Sh4-5i> Coo- ^ 'f listoricil Sgmi A Brief History of the OFFICE OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION STATE OF ILLINOIS By Victor H. Sheppard, M.A., Ed. D. Professor of Government MacMurray College (Printed by authority of the State of Illinois) ilLillOIS iliiTORICAL SURVEY A Brief History of the OFFICE OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION STATE OF ILLINOIS By Victor H. Sheppard, M.A., Ed. D. Professor of Government MacMurray College (Printed by authority of the State of Illinois) 59100— lOM— 8-57 c^^. i77 ^ I "^ TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword 5 PART I For the Orientation of the Reader I Introduction 9 II Early School History 11 III The Common School Funds 19 IV School Officers 27 PART II The First Fifty Years Brief Chronology 35 V Legal Background of the Office of Public Instruction 37 VI Ninian W. Edwards and William H. Powell 43 VII Newton Bateman and John P. Brooks 47 VIII Samuel M. Etter and James P. Slade 57 IX Henry Raab and Richard Edwards 63 X S. M. Inglis, J. H. Freeman, and Alfred Bayliss 71 PART III The Second Fifty Years XI Francis G. Blair, First Term 79 XII Francis G. Blair, Second Term '. 85 XIII Francis G. Blair, Third Term 95 XIV Francis G. Blair, Fourth Term 103 XV Francis G. Blair, Fifth Term 113 XVI Francis G. Blair, Sixth Term 121 XVII Francis G. Blair, Seventh Term 129 XVIII John A. Wieland, First Term 137 XIX John A. Wieland, Second Terra 147 XX Vernon L. Nickell, First Term 157 XXI Vernon L. Nickell, Second Term 165 XXII Vernon L. Nickell, Third Term 171 XXIII Summary and Conclusions 179 Bibliography -- 183 Appendix 185 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author desires to express his grateful appreciation to a large number of people, who helped to make this study possible. The number is so large that he cannot list the names of all here. First, the author wishes to acknowledge the intelligent and active interest of State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Vernon L. Nickell, without whose assistance this study would not have been possible. Several members of Mr. Nickell's staff rendered valuable assistance in the preparation of the manuscript, notably Mr. Robert Smith and Mrs. Jane Hale. Miss Louise Sheppard examined the original draft of the manuscript and offered valuable suggestions for its improvement. Mr. Jerome Finkle, Director of the Legislative Reference Bureau, was most helpful and cooperative in making certain documents avail- able to the author. The various staff members of the State Historical Library were especially kind in assisting in the location of materials. The Author FOREWORD The year 1954 marked the one hundredth anniversary of the estab- lishment of the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction as an elective office. An Act of the General Assembly, passed in 1845, had designated the Secretary of State as an ex officio superintendent. Between that date and 1855, there were four ex officio superintendents of public instruction. One can readily imagine the lack of enthusiasm with which each Secretary of State took over his added duties. Interestingly enough, the Law of 1854, creating the Office of Public Instruction, contained an error. This law provided that the newly cre- ated office should be filled at the general election in 1855, and every two years thereafter. But there was no general election in 1855! No one seemed to know why this error was made; presumably the engrossing clerk was to blame. At any rate, the error was corrected; the new law provided that a Superintendent of Public Instruction be elected at the general election in 1856. The original law had empowered the Governor to appoint a State Superintendent during the interim, until a general election could be held. Governor Joel Matteson made an excellent appointment in Ninian W. Edwards, who continued in office until his successor was elected in 1856. The story of the development and evolution of the Office of Super- intendent of Public Instruction is a fascinating one. This office evolved from a relatively simple one, with only a few prescribed statutory duties, to one with a large number of both statutory and implied duties and with an increasingly large personnel. It is the purpose of this study to trace that development and history. A review of certain related aspects of the public school system of Illinois is necessary for the reader's tinderstanding of the State Super- intendent's Office. This review will include special, although brief, attention to the early educational history of Illinois, the common school funds, and the school officers of the State provided for by law. As will be noted in the bibliography, session laws of the General Assembly, biennial reports of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, numbers of the Educational Press Bulletin, some earlier news- papers, and two or three secondary accounts were used by the author in making the study. It will also be noted that detailed stadstical material has been reduced to a minimum. Some statistics have been included to give the reader "glimpses" of the development of the educational enterprise in Illinois. However, this study does not purport to be a history of educa- tion in Illinois, but rather a brief or concise history of the Office of Public Instruction. The author deemed it advisable to terminate this study with the conclusion of Superintendent Vernon L. Nickell's third terra. There are good and valid reasons for this. Only one year and five months of Mr. Nickell's fourth term had elapsed at the time the manuscript wsis ready for the press. Then, too, no adequate evaluation could be made of the fourth term when so little of it had elapsed. Finally, the reader would be left suspended in mid-air. as it were, if the treatment of the fourth term were left incomplete. The Author PART I FOR THE ORIENTATION OF THE READER CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION "Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall be forever encouraged." These words, written into the Northwest Ordinance, which incor- porated the Northwest Territory, voiced the lofty ideals of enlightened leaders in the new country of the United States in 1787. It should be understood that the above-mentioned clause from the Ordinance was not mandatory, nor did it obligate the government of the United States to establish schools. Neither did it provide for a sys- tem of education. As a matter of fact, education or schools are not expressly mentioned in the Federal Constitution. Many students of education have assumed that it was the intention of the Constitutional fathers to reserve education as a function of the several states. Actually this assumption is of doubtful validity. There is no reason to assume that education was considered a function of government at any level. Education was generally regarded as a church, philanthropic, or private function. There was no strong pressure from the people at large for a system of education fostered and supported by the national government, or even by the state governments. The plain fact is that the masses were quite indifferent and apathetic at that early period. There were many people, however, interested in education. Promi- nent men like Benjamin Rush, Noah Webster, Robert Coram, and Thomas Jefferson set forth their views in published essays. But in spite of the theories of these men, the people looked to their state govern- ments to provide public schools as public sentiment for them increased. This is understandable; the doctrine of States' rights was strong among the people during our early national history. In general, the states responded rather slowly to the people's attitude toward education; however, there were some notable exceptions in the early state constitutions of New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. In the latter case, pauper education was clearly intended as these words would indicate: "The legislature shall, as soon as conveniently may be, provide, by law, for the establishment of schools throughout the state, in such manner that the poor may be taught gratis" ^ It may be said parenthetically that the word "poor" in early school legislation almost always meant the indigent or dependent poor. It is interesting to note that early school legislation often paraphrased * Elwood D. Cubberley as quoted in Newton Edwards and Herman G. Richey, The School in the American Social Order, Boston; Houghton Mifflin (Company, 1947, p. 243. the words of the Northwest Ordinance about religion, morality, and knowledge. This is discernible in several of the state constitutions adopted before 1820. Perhaps our neighboring state of Indiana expressed die democratic ideal in education more forcefully than did any of the other states. The Constitution of Indiana directed the General Assem- bly ". . . to provide by law for a general system of education, ascending in a regular gradation from township schools to a state university, where- in tuition should be 'gratis and equally open to all'." * But there was a reservation: ". . . as soon as circumstances permit."^ In Illinois, although there was no constitutional provision concern- ing education until 1870, the reader must not jump to the unwarranted conclusion that Illinois was dilatory or "backward" in its duty to the children of the State. Many students of educational history and legis- lation believe that laws, especially if they are mandatory, are a better indication of interest than constitutional provisions. However true this may be, Illinois did enact a school law in 1825. Subsequent legislation (in 1854) increased educational opportunity and strengthened existing laws. Schools cannot subsist without money. In addition to the "sixteenth section," granted in each township in the Northwest Territory for the support of education, the United States government contributed three per cent of the proceeds from the sale of government lands in Illinois for tlie financial support of schools. All in all, Illinois does not need to feel ashamed of its role in the support of education. Illinois also provided, in 1854, for an elected Superintendent of Public Instruction. From a humble beginning, the Office has become an important and busy agency for the development, administration, and supervision of the educational system of the State. In order better to understand the highly complex organization of this Office, the reader will do well to fix in mind this principle about all governmental agencies: As population increases and society grows complex, the level of governmental authority tends to rise from the lower to the liighcr. It is impossible for a few individuals, with little or no public authority, to administer efficiently and satisfactorily a system of public education in a modem democratic society. A modern school system can exist and flourish only when and where there is clearly delegated authority and wise leade'ship of school officers. * Clement 1 .\lalaii as quoted in Edwards and Richey, op. cit., p 243. ^ Edwards and Richey, op. cit.. p 243. 10 CHAPTER II EARLY SCHOOL HISTORY OF ILLINOIS 1818-1854 Illinois was admitted into the Union in 1818, and the first legisla- ture convened in October of that year at Kaskaskia. Shadrach Bond had been elected governor. Although having experienced very little formal education himself, he stressed the importance of education in his very first message. Without entering into the merits of the question as to the location of the first free school in Illinois, one of the early ones, if not the earli- est, was in Alton, Illinois, or in what is now known as Upper Alton. In a petition to the General Assembly which met in 1821, certain per- sons asked that the town be incorporated. Because the preamble to a law passed by the General Assembly on January 30, 1821, is of interest to the story of education in Illinois, it is quoted verbatim: "Whereas, the inhabitants of the town of Alton, in the County of Mad- ison, have presented their petition to this legislature, setting forth, that the original proprietors of said town did make a donation of one hun- dred town lots, one half for the support of the gospel, and the other half for the support of public schools in said town forever, which said town lots rest at present in the patentees of the tract on which said town is situated, and who are not authorized to use the said donation for the purposes intended by the donor; and whereas the said petition- ers have prayed that the said town may be incorporated and trustees appointed in whom and their successors the said lots may rest forever, to be used and applied agreeably to the purposes intended; and the objects of said petitioners appearing just and reasonable; therefore, Be it enacted, . . ." ' The corporation was authorized, and arrangements were made for the lots to be used for the purposes named. But, by a more significant part of the act, the trustees were given the authority to levy a tax an- nually up to seventy-five cents on each lot to help defray the costs of erecting a building and paying the teachers' salaries, and the trustees were given power to collect the taxes levied. It should be noted that the landmark in the history of early educa- tion in Illinois was the 'Act Providing For The Establishment of Free Schools", approved January 15, 1825. The preamble sets forth the ideals and philosophy of the great law. "To enjoy our rights and liberties we must understand them: their security and protection ought to be the first object of a free people: and it is a well established fact that no nation has ever continued long in the enjoyment of civil and political freedom, which was not both virtuous and enlightened: and believing that the advancement of liter- ature has always been, and ever will be the means of developing the rights of man, that the mind of every citizen of the republic is the common property of society, and constitutes the basis of its strength and happiness; it is therefore considered the peculiar duty of a free 'Laws of Illinois, 1819-1821, p. 39. 11 government, like ours, to extend the improvement and cultivation of the intellectual energies of the whole; therefore. Section 1. Be it enacted, . . ," * The exact provisions of this act can be read by any who may care to do so, but a brief summary must suffice here: 1. A common school or schools shall be established in each county in the State. They shall be open to all wHite citizens between the ages of five and twenty - one years of age. Persons over twenty-one may be admitted with trustees' permission. 2. County courts may establish school districts, when petitioned for by qualified voters in proposed district, providing the dis- trict contains no fewer than fifteen families. 3. By ballot three trustees, one clerk, one treasurer, one assessor, and one collector shall be elected. 4. Duties of trustees are defined: to superintend schools in their districts, examine and employ teachers, lease all land belonging to the district, call meetings of voters when deemed expedient, make an annual report to the county commissioner's court. 5. A school district shall be a body corporate. 6. The duties of assessor, treasurer, and collector were defined. 7. There should be appropriated by the State two dollars out of every hundred received by the State Treasury for encourage- ment and support of schools. In addition, five-sixths of tlie in- terest arising from the school fund shall be divided annually among the counties of the State. 8. All moneys shall be apportioned on the basis of the number of white inhabitants of each county under twenty-one years of age. 9. Commissioners of the school fund shall be the State Auditor and Secretaiy of State, under direction of the Governor. 10. All persons entrusted with funds shall furnish proper bonds. From the short summary above, it can be seen that this law ful- filled the conditions usually considered necessary for a free school law. This law compared favorably with school laws in older sections of the coimtry, notably New England, that had a long history of school legis- lation. A careful analysis of the School Law of 1825 will reveal that the word "white" in the school law reflects a social condition of the time. Funds were to be apportioned on a basis of white children between the ages of five and twenty-one. The Ordinance of 1787 prohibited slavery and involuntary servitude except as a punishment for crime. Both Governor St. Clair and Governor Edwards believed that although slaves might not be imported into the State, masters might be permitted to have slaves. In 1803 a law code was enacted, permitting the inden- ture of Negroes. The Illinois Const^ution of 1818 prohibited slavery, but mads the indenture of servants legal. At a later date, the Legisla- ^ Laws of Illinois, 1825, First Session, Fourth General Assembly, p. 12 If. 12 ture enacted a law stating that in areas where there were persons of color, the boards of education should allow a refund of that portion of the school fund equal in amount to taxes collected from "persons of color" for school purposes. But said "persons of color" had to make application for this refund from taxes. This was seldom done. As late as 1868, State Superintendent Newton Bateman stated in the Seventh Biennial Report that education for Negroes was prac- tically non-existent. According to this Report, there were in Illinois 6,210 Negroes under twenty-one years of age; but the Superintendent believed this figure was much too low. He also doubted if as many as one-half of the colored children attended any school. He agreed with a resolution of the State Teachers' Association that the distinctive word "white" should be repealed in the law; but it remained for the Con- stitution of 1870 to eliminate the word. Another provision of the School Law of 1825 should be noted here. Section 15, the one providing for funds, and item seven in the brief summary above, proved to be too liberal. The forces of reaction rallied, and some interesting revisions about revenue appeared in the Act of 1827, pertinent sections of which are listed here: Section 1 provided that part of the existing law requiring that there be at least fifteen families in each school district was repealed.' Section 3 provided that legal voters of any school district have power, at their discretion, to cause, either the whole or one-half the sum required, to support a school, to be raised by taxation. And if only one-half be required to be paid by taxation, the remainder may be required to be paid by parents, masters, or guardians, in proportion to the whole number of pupils which each shall send to such school. Section 4 provided that no person shall hereafter be taxed for the support of any free school in this State, unless by his or her own free will and consent, first had and obtained in writing, provided no person shall be entitled to any scholar or scholars * to such school, unless said persons shall have consented as above, to be taxed for support of such school.* This law became operative February 17, 1827. It also empowered county commissioners to appoint township trustees for a term of four years and provided for such items as the oath, duties, powers, and penalties. In 1829 some significant legislation was enacted relative to the sale of the public lands of the township. Sections 1, 2, and 6 of the act are germane to this discussion. Section 1 provided that as soon as Congress should assent that the sixteenth section in each and every township were sold, and that fact made known to the Governor, the latter should issue a proclamation to be published in all newspapers within the State for three successive weeks. ^Revised Code of Laws of Illinois, 1827, Fifth General Assembly, p. 364. * Ibid, pp. 364 and 365. 13 Section 2 stipulated that as soon as the Governor's proclamation was issued, it should be the duty of the county commissioners' court, of each and every county, to appoint some "good, competent, and responsible person" in the county to act as commissioner and agent. This person had to be a resident of the county, while acting in the capacity of commissioner. He was required by law to post a bond of $12,000 signed by three or more responsible freeholders. Section 6 stated that, upon petition of nine-tenths of all citizens of the township, the newly-appointed commissioner should proceed to advertise sale of land, give forty days' notice, and sell at public auction the land at not less than $1.25 per acre,^ The school commissioner created by this act was a land officer, but this officer finally developed into the county superintendent of schools, as will be shown later. Principal provisions of the next revision of the School Law in 1833 provided: First, that any interest from the proceeds of the sale of school lands, not needed for expenses of survey and sale of school lands, might be apportioned among the teachers. Second, that the term of service of trustees should expire annually on the second Mon- day of November. Third, that land might be sold on credit for a term of one, two, or three years.^ The cause of free public schools registered both gains and losses during the legislative session of 1835. A gain was registered when ". . . the legal voters of T 39 N — R 14 E, in Cook County, on the first Monday in June next, and annually thereafter, elect either five or seven persons to be school inspectors, who shall serve one year . . ."^ The powers and duties of the school inspectors were specified in the sections following. In general, these powers were partly those of school boards and partly those of supervisors; powers which ultimately were taken over by the county superintendent of schools. On the loss side, this General Assembly repealed the section of the previous statute providing for free instmction of children whose guard- ians or parents were able to pay for it. In 1841 the General Assembly engaged in a rather complete and general revision of the School Law. Inasmuch as several of the more important provisions will appear in another place, only some general statements will be made here. One of the principal provisions was for the protection and preservation of the school lands. The county school commissioner l>ecame an elective officer. Teachers were required to keep schedules. Incoiporation of townships was provided for. The common school fund was defined. The law of 1841, however, omitted any provision for local taxation. That was to come only after arduous efforts on the part of the friends of free public schools. It may be well at this point to leave the story of school legislation 'All of these sections included in the Revised Code of Illinois, 1829, Sixth General Assembly, p. 150f. 'Revised Laws of Illinois, 1833, p. 562f. ' Laws of the State of Illinois, passed by the Ninth General Assembly, p. 161. 14 for a time, and to see what was transpiring in the liistory of education in Illinois. One of the most interesting of the activities concerning education was the advent of educational conventions, the first of which was held at Vandalia in 1833. These conventions met irregularly for about twenty years. One of the outstanding features of the Illinois edu- cational conventions was the large number of prominent people who attended them, or evinced a strong interest in the i:>roceedings. At one time or another such men as Sidney Breese, Judge L. D. Lockwood, O. H. Browning, Abraham Lincoln, Stephen A. Douglas, and Colonel J. J. Hardin were paiticipants. Legislators, friends of public education, professional and literary men, teachers, and school officers were num- bered among those who gave of their time and talents to the cause of education in these conventions. At the Peoria meeting in 1844, there was a particularly large attend- ance of teachers and school officers. This was true of the meeting in Jacksonville in 1845, and of the one in Chicago at a later date. The germ was working for the formation of some kind of professional society. The result was that in 1854 there was formed a "State Teach- ers' Institute", wliich three years later became the State Teachers' Association. There had been an organization by the latter name as early as 1836, which lasted for several years. But it is not to be con- fused with the one discussed here. Prominent men, and those rapidly becoming prominent, placed themselves on record in favor of free public education. Politicians, pro- fessors, journalists, editors — all lent the power of their speech or pen to education. In his Educational History of Illinois, J. W. Cook quotes from the Sangamon Journal of March 15, 1832, some words from a communication from Abraham Lincoln, wliich read in part: "Upon the subject of education, not presuming to dictate any plan or system respecting it, I can only say that I view it as the most impor- tant subject that we as a people can be engaged in." * But Lincoln was lelatively unknown at tliis date. One of the power- ful voices in educational reform was that of John S. Wright. As publisher of The Prairie Farmer, he was able to reach the ears and eyes of rural Illinois. Mr. Wright was an early advocate of an appointive state super- intendent and county superintendent. He called attention to the deplor- able qualifications of teachers and so stimulated people in Illinois to think seriously about needed educational reform in the State. There was also some attempt to publish professional journals. For a period of one year, the Common School Advocate was published at Jacksonville, beginning in January, 1837, and a few issues of The Illinois Common School Advocate were published at Springfield. In 1855 there was established the publication called. The Illitiois Teacher.^ This brief account of early education in Illinois would not be com- plete without some mention of the agitation for institutions of higher education. One of the active pioneers in the movement for a system of agricultural and mechanical schools for the masses was Jonathan B. Turner of Jacksonville. At a Fanners' Convention at Granville in November, 1851, a plan for a State University and a "University for *J. W. Cook, Educational History of Illinois, p. 43. 15 the industrial classes in each of the States" was advocated, to supple- ment a National Institute of Science. ^° The Granville meeting was followed by a series of other conventions or conferences at Chicago and Springfield. Congress was asked for a grant of public lands. In 1853 the General Assembly, by unanimous vote of both houses, requested its senators and representatives in the national Congress to give such a plan their support. It was nearly ten years before action was finally secured by the Morrill Act of 1862, by which the State of Illinois received about 480,000 acres of land as well as later grants. In 1867 the Illinois Industrial University was established by act of the State Legislature. There had also been considerable activity by professional educators and friends of public education for a teacher-training school or normal school, supported by state funds. Interestingly enough, the first school of this kind was established in 1857 at Normal, Illinois, a decade be- fore the State University was established. Brief reference has been made in the introduction to this study, to the Law of 1854, which created the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. It would be well at this point to examine the educa- tional history of Illinois preceding the actual creation of the Office. The reader may have been surpiised to note that in all of the dis- cussion thus far about education in Illinois, nothing has been said about a chief school officer, or superintendent. The fact is that early school legislation made no provision for such an officer. This is not to say, however, that there had been no advocates of, or agitation for, such a school officer. As early as 1838-39, a bill had been introduced into the General Assembly for the election of a chief school officer, but the bill died in committee. Another effort was made at the special session of the Legis- lature in 1839-40. A committee of the Illinois State Education Society presented a statement on January 13, 1841, to the House of Represent- atives. One of the signers of this statement was Mr. John S. Wright. In 1844, at an educational convention in Peoria, the delegates prepared an amendment to the School Law, providing for a state superintend- ent of public instruction, whose salary was to be paid out of state funds. 5,000 copies were ordered printed, to circulate among the legislators and the general public. Out of all this activity came the Act of 1845, creating the Office of State Superintendent of Public Instruction, but it was a watered-down bill. It made the Secretary of State the ex officio Superintendent of Public Instruction. A brief summary of this Act of 1845 is in order here. Three short sections were deemed sufficient to define the office and duties of the State Superintendent. Section 4 provided that "The Secretary of State shall be ex officio state superintendent of common schools . . ."^^ The new school officer was enjoined to counsel and advise with experienced and practical • Newton Bateman and Paul Selby, Historical Encyclopedia of Illinois, p. 149. " Ibid. "^Revised Statutes of the State of Illinois, 1845, ch. 98, p. 497. 