.” In the publications of the
United States Bureau of the Census the death rates of all diseases,
including those of the diseases connected with childbirth, are usually
expressed in terms of the number of deaths per 100,000 tctal popula-
tion. But a death rate computed in this way obviously gives a very
misleading impression with regard to a disease to which only one
group of the population is liable. In computing the death rate from
the diseases connected with childbirth, only women of childbearing
age should be considered, or, still better, only women actually bear-
ing children in a given year. All individuals of all ages and both
sexes may be exposed each year to a risk of typhoid fever, pneumonia,
or tuberculosis ; but during the year only the women pregnant or
bearing children are exposed to the risk of death from the diseases
connected with these functions.
(2) Death rates per 100,000 women. — This method of computing
rates is somewhat superior to that of computing the deaths per
100.000 total inhabitants. It is used to some extent in foreign
reports. These rates have been computed from estimates of female
population furnished by the United States Bureau of the Census for
the years 1900 to 1910 for the group of 11 States within the death-
registration area in 1900. These are given in Table IV, on page 50.
(3) Death rates per 100,000 women of childhearing age } — Such a
rate, which is a much more accurate one than either of those men-
tioned above, can be computed for the registration area for only one
year, the census year 1900. For that year only has the age and sex
distribution of the registration area been published. The number of
women 15 to 44 years of age in the registration area in that year was
7, 383, 154. 2 The number of deaths from childbirth among women 15
to 44 years was 3,712; of these 1,594 were from puerperal septicemia
and 2,118 from all other diseases of pregnancy and confinement. 3
The death rates were, therefore, from childbirth or all diseases caused
by pregnancy and confinement, 50.3; from, puerperal septicemia,
21.6; and from all other diseases of pregnancy and confinement, 28.7.
(4) Death rates per 1,000 births. — As shown above, the method of
computation of death rates which gives the clearest picture of the
hazards of childbirth is that which takes into account only the
women giving birth to children in that year. This is the method in
use in a large number of foreign countries. The advantages of the
method are self-evident. 4 A demonstration of the superiority of
1 The female population between the ages of 15 and 45 years as determined by census enumeration, or
by estimation for intercensal and postcensal years. --Trask, J. W. Supra cit., p. 23.
2 U. S. Twelfth Census, 1900. Vital Statistics, Part I, p. XLII.
s U. S. Twelfth Census, 1900. Vital Statistics, Part II, p. 242.
4 Each death rate is in terms of registered, i. e., living, births. This is a more accurate measure than a
statement per 1,000 of total population or per 1,000 total or married women at childbearing ages.— News-
holme, A. Maternal Mortality in Connection with Childbearing. Grt. Brit. Local Govt. Bd., Supp. to
Report of Medical Officer for 1914-15, p. 24.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
33
this method of computation is obtained by a study of the tables giv-
ing the death rates from these diseases for foreign countries. In cer-
tain countries, as for instance Belgium and Hungary, there has been
in recent years an apparent fall in the average death rates as com-
puted per 100,000 population, while the average rates computed per
1.000 live births have remained stationary or risen. This phenom-
enon is due, evidently, to a decline in the birth rate in these countries
during these years, and shows how misleading the rates as given per
100.000 population undoubtedly are in countries with declining birth
rates. Whether a fall in the birth rate has occurred in the United
States is not known. If it has occurred in the registration area, it
would mean that the slight rise in rates per 100,000 population
between 1900 and 1913 means a greater rise in rates computed accord-
ing to the number of births. Such an error might compensate for the
opposite error due to the more complete registration of deaths from
childbirth in the later years of this period.
In computing the rates per 1,000 births two methods are in
use: The computation of the number of deaths per 1,000 total births
and that per 1,000 live births. Both methods depend upon an accu-
rate registration of births; the first method is used in those foreign
countries in which all births including stillbirths are required to be
reported; the second, in those countries where only live births are
reported. The first is probably the better method, because by it
the whole number of women bearing children in a certain year is
considered. But even this rate is not absolutely accurate. While
the number of deaths includes those from diseases connected with
miscarriage, the whole number of women having miscarriages is not
used as a base, but only the number of those bearing stillborn and
live children. Miscarriages are not reportable in any country,
although a number of miscarriages (as the term is usually defined)
probably are reported as stillbirths in certain countries. The fact
that women having miscarriages are not considered in the base would
lead to a somewhat higher death rate than that which would express
absolutely the number of deaths per 1,000 women at risk. On the
other hand, in the computation of this rate the fact is not taken into
consideration that a certain number of births are multiple; that is,
the number of births is larger than the number of women bearing
children. Still another objection to the use of this rate, especially
in the comparison of the rates of different countries, is the fact that
the definition of stillbirth varies greatly according to the laws of
different coun tries; 1 that is, in one country many cases may be
reported as stillbirths which in another country, having a different
1 Royal Statistical Society. “ Report of special committee on infantile mortality.” Journal of the
Royal Statistical Society, 1913, Vol. LXXVI, p. 27.
64614°— 17 5
34
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
interpretation of this term, might not be reported at all, as they
would be classed as miscarriages.
The second method, in which the number of deaths per 1,000 live
births is considered, is that used by foreign countries in which the
registration of stillbirths is not required. England and Wales,
Ireland, Scotland, and New Zealand are among this number.
The variation in different countries with regard to the definition
of stillbirth causes a difficulty in the use of this method. In three
of the countries studied — France, Belgium, and Spain — the term
stillbirth includes infants alive at birth but dying before the regis-
tration of birth, i. e., within one to three days of birth. Because of
these various difficulties, death rates for the foreign countries have
been, wherever possible, computed by both methods.
On account of the lack of accurate birth registration neither
method has been used in computing rates for the United States.
Only for States and cities in the provisional birth-registration area,
and for one year, 1910, can the death rates per 1,000 live births be
given. These are shown in Table VI, page 52.
SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE STUDY OF DEATH RATES FROM
CHILDBIRTH.
In all mortality statistics, and especially in those with which we
are especially concerned in this bulletin, there are two general sources
of inaccuracy in the figures: First, the figures for each year may be
inaccurate, or may give an incomplete picture of actual conditions
because of many different factors, such as incompleteness or inac-
curacy of the figures, inappropriate methods of classification or
computation, etc. Second, the figures for different years may not be
comparable simply because of the great improvements that are made
each year in methods of registration, computation, and classifica-
tion. With the object in view of giving each year as accurate and
clear a picture of the actual conditions as possible, tremendous
advance in methods has been made yearly in this country and in
other countries. This very advance, however, brings with it many
difficulties in comparing the figures for the years before such
improvements were instituted with those of the years after that
time. Each year the figures give us more accurate information of
the actual number of deaths and of the death rates; yet each year
the comparison of the figures for that year with those in the past is
fraught with more danger of error. In general, therefore, the study
of the actual number of deaths and the death rates for the last
years for which figures are obtainable is more valuable than any
comparison of rates for different years. All these sources of error
will now be discussed in detail.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
35
Inaccuracy of returns.
As all mortality statistics depend upon the returns of the cause of
death as given by the physician or other person on the death certifi-
cates, their value depends on the degree of accuracy of diagnosis
shown by these returns. As Hoffman 1 has pointed out, the returns
for countries in which a medical certificate of the cause of death is not
required must be of very small value. He states, however, that “For
most of the civilized countries this requirement is met to a reasonably
satisfactory degree.”
The objection has frequently been raised, however, that there is a
large percentage of error even in the returns made by physicians due
to mistakes in diagnosis, such errors being more numerous in the case
of certain diseases than of others. This matter has been considered
by the United States Bureau of the Census . 2 Hoffman 3 defends the
general validity of the death returns. He admits that there is serious
risk of error in the “Careless or superficial use of the data of mortality
statistics, irrespective of the diseases dealt with; for, as pointed out
by Longstaff, * * * 1 there are numerous fallacies to which the
classification of deaths according to their alleged causes is liable/ and
he enumerates particularly * * * the more or less varying pro-
portions of indefinite causes, the deliberate falsification of returns for
personal or family reasons, and the effect of the progress of medical
science, improved diagnosis, etc.” Hoffman, however, concludes : ‘ 1 All
of these reasons notwithstanding, the conclusion appears to be incon-
trovertible that on the whole the present system of death registration
is entitled to confidence and the results approximately represent the
true state of the nation’s health.”
With regard to the diseases in question, however, inaccuracy of the
returns undoubtedly constitutes a special source of error in the
figures for all countries. The statistics of deaths due to puerperal
septicemia (childbed fever or infection at the time of miscarriage or
childbirth) are without question very incomplete. Many deaths due
to this disease are reported, for obvious reasons, as due to some other
condition or to some general condition, such as septicemia, pyemia,
and the like. This fault in all statistics on the subject has been
commented on very frequently both in this country and in foreign
countries . 4
1 Hoffman, F. L. The Mortality from Cancer Throughout the World, 1915, p. 2.
2 U. S. Census. Mortality Statistics, 1912, p. 24.
* Hoffman, F. L. Supra cit., p. 3.
4 (a) It is very difficult to make accurate statements as to the frequency of puerperal infection, especially
when it occurs outside of hospital practice. Concerning this condition the vital statistics of the health
officers of the various American cities are of no value, inasmuch as the vast majority of deaths from this
disease are returned as being due to malaria, typhoid fever, pneumonia, or other causes. — Williams, J. W.
Obstetrics, 1913, p. 900. (6) It is very difficult to estimate the frequency of puerperal infection outside of
hospitals, since many deaths are reported as due to typhoid, malaria, pneumonia, etc. — Edgar, J. C. The
Practice of Obstetrics, 1903, p. 752. (c) It is not unlikely, furthermore, that in a considerable number of
deaths due to childbearing the fact that they are associated with childbearing escapes certification.
36
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
It follows, however, that almost never is a case reported as due
to infection at confinement when it is really due to some other cause;
in other words, the figures though undoubtedly incomplete are
reliable as far as they go; they are a statement of the minimum
number of cases which have occurred. As Newsholme remarks , * 1
many cases of puerperal septicemia probably are reported as due
to other conditions associated with childbirth; so that the total
figures for all diseases associated with this condition should always
be noted, although it may he the figures for puerperal septicemia
in which our immediate interest lies.
Many deaths due to other complications of pregnancy and con-
finement are also undoubtedly reported under other headings.
This is especially true of cases of puerperal albuminuria and con-
vulsions, which are reported as due to acute nephritis or simply to
convulsions; and of hemorrhage or phlebitis following miscarriage
or labor, reported without reference to their connection with child-
birth.
Limited area and short period of time represented by figures.
In the United States the limited area of the country (the death-
registration area) for which any figures are available is an element
of weakness in the statistics. Though this area and its population
are absolutely very large, they can not be considered as representa-
tive of the entire country. Any estimate based on the figures for
the registration area is open to criticism on account of differences
in age and sex distribution in different parts of the country.
In the United States the short period for which any figures are
available lessens greatly the value of a study such as this. In foreign
countries comparisons of the death rates for a long series of years
may be made, even though errors due to lack of comparability of
the figures may occtir. In this country information is available
Deaths from puerperal fever are likely also to be understated; and the desirability is confirmed of basing
inferences as to excessive mortality from childbearing on all the conditions concerned in this mortality,
and not merely on the death returns for puerperal fever. — Newsholme, A. Supra cit., pp. 26, 30. (d) It
may be objected that owing to faulty registration and deficient death certification the returns are not
reliable. That this objection may have some weight in estimating the amount of mortality, especially as
regards puerperal fever (in which for obvious reasons the death returns are avowedly defective), I fully
admit; but, as this communication seeks to compare the mortality of one year with that of another and of
one part of the kingdom with that of another, and as the sources of error apply to each, the result can not be
materially affected. In estimating the true amount of mortality, however, a mental correction should
certainly be made for this obvious source of error. — Boxall, It. “The mortality of childbirth,” Lancet,
1893, Vol. II, p. 10. ( e ) Warren, S. P. “The prevalence of puerperal septicemia in private practice at the
present time, contrasted with that of a generation ago.” Amer. Jour, of Obstetrics, 1905, Vol. LI, p. 301.
1 But the above extreme local variations in the proportion between deaths from puerperal fever and from
other dangers of childbearing suggest that in death certification there may be local variations in the extent
to which deaths from puerperal fever are returned under the heading of other conditions associated with
childbearing. * * * On the whole, it is likely that in comparing counties and county boroughs with
each other, the safest plan is to utilize only the death rates from the two sets of conditions token together.—
Newsholme, A. Supra cit., p. 26.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
37
onty for the census years 1880, 1890, and 1900 and for the calendar
years from 1900 to 1913, inclusive. Moreover, the area covered
by the reports previous to 1890 was so small that any comparison
between years prior to 1890 and years subsequent to that date has
seemed unwise.
Methods of computation.
In the United States the computation of the death rates from the
diseases in question by a method (computation per 100,000 total popu-
lation) giving hut an inaccurate picture of' the facts is necessarily a
source of error in the study. This method also makes difficult a com-
parison of the death rates with those of foreign countries.
Sources of error in comparisons of death rates of different years.
There are many special sources of error involved in the comparison
of death rates of the registration area of the United States from these
causes in different years.
First. Differences in the constitution of the death-registration
area cause one of the most important difficulties in comparison.
As before stated, the death-registration area is not an unchanging
entity, but has been added to almost yearly as registration has
improved in various States and cities. This constant increase con-
stitutes a serious source of error in comparing the death rates for
this area for different years. Within the course of the years studied,
States or cities having a particularly high or low rate from the disease
in question may have been added to the registration area. 1 This
difficulty is so serious that in making comparisons of the death rates
in the registration area of the United States from a certain disease
through a series of years the publications of the United States Bureau
of the Census always point out the influence which the inclusion of a
certain State may have had upon the rate of the disease in question
for the registration area.
The same method may be applied, for example, to a comparison
of the death rates from childbirth in the registration area for the
years 1909 and 1910. In 1909 the rate for the registration area was
15.3; in 1910, 15.7. In 1910, however, four States — Minnesota,
Montana, Utah, and North Carolina 2 — were added to the registration
area and one State — South Dakota — was dropped. In that year
the death rate from childbirth in Minnesota was 11.9 per 100,000
inhabitants, in Montana 16.4, in Utah 18.4, and in the municipalities
of North Carolina 30.7. That in South Dakota in 1909 was 21.7
for the urban and 12.9 for the rural portions of the State. Evidently
the exact determination of the effect which the inclusion or exclusion
of any one of these States exerted upon the death rate of the regis-
tration area is a complicated matter.
1 U. S. Census. Mortality Statistics, 1909, p. 9.
2 Municipalities of 1,000 or more inhabitants in 1900.
38
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
It was thought wise, therefore, in this study to make, in addition
to a comparison of the death rates from childbirth in the registration
area for 1890 and from 1900 to 1913, a comparison of the death rates
shown ( 1 ) for the same series of years by the group of States which
hate been registration States since 1890, and (2) for the years 1900
to 1913 by the group of States which have been registration States
since 1900. Obviously these two comparisons contain no error due
to changes in the groups of States compared from year to year.
The group of eight States which have been registration States
since 1890 includes all the New England States except Maine, also
New York, New Jersey, and the District of Columbia. (See Table
II, p. 49.) For this group of States no permanent decrease has
occurred in the death rate from childbirth per 100,000 population in
the 23 years studied. There was a decrease in the rate between
1890 and 1900, followed by a rise, and then by slightly fluctuating
rates. The rates for 1890 1 and 1913, however, are almost identical —
14.1 and 14.3 per 100,000 inhabitants.
The rates for the second group of 11 States show no decline but
rather an increase in the 13 years from 1900 to 1913. These States,
have been registration States since 1900 and include, besides the 8
above mentioned, Maine, Michigan, and Indiana. The death rate
from childbirth in 1900 3 was 13.4; in 1913, 14.9; with fluctuations
between 12.7 and 15.5.
The fact that the death rates from childbirth show no decrease in
the registration area from 1890 to 1913 (see Table I, p. 49) is there-
fore corroborated by the two comparisons just made. The rates for
this area also show fluctuations from year to year, but are nearly
identical for 1890 and 1913, i. e., 15.3 and 15.8.
This possible source of error in the comparison of the rates in the
registration area for different years, therefore, is shown to be of
practical unimportance.
A comparison of the three Tables I, II, and III brings out several
interesting facts. Tables I and II both show a decline in the rates
between 1890 and 1900; this fall is followed by a corresponding rise
and fluctuating rates. The rates for the group of 8 States shown in
Table II are almost uniformly slightly lower for each year than are
those of the death-registration area shown in Table I.
Second. The most important source of error in the comparisons of
the death rates of various years is due to the improvements which
have been made yearly in the accuracy of the returns of the cause
of death. In each State, newly admitted to the registration area,
improvements are made continually in the completeness and accuracy
of the death returns. In addition one special improvement has been
made in the returns in the registration area.
Census year ending May 31.
2 Calendar year
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
39
It has already been pointed out with regard to the diseases under
consideration that deaths due to puerperal septicemia and to other
complications of pregnancy and confinement are frequently reported
as due to such indefinite causes as septicemia, pyemia, hemorrhage,
phlebitis, convulsions, etc. In several foreign countries the attempt
has been made for some years to render the records more complete
by making inquiries as to cases of death of women of childbearing age
where the cause of death is an indefinite one of this character. To
each physician making such a report for a woman of childbearing age
a confidential inquiry is sent, asking whether or not the cause of death
had any relation to childbirth or miscarriage. Boxall 1 states that this
has been done in England since 1881 and has resulted in an increase
of about 1 2 per cent in the number of cases reported as due to puerperal
septicemia. In this country since about 1906 2 the State registrars of
vital statistics have cooperated with the United States Bureau of the
Census in making their reports more complete through this practice.
For several years 2 the Census Bureau has made an inquiry in many
cases where the cause of death of a woman of childbearing age has been
returned to it as septicemia, pyemia, or peritonitis, and additional
cases of puerperal septicemia have been added in this way. That
bureau is unable, however, to estimate the percentage of cases which
have thus been added. In a test 3 in which a number of letters of
inquiry were sent to physicians returning deaths as due to meningitis,
paralysis, convulsions, pneumonia, and peritonitis, 102 cases returned
as peritonitis were thus investigated. Eight cases were changed to
puerperal septicemia f 0J dowirig the answer- to these inquiries. The
following statement i^fpft.er 1,000 live births, however, it is one
of the higher rates.
3. Percentage of deaths caused by puerperal septicemia . — Another
interesting feature of the foreign figures is the great variation shown
among the different countries in the percentage of the total deaths
from childbirth which are ascribed to puerperal septicemia. Table
XIV gives these figures for each country for as large a part of the
period 1900 to 1910 as figures are available. As pointed out fre-
quently throughout this report, on account of the inaccurate returns
from puerperal septicemia the total rate from childbirth is a more
reliable one than is the rate from puerperal septicemia; therefore,
sweeping conclusions can not be based on these comparisons. Other-
wise these figures would be extremely significant, as the deaths from
puerperal septicemia are the most easily preventable of all the deaths
from childbirth. In the larger number (11) of the 15 foreign countries
studied the deaths from puerperal septicemia constitute from 30 to
50 per cent of the total number of deaths from childbirth. In the
registration area of the United States they represent 44 per cent.
Norway, 51.2 per cent, and Spain, 62.8 per cent, show the only two
percentages higher than 50; New Zealand, 25.2 per cent, and Hun-
gary, 26.7 per cent, show markedly low percentages.
Comparison of the changes in the death rates from childbirth in
certain foreign countries for the years 1900 to 1913.
Far more valuable than a comparison of average rates of foreign
countries is a study of the rates of each country for a series of years in
order to discover whether they are decreasing or increasing and to com-
pare such changes in the various countries. While it may be dangerous
on account of different methods of registration and classification to
compare the rates of different countries, no such source of error is
attached to the comparison of rates in the same country for a num-
ber of years. The period 1900 to 1913 (or the latest year for which
figures are available) is a very short one for a study of a change in
death rates. It would have been far more interesting to study the
death rates for a long series of years in each country, choosing a
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
45
period beginning before the introduction of methods of asepsis. But
such a study for the complete list of countries considered was not
thought advisable, because of the difficulties caused by variations in
classification of causes of death in the earlier years.
In order to study the rates for any increase or decrease occurring
during the last 13 years, the rates per 1,000 1 live births will be used
rather than those per 100,000 population. In several countries — -
Belgium, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Prussia, and Spain — the rate from
childbirth per 100,000 population apparently has fallen during the
period, while the rate per 1,000 live births has remained almost
the same, or has risen. The cause of this inconsistency, as ex-
plained on page 33, is the fact that in these countries the birth
rate or the proportionate number of births to the number of inhab-
itants has decreased.
Average death rates for the foreign countries studied are given for
periods of from 3 to 5 years in Table XVI. Differences in averages
from period to period are more significant than differences in rates
from year to year, and they indicate more accurately and readily
whether death rates in a given country are increasing or decreasing.
In preparing Table XVI it would have been more satisfactory to
base averages on identical five-year periods for all countries, but since
the periods for which the information was available varied so widely
in different countries, this procedure was impracticable, and the com-
plete periods were divided into as nearly uniform subperiods as
possible.
The countries will be considered in different groups.
Countries showing a decrease in the death rates from all diseases caused
by pregnancy and confinement.— England and Wales show a fall in the
total death rate from these diseases and also a fall in the death rate
from puerperal septicemia in the years between 1900 and 1914. 1 2
The total death rate per 1,000 live births fell from 4.4 in 1900-1904
to 3.7 in 1910-1914. The death rate from puerperal septicemia per
1,000 live births was 1.9 in 1900-1904, and 1 .4 in 1910-1914. The still
greater apparent drop in the rates per 100,000 inhabitants will be noted.
This decrease in the rates from these diseases in England and Wales
since 1900 is especially important because the lack of decrease for a
long period of time before 1900 has been the subject of considerable
discussion.
Boxall 3 in 1893 and 1905 published two reports which aroused
medical interest. Based on studies of the figures published by the
1 The rate per 1,000 live births will be found in column 8 of Table XV, p. 60.
2 In studying the figures after 1910, only the figures given as 1911 (a) and 1912 (a), etc., must be compared
with the figures of years before 1910, for the reasons explained on p. 58.
3 Boxall, R. “ The mortality of childbirth/’ Lancet, 1893, Vol. II, p. 9; “ Mortality in childbed, both
in hospital and in general practice.” Jour, of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Empire, 1005,
Vol. VII, p. 315.
46
MATERIAL MORTALITY.
registrar general, these reports comment on the lack of decrease in
the total mortality from childbirth and from puerperal septicemia in
the period since the introduction of methods of antisepsis.
Sir Arthur Newsholme, medical officer of the Local Government
Board of England, published last year a most interesting report on
maternal mortality in connection with childbearing in England and
Wales. 1 The report in question will no doubt be the inspiration of
studies of this subject in many countries, just as it has been of the
present report on conditions in the United States. He finds that
from 1874 to 1893 there was no decline in the rates from puerperal
septicemia, or from other conditions associated with childbirth, but
that since 1895 there has been a marked decline in the rate from
puerperal septicemia and a decline in the total rate from childbirth.
There has been, however, little change in the death rate from condi-
tions other than puerperal septicemia caused by childbirth. He
writes: “Even so far as puerperal fever is concerned, notwithstand-
ing the improvement already secured, it must be regarded as highly
unsatisfactory that in 1914 for every 644 infants born 1 mother lost
her life from puerperal infection, either present before the birth of
the infant, or more often acquired during or soon after its birth. A
large portion of this mortality, with its still greater amount of asso-
ciated sickness, could at once be prevented were adequate antenatal
care and skilled attendance under satisfactory conditions at and after
birth made available.” 1
The interest in this subject in England is reflected in several acts
which have been passed in recent years with the object of securing
better antenatal and confinement care for all women at childbirth.
These are the midwives act, 1902; the notification of births act,
1907; the notification of births (extension) act, 1915, the maternity
benefits under the national insurance act, and the voting of grants
by Parliament in aid of work done by local authorities and voluntary
agencies to promote maternal and child welfare work.
Tlie rates for Ireland show a decrease in the death rate from child-
birth. In 1902 to 1906 the rate was 5.8; in 1911 to 1914 it was 5.2.
There was also a slight decrease in the rate from puerperal septicemia.
Japan shows also a fall in the rate from childbirth from 4.2 in 1901-
1904 to 3.6 in 1909-1912. The death rate from puerperal septice-
mia, however, has increased slightly.
The rates for New Zealand and Switzerland have also shown a
decline in the periods studied.
Countries showing almost stationary rates from the diseases caused
by pregnancy and confinement. — This group includes all the remaining
countries considered except Scotland. In several of these countries
1 Newsholme, A. Maternal Mortality in Connection with Childbearing. Grt. Brit. Local Govt.
Bd., Supp. to Report of Medical Officer for 1914-15, pp. 22, 23.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
47
there has been a slight fall or rise in the rates between the first and
last period, amounting in each case to less than 0.5 of 1 per 1,000
live births.
In Prussia no demonstrable fall has occurred in the rate per 1,000
live births from all diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement,
nor in that from puerperal septicemia. The total rate in 1903 to
1906 was 3.2; in 1907 to 1910 it was 3.1.
The almost stationary rates for Australia, Belgium, Hungary, Italy,
Norway, Spain, and Sweden will also be noted in the tables.
In all of these countries numerous physicians have called attention
to the stationary or rising death rates from childbirth and from
childbed fever. A large medical literature has grown up on this
subject. Von Herff 1 comments on the figures published by Krohme,
showing for Prussia an increasing death rate from puerperal septi-
cemia in the years 1901 to 1904. He attributes it to the laxity of
physicians in carrying out antiseptic methods and to the unneces-
sarily frequent use of forceps and to other obstetrical operations.
Buess 2 and Winter 3 are among those who have written more
recently on the question of these death rates in Switzerland, East
Prussia, and other European countries.
Countries showing a rise in rates . — The total mortality rate from
diseases of childbirth for Scotland has shown a definite increase from
5.1 per 1,000 live births in 1901-1905 to 5.8 in 1911-1914. This in-
crease, however, has not been due apparently to an increase in the
rate from puerperal septicemia; in fact, this rate has shown a fall.
1 Von Herff, O. “Wie ist der zunehmenden Kindbettfiebersterblichkeit zu steuern ? Minderung der
Operationen. Besserung der Desinfektion in der Hauspraxis.” Miincliener Medizinische Wochenschrift,
1907, Vol. LIV, p. 1017.
2 Buess. Zeitschrift fur Geburtshiilfe und Gynakologie, 1915, Vol. LXXVII, p. 735.
3 Winter. “ Die Bekampfung des Kindbettfiebers in Ostpreussen.’ , Deutsche Medizinische Woche.i-
schrift, 1908, Vol. XXXIV, p. 2244.
PART III. GENERAL TABLES
Table I.- — Population, deaths , and death rates per 100,000 population in the death-
registration area from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement, 1890 and 1900
to 1913.
Deaths from diseases caused hy pregnancy and
_ . , . . , confinement.
Population of death- : -
registration area. ) 1nnnnn
Year. 1
registration area.
Number.
Rate per 100,000
population.
Total.
Per cent
of popu-
lation of
United
States.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
1890 2
19, 659, 440
31.4
3, 011
3 1,383
1,628
15.3
3 7.0
8.3
1900 2
28, 807, 269
37.9
3,772
3 1,619
2,153
13.1
3 5. 6
7.5
1900
30, 765, 618
40.5
4,106
1,769
2, 337
13.3
5.7
7.6
1901
31,370,952
40.3
4,294
1,882
2,412
13.7
6.0
7.7
1902
32,029, 815
40.4
4,164
1,813
2, 351
13.0
5.7
7.3
1903
32, 701, 083
40.4
4,569
1,992
2, 577
14.0
6.1
7.9
1904
33,345,163
40.4
5,109
2,291
2,818
15.3
6.9
8.5
1905
34, 052, 201
40.4
5,077
2,309
2, 768
14.9
6.8
8.1
1906
41,983,419
48.9
6, 341
2,622
3,719
15.1
6.2
8.9
1907
43, 016, 990
49.2
6,719
2,908
3,811
15. 6
6.8
8.9
1908
46, 789, 913
52.5
7, 344
3,271
4,073
15.7
7.0
8.7
1909
50,870, 518
56.1
7, 791
3, 427
4, 364
15.3
6.7
8.6
1910
53, 843, 896
58.3
8, 455
3,892
4,563
15.7
7.2
8.5
1911
59, 275, 977
63.1
9,456
4,376
5,080
16.0
7.4
8.6
1912
60. 427, 247
63.2
9, 035
3.905
5,130
15.0
6.5
8.5
1913
63, 298, 718
65.1
10, 010
4 , 542
5, 468
15.8
7.2
8.6
Annual average:
1901 to 1905...
32, 699. 843
47, 300, 947
4,643
7, 330
2, 057
2, 586
14.2
6.3
7.9
1906 to 1910
3,224
4,106
15. 5
1
6.8
8.7
3 Calendar year, unless otherwise specified.
2 Census year ending May 31.
3 Figures for puerperal septicemia for the census years 1890 and 1900 not comparable with those for later
years. See p. 41.
Table II . — Deaths and death rates per 100,000 population in the 8 States within the
death-registration area in 1890 1 from diseases caused by preqnancy and confinement,
1890 and 1900 to 191$.
Deaths from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement.
Year. 2
Number.
Rate per 100,000 population.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
1890 3 •
1, 655
« 698
957
14.1
< 6.0
8.2
1900 3
1,806
* 791
1,015
1,107
12.6
4 5.5
7.1
1900
1,905
798
13.3
5.6
7.7
1901
1,903
747
1,156
13.0
5.1
7.9
1902
1,842
762
1,080
12.4
5.1
7.2
1903
1,998
801
1,197
13.1
5.3
7.9
1904
2,305
2, 434
2, 434
2,595
2, 450
996
1,309
14.9
6.4
8.4
1905
1, 033
1,401
15.4
6. 5
8.9
1906
989
1,445
15.0
6.1
8.9
1907
1,086
1,509
15.6
6. 5
9.1
1908
1,050
1,034
1,400
14.4
6.2
8.2
1909
2, 537
2,608
1,503
14.5
5.9
8.6
1910
1, 145
1,463
14.6
6.4
8.2
1911
2, 722
1,179
1,543
14.9
6.4
8.4
1912
2, 574
1,049
1,525
13.9
5. 6
8.2
1913
2, 707
1,140
1,567
14.3
6.0
8.3
I
1 Excluding Delaware.
2 Calendar year, unless otherwise specified.
3 Census year ending May 31.
« Figures' for puerperal septicemia for the census years 1890 and 1900 not comparable with those fer later
years. See p. 41.
49
50
MATERIAL MORTALITY.
Table HI. — Deaths and death rates per 100,000 population in the 11 States within the
death-registration area in 1900 from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement ,
1900 to 1913.
Deaths from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement.
Year. 1
Number.
Rate per 100,000 population.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
1900 2
2, 568
2, 682
3 1, 150
1,418
12.9
3 5.8
7.1
1900
1,155
1.527
13.4
5.8
7.6
1901
2, 704
1,124
1,580
13.3
5.5
7.8
1902
2.626
1,092
1,534
12.7
5.3
7.4
1903
2, 778
1,153
1,625
13.2
5.5
7.7
1904
3, 216
3, 219
3,229
3,448
1,403
1,813
1,818
15.1
6.6
8.5
190")
1,401
14.8
6.4
8.4
1900
1,302
1,476
1,927
1,972
1,912
14.5
5.9
8.7
1907
15.2
6.5
8.7
1908
3, 343
3, 422
3, 641
3,806
1,431
14.4
6.2
8.2
1909
1,453
1,969
2,017
2,058
2,039
2, 128
14.5
6.1
8.3
1910
1,624
15.1
6.7
8.4
1911
1,748
15.5
7.1
8.4
1912
3.527
1,488
14.1
6.0
8.2
1913
3, 7S9
1,661
14.9
6. 5
8.4
i
1 Calendar year, unless otherwise specified.
* Census year ending May 31.
3 Figures for puerperal septicemia for the census year 1900 not comparable with those for later years.
See p. 41.
Table IV . — Death rates per 100,000 female population in the 11 States within the
death-registration area in 1900 from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement ,
1900 to 1910.
Year.
Death rate per 100,000 female
population from diseases
caused by pregnancy and
confinement.
Year.
Death rate per 100,000 female
population from diseases
caused by pregnancy and
confinement.
Total.
Puerperal
septi-
cemia.
All other.
Total.
Puerperal
septi-
cemia.
All other.
1900
26.9
11.6
15.3
1906
29.2
11.8
17.5
1901
i 26. 7
11. 1
15.6
1907
30.6
13. 1
17.5
1902 .
25. 5
10.6
14.9
1908
29. 1
12. 4
16.6
1903
1 26. 6
11.0
15.5
1909
29.2
12. 4
16.8
1904 .
30. 3
13.2
17. 1
1910
30.4
13.6 !
j
16.9
1905
29.8
13.0
16.8
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
51
Table V. — Number of deaths of ivoinen from 15 to 44 years of age in the death-registration
area from each cause and class of causes included in the abridged International List of
Causes of Death ( revision of 1909), 1 1913.
[Computed from figures in Mortality Statistics. 1913, pp. 338 to 3-t9, in which causes of death are given ac-
cording to the detailed International List of Causes of Death.]
Abridged
Inter-
national
List No.
Cause of death.
13,14,15
31,32
19
29
16
22
35
1
30
26
38
23
18
24
27
28
9
17
8
12
6
5
3
21
20
33
11
4
7
2
10
37
38
Tuberculosis of the lungs, tuberculous meningitis, other forms of tuberculosis
Puerperal septicemia (puerperal fever, peritonitis; and other puerperal accidents
of pregnancy and labor
Organic diseases of the heart
Acute nephritis and Bright’s disease .
Cancer and other malignant tumors
Pneumonia
Violent deaths (suicide excepted)
Typhoid fever
Noneancerous tumors and other diseases of the female genital organs
Appendicitis and typhlitis
Suicide
Other diseases of the respiratory system (tuberculosis excepted)
Cerebral hemorrhage and softening
Diseases of the stomach (cancer excepted)
Hernia, intestinal obstruction
Cirrhosis of the liver
Influenza
Simple meningitis
Diphtheria and croup
Other epidemic diseases
Scarlet fever
Measles
Malaria
Chronic bronchitis
Acute bronchitis
Congenital debility and malformations
Cholera nostras
Smallpox
Whooping cough
Typhus fever
Asiatic cholei'a
Other diseases
Unknown or ill-defined diseases
Number
of
deaths.
26, 265
9, 876
6,386
5,741
5, 065
4,167
3, 262
2,706
2, 669
1,620
1,562
1,458
1,398
940
854
598
489
484
330
312
307
304
250
184
90
24
18
19
11,688
458
1 Except No. 25, diarrhea and enteritis (under 2
years), and No. 34, senility.
Table VI. — Population , live births , deaths, and death rates per 100,000 population and per 1,000 live births from diseases caused by pregnancy and
confinement , by States and principal cities in the provisional birth-registration area, 1 1910.
52
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
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MATERIAL MORTALITY.
53
Table VII .- — Death rates per 100,000 population in the death-registration area from
certain important causes of death , 1890 and 1900 to 1913.
Death rate per 100,000 population from—
Year. 1
Ty-
phoid
fever.
Diph-
theria
and
croup.
Meas-
les.
Whoop-
ing
cough.
Scar-
let
fever.
Tuber-
culosis
(all
forms).
Pneu-
monia
(all
forms).
Diar-
rhea
and
enter-
itis
(under
2 yrs.).
Diseases caused by
pregnancy and
confinement.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
1890 2
46.3
97.8
13.5
15.8
13.6
252.0
186.9
139. 1
15.3
3 7.0.
8.3
1900 2
33.8
45.2
13.2
12.7
11.6
190.9
192.0
97.5
13.1
3 5. 6
7.5
1900
35.9
43. 3
12.5
12.1
10.2
201.9
180. 5
108.8
13. 3
5.7
7.6
1901
32.3
34.0
7.3
9. 7
13.1
196.9
161.4
90.9
13.7
6.0
7.7
1902
34.3
30.8
9.5
12.0
12.6
184.5
155.7
84.0
13.0
5,7
7.3
1903
34.1
31.7
9.8
15.8
12.2
188.5
155. 1
81.6
14.0
6.1
7.9
1904
31.7
28.3
. 11.0
6.5
10.8
200.7
171.4
90.9
15.3
6.9
8.5
1905
27.8
23.6
7.5
10.6
6.7
192.3
148.8
97.0
14.9
6.8
8.1
1906
31.3
25.7
12.1
15.1
7.7
180.2
145. 5
101.4
15.1
6.2
8.9
1907
29.5
23.6
10.0
11.3
10.0
178.5
156.5
96.6
15. 6
6.8
8.9
1908
24.3
21.5
9.9
10.6
11.9
167.6
130. 9
95.2
15.7
7.0
8.7
1909
21.1
20.4
9.6
9.6
11.4
160.8
137.6
87.8
15.3
6. 7
8.6
1910
23.5
21.4
12.3
11.4
11.6
160.3
147.7
100.8
15. 7
7.2
8.5
1911
21.0
18.9
10.0
11.3
8.8
158.9
133. 7
77.4
16.0
7.4
8.6
1912
16.5
18.2
7.0
9.3
6.7
149.5
132. 3
70.3
15.0
6.5
8.5
1913
17.9
1
18.8
'
12.8
10.0
8.7
147.6
132.4
75.2
15.8
7. 2
8.6
1 Calendar year, unless otherwise specified.
2 Census year ending May 31.
3 Figures for puerperal septicemia for the census years 1890 and 1900 not comparable with those for later
years. See p. 41.
Table VIII . — Deaths and death rates per 100,000 population in cities of at least 8,000 1
population and in smaller cities and rural districts in the death-registration States from
diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement, 1900 to 1913.
Deaths from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement.
Year.
Number.
Rate per 100,000 population.
Total.
Puerperal
septicemia.
All other.
Total.
Puerperal
septicemia.
All other.
Cities of at least 8,000
population.
Cities of less than 8,000
population and rural
districts.
Cities of at least 8,000
population.
Cities of less than 8,000
population and rural
districts.
Cities of at least 8,000
population.
Cities of less than 8,000
population and rural
districts.
Cities of at least 8,000
population.
Cities of less than 8,000
population and rural
districts.
Cities of at least 8,000
population.
Cities of less than 8,000
population and rural
districts.
Cities of at least 8,000
population.
Cities of less than 8,000
population and rural
districts.
1900
1,595
1,087
713
442
882
645
14.9
11.7
6.7
4.8
8.3
6.9
1901
1,607
1,097
661
463
946
634
14.4
12.0
5.9
5.1
8.5
7.0
1902
1,575
1,051
710
382
865
669
13.7
11.5
6.2
4.2
7.5
7.3
1903
1,659
1,119
715
438
944
681
14.1
12.1
6.1
4. 7
8.0
7.4
1904
1,968
1,248
892
511
1,078
737
16.4
13.4
7.4
5. 5
8.9
7.9
1905
2,069
1,150
937
464
1,132
686
16.8
12.3
1 7.6
5.0
9.1
7.3
1906
3, 080
2,063
1,308
761
1,752
1,302
16.8
13.2
7.2
4.9
9.6
8.3
1907
3, 245
2,145
1,427
821
1,818
1,324
17.3
13.5
7.6
5. 2
9.7
8.3
1908
3, 384
2,654
1,532
1,085
1,852
1, 569
16.6
14.5
7.5
5. 9
9.1
8.6
1909
3,734
2,936
1,678
1,212
2,056
1,724
16.2
13.8
7.3
5.7
8.9
8.1
1910
4,271
3, 123
2,029
1,305
2, 242
1,818
17.0
13.8
1 8.1
5.8
8.9
8.0
1911
4,543
3,926
2,202
1,678
2,341
2,248
16.5
14.6
! 8.0
6.2
8.5
8.4
1912
4, 463
3, 551
1,997
1,417
2, 466
2, 134
15.9
13.1
! 7.1
5.2
8.8
7.9
1913
5,031
4,013
2,353
1,717
2, 678
2,296
17.2
13.8
1 8.0
5.9
9.2
7.9
1 For the years 1900 to 1909, inclusive, basis of division was 8,000 according to the census of 1900; for the
years 19-10 to 1913, inclusive, basis of division was 10,009 according to the census of 1910.
MATERNAL MORTALITY,
54
Table IX. — Death rates per 100,000 population in cities that had at least 200,000 popu-
lation in 1900, and were ivithin the death-registration States of 1900, from diseases caused
by pregnancy and confinement, 1900 to 1913.
Year.
Boston.
Buffalo.
Detroit.
Jersey
City.
New York, i
Newark.
Washing-
ton.
1900
18.5
9.1
24.7
15.9
19.3
12.6
15.4
1901
13.4
15.3
19.5
16.0
17.7
14.8
23.8
1902
14.7
12.5
15.7
16.4
16.4
16. 8
15. 2
1903
17.4
18.1
15.0
12.0
. 15.7
9.7
18.0
1904
15.8
16.0
16.3
17.3
19.0
14.6
17.6
1905
14.1
12.9
16.7
17. 6
20.3
16.3
17.7
1906
15. 0
20.4
15.7
18.4
18.3
18.1
17.0
1907
15.9
19.8
17.1
11.6
18.9
16.9
16.8
1908
12.1
16.1
IS. 5
24.2
17.1
20.0
17.7
1909
20.7
13.4
14.6
15.6
16.3
19.7
17.1
1910
14.0
12.5
20.6
17.1
16.7
1S.0
21.1
1911
19.4
10.2
21.6
21.8
15.8
19.8
16.9
1912
17.9
13.0
17.7
18.1
14.8
20.6
14.0
1913
20.6
13.9
26.5
18.1
14.1
23.2
18.1
Table X. — Death rates per 100,000 population in the 11 States within the death-regis-
tration area in 1900 from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement , 1900 to 1913.
Death rate per 100,000 population from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement.
Year.
Connecticut.
District of Columbia.
Indiana
Maine.
I
Total.
. ' -
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
1900
13.0
5. 7
7.3
15.4
5.4
10.0
10.4
4.8
5. 6
9.4
3.0
6.3
1901
11.9
4.4
7.5
23.6
10.5
13.0
10.2
5.0
5.2
11.0
4. 1
6.9
1902
j 13.4
5. 0
814
15.2
5.9
9.3
9.0
3.8
5.2
15.2
6.1
9. 1
1903
! 13.2
4.4
8.7
18.0
9.2
8.8
10.5
5.4
5.1
13.1
3.9
9.2
1904
! 13.2
4.8
8.4
17.6
8.0
9.7
12.3
5.8
6.4
12.7
5.3
7.4
1905
15.0
5.7
9.3
17.7
6.2
11.5
12.3
6.5
5.7
11.7
5.1
6.5
1906
13.6
5.4
8.2
17.0
7. 7
9.3
11.2
4.8
6.3
10. i
2.3
7.7
1907
13.4
6.4
7.0
16.8
7.3
9.5
13.3
7.1
6.3
10.8
4.3
6. 6
1908
11.7
4.3
7.4
17.7
4.7
13.1
13.2
6.1
7.0
11.2
4.1
7.1
1909
13. 1
4.1
9.0
17.1
7.6
9.5
14.5
7.2
7.3
10.6
4.6
6.0
1910
13.2
5.8
7.4
21.1
12.0
9.0
16. 6
8.8
7.8
14.8
6.2
8.6
1911
11.3
5. 0
6.3
16.9
7.4
9.5
17.7
10.9
6.8
13.4
3.9
9. 5
1912
15. 2
5. 3
9.9
14.0
4.4
9.6
16. 5
8.7
7.8
10.1
2.8
7.3
1913
12. 1
4.7
7.4
18.1
6.9
11.2
15.1
8.0
7.2
11.3
3.7
Annual aver-
age, 1900 to
1913
13.1
J 5.1
I
8.0
1
17.0
7.4
10.2
13.1
j 6.7
6.4
11.8
j 4.2
7.6
MATERNAL MORTALITY
55
Table X. — Death rates per 100,000 population in the 11 States within the death-regis-
tration area in 1900 from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement, 1900 to
191 3 — Continued .
Death rate per 100,000 population from diseases caused by pregnancy and Confinement-
Continued.
Year.
Massachusetts.
Michigan.
New Hampshire.
New Jersey.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
1900
11.1
3.7
7.4
18.5
8.8
9.7
8.0
2.4
5.6
12.8
4.9
7.9
1901
9.4
3.2
6.2
19.0
9.1
9.9
7.0
3.1
3.9
9.9
3.8
6.1
1902
9.5
3.1
6.4
18.1
7.7
10.4
6. 7
2.6
4.1
11.0
4.8
6.2
1903
11.7
4.0
7.7
16.7
7.4
9.3
10.5
3.8
6.7
11.5
4. 6
6.9
1904
13.3
4.5
8.8
19.8
8.6
11.2
9. 1
3.3
5.7
12.7
6.3
6. t
1905
11.9
4.0
7.9
14.8
6.2
8.6
12.6
3.3
9.3
13.3
6.2
7.0
1906
12.5
3.9
8.5
16.3
6.4
9.9
14.9
5. 0
9.9
14.6
6.2
8.3
1907
12.8
4.3
8.4
15.7
6.4
9.3
10.6
3.1
7.5
13. 1
5.2
7.8
11.0
4.0
6.9
16.9
6.9
10.0
10.1
2.3
7.7
14.5
7.1
7.5
1909
14.6
5.1
9.4
15.0
6.9
8.2
13. 1
4.4
8.6
12.7
5.7 ;
7.0
1910
12.2
4.9
7.3
16.8
7.0
9.9
12.1
4.2
7.9
15. 5
7.5
8.1
1911
14.8
6.1
8.7
17.5
8.5
9.0
13.6
4.2
9.5
16.1
7.7
8.4
1912
13.1
5.3
7.8
14.7
6.2
8.5
15.2
5.1
10.1
15.2
6.1
9.2
1913....
14.4
5.3
9.1
19.7
9.3
10.4
13.5
4. 1
9.4
16.2
7.8 |
8.4
Annual aver-
age, 1900 to
1913
12.4 j
4.4 |
7.9
17.1
7.5
9.6
11.2
3.7
• 7.6
13.7
6.1
7. 3
New York.
Rhode Island.
Vermont.
Year.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
1900
14.1
6. 5
7.6
20.8
8.4
12.4
13.4
4.9
8.4
1901
15.1
6.2
8.9
18.9
6.8
12.1
9.6
2.9
6.7
1902
13.7
6.0
7.7
15.8
7.1
8.7
11.3
3.8
7.5
1903
14.0
6.0
8.0
13.5
5.9
7.6
14.7
3.5
11.2
1904
16.0
7.3
8.7
20.6
10.6
10.0
16.9
5.4
11.5
1905
16.9
7.8
9.1
20.8
8.9
11.8
18.9
4.3
14.6
1906
15.9
7.0
9.0
17.8
6.9
10.9
15.9
4.0 :
12.0
1907
17.1
7.7
9.4
19.5
8.1
11.4
27.0
7.1
19.9
190S
15. 7
7.2
8.5
16.7
6.0
10.8
18.9
6.2
12.7
1909
14.9
6.3
8.7
15.4
7.3
8.1
18.9
9.0
9.9
1910
15.1
6.7
8.4
15.0
5.0
10. 1
17. 1
6.2
10. 9
1911
15.0
6. 6
8.4
15.9
5.2
10.8
13.7
4.5
9.2
1912
13.5
6.0
7.6
14.1
5.1
9.0
13.7
2.2
11.4
1913
14.0
6.2
7.8
12.6
4.0
8.6
15.3
4. 7
19.6
Annual aver-
age, 1900 to
1913
15.1
6.7
8.4
16.8
6. 7
10.1
16.1
4.9
11.2
56
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
Table XI. — Deaths and death rates per 100,000 population in the death-registration area
from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement , by color of decedent, 1910 to 1913.
Deaths from diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement.
Number.
Rate per 100,000'population.
Year.
Total.
Puerperal
septicemia.
All other.
Total.
Puerperal
septicemia.
All other.
Whte.
Col-
ored.
White.
Col-
ored.
White.
Col-
ored.
White.
Col-
ored.
White.
Col-
ored.
White.
Col-
ored.
1910. ......
7,902
553
3,609
283
4,293
270
15.3
25.6
7.0
13.1
8.3
12.5
1911
8, 783
673
4,038
338
4,745
335
15.5
26.8
7.1
13.5
8.4
13.3
1912
8, 365
670
3,580
325
4,785
345
14.5
26.0
6.2
12.6
8.3
13.4
1913
9,167
843
4,170
372
4,997
471
15.2
26.1
6.9
11.5
8.3
14.6
Table XII. — -Average death rates per 100,000 population in certain countries from
diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement, 1900 to 1910.
Country.
Death rate per 100,000
population from dis-
eases caused by preg-
nancy and confine-
ment.
Country.
Death rate per 100,000
population from dis-
eases caused by preg-
nancy and confine-
ment.
Total. !
I Puer-
peral
septi-
| cemia.
All
other, i
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Sweden 1
6.0
2.4
3.5 1
Japan 1
13.3
4.5
8.8
Nor wav
8. 1
4.1
3.9
Australia 3
14. 1
4.7
9.4
Italy.
8.9
3.3
5.7
Belgium 3 ..... .
14.8
5.8
9.0
France 2
10.3
4.8
5.5
Scotland 1
14.8
5. 5
9.4
Prussia 3
10.4
4.7
5.8
United States 6
14.9
6.5
8.3
England and Wales
11. 1
4.7
6.5
Switzerland
15. 2
6.4
8.8
New Zealand
12.4
3.1
9.3 !
Spain 1 . . .
19.6
12.3
7.3
Ireland 4
12. 9
4.5
8.4
Austria . . .
( 7 )
!
6.6
1
< 7 )
Hungary
13.3
3.6
9.8
1 Rates based on figures for 1901 to 1910.
2 Rates based on figures for 1906 to 1910.
3 Rates based on figures for 1903 to 1910.
4 Rates based on figures for 1902 to 1910.
5 Rates based on figures for 1907 to 1910.
6 Rates based on figures for death-registration area which increased from year to year; in 1900 it comprised
40.5 per cent of the total population of the United States and in 1910, 58.3 per cent.
7 Figures not available.
Table XIII. — Average death rates per 1,000 live births in certain foreign countries from
diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement, 1900 to 1910.
Country.
Death rate per 1,000 live
births from diseases
caused by pregnancy
and confinement.
Country.
Death rate per 1,000 live
births from diseases
caused by pregnancy
and confinement.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
1
All
other.
Total.
Puer-
peral
septi-
cemia.
All
other.
Sweden 1
2.3
0.9
1.4
France 3
5.2
2.4
2.8
Italy... .
2. 7
1.0
1.7
Scotland 1
5.2
1.9
3.3
Norway.. .
2.9
1.5
1.4
Australia 4
5.3
1.8
3.5
Prussia 2 . .
3.2
1.4
1.8
Ireland 3
5. 5
1.9
3.6
Hungary
3.6
1.0
2.6
Switzerland
5. 6
2.4
3.3
England and Wales
4.1
1.7
2.4
Spain 1
5. 7
3.6
2.1
Japan 1
4. 1
1.4
2.7
Belgium 2
5.8
2.3
3.5
New Zealand .
4.6
1.2
3. 5
Austria «...
( 6 )
1.9
( 6 )
1 Rates based on figures for 1901 to 1910. 4 Rates based on figures for 1907 to 1910.
2 Rates based on figures for 1903 to 1910. 6 Rates based on figures for 1902 to 1910.
* Rates based on figures for 1906 to 1910. 6 Figures not available.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
57
Table XIV . — Deaths in certain countries from diseases caused by pregnancy and confine-
ment and number and per cent of such deaths from puerperal septicemia, 1900 to 1910.
Country.
Deaths from diseases
caused by pregnancy
and confinement.
Country.
Deathsfrom diseases
caused by pregnancy
and confinement.
Total.
Puerperal septi-
cemia.
Total.
Puerperal septr
cemia.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Sweden 1
Norway
Italy..'.
France 2
Prussia 3
England and Wales —
New Zealand
Ireland 4
3,179
2,032
32, 651
20, 217
31,680
41,691
1,190
5,109
1.294
L041
11,901
9,424
14,151
17,433
300
1, 792
40.7
51.2
36.4
46.6
44.7
41.8
25.2
35.1
Hungary
Japan 1
Australia 3
Belgium 3
Scotland 1
United States 6
Switzerland
Spain 1
29,273
63, 908
2,388
8, 588
6,839
63, 969
5, 897
37,504
7,824
21,494 |
800
3,392 ,
2,522 !
28,176 |
2,485
23,557
26.7
33.6
33.5
39.5
36.9
44.0
42.1
62.8
1 Figures for 1901 to 1910.
2 Figures for 1906 to 1910.
3 Figures for 1903 to 1910.
4 Figures for 1902 to 1910.
6 Figures for 1907 to 1910.
e Figures for death-registration area which increased from year to year; in 1900 it comprised 40.5 per cent
of the total population of the United States and in 1910, 58.3 per cent.
COMMENT ON SOURCES OF STATISTICS FOR FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
The following paragraphs present, by countries, the sources of the
figures subsequent to 1910 in Table XY for foreign countries and also
notes on certain of these figures which call for comment or explanation.
Unless otherwise specified the figures for all countries for the years
1900 to 1910, inclusive, are taken from the Statistique Internationale
du Mouvement de la Population d’apres les Registres de V Etat Civil,
of the Bureau de la statistique generate de la France. Tire figures
for 1900 come from the volume published in 1907 : those for 1901 to
1910 from that published in 1913.
These foreign sources were used only for the figures in columns 1,
3, 4, 9, and 13, from which the figures in columns 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11,
12, 14, 15, and 16 were computed. Blank spaces indicate that statis-
tics were not available. Similarly, where a table begins with data
for a year subsequent to 1900, it indicates that the figures for the
earlier years were not available, unless otherwise noted.
Australia (p. 60). — Bureau of census and statistics. Population and vital statistics.
Bulletins 29 and 30. 1911-1912.
Austria (p. 60). — Statistisches Centralcommission. Osterreichisches statistisch.es
Handbuch fur die im Reichsrathe vertretenen Konigreiche und Lander. Nebst
einem Anhange fur die gemeinsamen Angelegenheiten der osterreichischungarischen
Monarchic. Ilrsg. von der statistischen Centralcommission. XXXI Jahrgang. 1911.
The statistics for Austria give the deaths from puerperal septicemia only. The
figures for deaths from other diseases of pregnancy and confinement were not available.
The population for 1911 could not be secured from official publications, and was there-
fore estimated. In making this estimate, one-tenth of the increase from 1900 to 1910
was added to the figure for 1910.
58
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
Belgium ,(p. 60). — Ministere de l'interieur et de 1 instruction publique. Annuaire
statistique de la Belgique. 1912-13.
The population is that estimated as of December 31 of each year.
Belgium classifies stillbirths as “mort-nes et autres enfants presentes sans vie. ”
Englandand Wales (p. 61). — 74th-77th annual reports of the registrar general of births,
deaths, and marriages in England and Wales, 1911 to 1914.
Several points should be noted in the figures for England and Wales.
I. The registrar general’s reports, prior to 1911, grouped deaths from diseases of preg-
nancy and confinement into the two large groups “puerperal septic diseases” and
“diseases of pregnancy and childbirth (not septic),” and included phlegmasia alba
dolens in puerperal septic cl iseases. F or the years 1900 to 1910 the figures used are those
given by the Statistique Internationale. The deaths from phlegmasia alba dolens
have apparently been subtracted from puerperal septic diseases and have been added
to the other group, thus making the classification conform more nearly to the inter-
national nomenclature. Therefore, while the figures for “deaths from all diseases
caused by pregnancy and confinement” will agree with the official English figures,
those for the two other groups, prior to 1911, will not.
II. As the registrar general’s report for 1914 gives a table of deaths for the years 1900
to 1914 according to the detailed list of causes of death in use prior to 1911, this
table has been used as the source for the figures for England and Wales after 1910, so
that the statistics after 1910 can be compared with those of earlier years.
The number of deaths from puerperal septicemia for the years after 1910 is slightly
lower when the deaths are classified according to the International Classification than
when they are classified according to the older method, as given in table for England
and Wales. The deaths from other diseases of pregnancy and confinement are, of course,
correspondingly higher. This difference can be seen from the following:
Humber of deaths from, 'puerperal septicemia.
Year.
According to the Inter-
national Classification.
According to the classi-
fication in use prior to
1911.
1911
1,262
1,216
1, IDS
1,267
1,223
1912 -
1913
1,119
1,372
1914
1,365
III. The International Classification was not used in England until 1911, and deaths
from puerperal nephritis and albuminuria were not distinguished as puerperal until
after 1910. For England and Wales, therefore, the figures are presented for 1911 to
1914, inclusive, in two ways: (a) According to use in England prior to 1911, exclud-
ing deaths from puerperal nephritis and albuminuria; and (b) including deaths from
puerperal nephritis and albuminuria.
The number of these deaths was as follows:
1911
1912
1913
1914
Deaths from puerperal nephritis and albuminuria.
177
174
221
19S
Hungary (p. 61). — Statisztikai hivatal. Magyar statisztikai evkonyv. 1911.
The figures given for Hungary include those for Fiume and Croatia-Slavonia.
Ireland (p. 62). — 51st detailed annual report of the registrar general of marriages,
births, and deaths in Ireland in 1914.
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
59
I. The registrar general’s reports for Ireland , up through 1914, classify deaths from
diseases of pregnancy and confinement into two large groups— puerperal septic dis-
eases and diseases of pregnancy and childbirth (not septic), and include phlegmasia
alba dolens in puerperal septic diseases. This was the method used in England and
Wales prior to 1911. See note on England and Wales.
In the figures for Ireland, given by the Statistique Internationale, apparently no
correction has been made as in the case of England and Wales, but in the table here
given the figures have been corrected to make them comparable with those for Eng-
land and Wales and for other countries. To make this correction the deaths from
phlegmasia alba dolens were subtracted from deaths from puerperal septic diseases
and added to the other group. Thus while the figures for “deaths from all diseases
of pregnancy and confinement ” will agree with the official Irish figures and with those
given in the Statistique Internationale, those for the other two groups will not.
II. The figures for 1900 and for 1901 are not given because in those years the regis-
trar general's reports did not include under puerperal septic diseases either pyemia
or septicemia.
Italy (p. 62). — Direzione generale della statistica. Statistica delle cause di morte.
1911-1913.
Movimento de la popolazione. 1913.
Only columns 1, 3, and 4 for 1900 to 1910 were taken from the Statistique Interna-
tionale. The above original Italian sources were used, as in the Statistique Interna-
tionale the deaths from “other diseases of pregnancy and confinement ” and the deaths
from “ noncancerous tumors and other diseases of Ihe female genital organs” were
added together, for several years. (The figures here given were probably not avail able
when the Statistique Internationale was published.)
Japan (p. 63). — Bureau de la statistique generale. Mouvement de la population de
1’ empire du Japon for 1911 and 1912.
The population is that estimated as of December 31 of each year.
New Zealand (p. 63). — Registrar general’s office. Statistics of the Dominion of New
Zealand. 1911-1914.
Norway ( p. 63). — Statistiske centralbureau. Statistisk aarbok for kongeriget norge.
1914.
The population for 1911 and 1912 is that estimated as of December 31.
Scotland (p. 64). — 57th-60th annual reports of the registrar general for Scotland.
1911-1914.
The registrar general’s reports for Scotland prior to 1911, like those of England and
Wales and Ireland, included phlegmasia alba dolens under puerperal septic diseases.
As in the case of Ireland, the figures given by the Statistique Internationale have
apparently not been corrected. However, in the table here given the figures have
been corrected by the method described above in the comment on the statistics for
Ireland .
Sweden (p. 65). — Statistiska centralbyran. Statistisk arsbok for Sverige. 1915.
The population is that estimated as of December 31 of each year.
Switzerland (p. 65). — Statistisches Bureau. Statistisches Jahrbuch der Schweiz.
1914.
Table XV. — Population, births , deaths , and death rates per 100,000 population , per 1,000 births, and per 1,000 live births from diseases caused by
pregnancy and confinement in certain foreign countries for specified years.
60
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
MATERNAL MORTALITY. 61
CO CO CO CO
't*
■rfMcSbi
1-4 a
D
5 oo oo
00 CO O 00 CO
1 ~ N N to O
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3.2
3.1
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3.1
3.1
3.8
3.9
3.5
4.3
4.1
3.9
10.0
10.1
9.0
9.2
9.6
8.5
8.5
8.1
9.0
8.3
7.1
6.8
6.9
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22 22222 2288£ 88222
6.1
5.9
5.9
5.5
6.3
6.1
5.9
5.5
6.4
6.3
6.4
15.8
17.5
14.8
16.2
17.0
15.7
13.9
15.3
15.2
14.7
12.0
13.3
12.6
11 gISgg SIES3 8888.5
co coco'co'2" eo'cococo'co'
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66
MATERNAL MORTALITY.
Tabt.e XYI. — Average death rates per 100,000 population and per 1,000 live births from,
diseases caused by pregnancy and confinement in certain foreign countries for specified
periods of years.
Death rate from diseases caused hy pregnancy and confinement.
Country and specified period
Total.
Puerperal septicemia.
All other.
oi years.
Per 100,000
Per 1,000
Per 100,000
Per 1,000
Per 100.000
1 Per 1.000
population.
live births.
population.
live births.
population.
; live births.
1
Australia:
j -
Whole period
14.0
5.2
4.8
1.8
9.2
3.4
1907-1909
14.3
5.3
4.6
1.7
9.6
3.6
1910-1912
13.7
5.0
4.9
1.8
8.8
3.2
Austria:
j
6.5
1.9
1900-1903
7.2
2.0
1904-1907
6.2
1.8
i
1908-1911
6.2
1.9
Belgium:
Whole period
14.7
5.9
5.8
2.3
8.8
3.5
1903-1907
15.3
5.8
5.8
2.2
9.5
3.6
1908-1912
14. 1
6.0
5.9
2.5
8.3
3.5
England and Wales:
Whole period
10.6
4.0
4.3
1.6
6.3
i 2.4
1900-1904
12.5
4.4
5.5
1.9
7.0
2.5
1905-1909
10.3
3.9
4.2
1.6
6.2
2.3
1910-1914a 1
9. 1
3.7
3.4
1.4
5.6
2.3
France:
Whole period
10.3
5.2
4.8
2.4
5.5
2.8
1906-1910
10.3
5.2
4.8
2.4
5. 5
2.8
Hungary:
Whole period
13.2
3. 6
3.6
1.0
9.6
2.8
1900-1903
13.7
3.6
3.2
.8
10.4
2. 7
1904-1907
13.0
3.5
3.3
.9
9.7
2 . 8
19CS-1911
12.9
3.6
4.2
1.2
S. 7
2.4
Ireland :
I
Whole period
12.6
5.4
4.4
1.9
8.2
3.8
1902-1906
13.5
5.8
4.9
2.1
8.6
3.7
1907-1910
12.2
5.2
4.1
1.8
8. 1
3.5
1911-1914
11.9
5.2
4.0
1.7
7.9
3.5
Italy:
Whole period
8.7
2.7
3.1
1.0
5.5
1.7
1900-1904
8.8
2.7
3.2
1.0
5.6 i
1.7
1905-1909
9.2
2.8
3.4
1.0
5.9
1.8
1910-1913
7.9
2.4
2.8
.9
5. 1
1.6
Japan:
Whole period
13.0
4.0
4. 5
1.4
8.5
2.6
1901-1904
13.5
4.2
4.2
1.3
9.3
2.9
1905-1908
13.5
4.3
4.5
1.4
9. 1 i
2.9
1909-1912
12.0
3.6
4.9
1.5
7.1 j
2. 1
New Zealand:
1
Whole period
11.7
4.4
3.0
1.1
8.8 |
3.3
1900-1904
12.7
4.8
2.9
1. 1
9.8 !
3.7
1905-1909
12.3
4. 5
3.2
1.2
9. 1 i
3.3
1910-1914
10.5
4.0
2.8
1.1
7.8 |
3.0
Norway:
Whole period
8.1
2.9
4.1
1.5
3.9 i
1.4
19OO-1903
9.1
3.1
4.8
1.7
4.3 ;
1.4
1904-1907
7.4
2.7
3.8
1.4
3.6 i
1.3
1908-1910
7. 6
2.9
3.7
1.4
4.0 :
1.5
Prussia:
Whole period
10.4
3.2
4.7
1.4
5.8
1.8
1903-1908
11.0
3.2
5.0
1.5
6.0 i
1.8
1907-1910
9.9
3.1
4.4
1.4
5.5 '
1.7
Scotland:
i
Whole period
14.9
5.4
5.0
l.S
9.8
3.6
1901-1905
14.8
5. 1
6.0
2. 1
8.7
3.0
1906-1910
14.9
5. 4
4.9
1.8
10.0
3.6
1911-1914
14.9
5.8
4.0
1. 5
10.9
4.2
Spain :
Whole period
19.6
5. 7
12.3
3.6
7.3 |
2. 1
1901-1905
20. 1
5.7
12.6
3.6
7. 5 i
2. 1
1906-1910
19.2
5.7
12.1
3.6
7.1 i
2. 1
Sweden:
Whole period |
6.0
2.4
2.4
1.0
3.6
1.4
1901-1904
5.8
2.2
2.7
1.0
3.2
1. 2
1905-1908
6.0
2.3
2.4
.9
3.6
1.4
1909-1911
6.3
2.6
2.2
.9
4. 1
1.7
Switzerland:
Whole period
14.9
5. 6
6.4
2.4
8.5
3.2
1900-1904
16.3
5.8
6.7
2. 4
9.6
3.4
1905-1908
15.0
5.7
6. 5
2.4
8.5 j
3.2
1909-1912
13.1
5.3
5.9
2.4
7.3 !