16 school teachers as to the best means of conducting common schools, and to consider the most approved textbooks, maps, charts, and appa- ratus to be used. Section 5 stipulated further that said Superintendent should super- vise all common schools in the State and act as the general adviser and assistant to the county school commissioner. From time to time, when deemed necessary, the State Superintendent was to send out circular letters to school commissioners, giving advice as to the best manner of conducting schools, building school houses, and securing teachers. He was to recommend the most approved books, charts, and apparatus, and to urge uniformity in the use of them. This section concludes by stating that the Superintendent ". . . shall use his influence to reduce to a system of practical operation the means of supporting common schools in the State." ^^ Section 6 made mandatory the submission of a report to the Gov- ernor before December 15, 1846, and biennially thereafter. This report was to contain a statement about the condition of the common schools of the State, the number of schools taught by males and females, the number of scholars in attendance, the amount expended annually for schools, the amount of money raised by ad valorem tax, and such other information and suggestions as may have been considered important in relation to the promotion of education throughout the State. This report was to be presented to the General Assembly at each regular session.^* Perhaps it is unfair to evaluate this Act in the light of present-day thinking, but professional educators cannot help pondering over its grave shortcomings. 1. An important duty, such as heading the school system of the State, was given to an already busy state official. One can readily believe that the Secretary of State must have regarded his new educational duties with dismay. 2. Certainly the new State Superintendent had little professional knowledge of books, charts, apparatus, etc. • 3. There was an almost complete lack of specificity for supervision and administration. 4. A lay official was expected to give professional advice to pro- fessional people as to the best methods of conducting schools. Of course, it needs to be said here that many teachers left something to be desired in professional preparation and com- petence. 5. It is an interesting commentary of the thinking of the period that uniformity in the use of textbooks, maps, and charts should be urged by the chief school officer. 6. And equally significant was the injunction of the law that this lay person, the Secretary of State, should recommend which textbooks and other instructional equipment should be used. 7. One is sure to note that perhaps the most specific feature of 17 the law was that part which prescribed the nature of the Su- perintendent's report to the Legislature. But perhaps the reader should not be too critical. It is significant that there had been created, by statute, a Superintendent of Public Instruction. What misgivings the secretaries of state had about their educational duties as ex officio superintendents of public instruction are not known. But it can be assumed that all of them, four in number, did a creditable piece of work and tried to comply with the law, Thompson Campbell was the incumbent Secretary of State when the Act of 1845 was passed, so to him was given the honor of being the first Superintendent of Public Instruction. It is recorded that he had great difficulty getting cooperation from the county school commissioners in the fumisliing of statistics for his first report. Another interesting aspect of Mr. Campbell's administration was the terrific pressure brought to bear upon him by teachers and their friends to soften the effects of the new law raising qualifications for teaching. This law was going to force the poor teachers to retire; it is to Mr. Campbell's credit that he held strictly to the letter and spirit of the law. He served from Febru- ary, 1845, to December, 1846. Mr. Horace S. Cooley became the second ex officio Superintendent, succeeding Mr. Campbell. He served from December, 1846, till his death in April, 1850. Prior to 1848 the Office of Secretary of State was ap- pointive, so Mr. Cooley became the first elective Secretaiy of State, in accordance with the provisions of the new Illinois Constitution of 1848. David L. Gregg, third ex officio Superintendent, served only a short period of time; less than two years. Cook^^ says that Mr. Gregg's chief claims to fame were as a member of the Illinois Constitutional Conven- tion, as a presidential elector in 1852, and as author of the shortest school report to the Governor on record, Alexander Stame, the last ex officio State Superintendent of Public Instruction, served from 1852 to 1854, the latter date marking the ap- pointment of Ninian W. Edwards, under the provisions of the new law. Superintendent Starne cooperated in the calling of an important educa- tional con\ention in 1853 that endorsed the appointment of a full-time superintendent of public instruction. " Ibid. "J. W. Cook, he. cit., pp. 109-110. 18 CHAPTER III THE COMMON SCHOOL FUNDS OF ILLINOIS The story of the origin and disposal of the common school funds of Illinois is an interesting if not entirely pleasing one. Accounting of the considerable land resources placed at the disposal of the State and town- ships indicates gross mismanagement and, sometimes, downright con- nivance and corruption. If the management of the revenues accruing from sale of school lands had been honest and efficient, it is hard to predict what revenues woidd have accrued to the schools. But it is not the purpose of this part of the study to speculate upon what might have been. It is to clarify what the common school funds really were. The study entitled "Sketch of the Permanent Public School Funds of Illinois," written by W. L. Pillsbury, is especially pertinent. Mr. Pills- bury was Principal Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction under State Superintendent James P. Slade and Henry Raab. This detailed account of the common school funds appears in the Fourteenth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Illinois.^ Mr. Pillsbury classifies the permanent school funds of Illinois, those from which only the income may be expended, into two categories. Funds in the fii\st categoiy are trust funds and consist of money received from the general government, or of lands received from the same source, and the proceeds of the sale of such lands. In this first category are included: 1. The Township Fund 2. The Seminary Fund 3. The School Fund Proper 4. The College Fund 5. The Illinois Industrial University Fund Funds in the second category consist of money which the State has set aside by law for school purposes. In this second category are included : 1. The Surplus Revenue Fund 2. The County Funds 1. The Township Fund Reference has already been made to the provisions of the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, whereby the sixteenth section of each township in the territory known as the Northwest Territory was to be reserved for the purpose of helping to support education. In the enabling act of the National Congress providing for the admis- sion of Illinois as a state, the sixteenth section of land, or its equivalent, in each township was set aside for the maintenance of schools. The First General Assembly made provision for renting these lands and selecting ^Fourteenth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Illinois, pp. CXX to CXLIII. 19 suitable public officers for the performance of this duty. But tenants were not always available. In this early time, men were wanting to buy land rather than rent it, and they could buy it at a reasonable figure. Ohio had secured permission to sell the school lands outright, and Illinois believed it should have the same right. Without waiting for Congressional authorization, the General Assembly, in 1829, directed the Governor to make public announcement of the action of Congress as soon as it was taken. Provision was also made in the law for the appointment by the county commissioners of a county school commissioner or agent. But Congress did not act, and two years later the General Assembly directed the county commissioners to appoint a county school commissioner and proceed with the sale of the public lands. A few safeguards were established. Three-fourths of the legal voters of the township must petition for the sale of land. Trustees were required to place a valuation of not less than $1.25 per acre, and then it could be sold at public auction, after due notice. In no case could the land be sold at less than the valuation placed upon it. Title to said land passed to the purchaser only after the county school commissioner had reported the sale to the State Auditor, after a patent bearing the great seal of the State had been affixed, and after the patent had been signed by both the State Auditor and the Governor. But many prospecti\e pur- chasers were loathe to buy land without approval of Congress. This was finally secured on February 15, 1843. The sixteenth section was the very basis for the township school fund., and its history is an attempt to show the safeguards surrounding the school lands. But men have always been able to circumvent the letter as well as the spirit of the law. The total amount of land accruing to the State was 985,066 acres. The first land sale was made in Greene County, August 22, 1831, and the second, about two weeks later, Sep- tember 9, 1831, in Morgan County.^ Should the school lands have been sold as early as they were? Opinion is divided. Some people contend that lands were sold as the result of pressure brought to bear by people living on them. There can be little doubt that land, in many cases, was deliberately undervalued. But Air. Pillsbury maintained that some benefits accrued. A fund was created, the monev was loaned at hisrh rates of interest, and manv schools were established earlier than they could have been otherwise. Perhaps it pro- vided help when help was most needed: at an early date. It is also true that many of the sixteenth sections were of little value. Some were in swamps; indeed, the sixteenth section in T2N, R9W, in Adams County was under water. In this case, the trustees were author- ized to select another section, subject to an entry at $1.25 per acre. But this situation was an exception; although trustees, in many cases, peti- tioned the Congress for relief. W. L. Pillsbury, loc. cit., p. CXXVII. 20 2. The Seminary Fund By Act of Congress, Illinois was granted one township for the sup- port of a seminary of learning. This had been done earlier in the case of Ohio. This township, in Illinois, the "seminary" township, was T5N, RIW, W. 3rd. P. M. in Fayette County. When it was found to be swampy, permission was granted by the Congress and the President to select more admirable lands. This was done. Another township was also added to the first for a seminaiy. Hence, 46,080 acres were to become a resource for establishing a center of learning. All but four and a half sections were sold, pursuant to acts by the Legislature in 1829 and 1831, and $59,838 72 was the miserable sum realized from the land sale.^ There seems to be much less justification for the hasty sale of the seminary lands than of the township lands. Pillsbury summarizes the situation thus: "Whatever the motive was, the loss was invmense and irretrievable. The only persons who profited by the transaction were the men, some of them high state officials, who bought the lands, and the holders of depreciated State warrants, who found the depleted treasury replenished at the expense of a sacred trust." * 3. The School Fund Proper It had been the practice of the Federal Government to grant to states formed from the territory under its control a percentage of the sales of Government lands within limits of said states. In many cases, these monies were for internal improvements, but, in other cases, the whole or a part of the grant was for educational purposes. When Illinois was admitted to the Union, it was stipulated that two-fifths of the grant should be retained and spent by Congress to construct roads leading to Illinois, and that three-fifths of the grant should be appropriated by the Illinois Legislature for the encouragement of learning, with one- sixth being bestowed exclusively on a college or university. By an act of 1821, the State Treasurer was authorized to receive the three per cent fund and to transfer it to the State Bank of Illinois. In turn, the Bank was directed to pay the State Treasurer interest annually at the rate of six per cent. In 1825 the fund passed into the hands of the State school commissioners in theory, but actually it remained in the State Bank. The Act of 1825 also specified that five-sixths of the interest on the three-per-cent fund should be apportioned to the counties of the State in proportion to the number of white inhabitants under twenty-one years of age. This money was to be spent to support common schools. In 1829 the General Assembly enacted a law providing that the Governor should borrow the school fund on account for the State, pay- ing six per cent interest. The interest should be added to the principal at the end of every year until the money was refunded. The original act of Congress provided that the money was to be used for the encouragement of learning and that there should be an annual accounting for expenditure. But the Governor admitted that the 'Ibid., p. CXXXIV. * Ibid. 21 money was used for current State expenses and that no reports to the Federal Government liad been made. After some controversy, during which the annual payments were withheld, Congress clarified the status of the fund by repealing in 1831 certain portions of the Act of 1820 requiring the accounting of the money. Payments of this tliree-per-cent fund were resumed until 1863, when all of the lands had been sold. This question may arise here: When is a school fund not a school fund? Actually, the fund described had no existence at all, as a fund proper, but only as an obligation of the State upon which it had to pay six per cent. 4. The College Fund The history of this fund is much the same as that of the seminary and common school funds; that is, the fund was used by the State as soon as it was received. But there is one important difference. The State never did restore the seminaiy fund, but it did return the income of the college fund which it had borrowed. In 1861 the General Assembly de- clared that the interest on the college fund up to 1857 was $98,956.82.^ Of this amount $65,000 was appropriated to the State Board of Educa- tion. The Board used the money to pay debts incurred in building the State NoiTnal University. The remainder of $33,756.62 was added to the principal of the fund. 5. The Illinois Industri.al University Fund Reference has been made earlier to the agitation in Illinois for an industrial university. Jonathan B. Turner was one of the active pro- ponents of the idea. There are some who believe that the movement which ga\'e to the states their agricultural schools originated here in Illinois. But this is a bit difficult to prove. However, the Moriill Act of 1862 was passed, granting to each state 30,000 acres of land for each member in Congress. Illinois received 480,000 acres. Part of the land scrip was sold, and part is still owned by the University of Illinois. 6. The Surplus Revenue Fund It has been stated, although the writer is unable to locate the s(nirce, that the only time the Federal Government has been out of debt was during the administration of President Andrew Jackson. Some credence can be given to this statement by virtue of the fact that in 1836 Con- gress directed the Secretary of the Treasury to deposit in four quarterly installments, with the several states, according to their representation in Congress, whatever surplus funds should be in the Treasury in excess of $5,000,000. This payment of money, if any, would be started Janu- ary 1, 1837. The states, however, were rcquiiTd to agree to repay the money if the Federal Government called for it, but it never made such a call. Three payments were actually made, but the subsequent con- dition of the Treasury precluded any further payments. Illinois received 'Ibid., p. CXXXVII. 22 $477,914.24.^ A considerable portion of this amount went to the school fund as payment of the amount due the school, college, and seminary funds. It is most interesting to learn that this payment, $335,592.32, was regarded as an addition to the fund and not as a payment of the debt due the schools from the State. ^ The State used the money and paid interest at the rate of six per cent. This interest was distributed in the same way as interest on the common school fund. 7. County Fund In 1835 the Illinois Legislature passed an act which, in effect, created the county fund. The act provided that if the distribution of monies to the county was in excess of one half the amount due for teachers' salaries, that excess should be reserved as a county fund. This fund was to be a permanent fund, that is, not distributed, but loaned at interest; and the amount was to be used for support of the schools. Pillsbury stated that the county fund had received considerable additions from miscel- laneous sources, principally from the sale of swamp lands. Pillsbuiy also stated that about seventy of the one hundred and two counties had a county school fund.^ In several counties these funds had become a part of the township funds by order of the county boards. For this action there was no legal authority. After some painstaking research Pillsbury stated that the total amount of the fund was $158,410.39.^ In summarizing the story of the common school funds, of one kind or another, several facts stand out : First, the National Government, from the very beginning, had been favorably inclined, and even generous, to public schools. Second, this generosity was continued over a considerable period of time. Third, these funds were not always well administered. Fourth, the purpose for which land grants and monies was intended was not fulfilled. Fifth, the State Government of Illinois diverted funds intended for educational purposes, to the payment of current expenses, through the device of borrowing and paying six per cent, which interest was not always paid. Sixth, the pressures of the adult public were stronger than the pressures of school people, and of the needs of the boys and girls. Undoubtedly the former were better organized. Of course, this last point is editorial comment rather than provable fact. The account above suggests that the people of Illinois and their elected officials were willing to use any means possible to derive funds for the running expenses of government, including the common school fund, short of reaching down into their pockets and paying the neces- sary amount in taxes. Finally, in 1855, the General Assembly enacted a law providing for a system of taxation. Many students of public educa- tion in Illinois feel that this was the time when methods of financing schools finally became of age. It definitely marks a significant step for- *Ibid., p. CXLII. ' Ibid. "Ibid., p. CXLIII. - • Ibid. 23 ward. A few features of the School Law of 1855 are given verbatim: "Sec. 67. The common school fund of this state shall consist of such sum as will be produced by the annual levy and assessment of two mills upon each dollars valuation of all taxable property in the state, and there is hereby levied and assessed annually, in addition to the revenue for state purposes, the said two mills upon each dollars valuation of the taxable property in the state, to be collected and paid into the State treasury as other revenue is collected and paid; and the amount due from the state, according to a statement and settlement of the account between the state and that fund, under provisions of an act entitled an Act to provide for the distribution and application of the interest on the school, college, and seminary fund; approved on the 7th day of February, 1835, and of all funds which have been or may be received by the state from the United States, for the use and support of the common schools, and also of the money added to the common school fund which was received from the United States under an act of Con- gress providing for a distribution of the surplus revenue of the United States, and which was invested in bank stock, by authority of the state, and the amount added to the school fund under an act requiring the three per cent fund to be invested in state bonds. "Sec. 68. The State shall pay an interest of six per cent upon the amount of the aforesaid common school funds, except on so much thereof as may be realized from the levy of the tax directed to be levied under the provisions of this act, which shall be paid annually , . . also six per cent upon amount due college and seminary fund . . ." (Italics by author) "Sec. 70. At each meeting in October, or at any subsequent meeting thereafter, before the first of May, annually each township board of trustees in this state, shall determine, by estimate, as nearly as prac- ticable, the entire amount of money necessary to be expended in the township to keep in good condition and operation a sufficient number of free schools for the accommodation of all the children in said town- ship during the ensuing year, over and above the available means aris- ing from the township fund, or from other sources, and applicable to general school purposes, and also such additional amount as the board may think necessary for the exclusive purpose of supplying any deficiency in the fund for the payment of teachers, and for the purpose of extend- ing the terms of schools after the state of the common school fund shall have been exhausted; and shall determine, as nearly as practicable, what rate per cent, on the one hundred dollars' valuation of all the taxable property in the township, each of said amounts separately, will require to be levied; each of which rates so estimated and required to be levied, together with a list of names of all the resident taxpayers of the township, the said board shall make known by certificate in writing, signed by the president and clerk of the board, to the clerk of the county clerk of the county, on or before the first Monday of July next thereafter in each year, which certificate may be in the following form, viz: ..." "Sec. 71. For the purpose of erecting school houses, or purchasing school house sites, or for repairing and improving the same, for pro- curing furniture, fuel and district libraries, the board of directors of any district shall be authorized to have levied and collected a tax annually on all the property in their district . . ." "Sec. 72. ... the county clerk, when making out the tax books for the collector, shall compute each taxable person's tax in said township, or that part of the township in the county, or in any district, taking as a basis the total amount of property returned by the county assessor for that year . . . whether belonging to residents or non-residents, and also each and every tract of land assessed by assessor. . . . The said county clerk shall cause each person's tax so computed to be set uf>on the tax book, to be delivered to the county collector for that year . . . 24 to be collected in the same manner, and at the same time, as state and county taxes are collected. The computation of each person's tax, and the levy made by the clerk . . . shall be final and conclusive." (Italics by author) Sec. 74. Confers upon school directors power to borrow money for "erecting school houses, or purchasing sites, or for repairs and im- provements." The interest rate is not to exceed ten per cent per annum. School directors are empowered further to issue bonds in sums of not less than $100, provided total indebtedness does not exceed at any time one per cent of the assessed value of the real and personal property of the district." Extracts of the School Law of 1855 are given in some detail because certain provisions stand out prominently. Some of these have been itali- cized by the writer to emphasize significant provisions of the Law. While legislative acts do not constitute a fact accomplished, this par- ticular act came to grips with the real problems of education. It takes money to conduct schools. Gifts, rate bills, and subscription societies had not provided enough revenue to finance the schools properly. The Legis- lature conferred power upon township trustees and district school boards sufficiently great to levy taxes, and upon the clerks of the county courts to extend taxes, and upon the tax collectors to collect taxes for the schools. In addition, school boards might borrow money and issue bonds to erect school houses or improve the ones in existence. If elected school officials were negligent or dilatory in the exercise of their duties and powers to provide schools, the citizens had some basis legally to bring pressure to bear upon them. In the opinion of this writer, the School Law of 1855 is a "milestone" in the development of free schools in the State of lUinois. " All of the above sections are contained in the Laws of the State of Illinois, passed by the Nineteenth General Assembly, convened January 1, 1855, pp. 77-84. 25 CHAPTER IV SCHOOL offk:ers The history of the Office of PubHc Instruction cannot possibly be told without reference to thic school officers. In reality the organization of the educational enterprise provides a hierarchy of officials: teachers, principals, sui)erint(ndents, county superintendents, township trustees, and district school boards. This section of the study will be concerned principally with county superintendents, township trustees, and school boards. THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS The county coinniissioner of school lands, or the county school commissioner as he was more often called, was the progenitor of the county superintendent of schools. The office of school commissioner, created in 1829 by act of the General Assembly, provided that the county commissioners should appoint some "good, competent and responsible person" of the county to act as commissioner and agent for the county in the sale of public school lands. No salary was attached lo the office, only a small percentage of receipts from sale of the lands. In 1833 this land officer was authorized to apportion the interest of th(; school fund in his county among the .school teachers entitled to the same, and said ofTucr was entitled to retain two and one-half per cent of sums appoi ti)r:)ned. In 1836 the Ninth General A.ssembly, Second Session, directed that it was the duty of the commissioner of the school fund to receive funds, as they became due, from the United States and to deposit these funds in the State Treasury. A second section stijjulated that interest due from loans of the township and county funds be paid semi-annually in . advance.^ It was a common practice of school commissioners to enact a penalty of twenty per cent, or more, from borrowers of school funds who defaulted or were unable to pay. One school commissioner, Richard J. Hamilton by name, became defendant in a litigation in 1839. The Supreme Court, in the ca.se of Hiram Pearson vs. Ricliard J. Hamilton, School Commissioner, held that twenty per cent penalties were null and void; that unpaid amounts due might draw only the legal rate of interest.* In 1840 the General Assembly ruled that recorders and school com- mi.ssioners "shall be entitled to one copy of the laws of this State, in all future distributions of the same." ^ It was further provided by the Legislature that it would henceforth be the duty of school commissioners to distribute school funds to teach- ' Laws of the Stale of Illinois, Ninth General Assembly p. 249. • Cases Adjudged in the Supreme Court of the State of Illinois, 1839, p. 302. ^ Laws of Illinois, Eleventh rreneral Assembly, 1840, p. 65. 27 ers and township treasurers at the county seats, with a four weeks pub- lic notice being given prior to such distribution.* In 1841 there was a general overhauling of the School Law. Most important to the discussion here was the provision in section 12 of the new law, that ". . . on the first Monday of August next, and on the same day every two years thereafter, there shall be elected by the qualified voters of each and every county in the State, a school commissioner, for the said county, who shall be authorized to execute and perform the duties herein required . . . execute bond . . . with two or more responsible freeholders ... of not less than $12,000. . . ." * Additional provisions stipulated that a new bond be executed an- nually; that no plot of school land might be subdivided into more than eighty acres; that the interest rate should be twelve per cent; that the time of loan should be from one to five years; that compensation of the commissioner should be three per cent on amount of land sales and two per cent on monies reloaned.® It will be noted that this officer was now elected instead of ap- pointed. But no school supervisory duties were specified; in effect, the school commissioner was still a land officer. A long step forward in the evolution of the school commissioner into a county superintendent of schools was taken in 1845. Section 12 of the law provided that the elective school commissioner should be ex officio superintendent of the common schools of the county, ". . . and shall, by himself or some other qualified person,^ as often as practicable, visit all the townships in his county, inquire into the manner of conducting schools . . . and use his influence to carry out the system proposed by the State Superintendent." ' In addition to the above, the ex officio superintendent was required to examine persons who were proposing to teach in the schools of the county in subjects of orthography, reading in English, penmanship, arithmetic, English grammar, modern geography, and the history of the United States. Every person who was found competent was to be granted a certificate to teach by the county superintendent. For these services he received a fee of one dollar. This new law took the power of certificating teachers out of the hands of township trustees, where the examination was as often as not little short of a farce. The next important "milestone" in the development of the county school office was in 1855. This first really free school law has been referred to in another connection. The county school superintendents were to be elected on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, every two years, as was the case in the election and length *Ibid., p. 87. 'Laws of the State of Illinois, Twelfth General Assembly, 1841, p. 261. • Ibid. ''Revised Statutes of Illinois, 1845. 28 of term of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Other pro- visions of the Act follow: 1. Required county superintendents to give a freeholder's bond in the sum of $12,000 to be approved by the county court, which could increase the principal sum of the bond at its discretion 2. Required two or more sureties, who were bound jointly and severally 3. Specified causes for removal 4. Provided for occurrence of vacancy 5. Enjoined the county superintendents to keep three books, A, B, and G, records of school lands, mortgages, and so forth 6. Empowered the superintendents to receive bonds of township treasurers 7. Directed them to apportion State funds 8. Made it mandatory to submit a report to the State Super- intendent before the second Monday in November, biennially, unless required by each officer to do so annually 9. Directed each county school officer to deliver all papers, money, and property to his successor 10. Provided that the officer should loan the principal, but not the interest belonging to county school or township funds 11. Directed that such school duties be performed as visiting schools, conferring with teachers and directors, providing as far as possible uniformity in the courses of study 12. Empowered superintendents to hire competent persons to secure and compile statistics, when trustees failed to do so; the fee of such persons laired to be paid out of township funds •13. Directed and empowered them to sell and resell real estate 14. Allowed the county superintendents to receive the usual fees of three and two per cent, and, in addition to be paid two dollars per day, for a number of days not to exceed fifty, for the service of visiting the schools^ A close examination of this act reveals some interesting facts. The superintendency was becoming professionalized, although it still had a long way to go. From this time on almost every State superintendent was to point out the importance of the county superintendent of schools to the educational system of the State and to urge the Legislature to make the office a more remunerative one. The General Assembly made some significant changes in the School Law during the session of 1865. The county school commissioner be- * All of these provisions are contained in The Statutes of Illinois, 1855, pp. 53-54. 29 came the county superintendent of schools. With the change of title came a four-'\ear term of office and some increase in compensation. This change of the School Law is significant because it marks a stage in the evolution of the status of the chief school officer of the county. Originally intended as a land officer, this officer's status acquired a new meaning. Most of the original school lands had now been dis- posed of, and the newly created county superintendent of schools became more truly a school officer. He was now required to visit schools, advise school officers, do some supervising, and exercise educa- tional leadership in his county. His compensation was fixed at three dollars per day; the total jivunber of days in any one year, for which the superintendent was to be compensated, was not to exceed two hundred. County boards were authorized to pay additional amounts to the county superintendents if they deemed it advisable. The Illinois Constitution of 1870 provided that there might be a county superintendent of schools in each county of the State. Qualifica- tions, powers, duties, compensation, time and manner of election, and teiTTi of office were to be prescribed by law. The General Assembly took a backward step in 1872 by making visitation of schools by the county superintendent optional with each county board. The former law had made it mandatory. The compensation of the office remained unsatisfactory for many years. The county superintendent was the most poorly paid of all the covmty officers. State Superintendent Henry Raab was most persistent in his efforts to secure more adequate compensation for the county superintendents. By 1885 there was .some improvement. The General Assembly passed a law providing that, in addition to the customary three per cent and two per cent fees, the school superintendents were to receive four dollars per day for performing other educational duties, not to exceed the number fixed by county boards in those counties where county boards had such authority. One dollar per day was allowed for expenses for days actually spent in school visitation. One half of the time of the superintendents was to be devoted to country schools.® Sections 1, 20, and 71 of the School Law of 1885 provided, in addition, that each county board be required to furnish the county superintendent with an office and supplies; required the school officer to visit schools in his county, the number of days in doing same depend- ing upon the number of schools in the county; empowered the county superintendent to employ an assistant with the consent of the county board, providing that said assistant be paid on a per diem basis, and the amount deducted from the school fund.^° Li 1887 the Legislature required each county board to audit the bills of the county superintendent at least once quarterly." ^ Laws of Illinois, 1885, p. 240 ff. " Ibid. ''Laivs of Illinois, 1885, p. 289. 30 Finally, the office of county superintendent of schools attained a salary status in 1905. Salaries varied according to the county popula- tions, and this principle has prevailed ever since. In recent times the County Supeiintendents' Association has been instrumental in securing periodically pay increases from the General Assembly. Also, increasingly adequate assistance for the office in per- sonnel such as professional assistants, clerks, stenographers, and direc- tors of \dsual aids has been secured from both the State and the county boards. Certainly this office is now moie thoroughly professionalized than ever before. TOWNSHIP TRUSTEES These school officers have seniority, in length of existence, over school boards and the county superintendent of schools. The First General Assembly decreed that the county commissioners should ap- point three trustees for each township. The trustees were charged with the duty of laying out the sixteenth section of each township in tracts of not less than forty or more than one hundred and sixty acres. The School Law of 1825 specified that rents accruing from die school lands in each township should be collected by the trustees and divided among those people of the township who had by tax, sub- scription, or otherwise contributed to the support of a common school for at least three months out of the last tweh-e. The sum paid in each case should be in proportion to the sum contributed by the individual. The powers of the trustees were increased from time to time. Eventually they became the legal custodians of real estate and money belonging to the township. The trustees appointed a treasurer who also acted as their clerk. They were empo\\ered to protect the school lands against trespass. In the early days, trustees could call elections for the incorporation of townships. It has already been stated that the trustees appointed the school commissioner until 1841. Township trustees also acted in other ways as school officers; until 1845 they examined pro- spective teachers and granted teaching certificates. Sometimes the trus- tees designated other persons to fulfill this duty. Trustees were author- ized to purchase school libraries and acquire real estate for school buildings. In 1865 the law changed the tenure of trustees from four to three years, staggering the terms, so that one was elected annually. This condition prevails at the present. SCHOOL BOARDS Th(^ Constitution of 1870 charged the Legislature to provide a good comniou .school education for all the children of the State; however, because the Legislature did not ha\'e the time, inclination, or special knowledge to engage in the minutia of conducting schools, it created a body to do so. namely, the school board. 31 The school board is a quasi-corporation. It is charged with far too many duties and powers for them to be enumerated here. Because the Legislature conferred these powers, it can take them away. In more recent times, the law has recognized a distinction between boards of directors and boards of education. Boards of directors are three in number, one third of the membership's terms expiring each year, and historically they have governed rural schools, although there have been some exceptions to this procedure. Boards of education consist of vary- ing numbers, 5, 7, 9, or even more, usually elected for three years, one third of the number each year. The president of the board is elected as such and usually annually. These boards are common to high school districts, township and community; city school systems; and special charter districts. At times boards of education have been appointed by the common council or the mayor, or elected by the people. The latter method is, by far, the most common practice today. School boards, regardless of classification, receive no compensation for their services except in the case of the clerk or secretary, who is appointed by the board and may be either one of their own number or a specially designated person. No school board member, by pro- vision of the law, can be interested in any school contract while holding office. The school board may levy taxes, construct buildings, adopt text- books, prescribe courses of study, hire teachers and other school per- sonnel, and issue bonds. Essentially, the school board is a policy-making body. In most school systems, superintendents and principals provide the supervision, take the initiative in securing personnel, recommend textbooks, etc., but are responsible to the board. How difficult it would be to conceive of educational enterprise in the United States being carried on without the service of school boards! The unselfish service furnished gratis by many thousands of men and women over the years merits more recognition and appreciation than it has received. Above all, the existence of the elective school board is a constant reminder that the control of education resides in the people. 32 PART II THE FIRST FIFTY YEARS OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 33 BRIEF CHRONOLOGY OF THE OFFICE OF SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION Note: In all cases, the dates given for the terms of office of the state superintendents are the dates of elections, rather than the dates when the men assumed office. Exceptions are when the officer was appointive, either prior to 1856 or when a vacancy was filled by ap- pointment. The party affiliation of elected Superintendents is also given. 1838-1839. Mr. George Churchill, of Madison County, intro- duced a bill into the General Assembly for the elec- tion of a state superintendent of public instruction. Bill failed. 1839-1840. Senator Richard B. Servant, of Randolph County, made another attempt to secure legislation creating an office of state superintendent. Bill failed. January 13, 1841. A memorial from the Illinois State Education Soci- ety was presented to the House of Representatives of the General Assembly. This memorial urged the creation of an office of public instruction. Memorial was disregarded. March, 1842. John S. Wright editorialized in the Union Agricul- turalist in favor of a state superintendent. May, 1844. Mr. Wright, then editor of the Prairie Farmer, pro- posed an educational convention, at which an amendment to the school law advocating a general state superintendent was proposed. February 26, 1845. The Office of ex officio State Superintendent of Pub- lic Instruction was created by statute. The Secretary of State was to fill this position. 1845-1846. Mr. Thomas Campbell, Secretary of State, became the first ex officio Superintendent. December 23, 1846 Horace S. Cooley was second ex officio Superintend- to April 2, 1850. ent. April 2, 1850-1852. Davis S. Gregg was third ex officio Superintendent. 1852-1854. Alexander Storne was the fourth and last ex officio Superintendent of Public Instruction. 1854-1856. Ninian W. Edwards, Democrat, was appointed by the Governor to act as State Superintendent until an election could be held in 1856. 1856-1858. William H. Powell, LaSalle County, Republican, 35 was the first elected State Superintendent under the new law. 1858-1862. Newton Bateman, Morgan County, Republican 1862-1864. John P. Brooks, Democrat 1864-1874. Newton Bateman, Republican, reelected 1874-1878. Samuel M. Etter, Republican 1878-1882. James P. Slade, Republican 1882-1886. Henry Raab, Democrat 1886-1890. Richard Edwards, Republican 1890-1894. Henry Raab reelected for one term, Democrat 1894-1897, Samuel L. Inglis, Republican, died during third year of his office. 1897-1898. J. H. Freeman was appointed to fill unexpired term of Mr. Inglis. 1898-1906. Alfred Bayliss, Republican 1906-1934. Francis G. Blair, Republican, served longer than any other State Superintendent. 1934-1942. John A. Wieland, Democrat 1942- Vernon L. Nickell, Republican 36 CHAPTER V LEGAL BACKGROUND OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION INTRODUCTION Anyone who studies the history of American education may become either pessimistic or optimistic. The pessimist often complains that prog- ress, at best, is imperceptibly slow, that needed reforms are so slow in arriving, and that advocates of reform become impatient, frustrated, and disillusioned. But the optimist recognizes the existence of social lag; he believes that all reforms are slow in arriving, conceding that progress is often slow. He still believes that progress does take place. Histories of American education reveal that the creation of the ofHce of a chief school officer of the State was a slow process. There were times after the office had been created that the Legislature abol- ished it. The chief school officer was known by various titles: State Superintendent of Schools, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Commissioner of Education, and occasionally as Executive Sec- retary of the State Board of Education. In some cases, as in Illinois from 1845 to 1855, the duties of the Office of State Superintendent were vested in another State officer, as ex officio Superintendent. As the chronology of the Office in Illinois shows, there had been agitation for its creation for a considerable period of time. But it can be said that once the Office was created in Illinois, it was never abol- ished by legislative enactment. And the Constitution of 1870 removed that possibility by making the State Superintendent a constitutional officer. From a relatively humble office, the State Superintendency has evolved into a highly important one. The General Assembly, from time to time, has increased the duties of the Office by legislative enactment. Appropriations in the beginning were often quite niggardly. Continued and strenuous efforts were made by the several superintendents to secure adequate clerical assistance. Supervisory personnel was not envisioned by the early legislators. While required by law to act as the legal advisor for the school officers of the State, the superintendent was not provided with a legal department until recendy. Adequate appropriations for personnel, salaries, travel expense, and a super- visory staff have come only after persistent and continued efforts by the sup>erintendent. Nearly every session of the General Assembly has resulted in added duties and responsibilities for the Office. Naturally many of these duties have, of necessity, been delegated to subordinates. At the present time there are assistant superintendents in charge of instruction, legal mat- ters, teacher certification, pensions, statistics and reports, supervision, transportation, and many other matters. When one recalls that the early superintendents answered their own letters, wrote out their own 37 biennial reports^ made some attempt at personal supervision, acted as their own legal advisers, conducted educational meetings and teachers' institutes, and assumed many other responsibilities, it becomes obvious that these duties must have been often neglected, or else the demands were relatively few. Today the State Superintendent, in addition to being well-trained academically, must be a school administrator of proved ability. Undoubtedly the future will make additional demands upon the State Superintendent's Office, and it will be most interesting to watch its continued evolution. LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND Governor Matteson called a special session of the Legislature for February 9, 1854, at which school legislation was included among the specified items for consideration. A bill providing for a State Super- intendent of Public Instruction was duly introduced in the House. Mr. Samuel W. Moulton, Shelby County, was chairman of the com- mittee which considered the bill. It was reported favorably and passed the House and Senate by votes of forty to eleven and sixteen to five, respectively.^ There seems to be considerable controversy as to the exact date this bill was passed, but the Act itself carries the date of Febru- ary 18, 1854.2 In some respects this law was a strange one. It provided that the State Superintendent should be elected for a term of two years at the next general election in 1855. But there was no general election in 1855! Why this error? No one seemed to know, but the best guess was that there had been an error by the engrossing clerk. The law authorized the Governor to appoint a temporary super- intendent until one could be duly elected and qualified. At first it seemed that the term of the temporary appointment would be for only a few months, but because of the error in the original law, the appointee served two years, the length of term for a duly elected superintendent. Another interesting provision which appeared in the Law of 1855, but not in the revised Law of 1857, was Section 7, which, in referring to the duties of the State Superintendent, said: "He shall visit every county in the State at least once during his term of office, confer freely with the school officers as to the manner of con- ducting schools, and shall deliver a public lecture to the teachers and people of each county on the subject of education, if deemed prac- ticable, and perform such duties as may tend to advance the interest of education." ' It must have been a great relief to the new Superintendent thai this section was deleted from the Law. It is difficult to understand how he could have fulfilled this section of the Law, in view of the fact that he had to orient himself in the performance of many new duties. ^J. W. Cook, op. cit., p. 111. ^ Laws of Illinois, Eighteenth General Assembly, 1854, p. 13ff. 'Laws of the State of Illinois, 1855, Section 7. 38 The new School Law provided other duties and responsibiUties : (1) Before entering upon the duties, the Superintendent was required to take and subscribe to the usual oath of office. (2) He had to execute a bond in the sum of twenty-five thousand dollars ($25,000), payable to the State of Illinois, with sureties to be approved by the Governor; said bond was to be deposited with the Secretary of State. (3) The Superintendent must keep at the Office, at the seat of government, all papers, reports, and public documents transmitted to him by the various school officers of the counties, each year and separately, and all other papers, books, and public documents relative to the schools; and stand in readiness to show same to the Governor or the members of the General Assembly, should the occasion require. (4) Without delay, he should pay all sums that might come into his hands to the proper persons to receive them, in such manner as should be prescribed by law. (5) The Superintendent was enjoined to counsel and advise with experienced and practical school teachers as to the best manner of conducting the common schools. (6) In addition to the above, he was required to have charge of all supei-vision of public schools of the State, and act as general adviser to the school commissioners in the sev- eral counties. (7) From time to time, the chief school officer was to send out circular letters, giving advice as to the best manner of conducting schools, constructing school houses, furaish- ing same, and to assist in securing competent teachers. (8) Biennially, before the fifteenth day of December, in those years preceding the meeting of the General Assembly, the Superintendent was required to report to the Governor the condition of the schools of the State; the number of schools taught in each county: that part of the whole number taught by males exclusively, females exclusively, and by both; the number of scholars in attendance at schools; the number of white persons in each county under twenty-one years of age; the amount of the township and county school funds; the amount of the interest of the State or common school funds; the amounts of same paid out annually; the amounts raised by an ad valorem tax; the total amount spent for schools; the number of school houses, their kind and condition; the description of books and apparatus purchased for use of schools and school libraries, and prices paid for same. (9) The State Superintendent was empowered to make such 39 rules and regulations as he thought necessary to carry out provisions of the act. (10) To explain and interpret the school law to school officers and render final decisions upon law was the prerogative of the new Superintendent. (11) It was the duty of the Superintendent to direct and cause school commissioners of the counties to withhold school funds, if provisions of the law were not met. (12) The salary of the State Superintendent was set at $1,500 per year, payable quarterly. Contingent expenses for books, postage, and stationery pertaining to the office were allowed. In addition to the provisions listed above. Section 12 of the Act of 1854 provided another duty of extreme importance to be performed by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. It is quoted, in part, here: ". . . it shall be his duty to report a bill to the next regular session of the general assembly, for a system of free school education throughout the state, the manner (means) for the support of which system to be provided for by a uniform ad valorem tax upon property, to be assessed and collected as other state and county revenue is assessed and col- lected." * Section 14 repealed the law stipulating that the Secretary of State should act as ex officio Superintendent and all other parts in conflict with the new Act. In 1863 the General Assembly appropriated the sum of $1,000 per annum for clerk hire to the State Superintendent. For the Office of Public Instruction, a sum not to exceed $500 per year was allowed for traveling expenses; and a sum of $2,000 was allowed for "repairs, fur- niture, stationery, postage, printing, blanks, and other incidental ex- penses of his office."^ Beginning in 1865, the Office of Public Instruction began to assume the character that it was ultimately to become. From time to time added duties and responsibilities were provided by legislative enact- ment. Perhaps the most significant of these enactments was in 1865, when the State Superintendent of Public Instruction and the county superintendent of schools were elected at the same time, and for terms of four years. Section 1 of the Session Laws of the Twenty-fourth General Assem- bly provided as follows: "Sec. 1. Be it enacted, . . . that at the election to be held on Tuesday after the first Monday of November, A.D. 1866, and quadrennially thereafter, there shall be elected by the legal voters of this state, a state superintendent of public instruction who shall hold his office for four years, and until his successor is duly elected and qualified." * Thus the State Superintendent was legally assigned a four-year term * Laws of Illinois, Eighteenth General Assembly, 1854, p. 13ff. * Public Laws of Illinois, 1863, p. 15. 'Public Laws of Illinois, 1865. In force Feb. 16, 1865. 40 of office, which practice has continued until the present time. It is to be noted that this law set the time of election between presidential elections, or in the "off year." Some people have professed to see wis- dom in this provision, since school officers should not be compelled to come up for election during presidential election year, when partisan feelings run high, and the presidential candidate tends to pull other candidates along with the ticket, or vice versa. Section 2 of the above-cited Act provides, as has been stated, for the election of county superintendents for four-year terms at the same time as the election of the State Superintendent. It is of interest that the Act also stipulated that the title "county superintendent of schools" should be substituted for county school commissioner.'' Some other items of interest pertaining to the State Superintendent's Office are listed briefly below: (1) In 1865 the State Superintendent was to receive an annual salary of $2,500, and money for all necessary contingent expenses. (2) In 1870 the new State Constitution of Illinois designated the State Superintendent as an elective officer of the State, regarded him as an executive officer comparable to all other state executive officers. (3) In 1871 by Joint Resolution of the General Assembly, the State Superintendent was authorized to have 20,000 copies of the School Law printed and distributed for the use of school officers. (4) In 1871 certification laws for teachers were amended so that each county superintendent was to transmit to the State Superintendent all teacher examination records. The State Superintendent was also authorized to grant perpetual teacher's certificates. (5) In 1879 the date of the transmission of the State Super- intendent's Report was changed to November 1, preceding the meeting of the General Assembly. This was to allow time to have the Report printed by the date the Assembly met. (6) The General Assembly also enacted that year a law making it mandatory for the chief officer of every organized uni- versity, college, seminary, academy, or literary institution, heretofore incorporated, or hereafter incorporated, to for- ward to the Office of Public Instruction, an annual report setting forth in detail the affairs of the institution. This was to enable the State Superintendent's Office to present an accurate and adequate statement of the educational re- sources of the State. (7) The duties of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion were greatly increased by the Act of 1889, as follows: ' Ibid. 41 (a) to be ex officio a member of the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois and of Southern Normal University ; (b) to be £'x officio a member of the Board of Education of Illinois, and to act as Secretary; (c) to report conditions and expenditures of the Normal University and such other information as might be directed by the Board of Education of Illinois, or the General Assembly; (d) to visit such charitable institutions as were educational in character, examine facilities for instruction, and prescribe forms for reports; (e) to authorize county superintendents to procure such assistants as were needed for county teachers' institutes; (f) to authorize the State Superintendent to call for re- ports from special charter districts. (8) The State Legislature, in 1891, provided the following for expenses of the Office of Public Instruction: (a) $3,100 per year for clerk hire, and $700 per year for janitor, porter, and messenger services; (b) $1,500 per annum for postage and State examinations; (c) $500 for refurnishing office and increasing the profes- sional library, this sum to be payable only upon sub- mission of a "bill of particulars." (These appropria- tions were to be paid out of the State school fund.) (9) The General Assembly, in 1893, authorized the State Super- intendent to issue two types of certificates: a life certificate, valid for the life-time of the holder; and a five-year cer- tificate. Both were granted only upon public examination and might be revoked by the State Superintendent upon proof of immoral or unprofessional conduct. Thus is concluded the legislative background for the period of this study, ending in 1906. It should be understood that the General Assem- bly gave some attention to the School Law at every session. But the brief statement in this section of the legislative background of the State Superintendent's Office is to enable the reader to have a better under- standing of the nature and duties of the Office. We now turn our attention to an account of the kind of men who held the office, and what their administrations contributed to education in Illinois. 