2.9
1 See explanatory note on p. 58.
O
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
CHILDREN’S BUREAU
JULIA C. LATHROP, Chief
INFANT MORTALITY
RESULTS OF A FIELD STUDY IN MANCHESTER, N. H.
BASED ON BIRTHS IN ONE YEAR
By
BEATRICE SHEETS DUNCAN and EMMA DUKE
INFANT MORTALITY SERIES No. 6
Bureau Publication No. 20
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1917
ADDITIONAL COPIES
Off THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
25 CENTS PER COPY
CONTENTS.
•3 4 . 2 . 7
V)>\ 3 k'
■W20
Page.
Letter of transmittal 9
Introduction 11-20
Method and plan of study 12-16
Scope 12
Cooperation 13
Infants included and excluded 13
Table 1. — Births during selected year included in and excluded
from study, by nationality of mother 13
Table 2. — Registered and unregistered births during selected
year, infant deaths, infant mortality rate, and per cent of still-
births and miscarriages included in and excluded from study. . . 14
Table 3. — Registered births during selected year and infant deaths
excluded from study, and infant mortality rate, by nationality
of mother 15
Verification of father’s earnings 15
Table 4. — Infant mortality rates based upon accepted, original,
and revised figures, by father’s earnings 16
Explanation of terms 17
General industrial conditions 19-20
Industries 19
Conditions of employment 19
Part I. Analysis of findings 21-118
Infant mortality rate 21
Age at death 21-24
Table 5. — Number and per cent distribution of deaths among
infants born during selected year, by specified age at death,
according to nativity of mother 21
Table 6. — Per cent distribution of deaths in Manchester and in
registration area, by specified age at death 22
Table 7. — Deaths among infants born during selected year, by age
and cause of death 24
Medical cause of death 24-27
Gastric and intestinal diseases 24
Table 8. — Per cent distribution of deaths in Manchester and in
registration area, by specified cause 25
Table 9. — Deaths among infants born during selected year, infant
mortality rate, and per cent distribution of deaths, by cause of
death, according to nativity of mother 26
Table 10. — Number and per cent distribution of deaths among
infants born during selected year, by ward of residence and
cause of death 27
Season and climate 27-30
Deaths, by seasons 27
Table 11. — Deaths among infants born duiing selected year, by
month of occurrence and cause of death 28
3
4
CONTENTS.
Part I. Analysis of findings — Continued.
Season and climate — Continued. Page
Climate 29
Month of birth 29
Table 12. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant mor-
tality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by month of birth 29
Table 13. — Deaths among infants born during selected year, by age
at death and month of birth 30
Table 14. — Deaths among infants born during selected year, by
year and month of death and of birth 30
Stillbirths 31-32
Nationality of mother 31
Table 15. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant mor-
tality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by nationality of mother. . 31
Gainful employment of mother _ 31
Table 16. — Per cent of stillbirths according to employment of
mother during year before baby’s birth 32
Sex 32-33
Table 17. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant mor-
tality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by sex of baby and nativity
of mother 32
Masculinity 32
Table 18. — Number of male per 1,000 female births, by nativity
of mother ; 33
Age of mother and order of birth 33-37
Age of mother 33
Table 19. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant
mortality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by age of mother at
birth of child and nativity of mother 34
Order of birth 34
Table 20. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant
mortality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by number of child
in order of birth and nativity of mother 35
Table 21. — Per cent distribution of births during selected year
and of infant deaths, by number of child in order of birth,
according to nativity of mother 36
Size of family 36
Table 22. — Number and per cent distribution of infants born dur-
ing selected year, by number of child in order of birth, according
to earnings of father 37
Attendant at birth 37-38
Table 23. — Number and per cent distribution of births during
selected year, by attendant at birth, according to nativity of
mother 38
Economic and industrial factors. 38- 54
Occupation of father 38
Table 24. — Infants born during selected year, by earnings and
occupation of father 39
Father’s earnings an index of economic status 40
Distribution of economic groups - 40
Table 25. — Number and per cent distribution of births during
selected year, by earnings of father, according to nativity of
mother 42
CONTENTS.
5
Part I. Analysis of findings — Continued.
Economic and industrial factors — Continued. Page-
Infant mortality rate, by father’s earnings 44
Table 26. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant
mortality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by earnings of father
and nativity of mother 44
Father’s earnings supplemented 46
Total income 46
Table 27. — Number and per cent distribution of infants born dur-
ing selected year, by total family income, according to earnings
of father 46
Father’s earnings and employment of mother 47
Table 28. — Number and per cent of births during selected year
to mothers gainfully employed during year following baby’s
birth, by earnings of father and nativity of mother 48
Mother ’ s earnings - 50
Table 29. — Number and per cent distribution of births during
selected year to gainfully employed mothers, by earnings of
mother during year following baby’s birth, according to nativity
of mother 50
Work during year before baby’s birth 50
Table 30. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant
mortality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by occupation of
mother during year before baby’s birth 50
Table 31. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant
mortality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by nativity of mother
and her employment at home or away from home during year
before baby’s birth ! 51
Work during year after baby’s birth 52
Table 32. — Live births during selected year, infant deaths, and
infant mortality rate, by employment of mother at home or
away from home during year following baby’s birth, and baby’s
age when mother resumed gainful work away from home 52
Significance of mother’s absence 53
Table 33. — Infants whose mothers resumed work away from home
during baby’s lifetime, infant deaths, and infant mortality rate,
by baby’s age when mother resumed gainful work 54
Mother’s work and infant mortality in low-earnings group 54
Table 34. — Live births, infant deaths, and infant mortality rate
for low-earnings group, by employment of mother during year
following baby’s birth 54
Nativity and nationality 55-62
Foreign element in city 55
Foreign-born mothers in this study 55
French Canadians 56
Nationality and infant mortality 56
Economic status and size of family. 56
Table 35. — Average number of persons per family and number
and per cent of births during selected year in families of from 1
to 4 persons and of more than 4 persons, by earnings of father and
nativity of mother 57
Economic status of French Canadians and others 58
Employment of foreign-born mothers 58
6 CONTENTS.
Part I. Analysis of findings — Continued.
Nativity and nationality — Continued. Page.
Ability to speak English 59
Table 36. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant
mortality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by ability of mothet
to speak English 59
Years in United States 60
Table 37. — Births during selected year to foreign-born mothers,
infant deaths, infant mortality rate, and per cent of stillbirths,
by length of residence of mother in United States 61
Table 38. — Number and per cent distribution of births during
selected year to foreign-born mothers by specified length of
residence of mother in United States, according to nationality. . 61
Literacy 62
Table 39. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant
mortality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by literacy and
nativity of mother 62
Conditions peculiar to French Canadians 62
Feeding . 63-75
Feeding and infant mortality 63
Effects of feeding in each month of age 63
Table 40. — Infants bom during selected year and surviving at
beginning of specified month and deaths in first year and in
specified month, by nativity of mother and type of feeding 64
Table 41. — Infants born during selected year surviving at 3, 6,
and 9 months and deaths at specified age, by type of feeding
and nativity of mother 66
Feeding methods and nationality 68
Table 42. — Per cent distribution of infants of native and of French-
Canadian and other foreign-born mothers, by type of feeding
at and during specified periods 69
Feeding methods in economic groups 69
Table 43. — Number and per cent of infants born during selected
year artificially fed at specified age, by earnings of father and
nationality of mother 70
Effects of feeding modified by income 71
Table 44. — Infants born during selected year and surviving at
specified time and infant deaths, by type of feeding at 3 and 6
months of age and earnings of father 72
Feeding methods and employment of mother 72
Table 45. — Number and per cent of infants born during selected
year artificially fed at specified age, by nationality and em-
ployment of mother during year following baby’s birth 73
General discussion of feeding methods 74
Substitutes for mother’s milk 75
Maternal histories 75-87
Infant mortality rate, all pregnancies 76
Table 46. — Number of mothers, births resulting from all preg-
nancies, infant deaths, infant mortality rate, and per cent of
stillbirths, by number of births per mother and nativity of
mother 76
CONTENTS. 7
Part I. Analysis of findings — Continued.
Maternal histories — Continued. Page.
Stillbirths and miscarriages u . . 77
Table 47. — Mothers reporting specified number of miscarriages,
by number of pregnancies per mother and nativity of mother 77
Table 48. — Mothers reporting specified number of stillbirths,
by number of births per mother and nativity of mother 78
Age at death 79
Table 49. — Mothers reporting specified number of infant deaths,
by number of live births per mother and nativity of mother 79
Table 50. — Mothers reporting specified number of stillbirths and
deaths of infants aged 2 weeks or less, by number of births per
mother and nativity of mother 80
Order of pregnancy and age of mother 80
Table 51. — Births resulting from all pregnancies, infant deaths,
infant mortality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by order of
pregnancy and age of mother 81
Plural births 83
Table 52. — Plural births resulting from all pregnancies, infant
deaths, infant mortality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by age of
mother 83
Nationality of mother 83
Table 53. — Number of mothers, births resulting from all pregnan-
cies, infant deaths, infant mortality rate, and per cent of still-
births, by nationality of mother 84
Economic status 84
Table 54. — Number of mothers, births resulting from all preg-
nancies, infant deaths, infant mortality rate, and per cent
of stillbirths, by earnings of father and nativity of mother 85
Size of family and infant mortality 85
Table 55. — Number of mothers, live births resulting from all
pregnancies, and infant mortality rate, by specified number of
births per mother 86
Large families and nationality 86
Table 56. — Average number of births per mother and number and
per cent distribution of mothers, by specified number of births,
according to nationality 86
General discussion of maternal histories 87
Illustrative cases 87
Table 57. — Mothers married specified number of years, by number of
births per mother, infant survivals, infant deaths, and stillbirths 101
Illegitimacy 108
E nvironment 108
Housing 109-115
Sanitary condition of baby’s home 109
Table 58. — Number of dwellings occupied by native and foreign-
born mothers, by sanitary condition of dwelling 110
Street and alley frontage 110
Table 59. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant mor-
tality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by location of dwelling. . 110
Multiple dwellings Ill
Table 60. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant mor-
tality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by number of dwellings
per building Ill
8
CONTENTS.
Part I. Analysis of findings — Continued.
Housing — Continued. Page.
Room congestion 112
Table 61. — Births during selected year, by number of rooms and
persons per dwelling and by nativity of mother 112
Table 62. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant mor-
tality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by number of persons per
room and nativity of mother 113
Rent 114
Table 63. — Live births during selected year, infant deaths, and
infant mortality rate , by tenure of home and nativity of mother . . 115
Wards 116
Table 64. — Births during selected year, infant deaths, infant mor-
tality rate, and per cent of stillbirths, by ward of residence 117
Table 65. — Births during selected year, by ward of residence and
nationality of mother 117
Conclusions 117-118
Infant mortality rate 117
Environment 117
Low earnings 118
Mother’s employment 118
Nationality 118
Large families 118
Artificial feeding 118
Part II. Civic activities and conditions 119-134
Organization of inf ant- welfare work 119
Birth registration 120
Philanthropic institutions and agencies 120-122
Private relief 121
Public relief 121
Public care and protection of infants 122
Education 123
Public health and sanitation 123-130
Administration 123
Milk supply 124
Water supply 127
Streets ’ 127
Sewerage 128
Garbage and refuse collection 129
Housing 130
Schedule used in investigation 134
Illustrations Follow 134
Map of Manchester Follows illus.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U. S. Department of Labor,
Children’s Bureau,
Washington , November 4, 1916 .
Sir: I transmit herewith a study of infant mortality in the city of
Manchester, N. H., for one year, bewrg the third item in the field
inquiry begun by the study of infant mortality in Johnstown, Pa.
Manchester was selected because of its high infant mortality rate,
according to the United States census figures (1910), because it is
within the birth-registration area, and because certain of its indus-
trial characteristics are in marked contrast with those of Johnstown.
The field work was directed and the preparation of the statistical
material was supervised by Miss Emma Duke, now in charge of the
bureau’s statistical division. The text was prepared principally by
Mrs. Beatrice Sheets Duncan, who, however, resigned from the bureau
before the completion of the report. The final revision was made by
Miss Duke and Mr. Howard C. Jenness. A supplementary field study
of father’s earnings was in charge of Miss Marie Kasten.
An unusually large number of field agents and statistical clerks
shared in the work of this report because it was made during a tran-
sition period — while the civil-service examinations for the enlarged
staff were pending — and it was necessary to secure a considerable
number of temporary assistants. I regret that it is therefore im-
practicable to mention all those in the office and in the field who
have assisted in this study.
Respectfully submitted.
Julia C. Lathrop, Chief.
Hon. William B. Wilson,
Secretary of Labor.
9
'
,
.
.
.
'
INFANT MORTALITY, MANCHESTER, N. H.
INTRODUCTION.
Manchester, N. H., was the second city selected by the Children’s
Bureau for a field inquiry into infant mortality in its series of com-
munity studies upon this subject. The first study was made in
Johnstown, Pa., a steel-mill city containing a large foreign population.
A second report upon infant mortality, however, has been published
by the bureau, namely, that for Montclair, N. J., a suburban resi-
dence community, where the investigation itself was conducted by
the city authorities and the results presented by them to the Chil-
dren’s Bureau for analysis.
Manchester was chosen for several reasons: It had an unusually
high infant mortality rate, it was within the registration area for births
and deaths so that records for those were available, and it presented
conditions which usually are associated with high infant mortality —
namely, a large foreign population and a considerable proportion of
industrially employed women.
Because of incomplete registration of births and deaths infant mor-
tality rates are not available for all cities in the United States, but
only for those cities in which such registration is considered to be 90
per cent complete. Of such cities, according to the table, only two,
Holyoke and Lowell, have higher infant mortality rates than Man-
chester, and the high rate in Holyoke is perhaps due in part to the
presence there of a large infant asylum which receives infants born in
other cities.
For the registration States, 1 which in 1910 comprised 58.3 per cent
of the population and 33.6 per cent of the land area of the United
States, the infant mortality rate for 1910 was 124, as computed by the
Bureau of the Census. In other words, for every eight births there
was one infant death.
Behind a general rate, however, are variations not only among
different communities but, more markedly, among different groups
within the same community; and to trace, if possible, these variations
between and within communities and to learn in detail the conditions
under which babies live and die is the purpose of the series of studies
to which the present report is a contribution.
1 The registration States are those in which the registration of deaths is considered by the Bureau of the
Census to be at least 90 per cent complete.
12
INFANT MORTALITY.
The term infant mortality rate as ordinarily used means the number
of deaths of infants (i. e., babies under 1 year of age) per 1,000 live
births in the same area during the same year. In Manchester in 1910,
according to statistics published by the Federal Bureau of the Census,
this rate was 193. How it compares with rates in other cities of
at least 50,000 population in 1910 is shown in the following table: 1
Infant mortality rates for registration cities having a population of at least 50,000
in 1910.
City.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
City.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
Connecticut:
New York, N. Y
125
Bridgeport
123
Bronx Borough
96
Hartford
119
Brooklyn Borough
117
New Haven
108
Manhattan Borough
135
Waterbury
149
Queens Borough
122
Manchester, N. H
193
Richmond Borough
138
Massachusetts:
Pennsylvania:
Boston
126
Allentown
144
Brockton
99
Altoona
119
Cambridge
119
Erie
115
Fall River
186
Harrisburg
129
Holyoke
213
Johnstown
165
Lawrence
167
Philadelphia.. .•
138
Lowell
231
Pittsburgh
150
Lynn
97
Reading
142
New Bedford
177
Scranton
148
Somerville
101
Wilkes-Barre
146
Springfield
124
Portland, Me
144
Worcester
137
Rhode Island:
Michigan:
Pawtucket ■
( 2 )
Detroit
179
Providence
( 2 )
Grand Rapids
122
Washington, D. C
’ 152
Saginaw
145 f
1 Based on provisional figure for births.
a Returns of births not received from State board of health in time for inclusion.
METHOD AND PLAN OF STUDY.
The infant mortality rates for Manchester and other cities shown in
the foregoing table are computed from the births and deaths regis-
tered during a given calendar year. Obviously the deaths in part
were of babies born during the previous year and the rate can not be
used as an exact measure of the deaths of those born during a given
year. To avoid this inaccuracy and to obtain a precise rate it would
be necessary to follow through their first year of life all babies born
during the year and to note the deaths occurring among them within
that period. Such a method requires not only perfect birth registra-
tion but the means of locating the baby (or its family) 12 months
after birth, and therefore for most communities is quite impracticable;
but the present study has been limited to those babies to whom
this method can be applied. It is, therefore, the one employed.
Scope. — The work of investigation was begun in Manchester in
the fall of 1914, when all the babies born within the selected period
might have completed 12 months of life. The study, as stated, was
confined to registered babies whose names and addresses were obtained
i Derived from table on page 18 of Bulletin 109, Mortality Statistics, 1910, Bureau of the Census, Washing-
ton, 1912.
INFANT MORTALITY.
13
from the birth certificates on file at the city hall. So far as possible
all their mothers were interviewed and information secured regard-
ing the care of the baby, the character of the home, the economic
status of the family, etc., and the information thus secured was
recorded upon the schedules and furnishes the basis for analyzing
the factors contributing toward the high infant mortality rate in
Manchester. All such information was secured whether the babies
lived or died, the purpose being to study the conditions existing the
first year after birth, and to note under what circumstances babies
survive or fail to survive.
Cooperation. — Before the work of interviewing the mothers v/as
begun the nature and purpose of the investigation was explained fully
through the newspapers and by the clergy in order that the interest
and cooperation of the public and particularly of the mothers might
be secured. From the beginning every courtesy was extended to the
agents by the local city officials in giving access to city records and
support to the investigation. The mothers were found ready and will-
ing to give the information desired as soon as they understood the
reason for it. Evidence of the cordial response which they made to
this inquiry is furnished by the fact that in six cases only was the
information refused.
Infants included and excluded. — The investigation was limited to
the live births and stillbirths registered in Manchester between
November 1, 1912, and October 31, 1913. These numbered 2,152,
but for the reasons noted in the following summary 604 of the births
during the selected year were excluded from the study. Of these,
95 were excluded because they were not registered and 470 because
the babies could not be found.
Table 1.
Births during selected year.
Nationality of mother.
All mothers
Nativity unknown
Native
Foreign-bom
Canadian, French
Canadian, except French
Polish
English, Irish, Scotch
Greek and Syrian
German
Jewish
Ruthenian and Lithuanian . .
All other and no report
Total.
In-
cluded
in
study.
Excluded from study and reasons for exclusion.
Total.
Un-
regis-
tered 1
Not
found. 2
Mother
dead and
data in-
complete.
Infor-
mation
refused.
Miscar-
riage. 3
Illegiti-
mate. 4
2, 247
1,643
604
95
470
15
6
7
11
2
2
2
724
548
176
27
132
4
3
3
7
1,521
1,095
426
66
338
11
3
4
4
808
610
198
28
160
7
3
41
27
14
13
1
277
170
107
21
81
2
1
1
1
144
115
29
6
18
1
2
2
113
72
41
9
32
31
30
1
1
25
24
1
1
30
22
8
2
5
1
52
25
27
27
1 Including 9 illegitimate births.
2 Including 24 illegitimate births.
* Study confined to issues of pregnancy resulting from 7 or more months’ gestation.
4 Mother visited; results discussed in illegitimacy section on page 108.
14
INFANT MORTALITY.
In 1,643 instances complete schedules were secured and used as
the basis of this study. Of these, 79 were for stillborn infants.
Among the "1,564 live-bom infants occurred 258 infant deaths, a
mortality rate of 165. This rate is not offered as an accurate one for
the city nor as one to be used in comparison with the rates for other
cities, but rather as a rate accurate for the sample group of babies
selected for detailed study.
The precise infant mortality rate for the city as a whole can not
be computed, because the exact number of births and of deaths
during the 12 months is not known. We know that in addition to
the 509 excluded cases of babies whose births were registered, other
babies were born in the selected period whose births were not reg-
istered. Agents found 95 such babies chiefly through the death
certificates, but no attempt was made to find all surviving unregis-
tered births. Hence to compute a rate for unregistered births,
learned of principally through death certificates, is obviously un-
sound; in fact, such a rate would be over 800.
Practically all infant deaths in Manchester were recorded, but the
number of the excluded babies who may have died outside the city
is unknown; therefore a rate based upon those who were born in
Manchester and moved away in their first year would be too low.
By using all available data (that is, not only the births included
in the study but also the 509 registered and the 95 unregistered
births excluded from the study) , incomplete as they are, for computing
a rate, we find an infant mortality rate of 188.7. This rate is un-
doubtedly too high, for, as we have seen, no canvass was made to
find all babies whose births were not registered. If all babies had
been located and included in the study the true rate for the city
would lie in all probability somewhere between the two rates, 165
and 188.7.
Table 8.
Births during selected year and infant deaths.
Live births.
Stillbirths and
miscarriages. 1
Total
births.
Infant deaths.
Total.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate.
Number.
Percent.
Total
2,247
2,114
399
188.7
133
5.9
Included in detailed study, registered
1 643
1,564
258
165.0
79
4.8
Excluded from detailed study
604
550
141
256.4
54
8.9
Registered
509
471
77
163.5
38
7.5
Unregistered
95
79
64
810. 1
16
16.8
1 Dead issues of less than 7 months' gestation were not included in the detailed study.
INFANT MORTALITY.
15
A classification by mother’s nationality of registered births that
were excluded from tabulation shows the number of such births to
foreign-born and to native mothers.
Table 3.
Registered births during selected year and in-
fant deaths excluded from detailed study.
Live births.
Nationality of mother.
Total
births.
Infant deaths.
Still-
births
and mis-
carriages.
Total.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
All mothers
509
471
77
163.5
38
Native
149
135
21
155. 6
14
Foreign-born
360
336
56
166.7
24
Canadian, French
170
155
29
187. 1
15
Canadian, except French
14
13
1
1
Polish
86
83
13
3
English, Irish, Scotch *
23
22
7
1
Greek and Syrian
32
30
5
2
German
1
1
Jewish
1
Ruthenianand Lithuanian
6
6
All other
27
25
1
2
i Not shown where base is less than 100.
Verification of father’s earnings. — Information concerning father’s
earnings was originally obtained from the mother, but when the
schedules had all been completed and turned in to the office a ques-
tion arose as to whether or not mothers generally are able to give
reasonably accurate statements concerning their husbands’ earnings.
It was decided, therefore, to check or verify the mothers’ answers
and, accordingly, eight months after the original data were secured,
agents were sent to Manchester for this purpose.
Employers gave generous assistance in this work, and the agents
of the bureau had free access to the pay rolls. Because of similarity
of names, identification was sometimes difficult; and on account of
shifts from one job to another in the same establishment, or from
one establishment to another, it was not always possible to secure
from pay rolls the earnings of a given man for the entire year.
When the pay-roll record was not complete for the entire year, the
agents supplemented the information thus secured by interviews
with fathers. Sometimes the fathers found it difficult to remember
the earnings for a definite year, namely, that which followed the
birth of the baby whose history was being studied, particularly when
that was two or more years prior to the time of the interview.
In view of these chances of error, each record secured by the veri-
fiers was carefully studied in connection with the original returns,
and that which bore evidence of greater accuracy was accepted.
16
INFANT MORTALITY.
Where the evidence seemed to afford no basis for choice, preference
was given the verifiers’ returns.
Averaging the results, it was unexpectedly found that on the whole
the complete statements secured from pay rolls and in interviews
with employers and fathers were lower than those previously ob-
tained from mothers. As a result of the test it was decided that the
deviations were unimportant, and confidence in the mothers’ state-
ments of earnings was strengthened.
When infant mortality rates were computed according to father’s
earnings on the bases of the original, the revised, and the accepted
figures, there was found to be little difference in trend in the three
sets of figures. The following table and the diagram on the next page
indicate the amount of this variation :
Table 4.
Father’s earnings.
Infant mortality rates based
upon—
Accepted
figures.
Original
figures.
Revised
figures.
Under $494
261. 1
241.0
262.4
$494 to $571
172.2
194.9
145. 7
$572 to $675
186 3
196.2
191. 7
$676 to $883
151. 1
158.9
145. 7
$884 to $1,091
143.9
152. 5
146.2
$1,092 and over
58. 8
94. 9
53. 2
It will be noticed that the limits of the earnings groups of the
diagram differ radically from those of the tables in the body of this
report. The limits in the diagram were those originally chosen ; the
change in this report was the result of a deliberate attempt to secure
greater accuracy in results, because a close examination of the in-
dividual reports disclosed a marked tendency to concentration of
earnings on the even hundreds and on those sums which were mul-
tiples of a certain weekly wage. Obviously, of those reporting round
numbers, or sums that were multiples of 52, some probably earned
more or less than those amounts. Many reported earning a definite
weekly wage for the whole year, when in many instances records
showed that they had earned less on account of unemployment or
more because they had supplemented these earnings by extra work.
The limits of the earnings groups were changed, therefore, so
that as far as possible those points of concentration might fall
well within the various groups rather than near the upper or lower
limit of any group. With the limits of a group fixed at $550 to
$649, a father reported as earning $600 who may have earned $50
more or less would fall still within the proper group ; or a father
earning $12 per week who might have suffered six weeks of idle-
ness would be correctly classified so far as the earnings group was
concerned.
EXPLANATION OF
TERMS.
Lack of uniformity
in the definitions of
such terms as infant,
birth, live birth, still-
birth, miscarriage,
etc., makes it essen-
tial that the mean-
ings assigned these
words in this report
be explained.
There are no stand-
ard definitions for
these terms which are
uniformly used by
medical or legal au-
thorities or vital stat-
isticians and given
the same meaning by
the general public in
various lo cab ties. It
is generally under-
stood that a child is
born dead when it
shows no signs of life
at birth, but there
have been various
legal decisions as to
what physiological
function or functions
are to be regarded as
signs of life.
In this report the
statements of the at-
tending physician on
these points as well
as upon all medical
matters are accepted,
and any child re-
corded as live-born
or dead-born by the
attending physician
has been reported
accordingly.
Stillbirth has been
applied to all dead-
72624 0 — 17 2
DIAGRAM I.— INFANT MORTALITY RATES BY FATHER’S
EARNINGS, DERIVED FROM ACCEPTED FIGURES, ORIGI-
NAL FIGURES, AND REVISED FIGURES.
RATE.
Under *494 to $572 to $676 to $884 to $1,092
$494. $571. $675. $883. . $1,091. and over.
Accepted figures.
Original figures.
x x Revised figures.
17
18
INFANT MORTALITY.
born issues of pregnancy which resulted from seven or more calen-
dar months’ gestation; and the term miscarriage to all dead-born
issues which have resulted from less than seven calendar months’
gestation.
The following are brief explanations of the meanings assigned to
some of the expressions used in the text and tables of this report :
Selected year. Year ended October 31, 1913.
Infant. Child under 1 year of age.
Live birth. Infant reported by attending physician as born alive.
Stillbirth. Product of pregnancy expelled after seven or more
months’ gestation and reported by attending physician as born dead.
Total births. Sum of live births and stillbirths. Miscarriages are
excluded.
Miscarriage. Product of pregnancy expelled during first seven
months of pregnancy and reported by attending physician as born
dead.
Infant death. Death of an infant under 1 year of age.
Infant mortality rate. The number of infant deaths per 1,000 live
births during selected year.
All pregnancies. Miscarriages are excluded unless the contrary is
indicated by a note.
Maternal records. Statistics on maternal records are based upon
complete pregnancy records furnished by married mothers. When-
ever the mother had borne children before her marriage, or whenever
she had not been able to state positively the age at death of her
various children, or the information was in any way incomplete, her
record was not included.
Ward of residence. The ward in which live-born infants spent the
greater part of their life and in which stillborn infants’ mothers spent
the greater part of their pregnancy. This was not necessarily the
ward in which the birth or death occurred.
Housing. Information as to congestion, house defects, rent, etc.,
was secured for the house in which the baby spent the greater part
of the first year of its life.
Earnings and income. Reports were secured of the earnings and
income of the family only for the year following the birth of the
infant even in the case of stillborn children, and hence earnings
invariably relate to that year.
Occupation of father. The occupation reported for the father is the
principal one in which he was engaged in the year following the birth
of the infant during the selected year.
Occupation of mother. Occupation of mother was ascertained for
the year preceding and the year following the birth of the infant during
the selected year.
INFANT MORTALITY.
19
GENERAL INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS.
Industries. — The dominant industry of Manchester is the manu-
facture of textiles, particularly cotton. This industry at present em-
ploys more than three times as many people as any other and has
played an important part in the city’s growth and development from
its very early history. As far back as 1809 cotton manufacture was
started here in what was then the little village of Derryfield. The
Amoskeag Falls at this point of the Merrimack River furnish the
abundant water power which has been largely responsible for the
development of Manchester into a textile city. In 1794 the potential
value of the falls was recognized by Judge Samuel Blodgett, who
undertook the project of building a dam and a canal. He predicted,
that the village of Derryfield some day would become “the Manches-
ter of America,” 1 and in 1810 in honor of his memory the name was
changed to Manchester.
The development of the cotton textile industry was slow until 1825,
when the enterprise begun in 1809 was taken over by a new company,
under whose management the business prospered. Since that period
the growth of the industry has been steady. In 1831 a final incor-
poration under a new management took place, and the company
formed then has continued up to the present time.
According to the Federal census of 1910 the total number of persons
10 years of age and over gainfully employed in Manchester was
35,000, of whom 22,743 were male and 12,257 female. There were
25,131 persons engaged in manufacturing and mechanical industries,
and of these 9,126 were females.
At present two establishments in Manchester are engaged in cotton
manufacture. One of these produces the coarser cotton goods —
ducks, sheeting, etc. The other, in addition to the heavy and coarser
products, manufactures cotton dress goods, such as ginghams and
prints, as well as some worsted goods. These two establishments
are reported by the employers as having approximately 1§,800
employees, of whom 15,500 are in one establishment. The number of
women employed in the manufacture of textiles is about 8,600.
The manufacture of shoes is next in importance to that of textiles.
The six largest establishments employ over 6,000 persons, many of
whom are women. Women also work to a considerable extent in the
manufacture of cigars.
Conditions of employment. — The conditions of employment vary
in the different industries. The hours of labor prescribed for women
regulate to some extent those of men in industries where both are
employed, and Saturday afternoon half holiday is the custom in
most of the factory occupations. The cotton operatives are relatively
1 Manchester, a Brief Record of Its Past and a Picture of Its Present, p. 21. Maurice D. Clarke, com-
piler, Manchester, N. H., 1875.
20
INFANT MORTALITY.
unskilled and receive lower rates of wages than employees in the shoe
and cigar factories. The industry offers steady employment; however,
practically throughout the year, with the exception of two weeks’
shutdown in the fall, and consequently the labor force contains a
stable element of regular workers who have been employed for a
period of years. One company encourages stability by engaging in
extensive welfare work and by offering its employees assistance in
building homes.
The cotton operatives are of many nationalities — French-Canadian,
English, Scotch, Irish, Polish, Greek, and Syrian. The last three
named are the latest arrivals and as a rule are found in the least-
skilled and lowest-paid occupations. The French Canadians predomi-
nate in number.
Employment in the shoe industry has been much less regular than
that in the mills. This condition, however, as well as the rate of pay,
varies somewhat with the different establishments . 1
1 Following are the more important provisions of the laws regulating the employment of women and
children in force in 1914: Working hours for women and minors in manufacturing, mechanical, and mer-
cantile establishments, laundries, restaurants, and confectionery stores, or in the employ of express or
transportation companies, shall not exceed 10£ in any one day nor 55 in any one week. In the same estab-
lishments girls and women employed at night — that is, if any part of their employment on more than
one day a week is between 8 p.m. and 6 a. m. of the following day — may not work more than 8 hours in any
24, nor more than 48 hours in any one week. [Acts of 1913, ch. 156. Ch. 164 of the acts of 1915 amends
this act by providing for certain exemptions and by making the maximum of 10^ hours a day and 55 a
week apply to any female or "minor under 18 years of age” instead of toany femaleor "minor.”] Children
under 14 are not allowed to work in a comprehensive list of employments, including work in factories
and mercantile establishments, and may not work under 16 in those employments unless they have
fulfilled certain educational requirements. [Acts of 1911, ch. 162, as amended by acts of 1913, ch. 224.