42 CHAPTER VI NINIAN W. EDWARDS and WILLIAM H. POWELL Ninian W. Edwards 1854 - 1856 The reader will recall that the Act of 1854 created the Office of Public Instruction and made the Superintendent an elective officer; that a section of the act provided that the Governor should appoint a person to ser\e during the interim until an election could be held. Ninian W. Edwards was appointed by the Governor, and he served two years as the first Superintendent of Public Instruction. Super- intendent Edwards should not be confused with Governor Ninian Edwards, who was the Superintendent's father. Each was a dis- tinguished man in his own right. It would be well for the reader to leview the educational situation in Illinois before considering in some detail Mr. Edward's administra- tion. The free school idea had by no means been accepted by all of the people. Many of the schools, particularly in rural areas, were still ungraded. The public high school was an endeavor for the future. The county school commissioner was fundamentally a land officer, not an educator. Teachers were poorly qualified and poorly paid. The first normal school had not yet been established; although for some time there had been considerable agitation for one. Schools were still not accessible to many young people who desired an education. School sup- port from general taxation was opposed in many quarters. One school commissioner proposed to Mr. Edwards that the old "rate bill" scheme be revived. He received complaints that some districts paid extravagant salaries to the teachers; but these lost much of their force when Super- intendent Edwards' first Biennial Report showed that the average wage for male teachers was $45.33 per month, and for female teachers $27.10. This is a brief outline of the educational picture in the State in 1855. One gleans much interesting and valuable information about the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction from an examina- tion of the reports of this Office to the Governor. They contain much more than statistical information, interesting as that may be. The earlier reports, in particular, contain such interesting items as the Super- intendent's philosophy of education, moral convictions, and hopes for the future in education. The First Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, is a small, printed volume of only fifty-five pages. Twenty- two pages carry the Report proper, while the remaining pages quote from the School Law of Illinois. On pages three, four, and five appears a financial statement of the school fund, and on pages fifteen through twenty-two are miscellaneous statistics on such subjects as school popu- lation and average attendance. 43 Intensely interesting is the statement of the aims and ends of educa- tion, as Superintendent Edwards saw them. "First of all, a system of state education should be such as will develop, to the fullest extent, the physical, moral and intellectual resources of our youth, by establishing early in life, habits of industry, moral self- control, and intellectual application to the sciences, from the most simple and elementary to the most difficult and abstruse taught in the best schools of our land. The system which fails in any of these depart- ments is defective." * Certainly these general aims can be accepted by modem educators. Superintendent Edwards amplified these aims and ends, thus: "The order of the school should cooperate with the best domestic discipline in the establishment of early habits of industry, temperance, neatness, and regularity. . . . The two extremes should be avoided of merely educating the memory, while the other faculties remain dormant, and the notion of a wild and lawless originality of thought, which regards with contempt the established maxims of science, and despises the wisdom of the past. The mind should be trained to work, and at the same time to work by rule, and in accordance with the well estab- lished laws of Science. ..." * After this recital of personal views concerning the broad ends and aims of education, Superintendent Edwards stated emphatically that it is both the duty and interest of the State to provide for the educa- tion of its children. This principle which seems obvious to most citizens today, was far from being generally recognized a hundred years ago at the time of Superintendent Edwards' Report. Its recognition today is the result of a long hard struggle between educators and the people and their representatives in the Legislature. In his first Report the State Superintendent made a strong plea for the abolition of the pauper-school idea. He urged that the children of the wealthy and poor alike be brought into the public schools on the sam.e footing. Superintendent Edwards was even convinced that "the free schools, as a general thing, are better than even the most select private ones."^ Certain educational refonns were advocated in the first Report. Some of these, without detailed comment, were: 1. The simplification of tlie school law 2. Changes in the levying and distribution of taxes; instead of going to the State auditor, tax collections should go to the country directly 3. A more efficient system of school supervision 4. An increase in the compensation of county superintendents 5. The entrusting of the entire jurisdiction of the school sys- tem to a township board of education 6. More uniformity in the selection of textbooks * Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction to the Nineteenth General Assembly, 1855, p. 5. * Ibid. 'Ibid., p. 8. 44 7. The establishment of a state normal school 8. More emphasis upon the teaching of correct English 9. A recommendation that there be established a system whereby there would be a school commissioner for each congressional district This last recommendation deserves special comment, as it seems to have been ill-advised. In effect, the pr'ncipal school administrative agency of the State would have consisted, at that time, of the State Su'^erintenilent and nine assistants, a system for which Superintendent Edwards would have claimed economy and efficiency. These nine assistants would have taken the place, presumably, of the county school commissioners, of whose abilities and energies Superintendent Edwards took only a dim view, while he failed to envision the almost insurmountable difficulties engendered with nine men attempting to supervise schools scattered over an area of some 55,000 square miles. However, this recommendation came to naught. Mr. Edwards' term of office expired in January, 1857. His suc- cessor was William H. Powell. William H. Powell 1856 - 1858 William H. Powell had the distinction of being the first elected Stnte Su'oerintendent of Public Instruction. He is not to be confused with William B. Powell, who was a defeated candidate for State Super- intendent in 1874. William H. Powell was from LaSalle County; William B. Powell was from Kane County at the time of his nomina- tion, although he had lived in LaSalle County at one time. William H. Powell was well known in educational circles, having served as president of the State Teachers' Institute in 1854. The 1855 meeting of the State Teachers' Institute, held at Springfield, is of par- ticular interest at this point. This organization believed that the poli- ticians would listen to professional people in the choosing of candidates for the offi.ce of Superintendent of Public Instruction at the coming convention ; hence the teachers nominated four educators, namely, W. H. Powell, Ninian W. Edwards, Jonathan B. Turner, and Newton Bate- man. Mr. Turner emerged with the most votes of the four, but he and Mr. Edwards refused to have their names considered further. An attempt by the Institute to designate Mr. Powell as the first choice by acclamation failed, and the final results of the balloting showed that Mr. Bateman was first choice; and Mr. Powell was second. Whether the action of the teachers influenced the political convention held later is problematic. But it is known that the newly organized Republican Party in Illinois chose Mr. Powell as its candidate for State Super- intendent of Public Instruction, and that he was subsequently elected. He held office for two years. Superintendent Powell's Report, the Second Biennial Report, con- tained much of interest. In contrast to Superintendent Edwards' First 45 Biennial Report, it contained four hundred and twenty-thxee pages. It was also much more elaborate as to subject matter and contained a number of pictures. Immediately following the title page, there appeared a "Design for the Grounds of the State Normal School, Bloomington, Illinois." In the light of what has happened since, it is a rewarding and enlightening experience to study this "Design." The latter pages of the Report are filled with pictures, diagrams, plans, and specifications for modem schoolhouses and for school fur- niture and apparatus. The usual financial data were given in the report. Teachers were increasing in number, and there was a slow trend toward increases in salaries. Superintendent Powell complained that the reports from some of the counties "bear on their faces, the most undoubted evidence of the neglect and want of interest on the part of the local school officers."* The State Superintendent believed that, "The question of Text Books is the most vexatious and troublesome one with which the Superintendent of Schools in this country has to deal."' He believed that uniformity of texts was desirable, but that the only way it might be accomplished would be for the State Superintendent to be vested with power to select a series of books, to be used for a certain period of time, and then be given power to withhold public money from all such districts as did not adopt the uniform list. But the Legislature had repealed the law requiring the Superintendent to perform that function. It seems a bit strange to present-day school people that much importance was attached to uniform textbook lists. In the opinion of the writer, one of the interesting parts of the Report is at the very end. There is a section entitled, "Official Interpre- tations of the School Law." It might be termed the ancestor of the modern legal department in the Office of Public Instiiiction. The sec- tion contains a question-and-answer type of legal information for school officers. There are fifty-seven questions and answers.^ Anyone who has had administrative experience can sympathize deeply with Superintendent Powell's difficulties. He was besieged with requests from all parts of the State to come into the areas to assist in organizing schools. Inefficient and indifferent school officials attempted to put an ambiguous law into operation. There weie letters and com- munications by the hundreds to be answered, and all of this witliout any appropriation by the Legislature for clerical assistance. Mr. J. W. Cook is authority for the statement that Superintendent Powell em- ployed an assistant at his own expense, hoping that a subsequent legis- lature would reimburse him.^ The State Superintendent had only a two-year term to learn the duties of the Office and to perform all of them without any provision by the General Assembly for assistance. * Second Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Illinois, 1859, p. 10. 'Ibid., p. 17. 'Ibid., pp. 411-420. ' J. W. Cook, op. cit., p. 82. 46 CHAPTER VII NEWTON BATEMAN and JOHN P. BROOKS Newton Bateman's First Incumbency 1858 - 1862 It has been stated previously that Newton Bateman was the first choice of the State Teachers' Institute in 1855 for State Superintendent of Public Instruction. But, as has also been stated, William H. Powell received the nomination of the Republican Party and was elected. Mr. Bateman was elected in 1858 and reelected in 1860. Mr. Bateman was a resident of Morgan County. He had been principal of the \Vest Jacksonville District School and for four years had also acted as county school superintendent. In 1858 he received the nomination of the Republican Party for the Office of State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction and was elected. Superintendent Bateman was a man of tremendous energy, strong convictions, and oratorical ability often highly rhetorical to the point of floridity. He systematically and energetically brought the Office of Public Instruction before the people. He used the circular letter and the newspaper to instruct school officials in their duties. An examina- tion of Superintendent Bateman's Reports shows clearly his educational philosophy and ideals. Mr. Bateman's first Report, The Third Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, emphasized strongly (1) well- trained teachers; (2) admission age to school changed from five to six years; (3) improved primary instruction; (4) safe and sanitary school buildings. Space and time will permit some elaboration of only the latter two. That Mr. Bateman felt strongly about the importance of the pri- mary grades is evidenced in the quotations below. ■ "Where thousands have been lavished ufKJn the superstructure of the educational edifice, hundreds have been grudgingly bestowed upon the foundation." ' Mr. Bateman was an advocate of Pestalozzi's method of object teaching. After some description of the method and results to be attained, he concluded: "Children six years of age who have been taught by this process, often exhibit an acquaintance with the familiar objects of common life not possessed by i>ersons of maturer years and far greater pretensions of scholarship. "But the mere information gained, valuable as it is, is the least benefit accruing from this method of instruction. The attention of the child is arrested, his mind is interested, his mental faculties are quick- ened into vigorous yet normal activity . . . the impressions are vivid and enduring." ' ^ Third Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1860, p. 51. * Ibid., p. 54. 47 Out of a total of one hundred and thirty-two pages in Mr. Bate- man's Report, sixteen or seventeen are devoted to the subject of instruc- tion in the primary grades. It is significant that so much space was devoted to primary teaching and teachers at a time when the impor- tance of the primary department was not generally recognized. The common opinion was that anyone could teach in these grades because the sum total of knowledge necessary was small. Concerning the qualifications for primary teachers, Superintendent Bateman concluded: ". . . the best teachers are needed for primary schools. At no point in the whole course of study are the results of incompetent teaching so disastrous, as at the commencement. If utter inexperience or desperate mediocrity must sit at the teacher's desk, let it be anywhere, every- where, save in the primary schools; for anywhere and everywhere else will its ability to do irreparable mischief be less." ' The Report emphasized the importance of health and proper sani- tation. Mr. Bateman pointedly remarked to the Legislature that regu- lations concerning diseases of cattle had been passed by that body. "Are our children and teachers of less importance than our cattle?" he asked. Mr. Bateman noted in the Report the deplorable condition and poor locations of school buildings, overcrowding, poor means of ven- tilation, ill-fitting desks and chairs, and lack of toilet facilities. Four thousand, six hundred school houses were destitute of out-houses.* For the purpose of improving physical conditions, Mr. Bateman, a pioneer in the field of recognizing the importance of correct scientific prin- ciples of constructing and furnishing school houses, included a whole chapter on school architecture. He concluded by expressing the opinion that the jails of some counties were superior to many schools in health and comfort. As might be deduced from the above, the State Superintendent was an ardent advocate of teacher training, and a considerable portion of the Report was devoted to the further improvement and development of the State Normal University, which had been in operation for three years. When Superintendent Bateman made his second Report in 1862, the Fourth Biennial Report, the country was in the throes of the Civil War. He noted the effects of the war: the total number of school houses reported showed a decrease; the number of male teachers had declined; and salaries had been lowered. Doubting that there were in the State four hundred graded schools as had been reported to the State Office, Superintendent Bateman laid down a definition and state- ment of the proper qualities for a graded school. The General Assembly in 1861 had amended the teacher certificating law to give the State Superintendent the option of either assuming the whole responsibility for examinations or delegating the power to a committee appointed for that purpose. Choosing the latter option. Superintendent Bateman established a precedent that has been followed quite generally since. 'Ibid., p. 63. *Ibid., p. 84. 48 The General Assembly did appropriate $750 for a clerk's salary, although the total appropriation for the entire office was only $2,400. Of this, $1,500 was to pay the State Superintendent's salary. John P. Brooks 1862 - 1864 There was a political reaction in 1862, and Newton Bateman was defeated by John P. Brooks, a Democrat. It was only an interim admin- istration, for Mr. Bateman was to return to the Superintendency in 1864 and serve for ten more years. However, the administrations of Mr. Brooks should not be inter- preted as an inconsequential one. Although in office for two years only, Superintendent Brooks is to be remembered for his diligent efforts to strengthen and professionalize the office of county school commissioner. He recognized that one of the great shortcomings of education was the lack of supervision. He succeeded in calling two state conventions of county school commissioners, with attendance at the second gathering increased over that of the first. Superintendent Brooks made a strong plea for the establishment of a State industrial university. An interesting manifestation of war sentiment in the North was shown by a resolution of the State Teachers' Association, which met in Springfield in December, 1863. "That as the hands of traitors are still raised for the destruction of this, the best of governments, we feel it our duty to renew our expression of unswerving fidelity to our country, and pledge an unconditional support to every efficient means for the suppression of this unholy rebellion; that we will endeavor to instil into the minds of the rising generation a deeper love of freedom and of republican institutions, and a spirit of patriotism which will prompt them, if need be, cheerfully to lay down their lives in defense of their country." ' From this it can be seen that there was no need for a compulsory loyalty oath for teachers in 1863! Newton Bateman Returns 1864-1874 In 1864 Newton Bateman was returned to office, where he con- tinued to serve until 1874. The Sixth Biennial Report, submitted by Superintendent Bateman on December 15, 1863, reveals much of the sentiment of the writer. There is evidence of exultation at being back in the Office of Public Instruction, after an absence of one term. He reminisced about the ordeal of the war: "It was a dark and solemn hour. The heavens seemed brass and the earth iron, and the stronghearted grew pale, and true men went about the streets in agony. ..." * He then noted that a close alliance of learning and patriotism had "As quoted in John W. Cook, Educational History of Illinois, 1912, p. 124. * Sixth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1866, p. 2. 49 been demonstrated during the recent war; that there seemed to ha\T developed a strong positive correlation between mental discipline and military achievement; that teachers, professors, and students had en- listed and marched away to war; and that the "muskets had been returned to the arsenals, and the honored blue changed for citizens' clothes." But it is of greater moment for us to examine the recommenda- tions that the State Superintendent made for the improvement of the Office. In a previous Report, Superintendent Bateman had said: "If the department is to assume the commanding position which it should occupy as the responsible executive head of the whole system, organizing, directing, and controlling its myriad forces; if its lines of direct, efTective communication are to be extended so as to embrace the whole state; if its influence is to penetrate to the remotest township and district, and be felt in every school; if its ubiquitous hand is to gather from every quarter the materials with which to enrich the pages of its biennial reports; if it is to be the great educational bureau of the state, whose archives, records, and reports shall contain a comprehensive summary of facts and statistics from the whole educational field, which may be resorted to with confidence by all who seek for minute and reliable information in regard to the educational condition, resources, movements, and progress of Illinois; if this is to be the position and sphere of the department, (as it most certainly should be), then must it be manned and equipped with a force commensurate with the work it has to do." ' This is an excellent and succinct statement of the nature and functions of the State Superintendent's Office for any time. After this statement, Superintendent Bateman made some recommendations, which are listed below in abbreviated form.^ 1. An increase in the appropriation for the traveling expenses of the State Superintendent, which had always been in- adequate. The Superintendent must either pay his expenses out of his own pocket, accept charity from friends, or decline invitations to places and before groups where he, as State Superintendent, should be. 2. Permission to allow the State Superintendent to appoint a deputy, to act for the Superintendent during the latter's absence, and to perform such duties as x'isiting counties and assisting at teachers' institutes. The Superintendent becomes a sort of glorified clerk without adequate assistance, to say nothing of being confined to the Office. 3. Fewer duties for the clerk, authorized by the previous session of the Legislature 4. A report clerk, whose duty it would be to receive and exam- ine reports from the county superintendent, and to process them. This clerk would also serve as a statistician. 5. A fund to provide for the building of a professional library for the Superintendent ' Ibid., p. 50. ^Ibid., p. 5 iff. 50 6. An additional appropriation of $1,000 for ofHce furniture and repairs to be supplemented by an additional one of $500. As far as the office furniture was concerned, it con- sisted, in Mr. Bateman's own words, of "an old table or two, and a few weak kneed chairs, the cast-ofF refuse of other offices." ^ The year 1865 marks another significant "milestone" in the develop- ment of the chief school office of the State. The term of office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction was changed from two to four years. The salary of this officer was also increased from $1,500 to $2,500 per annum. The change in the length of the term of office of the State Super- intendent changed the time of the election to the "off year" in politics; that is, mid-way between presidential elections. Some persons have pro- fessed to see a design in the change of the time of the election for lessening the influence of politics in the Office; however, there seems to be little, if any, evidence of this. It is true that there may be a tendency for the State Superintendent to be elected on merit, when the glamour and excitement of presidential elections is absent, and when the State officers do not necessarily tend to "go along with the ticket" in a national election. But it is also true that sometimes there is a mid- term political reaction against a national administration, and a com- petent State Superintendent could be defeated in a political mid- tenn upheaval. This was illustrated in the election of 1862. Those who read the several biennial reports of the State Super- intendent will note that the State Board of Education, which was concerned with institutions of higher learning, notably normal schools, made a report also. This Board is not to be confused with state boards of education in other states having jurisdiction over all state schools. The Seventh Biennial Report contained some recommended changes in or amendments to the School Law. Many of them are "stock" recommendations, but a few deserve special mention. One of these pointed out the desirability of removing imjust and unworthy dis- tinctions of the law concerning color, with a statutory provision for the education of all. However, the recommendaation advocated local option as far as the details were concerned: each school district was to choose whether schools should be separate or one school for all. There were two recommendations for the benefit of teachers, both of which Superintendent Bateman wished to become mandatory. One permitted teachers to attend teachers' institutes without loss of time or pay, and the other expressed the hope that teachers might be paid monthly instead of semi-annually. Superintendent Bateman also recommended that supervisors, or the county court, be empowered to appoint an assistant or deputy to the county superintendent of schools. The State Superintendent's Report for 1869-1870 is significant for » Ibid., p. 64. 51 at least two reasons : ( 1 ) there is a first report on the functioning of the new "Illinois Industrial University"; (2) there is a special section of some thirty-five pages entitled, "The New Constitution As Affecting Our System of Public Schools." In general, only those parts pertaining to the State Superintendent of Public Instruction will be given atten- tion here. As every citizen of Illinois knows, the new State Constitution was adopted in 1870. With some amendments, it is still operative today. The general provision of the Constitution concerning education should be of so much interest that it is quoted verbatim, with some brief commentary added. Article VIII, Sec. 1. "The General Assembly shall provide a thorough and efficient system of free schools, whereby all the children of this State may receive a good common school education." Superintendent Bateman suggested that the key words in this con- stitutional provision are: "thorough and efficient" "free," "a good com- mon school education," and "all the children of this State." The writer agrees with these points of emphasis and would add another, "The General Assembly shall." The word "shall" makes it mandatory to pro- vide the kind of education described. Article V, Section 1, of the Illinois Constitution of 1870 makes the State Superintendent of Public Instruction an officer of the Executive Department of the State of Illinois; it fixes the length of his term as four years; and it decrees that the Superintendent shall be elected on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, in 1870, and shall assume his office, if qualified, on the second Monday in January after election. It will readily be seen that, for the first time, the chief school officer of the State became a constitutional officer, and hence, the danger of that position's being abolished by the General Assembly was eliminated. Article V, Section 20, provides that if the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction be vacated by death, resignation, or otherwise, the Governor shall fill the vacancy by appointment, the appointee holding office until his successor is elected and qualified by law. The Constitution of the United States or the constitution of a state is the supreme organic law of the jurisdiction. But it continues to be so only if the citizenry are alert and vigilant. The State Super- intendent of Public Instruction becomes, by this organic law, the prin- cipal school officer of the state. He must exercise educational leader- ship and statesmanship of a high order for the people. Too often his only reward for duties well performed is indifference, suspicion, or calumny. There is a general consensus that the Twenty-seventh General Assembly did more and better things for education than any of its predecessors. Whether true or not, Superintendent Bateman expresses his agreement in these words: "The Twenty-seventh General Assembly made more and greater changes in the school law than had been made by all preceding Legislatures since the free school system of the State was first established. I think it may also be said that no school bill, since the passage of the original act, has been prepared with more thoughtful care, or with a more sincere desire 52 to improve the school system than that which became a law, April 1, 1872, and went into effect July 1, 1872." " Superintendent Bateman recognized fourteen distinct modifications of the old law and sixteen entirely new provisions, among which was a provision concerning schools in Chicago. To be sure, there were some provisions to be regretted, but the errors were of judgment rather than intent. The noteworthy feature of the Act of 1872 was that the whole School Law was brought into one Act. The provisions alluded to do not properly concern this subject, since they were related to such per- sonnel as county school officers and boards. Did state superintendents in the last century ever receive complaints and criticisms? Certainly Superintendent Bateman did. and his Ninth Report dragged the whole matter into the open. These criticisms, levelled at the public schools more than eighty years ago, sound as if they might have been made yesterday. Because the criticisms and remedial actions offered by the State Superintendent are properly a part of the history of the Office of Public Instruction, both criticisms and suggestions for improvement are listed here. Superintendent Bate- man classifies the criticisms thus: (1) That the course of study in the common ungraded schools of the country needs revision, both as to the branches of study embraced therein, and as to the relative amount of time devoted to each one thereof (2) That many of these schools are not doing their elementary work well; that the pupils rarely become good and sure spellers, or easy and fluent readers, and are deficient in penmanship, and especially in a knowledge of the primary rules pertaining to punctuation, the use of capitals, and the common proprieties of letter writing and English composition (3) That the teaching is too bookish, narrow, and technical, being largely defective in method, dull in manner, and there- fore devoid of attractiveness, inspiration, and zest (4) That there is too much isolation in schools and school work , . . (5) And, finally, that the attention paid to the morals and man- ners of the pupils — to those many little matters of deport- ment and speech which contribute so much to the comfort and charm of home and society — is unsatisfactory^^ In rebuttal to the criticisms, Superintendent Bateman approached the subject by posing three questions, or "Inquiries": 1. What should the public schools accomplish? 2. What are they accomplishing? ^^ Ninth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1871-1872, p. 17. ''Ibid., p. 59f. 53 3. How may they accomplish more? In reply to his first question, Superintendent Bateman stated that pupils should become proficient in the orthography of all common English words; they should be able to spell them orally and divide them into syllables with facility; they should know and practice the principal rules of punctuation; and they should know how to date, begin, close, fold, and address a letter. The minimum essentials in reading should be to read at sight, with ease and with correctness of modulation, inflection, and expres- sion, simple English prose and poetry. Instruction should include how to hold a book, turn the pages, and adjust to the lighting. Proficiency in arithmetic should entail the reading and writing, with facility and accuracy, of both Arabic and Roman numerals. Pupils should know perfectly the multiplication tables and should understand the four fundamental arithmetical operations. Teachers should give attention to ordinary common and decimal fractions and to percentage and interest. In addition, the pupil should know how to keep simple accounts and to write receipts and promissory notes in a correct and legal manner. In his conversation and \vTiting, evers' pupil should be able to express his thoughts in good English. Teachers should inculcate in their pupils habits in the use of proper and correct English. Pupils should understand the size, shape, and movements of the earth, along with zones, latitude, and longitude. Lands, waters, moun- tain ranges, climates, and races of people should comprise the course in geography. Every pupil ought to know the basic facts and events in the history of his country. Physical and mental organization of the human bodv. with the laws of health, should receive adequate attention in the school course. The fine arts, notably drawing and music, should receive some attention in schools. Interestingly enough, the appreciation side of these was not emphasized so much as were the principles. A knowledge of perspective, practical ability in the use of the pencil, and drawings in flat outline were emphasized, as well as the understanding of the elementary principles of vocal music. Teachers should present enough natural history that the pupils might not "move as utter strangers" among the plants and animals of their communities. Deportment could not be taught so much as it could be inculcated by example and precept. Pupils should be gentle and refined in speech and manners; docile in spirit and modest in deportment; truthful, generous, and manly; obedient, respectful, and afTectionate toward their parents and teachers, and reverential toward God and whatsoever things are sacred and holy. Superintendent Bateman was much more brief and not nearly so specific in answer to his secxjnd "Inquiry" as he had been to his first. He pointed out that some e\idence existed as to the remarkably good 54 results of instruction even though he admitted that there was some evidence to the contrary. The State Superintendent then passed on to the third "Inquiry." In his treatment of this one, there is considerable rambling and ver- bosity. A brief paraphrase of the remedial measures suggested as lead- ing to improved results in instruction follows: 1. A large increase of well-qualified teachers 2. Increase in the number and quality of books and apparatus 3. Increased State responsibility in the form of financial aid 4. Improved supervision of instruction 5. Improved methods of instruction 6. Introduction of improved methods in the teaching of natu- ral science 7. Increased efficiency in the use of the time of the school day 8. An increase in the number of graded and high schools 9. Increased equality of educational opportunity 10. By intimation, at least, improved discharge of duties by school officers Superintendent Bateman submitted his last Report as Superintend- ent of Public Instruction on December 15, 1874. His successor had already been elected. In general, Superintendent Bateman believed that the school laws in force were working satisfactorily. He did regret, however, that there was such a great variation in the ways that county boards pro- vided for the county superintendents. A statistical exhibit showed that three counties, namely, Morgan, Hancock, and Will, paid these officers as much as $1,200 per year; while Monroe paid $100. The law pro- vided for four dollars a day compensation for the county super- intendent, but the diflferences noted were caused by variation in the number of days for which the counties compensated the county super- intendents.^^ Near the close of the Report was an essay, or set of specifications, concerning the qualities of the ideal teacher. It was entitled, "The Coming Teacher," and was written in such rhetorical English, as only Superintendent Bateman could use. One sentence is quoted verbatim here: "In the rapt visions which come to me — as they come to all — I sometimes seem to see the apocalyptic gates swing open, and, far down the aisles of the future, brightly revealed in the soft clear light, there stands the incarnate idea of the coming teacher," " The teacher qualities included in the Report are: (1) robust and strong health; (2) virtuous principles, pure life, and stainless name; (3) native intellectual gifts and endowments; (4) learning, discipline, and culture; (5) common sense; (6) imagination; (7) personal presence. Then the Superintendent concludes his last Report with words he had used fourteen years before: "In the name of the living God it must be proclaimed, that licentious- ** Tenth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1874, pp. 19, 20. ^ Ibid., p. 243. 55 ness shall be the liberty — violence and chicanery shall be the law — super- stition and craft shall be the religion — and self-destructive indulgence of all sensual passions, shall be the only happiness of that people who neglect the education of their children." " '*Ibid.,p. 257. 56 CHAPTER VIM SAMUEL M. ETTER and JAMES P. SLADE Samuel M. Etter 1874 - 1878 In 1874, the Republican State Convention nominated William B. Powell (superintendent of the city schools in Aurora), as the party can- didate for State Superintendent of Public Instruction. His opponent was Samuel M. Etter, a Bloomington teacher. In addition to being the Democratic nominee, Mr. Etter received the nomination of the Illinois State Independent Reform Party. This latter party reflected the influ- ence of the Granger Movement in Illinois. Mr. Etter was elected by a plurality of over 30,000 votes. Superintendent Etter was not such a colorful personality as his predecessor, nor was he inclined to indulge in rhetorical flights of oratory; but he seems to have been a man who worked diligently at his job. During the first two years of office, he visited nearly one half the counties of the State, attended teachers' institutes, met with school officers, and appeared before educational gatherings. His travels seemed to give him an optimistic opinion of school progress. While recognizing evils and shortcomings, he believed that most of them were fast dis- appearing. Superintendent Etter was mindful of the successful administration of his immediate predecessor and paid suitable tribute to it. He recalled that Mr. Bateman was elected to office five times. It may be said here that this is the greatest number of times that any State Super- intendent (with the exception of Francis G. Blair), has been elected by the people of Illinois. But the total number of years served by Super- intendent Bateman was not so many as were served by either Mr. Blair or Mr. Vernon L. Nickell, The difference is explained by the fact that the State Superintendent was not elected for a four-year term until 1866. Mr. Etter's first Report, the Eleventh Biennial Report, was a model of brevity and objectivity. The introductory portion of the Report ex- pressed Superintendent Etter's conception of his duty: "In preparing this report for the two years ending September 30, 1876, no attempt will be made to magnify results or to advance any special opinions that I may entertain, but simply, as the law requires, a fair, candid and impartial exhibit of the school work in our great state will be given." * J. W. Cook^ took a dim view of this Report, stating, "The contributions of the Superintendent are meager in amount and insignificant in merit." * Eleventh Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1876, p. 5. *J. W. Cook, op. cit..p. 141. 57 With this opinion the writer does not agree. Superintendent Etter's Report was not vohiminous nor interspersed with florid rhetoric, but a close study of it reveals many significant items. As will be shown presently, his second Report was quite different in nature. Although this study is in no way a statistical one, yet, in view of the Superintendent's announced objectivity, it would be well to glance at a few statistical aspects of the Eleventh Biennial Report. The school census of 1876 reported a total of 973,589 males and females between the ages of six and twenty-one. This represented an increase of 15,586 over 1875. TTie total number of pupils enrolled in the public schools, in 1876, was 687.446. These pupils were taught by 22,121 teachers. The total number of public graded, \mgraded, and high schools was 822, 11,083, and 110, respectively. The total number of private schools was 527; the number of pupils attending them was 49,375. This number of pupils was taught by 1,276 teachers. The Report reveals that there were 2,941 illiterate males and 2,567 illiterate females in 1876. But Superintendent Etter confessed that the figures were suspect, the number undoubtedlv being much larger. The whole number of school districts was 11,563, an increase of 103 over the preceding year. The average number of months that the schools w-ere conducted was 6.84 months. Subject to certain inaccuracies, recognized by the State Super- intendent, the total school receipts for the year ending September 30, 1876, were $9,948,769.74. Total expenditures for the same period were $8,268,539.58. It is interesting to note that of this latter figure, $4,945,193.56 went for teachers' salaries. In the special schools of the State, from which annual reports went to the State Superintendent of Public Instmction, in 1876 there were 336 children at the Illinois School for the Deaf and Dumb; in the Asylum for Feeble-Minded Children, 117 children at one time or an- other during the year. At the Illinois Institution for the Education of the Blind, there were 133 pupils enrolled; at the Soldiers' Orphans Home, 248 pupils; at the State Refonn School, 172 boys.' Superintendent Etter deserved great credit for his part in making an educational exhibit possible at the Centennial Exposition in Phila- delphia. A joint resolution of the General .\ssembly in January, 1874, gave cognizance to the importance of the Centennial Exposition by authorizing the Governor to apfx^int the State Board of Managers to explore the possibility of having Illinois irpresented. But, in parsimo- nious mood, the Legislatiue enjoined the Board from inciuring any expenses. Later, in 1875. an appropriation of $10,000 for expenses was voted by the Assembly, but the members of the Board were to serve gratis. Superintendent Etter requested the Board for a sum of $1,000 to defray at least a part of the expense of preparing an educa- tional exhibit to be displayed at the Exposition. The request was flatly refused. Some time later, he addressed a circular letter to some promi- * All of these statistics were taken from the Eleventh Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1876, pp. 7-14, 272-324. 58 nent friends of education^ asking them to attend a meeting in Chicago to explore ways and means of raising funds to prepare and place the proposed exhibit. The response was enthusiastic. Committees to raise funds and to prepare an outline of work were appointed. County Superintendents, teachers, and pupils were enlisted in an all-out effort to raise a sum of $10,000. Although this goal was not reached, a respectable sum of $4,625.14 was collected, of which $3,578.78 was spent. The balance of $1,078.36 was turned over to the State Teachers' Association.^ The quality of the Illinois Educational Exhibit at the Centennial Exposition was pronounced superior according to con- temporary accounts. If State Superintendent Etter was unwilling to project his own educational philosophy and plans into his first Report, he was not so reticent in the second one. Apparently he felt that the "fads and frills" had taken the place of good, substantial, and somewhat traditional school work. Note these words in the Twelfth Biennial Report: "The public has been dazzled, and has seen only the bright side, although there has been shadow and darkness and barrenness all about them. The people in many communities have become so satisfied through the false spectacle that has been presented to them, that they often see no room for any further improvement, or have become so apathetic that the school managers have been left to do much as they please, untrammelled by restraints, wholesome or otherwise, until the system has been so loaded down with the more useless paraphernalia of what is called school work, that the real foundation of a thorough and efficient scholarship is almost ignored. Children are often crajnmed full of 'ologies and 'osophies before they are able to read their own language fluently or intelligently. The common branches are in many schools almost entirely neglected, because the teacher prefers to teach those known as the higher branches, often for his own benefit rather than that of his pupils. These higher studies are well enough in their prop)er places, but they should never be per- mitted to displace the elementary branches in the common schools." * It is easy to understand that, \vithout adequate supervision, the situation discussed above could have pre\ailed in many school districts. The writer recalls that many rural teachers prided themselves upon being able to teach the "higher branches," and in many instances did so. In summarizing the work of his administration, contained in his final report. Superintendent Etter pointed out that he had visited every county in the State except three and that many of the counties had been visited several times. During the four years of his incumbency, he had attended 341 teachers' institutes, 45 teachers' meetings, and 22 meetings of school officers, in addition to visiting many schools in various parts of the State. He had made nearly 500 addresses on educational topics. He had attended to the duties of the Office personally. In spite of his detractors, Mr. Etter can be characterized as a diligent, hard-working, conscientious superintendent. He may have been on the conservative side in his educational philosophy, but he believed in thor- *Ibid., p. 404. For full details, see pp. 378-418. ' Twelfth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1878, p. 6. ^ 59 ough and competent instruction of children. He moved around the State noting educational conditions, and did little delegating of his duties. Samuel Etter was nominated again by his party in 1874. But the Reform Party, which had helped him four years before, had degenerated into a radical group of "greenbackers." The result was that he was defeated by the Republican nominee, James P. Slade, by a plurality of 30,000 votes. James P. Slade 1878 - 1882 Superintendent Slade was a professional schoolman, having held several responsible school positions. He had been elected county super- intendent of schools at Belleville. Probably he did not rank as an educa- tional leader of great stature, but he was a man of sterling integrity. There is some reason to believe that he may have been overshadowed by his chief assistant, Mr. William Pillsbury, although this may well be a matter of opinion. Mr. Pillsbury had attended Harvard and later held the principalship of Normal University High School. It is undoubtedly true that educational historians are indebted to him for lucid and detailed accounts of education during his period of ser\dce in the State Office. The General Assembly made several important changes in the School Law in 1879. Not all of these are pertinent to the discussion here, but one change of importance was that of the statistical year. Formerly the fiscal year ended on September 30; it was now fixed at June 30. This action necessitated a change in the time for school trustees and county superintendents to submit their reports. The state superintendent had not always been able to get his report printed in time for it to be of service to the legislators at their biennial sessions. Superintendent Slade made a persistent attack upon ungraded schools. He submitted some salient facts to show why the ungraded schools were inferior to graded ones. These reasons bear repeating. First, districts con- ducting ungraded schools were usually sparse in population and weak in financial resources. Second, districts were usually fragmented. People usually wanted a school close to their homes, and larger districts -which had been able to support a good school had been split into numerous smaller districts. Third, terms in ungraded schools were usually much shorter than in graded ones. Statistics showed an average teiTn for un- graded schools of 6.9 months, as compared with 8.4 months for graded ones. Fourth, ungraded schools usually had poor buildings. Fifth, teachers changed positions frequently in ungraded schools, generally preferring to teach in graded ones. In the Thirteenth Biennial Report, Superintendent Slade devoted considerable space to the high schools of the State. 1880 is often regarded as a significant date in the development of the American high school; at least that date is often used as a point of reference in statis- tical studies of the development of the high school. What can be said of high schools in Illinois, according to the Report? First of all, ^nce there was some confusion as to what actually 60 constituted a high school, Superintendent Slade requested that only those schools which had regular courses of high school study for a period of three or four years be counted as such. This request actually resulted in a statistical decrease in the number of high schools reported from a previous period. But the ones that did report may be said to have been more truly high schools than were the ones making earlier reports. An examination of the Report reveals that there were 33 schools managed by boards of education, under special charter; 47 schools under boards of education operating under section 80 of the general school law; 6 township high schools; 24 district high schools operating under boards of directors. The number of high school gradu- ates reported was 924. A large percentage of the schools had either 9 or 10 months of school.^ In the second place, the State Superintendent felt that a State Supreme Court Case upholding the legality of school boards using tax money for the support of high schools was so significant that he gave the High Courts opinion in full in his Report. As in the famous Kala- mazoo Case in Michigan, the Illinois Court affirmed the legal right of school boards to use tax money for the support of high schools in the State.2 By examining the Fourteenth Biennial Report, a reader gains the distinct impression that Superintendent Slade felt very strongly that textbook practices in Illinois left much to be desired. He devoted seventeen pages to the subject. After pointing out that the State law had been amended to permit school directors to supply books to indi- gent pupils, he emphasized that those sections of the law, making it mandatory for directors to prescribe textbooks, had been poorly enforced. Superintendent Slade favored free textbooks purchased by the dis- trict. He had conducted a somewhat exhaustive survey of practices in other states and of the opinion of school officials concerning the desira- bility of free textbooks. Many interesting comments cannot be given here. The Superintendent concluded his treatment of the subject by submitting seven reasons why he favored free textbooks: • "1. Uniformity in each district 2. Full supply to all pupils 3. Unauthorized and unnecessary changes prevented 4. No loss of time for want of necessary books 5. Better care and longer use of books 6. A great reduction in cost 7. An increase in school attendance"' But it was to be many years before the free textbook practice became at all common. However, it is interesting to see how strongly the State Superintendent of Public Instruction of nearly seventy-five years ago felt on the subject. ' Thirteenth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1880 pp. 92-93. For more detail see Thirteenth Biennial Report, pages 96 to 100, or case of Richards vs. Raymond, 92 Illinois, 612. 'Fourteenth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1882, p. XCVI. 61 The usual recommendation for an increase of office staff' was made by the Superintendent. 'Inhere appeared onv interesting statement which would cause a present-day superintendent to smile. Tiie Superintendent complained that the amount of office correspondence was growing by leaps and bounds. For the preceding four years, 13,000 pages of letters had been sent out, an average of more than ten a day for each working day of the term ! In the election of 1882, Mr. Slade sought renomination for a second term. But he failed to secure it. J. \V. Cook, previously referred to, said that Mr. Slade's failure to capture the nomination was due to the schemes of professional politicians such as Charles J. Strattan, of Jeffer- son County, who secured the endorsement of the Republican Convention, because his voice was one of those that counted heavily in the determi- nation of afTairs.* The Democrats nominated Henry Raab, a native-bom German, who had made a name for himself as head of the Belleville schools. The Greenbackers put a candidate into the field in the person of Frank Hall, while the Prohibition party nominated a woman, Elizabeth B. Brown. The campaign seems to ha\e been a "hot" one. The action of the Republican Convention was resented by many professional school people who believed that Mr. Slade should have been renominated. Further- more, they would have little of Mr. Strattan, whom they considered a pure politician. Enough of the school people supported Mr. Raab to help him win by a plurality of only 3,000 votes. *J. W. Cook, op. cit., 148-149. 62 CHAPTER IX HENRY RAAB and RICHARD EDWARDS Henry Raab 1882-1886 Henry Raab was described by contemporaries as a large man, physi- cally robust, with a great shock of reddish hair and a beard of tlie same hue. He was scrupulously honest and intensely popular among those who knew him. Superintendent Raab gave a non-partisan flavor to his administration by retaining Mr. Slade's chief assistant, William Pillsbury. Mr. Raab was quite effective in securing needed school legislation, as well as in exercising a powerful and positive educational leadership among the school people of the State. He served one term, refused the nomination for another immediately following his first, and then returned to the State superintendency after an absence of four years. A quick glance at Superintendent Raab's first Report shows some startling statistics.^ A census of boys and girls of school age in 1884 showed the number to be 1,069,274. In ten years this number had in- creased by 130,396. The report showed a decline in the total number of male teachers. Of the total number of teachers, 19,897, only 6,714 were men. In ten years, the number of high schools had increased from 116 to 164. The average length of the school term had increased in ten years from 6.8 months to 7.21 months. Nearly twice as many school superintendents spent their full time in supervision and administration as had ten years before: 38 as compared to 21. The total amount spent for schools in the State of Illinois, in 1884, was $9,648,359. Included in Superintendent Raab's Report is a "Brief History of Early Education in Illinois," by Samuel Willard, M.D., L.L.D., Late Professor of History, Chicago. The Superintendent believed this to be an impor- tant preservation of a source account of the early schools by a contem- porary. It is recommended for the lay reader who would enlarge his understanding of life in the early nineteenth century; although there is little about education that is not generally known. Although a man of firm con\ictions. Superintendent Raab did not give evidence of a strong crusading spirit in his earlier Report. At the conclusion he stated, "Many problems in education await their solution in the near future, I have thought it best not to animadvert to too many things, but to con- fine myself to a few present needs. Education is an organic process and as such subject to the laws of growth. Slow growth produces the healthiest beings. Let us deal with our difficulties as they present themselves, one at a time. We are making progress and rejoice over it." ' But the last sentence in the quotation above should not be construed * Fifteenth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1884, pp. 16-24. " Fifteenth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1884, p. CXLIV. 