Ch. 61 of the acts of 1915 amends this act, but makes no important change except that it permits em-
ployment during school vacation without the fulfillment of the educational requirements.]
PART I. ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS.
INFANT MORTALITY RATE.
In the detailed study of infant life and mortality in Manchester the
group was composed, as we have seen, of 1,643 registered infants
horn during the 12-month period ended October 31, 1913. Of these,
79, or 4.8 per cent, were stillborn, and of the 1,564 live born, 258 died
under 1 year of age, making an infant mortality Tate of 165.
AGE AT DEATH.
The largest proportion of deaths occurred in the early period of
infancy, which always makes the greatest inroads upon infant life,
and especially is this true of the first few days. In the first week
46 deaths occurred, constituting 17.8 per cent of all deaths. If the
same number had occurred in each succeeding week, all the babies
would have been dead before the end of eight months. On the first
day the percentage of deaths was higher than on any other day, and
although it continued high for a number of weeks it declined pro-
gressively from the day of birth to the end of the year.
Table 5.
Deaths among infants born during selected year to —
Age at death.
All mothers.
Native
mothers.
Foreign-born mothers.
Num-
ber.
1
Per
cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent
distri-
bution.
French-
Canadian
mothers.
Other for-
eign-born
mothers.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent
distri-
bution.
All ages
258
100.0
67
100.0
191
100.0
129
100.0
62
100.0
Under 1 month
72
27.9
16
23.9
56
29.3
38
29.5
18
29.0
Less than 1 day
17
6.6
4
6.0
13
6.8
11
8.5
2
3.2
1 day but less than 2
6
2.3
2
3.0
4
2.1
2
1.6
2
3.2
2 days but less than 3
8
3. 1
8
4.2
7
5.4
1
1.6
3 days but less than 7
15
5.8
2
3.0
13
6.8
8
6.2
5
8.1
1 week but less than 2
10
3.9
5
7.5
5
2.6
2
1.6
3
4.8
2 weeks but less than 1
month
16
6.2
3
4.5
13
6.8
8
6.2
5
8.1
1 month but less than 2
24
9.3
4
6.0
20
10.5
15
11.6
5
8.1
2 months but less than 3
24
9.3
4
6.0
20
10.5
10
7.8
10
16.1
3 months but less than 6
57
22.1
22
32.8
35
18.3
26
20.2
9
14.5
6 months but less than 9
49
19.0
14
20.9
35
18.3
27
20.9
8
12.9
9 months but less than 12
32
12.4
7
10.4
25
13.1
13
10.1
12
19.4
21
22
INFANT MORTALITY.
Deaths on the first day were 6.6 per cent of deaths under 1 year;
those of the first week 17.8 per cent; of the first month 27.9 per cent.
In the first three months of life there were 120 deaths, or 46.5 per
cent of all infant deaths. Over twice as many babies died in the
first half as in the last half of their first year, and in the last half
more died in the third quarter than in the fourth.
This concentration of deaths in the early part of the first year of life
is common to infant mortality elsewhere. For the registration area
of the United States in 1913 the excess of deaths during the first
weeks is even more marked. In this area deaths under 1 day of age
formed 13.4 per cent of all infant deaths as compared with 6.6 per
cent in Manchester, while deaths under 1 week were 28.4 per cent,
under 1 month 43.3 per cent, and under 3 months 60.3 per cent as
compared with 17.8, 27.9, and 46.5 per cent, respectively, in Man-
chester. .
Table 6.
Age at death.
Per cent
tic
Man-
chester.
distribu-
>n.
Registra-
tion
area. 1
All ages
100.0
100.0
Under 1 month
27.9
43.3
Less than 1 day
6.6
13.4
1 day but less than 2
2.3
4.9
2 days but less than 3
3.1
3.4
3 days but less than 7
5.8
6.8
1 week but less than 2
3.9
6.4
2 weeks but less than 1 month
6.2
8.4
1 month but less than 2
9.3
9. 4
2 months but less than 3
9.3
7. 7
3 months but less than 6
22.1
17.4
6 months but less than 9
19.0
12.5
9 months but less than 12
12.4
9.9
1 Derived from Table 8, p. 577, Mortality Statistics, 1913, Bureau of the Census, Washington, 1915.
One fact which would lead one to expect a high death rate during
the first weeks and months after birth is that the hazard to life in
general is greatest then; babies are weakest at birth and during early
infancy. Again, a large number of deaths during these early days
of infant life are due to prenatal causes, such as premature birth,
congenital defects, and weakness at birth.
As one means of reducing the number of early deaths, proper pre-
natal care of mothers is of the utmost importance. Efforts toward
this end have been made in a number of communities by hospitals,
visiting nurses, health officials, and others who have attempted to
make accessible to all mothers adequate medical advice and obstetrical
care during pregnancy and childbirth.
INFANT MORTALITY.
23
The number of infant deaths during the early months does not in-
dicate that in Manchester the whole problem of prevention of infant
mortality lies among the younger babies. The death rate, though on
the decline as the babies grew older, nevertheless continued sufficiently
high to the end of the 12-month period to be susceptible of consider-
able reduction. In the group under consideration 32 deaths occurred
during the last quarter of the first year of life, and even this number
per quarter would have given an infant mortality rate of 81.8. Such
a rate, based upon the assumption that the deaths were evenly dis-
tributed throughout the first year, would be unduly high considering
that some communities have reduced their actual rate to or below
that point. (See Table 7.)
The number of deaths in each month of age is shown graphically
in the following diagram. From 72 in the first month the number of
deaths drops sharply to 24 in the second month, and thereafter there
is a general tendency for the number to decrease each month except
the ninth, in which occurs a marked increase.
DIAGRAM II.— INFANT DEATHS OCCURRING IN SPECIFIED MONTH OF AGE.
1st 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th
24
INFANT MORTALITY.
Infant deaths are classified by the medical cause of death, which is
the immediate cause only. Back of it lie, frequently, economic and
social causes. Such conditions as poverty, ignorance in the care of
the baby, the work of the mother, and artificial feeding may all share
in the responsibility for death.
Gastric and intestinal diseases. — The diseases of infancy most com-
monly fatal in Manchester were the principal diseases of the digestive
tract or gastric and intestinal diseases; they were responsible for 99
deaths, or 38.4 per cent of the entire number.
The proportion of deaths from gastric and intestinal diseases in Man-
chester as compared with that in the registration area in 1913 is of sig-
nificance in connection with the city’s high infant death rate. Deaths
from this class of diseases are commonly believed to be in a large
degree preventable , 1 and hence attempts to reduce infant mortality
frequently have been confined largely to efforts to reduce the number
of deaths from these diseases. The methods commonly employed
have been the improvement of the milk supply, the establishment of
infant-welfare stations and of agencies which distribute pure and
modified milk to mothers of young babies and give instruction to
1 Prof. Irving Fisher, in his Report on National Vitality, prepared for the National Conservation Com-
mittee, p. 11, says: “Using the statistics, experience, and estimate of 18 physicians as to the preventability
of each of the list of 90 causes of death, we find that the length of life could easily be increased from 45 to
60 * * *. The principal reduction would be from infantile diarrhea and enteritis, over 60 per cent of
which could be prevented.”
INFANT MORTALITY
25
them, and furnish other means of disseminating information in regard
to the proper care and feeding of babies. In Manchester there were
three infant-welfare stations maintained by private philanthropy
during the summer months*
Table 8.
'
Infant deaths in —
Abridged
Interna-
tional List
number. 1
Detailed
International
Cause of death. 2
Manchester.
Registration
area, 1913.
List number. 1
Num-
ber.
Per
cent <
distri-
bution.
Number.
Per
cent
distri-
bution.
258
100.0
159,435
100.0
Gastric and intestinal diseases 3
99
38. 4
41,379
26.0
24
102, 103
Diseases of the stomach
3
1.2
2,924
38,455
24,285
3,665
13, 100
1.8
25
104
Diarrhea and enteritis
96
37. 2
24. 1
Respiratory diseases 4
41
15.9
15.2
20
Part of 23
22
Part of 33
89
Acute bronchitis
13
5.0
6.6
4.3
5.4
24. 0
2.3
91
Broncho-pneumonia
17
8.2
92
Pneumonia
11
7,520
4.7
150
Malformations
14
8 813
5.5
Early infancy
62
52, 865
27, 359
33.2
Part of 33
Part of 33
151[1]
jl51[2], 152[2], 153
152[1]
Premature birth
23
8.9
17. 2
Congenital debility
38
14.7
.4
20, 375
12. 8
Part of 37
Part of 37
Injuries at birth
1
5, 131
3.2
Epidemic diseases 5 _
5
1.9
.4
13 390
8.4
5
6
Measles
1
2 , 011
1.3
6
7
Scarlet fever
255
.2
7
8
Whooping cough . . .
4
1.6
3,442
913
2.2
.6
g
9
Diphtheria and croup
9
Part of 12
Part of 12
10
Influenza
608
. 4
14
Dysentery
651
. 4
18
Erysipelas
756
.5
Part of 37
24
Tetanus
369
.2
13
28, 29
Tuberculosis of the lungs
848
.5
14
30
Tuberculous meningitis
1,230
.8
15
31, 32, 33, 34, 35
Other forms of tuberculosis
413
.3
Part of 37
35
37
Syphilis
1,894
1,892
1. 2
155 to 186
External causes
1. 2
38
187, 188, 189
Diseases ill defined or unknown
11
4.3
3,292
13,519
2. 1
All other causes
26
10. 1
8. 5
17
61
Meningitis
11
4.3
1,739
1. 1
Part of 37
71
Convulsions
7
2.7
3,125
2.0
19
79
Organic diseases of the heart
Other
1
7
.4
2.7
748
7,907
.5
5. 0
1 The numbers indicate the classification in the abridged and the detailed lists, respectively, of the
Manual of the International List of Causes of Death.
2 The causes of death included in this list are those used by the U. S. Bureau of the Census (see Mor-
tality Statistics, 1913, p. 577) in classifying the deaths of infants under 1 year. They are those causes of
death or groups of causes which are most important at this age. The numbers of the detailed and
abridged International Lists will facilitate their identification. In order to make discussion of the figures
easier, these causes of death have been grouped in 8 main groups.
3 The term “gastric and intestinal diseases,” as used in the tables and discussion, includes, as above
shown, only the diseases of this type which are most important among infants; i. e., diseases of the
stomach, diarrhea, and enteritis. It does not include all “diseases of the digestive system” as classified
under this heading according to the detailed International List.
4 The term “ respiratory diseases,” as used in the tables and discussion, similarly includes only those of
the respiratory diseases which are most important among infants; i. e., acute bronchitis, broncho-pneu-
monia, and pneumonia. It does not include all “diseases of the respiratory system” as classified under
this heading according to the detailed International List.
5 The term “epidemic diseases,” as used in the tables and discussion, includes only those of this group
which are most important among infants.
26
INFANT MORTALITY.
Table 9.
Deaths among infants bom during selected year to —
Cause of death.
All causes
Gastric and intestinal diseases..
Respiratory diseases
Malformations
Early infancy
Premature birth
Congenital debility
Injuries at birth
Epidemic diseases
Diseases ill defined or unknown
All other causes
All mothers.
Native mothers.
Infant
Per cent
Infant
Per cent
Number.
mortality
distribu-
Number.
mortality
distribu-
rate.
tion.
rate.
tion.
258
165.0
100.0
67
128.1
100.0
99
63.3
38.4
29
55.4
43.3
41
26.2
15.9
12
22.9
17.9
14
9.0
5.4
1
1.9
1.5
62
39.6
24.0
19
36.3
28.4
23
14.7
8.9
7
13.4
10.4
38
24.3
14.7
12
22.9
17.9
1
.6
.4
5
3.2
1.9
1
1.9
1.5
11
7.0
4.3
26
16.6
10.1
5
9.6
7.5
Deaths among infants bom during selected year to foreign-bom
mothers.
Cause of death.
Num-
ber.
Infant
mortal-
ity rate.
Per
cent
distri-
bution.
French-Canadian
mothers.
Other foreign-bom
mothers.
Num-
ber.
Infant
mortal-
ity rate.
Per
cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Infant
mortal-
ity rate.
Per
cent
distri-
bution.
All causes
191
183.5
100.0
129
224.7
100.0
62
132.8
100.0
Gastric and intestinal diseases
70*
67.2
36.6
54
94.1
41.9
16
34.3
25.8
Respiratory diseases
29
27.9
15.2
18
31.4
14.0
11
23.6
17.7
Malformations
13
12.5
6.8
7
12.2
5.4
6
12.8
9.7
Early infancy
43
41.3
22.5
30
52.3
23.3
13
27.8
21.0
Premature birth
16
15.4
8.4
14
24.4
10.9
2
4.3
3.2
Congenital debility
26
25.0
13.6
15
26.1
11.6
11
23.6
17.7
Injuries at birth
1
1.0
.5
1
1.7
.8
Epidemic diseases
4
3.8
2.1
3
5.2
2.3
1
2.1
1.6
Diseases ill defined or unknown
11
10.6
5.8
5
8.7
3.9
6
12.8
9.7
All other causes
21
20.2
11.0
12
20.9
9.3
9
19.3
14.5
A distribution of deaths by cause in the several wards shows a
proportionately large number of deaths from gastric and intestinal dis-
eases in every ward — in all but the fifth and seventh wards more
than a third of all the deaths. In ward 2, in which the largest num-
ber of deaths occurs, 45.1 per cent of this number were from gastric
and intestinal diseases. It would seem, therefore, that a reduction of
infant mortality not only in the city as a whole but in practically
every ward of the city is largely a matter of reducing the number of
deaths from this one cause.
INFANT MORTALITY.
27
All causes
100.0
100.0 ‘ 100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0 100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Gastric and intestinal diseases .
Respiratory diseases
Malformations
Early infancy
Premature birth
Congenital debility
Injuries at birth
38.4
15.9
5.4
24.0
36.8
10.5
42.1
j 45.1
I 11.8
3.9
27.5
37.0
7.4
3.7
25.9
38.2
29.4
2.9
11.8
29.4
11.8
5.9
35.3
40.9
27.3
9.1
22.7
23.8
19.0
9.5
23.8
47.4
21.1
5.3
10.5
37.5
14.6
4.2
22.9
8.9
14.7
.4
15.8
26.3
9.8
15.7
2.0
7.4
18.5
11.8
23.5
11.8
18.2
4.5
9.5
14.3
5.3
5.3
4.2
18.8
Epidemic diseases
1.9
4.3
10.1
2.0
3.9
5.9
3.7
7.4
14.8
5.9
5.9
5.9
4.8
4.8
14.3
2.1
2.1
16.7
Diseases ill defined or un-
known
All other causes
5.3
5.3
8.8
8.8
15.8
SEASON AND CLIMATE.
Deaths by seasons. — The season of the year has a close relation
to the medical cause of death. The data obtained in Manchester
on this point agree with observation and experience generally. The
summer months are hardest for the baby on account of the greater
prevalence of gastric and intestinal diseases during the warm weather.
The three months showing the largest number of infant deaths were
July, Augus’t, and September, with 32, 48, and 27 deaths, respectively,
in each of which months a large proportion of the deaths was from
gastric and intestinal causes. In August 35 deaths were from these
diseases alone, more than occurred in any other month from all
causes combined. May showed the next largest number of deaths,
namely, 25, but no one cause predominated, and apparently climatic
conditions do not explain the large number. In January and Febru-
ary, the coldest months in Manchester, also occurred a relatively
large number of deaths, 22 and 20, respectively. Deaths from respi-
ratory diseases occurred chiefly in these two months and in the next
two, March and April, which cover the break-up of winter. The dis-
tribution by months of deaths due to other causes showed no strik-
ing grouping of significance. (See Table 11.)
28
INFANT MORTALITY.
The prevalence of gastric and intestinal diseases in summer and of
respiratory diseases in winter is shown graphically in Diagram III.
The rapid increase in the number of deaths from gastric and intestinal
diseases from June to August and the equally rapid decrease in the
number from August to October are the significant points brought
out.
DIAGRAM III.— INFANT DEATHS OCCURRING IN SPECIFIED MONTH, FROM GASTRIC AND
INTESTINAL DISEASES AND RESPIRATORY DISEASES.
NUMBER.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Respiratory diseases.
Gastric and intestinal diseases.
INFANT MORTALITY.
29
Climate. — The climate of Manchester apparently offers no special
disadvantage to infant life unless it be that the long, cold winters
may swell the death rate from broncho-pneumonia and other respira-
tory diseases. The climate is somewhat more equable than that of
the same latitude (40° north) farther west, and the average rainfall
is greater. It is generally regarded as agreeable and healthful and the
high death rate from gastric and intestinal diseases in the summer
months can not be ascribed to exceptionally long, hot summers.
The average temperature in 1913 at Concord, N. H., the nearest
United States meteorological station, was 48° F. ; the highest tem-
perature of the year was 99° in July; the lowest, —7° in February.
The records of the United States Weather Bureau were also examined
to discover whether the seasonal conditions which prevailed in Man-
chester during the period covered by the investigation were in any way
exceptional, but such was found not to be the case.
Month of birth. — Another factor to be taken into consideration
in connection with the distribution of deaths by cause and season is
the month of birth. The baby’s age when subjected to special haz-
ards, such as summer heat and diarrheal epidemics, makes a difference
in its power of resistance. Babies born during the late summer and
early fall months in Manchester appeared to have the best chance of
survival. October babies made 'the best showing of all, with an
infant mortality rate of but 90.9. August and September babies
showed rates of 119.7 and 117.2, respectively. Babies born in May
and June, who were very young to face the summer months, had the
highest death rates, namely, 227.3 and 234, respectively. Babies
born in July and August had lower death rates, perhaps because
fewer of them were weaned before the end of the hot season. The
numbers, however, are too small to justify any positive deductions.
Table 12.
Births during selected year and infant deaths.
Live births.
Stillbirths.
Month of birth.
Total
births.
Infant deaths.
Total.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate.
Number.
Ter cent.
The year
1,643
1,564
258
165.0
79
4.8
November, 1912
118
109
24
220. 2
9
7.6
December, 1912
124
111
14
126. 1
13
10.5
January, 1913
130
127
26
204. 7
3
2.3
February, 1913
134
128
21
164. 1
6
4.5
March, 1913
139
135
20
148. 1
4
2.9
April, 1913
152
148
24
162.2
4
2.6
May, 1913
138
132
30
227.3
6
4.3
June, 1913
146
141
142
33
234.0
5
3.4
July, 1913
149
23
162. 0
7
4. 7
August, 1913
147
142
17
119. 7
5
3.4
September, 1913
138
128
15
117.2
10
7.2
October, 1913
128
121
11
90.9
7
5.5
30
INFANT MORTALITY.
Table 13.
Deaths among infants born during selected year.
Occurring in specified month of age.
Total.
CO
.h
Second.
Third.
Fourth.
Fifth.
Sixth.
Seventh.
| Eighth.
Ninth.
Tenth.
Eleventh. |
Twelfth.
The year
258
72
24
24
18
18
21
18
11
20
11
9
12
November, 1912
24
5
3
3
1
2
1
.5
2
1
1
December, 1912
14
3
2
1
1
2
3
2
January, 1913
26
7
4
1
2
1
3
4
2
2
February, 1913
21
7
1
1
3
4
1
1
2
March, 1913
20
5
2
” 2 "
1
3
3
1
'T
1
i
April, 1913
24
5
2
6
4
3
1
l
l
i
May, 1913
30
9
i
5
2
1
2
1
3
1
1
2
2
June, 1913
33
7
8
4
1
3
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
July, 1913
23
9
1
4
1
2
1
3
2
August, 1913
17
8
1
1
2
3
1
1
September, 1913
15
5
1
2
1
3
2
1
October, 1913
11
2
3
2
1
2
1
Table 14.
Deaths among infants born during selected year.
Occurring in specified year and month.
Month of birth.
Total.
1912
1913
No-
vem-
ber.
De-
cem-
ber.
Janu-
ary.
Febru-
ary.
March.
April.
May.
June.
July.
Au-
gust.
Sep-
tem-
ber.
The vear
258
4
6
8
12
10
9
14
12
29
47
27
November, 1912
24
4
3
2
2
1
1
][”
1
1
5
2
December, 1912
14
3
1
1
1
2
1
4
January, 1913
26
6
3
3
2
1
5
4
2
February, 1913
21
6
2
1
4
3
1
March, 1913
20
3
4
3
4
2
April, 1913
24
4
1
1
3
6
5
May, 1913
30
8
1
5
2
2
June, 1913
33
5
3
9
2
Julv, 1913
23
5
5
2
August, 1913. .
17
8
1
September, 1913
15
4
October, 1913
11
Occurring in specified year and month — Continued.
Month of birth.
1913
1914
Octo-
ber.
Novem-
ber.
Decem-
ber.
Janu-
ary.
Febru-
ary.
March.
April.
May.
June.
July.
Au-
gust.
The year
13
5
9
14
8
5
6
11
5
3
1
November, 1912
December, 1912
1
January, 1913.
February, 1913 .
1
1
1
1
March, 1913
1
2
April, 1913
2
1
1
May; 1913
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
June, 1913
3
1
2
2
2
2
1
Julv, 1913
2
2
1
1
2
2
J
August, 1913
1
1
1
3
1
1
September, 1913
1
3
1
2
2
1
1
October, 1913
2
3
1
2
2
1
INFANT MORTALITY.
31
STILLBIRTHS.
A total of 79 stillbirths occurred among the 1,643 births included
in this study. The problem of stillbirths is closely connected with
that of the deaths of live-born infants, especially the deaths due to
prematurity and other prenatal causes. The stillbirth rate, or per-
centage of stillbirths, is given in most of the general tables parallel
with the infant mortality rate.
The 79 stillbirths formed 4.8 per cent of all births considered in
this study. No doubt this is an understatement of the actual num-
ber, as the registration of stillbirths is even less complete than that
of live births.
Nationality of mother. — The percentage of stillbirths reported for
foreign-born mothers was 4.9, slightly higher than that reported for
native mothers, for whom it was 4.6. The highest percentage was
found among the group of English, Irish, and Scotch mothers. Births
to the combined group numbered 115 and 9 of these, or 7.8 per cent,
were stillbirths. Among the French-Canadian mothers there were
36 stillbirths, or 5.9 per cent of all births; among Polish mothers only
6, or 3.5 per cent of all births.
Table 15.
Births during selected year and infant deaths.
Live births. Stillbirths.
Nationality of mother.
Total
births.
Infant deaths.
Total.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
Number.
Per
cent. 1
All mothers
Native mothers
Foreign-bom mothers
Canadian, French
Canadian, except French. . .
Polish
English, Irish, Scotch
Greek and Syrian
German
Jewish
Ruthenian and Lithuanian.
All other and not reported.
1,643
548
1,095
610
27
170
115
72
30
24
22
25
1,564
523
1,041
574
27
164
106
71
29
24
21
25
258
67
191
129
4
31
7
10
2
2
3
3
165.0
128.1
183.5
224.7
189.0
66.0
79 4.8
25 4.6
54 4.9
36 5.9
6 3.5
9 7.8
1
1
1
1 Not shown where base is less than 100.
Gainful employment of mother. — Gainful employment of the
mothers at some time during pregnancy might be expected, perhaps,
to show a more definite relation to a high percentage of stillbirths
than any other factor considered in this study. To some degree this
appears to be the case for the group of babies under consideration.
Mothers gainfully employed had a higher percentage than all mothers
or than those not gainfully employed, but the highest percentage
32
INFANT MORTALITY.
occurred among the mothers gainfully employed away from home
and the lowest among those gainfully employed at home.
Table 16.
All mothers
Employment of mother during year before baby’s birth.
Per cent
of still-
births.
4.8
Not gainfully employed.
Gainfully employed
At home
Away from home . . .
4.1
5.5
1.8
7.5
The percentage of stillbirths was markedly higher among the older
mothers. Among babies of mothers 40 and over they formed 8.9
per cent of all births. Among babies of mothers aged 20 to 24 the
percentage was lowest, namely, 3.8. In the two intervening classes,
mothers aged 25 to 29 and those aged 30 to 39, the percentages were
4.9 and 4.5, respectively. Births to mothers under 20 numbered 64
and included 5 stillbirths. (See Table 19.)
SEX.
The infant mortality rate among the male infants was higher than
that among the female, a result in accord with general experience as
shown in practically all vital statistics giving such rates. The differ-
ence in rate is much more marked among the natives.
Table 17.
Births during selected year and infant deaths.
Live births.
Stillbirths.
Sex of baby and nativity of mother.
Total
births.
Infant deaths.
Total.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate.
Number.
Per cent.
All mothers
1,643
1,564
258
165.0
79
4.8
Male
826
781
149
190.8
45
5.4
Female
817
783
109
139.2
34
4.2
Native mothers
548
523
67
128.1
25
4.6
Male
268
255
44
172.5
13
4.9
Female
280
268
23
85.8
12
4.3
Foreign-bom mothers
1,095
1,041
191
183.5
54
4.9
Male
558
526
105
199.6
32
5.7
Female
537
515-
86
167.0
22
4.1
Masculinity. — It will be noted also that the group studied shows
a preponderance of male births, which fact also coincides with the
usual showing for birth statistics. The ratio of sexes usually is
expressed by the term masculinity, which for our group is 1,011 —
INFANT MORTALITY.
33.
that is, 1,011 male births to 1,000 female births. In their contribu-
tion to national demography, 1 C. J. Lewis and J. Norman Lewis pre-
sent some interesting figures concerning the variation of the magnitude
of masculinity, and state that “The proportion of masculine and
feminine births must be the result of definite causes, and dependent on
laws which are not yet adequately known/’ and that “ Under present
conditions the possession of a positive masculinity appears to be an
integral necessity of a vigorous nationality. The reason for this lies
in the heavier mortality which the male suffers as compared with the
female in the early years of life. Male children perish not only in
early years, but even in early months, at a greater rate than their
sisters.” Later, “The masculinity of a people rarely exceeds 1,100
or falls below 900,” but, “The masculinity of stillbirths is never lower
than 1,200, and rises in one instance to 1,700, though it is generally
about 1,300.”
The variation in masculinity among the babies of native and of
foreign-born mothers in Manchester as indicated below is in practical
accord with the findings above quoted :
Table 18.
Nativity of motherV
Masculinity (number of male
per 1,000 female births).
All
births.
Live
births.
Still-
births.
All mothers
1,011
997
1,324
Native mothers
957
952
1,083
Foreign-bom mothers
1,039
1,021
1,455
AGE OF MOTHER AND ORDER OF
BIRTH.
Age of mother. — The age of the mother at the time of the birth
of the baby is another possible factor in infant mortality. A very
high proportion of infant deaths occurred among babies bom during
the selected year to mothers who were 40 years of age and over —
19 out of 92 live births. The highest rates, however, were found
among the babies of mothers under 25 years of age. The babies of
mothers aged from 30 to 39 had a rate of 146.6, which was the lowest
found for any group of mothers classified according to age. The
rate for this same group differs markedly, however, for native and
foreign-born mothers, the babies of native mothers having a rate of
71.4 only, while those of foreign-bom mothers had a rate of 176.6.
The lowest infant mortality rate for any age group of foreign-bom
mothers occurred among babies of mothers aged from 25 to 29 —
namely, a rate of 165. (See Table 19.)
1 Lewis, C. J. and J. Norman, Natality and Fecundity, London, 1906, pp. 110, 111, 121.
72624°— 17 3
.34
INFANT MORTALITY.
These numbers are too small to warrant any general conclusions in
regard to the influence of the mother’s age upon the infant mortality
rate. Individual circumstances and the order of birth of the baby
are so closely connected with the question of the age of the mother
that caution must be used in drawing inferences based on age alone.
Table 19.
Births during selected year and infant deaths.
Live births.
Stillbirths.
Age of mother at birth of child, and
nativity.
Total
births.
Infant deaths.
Total.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
Number.
Per
cent. 1
All mothers *
1,643
1,564
258
165.0
79
4.8
Under 25
540
517
95
183.8
23
4.3
Under 20
64
59
12
5
20 to 24
476
458
83
181.2
18
3.8
4.9
4.5
8.9
25 to 29
487
463
71
153.3
24
30 to 39
514
491
72
146.6
23
40 and over
101
92
19
9
Not reported
1
1
1
Native mothers
548
523
67
128.1
25
4.6
Under 25
227
217
34
156.7
10
4.4
Under 20
33
30
5
3
20 to 24
194
187
29
155.1
7
3.6
25 to 29
163
154
20
129.9
9
5.5
30 to 39
144
140
10
71.4
4
2.8
40 and over
14
12
3
2
Foreign-bom mothers
1,095
1,041
191
183.5
54
4.9
Under 25
313
300
61
203.3
13
4.2
Under 20
31
29
7
2
20 to 24
282
271
54
199.3
11
3.9
25 to 29
324
309
51
165.0
15
4.6
30 to 39
370
351
62
176.6
19
5.1
40 and over
87
80
16
7
Not reported
1
1
1
1 Not shown where base is less than 100.
Order of birth. — The babies scheduled ranged from the first to
the eighteenth child of the mother. Though the numbers on the
whole for infants born during the selected year are too small to estab-
lish conclusively a biological tendency, one or two facts of significance
emerge. First-born children had a markedly higher death rate than
second-born children. Fluctuations in the rate according to order
of birth after the second showed no special relation, except in the
case of exceptionally large families. Babies ninth and later in order
of birth, of whom there were 144 live born, had an infant mortality
rate of 250, a rate higher than that for any earlier bom or for the
whole group of earlier born babies, which was 156.3. This fact may
explain the higher rate among foreign-born than among native mothers
in the age group 30 to 39. Foreign-born girls as a rule marry early
and are more likely to have had by this time of life a large number of
INFANT MORTALITY,
35
children. It is not possible, however, to determine exactly the relative
importance of the order of birth as an independent factor in the high
infant mortality rate in Manchester.
Table 20.
Births during selected year and infant deaths.
Number of child in order of birth, and na-
tivity of mother.
Total
births.
Live births.
Stillbirths.
Total.
Infant deaths.
Number.
Per
cent. 1
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
All mothers
1,643
1,564
258
165.0
79
4.8
First
454
427
71
166.3
27
5.9
Second
317
310
39
125.8
7
2.2
Third
226
218
36
165.1
8
3.5
Fourth
158
150
30
200.0
8
5.1
Fifth
114
108
12
111.1
6
5.3
Sixth, seventh, and eighth
221
207
34
164.3
14
6.3
Ninth and later
153
144
36
250.0
9
5.9
Native mothers
548
523
67
128.1
25
4.6
First
198
184
16
87.0
14
7.1
Second
126
124
16
129.0
2
1.6
Third
90
88
12
2
Fourth
42
40
10
2
Fifth
31
31
4
Sixth seventh, and eighth
46
43
6
3
Ninth and later
15
13
3
2
Foreign-born mothers
1,095
1,041
191
183.5
54
4.9
First
256
243
55
226.3
13
5.1
Second
191
186
23
123.7
5
2.6
Third
136
130
24
184.6
6
4.4
Fourth
116
110
20
181.8
6
5.2
Fifth
83
77
8
6
Sixth, seventh, and eighth
175
164
28
170.7
11
6.3
Ninth and later
138
131
33
251.9
7
5.1
French-Oanadian mothers
610
574
129
224.7
36
5.9
First
130
122
36
295.1
8
6.2
Second
99
95
13
4
Third
64
60
18
4
Fourth
59
54
8
5
Fifth
49
44
5
5
Sixth, seventh, and eighth
103
98
21
5
4.9
Ninth and later
106
101
28
277.2
5
4.7
Other foreign-born mothers
485
467
62
132.8
18
3.7
First
126
121
19
157.0
5
4.0
Second
92
91
10
1
Third
72
70
6
2
Fourth
57
56
12
1
Fifth ,
34
33
3
1
Sixth, seventh, and eighth
72
66
7
6
Ninth and later
32
30
5
2
Not shown where base is less than 100.
36
INFANT MORTALITY.
Table 21.
Number of child in order of birth, and nativity of mother.
All mothers
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
Sixth, seventh, and eighth..