63 as in dicating that the Superintendent was smug or complacent. In the same Report he takes cognizance of the rather deplorable conditions existing in the rural district schools, particularly the dearth of regular and competent supervision. How he deplores the situation in those coun- ties where the school superintendent is prohibited from visiting the schools! One of the outstanding features of the Sixteenth Biennial Report is a somewhat detailed history of early education in Illinois. It was written by William Pillsbury, the competent assistant of both Mr. Slade and Superintendent Raab during the latter's first term. It is an honest and careful exposition of the subject. Superintendent Raab was quite active in his efforts to secure needed revisions of the School Law. One of his efforts, concerned with the im- provement of teaching through the means of improved teachers' insti- tutes, was rewarded by the General Assembly of 1883, which enacted a law providing that the county superintendent be directed to charge teachers a fee of one dollar for the issuance and renewal of certificates. The money which accrued was to be used for conducting an institute for a period of at least five days annually. Thus the cost of the institute was taken from the taxpayers and borne by the teachers themselves. Another suggestion for reform was not so successful. Superintendent Raab advocated a township organization of schools. The principal reasons submitted for the change were : ( 1 ) a reduction in the large number of school elections required; some 11,500 for school directors and about 2,000 for trustees; (2) a decrease in the animosities generated at school elections; (3) a reduction in the inequalities of taxation; (4) the obtain- ing of a better quality of school director. The recommendation was not new. Superintendent Raab reminded the General Assembly that the proposal had been made as far back as the administration of Superin- tendent Ninian W. Edwards. But the recommendation fell upon deaf ears. The whole matter of school reorganization was to be postponed for sixty years, culminating in the administration of Vernon L. Nickell. Superintendent Raab declined the nomination for reelection in 1886. The Democratic Party nominated Franklin T. Oldt from Carroll Coun- ty. The Republican Party nominated the well-known Richard Edwards, a former president of Normal University. He had also been connected for a time with Knox College as general agent. Mr. Edwards won by a sizable majority and was duly installed as State Superintendent of Public Instruction in 1887. Richard Edwards 1886 - 1890 Superintendent Edwards has been described as a man of much per- sonal charm, above average height, of spare physique, and of tremendous and tireless energy. Mentally he was quick and alert. This description was given by John W. Cook, who knew him intimately. In a forty-page section of the Seventeenth Biennial Report, entitled 64 "The School System of the State of Illinois," Superintendent Edwards set forth what he considered the salient problems at hand. The State Superintendent complained that his Office was placed at the head of the school system of the State, yet he had little power to con- trol the system. What was accomplished had to be by moral persuasion, the spread of intelligence, personal influence, or the presentation before school officers of the findings in places where good school systems pre- vailed. About the only real power of which the Superintendent could boast was that of requiring reports from the county superintemlents and other school officers. The Superintendent could also stop payment of the State school fund to any district not complying with the law. During the first two years of his incumbency, the Superintendent had made 179 educational addresses and visited 76 counties. However, the chief draw- back to this stupendous effort was the size of the State. Sixteen years had elapsed since any real revision of the School Law had been made. Additions had been made at random without any gen- uine design. Superintendent Edwards pointed out that the duties of his office could not be ascertained without a careful analysis of the whole mass of law, since some duties of the Office were prescribed in statutes that were not even a part of the School Law. He made fifteen recom- mendations to the General Assembly. They cannot be listed here, but one of them is of more than passing interest. School directors should be required by law to read and write the English language as one of the qualifications for holding office. The business of educating boys and girls was increasing in size and complexity, as the figure of 1,118,472 children of school age indicated. One problem of some magnitude, in the Superintendent's opinion, was the inefficient manner of enforcing school attendance. While not strongly adamant in his advocacy of a truant law, such as Massachusetts had, he did urge that something be done. This fact should be borne in mind be- cause it had an important consequence in the election of 1890. Thus far in this study, no reference has been made to compulsory attendance and truancy laws. Since Superintendent Edwards showed concern about lax law enforcement of school attendance, a brief summary of legislation concerning attendance may be in order here. In 1883 the General Assembly passed a law concerning compulsory school attendance. The law provided that every person having the con- trol or charge of children between the ages of 8 and 14 be compelled to send them to a private or public school for a period of not less than 12 weeks in any school year. In addition, the law permitted a member of the school board to excuse a child from attending, if the excuse were for a good cause. A "good excuse" was defined in the law as "bodily or mental condition which prevents attendance, or children taught in private school, or at home for time specified in the act, or that no public school had been taught within two miles by the nearest travelled road."* The law prescribed a fine of not less than $5.00 or more the $20.00 for each violation. It was the duty of school boards and boards of directors to prosecute violators. If these officials failed to do so, any taxpayer in the * Laws of Illinois, 1883, p. 167f. 65 district, by giving twenty days written notice served on the director, might force action. Justices of the peace were designated as having jur- isdiction, and money collected from fines became part of the school fund of the township. As can be seen, this law left much to be desired in effec- tiveness. In 1889 attendance laws were strengthened by legislative enactment. All children between the ages of 7 and 14 were compelled to attend school at least 16 weeks, at least 8 of which must be consecutive, and these were to commence with the beginning of the first term of the school year. Fines for violation ranged from $1.00 to $20.00. If the physi- cal or mental health of the child was used as a reason for non-attend- ance, this condition must be attested by a competent physician. School boards were empowered to appoint one or more truant officers, who might arrest children of school age found to haunt public places habit- ually, or to have no lawful occupation, or be guilty generally of truancy. The truants were to be placed in charge of teachers who would assign them to proper classes. Parents or guardians making false statements wil- fully were subject to a fine of not less than $3.00 or more than $20.00. Police courts, municipal courts, justice of the peace courts, and the judge of the county court were designated as having jurisdiction in cases of violation. This attendance enactment law of 1889 repealed the one of 1883.* Another attendance law was passed in 1893 by the General Assem- bly, similar to the then existing one except .that children between the ages of 7 and 14 must attend school for 16 weeks, 12 of which must be consecutive.^ The township high school was to be encouraged in every manner possible. It had been eflfective as an educational agency wherever it had been tried, and it was economical of the people's money. To summarize briefly the remaining points mentioned in the Report, suffice it to say that moral training, manual training, ornamentation of school grounds, and suggestions to young teachers all merited some attention. In his next Report, the State Superintendent made a strong recom- mendation that the State of Illinois present an educational exhibit at the Columbian Exposition. The Legislature was urged to make an appropriation. This would seem to have been a significant step in the direction of recognizing the value of public relations for schools. This Report also noted the new law requiring that schools teach the harm- ful effects of alcohol and narcotics upon the human system. In an excellent essay entitled, "What Must Schools Do for the State?," Superintendent Edwards set forth a mutual obligation of the State to schools, and of schools to the State. He held that the State's obligations were four in number: (1) proper buildings must be erected and fitted for the training of youth; (2) properly qualified teachers must man the schools; (3) a well-considered course of study should be prepared; (4) the State should see to it that the children — __ 11 — J \ / *Laws of Illinois, 1889, p. 237. "Laws of Illinois, 1893, p. 176. 66 avail themselves of the opportunities oflfered. But if these obligations of the State existed, what of the schools' obligations? Schools should: (1) develop the intelligence of the rising generation; (2) develop moral power; (3) teach patriotism.^ Reference was made previously to Superintendent Edwards' interest in the improvement and enforcement of the compulsory attendance laws. When the Legislature enacted the attendance law of 1889, pre- viously summarized, the State Superintendent was excoriated soundly by the friends of the parochial schools. The opponents of the law called it the "Edwards Law" and believed that it was aimed at religious schools. Edwards replied to these criticisms, pointing out that the law had helped to increase attendance in private schools as well as public ones. But all his efforts at appeasement were unavailing. As the election year of 1890 approached, the Republicans re- nominated the eminent Mr. Edwards. In the meantime, the Democratic Party nominated former Superintendent Henry Raab. Mr. Raab was peculiarly available, since he had been a former superintendent and had had a successful administration. In addition, he was a German, and it was already evident that the compulsory school law was to be a big issue in the campaign. Although Mr. Raab was neither a Lutheran, nor a pleader for parochial schools, he received heavy support from the parochial school people. The two factors mentioned, plus the Democratic trend of 1890, all added up to a plurality of more than 34,000 votes for Mr. Raab. So, like President Cleveland, Henry Raab served one term, was out for one term, and then served a second one. Henry Raab's Second Term 1890 - 1894 Upon assuming office. Superintendent Raab selected as his chief clerk, or first assistant, Mr. James Kirk, who had been both a city and county superintendent. Both of these men added a mass of valu- able material to the usual statistical information in the Superintendent's Biennial Report. There were many educational suggestions to teachers, school officers, and the public; although it is doubtful if the general public took the trouble to read the Report. It also contained much material of an inspirational character. Inasmuch as the election of Mr. Raab began a new decade, the last one of the nineteenth century, it should be of value to glance at some significant statistics.'^ In 1892, the total number of boys and girls of school age was 1,221,832, an increase of 210,981 since 1880. School enrollments had risen to 809,452, an increase of 105,411 pupils since 1880. Average daily attendance was better in 1892: 574,738 as com- pared with 431,638 in 1880. The number of high schools during the period of 1880-1892 increased from 110 to 233. Apparently the people of the State of Illinois were more generous 'Eighteenth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. pp. LXXIV-LXXXIII. ^Nineteenth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1892, pp. XVII-XXIX. 67 in 1892 than in 1880 in voting taxes for schools. The total receipts from state and local taxes for schools in 1880 were, in round num- bers, $6,250,000. In 1892, the total had risen, in round numbers, to $12,100,000. The reason round numbers are given is that the exact figures in the Report are obscured by a defect in printing. To show how insignificant the amounts realized from township funds were, they comprised only 4.7 per cent of school district expenditures." Concerning the examinations for the life certificates and the issuance of them, the State Superintendent remarked that very few people applied for the State examination for such a certificate, and even fewer passed the examination. In the two-year period covered by the Report, only ten people had applied for, and only one person passed the examination. The previous examinations had been revised by Super- intendent Raab after a conference with the principals of the State universities. It was his opinion that teachers should possess some general culture. Concerning the five-year certificates issued by the Superin- tendent, thirty-five people had applied for, and four people had re- ceived such certificates.^ Chief Clerk, James Kirk, read a paper, "Proper Care of School Funds," before a meeting of the County Superintendents' Association on December 30, 1891. It was so well received that the superintendents passed a resolution that this paper be printed in the Biennial Report. This was done. School men, in general, were criticized as being not well-versed in the importance and use of money. There was "much unwise use and prodigality of expenditures," with the result that the school system's effectiveness was impaired. An instance was cited of a fractional town- ship's, with a school enrollment of 65 pupils, paying its treasurer $1,000 per annum, with incidental expenses of $223.10. The schools in that township were the poorest and had the shortest terms of any in the county. Mr. Kirk cited figures from the Report of 1890 to show that losses in township funds for that year totalled $22,136.59. One poor town- ship in a small county reported a loss of $1,637.42, or more than 69 per cent of the entire township fund. Teachers were urged by Mr. Kirk to assist in the formation of an enlightened public opinion about school funds. Citizens of the district should insist that a copy of the township treasurer's report be posted annually at the school election. Then followed a detailed set of instructions to treasurers and county superintendents as to their, duties in the safeguarding and expenditures of funds. Mr. Kirk concluded his paper by saying, "The time for greater vigilance, prompter and more decisive action in financial matters by school officers, has fully come." ^° Superintendent Raab made reference to the proposed educational • Ibid. *Ibid.. p. XLVII. *• Ibid., p. LXX. 68 exhibits at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The General Assembly had passed an Act providing for: "(a) A model common school room of high grade, fully equipped and furnished, under the directien ©f the State Superintendent of Public Instruction "(W) An illustration of the methods and results of work as pursued in the State normal universities, the public, technical and art schools and the high schools ef the State "(c) An exhibit of the University of Illinois of the equipment, methods of instruction, and the achievements of that institution in its several departnents" " In a strongly written article, "The Annual Institute, Its Aim and Purposes," Superintendent Raab made a plea for the strengthening of that means of improving instruction. There was a terrific pressure from idealists, panacea-seekers, and equipment-makers upon the State Super- intendent, and he denounced them in no uncertain terms. Teachers are apt to succumb to plausible speakers who air their pet ideas. Because all teachers do not and cannot seek advanced training in the normal schools, the Superintendent believed that an annual institute was the best agency for helping teachers to become proficient. An institute would be conducted by instructors, licensed by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. The Superintendent expressed the hope that the General Assembly would make an appropriation for such an institute. In an optimistic mood, he called an institute for June, 1893, in the hope that the Legislature would act. But it did not, and the expenses of the institute were borne out of the Office contingent fund. Annual institutes were discontinued in 1894 for lack of funds. During the latter half of his second term, Superintendent Raab seemed to emphasize increasingly the work of the primary school and the better training of common school teachers. By virtue of his German birth, he had an Intimate knowledge of school systems in Europe, par- ticularly in Germany and Switzerland. He seemed amazed that school boards would hire untrained teachers in preference to trained ones. He felt that this might have been due to the fact that the nature and purpose of the normal school were Imperfectly understood. He pointed out that in the older countries of the world, none but normal school graduates could be lawfully employed in the schools of the state. Quite emphatically, he declared, "... I hold that the salvation of the common school of the country depends upon the training of teachers in normal schools established and maintained by the community." ** After a scholarly discussion of teaching and teachers, he concluded vehemently, "Is it not about time we looked those defects squarely in the fjice and acknowledge that progress of popular education is impossible as long as the State does not provide for the education of teachers in its own normal schools?" " " Ibid., p. LXXII. " Twentieth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1894, p. XGVII. " Ibid., p. CIV. 69 Perhaps it may be justly said that the great contribution of Super- intendent Raab was his emphasis upon the professionalization of teaching. In the election year of 1894, Mr. Raab sought and received the nomination of the Democratic Party. It was generally conceded that he richly deserved it. The Republican Party chose as its candidate Mr. Samuel M. Inglis, a professor at Southern Illinois Normal Uni- versity. Mr. Inglis had also been a city school superintendent in one of the southern Illinois towns. After a more than usually strenuous campaign, Inglis was elected by a large plurality of 123,000 votes. 70 CHAPTER X SAMUEL M. INGLIS, J. H. FREEMAN, and ALFRED BAYLISS 1894 - 1898 Superintendent Inglis chose as his Chief Clerk, John W. Henninger, who served only a short time. Mr. Henninger was succeeded by J. H. Freeman, who had served under Superintendent Edwards. Superintendent Inglis' health declined rapidly. He died suddenly on June 1, 1898, and the Governor appointed Mr. Freeman as Mr. Inglis' successor. Mr. Freeman, in a public circular, addressed June 23, 1898, announced the appointment of Mrs. S. M. Inglis as the first assistant. Mr. Freeman stated that he made this appointment pursuant to a request from the Governor and also in conformance with his own wishes. In the Twenty-first Biennial Report, the only one made by Super- intendent Inglis, a large number of illustrations appeared. They were views of the nonnal schools and certain high schools, such as the ones in Evanston, East Aurora, and other cities. One of the interesting innovations of this Report was the inclusion of a specimen set of examination questions for the State Diploma or Certificate. Various times were assigned for each subject, and the several questions were weighed as to importance of credit given. Some of the subjects were reading, arithmetic, school law, pedagogics, gram- mar, United States History, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, zoology, geology, English literature, anatomy and physiology, chemistry, French, German, Latin, and Greek. The candidates may have had a choice of the foreign languages; although no statement was made to that effect. Superintendent Inglis included in his Report an essay entitled "Relation of the Teacher to the Home." It is full of tender thoughts about the importance and sanctity of the American home. It emphasizes the importance of the child's home training and the teacher's sup- plementary duties in the training of the child. Mr. Inglis' untimely and sudden death has been noted. While not an educational leader of great prominence, he was a man greatly beloved by school people and by the children. According to contem- poraries, he seemed to be particularly effective in appeals to members of the General Assembly in behalf of the needs of education. Superintendent Freeman's Report continued the practice of using illustrations. As one might expect, there was in his Report a memorial sketch of the late Mr. Inglis. Also, there were sketches of the lives and services of six or eight prominent educators, both living and dead. One of the most revealing parts of the Report was that which showed the development of the high school. There were 284 high schools of all types. The terms varied in length from seven to ten months; 71 1,118 teachers taught a total of 32,813 students. But of the 284 high schools in session, only 56 had separate buildings.^ The election of 1898 seemed not to have been particularly exciting. Possibly it was overshadowed by the excitement of the Spanish-American War. Perry O. Stiver was the Democratic candidate, and Alfred Bayliss was the Republican one. Mr. Bayliss was elected by a plurality of approximately 40,000 votes. ALFRED BAYLISS 1898 - 1906 Superintendent Bayliss chose as his first assistant, Mr. J. H. Freeman, who had filled the unexpired term of Superintendent Inglis. Mr. Freeman held the office until July 1, 1902, when he resigned. Mr. J. E. Bangs was appointed his successor. A second assistant super- intendent was also appointed at this time in the person of Mr. J. C. Thompson. Mr. Thompson's particular duties were in the nature of preparing decisions of the Office pertinent to the relations of the Office of Public Instruction and the school officers of the State. The writer is of the opinion that Superintendent Bayliss' adminis- trations have not been given due credit for accomplishment. Secondary accounts, notably the one by Mr. J. W. Cook, tend to pass over the two terms in hurried fashion. Evidence will be submitted here, from the Biennial Reports of Superintendent Bayliss, to substantiate the writer's contention. The Twenty-third Biennial Report suggested some shortcomings of the school system and, equally important, offered suggestions as to what ought to be done about these shortcomings. For example, in the section of the Report dealing with the high school, Superintendent Bayliss suggested that this educational institution might well become the college for many youth. He does not use the term "the people's college," but that inference is clear. He referred to the complexity of modem life and the urgency of a well-educated citizenry to solve society's problems. The high school had become an indispensable institution. The inequality of educational opportunity for farm and city youth called forth the ire of the new Superintendent. "Those who live in the fields are as deserving of the best there is in education as those who dwell beside the asphalt," declared Superintendent Bayliss. Not only was rural youth entitled to as good a school, but also to as much school as his city cousin. Township high schools, good as they were, were usually located in centers of population. Distance was the factor militating against opportunity to attend high school. The solution advocated by the Superintendent became later the basis for the non-high school district. If a duly constituted graduate of the eighth grade resided in a district in which there was no high school, he should be entitled to attend the nearest accredited school * Twenty-second Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1898, pp. XIV-XV. 72 free of tuition. The high school thus attended should be empowered to collect, and the township treasurer authorized to pay, the tuition, charging the same to the district where the non-resident student lived. Or, better yet, suggested Superintendent Bayliss, an appropriation should be made whereby the tuition of non-resident pupils be paid by the State. It was added that such high schools as admitted non-resident pupils be regularly inspected and approved by a competent authc«ity. For this courageous and forthright statement, Superintendent Bayliss deserved much credit. Deplorable conditions prevailing in the rural schools were thrusting themselves upon the people's attention, and particularly upon the Department of Public Instruction. County superintendents had been reporting some startling information to the State Office. In rural areas school terms were short; facilities were inadequate, even depressing; classification was difficult; proper gradation was impossible; teachers were poorly paid; there were too many classes per day for adequate instruction. Competent teachers left rural school positions for city ones at the first opportunity. Enrollments were decreasing. "Consolidation" was in the air. But forty-five years were to elapse before reorganization of school districts was to become a reality. Legislation authorizing the payment of school funds for the trans- portation of pupils was recommended by the State Superintendent. But the voters should have the opportunity at a regular or special election to vote upon such a proposition. Examples of the experiences of Massachusetts and Ohio were cited as to the desirability of such reforms. School libraries were mentioned by Superintendent Bayliss in the Twenty-third Biennial Report. Ironically, even sarcastically, he cited Article V, Section 27, of the School Law, which empowered school directors to "appropriate, for the purchase of libraries (and apparatus) any school funds remaining after all necessary expenses are paid".* Superintendent Bayliss felt strongly about the importance of school libraries. After pointing out that pupils gave the school house its annual scrubbing and turned the money paid for this work into the book fund. Superintendent Bayliss stated that a school library is a necessity for a good school. He promised that the crusade would be continued until every school in Illinois had a satisfactory library. The State Superintendent then summarized the educational value of the library, a part of which summary is given here: "This country has committed itself to the proposition that every child shall be taught to read. To that much there is no alternative. But merely to teach him to read, is to stop far short. The power to read gives its possessor 'access to the universal mind of man.' . . . The school is as much beund to teach even young pupils to discriminate as it is to teach them to spell out the words. More. That is why a collection of the right kind of good books for this purpose is part of the working outfit of a school." * The format of the Twenty-fourth Biennial Report was improved ' Twenty-third Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1900, p. 53. ^Ibid.. p. 54. 73 over that of the earlier Reports. Part I is a general, rather than a detailed, summary of salient statistics; the details are contained in another section. The Report is divided into parts, and sub-divided into documents, which format adds much to its usability. A quick glance at the statistical section of the Report reveals some interesting facts about the growth of the public school enterprise, just after the turn of the twentieth centui-y. The total number of persons between the ages of six and twenty-one was 1,601,175. Of this number, 971,841 were enrolled in graded and ungraded schools. There were 11,734 districts. The total amount of district receipts was $28,069,066.58; the exp>enditures totalled $19,899,624.54. It is significant that the amount of the bonded school debt was $5,520,635.26. All of these figures were for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1902.* Superintendent Bodine of the Chicago city school system wrote to the State Superintendent of Public Instruction concerning that city's efforts to enforce attendance. It is an interesting, although probably not unique, account of the thoroughness of the truant officer. Said Mr. Bodine: "We have a system of raiding districts whenever it is necessary. I call the truant officers out of a number of districts, form them in squads of four, and arrest all children between the ages of 7 and 14 upon the streets during school hours, if a justifiable excuse is not given, and place them back in school." * This practice is interesting because of the harsh method used, as well as attaching the stigma of arrest to pupils who did not attend school. It is indicative of the neglect to examine the cause of non- attendance. It is indeed a far cry from the more enlightened agency of the visiting teacher and the guidance methods of modem education. Some information about manual training and domestic science is contained in the Report. The Superintendent of the Champaign schools, Mr. Joseph Carter, reported in some detail the work done in that city. It is of interest to read that $55 was raised by public subscription to start the domestic science course. Perhaps one index of the progress of public schools is the increase in the number of legal inquiries by school officers. The law required the Superintendent of Public Instruction to act as the legal adviser of these officers, and, when requested by them, to deliver an opinion in writing upon any question arising under the laws of the State. Both the Twenty-fifth and Twenty-sixth Biennial Reports devoted an in- creased amount of space to these opinions. Some of the more impor- tant opinions are reproduced verbatim in the Reports. A careful reading of these opinions indicates to some extent the nature of the "growing pains" of education in Illinois. Reference has been made previously to Superintendent Bayliss' great * Twenty-fourth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public In- struction, 1902, pp. 271-274. ^Ibid., pp. 19-20. 74 interest in the reorganization, or consolidation, of school districts. Perhaps it is not too much to say that his great contribution to the Office was the thoughtful and persistent effort he made to start such a program on its way. That he was not successful in no way detracts from his conscientious efforts. In all four of his Biennial Reports, Superintendent Bayliss referred to the problem. He was practical enough to recognize that one of the chief deterrents to reorganization was the problem of transporting pupils over greater distances. He recommended in each of his Reports that school boards be permitted to spend school money for transporta- tion purposes. The House of Representatives in both the Forty-second and Forty- third General Assemblies passed bills for this purpose, but the Senate did not concur. The Senate of the Forty-fourth General Assembly almost unanimously passed a similar bill, but this time the House would not concur. In his final Report, Superintendent Bayliss submitted the fol- lowing reasons in favor of consolidation: "It diminishes the cost per capita of instruction of the same grade of excellence. "At a cost within the means of a group of four or five average districts, it materially increases the efficiency of the school and the regularity of attendance. "It conserves the health of the children. . . . "It secures better teachers by improving the conditions under which they do their work. . . . "It is the one condition under which instruction in the application of the natural sciences to the practice of agriculture is possible just where it is first and most needed. "It increases the value of the county supervision, because it reduces the number of centers with which the county superintendent must keep in touch." • In addition to his recommendations concerning the consolidation of school districts, State Superintendent Bayliss made these recommenda- tions in his final Report: (1) appointment of a commission by the Governor to study, revise, and codify the School Law; (2) more adequate provisions than then existed for high school instruction; (3) restoration of the old two-mill school tax; (4) appointment by the Governor of a non-partisan state board of education. The State Superintendent might be its executive officer. Concerning the fourth recommendation above, there is much dif- ference of opinion even today. Many people who subscribe to the idea of a state board of education believe that the members should be elec- tive rather than appointive, if political influence is to be removed. The people who subscribe to this school of thought believe that the control of the schools should remain in the hands of the people. It is doubted if a principal state school officer would remain a true servant of the people, if he could not be reached through popular control. These people also point to the fact that thousands of public-spirited men and • Twenty-sixth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1906, pp. 26-27. 75 women have served as school board members with credit to themselves and the cause of public education. The opposite school of thought holds to the principle that the State Superintendent of Public Instruction should be an appointive officer rather than an elective one. Perhaps it is just as well that this recommendation of Superin- tendent Bayliss did not come to pass until all the evidence was in concerning the relative merits of each point of view. In summary, it would seem that the eight years of Superintendent Bayliss' administration were progressive and forward-looking. Some of his recommendations, notably that of school reorganization, would seem to indicate that he was well ahead of his time. In 1906 the Republican Party nominated Mr. Francis G. Blair as its candidate for Superintendent of Public Instruction. At the time he was nominated, Mr. Blair was Supervisor of Practice Teaching at Eastern Illinois State Normal School. Mr. Blair's Democratic opponent was Miss Caroline Grote, County Superintendent of Schools in Pike County. Miss Grote was widely known in educational circles. The Chicago Daily News commented favorably upon the qualifica- tions of each candidate but did not endorse either. When the election ballots were counted, Mr. Blair was elected by a plurality slightly more than 52,000 votes. 76 PART III THE SECOND FIFTY YEARS OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 77 CHAPTER XI FRANCIS G. BLAIR First Term, 1906-1910 Perhaps the election of Francis G. Blair marks the end of one epoch in the history of the Office of the State Superintendent and the begin- ning of another. At any rate, these reasons are submitted as evidence for the thesis. First, the salary of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction was increased from $3,500 to $7,500 per annum, effective at the end of Superintendent Blair's first term. Generally a respectable salary tends to dignify the position. Second, the era of the crusading superintendent was passing. This is not to say that Superintendent Blair, and succeeding superintendents, were not advocates of educational progress, for they were. This "new school" of superintendents were not crusaders in the sense that Mr. Bateman, Mr. Raab, and Mr. Bayliss were. In all probability, the need for ardent crusading had diminished. Third, Superintendent Blair ushered in a more professional type of administration than had prevailed before, marked by a division of labor, and headed by specialists who gave most or all of their time to certain assia[ned tasks. Fourth, the new Superintendent brought to the people of the State a new acquaintanceship and consciousness of the Office of Public In- struction. Superintendent Blair made many personal appearances in all parts of the State. It was said that he needed "seven-league" boots. Then, too, he created the Department of Publicity. Fifth, the Department gave great impetus to the growth and in- crease in the number of high schools. ■ Sixth, the Superintendent gave increased attention to the work of the country school and to improved physical plants, equipment, and sanitation. Seventh, Superintendent Blair held the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction longer than any other man — a total of seven terms, or twenty-eight years. This fact may be indicative of a decrease in the turnover in state superintendents, though it is too soon to determine this with any degree of finality. Reference was made previously to Mr. Blair's inculcation of a more professional administration in the State Superintendent's Office. Mr. U. J. Hoffman was made Assistant Superintendent in charge of Country Schools. Mr. J. C. Thompson was reappointed as Assistant Superintendent in charge of the Legal Department. Equally important was the creation of the Department of Publicity, headed by Mr. H. T. Swift, with the rank of Assistant Superintendent. Superintendent Blair apparently assumed his new office with bound- less energy. In order to secure a proper orientation for his new duties. 79 he sent out a questionnaire to all county superintendents. The replies received from 87 counties furnish an interesting source account of education in Illinois in the early twentieth century. In sumnaarizing the facts revealed by the questionnaire, Super- intendent Blair said in part: "More than o»e-half of the sup>erintendents say there is now a short- age of teachers, another majority says there Ls an increasing difficulty in securing a sufficient number of qualified persons to fitl all the posi- tions. . . . "About eighty per cent of those reporting say there is nuch improvement of the interior of school houses in heating, ventilation, lighting, and the furnishing of more comfortable desks and chairs." * Superintendent Blair stated in his Report that he had visited 92 counties, attended 19 conferences of county superintendents and other school officers, 75 conventions of teachers' associations, several county institutes, and 17 farmers' institutes; altogether he had delivered 530 talks and lectures. He pointed out that office business had in- creased tremendously in volume and urged the necessity of a second stenographer for the office. For example, between March 30, 1907, and November 1, 1908, 13,785 letters had been sent out from the office, to say nothing of more than 45,000 other miscellaneous packages of mail. One of the interesting innovations of the new Superintendent of Public Instruction was the creation and circulation of the Educational Press Bulletin. This was published monthly and was sent to school officers, teachers, school patrons, and newspapers. The Bulletin con- tained facts, figures, plans, legal opinions, and various kinds of school information for the public. While the Biennial Reports had aimed to do this, Mr. Blair doubted if the Reports had been given wide circu- lation or were readily accessible to the public. The Educational Press Bulletin proved quite helpful to school officers, and it was well re- ceived by school and lay groups. In addition, it was an excellent medium of public relations for the State Superintendent and his Office. Another medium by which the State Office of Public Instruction made its influence felt over the State was circular letters. Between December, 1906, and June, 1908, 28 of these were sent to teachers, county superintendents, school officers, and Mothers' Clubs. Number 28 consisted of some thirty pages and pertained largely to the construction and furnishing of school houses. This circular was profusely illustrated with floor plans and photographs of good and poor schools and of pupils at work. Many of the specifications concerning construction were the result of cooperation with the State Architect. Concerning consolidation of school districts, Superintendent Blair was not so militant as his predecessor. To be sure, he felt that some consolidation of districts with small enrollments was justifiable, but he doubted that "any movement that has for its object the discontinuance of all the rural schools in Illinois can ever hope to succeed."^ ^Twenty-seventh Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public In- struction, 1908, pp. 10-11. ' Ibid., p. 89. 80 One of the genuinely significant pieces of legislation passed during Superintendent Blair's first term was the creation of the Educational Commission in 1907, though this was due largely to the recommenda- tion of State Superintendent Bayliss in his last Biennial Report. The State Teachers' Association, as well as the Governor in his message of January, 1907, had also made such a recommendation. The newly created Commission was to consist of seven members: six were to be appointed by the Governor, and the seventh, the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, was to be ex officio chairman. An appropriation of $10,000 was made for the expenses of the Com- mission, although the members were to serve without compensation. A report was to be submitted to the Forty-sixth General Assembly. The personnel of the Commission consisted of: Francis G. Blair, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion and ex officio chairman Edmund James, President of the University of Illinois R. E. Hieronymus, President of Eureka College Alfred Bayliss, President of Western Illinois State Normal School Edwin G. Cooley, Superintendent of Chicago Public Schools A. J. Nightingale, County Superintendent of Cook County Harry Taylor, Principal of Harrisburg Township High School In December, at a meeting of the Commission in Springfield, Ira W. Howerth of the University of Chicago, was appointed Secretary at an annual salary of $4,000. The Office of Public Instruction exercised strong leadership in the work of the Commission. In the Twenty-seventh Biennial Report, Super- intendent Blair had characterized the general School Law as archaic and urged ". . . the relief of the congested conditions of the school laws in the form of a comprehensive revision by a compxetent commission, authorized by the legislature, appointed by the Governor, and empowered and in- structed to simplify the present general provisions by rearranging them so that all dead matter shall be cut out, all ambiguous language be made clear, and, as far as f>ossible, all provisions relating to the same subject be brought together; also, that the same commission be authorized to p>oint out to the legislature such useful provisions in the special laws now in force as might well be incorporated in the general school laws, thus operating as an inducement to the holders of special privileges voluntarily to surrender them." ' As noted previously. Superintendent Blair was named chairman of the Commission by the statute creating said Commission. A head- quarters was set up in the main room of the State Superintendent's office in Springfield. Altogether thirteen meetings were held by the Commission, each ' Twenty-seventh Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public In- struction, 1908, p. 29. 81 meeting lasting from one to four days. The Gommi<^?ion decided to proceed in an objective manner by first studying systems and prac- tices of schools in other states. Results of the study were published in a series of nine bulletins. The titles of these bulletins appear in the final report of the Educational Commission, which was printed in full in the Twenty-eighth Biennial Report.* Bulletin Number One contained a plan for the creation of a state board of education. Bulletin Number Two summarized the results of a study made of county boards of education in the twenty-nine states having some form of county education board. Bulletin Number Three considered a tentative plan for the certifica- tion of teachers. Bulletin Number Four considered the various forms of school organi- zation with reasons for and against the adoption of the township form. Bulletin Number Five summarized a study of teachers institutes throughout the United States and offered suggestions for the improve- ment and increased effectiveness of institutes in Illinois. Bulletin Number Six was the revised and codified School Law, with an introductory statement of the methods and procedures of revision. Bulletin Number Seven reported the results of a survey of teachers' salaries in Illinois and various states of the Union, and contained an exposition of advantages and objections to minimum salary legislation. Bulletin Number Eight recommended some proposed bills to provide for a state board of education, and the certification of teachers, and to enable any district, not containing an incorporated village or city, to vest control of schools in a single board of directors. Bulletin Number Nine comprised the preliminary report of the Commission to the General Assembly, which had been provided for in the law creating the Commission. Evidence indicates that the most significant outcome of the work of the Commission was the codification of the School Law. The General Assembly approved it June 12, 1909. The one other recommendation of the Commission adopted by the 46th General Assembly was the act increasing the salaries of county superintendents of schools. As one studies the Twenty-eighth Biennial Report of the Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, he is impressed with the voluminous amount of paper work done by the State Superintendent or by his staff members. For example, the large number of letters written by the State Superintendent to parents, pupils, teachers. Mothers' Clubs, county superintendents, janitors, and school boards is especially interest- ing. These letters were disseminated by means of the Educational Press Bulletin, which went out once a month. Superintendent Blair deemed these letters of sufficient importance to include them in his Biennial * The reader can fill in the details for himself in the Twenty-eighth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction^ 1910, p. 256f. 82 Report in 1910. A few extracts are included here to give some insight into his thinking. For example, in October, 1907, in addressing the parents and pupils of Illinois, he wrote in part: "If an inhabitant of Mars, gifted with superior vision, could have looked down upon the State of Illinois in the early September days, he would have beheld a scene of unusual interest — a million children on their way to school. Up from the farm, along the winding country roads, up from the villages and towns, out from the great cities, comes this multitudinous army of children. Where is the Pied Piper with his magic flute who charms this host of children from their homes? Listen! Ten thousand bells ring and the pace quickens. That is the magic flute and the piper, the thirty thousand teachers of the State of Illinois." * Then, in a less rhetorical but more practical vein. Superintendent Blair expressed the hope ". , . that the twenty-six millions of dollars spent each year on the com- mon schools shall not be wasted; that the thirty thousand teachers shall not toil in vain; that the million of children shall not come back empty handed." * In January, 1908, the State Superintendent addressed the school directors of Illinois in a letter which said, in part: "The p>osition of school director is worthy of the time and attention of the best man or woman in the district. It is no place for the man with an ax to grind. It certainly is not the place to gratify personal greed nor to further selfish ends. It is both a public service and a public trust and one must render the service if he would enjoy the trust." ' In a highly rhetorical and dramatic manner. Superintendent Blair addressed the "Builders and Janitors of Our School Houses," under date of April, 1908. "Listen! Do you hear that? It's the fire alarm. Look! Can you see the smoke and flames? It's the school house that you built, Mr. Contractor, and those are the doors which you left locked, Mr. Janitor. Don't run away, gentlemen. Stand by and see the terrible burnt offering made to your stupidity and criminal negligence. Don't shrink back. Press close to these stricken frenzied mothers and fathers. Listen! Do you hear those 5creams, Mr. Builder? Can you see those children struggling, fighting, gasping, dying on the crowded, crumbling stairways which you built and declared safe? Look, Mr. Janitor. Can you see that heap of writhing, strangling children, piled high against the doors which you bolted with your own hands?" * It may well be that this ghastly presentation of a principle of safety for schools was extremely effective to people of the early post- Victorian period. Superintendent Blair's second Report, the Twenty-eighth Biennial Report, was much longer than its predecessors, containing nearly 1,000 pages. It is well indexed and contains a wide variety of information. It brings to a close the story of his first term. Doubtless the length of this report is indicative of the increased work of the State Super- intendent's Office. It may also reflect the energetic conduct of the Office. • Ibid., p. 27. • Ibid. ' Ibid., p. 230. 'Ibid., p. 233. 83 In concluding the account of Superintendent Blair's first term, it may be appropriate to make a few brief statistical observations about the year 1910, the close of the first decade of the twentieth century. The total school population, ages 6 to 21, had declined since 1900 by more than 40,000. But the total number enrolled had increased by nearly the same figure. Contrary to popular assumption, there were 15,243 more boys than girls enrolled. Illinois schools had cost nearly twice as much in 1910 as they had ten years earlier: $35,259,197.47 as compared to $18,167,219.32.^ Superintendent Blair received the nomination of his party in 1910. His principal opponent was Conrad M. Bardwell, Democrat. It is of interest to historians that the Progressive Party put a candidate into the field in the person of E. G. Burritt. Mr. Blair was re-elected by a plurality of 59,462 votes.^" ' Twenty-eighth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1910. pp. 13-17. '^Election Returns, 1882-1918, State Officers, Secretary of State, p. 120. 8} CHAPTER XII FRANCIS G. BLAIR Second Term, 1910- 1914 Superintendent Blair began his second of seven terms with con- siderable reason to be proud of the accomplishments of his first term. He had been energetic in bringing school problems to the attention of the general public. He had provided some semblance of modem admin- istrative practice in the Office by means of a division of labor and the delegation of responsibility. Some of the recommendations of the Educational Commission had been adopted by the Illinois Gkineral .^ssembly. The unfinished business of the Commission was to be con- tinued under the chairmanship of Superintendent Blair. Additional recommendations were submitted to the Forty-seventh General Assem- bly. These will be treated briefly in another part of this chapter. During the Superintendent's second term, the administrative person- nel of the Office was increased. Mr. A. L. Whittenberg and Mr. W. Y. Ludwig were appointed to positions in the Department of Statistics. In 1912, Mr. W. S. Booth was added to the Department of Country and Village Schools. These appointments evidenced the growing importance of the Office of Public Instruction and the neces- sity for an increasingly specialized division of labor. Superintendent Blair had been aware of faulty Statistical informa- tion for some time. An increasingly large number of requests for exact data had been received in his Office from taxpayers, school patrons, and legislators. The National Commissioner of Education had experi- enced great difficulty in compiling statistics on public education through the nation. The forms in one state did not correspond to the forms in other states. This situation was deemed of such importance that the National Education Association appointed a committee to recommend a more uniform system of city, county, and state reports than officers had followed. This committee met in St. Louis, Missouri, in February, 1912, and recommended blank report forms. The committee recom- mendation was approved by a conference of the superintendents of public instruction. Mr. W. Y. Ludwig, an ex-county superintendent of Vermilion County, was assigned the task of getting out the new forms and blanks. The State Superintendent noted in the Twenty-ninth Biennial Report that 40 tabulated statements and 475 separate facts concerning the schools of Illinois were requested in these blanks. A glaring example of the shortcomings of previous financial reports is shown in the Twenty-ninth Biennial Report. If directors borrowed money from a bank before tax money came in, they charged them- selves with the borrowed money and credited themselves with the expenditure of it. During the same school fiscal year taxes would come in. The directors would charge themselves with the receipt of the taxes and take the money to repay the loan from the bank. They placed both of these transactions in the annual report in order to 85 keep the books clear. In cases of this kind, it is obvious that expend- itures for school purposes were twice as large as they should have been. Anyone who has had experience in the gathering and tabulating of statistical data will readily recognize the importance of Superintendent Blair's reforms. In addition to the improvement in statistical procedure noted above, Superintendent Blair became absorbed in three other programs of improvement. These were: ( 1 ) A concentrated effort to improve the physical conditions and instruction in rural schools (2) Increased attention to the excellence of the high schools of the State (3) The institution of a curriculum of vocational education in the high schools of the State Each of these will be treated in turn in this chapter. It has already been mentioned that two men, Mr. A. J. Hoffman and Mr. W. S. Booth, were given the responsibility of improving coun- try and village schools, this responsibility to occupy their entire time. These men carried the rank of Assistant Superintendent of Public In- struction. In the Twenty-ninth Biennial Report, Superintendent Blair reminded the public that his duties included the improvement of instruction of all of the schools of the State. He stated specifically that: "No part of these large duties is more imi>erative than that which re- lates to the country and village schools." ' He pointed out that the State Office would work through the county superintendents. Three diplomas were offered by the State Department to schools which met the criteria for a standard and a superior country school and for a standard village school. As of the date of the Super- intendents' report, 657 country schools out of a total of 10,632 one- room schools in the state had received diplomas.* Details of the plan were set forth in a circular, urging that county superintendents use it in teachers' meetings and that each teacher in country and village schools secure a copy and consult it frequently. Sixty thousand copies were printed and distributed. The implementation of the plan was simple. Upon invitation of the county superintendent of schools, the supervisors of country and village schools would visit the county and spend two or three days inspecting the schools. Directors of the schools were invited to be present. If requirements were met, a metal plate bearing the words "Standard School" or "Superior School" was placed above the door. The plate was subject to recall if the school failed to maintain the proper standards. The writer, who was a county superintendent of schools from 1934 to 1946, recalls seeing many of these plates when beginning his round of supervisory visits. Subsequently, the criteria were increased in scope and number to qualify one-room schools for "Recognized" and "Superior" ratings. ' Twenty-ninth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1912, p. 199. ' Ibid. 86 In evaluating the plan, the State Superintendent was convinced that the resuhs were encouraging. One of the most happy results was the holding of school meetings by the county superintendent. In many cases, the State Superintendent was present. School improvement be- came a topic of discussion not only at school meetings but at farmers' institutes and graduating exercises. Many school districts desired to exceed the minimum essentials for a "Standard School" and sought to qualify for a "Superior" rating. In general, the criteria for a "Standard School," described in detail in the Twenty-ninth Biennial Report,^ were divided into five categories: the yard and outbuildings, the school house, furnishings %nd supplies, the organization, and the teacher. The Twenty-ninth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public In<:truction contains pictures of eighteen new high schools in the State of Illinois. The Report points out that during the period from June 30, 1887, to June 30, 1912, the number of township high schools had increased from 5 to 68. The enrollment of this class of high schools increased in the same period from 823 to 12,385. Within the same period, the total number of high schools, township and other- wise, with a three or four year curriculum increased from 179 to 531, with an increase in enrollment from 14,517 to 69,512.* Superintendent Blair, however, viewed these statistics with some mis- givings. While recognizing that the township high school law made possible the extension of high school opportunities to places where no high school could have been possible otherwise, he wondered if some high schools were not built where conditions did not warrant them. He also wondered if many communities did not center interest in the high school and its activities to the detriment of the elementary schools. Then, too, the desire of some high schools to secure accreditation at colleges and universities, might have, in the opinion of Mr. Blair, resulted in the expenditure of relatively more money upon the high school than was justified. This rapid increase of high schools and high school enrollments and the increased emphasis upon secondary education led to an inevitable demand for close direction and supervision by the State Office. For several years, the State Superintendent had asked the General Assembly for the appointment of a high school supervisor, but without success. In 1911, the Illinois State Teachers' Association passed a resolution, which is given verbatim because of future implications. "RESOLVED, That the Legislature of Illinois be requested to provide for the appointment by the Superintendent of Public Instruction of one or more inspectors of high schools, whose duty it shall be to inspect, classify, and standardize the various city, township and village high schools of the State under rules drawn up by the Superintendent of Public Instruction." ' [Italics by the author.] •p. 202ff. * All of these statistics from Twenty-ninth Biennial Report of the State Super- intendent of Public Instruction, 1912, p. 36. 'Ibid., p. 37. 87 A portion of the above resolution was italicized by the writer be- cause of the part it played in a "jurisdictional dispute" which arose between the State Superintendent and the Univei-sity of Illinois High School Visitor. Two letters printed in the Biennial Report provide interesting reading to students of the subject of high school supervision. Under date of December 11, 1911, H. A. Hollister, University of Illinois High School Visitor, wrote to Superintendent Blair, airing cer- tain views about the resolution of the State Teachers' Association. Mr. Hollister felt duty bound to cite his nine years of experience as evidence of his fitness to continue in his capacity of high school visitor. The University of Illinois had an establ^hed system of standardization. It had invited the cooperation of high schools, normal schools, and all non-State institutions of learning. Mr. Hollister believed that it was most unwise to establish a duplicating agency to do the work and cited some unfortunate experiences in other states. Then he became quite specific in his objections to the proposed resolution. He doubted that the State Department was in a better position than the University of Illinois to determine the principles by which secondary schools should be standardized. The State Department might attempt to gratify the demands of non-state institutions, and hence become divided against itself. Then, in a most direct manner, it was asserted by Mr. Hollister that the proposed plan would lead ". . . toward f>olitical control of education when the ideal towards which we have been struggling leads away from such control." ' The letter concluded with an appeal for concerted action by the State University and the Ofhce of Public Instruction if some change were needed. With some severity and considerable directness Superintendent Blair replied to the Hollister letter, under date of December 14, 1911. After the usual amenities, he set forth succinctly his points of rebuttal. After noting Mr. Hollister's agreement that there was needed much closer supervision of high schools than then existed, he raised the following questions: 1. By whom should this closer supervision be done? 2. Whose legal duty is it? 3. Where reside the power and authority for doing it? 4. Are the legal duty, power and authority for such work lodged in the University or in the Office of Public Instruction?