Ninth and later
Native mothers
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
Sixth, seventh, and eighth..
Ninth and later
Foreign-born mothers.
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
Sixth, seventh, and eighth.
Ninth and later
Frencli-Canadian mothers
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
Sixth, seventh, and eighth
Ninth and later
Other foreign-born mothers
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
Sixth, seventh, and eighth.
Ninth and later
Per cent distribution of births
during selected year and of
infant deaths.
Total
Live
Infant
births.
births.
deaths.
100. 0
100.0
100.0
27.6
27.3
27.5
19.3
19.8
15.1
13.8
13.9
14.0
9.6
9.6
11.6
6.9
6.9
4.7
13.5
13.2
13.2
9.3
9.2
14.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
36.1
35.2
23.9
23 0
23.7
23.9
16.4
16.8
17.9
7.7
7.6
14.9
5.7
5.9
6.0
8.4
8.2
9.0
2.7
2.5
4.5
100.0
100.0
100.0
23.4
23.3
28.8
17.4
17.9
12.0
12.4
12.5
12.6
10.6
10.6
10.5
7.6
7.4
4.2
16.0
15.8
14.7
12.6
12.6
17.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
21.3
21.3
27.9
16.2
16.6
10.1
10.5
10.5
14.0
9.7
9.4
6.2
8.0
7.7
3.9
16.9
17.1
16.3
17.4
17.6
21.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
26.0
25.9
30.6
19.0
19.5
16.1
14.8
15.0
9.7
11.8
12.0
19.4
7.0
7.1
4.8
14.8
14.1
11.3
6.6
6.4
8.1
Size of family. — The order of birth of the baby is of interest as
indicating the relative tendency of the different classes to have
large families. Babies ninth or later in order of birth were bom
chiefly in types of families with generally high infant mortality rates;
69.3 per cent were born to French-Canadian mothers, and the tendency
to have many children is more common in the lower-earnings classes
than in the higher. This tendency appears from the following table.
Of the 1,643 babies considered, 60.7 per cent belonged to families in
which the total number of births had been three or less.
INFANT MORTALITY,
37
Table 22.
Infants born during selected year.
Total.
Whose fathers earned specified amount.
Number of child in
order of birth.
Under $450.
$450 to $549.
$550 to $649.
$650 to $849.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Total
1, G43
100.0
225
100.0
274
100.0
297
100.0
426
100.0
First
454
27.6
66
29.3
72~
26^3
92
31.0
90
21.1
Second
317
19.3
40
17.8
51
18.6
49
16.5
92
21.6
Third
226
13.8
32
14.2
39
14.2
29
9.8
68
16.0
Fourth
158
9.6
26
11.6
27
9.9
28
9.4
47
11.0
Fifth
114
6.9
14
6.2
13
4.7
29
9.8
28
6.6
Sixth
96
5.8
13
5.8
14
5.1
20
6.7
28
6.6
Seventh
74
4.5
9
4.0
15
5.5
16
5.4
17
4.0
Eighth
51
3.1
3
1.3
7
2.6
12
4.0
17
4.0
Ninth
39
2.4
7
3.1
6
2.2
2
.7
9
2.1
Tenth
37
2.3
7
3.1
5
1.8
5
1.7
14
3.3
F le venth
25
1.5
3
1.3
7
2.6
3
1.0
8
1.9
Twelfth
20
1.2
1
.4
10
3.6
4
1.3
' 3
.7
Th irteenth
13
.8
2
.9
3
1.1
3
1.0
1
.2
9
.5
2
.9
2
.7
3
.7
Eiflpputh
3
.2
1
.4
1
.3
RiYtppnt.il
6
.4
3
1. 1
2
.7
1
.2
U1A lUCUUU -
IT iffh tppri til
1
. 1
1
. 4
.Tjigll tCCUUI
1
Whose fathers earned specified amount— Continued.
$850 to $1,049.
$1,050 to $1,249.
$1,250 and over.
No earnings. 1
Not reported.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Total
199
100.0
72
100.0
105
100.0
24
100.0
21
100.0
First
61
30.7
21
29.2
38~
36.2
9
37.5
5
2378
Second
42
21. 1
14
19.4
27
25.7
2
9. 5
Third
32
16.1
10
13.9
9
8.6
4
16.7
3
14.3
Fourth
10
5.0
6
8.3
9
8.6
3
12.5
2
9.5
Fifth
16
8.0
5
6.9
6
5.7
1
4.2
2
9.5
Sixth
11
5.5
4
5.6
4
3.8
1
4.2
1
4.8
Seventh
9
4. 5
1
1.4
5
4.8
2
9.5
Eighth
6
3.0
3
4.2
2
1.9
1
4.2
Ninth
4
2.0
4
5. 6
3
2.9
3
12.5
1
4. 8
Tenth
1
. 5
1
1. 4
1
1.0
3
14.3
Eleventh
2
1. 0
1. 4
i
4. 2
Twelfth
2
1. 0
Thirteenth
2
1. 0
1
1.4
2
4.2
Fourteenth
.5
1
1.0
Fifteenth
1
1.4
1 Includes 1 father living on his income..
ATTENDANT AT BIRTH.
The question of attendant at birth is of importance in all com-
munities and especially in those with a large foreign population
accustomed to the services of a midwife or even to some extent to
doing without trained care at childbirth. In Manchester, however,
this custom is not general, for in 90.1 per cent of the registered births
considered the mother had a physician in attendance at birth and in
only 9.3 per cent a midwife. The practice of the native mothers
38
INFANT mortality.
differed considerably from that of the foreign-born, 98.9 per cent of
the former having been attended by a physician and only 85.8
per cent of the latter.
Table 23.
Births during selected year to —
Attendant at birth.
All mothers.
Native mothers.
Foreign-bom
mothers.
Number.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Number.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Number.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
All classes
1,643
100.0
548
100.0
1,095
100.0
Physician
1,481
90. 1
542
98.9
939
85.8
Midwife
153
9.3
4
.7
149
13.6
Other, none, or not reported
9
.5
2
.4
1 7
.6
The proportion of cases accredited to midwives is doubtless an
understatement, as in cases of difficult labor the midwife frequently
calls in a physician and the case is accredited to him.
It was seldom the custom of mothers to seek medical advice during
pregnancy, and many of the poorer mothers, and especially of the
foreign-born, resumed part or all of their customary duties within a
few days after the birth of the baby. Nevertheless a considerable
number even among this group did remain in bed at least a week or
10 days after childbirth, with the services either of a practical nurse
or of a visiting nurse from some philanthropic organization, or at
least under the care of members of the family. It was not at all
uncommon for the husband to act as nurse, particularly among the
French Canadians. In these families in some cases where there were
no grown children the husband continued to relieve the mother of the
heavy housework, such as scrubbing and washing, for a number of
weeks after confinement.
ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL FACTORS.
Babies born into the homes of unskilled workers where earnings
are small face greater hazards than those in more fortunate circum-
stances. When the 1,564 live-born babies included in this study are
grouped according to father’s earnings, it is found that among the
babies in the lo west-earnings group infant deaths are more than four
times as frequent as in the highest-earnings group.
Another point which appears from a study of the findings is that
gainful employment of the mother away from home was accompanied
by a high infant mortality rate, higher even than that for all babies
in the low-earnings groups.
Occupation of father. — The great majority of the babies included
in this study had fathers who were engaged in occupations outside
of professional, clerical, and mercantile groups; 725 of them were
factory operatives. The majority of these, 442, were textile opera-
INFANT MORTALITY,
39
tives, but in all 597 babies had fathers employed in textile mills in
some capacity, either as operatives or as laborers, teamsters, clerks, etc.
Table 24.
Infants bom during selected year.
Occupation of father.
All occupations 2
Manufacturing and me-
chanical industries
Blacksmiths
Boilermakers
Builders and contractors
Compositors, linotype operators,
and pressmen
Electricians
Engineers and firemen
Factory operatives
Textile
Shoe
Cigar and tobacco
Other industries
Laborers, helpers, and appren-
tices
Machinists, millwrights, and
toolma’ ers
Manufacturers (officials and
managers)
Shoemakers and cobblers
Skilled mechanics, building
trades
Tailors
Other pursuits
Trade
Bankers, brokers, real estate and
insurance agents
Commercial travelers and sales-
men
Deliverymen
Laborers
Retail and wholesale dealers
(proprietors, officials, and
managers)
Other pursuits
Domestic and personal
service
Barbers
Saloonkeepers and bartenders . .
Servants
Other pursuits
Transportation
Chauffeurs, teamsters, and ex-
pressmen
Conductors, motormen, and
trainmen
Express, post, telegraph, and
telephone employees
Laborers
Proprietors, officials, and mana-
gers
Other pursuits
Whose fathers earned specified amount.
Total.
Under
$450.
$450
to
$549.
$550
to
$649.
$650
to
$849.
$850
to
$1,049.
$1, 050
to
$1,249.
$1,250
and
over.
No
earn-
ings.i
Not
re-
ported.
1,643
225
274
297
426
199
72
105
24
21
1,086
181
214
212
291
98
34
33
13
10
7
2
2
2
1
8
4
3
1
9
2
1
3
2
1
6
1
1
1
2
1
12
1
4
5
1
1
42
2 I
8
26 |
1
2
2
725
154
166
145
161
48
26
11
10
5
442
121
129
87
78
11
4
1
7
4
200
24
26
38
65
28
11
6
1
31
1
1
2
6
7
10
4
52
8
9
18
12
2
1
2
56
14
17
14
10
1
34
5
5
15
6
j
2
17
2
2
1
12
7
2
2
2
1
138
8
17
30
56
21
1
1
1
3
10
1
1
5
1
1
1
15
2
2
1
4
6
240
15
24
41
57
39
15
43
2
4
15
4
4
7
67
2
3
12
17
17
4
10
2
56
4
10
18
21
2
1
13
6
3
1
3
80
3
8
9
10
14
6
26
2
2
9
1
6
2
90
7
11
6
29
22
6
6
1
2
19
2
2
9
4
2
29
2
2
3
3
13
2
3
1
10
1
8
1
32
4
7
1
9
4
4
1
1
1
88
9
11
18
25
13
7
5
35
5
8
11
8
2
1
27
1
4
11
6
2
3
6
1
5
13
4
2
3
3
1
3
2
1
■ 1 4
2
2
1 Includes 1 father living on his income.
2 Of 597 fathers in the textile industry 442 were operatives and 155 employees engaged in occupations
not peculiar to the industry, such as officials, clerks, carpenters, teamsters, etc. The latter were classified
in the occupational groups to which they belong.
40
INFANT MORTALITY.
Table 24— Continued.
Occupation of father.
Infants born during selected year.
Whose fathers earned specified amount.
Total.
Under
$450.
$450
to
$549.
$550
to
$649.
$650
to
$849.
$850
to
$1,049.
$1,050
to
$1,249.
$1,250
and
over.
No
earn-
ings.
Not
re-
ported.
Clerical occupations, all
industries
39
1
1
8
15
9
1
4
Public service
33
4
6
7
4
7
2
2
1
Laborers
22
4
6
7
4
1
Officials, firemen, and policemen.
Professional and semipro-
fessional pursuits
11
7
2
2
27
1
1
2
5
6
11
1
Agriculture and forestry.. .
20
2
4
4
3
4
2
Farmers
8
1
2
3
1
1
Farm laborers
10
1
4
2
2
1
Others
2
1
1
No occupation 1
T
.. 7
Not reported
13
5
3
2
1
1
1 Includes 1 father living on his income.
Fathers earnings an index of economic status. — The father’s
earnings, it is believed, furnish the most reliable index to the economic
status of the family because in most cases they are not only the chief
support but also the most stable and regular element in the family
income. Supplementary sources of income such as mother’s and
children’s earnings are likely to be temporary and fluctuating. A
special objection to lumping father’s earnings with the earnings of the
mother and children is that the gainful employment of the latter indi-
cates a low economic status which would tend to be obscured were
their earnings combined. Furthermore, the increase in family
income due to mother’s going to work is one brought about by creat-
ing a possible factor in infant mortality, namely, the withdrawal of
the mother’s care. Income derived from property is found chiefly in
the group of fathers earning $1,250 or more, all of whom are classed
together in any event. The father’s earnings therefore best represent
the scale of living attainable through a period of years and fix the
living habits and the real economic status of the family.
Rates of pay can not be computed from the earnings reported.
On account of lack of employment or for other reasons the father may
not have worked steadily. It can not be inferred, because a father
earned, for example, only $350 in a year’s time that his unit rate was
so low that he could not have earned more if at work full time through-
out the year.
Distribution of economic groups. — A classification of babies on the
basis of father’s earnings shows that the fathers of 48.4 per cent, or
INFANT MORTALITY.
41
nearly half of them, earned less than $650 a year and that the fathers
of 74.4 per cent, approximately three-fourths, earned under $850.
Only 6.4 per cent had fathers earning $1,250 or more, while 225, or
13.7 per cent of the whole number, had fathers who earned less than
$450. In addition to those for whom earnings were reported the
fathers of 23 babies either had died or, during the year following the
child’s birth, did not contribute to the support of their families
because they had deserted or had earned nothing on account of illness.
In the case of 21 babies the father’s earnings could not be ascertained.
(See Table 25.)
DIAGRAM IV.— PER CENT OF BIRTHS TO ALL MOTHERS, NATIVE MOTHERS AND FOREIGN-
BORN MOTHERS, ACCORDING TO FATHER’S EARNINGS.
Under $450 to $550 to $650 to $850 to $1,050 to $1,250 No earnings
$450. $549. $649. $849. $1,049. $1,249. and over, and no re-
port.
x x-
All mothers.
Native mothers.
Foreign-born mothers.
42
INFANT MORTALITY.
Table 25.
Births during selected year to —
Earnings of father.
All mothers.
Native mothers.
Foreign-born
mothers.
Number.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Number.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Number.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
All classes
1,643
100.0
548
100.0
1,095
100.0
Under $450
225
13.7
29
5.3
196
17.9
$450 to $549
274
16.7
59
10.8
215
19.6
$550 to $649
297
18.1
92
16.8
205
18.7
$650 to $849
426
25.9
160
29.2
266
24.3
$850 to $1,049
199
12.1
100
18.2
99
9.0
$1,050 to $1,249
72
4.4
36
6.6
36
3.3
$1,250 and over
105
6.4
63
11.5
42
3.8
No earnings 1
24
1.5
5
.9
19
1.7
Not reported
21
1.3
4
.7
17
1.6
1 Includes 1 father living on his income.
The same economic facts shown in the preceding table and dia-
gram are presented in a somewhat different form in the next diagram,
which shows cumulative groups by father’s earnings — that is, those
earning a specified amount and oyer.
DIAGRAM V.— Per cent of births to all mothers, native mothers, and foreign-born
MOTHERS IN GROUPS WHERE FATHERS EARNED SPECIFIED AMOUNTS AND OVER.
$450 and $550 and $650 and
over. over. over.
$850 and $1,050 and $1,250 and
over. over. over.
Earnings of father.
Percentage of births to —
All
mothers.
Native
mothers.
Foreign-
born
mothers. AH mothers.
$450 and over
83.6
66.9
48.8
22.9
10.8
6.4
93.1
82.3
65.5
36.3
18.1
11.5
_ _ Native mothers.
gg | Foreign-bom mothers.
40'.5
16.2
7.1
3.8 43
$550 and over
$650 and over
$850 and over
$1,050 and over
$1,250 and over
44
INFANT MORTALITY,
Infant mortality rate by father’s earnings. — The infant mortality
rate shows a marked and almost regular decline as the father’s earn-
ings become larger. In the group of babies where the father's earn-
ings are less than $450 per annum the infant mortality rate is 242,9,
while in the next group, where the fathers earn from $450 to $549, the
rate is 173.6. It rises very slightly in the next class, $550 to $649,
namely, to 174.5, and thereafter drops steadily with each advance in
economic status. The rate, however, does not fall below 100 until
the father's earnings reach $1,050 or more. Babies whose fathers
earn $1,250 and over per annum have a death rate of only 58.3.
Table 26.
Earnings of father and nativity of mother.
All mothers
Under $450
$450 to $549
$550 to $649
$650 to $849
$850 to $1,049
$1,050 to $1,249
$1,250 and over
No earnings 2
Not reported •.
Native mothers
Under $450
$450 to $549
$550 to $649
$650 to $849
$850 to $1,049
$1,050 to $1,249
$1,250 and over
No earnings
Not reported
Foreign-born mothers
Under $450
$450 to $549
$550 to $649
$650 to $849
$850 to $1,049
$1,050 to $1,249
$1,250 and over
No earnings 2
Not reported
French-Canadian mothers. .
Under $450
$450 to $549
$550 to $649
$650 to $849
$850 to $1,049
$1,050 to $1,249
$1,250 and over
No earnings 2
Not reported
Other foreign-born mothers.
Under $450
$450 to $549
$550 to $649
$650 to $849
$850 to $1,049
$1,050 to $1.249
$1,250 and over
No earnings
Not reported
Births during selected year and infant deaths.
Total
births.
Live births.
Stillbirths.
Total.
Infant
Number.
deaths.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
Number.
Per cent. 1
1,643
1,564
258
165.0
79
4.8
225
210
51
242.9
15
6.7
274
265
46
173.6
9
3.3
297
275
48
174.5
22
7.4
426
406
66
162.6
20
4.7
199
192
24
125.0
7
3.5
72
71
5
1
105
103
6
58.3
2
1.9
24
22
8
2
21
20
4
1
548
523
67
128.1
25
4.6
29
23
5
6
59
58
3
1
92
85
18
7
160
155
22
141.9
5
3.1
100
97
13
3
3.0
36
35
1
1
63
62
1
1
5
4
2
1
4
4
2
1,095
1,041
191
183.5
54
4.9
196
187
46
246.0
9
4.6
215
207
43
207.7
8
3.7
205
190
30
157.9
15
7.3
266
251
44
175.3
15
5. 6
99
95
11
4
36
36
4
42
41
5
1
19
18
6
1
17
16
2
1
610
574
129
224.7
36
5.9
52
48
15
4
121
117
28
239.3
4
3.3
133
123
24
195.1
10
7.5
177
165
38
230.3
12
6.8
68
65
10
3
18
18
3
22
21
5
1
10
9
4
1
9
8
2
1
485
467
62
132.8
18
3.7
144
139
31
223.0
5
3.5
94
90
15
4
72
67
6
5
89
86
6
3
31
30
1
1
18
18
1
20
20
9
9
2
8
8
Not shown where base is less than 100.
2 Includes 1 father living on his income.
ich
RAT
250
230
210
190
170
150
130
110
90
70
50
0
INFANT MORTALITY.
45
following diagram graphically illustrates the constancy with
infant death rates fall as earnings rise.
DIAGRAM VI— INFANT MORTALITY RATE BY FATHER’S EARNINGS.
$450 to
$549.
$550 to
$649.
$650 to
$849.
$850 to
$1,049.
$1,050 to $1,250 and
$1,249. over.
46
INFANT MORTALITY.
Fathers earnings supplemented.— The families of 924 babies, 56.2
per cent of the whole number, had other sources of income than the
father's earnings. Supplementary income derived from earnings of
mother and children occurred more frequently, as might be expected,
where the father's earnings were low than in the class with higher
earnings, for low earnings of the father often necessitate gainful
employment of other members of the family. Mother's earnings
where derived from boarders or lodgers were reported gross — that is,
as the total receipts from these sources. Actual net profit from
real estate could never be ascertained, and rentals, therefore, were
always reported gross. The data on total income, it will be seen, are
much less reliable than those regarding father’s earnings on account
of the difficulty in general of ascertaining the facts in regard to such
income, and in particular of separating net income from gross.
Total income. — Though the information obtained on total family
income is not wholly accurate, the indications are that in the group
of families studied in Manchester supplementary sources of income,
where they existed, were of much less importance in determining the
family's economic standing than was the father’s contribution. In
the group where the father’s earnings were under $550 per annum
other sources of income existed in 76 per cent of the cases, and only
95, or 25.1 per cent, of 379 such families had their whole income
brought up to $850 or more. Where the father’s earnings were from
$550 to $649 per annum the families of N 55.2 per cent of the babies
had other sources of income, but less than hah of those reporting
other income had a total annual income of more than $850. The
relative importance of other sources of income continues to grow less
as the father's earnings increase.
Table 27.
Infants born during selected year.
Whose fathers earned specified amount.
Total family income.
loiai.
Under $550.
$550 to $649.
$650 to $849.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
All classes
1,643
100.0
499
100.0
297
100.0
426
100.0
Own income
1
. 1
Income from father’s earnings only .
718
43.7
120
24.0
133
44.8
212
49.8
Income including more than fa-
ther’s earnings
924
56.2
379
76.0
164
55.2
214
50.2
Under $550
81
4. 9
68
13.6
$550 to $649
102
6.2
83
16.6
16
5.4
$650 to $849
245
14.9
117
23.4
66
22.2
61
14.3
$850 to $1,049
199
12. 1
59
11.8
35
11.8
81
19.0
$1,050 to $1,249
95
5.8
14
2.8
17
- 5. 7
37
8.7
$1,250 and over
149
9.1
22
4. 4
22
7.4
30
7.0
Not reported
53
3.2
16
3.2
8
2.7
5
1.2
INFANT MORTALITY.
47
Table 27— Continued.
Infants born during selected year— Continued.
Whose fathers earned specified amount — Continued.
Total family income.
8850 to 81,049.
81,050 to
81,249.
81,250 and
over.
No earnings.
Not
reported.
Num-
ber.
Percent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Percent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Percent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Percent
distri-
bution.
All classes
199
100.0
72
100.0
105
100.0
24
100.0
21
Own income
1
4.2
Income from father’s earnings only .
Income including more than fa-
ther’s earnings
119
59. 8
55
76.4
75
71. 4
4
80
40.2
17
23.6
30
28.6
23
95.8
17
Under 8550
13
54. 2
8550 to 8649
3
12.5
8650 to 8849
4.2
8850 to 81,049
21
10. 6
3
12.5
$1,050 to 81,249
25
12. 6
2
2. 8
81,250 and over
30
15. 1
15
20.8
30
28.6
N ot reported
4
2.0
3
12.5
17
Fathers earnings and employment of mother. — Gainful employ-
ment of the mother, in so far as it accompanies low earnings of the
father, would naturally be associated with a high infant mortality
rate. It may act independently, however, and either add to the dis-
advantages which the baby suffers on account of poverty or mitigate
them according to whether the loss of the mother’s care, which it
involves, is offset or not by the added income. But in general the
babies of working mothers in Manchester had a higher infant mor-
tality rate than babies whose mothers were not gainfully employed.
It has been often alleged that in industrial communities such as
Manchester, which offer ready employment for women, the reason
married women and mothers seek gainful employment is either because
of the temptation to earn pin money or money for some special purpose
such as the buying of a home or because women learn economic
independence before marriage and prefer the factory to housework.
Individual instances of this sort were encountered in Manchester,
but insufficient or low earnings on the part of the father appear to be
the most potent reason for the mother’s going to work. Where the
fathers earned less than $450 a year 73.3 per cent of the mothers
were gainfully employed during some part of the year after the baby’s
birth. With each rise in economic status the proportion of babies
with mothers gainfully employed falls but does not really reach a
small proportion, 9.6 per cent, until the group with fathers earning
$1,050 and over a year is reached. These proportions, however, are
markedly different among the native and the foreign born, particu-
larly those other than French Canadians. (See Table 28.)
Of the 722 babies whose mothers were gainfully employed the year
after childbirth 45.4 per cent were in families where the earnings of
48
INFANT MORTALITY.
the father were under $550 per annum; 63.6 per cent where the
earnings were under $650; and 85.2 per cent where the fathers earned
under $850 a year.
Table 28.
Earnings of father and nativity of mother.
Births 1 c
Total.
luring selec
To motl
fuHy
during
lowing
birth.
Number.
ted year.
lers gain-
employed
year fol-
baby’s
Per cent.
All mothers
1,643
722
43.9
Under $450
225
165
73.3
$450 to $549
274
163
59.5
$550 to $649
297
131
44. 1
$650 to $849
426
156
36.6
$850 to $1,049
199
55
27.6
$1,050 to $1,249
72
7
9. 7
$1,250 and over
105
10
9.5
No earnings 2
24
22
Not reported
21
13
Native mothers
548
167
30.5
Under $450
29
16
55. 2
$450 to $549
59
29
49.2
$550 to $649
92
33
35.9
$650 to $849
160
50
31.3
$850 to $1,049
100
24
24.0
$1,050 to $1,249
36
3
8.3
$1,250 and over
63
5
7.9
No earnings
5
5
Not reported
4
2
Foreign-born mothers
1,095
555
50.7
Under $450
196
149
76.0
$450 to $549
215
134
62.3
$550 to $649
205
98
47.8
$650 to $849
266
106
39.8
$850 to $1,049
99
31
31.3
$1,050 to $1,249
36
4
11.1
$1,250 and over
42
5
11.9
No earnings 2
19
17
Not reported
17
11
French-Canadian mothers
610
253
41.5
Under $450
52
29
55.8
$450 to $549
121
62
51.2
$550 to $649
133
61
45.9
$650 to $849
177
61
34.5
$850 to $1,049
68
22
32.4
$1,050 to $1,249
18
2
11.1
$1,250 and over.
22
2
9.1
No earnings 2 .
10
9
Not reported. . .
9
5
Other foreign-born mothers
485
302
62.3
Under $450
144
120
83.3
$450 to $549
94
72
76.6
$550 to $649
72
37
51.4
$650 to $849
89
45
50.6
$850 to $1,049
31
9
29.0
$1,050 to $1,249
18
2
11.1
$1,250 and over
20
3
15.0
No earnings
9
8
Not reported
8
6
1 Includes stillbirths. 2 Includes 1 father living on his income.
From the figures just presented it may not be possible to determine
exactly the yearly earnings that a man must have in order to maintain
his family unaided, but the fact that the majority of all mothers in
the group where the father’s earnings fall below $650 were gainfully
INFANT MORTALITY.
49
employed at some time during the year following childbirth shows
a significant relation between the gainful employment of mothers
and the low earnings of fathers.
DIAGRAM VII.— PER CENT OF MOTHERS GAINFULLY EMPLOYED DURING YEAR FOL-
LOWING BABY’S BIRTH WHEN FATHERS EARNED SPECIFIED AMOUNTS.
Under $ 150 to $549. $550 to $649. $650 to $849. $850 to $1,049. $1,050 and
$450. over.
72624°— 17 4
50
INFANT MORTALITY.
Mother’s earnings. — Mother’s earnings were tabulated separately
from income from other sources and they were found to be relatively
small; in. more than half of the instances they amounted to less than
$250 per mother. There were 722 babies, live born and stillborn, or 43.9
per cent of the whole number, whose mothers were gainfully employed
at some time during the year following their birth. More than one-
third of the working mothers earned under $150 during the year and
only 3.5 per cent of them earned as much as $550. A considerably
larger proportion of the foreign-born mothers than of the native
mothers earned more than $250. These contributions were not all net
gain to the family, however, even when derived from other work than
keeping boarders and lodgers, for when the mother worked out it
sometimes became necessary to hire a caretaker for the baby or to
incur other extra expense in housekeeping.
Table 29.
Earnings of mother during year following baby’s birth.
Total.
Native.
Foreign-bom.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Num-
ber.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
All classes
722
100.0
167
100.0
555
100.0
Under $150
263
36.4
65
38.9
198
35.7
$150 to $249
148
20.5
41
24.6
107
19.3
$250 to $349
119
16.5
25
15.0
94
16.9
$350 to $549
127
17.6
19
11.4
108
19.5
$550 and over
25
3.5
4
2.4
21
3.8
Not reported
40
5.5
13
7.8
27
4.9
Births during selected year to gainfully employed
mothers.
Work during year before baby’s birth. — Nearly half the whole
number of babies included in the investigation had mothers who had
engaged in gainful employment at some time during the year pre-
vious to the baby’s birth. The occupations included 504 cases
where the work was away from home, 427 of which were of employ-
ment in the textile mills and 47 in other factories.
Table 30.
Occupation of mother during year before
baby’s birth.
Births during selected year and infant deaths.
Total
births.
Live births.
Stillbirths.
Total.
Infant deaths.
Number.
Per
cent. 1
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
All mothers
1,643
1,564
258
165.0
79
4.8
Not gainfully employed
864
829
111
133.9
35
4.1
Gainfully employed
776
733
146
199.2
43
5.5
At home
272
267
40
149.8
5
1.8
Keeping lodgers
239
234
36
153.8
5
2.1
Other home work
33
33
4
Away from home
504
466
106
227.5
38
7.5
Textile mill operatives
427
395
95
240.5
32
7.5
Othor ffl.ot.nry npprativfis
47
43
• 6
•4
Clarks end sal aswom an
11
10
1
1
Servants... .
12
11
4
1
Other occupations
7
7
Not reported
3
2
1
!
1 1
i
!
1 Not shown where base is less than 100.
INFANT MORTALITY.
51
Babies of mothers gainfully employed during the year preceding
the baby’s birth had a mortality rate of 199.2, whereas the rate for
babies of mothers who were not so employed was 133.9. The rate
for babies of mothers whose gainful work was in the home was 149.8;
for babies whose mothers worked away from home, 227.5. This
latter rate is somewhat lower than the rate of 242.9 reported for
babies in the lowest economic class — those whose fathers earned
under $450 per annum. However, the total number of live-born
babies whose mothers worked during the year previous to childbirth
was 733, while the number whose fathers earned under $450 was only
210. In order to compare groups containing the largest possible
number of coincidences between low earnings and mother’s work
it is necessary to consider all live-born babies whose fathers’ earnings
were under $650 per annum. These babies numbered 750, and the
infant mortality rate was 193.3, which ^appreciably lower than the
one quoted above for babies whose mothers were gainfully employed
away from home the year previous to childbirth. The influence
upon stillbirths of mother’s work before the birth of her child has
been shown already in the discussion of that topic on page 31 .
Table 31.
Employment of mother at home and away
from home during year before baby's
birth and nativity of mother.
Births during selected year and infant deaths.
Total
births.
Live births.
Stillbirths.
Total.
Infant deaths.
Number.
Per cent. 1
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
All mothers
1,643
1,564
258
165.0
79
4.8
Not gainfully employed
864
829
111
133.9
35
4.1
Gainfully employed
776
733
146
199.2
43
5.5
At home
272
267
40
149.8
5
1.8
Away from home.
504
466
106
227.5
38
7.5
Not reported
3
2
1
1
Native mothers
548
523
67
128.1
25
4.6
Not gainfully employed
352
338
31
91.7
14
4.0
Gainfully employed
194
183
35
191.3
11
5.7
At home
58
58
7
Away from home
136
125
28
224.0
11
8.1
Not reported
2
2
1
Foreign-born mothers
1,095
1,041
191
183.5
54
4.9
Not gainfully employed
512
491
80
162.9
21
4.1
Gainfully employed
582
550
111
201.8
32
5.5
At home
214
209
33
157.9
5
2.3
Away from home
368
341
78
228.7
27
7.3
Not reported
1
1
French-Canadian mothers
610
574
129
224.7
36
5.9
Not gainfully employed
349
335
66
197.0
14
4.0
Gainfully employed
261
239
63
263.6
22
8.4
At home
75
73
14
2
Away from home
186
166
49
295.2
20
10.8
Other foreign-born mothers
485
467
62
132.8
18
3.7
Not gainfully employed
163
156
14
89.7
7
4.3
Gainfully employed
321
311
48
154.3
10
3.1
At home
139
136
19
139.7
3
2.2
Away from home.*
182
175
29
165.7
7
3.8
Not reported
J
1
1 Not shown where base is less than 100.
52
INFANT MORTALITY.
Work during year after baby’s birth.— It remains to be demon-
strated whether or not the gainful employment of the mother during
some part of the year following childbirth is an independent factor
in the infant mortality rate. The mothers of 679 live-born infants
were thus employed; among these infants occurred 150 deaths under
12 months of age. The infant mortality rate, therefore, for this
group is 220.9 as compared with a rate of 122 for the babies whose
mothers were not gainfully employed during any part of the year fol-
lowing childbirth. At first glance the wide difference between these
rates seems conclusive evidence of the effect of the mother’s gainful
employment upon the well-being of the child. Several points, how-
ever, which weaken the comparative value of these rates must be
considered.
In the first place, the group of gainfully employed mothers is com-
posed of two widely different elements — those who worked at home
and were not separated from their babies and those who worked away
from home and were separated from their babies. Secondly, the
mothers of 72 babies were not gainfully employed until after their
babies had died. In no way, therefore, could the employment of
these mothers have been a factor in their babies’ deaths.
Table 32.
Live births during selected year and
infant deaths.
Employment of mother at home and away from home during
year following baby's birth and baby's age when mother
resumed gainful work away from home.
Total
live
births.
Infant deaths.
Survived
1 year.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
All mothers
1,564
1,306
258
165.0
Not gainfully employed
885
777
108
122.0
Gainfully employed
679
529
150
220.9
Resumed after baby’s death
72
72
Resumed during baby's life
603
529
74
122.7
No report of time resumed
4
4
Work at home
353
305
48
136.0
Resumed after baby's death
13
13
Resumed during baby's life
336
305
31
92.3
No report of time resumed
4
4
Work away from home
326
224
102
312.9
Resumed after baby's death
59
59
Resumed during baby's life
267
224
43
161.0
Baby's age when resumed:
Under 1 month
11
6
5
1 month and under 2
34
22
12
2 months and under 3
42
37
5
3 months and under 4 . .
32
21
11
4 months and under 5 . .
22
18
4
5 months and under 6 . .
31
28
3
6 months or older
95
92
3
i Not shown where base is less than 100.
If the 72 babies just referred to and the 4 whose ages when the
mothers resumed work were not reported be eliminated from consider-
ation, the infant mortality rate for the 603 babies whose mothers were
gainfully employed while their babies were still alive is 122.7 — a rate
INFANT MORTALITY.
53
almost identical with that for babies whose mothers were not gain-
fully employed.
The rate of 122.7 is made up of two rates — one of 92.3 for the babies
whose mothers were gainfully employed at home during the baby’s
lifetime and one of 161 for those whose mothers were thus employed
away from home. Evidently employment of the latter sort is the
one, if either, to be considered a factor in infant mortality.
A careful examination of the original schedules discloses the fact
that of the mothers who were gainfully employed outside the home
while their babies were still alive not one was thus employed before
the baby was at least 2 weeks old. The mortality rate, 161 for the
babies of these mothers, is therefore a rate for a selected group of
babies who survived at least 2 weeks and should be compared
with the rate for the remaining babies who survived at least 2 weeks.
In all, 1,508 infants survived at least 2 weeks — 267 whose mothers
went out to work while their babies were alive and 1,241 others.
In this latter group occurred 159 subsequent infant deaths — a mor-
tality rate of 128.1, which is markedly lower than the rate of 161
for the babies whose mothers were gainfully employed outside the
home during the baby’s lifetime.
Significance of mothers absence. — The evil effects of the mother’s
gainful employment away from home while the baby is alive lie
primarily in depriving the child of the mother’s care and in substi-
tuting artificial feeding for breast feeding. The younger the baby the
more marked the effect. Of the 119 babies whose mothers worked
away from home before the baby was 4 months of age, 33 died
before the age of 1 year. The mortality rate was 277.3. Among all
other live-born babies, 1,445 in number, there occurred 225 infant
deaths — a mortality rate of 155.7. But since the 119 babies were
part of a selected group which had survived at least 2 weeks, the
full significance of the rate, 277.3, appears only when contrasted
with the rate of 121.7 for the remainder of the group, namely, 1,389
babies who had survived at least 2 weeks. (See Table 33.)
Clearly, from these ^comparisons, so far as our data revealed the
actual conditions in Manchester, the gainful employment of mothers
away from home during some part of the year following childbirth
was accompanied by a marked increase in the infant mortality rate,
particularly in those cases where the mothers were thus employed
within four months of childbirth.
54
INFANT MORTALITY.
Table 33.
Infants whose mothers re-
sumed work away from
home during baby’s life-
time.
Baby’s age when mother resumed gainful work.
Infant deaths.
Total.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate . 1
All ages
Under 4 months
Under 1 month
1 month and under 2. .
2 months and under 3 .
3 months and under 4 .
267
119
11
34
42
32
43
33
5
12
5
11
161.0
277.3
4 months or older.
4 months and under 5 . .
5 months and under 6 . .
6 months or older
148
22
31
95
10
4
3
3
67.6
1 Not shown where base is less than 100.
Mothers work and infant mortality in low-earnings group. — The
gainful employment of mothers, as has been shown, is closely con-
nected in Manchester with the inadequate earnings of the father,
and the high infant mortality rate among babies of employed mothers
may be due to the low economic status of the family. In order,
therefore, to separate the effects of the one condition from the effects
of the other, the data concerning the employment of mothers in the
group where the father’s earnings were under $650 have been brought
together in the following table.
Table 34.
Infant deaths.
Employment of mother during year following baby’s birth, where father’s
earnings were under $650.
Live
births.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
All mothers
750
145
193.3
Mothers not gainfully employed
322
43
133.5
Mothers gainfully employed
428
102
238.3
After baby’s death
46
46
During baby’s life
378
52
137.6
At home
181
21
116.0
Away from home
197
31
157. 4
Time of resumption not specified
4
4
1 Not shown where base is less than 100.
From this table emerges the significant fact that within the same
low-income group the babies whose mothers were gainfully em-
ployed away from home while their babies were alive had a notably
higher infant mortality rate than those babies whose mothers were
not gainfully employed during any part of the year following child-
birth.
INFANT MORTALITY.
55
NATIVITY AND NATIONALITY.
Foreign element in city. — Manchester has a large foreign-bom
population in which the French-Canadian is the dominant group.
The total population in 1910 according to the Federal census was
70,063, of which 29,692, or 42 per cent, were foreign-born white;
24,197, or 35 per cent, native white of foreign or mixed parentage,
and only 16,119, or 23 per cent, native white of native parents. The
French-Canadian was not far below the native stock, numbering
13,720, or 20 per cent of the total. Other foreign horn found in any
considerable numbers in 1910 were the Irish, 3,482; Canadians (other
than French), 2,716; Germans, 1,225; and Greeks, 1,330. The last
named and the Poles and Syrians are the newest immigrants and
appear to he coming in increasing numbers.
The reports 1 of the Immigration Commission give the following
account of the history of immigration to Manchester:
The character of the immigration to Manchester, N. H., like that of other cotton-
manufacturing cities, has undergone considerable change within the past 20 years.
Practically no Irish have come during that time, the English and Germans ceased to
come in considerable numbers during the same period, and comparatively few French
Canadians have arrived since the cessation of their enormous immigration 10 or 15
years ago.
The Irish immigration was very heavy after 1850 and again after 1870. They form
at present by far the largest group of foreign-born, exclusive of Canadians. * * *
French-Canadian immigration, beginning in large numbers in the late seventies and
in the early part of the decade 1880-1890, has contributed by far the most important
element of the foreign population. In 1900, 55 per cent of the foreign-born of Man-
chester were French Canadians, their number, even exclusive of the second generation,
representing almost one-fourth of the total population of the city. * * *
The more recent immigrants, at present so important a factor in the mill population,
began coming to Manchester 12 or 15 years ago. The Poles first entered the mills of
the city about 1895, and are still arriving in considerable numbers. The Greeks and
Bulgarians, together with a few Syrians and Turks, constitute the largest racial group
now coming to the city.
Foreign-born mothers in this study. — Although the foreign born
constituted only about 42 per cent of the total population, foreign-
born mothers gave birth to about 67 per cent of the 1,643 infants.
Over hah of the mothers of foreign birth were French Canadians.
The number of births to this group was 610, or 37.1 per cent of the
total. Polish mothers were next in numbers, giving birth to 170
children. Irish mothers contributed 92 births; Greek and Syrian, 72.
The last two races named live in the same colonies and have much
the same habits; therefore they were combined for purposes of com-
parison. The same is true also of Ruthenian, Lithuanian, and Polish,
and the number of births to this whole group was 192. English, Irish,
and Scotch combined contributed 115 births. Other nationalities
were less important in numbers. (See Table 15.)
1 Reports of the Immigration Commission, vol. 10, p. 46, W ashington, 1911.
56
INFANT MORTALITY.
French Canadians. — The French Canadians in Manchester form a
prominent and distinct element in the city life. They have an in-
tense feeling of nationality, shared even by their descendants of the
first and second generations. Their impress upon the city is to be
seen in the French names of many institutions, such as churches,
convents, schools, hospitals, orphanages, and homes. Many of the
streets in the predominantly French section bear French names, as,
for example, Notre Dame, Cartier, Dubuque, Youville, Alsace, etc.
French is the common language of the home, shop, and street in
this section, and even the stores in the principal business sections
employ French interpreters to receive customers’ orders. There is
one French daily newspaper in the city. It is significant that the
only native mothers encountered in connection with this study who
could not speak English were of French-Canadian descent; they num-
bered 42, or 7.7 per cent of the total native born.
The French Canadians in Manchester are generally thrifty, self-
respecting people, ambitious to own their homes and to accumulate
property. Despite their tendency to retain their language and a sepa-
rate community life, they are found not only in the French quarter
but in other sections of the city. They are also found in all occupa-
tions, though large numbers work in the textile mills. Their earn-
ings here are higher as a rule than those of the newer immigrants,
the Greeks, Syrians, and Poles, and on the whole they occupy a rela-
tively favorable position among the foi'eign-born population in the
community as regards both economic and social status.
Nationality and infant mortality. — The infant mortality rate among
babies of native mothers was 128.1, while among babies of foreign-
born mothers it was 183.5. The rate for babies born to French-
Canadian mothers was 224.7, and the next highest rate was that among
babies of Polish mothers — 189. The lowest rate shown is that for
babies of the English, Irish, and Scotch mothers; for this group it
was only 66, a rate very much lower than that for babies of native
mothers. These figures make apparent the disproportionately large
number of deaths among babies born to French-Canadian mothers.
There were 129 deaths in this group, and if these be eliminated the
infant mortality rate for all other foreign-nationality groups com-
bined falls from 183.5 to 132.8, and the rate for all babies considered
from 165 to 130.3. (See Table 15.)
Economic status and size of family. — A larger proportion of the
foreign-born mothers than of the native are found in the economic
groups where father’s earnings are lowest, and this difference in eco-
nomic status is even more marked when the size of family is considered.
In general the native born have larger earnings and smaller families
than the foreign born. In the group of babies in which the fathers
earned under $650, of those with native mothers 15 per cent were iu
families of over four persons, while of babies with other foreign
INFANT MORTALITY,
57
mothers 28.4 per cent and of babies with French-Canadian mothers
42.5 per cent, were in such families. Similarly, among all with fathers
earning under $850 the percentages of the same three groups in families
of more than four persons were 19.7, 30.8, and 41, respectively.
Only 1 1 babies of native mothers were born in families of more than
eight persons and two of these were in the earnings group under
$650. Of the babies born to foreign mothers 74 were in families of
over eight persons, and 44 of these were in this low-income group.
Table 35.
Births during selected year in —
Earnings of father and nativity of mother.
All mothers
Under $450
$450 to $549
$550 to $649
$650 fro $849
$850 to $1,049
$1,050 to $1,249
$1,250 and over
No earnings 2
Not reported
Native mothers
Under $450
$450 to $549
$550 to $649
$650 to $849
$850 to $1,049
$1,050 to $1,249
$1,250 and over
No earnings
Not reported
Foreign-born mothers
Under $450
$450 to $549
$550 to $649
$650 to $849
$850 to $1,049-.:
$1,050 to $1,249
$1,250 and over
No earnings 2
Not reported
French-Canadian mothers . .
Under $450
$450 to $549
$550 to $649
$650 to $849
$850 to $1,049
$1,050 to $1,249
$1,250 and over
No earnings 2
Not reported
Other foreign-born mothers
Under $450
$450 to $549
$550 to $649
$650 to $849
$850 to $1,049
$1,050 to $1,249
$1,250 and over
No earnings
N ot reported
Average
number 1
of per-
sons per
family.
All
fami-
lies.
Families of specified number 1 of
persons.
1 to 4.
Over 4.
No
report.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
4.0
1,643
1,132
68.9
510
31.0
1
3.8
225
163
72.4
62
27.6
4.2
274
183
66.8
91
33.2
3.9
297
205
69.0
92
31.0
4.1
426
283
66. 4
143
33.6
3.9
199
144
72.4
55
27.6
4.2
72
48
66.7
24
33.3
3.6
105
78
74.3
27
25. 7
3.6
24
16
66.7
7
29. 2
1
4.2
21
12
57.1
9
42.9
3.3
548
444
81.0
103
18.8
1
3.4
29
24
82.8
5
17. 2
3.2
59
51
86.4
8
13.6
3.1
92
78
84.8
14
15.2
3.7
160
120
75.0
40
25.0
3.3
100
83
83.0
17
17.0
3.3
36
30
83.3
6
16. 7
3.2
63
52
82.5
11
17.5
1.0
5
4
80.0
3.8
4
2
50.0
2
50.0
4.3
1,095
688
62.8
407
37.2
3.8
196
139
70.9
57
29. 1
4.5
215
132
61.4
83
38.6
4.3
205
127
62.0
78
38. 0
4.4
266
163
61.3
103
38. 7
4.5
99
61
61.6
38
38. 4
5.1
36
18
50.0
18
50.0
4.1
42
26
61.9
16
38. 1
4.2
19
12
63.2
7
36.8
4.3
17
10
58.8
7
41.2
4.6
610
355
58.2
255
41.8
4.3
52
32
61.5
20
38.5
5.0
121
65
53.7
56
46. 3
4.6
133
79
59.4
54
40. 6
4.4
177
109
61.6
68
38. 4
4.8
68
39
57.4
29
42.6
6.0
18
6
33.3
12
66.7
4.4
22
13
59.1
9
40.9
3.4
10
7
70.0
3
30.0
4.7
9
5
55.6
4
44.4
3.9
485
333
68.7
152
31.3
3.7
144
107
74.3
37
25.7
3.8
94
67
71.3
27
28. 7
3.9
72
48
66.7
24
33.3
4.4
89
54
60.7
35
39.3
3.9
31
22
71.0
9
29.0
4.2
18
12
66.7
6
33.3
3.8
20
13
65.0
7
35.0
5.0
9
5
55.6
4
44.4
3.9
8
5
62.5
3
37.5
Baby bom during selected year not included in number.
2 Includes 1 father living on his income.
58
INFANT MORTALITY.
Economic status of French Canadians and others. — The high infant
mortality rates found among foreign born are accompanied in general
by low earnings of the father. Among the French Canadians, how-
ever, the father’s earnings were in general higher than among other
foreign born. For example, of the births to French-Canadian mothers
only 8.5 per cent occurred in the economic class where the father’s
earnings were less than $450, while of the births to other foreign
mothers 29.7 per cent were in this class. Half of the babies of French-
Canadian mothers belonged to families where the father’s earn-
ings were less than $650, but practically two-thirds of the babies of
other foreign-born mothers belonged to such families. The infant
death rates among both the French Canadians and the other foreign
born show in general a decline with rise in father’s earnings, but the
death rates for the babies of French-Canadian mothers within each
economic class are higher than the rates for others in the same
class.
Employment of foreign-born mothers. — A classification of the
babies born to French-Canadian mothers and to other foreign-born
mothers on the basis of gainful employment of the mother the year
after childbirth and according to father’s earnings reveals a smaller
extent of gainful employment among French-Canadian mothers.
Of the whole number of babies of French-Canadian mothers, 41.5 per
cent had mothers who worked the year following childbirth as com-
pared with 62.3 per cent of the babies of other foreign mothers who
worked during this period. In the lowest economic class, where the
father’s earnings were less than $450 per annum, the percentage of
babies whose mothers worked the year following childbirth was 55.8
in the French-Canadian group and 83.3 in the group of other foreign-
born. Though the proportion of mothers gainfully employed declines
in both groups, generally with the rise of father’s earnings the pro-
portion of mothers who work is less among the French Canadians
than among the other foreign born. (See Table 28.)
Gainful employment of the mothers during the year preceding
childbirth is also found to a less extent among the French-Canadian
mothers. Of the births to French-Canadian mothers 42.8 per cent
were to mothers who had worked the year previous to confinement,
while 66.2 per cent of the births to other foreign-born mothers were
to mothers who had worked in this year. (See Table 31.)
The infant mortality rate, as has been shown, in general is higher
among babies of mothers gainfully employed than among babies of
mothers not so employed. The contrast between those whose
mothers work away from home and others is particularly marked,
but in all cases the babies of French-Canadian mothers die at a much
higher rate than babies of other foreign-born mothers.
INFANT MORTALITY.
59
Despite then the smaller extent of gainful employment among
the French-Canadian mothers and the higher economic status of the
families, counterbalanced in part, it is true, hy the larger size, in-
fant death rates in all subclasses compared are so much higher
among babies of French-Canadian mothers than among babies of
other foreign-born mothers that a much higher rate for the French-
Canadian group as a whole is obtained.
Ability to speak English. — Among the foreign born inability to
speak English is generally regarded as a handicap which puts them
at a disadvantage economically and socially and so tends toward a
lower standard of living. It usually indicates a lack of means for
securing knowledge of the proper care of the baby and of the medical
resources of the community as a whole, in that the non-English
speaking are more or less limited in their choice of doctors and nurses
and of other social, medical, and educational resources of the com-
munity. But these conditions do not operate equally regardless
of nationality ; in Manchester lack of a knowledge of English would
be naturally less disadvantageous to the French Canadians than to
others, as the former are such a definitely independent element in
the population.
Table 36.
Births during selected year and infant deaths.
Ability of mother to speak English.
Total
births.
Live births.
Stillbirths.
Total.
Infant deaths.
Number.
Per
cent. 1
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
All mothers
1,643
1,564
258
165.0
79
4.8
Able to speak English
975
922
126
136.7
53
5.4
Unable to speak English 2
667
641
132
205.9
26
3.9
Not reported
1
1
Foreign-born mothers
1,095
1,041
191
183.5
54
4.9
English-speaking nationalities 3
129
120
9
75.0
9
7.0
Non-English speaking nationalities
966
921
182
197.6
45
4.7
Able to speak English
341
321
60
186.9
20
5.9
Unable to speak English
625
600
122
203.3
25
•4.0
French-Canadian mothers
610
574
129
224.7
36
5.9
Able to speak English
249
231
50
216.5
18
7.2
Unable to speak English
361
343
79
230.3
18
5.0
Other foreign-born mothers
356
347
53
152.7
9
2.5
Able to speak English
92
90
10
2
Unable to speak English
264
257
43
167.3
7
2.7
1 Not shown where base is less than 100.
8 Includes 42 native mothers.
8 English, Irish, Scotch, and Canadian except French.
A classification of foreign-born mothers of non-English speaking
nationalities according to ability to speak English reveals the fact
60
INFANT MORTALITY.
«
that the ’French-Canadian mothers, who are longer resident in this
country than other foreign-born mothers, had acquired the language
to a greater degree than the others. Of the 610 babies born to
French-Canadian mothers 249, or 40.8 per cent, had mothers able
to speak English, while of the babies of other non-English speaking
foreign-born mothers but 92, or 25.8 per cent, had such mothers.
Forty- two native mothers spoke French only.
The rate among babies of all mothers (native and foreign-born) able
to speak English was 136.7, while that of babies whose mothers could
not speak the language was 205.9. The infant death rate for babies
of both French-Canadian and other non-English speaking foreign-
born mothers was higher where the mother could not speak English
than where she could.
Years in United States. — The infant death rate for babies of all
foreign-born mothers who had been in this country 5 years or less
was 248.8, while that for babies of mothers who had lived here over
5 years was 165.7. On the other hand, the French-Canadian, among
whom the highest infant death rate was found, was the foreign group
which had been in this country longest. Only 14.9 per cent of all
babies of French-Canadian mothers were born to those who had lived
in the United States 5 years or less; whereas 27.5 per cent of babies
of other foreign-born mothers were born to those who had lived in the
United States for that period. Nearly half of the French-Canadian
mothers had been in this country over 15 years. The infant death
rate was higher, however, among the more recently arrived French
Canadians than among those who had been in the United States for
12 years or more.
INFANT MORTALITY,
61
Table 37.
Births during selected year to foreign-born mothers and
infant deaths.
Live births.
Stillbirths.
Ifears in the United States.
Total
births.
Infant deaths.
Total.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate. 1
Number.
Per
cent. 1
1,095
1,041
191
183.5
54
4.9
44
43
9
1
3 to 5 years
180
174
45
258.6
6
3.3
6 to 8 years
165
160
24
150.0
5
3.0
9 to 11 years
138
132
29
219.7
6
4.3
12 to 15 years
183
176
24
136.4
7
3.8
16 years and more
381
353
59
167.1
28
7.3
Not reported
4
3
1
1
French-Canadian mothers
610
574
129
224.7
36
5.9
Less than 3 years .
14
13
5
1
3 to 5 years.
77
74
24
3
6 to 8 years
68
65
14
3
9 to 11 years
55
52
16
3
12 to 15 years
108
103
19
184.5
5
4.6
16 years and more
285
265
50
188.7
20
7.0
Not reported
3
2
1
1
Other foreign-born mothers
485
467
62
132.8
18
3.7
Less than 3 years
30
30
4
3 to 5 years
103
100
21
210.0
3
2.9
6 to 8 years
97
95
10
2
9 to 11 years
83
80
13
3
12 to 15 years
75
73
5
2
16 years and more
96
88
9
8
Not reported
1
1
i Not shown where base is less than 100.
Table 38.
Births during selected year to foreign-bom mothers.
Nationality of mother.
In United States specified number of years.
Total.
Under
3.
3 to
5.
6 to
8 .
9 to
11 .
12 to
15.
16
and
over.
Not
re-
ported.
All foreign-bom mothers
1,095
44
180
165
138
183
381
Canadian, French
Polish
English, Irish, and Scotch.
Greek and Syrian
All other
Not reported
610
170
115
72
127
1
14
77
68
7
41
51
1
7
11
14
37
12
8
18
23
108
24
27
1
23
285 3
8
52
35 1
1
PER CENT DISTRIBUTION.
All foreign-born mothers
100.0
4.0
16.4
15.1
12.6
16.7
34.8
0.4
Canadian, French
100.0
2.3
12.6
11.1
9.0
17.7
46.7
.5
Polish
100.0
4.1
24. 1
30.0
22.9
14. 1
4. 7
English, Irish, and Scotch
100.0
.9
6. 1
9.6
14.8
23.5
45.2
Greek and Syrian
100.0
19.4
51.4
16.7
11. 1
1.4
All other
100.0
6.3
14.2
18.1
15.0
18.1
27.6
.8
62
INFANT MORTALITY.
Literacy. — Literacy in Manchester showed almost as close a rela-
tion to foreign birth as ability to speak English, for out of a total of
286 babies born to mothers who were illiterate only 25 were babies
of native mothers. In the case of literacy again a peculiar situ-
ation exists with reference to the French Canadians, for although
illiteracy in general is accompanied by a high infant death rate, in
the French-Canadian group the infant death rate for all babies was
224.7, and for babies of literate mothers the rate was practically
identical, namely 223.3. The difference in the infant mortality rates
on the basis of the literacy of mothers was chiefly confined to the
group of other foreign born. Here the rate was only 94.6 for babies
of literate mothers but rose to 198.8 for babies of illiterate mothers.
The French-Canadian mothers were more generally literate than the
other foreign-born mothers, 85.9 per cent being so classed as com-
pared with 63.9 per cent of the other foreign horn.
Table 39.
Births during selected year and infant deaths.
Live births.
Stillbirths.
Literacy 1 of mother.
Total.
births.
Infant deaths.
Total.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate. 2
Number.
Per cent.*
All mothers
1, 643
1,564
258
165.0
79
4.8
Literate
1,355
1,291
200
154.9
64
4.7
Illiterate 3
286
271
58
214.0
15
5.2
Not reported
2
2
Foreign-bom mothers
1,095
1,041
191
183.5
54
4.9
Literate
834
793
139
175.3
41
4.9
Illiterate
261
248
52
209.7
13
5.0
French-Canadian mothers
610
574
129
224.7
36
5.9
Literate
524
497
111
223.3
27
5.2
Illiterate
86
77
18
9
Other foreign-bom mothers
485
467
62
132.8
18
3.7
Literate
310
296
28
94.6
14
4.5
Illiterate
175
171
34
198.8
4
2.3
1 Persons who can read and write in any language are reported literate.
2 Not shown where base is less than 100.
3 Includes 25 native mothers.
Conditions peculiar to French Canadians. — Since those conditions
which have been shown to be factors in a high infant mortality rate
exist to practically no greater extent among the French Canadians
than among the other groups, the reasons for the excessive infant
mortality rate among the babies of French-Canadian mothers must
be sought, perhaps, in conditions of living that are peculiar to this
group.
INFANT MORTALITY.
63
Lack of Americanization — that is, retention of a foreign language
and maintenance of such distinct channels of expression as separate
schools, churches, orphanages, political and pleasure clubs, as well as
a daily paper printed in a foreign language — may tend to narrow and
limit that opportunity for contact which might have an educational
value along hygienic and other lines. But this question was not pur-
sued far enough to justify any positive conclusion as to its importance
in retarding the development of the French Canadians. In any case
these social conditions would affect the baby largely as they modified
customs within the home itself.
In their method of feeding and in the size of their families the French
Canadians show distinctive conditions which may account partly
for the difference between their infant mortality rate and the rates
of other groups of foreign born.
FEEDING.
Feeding and infant mortality. — Method of feeding is among the
factors immediately related to infant mortality. Feeding is often
the primary means through which the less direct factors, such as
employment of mothers away from home and low income with in-
sufficient food and rest for the mother, exert their influence. The
mother’s intelligence and care are also reflected in the baby’s feeding,
although the mother’s ignorance is itself often but the consequence
of low economic status and early entrance into gainful employment.
The importance of feeding to infant welfare is universally acknowl-
edged, and authorities are also agreed in emphasizing the great su-
periority of breast feeding to any substitute for mother’s milk.
Of the 1,643 babies included in this report, 1,564 were live bom,
and of this number 1,535 survived long enough to be fed. Upon this
latter group, then, the study of feeding is based. Only the first nine
months were taken into account in the study of feeding, because as
a rule breast feeding after that period is not necessary to the baby’s
welfare.
Effects of feeding in each month of age. — The chances of survival
for babies deprived of breast milk at an early age are decidedly less
than those for babies nursed for a longer period. A comparison of
the babies being breast fed and those being artificially fed any month
up to the ninth reveals the fact that the percentage who failed to
survive infancy was from two to five times as high among babies
being artificially fed as among those receiving breast milk exclu-
sively. (See Table 40.)
64
INFANT MORTALITY.
Table 40.
Infants born during selected year and surviving at beginning of specified month.
All mothers.
Native mothers.
Foreign-bom mothers.
Month of life and type
Died in
Died in —
Died in—
of feeding.
Total.
First year.
Total.
First year.
Total.
First year.
Speci-
Speci-
Speci-
fied
fied
fied
Num-
Per
month.
Num-
Per
month.
Num-
Per
month.
her.
cent.
ber.
eent.
ber.
cent.
First month
1,564
258
16.5
72
523
67
12.8
16
1,041
191'
18.3
•56
Breast exclusively ....
1,238
148
12.0
26
420
38
9.0
6
818
no
13.4
20
57
15
26.3
3
15
1
6.7
42
14
33.3
3
Artificial exclusively.
238
66
27.7
14
82
22
26.8
4
156
44
28.2
10
29
29
29
6
6
6
23
23
23
2
2
Second month. .
1,492
186
12.5
24
507
51
10.1
4
985
135
13.7
20
Breast exclusively —
1,067
92
8.6
12
353
22
6.2
1
714
70
9.8
11
Mixed
90
18
20.0
2
25
1
4.0
65
17
26.2
2
Artificial exclusively.
33$
76
22.8
10
129
28
21.7
3
204
48
23.5
7
2
2
Third month . .
1,468
162
11.0
24
503
47
9.3
4
965
115
11.9
20
Breast exclusively —
910
53
5.8
9
305
14
4.6
1
605
39
6.4
8
129
24
18.6
4
33
3
9. 1
96
21
21.9
4
Artificial exclusively .
427
85
19.9
11
165
30
18.2
3
262
55
21.0
8
Not reported
2
....2
Fourth month .
1,444
138
9.6
18
499
43
8.6
7
945
95
10.1
11
Breast exclusively —
742
31
4.2
6
250
7
2.8
3
492
24
4.9
3
Mixed
184
21
11.4
2
48
5
10.4
136
16
11.8
2
Artificial exclusively .
516
86
16.7
10
201
31
15.4^
4
315
55
17.5
6
Not reported
2
2
Fifth month. . .
1,426
120
8.4
18
492
36
7.3
5
934
84
9.0
13
Breast exclusively
633
17
2.7
211
2
.9
422
15
3.6
Mixed -
229
22
9.6
4
63
4
6.3
166
18
10.8
4
Artificial exclusively .
562
81
14.4
14
218
30
13.8
5
344
51
14.8
9
Not reported
2
2
Sixth month . . .
1,408
102
7.2
21
487
31
6.4
10
921
71
7.7
11
Breast exclusively —
523
14
2.7
3
174
1
.6
1
349
13
3.7
2
Mixed
281
20
7.1
5
81
4
4.9
3
200
16
8.0
2
Artificial exclusively .
602
68
11.3
13
232
26
11.2
• 6
370
42
11.4
7
Not, reported
2
2
Seventh month
1,387
81
5.8
18
477
21
4.4
5
910
60
6.6
13
Breast exclusively
386
10
2.6
1
125
261
10
3.8
1
Mixed
354
14
4.0
2
107
247
14
5.7
2
Artificial exclusively.
645
57
8.8
15
245
21
8.6
5
400
36
9.0
10
Not reported
2
2
Eighth month .
1,369
63
4.6
11
472
16
3.4
3
897
47
5.2
8
Breast exclusively
314
6
1.9
98
216
6
2.8
Mixed . .
391
13
3.3
2
122
269
13
4.8
2
Artificial exclusively .
662
44
6.6
9
252
16
6.3
3
410
28
6.8
6
Not reported. .
2
2
1 .
Ninth month . .
1,358
52
3.8
20
469
13
2.8
6
889
39
4.4
14
Breast exclusively
247
5
2.0
j
79
168
5
3.0
1
Mixed
410
9
2.2
3
129
281
9
3.2
3
Artificial exclusively.
699
38
5.4
16
261
13
5.0
6
438
25
5.7
10
Not reported
2
2
1
1
The total number of babies who were breast fed exclusively during
their first month was 1,238, and of these 12 per cent failed to survive
till the end of the year. Among the 238 babies who were artificially
INFANT MORTALITY.
65
fed during this month, however, 27.7 per cent died before the end of
the year. There were 1,492 babies who survived until the beginning
of the second month; 1,067 of these were breast fed during this month
and 333 received no breast milk whatever. In the former group only
8.6 per cent died before the end of the year, while in the latter group,
babies being artificially fed during the second month, 22.8 per cent
failed to survive infancy. The percentages of infant deaths for the
two groups, according to feeding in the third month, were 5.8 and
19.9, respectively, and for the succeeding months similar differences
in the proportion of infant deaths in each group appear. At the
beginning of the ninth month there were 1,358 babies living, of
whom 247 were nursed exclusively in this month and 699 were arti-
ficially fed. In the first group 2 per cent died before reaching 12
months, while 5.4 per cent of the second group failed to live to that
age. The difference in rates here, of course, can not be attributed
to the relative influence of breast and artificial feeding at 9 months.
But effects of both types of feeding are cumulative, and at any period
during infancy they show in the subsequent death rates among the
survivors. Not only the feeding being given during any specified
month but also the feeding during all or a part of the preceding
months of the child’s life cause the difference in death rates later.
The above comparisons are between breast feeding exclusively and
artificial feeding exclusively during various periods of the first 9
months. The influence of mixed feeding — that is, part breast milk
and part other food — upon the infant death rate is less pronounced.
Babies whose feeding was mixed, in all groups compared, died in
less numbers relatively than those being artificially fed and in greater
numbers relatively than those being breast fed. In the early
months exclusive breast feeding appears to be of most importance
to a baby’s welfare, for during this period the percentage of infant
deaths among babies whose feeding is mixed more closely approaches
that for babies being artificially fed than that for babies being ex-
clusively breast fed. After the sixth month the reverse is practically
true, and in the ninth month the advantage of exclusive breast feed-
ing over mixed feeding, so far as it is indicated by the infant death
rates, almost disappears.
A somewhat sharper contrast in the effects of feeding as indicated
by death rates appears if we consider all babies alive at specified ages
who had received a single type of feeding during their entire life up
to that age. Of the infants alive at the end of 3 months only 4.9
per cent of those who had been breast fed up to that time died later
under 1 year of age, while those who had been fed otherwise died
at from more than two to nearly four times this rate. Of the infants
who had been breast fed exclusively during the first 6 months of life
only 2.1 per cent died under 1 year of age, as compared with per-
72624°— 17 5
66
INFANT MORTALITY.
centages about six times as great for those who had had either
mixed or artificial feeding during the same period. At the end of
9 months there were 244 infants who had had only breast milk and
177 who had never had it; 1.6 per cent of the first group and 3.4
per cent of the second subsequently died under 1 year of age.
Table 41.
Infants born during selected year and surviving at
specified time.
Died later in year.
Type of feeding, age of infant, and nativity
of mother.
Total.
In specified month of age.
"c3
O
®
e
3
P
O)
o
u
Ph
£
1
pH
£
£
£
m
£
1
®
m
£
£
w>
W
£
£
£
£
£
®
Eh
£
£
®
®
S
£
1
Eh
ALL MOTHERS. 1
Type of feeding:
At 3 months of age
1,442
901
138
9,6
18
18
21
18
11
20
11
9
12
Breast
44
4.9
6
2
11
7
2
4
2
4
6
Mixed
125
20
16.0
2
4
1
1
4
3
2
2
Artificial
416
74
17.8
10
12
9
10
8
12
6
3
4
During first 3 months
1,442
138
9.6
18
18
21
18
11
20
11
9
12
Breast exclusively
9.00
44
4.9
6
2
11
7
2
4
2
4
6
Mixed exclusively
41
5
12.2
1
1
1
1
Artificial exclusively
206
35
17.0
3
5
‘T
8
4
6
3
1
2
More than one type"
295
54
18.3
9
10
7
2
5
10
5
3
3
At 6 months of age ..."
1,385
520
81
5.8
18
11
20
11
9
12
Breast
11
2. 1
1
1
1
1
3
4
Mixed
276
15
5.4
2
2
3
2
2
4
Artificial
589
55
9.3
15
8
16
8
4
4
During first 6 months
1,385
518
81
5. 8
18
11
20
11
9
12
Breast exclusively
11
2. 1
1
1
1
3
4
Mixed exclusively..
31
4
12.9
2
1
1
1
Artificial exclusively
195
24
12.3
8
4
6
3
1
2
More than one type
641
42
6.6
8
6
13
6
4
5
At 9 months of age
1,336
246
32
2.4
11
9
12
Breast
4
1.6
2
2
Mixed
407
6
1. 5
2
4
Artificial
683
22
3.2
9
7
6
During first 9 months
1,336
32
2.4
11
9
12
Breast exclusively
244
4
1.6
2
2
Mixed exclusively
25
2
8. 0
1
Artificial exclusively
177
6
3.4
3
....
2
More than one type
890
20
2.2
7
6
7
NATIVE MOTHERS.
Type of feeding:
At 3 months of age
490
43
8.6
7
5
10
5
3
6
3
2
2
Breast
304
13
4.3
3
1
5
2
1
1
Mixed
33
3
9. 1
1
1
1
Artificial
162
27
16.7
4
4
4
3
3
6
1
'2
During first 3 months
499
43
8. 6
7
5
10
5
3
6
3
2
2
Breast exclusively
304
13
4.3
3
1
5
2
1
1
Mixed exclusively
10
Artificial exclusively
74
14
18.9
3
2
2
1
4
1
More than one type
111
16
14.4
'T
1
3
1
2
2
1
i
1
At 6 months of age
477
21
4.4
5
3
6
3
2
2
Breast
173
Mixed
78
1
1.3
1
Artificial
226
20
8.8
5
3
6
3
1
"2
During first 6 months
477
21
4.4
5
3
6
3
2
2
Breast exclusively
173
Mixed exclusively
6
Artificial exclusively
69
9
13.0
2
1
4
1
1
More than one type
229
12
5.2
3
2
2
2
"2
1
At 9 months of age
463
7
1.5
3
2
2
Breast . . .
79
Mixed
129
Artificial
255
7
2.7
3
2
2
During first 9 months . .
463
7
1.5
3
2
2
Breast exclusively
78
Mixed exclusively
6
Artificial exclusively .
62
2
3, 2
1.6
1
1
More than one tvne'.
317
5
2
" 2
1
i Excluding 2 infants surviving 1 year for whom feeding was not reported.
INFANT MORTALITY,
67
Table 41 — Continued.
Type of feeding, age of infant, and nativity
of mother.
Infants born during selected year and surviving at
specified time.
Total.
Total.
Died later in year.
In specified month
®
to
*3
| Number.
Per cent.
| Fourth.
Fifth.
Sixth.
| Seventh.
| Eighth.
| Ninth.
| Tenth.
1
Eleventh.
Twelfth. ]
FOREIGN-BORN MOTHERS. 1
Type of feeding:
At 3 months of age
943
95
10.1
11
13
11
13
8
14
8
7
10
Breast
597
31
5.2
3
1
6
5
2
4
1
3
6
Mixed
92
17
18.5
2
4
1
1
4
2
1
2
Artificial
254
47
18.5
6
8
"5*
7
5
6
5
3
2
During first 3 months
943
95
10.1
11
13
11
13
8
14
8
7
10
Breast exclusively
596
31
5.2
3
1
6
5
2
4
1
3
6
31
5
16.1
1
1
1
1
1
Artificial exclusively
132
21
15.9
”3’
2
’ T
6
3
2
2
1
More than one type
184
38
20.7
5
9
4
1
3
8
4
2
2
908
60
6.6
13
8
14
8
7
10
347
11
3.2
1
1
1
1
3
4
198
14
7.1
2
2
3
2
4
363
35
9.6
10
5
10
5
3
2
908
60
6.6
13
8
14
8
7
10
345
11
3.2
1
1
1
1
3
4
25
4
16.0
1
1
1
1
126
15
11.9
6
3
2
2
1
1
412
30
7.3
5
4
11
4
2
4
873
25
2.9
8
7
10
Breast ~
167
4
2.4
2
2
Mixed. .. . .
278
6
2.2
2
4
Artificial
428
15
3.5
6
*5"
4
During first 9 months
873
25
2.9
8
7
10
Breast exclusively
166
4
2.4
2
2
Mixed exclusively
19
2
10.5
1
1
Artificial exclusively
115
4
3.5
2
i
More than one type
573
15
2.6
5
4
6
French- Canadian mothers.
Type of feeding:
At 3 months of age
511
66
12.9
10
9
7
13
5
9
5
3
5
Breast
269
18
6.7
3
1 '
3
5
3
1
2
Mixed
43
11
25.6
1
2
1
T
2
"i‘
1
2
Artificial
199
37
18.6
6
6
4’
7
4
4
4
1
1
During first 3 months
511
66
12.9
10
9
7
13
5
9
5
3
5
Breast exclusively
269
18
6.7
3
1
3
5
3
1
2
Mixed exclusively
15
4
26.7
1
i
j
1
Artificial exclusively
106
16
15. 1
3
2
1
6
2
1
1
More than one type
121
28
23.1
4
6
3
3
5
3
1
2
At 6 months of age
485
40
8.2
13
5
9
5
3
5
Breast
138
4
2.9
1
2
Mixed
71
8
11.3
2
1
1
1
1
2
Artificial
276
28
10. 1
10
4
8
4
1
1
During first 6 months
485
40
8.2
13
5
9
5
3
5
Breast exclusively
138
4
2. 9
1
1
2
Mixed exclusively
' 14
4
28. 6
1
1
1
Artificial exclusively
100
10
10.0
6
2
1
1
More than one type
233
22
9.4
5
3
8
3
1
2
At 9 months of age
458
13
2.8
5
3
5
Breast
58
1
1. 7
Mixed
86
3
3.5
1
2
Artificial
314
9
2. 9
4
3
2
During first 9 months
458
13
2.8
5
3
5
Breast exclusively
58
1
1.7
Mixed exclusively
8
2
25.0
1
2
Artificial exclusively
91
1
1. 1
1
More than one type
301
9
3.0
3
3
3
Other foreign-horn mothers. 1
Type of feeding:
At 3 months of age
432
29
6.7
1
4
4
3
5
3
4
5
Breast !
328
13
4.0
3
2
1
1
2
4
Mixed
49
6
12.2
1
2
....
2
1
Artificial
1 55
10
18.2
2
1
i
2
1
2
i
i Excluding 2 infants surviving 1 year for whom feeding was not reported.
68
INFANT MORTALITY.
Table 41— Continued.
Infants born during selected year and surviving at
specified time.
Died later in year.
Type of feeding, age of infant, and nativity
of mother.
"(3
o
Eh ■
Total.
In specified month of age.
rO
a
3
fc
d
o i-o oo o rf
*-*
-
-
Hr
CO
rH rH
O
1 Sf
rH CO tS* CO CO 05 CO
(Nhh
r
CO
CN*
00
1 “II
N 00 CO CO Tt o ^
H(N(NH
oo
co
CSHH
79
H^H 00 *
H
j COrHrH
3
o>
(NHH
CO
89
iQ N CO (N CO H (N
H(NCO
“1
NNNH
15
CM CN| i
1 sll
O CO rH CO CO
HCOlOH
s l
7
3
1
2
33
25
00 CO
'*
123
OOCOCOH
s !
OONHH O
lO
43
1
HCOlOH
CO
148
1 Tf O Tfl
CO 05 W
34
nn^ocs o
05
CO CO CN| rH H< -
NiOOIMOtO
*« P
P
PJ o
sots ts
Q © ®
fcfc-P 73 X3
£ & S 3.
t-, ra. 9 .S<
S ®NH
S O
O) C 3
>»®,p
_. 'O
(_ i-l tH
2
102
INFANT MORTALITY.
•S3
IS
O C3
S orT
©3
3
&
US
H ©
C3 rfl VJ • *«
©^ <3,3,3 £,3,3
r', CZ3 -4^ 03 +j +j> TO +J
_ M'S c3c3®c3c3®c3_
a © © © -O © © © ,3
UO-H •^g'CI,H r e'0 1 _ H r S-£
.S.K+ 3 + J + s tuogg Mg*S
i:^i||.S|!.S|s
la.a.a*g.a.a|.si
« gcO(NrH £ S'
03 • W w ’ W w * ■
® br^rCj ^rCjr^
P>j 03 4_> 03 4_j p 03 -*->
® c3 o3 ® o3 c3 ® © ,£}
bJO^ Td ^ T-( r-1 ^
•S bctf t2 bj0t2 "£ bfl
>.B ..
> >*S , S >‘S‘S >
g3
SfSMaa
_;.£ s 3.5 3 3.5 s
3 >*
TO P*> CO ‘CO • CO CO
©^,3 h.3 feSS
JJ TO JJ rap4J TO
_4W|C3®C3®C3C3©
W)-g X} rH S3 rH S X)
.9-5 g Mg Mgg M
.5 >§.s§.s||.a
s > B.
co
. CO i
. CM
“ s
so „
' ®rt£tf®1s®ri‘c3co®<© CD CD *-^ *o
4J k „40 4J ...■*> -W M +^ -a
•gSPa^aa^aaaS'aaa'as
£ .5 os .9 a 03 .2 g a g .9 ^ « .a « a
^ .£ a £ a a .£ a a a £ a a .£ a +■>
>_>
a
1 co tn n >® 4,
&0,_,'O’a
•S w>-a -a
>.s||
> > a a
a
2 Infant deaths and 2 stillbirths.
104
INFANT MORTALITY.
a«r
O-S
If
a
3
&
3 tn
0 03 . „
© © 03 grt
I >>.2 ®
1 rt’ 5 ^
40 4 _J
t, #0 c
£|.a!a
£co ,_< X)
“s 3 “fl
.a c3 « .a ^2
£ 3 3.es 3
3 3
a; ^ ^ . . ^ . .
£>> c3 40 c3 40 c3 -*— > c3 -+-J -f_j tvj -*—>
^c3pc3^c30)c3c3^c^
H >)© ko >)Q) >iO o ~
•S tso-g bfi-g bo'g
>.a i.a 3 .a §
> >fl>3
r-l 3 3 3
r-J CO tO tO
CO »C CD
® ® •
i>>®3 ^
>t3 +3 ,3
bfi 4
>cc’^
3 3
.a|l
3 -w
3
© >-. 3
t^cei3
_ ® 3
” >5 ©
W>_XJ,
•S M'S
£.s|.
> > *3
“a^a
t 3 o3 ®
I © © >5
I33 h
I 40 40 f
i 3 3 C
: c3 <3 3
I .a .a
'CO 1
>03
_, r O'a .
® £ 03
>> 03 03
® o 3 c 3
t>l® o
pM r a , a
2>fi
.3 a
.t a
3 3.
£6'
co +-? '
03 03
>>®
_ r O r
< w>6'
i.g|,
\-~K
> |«<
>>« t>
.3
£ .3 .3
m
a
„
^ > ®c3®'£®c3®‘c3®c 3'S >>03 el
M >>03>>a3>>a3>>a3>>a3a3.®03
&c_< , o ra) , drt , ^T-( r ^^H , ^ r o'r rc: ' i = |
*?a £?c ^oS-S fl-S
Jh .3 c3 .5 c3 .H .5 c 3 .£4 c3 c3 ^ c3 c3
-~J2 -fS 3'>£&
H t" jg lO 5'*' pNH
03
03 03 *h 03
a§ g
<1 -.s
S' -1
05
00 03 r-l rH
&£6
.3 bo+3
£$1
rC •£ .9
S £ ■17
Not re-
ported.
All mothers
1,643
i 17
123
342
1509
341
133
72
21
7
2
! 5
2
I s
1 3
1
2
58
Persons per dwelling:
I
T“
1
1
1
2
244
J5
1 12
38
68
; 75
28
7
8
1
2
3
243..
2
26
67
80
34
19
6
3
2
1
j
2
4
218 ..
23
55
. 62
57
8
9
2
1
1
5
226 _ .
23
46
75
46
18
12
"3
1
i
6
182
2
4
37
69
50
12
6
1
1
7
134
3
26
45
31
17
5
5
1
2
8
121
3
19
49
26
13
7
2
2
9
73
1
2
9
20
17
12
5
4
1
2
10
58
8
9
16
15
6
2
1
1
More than 10 •
96
7
24
35
12
8
2
1
1
1
2
3
Not reported
48
1
1
46
Native mothers
548
3
44
113
159
113
44
39
14
2
2
5
1
2
1
2
4
persons per dwelling:
1
1
1
2
113
3
16
32
35
15
6
6
3
122
13
30
42
16
9
6
3
1
1
1
H
4
85
5
22
21
25
4
5
1
1
ii
5
73
7
13
23
15
4
9
i
1
G
59
1
11
19
18
4
4
1
..1
1
7
31
1
1
7
9
4
5
4
1
8
19
1
7,
4
3
1
1
2!
9
14
2
1
3
3
1
3
1
.!
10
15
3
3
6
2
..1
More than 10
12
1
1
4
1
1
**
1
i
2
Not reported
4
1
3
Foreign-born mothers
1,095
5
14
79,
229
350
228
89
33
7
5
i
l t
1
1
J
54
Persons per dwelling:
|
I
2
131
5
9
22'
36
40
13
1
2
1
--
!
2
3
121
1
2
13 1
37
38
18
10
1
1
2
4
133
18
33
41
32
4
’4
i
"!
5
152
16
33
52
31
14
3
2
-1
1
..1
6
123
2
3'
2
26
50
32
8
2
7
103
25
38
22
13
1
1
..l
1
8...
102
3
18
42
22
10
6
1
..1
9..
59
i
2 !
7
19
14
9
4
1
2
10 .
43
8
6
13
9
4
1;
1
More than 10
84
6
23
31
11
8
1
1
3
Not reported
• 44
1
I
43
I
French-Canadian mothers
610
2
10
36
130
226
128
49
14
3
3
1
1
7
Persons per dwelling:
1
2
82
2
7
13
23
26
7
2
1
3
77
2
7i
24
24
9
8
1
1
2
4
86
8
21
31
20
3
2
1
I
5. . .
101
6
22
41
22
7
1
1
I
1
6
71
1
l 1
12
35
16!
5!
1
7
57
1
10
23
15!
6l
1! 1
1
i
Baby born during selected year not included in number.
INFANT MORTALITY,
113
Table 61 — Continued.
Births during selected year.
Persons 1 per dwelling and nativity of
mother.
According to number of rooms in dwelling.
Total.
*
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
17
Not re-
ported.
French-Canadian mothers— Con.
Persons per dwelling— Continued.
8
53
8
25
10
6
4
9
28
4
10
7
6
1
10
20
5
3
6
3
2
1
More than 10
33
1
8
16
5
2
1
Not reported
2
2
other foreign -b^rn Tnntbp.rs
485
3
4
43
99
124
100
40
19
4
2
47
Persons per dwelling:
2 .
49
3
2
9
13
14
6
1
1
3
44
6
13
14
9
2
4
47
10
12
10
12
1
2
5
51
10
11
11
9
7
2
1
6
52
i
2
14
15
16
3
1
7
46
1
15
15
7
7
1
8
49
3
10
17
12
4
2
1
9
31
1
2
3
9
7
3
4
1
1
10
23
3
3
7
6
2
1
1
More than 10 .
51
5
15
15
6
6
1
1
2
Not reported
42
1
41
1 Baby born during selected year not included in number.
Table 62.
Births diming selected year and infant deaths.
Persons 1 per room and nativity of mother.
Total
births.
Live births.
Stillbirths.
Total.
Infant deaths.
Number.
Percent. 2
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate. 2
All mothers
1,643
1,564
258
165.0
79
4.8
Less than 1
698
665
82
123.3
33
4.7
1 but less than 2 ’
760
720
128
177.8
40
5.3
2 but less than 3
110
107
28
261.7
3
2.7
3 but less than 5
15
15
2
Not reported
60
57
18
3
Native mothers
548
523
67
128.1
25
4.6
Le<=s than 1
332
318
34
106.9
14
4.2
1 but less than 2
* 199
188
27
143.6
11
5.5
2 but less than 3
12
12
5
Not reported
5
5
1
Foreign-born mothers
1,095
1,041
191
183.5
54
4.9
Less than 1
366
347
48
138.3
19
5.2
1 but less than 2
561
532
101
189.8
29
5.2
2 but less than 3
98
95
23
3
3 but less than 5
15
15
2
Not reported
55
52
17
3
French-Canadian mothers
610
574
129
224.7
36
5.9
Less than 1
236
221
40
181.0
15
6.4
1 but less than 2
325
306
73
238.6
19
5.8
2 but less than 3
40
39
13
1
3 but less than 5
2
2
Not reported
7
6
3
1
Other foreign-born mothers
485
467
62
132.8
18
3.7
Less than 1
130
126
8
63.5
4
3.1
1 but less than 2
236
226
28
123.9
10
4.2
2 but less than 3
58
56
10
2
3 but less than 5
13
13
2
Not reported
48
46
14
2
Baby born during selected year not included in number. 2 Not shown where base is less than 100.
72624°— 17 8
114
INFANT MORTALITY.
Rent. — Rent furnishes an index to the status of the baby’s home
less reliable than any other so far used, for the reason that with
it should be considered the size of the family and the number of
roomers or others in the family. In Manchester, moreover, a number
of joint families were encountered; that is, two family groups, such
as parents and married children or married brothers and sisters, who
occupied one dwelling jointly, sharing expenses, including rent. To
attribute to a family in such an arrangement the actual amount of
rent paid would indicate quarters really inferior to those they occu-
pied, while obviously it would not be accurate to credit them with
the rent of the entire dwelling. Such objections, however, merely
impair but do not destroy the usefulness of rent as an index to housing
status. In a city as small as Manchester, where the population is
very mobile, rents tend toward an equality for equal accommodations.
A comparison of the rentals paid with the infant mortality rates for
each group may serve at least to reenforce data already presented as
to the general tendency of the infant mortality rate to fall as housing
conditions improve.
The rents paid in Manchester are most readily grouped in four
classes: Less than $7.50 per month; $7.50 to $12.49; $12.50 to $17.49;
and $17.50 and over. There were 175 homes of live-born babies
where the rental paid was less than $7.50, and the infant mortality
rate among babies in these homes was 211.4. The largest number of
babies, 703, was found in homes where the rent paid was $7.50 up to
$12.49. The rate for this group was 172.1. There were 300 babies
in the next class, where the rentals were from $12.50 to $17.49, and
the infant mortality rate among them was 156.7. Only 62 babies
belonged to homes with a rental of $17.50 and over, and 6 deaths
occurred among them. The parents of 186 babies owned their
homes and the infant death rate was only 86 per 1,000.
I NT A NT MORTALITY.
115
Table 63.
Live births during selected
year and infant deaths.
Tenure of home and nativity of mother.
Total
live
births.
Infant deaths.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate.i
. 1,564
258
165.0
186
16
86.0
1,314
226
172.0
Monthly rental:
Under $7.50
175
37
211.4
$7.50 to $12.49
703
121
172.1
$12 50 to $17 49
300
47
156.7
62
6
6
68
15
64
16
523
67
128.1
68
6
444
58
130.6
Monthly rental:
Under $7 50
49
11
$7.50 to $12.49
217
36
165.9
$12.50 to $17.49
103
7
68.0
43
1
Boarding .
31
4
Not reported - -
11
3
Foreign-born mothers
1,041
191
183. 5
Home owned
118
10
84.7
Home not owned . . .
870
168
193.1
Monthly rental:
Under $7.50
126
26
206.3
$7.50 to $12.49
486
85
174.9
$12.50 to $17.49..
197
40
203.0
$17.50 and over .
19
6
Free. . .
5
Boarding
37
11
jvjot reported
53
13
French-CaDadian mothers
574
129
224.7
Home owned
71
10
Home not owned
494
118
238.9
Monthly rental:
Under $7.50 ... .
71
19
$7.50 to $12.49
288
61
211.8
$12.50 to $17.49
100
24
240.0
$17.50 and o ver ...
11
6
Free
4
I
Boarding . . .
20
8
Not, reported
9
1
Other foreign-born mothers
467
62
132.8
Home owned
47
Home not owned
376
50
133.0
Monthly rental:
Under $7.50
55
7
$7.50 to $12.49
198
24
121.2
$12.50 to $17.49
97
16
$17.50 and over
8
Free .
1
Boarding
17
3
Not reported
44
12
i Not shown where base is less than 100.
116
INFANT MORTALITY.
WARDS.
A comparison of infant mortality rates by neighborhoods is another
method of measuring the influence of bad environment. This method,
however, yielded more or less negative results in Manchester, for the
reason that no practicable method was found of comparing good and
bad districts.
Births and deaths were recorded by wards, but the ward divisions
in Manchester had only political significance; they did not correspond
to any division of the city into sections according to the character of
the housing, sanitation, or population. The majority of the wards
radiated from the center of the city and presented every variety of
neighborhood within their boundaries. Such a lack of distinctive
character in the wards made it difficult to interpret the infant
mortality rate each showed.
The two wards exhibiting the lowest infant mortality rates,
wards 5 and 6, with rates of 120.6 and 119.6, respectively, were the
wards containing the greatest proportion of people living under rural
and semirural conditions. No crowded or congested areas were found
within the boundaries of either.
The highest infant death rates were found in wards 2 and 9. In
the former there were 51 infant deaths, which made a rate of 236.1,
and in the latter ward 48 deaths, a rate of 227.5. Both of these
wards had sections varying widely in character, but they also pre-
sented conditions which throw some light upon the large numbers of
infant deaths occurring in them. Ward 2 was one of the radiating
wards and at its inner end exhibited some of the worst living condi-
tions in the city. Over two-thirds of the mothers here were foreign
born, the majority being French Canadians and Poles. Ward 9 was on
the y^est side and quite closely built up, with some congested districts.
The hausing on the whole, however, was much superior to the worst
sections in the congested central portion east of Elm Street. A large
proportion of the inhabitants of this ward were “mill” people and
over two-thirds French Canadians.
The other wards of the city had infant mortality rates which were
well within these extremes and which bore no particular relation to
neighborhood conditions. A somewhat peculiar contrast appears
between the rates revealed for ward 1 and for ward 4. The former,
which contained the best residence district of the city, had an infant
mortality rate of 177.6, while the latter, which was the most congested
ward in the city, had a rate of only 144.7. Such results may be
wholly accidental, of course, since the numbers involved are not
large, or they may be explicable upon the basis of facts not disclosed
by this investigation. In any case, no satisfactory comparison of
neighborhoods and rates can be made on the basis of ward divisions,
because of the varied conditions found within each ward.
INFANT MORTALITY.
117
Table 64.
Births during selected year and infant deaths.
Live births.
Stillbirths.
Ward of residence.
Total
births.
Infant deaths.
Total.
Number.
Infant
mortality
rate.
Number.
Per cent.
The city
1,643
1,564
258
165.0
79
4.8
Ward:
1
111
107
19
177.6
4
3.6
2 •
224
216
51
236.1
8
3.6
3
189
179
27
150.8
10
5.3
4
244
235
34
144.7
9
3.7
5
143
141
17
120.6
2
1.4
6
201
184
22
119.6
17
8.5
7
150
141
21
148.9
9
6.0
8
157
150
19
126.7
7
4.5
9
224
211
48
227.5
13
5.8
Table 65.
Nationality of mother.
Births during selected year.
Total.
Ward of residence.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
All mothers
1,643
111
224
189
244
143
201
150
157
224
Native
548
56
68
56
41
78
82
65
47
55
Foreign born
1,095
55
156
133
203
65
119
85
110
169
Canadian, French
610
37
70
36
62
31
86
42
96
150
Canadian except French
27
4
4
3
3
6
2
5
Polish
170
1
68
62
24
2
10
3
English, Irish' and Scotch
115
7
5
13
28
17
10
23
4
8
Greek and Syrian
72
65
3
4
Op.rmnn
30
2
16
9
3
Jewish
24
3
3
12
6
Ruthenian and Lithuanian
22
4
14
4
All other and not reported
25
6
6
5
3
1
2
1
CONCLUSIONS.
Infant mortality rate. — The infant mortality rate of 165 for the
whole group of 1,564 live-born infants is strikingly high. Not only
is it higher than the rate of 124, computed in 1910 for the general
registration area of the United States, and higher than that of 101.8
in 1913 for New York City with all its congestion and large foreign
element, but it is also several times as high as the rates found in cer-
tain foreign countries.
Environment. — Bad housing and insanitary environment, in so far
as they existed, were accompanied by high infant mortality rates.
These conditions were confined to relatively few areas and were not
generally prevalent throughout the city. They are, however, likely
to become worse and more extensive in the future unless controlled
by adequate restriction.
118
INFANT MORTALITY.
Low earnings. — Low earnings of the father indicate in general a
low economic status for the family, and in Manchester they were
accompanied by a high infant mortality rate. As the father's earn-
ings increased the rate declined substantially.
Mother’s employment. — Gainful employment of the mother existed
principally when the earnings of the father were low. Such employ-
ment away from home usually necessitated artificial feeding and
was accompanied by an infant mortality rate higher than that
accompanying low earnings of father.
Nationality. — Babies of foreign-born mothers had a higher rate
than those of native mothers, largely on account of the numerous
deaths among babies of French-Canadian mothers. The French
Canadians as a group, however, occupied a generally higher economic
status than other foreign born, and gainful employment of the mother
was found to a less extent among them. Their high death rate may
be accounted for in part by their large families and the prevalence of
artificial feeding.
Large families. — In general the later-born children have a greater
tendency to a high infant mortality rate than those earlier born.
Large families were found chiefly among the French Canadians and
among the lower economic groups of other nationalities. The mor-
tality rate among all babies ninth and later in order of birth is con-
siderably higher than the rates for those earlier born in either of
these groups with unfavorable rates.
Artificial feeding. — Artificial feeding was accompanied by a, higher
infant mortality rate than breast feeding. Feeding methods reflect
standards and customs and the opportunity of the mother to care
for the baby. Artificial feeding was practiced most extensively by
mothers gainfully employed away from home; by native mothers in
the lowest economic class; and by the French Canadians. In each of
these groups other conditions coincident to a high infant mortality
rate are also present. In the highest economic group, where the
food is more likely to be prepared in accordance with instructions of
physicians and where other unfavorable conditions tending to produce
a high rate are absent, the rates for breast-fed and artificially fed
babies are both low, with a slight difference in favor of the breast-fed
baby.
PART II. CIVIC ACTIVITIES AND CONDITIONS.
ORGANIZATION OF INFANT-WELFARE WORK.
During the period covered by this study organized inf an t-w elf are
work in Manchester was in charge of private philanthropy. One
organization, the Infant Aid Association, gave its exclusive atten-
tion to this work. Its activities were confined to the support during
July and August of milk stations, where pure milk was distributed
at cost or less to mothers otherwise unable to provide it for their
babies. The milk was modified according to the baby’s require-
ments and the mothers were given instruction in the care and feed-
ing of the baby. The association began its work in 1912 with the
opening of one milk station. In 1914 the number of milk stations
was increased to three, with a staff of four nurses giving full time
and a number of physicians giving part time. A total of 266 babies
were cared for during the two months. In addition to the instruc-
tion of mothers at the stations through mothers’ meetings and baby
clinics, the mothers and babies were visited in their homes.
The District Nursing Association also has interested itself in
infant welfare, referring cases to the Infant Aid Association during
the months when the milk stations were open and taking over such
cases as needed attention after the milk stations had closed. In
1914 they maintained a special baby nurse who devoted all her
time to work with babies. There were in her charge during the
year 198 babies. The association also gave mothers who were preg-
nant advice and attention when needed.
The larger of the two textile-manufacturing establishments main-
tained visiting nurses for the benefit of the families of its employees.
As part of their work during 1914 these nurses made visits to infants
and attended maternity cases.
The city did not engage directly in infant- welfare work in any
form, but in 1913 it appropriated the sum of $300 toward the work
of the District Nursing Association, and it also made similar appro-
priations to various institutions for the care of dependent infants
and children The department of health had charge of milk inspec-
tion and medical inspection of school children; it did not, however,
at that time engage in any activities, educational or otherwise,
which had as their special object the promotion of infant health and
hygiene.
Since this study was made the infant-welfare activities of Man-
chester have been considerably broadened; the Infant Aid Associa-
119
120
infant Mortality.
tion maintains a milk station all the year; the District Nursing
Association is devoting an increased amount of time toward improv-
ing infant health and hygiene and maintains a successful baby
clinic; the manufacturing establishment mentioned above has in-
creased its infant-welfare work both directly and through contribu-
tions; and the department of health now has an infant-welfare
nurse giving full time to such work.
BIRTH REGISTRATION.
The registration of births is made compulsory by the State law
under penalty of fine. 1 The physician, accoucheur, midwife, or other
attendant at birth must report to the town clerk within six days
after the birth of the child the facts 2 required by this law. Still-
births must be registered both as births and as deaths. A fee of
25 cents is provided for the person reporting and a fee of 15 cents to
the town clerk for each birth recorded; also a fee of 25 cents to the
town clerk for obtaining the facts regarding a birth not reported.
In spite, however, of the penalty attached to failure to obey the
law and the fees provided for compliance, Manchester, in common
with many other communities within the registration area, has not
secured strict enforcement of the law. Violations are prosecuted
when discovered, but the city employs no special methods to discover
unregistered births other than checking birth and death certificates
against each other. No canvass is made for births. Since a burial
permit is required from the board of health before interment can
take place, the record of infant deaths is more nearly complete than
that of births.
The importance of adequate birth registration as a basis for all
other inf ant- welfare work is now coming to be generally recognized.
Unless the number and local distribution of births relative to the
number and distribution of infant deaths in a commmiity be known
it is not possible to organize intelligently plans for the reduction of
infant deaths or for the promotion of infant welfare.
PHILANTHROPIC INSTITUTIONS AND AGENCIES.
Manchester had a considerable number of philanthropic institu-
tions. These were chiefly under private control, and a number had
religious affiliations. Residents had access to six hospitals. One
of these was a county hospital located a short distance beyond the city
limits, one an isolation hospital maintained by the city, and the
other four were private institutions. Three of the latter received a
1 Chapter 173, Public Statutes, 1901, amended by chapter 60 of the Acts of 1911 and by chapter 39 of the
Acts of 1913.
2 The date and place of birth, name, color, and sex of child, whether living or stillborn, and the name,
color, occupation, residence, and birthplace of parents.
INFANT MORTALITY.
121
small annual appropriation from the city. These hospitals all did
general work and accepted obstetrical cases. It was not a common
practice, however, among the mothers interviewed to go to the hos-
pital for confinement.
Private relief. — Homes for the care of various classes of dependent
children and for the aged and infirm were the most numerous of all
philanthropic institutions. Altogether there were 20 such homes in
Manchester, of which 8 were for children, 5 for the aged, and the 7
remaining for a variety of classes. The children’s homes are of most
interest in connection with this report. One of these was an infant
asylum, which took only children under 4 years of age, and in one
other small children and babies were taken care of by the day while
the mothers went to work. All were private institutions, hut, inas-
much as there was no county or city children’s home, children who
were public charges were boarded in these homes by the county and
city. Parents also sometimes placed their children in them and paid
either wholly or in part the cost of their maintenance. The city
contributed a small annual appropriation toward the support of the
majority of these homes, and the remainder of their support came
from private charity.
The New Hampshire Children’s Aid and Protective Society, with
headquarters at Manchester, was interested in the protection of chil-
dren, including infants, from abuse and neglect. A part of its work
had been the investigation of infant boarding houses, or private homes
which took one or more infants to board, in order to discover and
abolish unlicensed places and places unfit to receive babies.
Private charitable relief in Manchester was left largely to unorgan-
ized effort. One society maintained by the various Protestant
churches was engaged primarily in giving general material relief to
the poor in their homes. Other societies and institutions gave some
material relief incidentally in connection with other lines of philan-
thropic activity.
The larger factories did a considerable amount of welfare work for
the promotion of the health and general well-being of their em-
ployees. This work provided for educational and recreational facil-
ities, medical attention both for employees and for members of their
families, assistance in building homes, and other activities.
Public relief. — Public relief of the poor in Manchester was adminis-
tered by both the city and the county. The city helped residents,
that is, persons who had established a settlement; and the county,
nonresidents. The requirements for obtaining a settlement were so
difficult to meet, however, that the amount of relief given by the
county to inhabitants of Manchester exceeded that given by the city.
In 1913 the county aided Manchester families representing 1,341
persons, and disbursed $14,329.84 for the relief of persons in their
122
INFANT MORTALITY.
homes. This was exclusive of $2,176.15 spent for the care of indi-
gent soldiers. In addition the county also spent a considerable sum
on indoor relief, for the maintenance of Manchester paupers and
prisoners at the county farm, and for the board of dependent chil-
dren outside, estimated to be $38, 103. 052 The amounts disbursed
by the city were $14,825.08 on outdoor relief, $2,706.04 for the sup-
port of dependents in homes, and $391.25 for the relief of indigent
soldiers.
In addition, as stated previously, the city contributed toward the
support of various private philanthropic institutions. In 1913 this
municipal appropriation amounted to $5,100, divided among 17
organizations.
The total amount, then, expended by county and city for indoor
and outdoor relief in 1913 was $69,964.01. This was exclusive of
aid to soldiers and appropriations to private institutions. With
these included the amount was $77,631.41.
This represents a considerable sum spent for public charitable relief
in a city of 74,000 population, but in the absence of definite informa-
tion concerning the total number of persons and of families helped,
and the amounts expended for similar purposes by private charity, it
is not possible to draw conclusions with regard to the extent of pov-
erty in the city which this expenditure may indicate.
There were 32 babies included in this investigation whose families
were on the county or city records as receiving public aid. On
account of the difficulty of identifying names, however, this is likely
an understatement of the total number.
Public care and protection of infants. — As has already been stated,
there were no public institutions for the care of infants or children in
Manchester. Dependent children under 3 were cared for at the
county almshouse. The published records of the county commission-
ers showed that 30 babies under 1 year of age were cared for at the
county farm in 1913. 1 2 The private infant asylum referred to above
also admitted 20 babies under 1 year of age during the period covered
by this investigation.
Private individuals also took infants to board, but the State law
requires that when the number received is two or more it is necessary
to obtain from the State board of charities a license to maintain a
boarding house for infants. 3 The application must first be approved
by the local board of health, but supervision thereafter is by the State
board of charities. In Manchester during the period covered by this
investigation there were two licensed infant boarding houses.
1 Estimate based on the percentage which the cost of county outdoor relief in Manchester formed of
the total county outdoor relief.
2 Report of the County Commissioners of Hillsborough County, 1913, pp. 132-169.
3 Session Laws of 1911, ch. 134, p. 150.
INFANT MORTALITY.
123
EDUCATION.
The educational situation in Manchester reflected to some extent the
tendency pointed out in earlier pages for the French Canadians and
also the Greeks to retain their own community life. The schools were
almost equally divided between public and parochial, 27 of the former
and 24 of the latter having enrollments of 6,679 and 6,688 pupils,
respectively. One of the parochial schools was of the Greek Church
and the others Roman Catholic. The standards of the Greek school
did not meet the public educational requirements, however, and it
therefore held its sessions only after regular school hours, and attend-
ance in a public school was required of its pupils. The remaining
parochial schools were all officially approved.
A number of these schools were termed, locally, * 1 French schools ”—
that is, they were conducted partly in the French language. There was
also one “ Polish school.” All these schools conformed to the law in
teaching English part time, but it appeared to be regarded as a foreign
language by some of the children in the French schools. This expla-
nation was given by some of the native-born “French” mothers for
their inability to speak English. Agents frequently found that school
children whom they addressed on the street to inquire for direction
were unable to understand English. In the predominantly French
section the language of the home, the street, and the shop was
French.
PUBLIC HEALTH AND SANITATION.
Administration. — The board of health is the city department pri-
marily concerned with the problem of public health and sanitation,
but at the time of this study the scope of its work was considerably
limited by inadequate financial support. The board had no full-time
executive health officer, and the amount allowed for salaries was
quite insufficient to secure the expert service which such a board
requires. The expenditures for 1913, exclusive of the cost of
maintenance of the isolation and smallpox hospitals, amounted to
only $11,282.56. Of this, $2,911.05 was expended for medical
inspection in the schools, leaving only $8,371.51 to cover the cost
of sanitary inspection, milk and food inspection, maintenance of
laboratory, control of contagious diseases, and payment of salaries
and office expenses. Three members of the board of health gave part
time and served at a nominal salary. One of the members was a
physician, but no physician or trained bacteriologist giving full time
regularly was in the board’s employ. All the executive and admin-
istrative business was transacted at the board meetings which were
held usually once a week, though extra meetings were called if the
occasion demanded. In 1913 the number of meetings held was 55.
Four sanitary inspectors acted as the agents of the board of health
124
INFANT MORTALITY.
and carried out its orders. With a force and budget so limited the
work of this department was necessarily handicapped.
Recently, however, there has been a radical change in the city’s
policy toward health and sanitation. Since March, 1916, Man-
chester has had a full-time health officer who is reorganizing the
department according to modern standards.
Other city departments concerned with the maintenance of public
sanitation are the board of public works, the board of water com-
missioners, the department of buildings, and the police department.
The board of public works has charge of the paving and cleaning of
streets, the construction and maintenance of sewers, and the scavenger
service. The water commissioners have charge of the city water-
works. The department of buildings administers the building code,
which lays down regulations for the construction and repair of
buildings. The police department cooperates with the board of
health in the abatement of nuisances and in maintaining cleanliness
of back alleys and back yards.
Milk supply. — The city consumed daily about 22,000 quarts of
milk and 900 quarts of cream, coming from 850 farms. 1 Most of
this supply the milk inspector reported to be produced within 20 miles
of the city and to be from 12 to 18 hours old when delivered to the
consumer. All milk was required to be bottled at the dairy or milk
station, and to be retailed only in closed containers. All persons
selling milk in the city were required to be licensed and all dealers who
purchased from others milk to sell in the city to file with the board
of health a list of the names and addresses of all persons or firms
from whom they collected their milk. All farms producing milk con-
sumed in Manchester, as well as all city milk plants — that is, depots
where milk was shipped and bottled for distribution — were subject
to inspection by the board of health.
The work of milk inspection at the time of this inquiry included
visiting and scoring the various farms and the city milk plants, the
collection and laboratory examination of samples of milk, and the
notification and prosecution of violations. Two sanitary inspectors
of the board of health gave part time to this work. The chief milk
inspector was plumbing inspector also, and in addition inspected and
scored barber shops. Obviously this force was too small to do satis-
factory work. It was not possible to visit the majority of the farms
oftener than once a year, and farms lying at too great a distance could
not be visited at all. In 1913-14 inspections were made about 24
miles north, 35 miles east, 12 miles south, and 9 miles west.
As stated above, 850 different farms were reported to be supply-
ing the city with milk. As only 91 licenses were granted in 1913
1 Private report made to Dairy Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture, by board cf health, Man-
chester, Feb. 4, 1914.
IOTANT MORTALITY.
125
to milkmen, it is evident that the city received the bulk of its milk
supply from a large number of small producers scattered through
the country who sold to middlemen. Such a supply is the most
difficult to safeguard. The number of farms visited and scored in
1913 was 420, not quite half of the total number reported to be
sending milk to the city.
The official Dairy Instructors’ Association score card was used in
the work of inspection and the average score for the 420 farms was
46.38 out of a possible 100 points. Regarding the use and signifi-
cance of the score card, a bulletin of the United States Department
of Agriculture says : 1
The score card is not a set of peremptory orders, but a system of giving credit for
good conditions and marking down for bad ones. It does not ask or expect a man
to be perfect, but rates him as it finds his equipment and methods. A dairy in the
seventies is usually in acceptable condition.
The chief requirements as to the quality of milk which may be
sold in Manchester, contained in the State law and in the local milk
regulations, state that milk shall contain at least 12 per cent total
solids, and no adulterants or preservatives; that it shall not be pro-
duced from diseased cows, nor under insanitary conditions, nor
contain more than 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter; it shall
be maintained at a temperature of not more than 55° F., and must
be retailed in sealed receptacles. 2 No standard was required for dairy
scores, as the board of health considered that the best results would
be accomplished by educating the dairymen and enlisting their
voluntary interest in proper methods of production. The scores of
the various milkmen were kept on file at the board of health office,
and might be consulted by private citizens upon request.
Besides dairy inspection an important supplementary means of
controlling the quality of the milk supply, and the only means of
enforcing bacteriological standards, is the frequent collection and
examination of samples for adulterants and particularly for bacteria.
The former director of the United States Hygienic Laboratory, Dr.
M. J. Rosenau, has the following to say as to the value of bacterio-
logic counts : 3
The health officer who has the advantage of bacteriologic assistance knows that the
milk of dairies containing excessive numbers of bacteria is dirty, old, or warm.
With a bacteriologic count as a guide it is comparatively easy to determine the cause
of the trouble and institute proper means to correct it. The enumeration of bacteria
in milk is, therefore, one of the cheapest and readiest methods at the disposal of the
health officers' to determine the general sanitary quality of the market milk supply.
The laboratory results serve not only as a guide to direct the efforts of the health officer,
1 “The score card system of dairy inspection.” George M. Whittaker, circular 199, revised, Bureau
of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, p. 10.
2 Sanitary Milk Rules, issued by board of health of city of Manchester.
3 Milk and its Relation to the Public Health, U. S. Hygienic Laboratory, bulletin 56, pp. 436 and 437.
126
INFANT MORTALITY.
but confirm the conclusions arrived at from an inspection of the dairies and dairy
farms.
One great advantage accruing from the bacteriological control of milk is that it
affords an opportunity to exclude the milk of diseased cows. * * *
Fresh milk from cows with diseased udders contains an excessive number of strep-
tococci and pus cells, or an excess of pus cells alone. So far as we know, such milk
is dangerous for infant feeding.
The total number of samples of milk and cream examined from the
Manchester milk supply in 1913 was 826, an average of not quite two
a year for every dairy scored, and less than one a year for every
farm reported to be supplying milk and cream to Manchester. These
were all examined for formaldehyde, but only a portion were ex-
amined for other preservatives, for adulterants, and for bacteria.
The work of bacteriologic examination of milk was handicapped
by lack of adequate laboratory facilities as well as by an insufficient
force. In 1914 no bacterial examinations were made, as a sterilizer
was not available. Since that time, however, one has been installed.
The board of health at the time of the inquiry employed no trained
bacteriologist. The chief milk inspector held a certificate from the
New Hampshire College of Agriculture for the completion of a
special six weeks’ course of instruction for dairy inspectors. The
State law makes this provision with reference to the qualifications
of milk inspectors:
No milk inspector shall be paid for his services unless he is a registered chemist or
is the holder of a certificate from the superintendent of the dairy department of the
New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts showing the said holder
to be qualified to perform such work . 1
Since 1916 the bacterial analysis of the milk supply has been
under the direction of the health officer, a trained bacteriologist.
A method employed by the board of health to discover dirty milk
is to strain samples collected through cotton pads. In case the
result shows the milk to be dirty, the pad is mounted upon a card
which bears upon it the inscription “The dirt upon each of these
pads was strained out of a pint of your milk,” and this is then mailed
to the producer with a warning, and if such warning is not effective
his milk is excluded from the city.
The standards for “inspected milk” are somewhat stricter than
those given above for the general milk supply. 2 They lay down spe-
cific requirements as to the methods and equipment of the dairies,
provide for the examination of the cows twice a year for tuberculosis,
and require that the milk shall not contain bacteria in excess of
100,000 per cubic centimeter and must be entirely free from patho-
genic germs. These regulations were not promulgated until April 15,
1913, so that Manchester did not have the benefit of them during all
1 Laws of 1901, New Hampshire, eh. 107, p. 607.
2 Laws of 1911, New Hampshire, ch. 108, p. 112; and State Board of Health Regulations.
INFANT MORTALITY.
127
the period which this investigation covers. The tubercular test was
enforced for inspected milk only. About 10 per cent of the whole
supply was pasteurized. The health officer estimates that now
about 50 per cent is pasteurized.
Two dairies supplied inspected milk to Manchester. They had a
total of about 50 or 60 cows, and in 1913 their scores were 77.6 and
83.2, respectively; in 1914 they scored 81 and 86.8', respectively.
The city milk plants scored an average of 71.1.
The importance of a pure milk supply to the health and well-
being of babies is well recognized. The facts recited in the foregoing
description make it apparent that the milk supply in Manchester
was not adequately safeguarded during the period covered by this
investigation. The force of inspectors was inadequate and generally
lacking in scientific training. Inspections of dairies were too infre-
quent to maintain standards of production, and the average of the
scores which were obtained was considerably below the rating which
indicates an acceptable condition. The use of the bacteriologic count
would have been of greater value if more samples had been examined.
Water supply. — The source of Manchester's water supply is Lake
Massebesic, a lake of about 2,500 acres, located to the east of the city
and partly within its boundaries. The lake is protected from con-
tamination by city and State regulations as to the use which can be
made of its banks. The city owned 82 per cent of the shore. The
lake had approximately 40 miles of watershed, about half of which was
wooded and hah cleared. There was no filtration system or settling
basin, but the water was pumped from the lake directly into a reser-
voir of 15,000,000 gallons capacity, from which it flowed directly
into the distributing mains. The local superintendent of the water-
works estimated that about 90 per cent of the population of
Manchester were consumers of this water. The service was extensive
and accessible to all parts of the city except the outlying districts. 1
Streets. — Manchester, because of the large rural area within the
city limits, had a very considerable street mileage — 203.6. Of this,
however, 72.7 miles were outlying country roads. Paved streets,
including “back streets" and “lanes," comprised only 8.6 miles.
The pavements used were chiefly tar, concrete, and granite blocks.
TheJ?ack streets and lanes are not included in the total street mileage
given above, and their length is not given in the city reports. There
are in the city, however, a number of these narrow thoroughfares
running between two main streets, called lanes or back streets, which,
though they had some houses fronting on them, were practically alleys.
1 The reports of the State board of health for 1911-12 and 1913-14 give an analysis of this water supply.
The former report states that about 99 per cent of the population are consumers of the city water. No
opinion as to the quality of the water supply is included in the report. Some index to the quality, however,
may be afforded by the fact that there were only five cases of typhoid fever reported in Manchester
for 1913.
128
INFANT MORTALITY.
The usual width of street in Manchester is 50 feet. Elm Street, the
main business street, which runs the length of the pity, is 100 feet
wide. A few streets are 30 and 40 feet, while the lanes — with the
exception of Martin Lane, which is only 17 feet — are 20 feet, the
same width as the alleys. Portions only of the lanes were paved, and
most of them had no sidewalks. Sidewalks, however, were found
along all the principal streets ; their total length was approximately
200 miles.
The streets in Manchester were kept in a fair condition. Most of the
paved streets were cleaned regularly. Some of the unpaved streets
were macadamized. Where that was not the case the streets were apt
to be very dusty, because of the loose, sandy soil. About 72 miles of
streets were regularly sprinkled between the months of April and
November. Some oiling was done also. The chief criticism which
the agents encountered with regard to the condition of the streets
referred to the “lanes.” Some of these were found dirty and littered
with trash. Also, in the more outlying districts, dusty streets caused
complaint in dry weather.
Sewerage. — The sewer service in Manchester reaches a large pro-
portion of the population. There was in 1913 a total of 93.5 miles
of sewer as compared with 203.6 miles of streets, but the fact that so
much of the city is rural territory makes this contrast appear more
unfavorable than the situation warrants. All the built-up portion of
the city had public sewer service, with the exception of a small sec-
tion near the mills occupied by “company houses.” This portion of
the city was built and maintained by the mill corporation and was
served in part by private sewers. It contained between six and seven
hundred dwellings, all of which have now been connected with the
sewer.
For the rest of the city the number of house connections with the
sewer on record for 1913 was 7,785. The United States census re-
ports the number of dwellings for Manchester in 1910 to have been
8,694, and the number of house connections recorded for that year
was 6,884, or 79.2 per cent of the total number of dwellings. Among
the corporation’s houses were probably several hundred connections.
A city ordinance requires that every house within 100 feet of a
public sewer shall be connected. 1
All sewage flows directly into the river, and the factory wastes
empty into the factory canals and thence into the river. No method
of purification was employed. In spite of the fact that the sewer
exits are into the Merrimack River where it flows through the center
of the city, no nuisance was observable from this method of sewage
disposal, due to the fact, no doubt, that the mills surround the river
in the heart of the city and there are no dwelling houses near its
banks.
1 Public Statutes, ch. 108, sec. 8, as amended by Laws of 1907, ch. 106, sec. 1.
INFANT MORTALITY.
129
Garbage and refuse collection. — Garbage collection in 1913 was
by private scavengers, licensed by the board of public works, which
was charged with the duty of regulating and providing for this
service. Collections were required to be made twice a week, and the
garbage must be kept by the householder in a covered receptacle
apart from ashes and rubbish. Part of the garbage was collected and
sold to farmers; part was collected by the farmers themselves for use
in feeding their hogs. No complaint was made by the families
visited of the service rendered by this system. In the congested
sections the agents encountered some cases where garbage and rub-
bish created a nuisance in yards and alleys, but for the city as a whole
the conditions observed were fair. A regulation prohibiting the
placing of receptacles in highways has gone far toward remedying
these conditions. The board of health in its annual report for 1913
makes the following statements with reference to the scavenger
service : 1
Eighty-nine complaints were made against the scavenger service; in each case the
proper parties were notified and relief afforded.
Thirty-two persons were found throwing garbage in the back streets and were
warned against the practice.
Private swill collectors have been warned 62 times to be neater in their work.
The disposal of rubbish was less satisfactory than that of garbage.
The city collected and hauled the rubbish, including not only ashes
but rubbish of all sorts — tin cans, crockery, mattresses, paper, etc. —
to various dumps located on vacant ground within the city. There
were 17 such dumps in use in 1913, and a total of 13,432J loads, or
71,585.53 cubic yards, of rubbish were collected and deposited upon
them. Among the largest was the so-called Putman Street dump,
located in a residence district. This dump was not only unsightly
and a nuisance because of the odors arising from it, but had more or
less organic material mixed wdth the rubbish which was deposited
here. Furthermore, it was a breeding place for germs, flies, and rats
and mice. Such articles as old mattresses deposited upon the dumps
may readily carry disease directly. The Putman Street dump, at
the time this investigation was being carried on, was frequented by
people who picked up rags and junk from it. Children also played
there. Other dumps were less objectionable. The board of health
reports for 1913 that “the dumps have been inspected 65 times;
found insanitary 18 times.”
The city authorities made an effort to keep the dumps in as sanitary
a condition as possible by burning the combustible material they
contained and by covering them with earth, but such a method of rub-
bish disposal is necessarily unsatisfactory. Since the period to which
this report refers, dumping has been discontinued at the Putman
1 Annual Report of the Board of Health, Manchester, 1913, p. 31.
72624°— 17 9
130
INFANT MORTALITY.
Street dump. The city still has failed, however, to provide for an
incineration plant in accordance with present-day standards of
sanitary engineering, a step long urged by the board of health and
the board of public works.
With the growth of population in Manchester and increase in its
density the present relatively primitive methods of sewage and gar-
bage disposal are likely to result in a serious menace to public health.
That these methods are not more obnoxious at present is due in part
to the size of the city, the distribution of the population over a broad
area, and the fact that the water of the Merrimack is used by this city
only for manufacturing purposes.
Housing. — The mills lining the banks of the Merrimack lie in the
heart of the city, and spreading outward from them the population
becomes less dense. The river and the mills divide the city into two
distinct parts, called locally East and West Manchester. East Man-
chester is the larger and contains the main business section, with
Elm Street, running parallel to the river, as its center. West Man-
chester also has its business street, Main Street, running parallel to
the river and bearing the same relation to the west side that Elm
Street does to the east. These two parallel streets bound the mill
territory, though the bulk of the mills lie on the east side of the river,
and it would be more nearly correct, perhaps, to say that the density
of the population decreases as one moves outward from these two
streets.
Between Elm Street and the mills, on the east side of the river, lies a
section known as the “ Corporation.” This was built- up largely with
“ company houses,” put up many years ago to provide for the em-
ployees of the cotton mills in the early days of the city’s growth.
The majority of these houses were found in two-story brick rows, with
small yards and sheds to the rear. Some were built in rows facing each
other upon a common yard and had grass plots in front. Others
fronted directly upon the street. There were also some three-tenement
and four- tenement “ blocks.” 1 The houses were for the most part sub-
stantially built and a number of the streets were lined with shade trees,
so that they did not present the barren, dilapidated aspect of many
u company rows.” Conditions varied somewhat, however. At the
time of this investigation there were also a number of old wooden
tenements, with yard privies, which presented objectionable condi-
tions. These frame tenements have been removed since and within
the p’ast two years eight new five-family brick blocks have been
erected within the “ Corporation.” All yard privies also have been
removed from corporation premises. Elsewhere most of the houses
encountered were connected with sewers, though in a number of cases
the water-closet was in a shed to the rear of the house and the tenants
i A tenement building is termed, locally, a “block’’; this may apply to one building proper or to a
row of attached houses.
INFANT MORTALITY.
131
complained of its freezing up in winter and getting out of repair.
The sewer service, street cleaning, and scavenger service in this
district are all provided by the mill corporation. All these houses
but two blocks belonged to one company, which also owned what
would equal about one city block of houses across the river. In all,
this company maintained 629 tenements including 31 boarding
houses. The wooden tenements, in reality rows of two-and-a-half-
story houses, comprised 11 so-called 11 blocks ” and 60 tenements or
dwellings.
The worst housing conditions and the most congested district in the
city were found east of Elm Street, in the district extending about
15 city blocks along Elm Street, north and south, and about three
blocks east, now chiefly included in the present ward 5. It contained
portions of wards 2, 3, and 4, so that it was not possible to obtain the
population per acre, but there was a considerable degree of lot crowd-
ing within this area, and as most of the buildings, with the exception
of those along Elm Street, were wooden, the fire menace was serious.
In this district were sixteen 4-story wooden tenements, three of which
were rear. 1 This neighborhood contained a number of houses fronting
on the so-called ‘ ‘ lanes, ’ ’ which in reality were alleys, being only 20 feet
wide and presenting alley conditions. There were 40 tenements and
43 houses, chiefly wooden and including rear houses, fronting on
these lanes. In a number of cases, besides, the buildings ran through
from street to alley, occupying practically the entire lot, and several
almost solid city half blocks were found, particularly along Elm Street.
Many of the wooden houses were old and in bad repair. Toilets, many
of which are now in the tenements, were usually in the basements,
one for several families, and often the public also had access. Under
such conditions it was almost impossible to maintain them in a fit
condition. In some cases the pipes had rusted and were so clogged
that it was nearly impossible to flush the closets. In the old and
dilapidated houses sanitary conditions generally were bad. Also the
danger of fire was great in these places, especially as such houses
were heated by stoves and the rooms and public halls frequently
lighted by lamps.
Along Elm Street a large proportion of the buildings were brick and
on the lower floors were used for the most part for business purposes,
and above for tenements. Shops and stores claimed a portion of the
other streets also, and a considerable number of public buildings were
Located in the district. One commendable feature which tended to
relieve the general congestion of this section was the existence of four
or five open squares or commons.
A small section on the west side of the river, in the ninth ward,
now the extreme eastern sections of wards 12 and 13, contained
1 Data as to numbers of alley houses and tenements obtained from fire insurance map of Manchester,
published by Sanborn Map Co.
132
INFANT MOBTALITY.
conditions as bad as described above, but much more limited in
extent. This was a triangle containing six city blocks located
between the mills and Main Street. At the time of the investigation
all but two of the buildings in this area were wooden, and it con-
tained seven 4-story wooden tenements, two of which were rear.
There were four rear tenements and one rear house. The blocks were
bisected by two small lanes, one of 17 feet and one of 20 feet, on which
these rear dwellings were found. The occupants were largely French
Canadians. Along Main Street in the central portion of the west
side were also some bad housing conditions and instances of lot
crowding. Some old dilapidated buildings and tenements were
found here and a few rear houses, but conditions were not comparable
with those just described for the section just east of Elm Street.
Outside of these three areas only isolated cases of bad housing were
found. Most of the houses in Manchester were frame dwellings of two
and three stories and with adequate lot area. Wooden tenements
and flat buildings were scattered all over the city, but the type which
was being erected most frequently in all but the best residence por-
tion of the city was the two-family and three-family house. It was
cheaper to build than the attached houses, because the fire regulations
required that every party wall, or wall between two apartments, must
be of fireproof material, and this added to the cost of construction.
The three-family house particularly was being built in large numbers,
with one family to a floor. This style of building allows a more
intensive use of the lot and when new is attractive and desirable in
that it permits each family to have light and air on four sides. This
condition holds, however, only so long as the adjoining lots are not
built upon, and such houses tend toward lot crowding. They are
also dangerous in case of fire, as the interior stairways running straight
up from first floor to roof act as chimneys. Another common prac-
tice in Manchester was to build two houses upon one lot by placing one
house to the rear and side so that a portion of the house had frontage
on the street. It might or might not be attached to the one in front.
Such houses for the most part had adequate light and air and were
not counted as rear houses in this report, but houses so placed soon
become objectionable and are likely to be shut in later.
The chief evils in the housing situation in Manchester have to do
with maintenance. A new building code, passed in 1911, provides
against the multiplication of some of the present evils in the construc-
tion of new houses, but there is no provision for the alteration of old
houses, other than that buildings hereafter remodeled to an extent
exceeding the cost of 50 per cent of the original building cost shall be
made to conform to the requirements of the code. It also provides
that no more frame buildings shall be erected within the fire limits, or
if any building shall be damaged by fire to a greater extent than 50
per cent of its value it must be torn down. The new requirements make
INFANT MORTALITY.
133
construction more expensive, with the result that the old property
pays a higher rate on the investment then new buildings could he
made to do. The result is that the tearing down of old buildings
is delayed, and, since there are no requirements as to the minor alter-
ations or repairs, the condition in which they are maintained depends
upon the interest and disposition of the landlord. In some cases
the old wooden property has been left standing on the front of the
lot and a new brick tenement has been built on the rear.
While tenement-house inspection was not organized, the board of
health inspected for sanitary conditions upon complaint. It might
order the premises cleaned or water-closets and cesspools cleaned and
repaired, or it might order water-closets installed. As before stated,
the law requires that all houses within 100 feet of a public sewer
be connected, and that a water-closet for every 15 persons be main-
tained. The board of health also inspected plumbing fixtures when
they were installed, to see that they conformed to the plumbing
regulations. In 1913, the board stated in its report, 1,002 tenements,
95 vaults and privies, and 50 cesspools were inspected. It reported
21 tenements cleaned, 492 water-closets cleaned or repaired, 21 cess-
pools and 35 “ filthy hallways and roofs” ordered cleaned, and 15
vaults and privies ordered cleaned or repaired. In addition, inspec-
tions were made of yards and alleys, cellars, outbuildings, and barns.
The building code provides that for new houses no room shall be
built without windows opening either upon a court, yard, or the
street, and that not more than 70 per cent of an inside lot or 90 per
cent of a corner lot shall be occupied. Every apartment must have a
water-closet with adequate means of ventilation. Also the window
and floor area is prescribed for each room. Inner courts must be 1 2
feet in width and outer courts 8 feet for buildings three stories in
height. This width must be increased with the increase in the height
of the building over three stories, or may be decreased with each story
less than three. But a court whose outer side is on the lot line need
measure only 4 feet in width for a building three stories in height.
Furthermore, the code does not forbid the erection of rear houses nor
further encroachments upon the lot by other buildings, on the back
or the front, so that the total percentage of the lot which can be occu-
pied may be considerably in excess of 70.
The housing situation in Manchester may be briefly summarized:
The city covers a broad area and a large proportion of the population
lives in the open parts of the city. Near the center, however, in the
areas verging on the business and mill sections, housing conditions were
seriously bad. Lot congestion, dilapidated wooden tenements, rear
and alley houses, and dark, insanitary dwellings prevailed. Tenement-
house inspection was not systematic but was made upon complaint and
was chiefly for nuisances.
Schedule used in investigation.
134
INFANT MORTALITY.
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PUBLICATIONS OF THE CHILDREN’S BUREAU.
Annual Reports:
Third Annual Report, of the Chief, Children’s Bureau, to the Secretary of Labor,
for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1915. 26 pp. 1915.
Fourth Annual Report of the Chief, Children’s Bureau, to the Secretary of Labor,
for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1916. 27 pp. 1916.
Care of Children Series:
No. 1. Prenatal Care, by Mrs. Max West. 41pp. 4th ed. 1915. Bureau pub-
lication No. 4.
No. 2. Infant Care, by Mrs. Max West. 87 pp. 1914. Bureau publication No. 8.
Dependent, Defective, and Delinquent Classes Series:
No. 1. Laws Relating to Mothers’ Pensions in the United States, Denmark, and
New Zealand. 102 pp. 1914. Bureau publication No. 7. (Out of print.
Revised edition in preparation.)
No. 2. Mental Defectives in the District of Columbia: A brief description of local a
conditions and the need for custodial care and training. 39 pp. 1915. Bureau *
publication No. 13. ; - '
Infant Mortality Series:
No. 1. Baby-Saving Campaigns: A preliminary report on what American cities
are doing to prevent infant mortality. 93 pp. 4th ed. 1914. Bureau publi- «
cation No. 3. (Bureau supply exhausted. Copies may be purchased from
Superintendent of Documents at 15 cents each.)
No. 2. New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children: An example |
of methods of baby-saving work in small towns and rural districts. 18 pp.
1914. Bureau publication No. 6.
No. 3. Infant Mortality: Results of a field study in Johnstown, Pa., based on
births in one calendar year, by Emma Duke. 103 pp. 1915. Bureau publi-
cation No. 9.
No. 4. Infant Mortality, Montclair, N. J.: A study of infant mortality in a sub-
urban community. 36 pp. 1915. Bureau publication No. 11.
No. 6. A Tabular Statement of Infant-Welfare Work by Public and Private 1
Agencies in the United States, by Etta R. Goodwin. 114 pp. 1916. Bureau I
publication No. 16.
No. 6. Infant Mortality: Results of a field study in Manchester, N. H., based on
births in one year, by Beatrice Sheets Duncan and Emma Duke. 134 pp., 4
pp. illus. and map of Manchester. 1917. Bureau publication No. 20.
Industrial Series:
No. 1. Child-Labor Legislation in the United States, by Helen L. Sumner and
Ella A. Merritt. 1131pp. 2 charts. 1915. Bureau publication No. 10.
Reprints from the above are also issued, as follows:
Child-Labor Legislation in the United States: Separate No. 1. Ana-
lytical tables. 475 pp. 2 charts.
Child-Labor Legislation in the United States: Separates Nos. 2 to 54.
Text of laws for each State separately. 1
Child-Labor Legislation in the United States: Separate No. 55. Text?
of Federal Child-Labor Law. 1916.
No. 2. Administration of Child-Labor Laws:
Part. 1. Employment-Certificate System, Connecticut, by Helen L. Sumner
and Ethel E. Hanks. 69 pp. 2 charts. 1915. Bureau publication No. 12. .
Part 2. Employment-Certificate System, New York, by Helen L. Sumner
and Ethel E. Hanks. 164 pp. ^ 3 charts. 1917. Bureau publication No. 17.
161pp. 1916. Bureau publication i
No. 3. List of References on Crnld Labor.
No. 18.
[Continued on third page of cover.]