^ Section 3 of the School Law made it the duty of the Superin- tendent of Public Instruction to "supervise all the common and public schools of the State." Since the source of power was quite clear, all that remained to be done was for the Legislature to provide the means. Superintendent Blair reminded Mr. Hollister that the high school visitor of the University had no legal right or authority to inspect or super- *Ibid., p. 41. 'Ibid., p. 72. 88 vise any high school in the State except by invitation of the local authorities. In answer to the argument of a double system, he made a fine distinction between inspection and supervision. There may be many systems of inspection for establishing accredited relations, but there was only one system of supervision of high schools in Illinois and that was vested in the Department of Public Instruction. No efficient supervisory program could be established without definitions and stand- ards. Should state aid to high schools ever come to pass, the State Office would be the only constituted agency for distributing the funds. Only the State Office could serve as the agency for the formulation of definitions and standards. The State Superintendent was compelled by law to take an oath and give bond for the performance of duty. No employee of the State University was required to do this. Superintendent Blair sought to calm the fears of Mr. Hollister about a duplication of educational effort and prerogatives. He disclaimed any desire to inter- fere with the accrediting activities of the University. All that he con- templated was the securing of sufficient funds and suitable personnel to discharge his legally imposed duties, viz., to supervise the common schools of the State. Superintendent Blair reserved his most telling blows for Mr. Hol- lister's argument that supervision would become political if vested in the Department of Public Instruction. The entire point was a mere assumption, in the opinion of the State Superintendent. Two fallacies, he believed, were inherent in Mr. Hollister's assumption. First, if the State Office were unfit to supervise high schools because of possible political considerations, then it followed that the Office was unfit to supervise any of the schools. Second, Mr. Hollister was reminded that he was an appointee of a board of trustees, nominated at a political convention, who ran as candidates of a political party, and who were elected by voters at the polls. There was just as much reason for the employee of the University to be influenced by political considerations as an employee of the Office of Public Instruction. Finally, Superintendent Blair stated that he was not clear what Mr. Hollister meant by "standardization." If the term meant deter- mining the standards which high schools must meet in order that their graduates be able to enter the University free from condition, then the State Department of Public Instioiction had no desire to enter that field. But, if standardization meant supervision of high schools and the determination of definitions and standards for some, then the State Department was not only in a position to do it, but to do it as well as the University, if not better. He scored a vital point by showing that the high school program should be integrated with that of the elemen- tary school and that the same force which supervises the grade schools should do likewise for the high schools. In fact, lack of this integration was one of the weaknesses of the township high school, which the Superintendent termed a "floating kidney." This diflference of opinion between the State Superintendeat and the State High School Visitor has been treated in some detail because it deals with the growing importance of high schools and the apparent 89 need for more adequate supervision. It also shows that Superintendent Blair was a capable and forthright exponent of a principle which he believed to be right and correct. It was quite natural for those interested in and charged with the supervision of high schools to consider varied curricula. Superintendent Blair was not insensible to the increasing demand for vocational educa- tion, nor was the Educational Commission of which he was chairman. The Commission had been continued by means of legislative appropri- ations. One of the criticisms made of the Commission after its first report was that it had failed to explore the matter of vocational educa- tion. Vocational education was defined to mean: ". . . the life activities of men as individuals ranging all the wray from ordinary industry to the highest forms of art and the most difficult pro- fessional achievement." * Early in the year 1911 the Educational Commission decided that a study of the problems of industrial education ought to be made. What had been done for those who prepared for the law, medicine, and the other professions ought to be done for those who were to go into the store, shop, farm, or home. But it was also realized that a large number of students who finished the eighth grade did not enter high school. Hence, the elementary and rural schools ought to provide some preparation in the studies intimately connected with the lives of a large majority of the pupils. Pursuant to these ideas, the Illinois Educational Commission appointed a special committee of experts to study the whole question o findustrial education and the preparation of teachers who were to teach the subjects. The people who composed the special committee were distinguished ones. The chairman was Eugene Davenport, Dean of the College of Agriculture of the University of Illinois. Otfier personnel included David Felmley, President of Illinois State Normal University; T. C. Burgess, Director of Bradley Polytechnic Institute; Frank Hall, Super- intendent of the Illinois Farmers' Institute; Miss Bertha Miller, Head of the Household Science Department of James Milliken University; and Mrs. H. M. Dunlap, President of the Domestic Science Depart- ment of the Illinois Farmers' Institute. In addition to these experts, Fred L. Charles, Assistant Professor of Agricultural Education, and Miss Alice J. Patterson, instructor in Nature Study at Illinois State Normal University, assisted in the preparation of work for the grade schools. Charles A. Bennett, Head of the Manual Training E)epart- ment at Bradley Polytechnic, aided materially in the preparation of courses of study in manual training. The committee made a study of the status of industrial education in the public schools of Illinois and in special schools in other states by means of a questionnaire and submitted a detailed report to the Educational Commission. It included only what was desirable and pos- sible to accomplish in the elementary and secondary schools of the State. 1. A six-fold emphasis, corresponding to the six "chief activities ' Ibid., p. 370. 90 of civilized man," was to be made. These were the speaking and writing professions, the scientific professions, farming, construction and building, business and commercial, and household science. 2. The school program was to be integrated with what pupils were doing outside of school. 3. Opposition to the specialized trade school was emphasized. 4. The pupil was expected to spend one-fourth of his time while in high school taking vocational courses. 5. Narrow specialization was to be avoided. Curricula should aim to provide for integration of the vocational courses with the cultural. 6. Schools should avoid too radical and ambitious beginnings; it would be better to institute one course and do it well, than to start with several and make them superficial. 7. Warning was issued that the community and humanity as a whole were to be emphasized, rather than the individualism of a student's success in a vocation. 8. No attempt was made to provide a set pattern of education for schools; local circumstances and resources were to be taken into consideration. 9. A suggested four-year course of study for agriculture, manual training, and domestic science was set forth. Also, suggested programs in these categories were included for the country schools. What was Superintendent Blair's part in these significant endeavors? It will be remembered that he was chairman of the Illinois Educational Commission. Not only was he cognizant of what was going on, but undoubtedly he was analyzing, considering, and weighing the various proposals from the point of view of the chief school officer of the State. His views and conclusions were weighed in the balances of what was possible to implement and administer. Knowing, as he did, the schools of the State and something of the temper of the public, there must have been a constant appraisal of what was possible. He must not have been indifferent to the problems of securing adoption of the proposals by the General Assembly. But the most careful plans for a revised vocational curriculum for the high schools of the State would have been much less meaningful if a high school tuition act had not come to pass. In 1909, the Illinois Legislature passed an act requiring districts which did not maintain a high school to pay the tuition of its eighth grade graduates in some four-year high school. But the effect of the act was much watered down by the Senate. An amendment was inserted in the original act stating that tuition be paid by the district only if the parent or guardian were unable to pay. The act was contested in the courts, until finally the Illinois Supreme Court ruled that the act was unconstitutional because a board of education was not competent to decide who was able and who was not able to pay the tuition. The State Teachers' Association 91 went before the Legislature urging the enactment of a tuition law oniit- ting the unconstitutional provision. Such legislation was enacted by the Forty-eighth General Assembly to become effective July 1, 1913. Superintendent Blair rejoiced at the passage of the act, declaring "It is difficult to overestimate the far-reaching consequences of such a law. Immediately upon its going into effect, every square foot of territory within the State became high school territory." * He then pointed out that before the passage of the act more than 300,000 boys and girls in Illinois were living in districts where no high schools had been established.^" In the year closing June 30, 1914, there were 85,301 pupils enrolled, representing a gain of eight per cent over the previous year. This gain is especially marked when the gain in elementary school enrollment was only two and six-tenths per cent.^^ But the situation was not without difficulties. Some districts, even by levying the limit in taxes, could not pay the cost of a good elemen- tary school education and likewise pay the tuition of pupils attending high school. Courts held that school districts could not be compelled to pay high school tuition, unless there was a balance in the treasury after paying for the maintenance of a satisfactory elementary school. In 1913, the Legislature authorized the appointment of a high school supervisor with an annual salary of $4,000. Superintendent Blair ap- pointed J. C. Hanna of the Oak Park High School to fill the position. The Office of Public Instruction now had a staff of three supervisors. There were a supervisor of rural schools, a supervisor of rural and village schools, and the newly created office of high school supervisor, just mentioned. The Superintendent was highly elated, stating, "It is believed that the OflBce of Public Instruction can serve the cause of public education in no more effective way than through giving advice and counsel in directing the growth of secondary education." " Mr. Hanna lost no time in preparing criteria and curricula for recognized high schools and smaller high schools. Formal certificates of recognition were devised, three types being awarded for work actually done: (1) Certificates for a Recognized Four- Year High School (2) Certificates for a Recognized Three-Year High School (3) Certificates for a Recognized Two- Year High School A recognized high school had to satisfy reasonable requirements in the following categories: material, equipment, organization, curriculum, instruction, and spirit. The last mentioned category is interesting be- cause the State Office interpreted spirit to mean the attitude of teachers and pupils and a general recognition of the principle of ser\'ice to the community. A discussion of Superintendent Blair's second term would not be • Thirtieth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1914, p. 19. " Ibid. ''Ibid., p. 20. ''Ibid., p. 12. 92 complete without some mention of the new certificating law for teach- ers. The Forty-eighth General Assembly enacted the law, which became effective July 1, 1914. This bill had received the active support of the State Teachers' Association and the county superintendents oi schools. Administratively the new law provided for the State Examining Board which should make necessary rules for the implementation of the law. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction was made gx officio a member and chairman of the Board. Three of the four appointed members were to be nominated by the county superintendent's section of the Illinois State Teachers' Association. After the submission of the nominations to the State Superintendent, he was to make the appoint- ments and also appoint one additional member. The personnel of t-he first State Examining Board consisted of Cyrus S. Grove, County Super- intendent of Schools of Stephenson County; Ben C. Moore, County Superintendent of Schools of McLean County; Elmer Van Arsdall, County Superintendent of Schools of Richland County; Hugh S. Ma- gill, Jr., Superintendent of Schools in the city of Springfield, Illinois. The last mentioned member had been a member of the State Senate, and Mr. Blair believed that Mr. Magill had been more influential in the enactment of the new law than any other member of the General Assembly. The enactment of this law provided a striking illustration of the rapid increase in the number of duties required of the State Super- intendent's Office. Nearly every session of the General Assembly resulted in school legislation that added to the educational duties of the Office. This situation has prevailed even to the present. Superintendent Blair commented upon the gigantic task facing the State Examining Board. With 30,000 teachers in service in the State, means had to be provided for the transference or exchange of their old certificates for the new ones required under the new law. Arrange- ments had to be made for examinations for teachers who wished to secure certificates before the opening of school. The first examination was held on July 16 and 17, indicating that the work of the State Office must have been conducted with considerable dispatch. In conunenting upon the first examination under the new law, the Superintendent stated that relatively few teachers took the examination — something over seven hundred. County superintendents had been busy in May and June conducting examinations. Graduates of colleges and normal schools secured certificates without examination, as prescribed by law. The Superintendent seemed to think that most of the teachers who did appear for examination did so because of failure in previous county examinations, or because of some other shortcomings. One thing was apparent to Superintendent Blair. The appropria- tion of $1,500 made by the Legislature was woefully inadequate. It was also apparent that a full-time employee who would devote his entire attention to the work of certification was necessary. Until such time as this desirable situation came to pass, Mr. A. L. Whittenberg, of the Statistical Department, devoted considerable time to the work. The State Examining Board submitted a tentative budget to a subsequent 93 legislature for $10,900. This was carefully itemized in the Thirtieth Biennial Report." A summary of the second term of Superintendent Blair's adminis- tration indicates that much had been done. The four years were busy ones, but the Superintendent did not become complacent. This is strikingly shown in one of his addresses to the State Teachers' Associa- tion.^* He pointed out that it would serve little purpose to congratulate themselves upon accomplishments to date. Rather, there were many unfinished tasks ahead. Among these he listed professional recognition, permanency of tenure, adequate pay, and a satisfactory pension after retirement. He anticipated that the next twenty-five years would see great gains achieved. As subsequent pages in this study will show, these hopes were not completely realized. Mr. Blair was a candidate for re-election in 1914. Although the minority parties continued to put candidates into the field, Robert C. Moore, a Democrat, was the principal opposition. Official tabulation of the election results showed Mr. Blair had won by a plurality of more than 58,000 votes.^^ " Ibid., p. 19. "Ibid., p. 125ff. ^^ Election Returns, 1882-1918, State Officers, Secretary of State, p. 140. This source is unpublished, and is in a large book in the State Archives Building. 94 CHAPTER XIII FRANCIS G. BLAIR Third Term, 1914-1918 Superintendent Blair seems to have started his third term with his usual vigor and enthusiasm. One is impressed with the great variety of subjects treated in his Thirty-first Biennial Report. The personnel of the State Office was increased, and some of his previous appointees assumed new duties, such as A. L. Whittenberg, who became Secretary of the State Examining Board. D. F. Nichols became Secretary of the Teachers' Pension Board, and Phil M. Hanna was designated as Clerk of the Board. In addition to those mentioned above, there was an official advisor on the recognition of schools of music, an official advisor on the recognition of kindergartens, three official advisors on the recognition of colleges and universities, an official advisor on the recognition of schools of art and drawing, and deputy examiners for entrance into dental and medical colleges. The officers mentioned in this paragraph were not actually staff members, but were consultants or advisors. In the introductory statement to the Thirty-first Biennial Report, Superintendent Blair called attention to many significant, and even startling, developments in education in the State. For example, while elementary school enrollments in the public schools for the year 1915- 1916 had increased only one per cent, enrollments in the secondary schools had increased fifteen per cent.^ Notable progress was being made in the field of high school supervision. Significant legislation included a school sanitation and safety law, a new qualification and term-end act for county superintendents, and an act permitting boards of education to establish kindergartens. Some of these acts will be referred to later, but the county superintendents' qualification and term-end act should be mentioned here. Prior to the passage of this act in 1915, a county superintendent of schools was not required to hold a certificate of qualification. Strangely enough, the assistants in the office of a county superintendent were required to be qualified teachers. Although a county superintendent was usually a qualified teacher, such was not always the case. This new law also provided that a county superintendent's term should end on the first Monday of August after election, instead of on December first, as before. It is to the credit of the county superintendents that they presented the bill providing for their qualification certificate. With renewed vigor the State Superintendent urged further profes- sionalization of teaching through the medium of the Educational Press Bulletin. Not only must teachers prepare thoroughly for teaching and continue study, but they must be imbued with the purpose of making ^Thirty-first Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1916, p. 11. 95 it a life work. The Superintendent urged that teachers qualify for a life certificate, authorizing the holder to teach or supervise in the public schools of the State without living the hand-to-mouth existence of fre- quent tests and examinations to qualify for a certificate. Aware of the fact that some might contend that a life certificate would stifle growth, he believed that the possession of a life certificate would lead to in- creased effort and growth that would bring larger returns. As a matter of State pride, he recounted that people from other states were amazed that some teachers as well as city and county superintendents were working under the lowest grade county certificates. But the plea for better qualified teachers was not directed to the profession alone. School patrons and taxpayers were exhorted to catch the vision of better schools through better teaching. He proposed three questions: "What can be done by law to attract into the teaching profession, young men and women with the best natural talents and with the best academit and professional training for their work? "What can be done to make the teaching business a life work, rather than a mere stepping stone? "What can we do to change the teaching 'procession' into a teaching 'profession' ?" * In seeking answers to these questions. Superintendent Blair believed that increased salaries and opportunities for training might help, but these were not enough. Other answers might be found in the passage of adequate pension and retirement laws. To be sure, the State of Illinois had established a teachers' retirement fund. But the inference is plain that the Superintendent believed it inadequate. It was pointed out that teachers continued to teach long after their abilities and health had declined. The only alternative was to become objects of charity. The important consideration was the welfare of the children, who de- served the best in the way of competent and modem instruction. One obvious shortcoming of the Teachers' Pension and Retirement Law was noted by the Superintendent in the case of George Cyrus Locke, of Kinderhook, Pike County, Illinois. Mr. Locke had been the first to qualify for a teacher's pension. He was also the first to die. He had paid in $703.40 but had received only $201.11 prior to his death. The loss to the estate was $502.29. While some state pension laws provided for a return of a balance paid in case of death, the Illinois law made no such provision. Reference was made earlier in this chapter to an amendment of the school law concerning safety and sanitation. This took the form of an amendment to Section 3 of the Law of 19Q9 concerning the duties of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Subsections 20, 21, and 22 of Section 3 provided: L That the State Superintendent should inspect the plans and specifications for the heating, ventilation, lighting, seating, water supply, toilets, and safety against fire for all public school rooms and buildings submitted to him by school boards, ' Ibid., p. 22. 96 and approve those which complied with specifications and standards prepared and published by him; 2. That he should inspect all public schools under his supervision and notify in writing before April first of each year the boards of school trustees, or other boards having similar functions, whether or not the several schools in the respective jurisdic- tions had been or had not been conducted according to law; 3. That he should request the State Board of Health, the State Architect, or the State Fire Marshal to inspect all public school buildings which appeared to be unsafe, unsanitary, or in general, unfit for occupancy; 4. That the penalty for infringement of the law was withhold- ing of State distributive funds until compliance with the law had been fulfilled; (The law became effective July 1, 1915, for all new or remodelled buildings. For buildings in use, penalties would not be enforced until March 1, 1917.) 5. That the State Superintendent of Public Instruction be given the duty of prescribing minimum requirements, after due con- sultation with the State Board of Health, the State Architect, and the State Fire Marshal. Boards of directors or boards of education, in districts containiag fewer than one hundred thousand inhabitants, were required to sub- mit all plans and specifications for remodeling or erecting public school buildings to the county superintendent of schools for his approval. This latter requirement, of course, pertained to the health, sanitary, and safety features of the school. Obviously, all of the detail enjoined by law could not be done per- sonally by the State Superintendent; so the law specified responsibilities in these matters for the county superintendents and township trustees. Under other sections of the law, county superintendents were given prac- tically identical powers, with a mandatory power to notify boards of school trustees in writing if a school were not conducted according to law. The trustees, after receipt of the notice in writing, were enjoined to withhold that part of the distributive fund which would go to the district. Such amounts were to be placed to the credit of the district. The State Superintendent recalled that much of this work had been done as early as 1908 when he instituted his system of requirements for standard and superior schools. However, he plunged into the new duties required by law, and the result was a minute statement of mini- mum requirements, ranging all the way from cross-sectional areas for flue requirements to proper egress from buildings. A check-list of re- quirements was constructed to facilitate the operation of inspections. The law establishing the Illinois State Teachers' Pension Fund be- came effective July 1, 1915. A detailed account of the institution of the law is not necessary here. A temporary Board of Trustees consisting of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Secretary of State, and the Auditor of Public Accounts met periodically from July 10, 1915, to February 6, 1916, when the permanent Board of Trustees held its first meeting. This permanent board consisted of Superintendent Blair, ex 97 officio member, Mrs. Sarah L. Thomas, Rockford, and Miss Anna Wright, Moline. The Superintendent was elected president of the Board, and D. F. Nickols, Lincoln, Illinois, was appointed secretary for a three-year term. R. C. Moore had been appointed earlier by the temporary Board, but resigned soon after. It was decided to meet quarterly, rules governing the operation and administration of the law were adopted, and opinions from the Attorney General were secured about certain vague provisions. In the statistical report for the first year of operation, it was revealed that fifteen hundred teachers elected to come under the opera- tion of the law and filed the necessary affidavits. Sixteen hundred seven- teen beginning teachers came under the law by compulsion.^ During the first year three hundred one teachers received the full annuity of four hundred dollars, and twenty people availed themselves of the dis- ability feature of the law.* A number of individual school pension funds, specifically those of Rockford and Oak Park, were turned into the State Fund. For the first year of operation, receipts totaled $341,647.20 and total dis- bursements were $26,079.91.^ The State Superintendent of Public Instruction found that the work of his office increased tremendously as a result of the responsi- bilities of super\'ising instruction. In addition to establishing standards for recognized high schools and for those with probationary recognition, there was the work of inspecting, recommending, and stimulating prog- ress where the apathy of school boards made the difficulties great. Equally perplexing were those situations where the desire for a recog- nized high school was strong, but the ability to support an adequate program of secondary education was weak. In view of this latter situa- tion the State Superintendent recommended the enlargement of districts by consolidation of several smaller ones, or else the establishment of a township high school, or a so-called community high school, which had been authorized by the laws of 1905 and 1911. Superintendent Blair's contribution to the improvement of rural schools has been referred to previously, particularly to the physical, sanitary, and safety improvements. In 1912 a fifth revision of the State Course of Study was made. While the revision was edited by County Superintendent Macintosh of Piatt County, the State Super- intendent had large responsibilities. Certainly no course could go out over the State as the official publication of the State Office without a minute scrutiny of its contents, as well as a statement of the basic educational philosophy of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. The history of the evolution of the State Course of Study from county courses is contained in an interesting monograph by C. M. Parker and is printed in the Thirty-first Biennial Report.* 'Ibid., p. 194. • Ibid. • Ibid., p. 200. • See pp. 324-335. 98 Perhaps the reader needs to be reminded that one of the State Superintendent's multifarious duties was that of ex officio member and secretary of the Board of Education of the State of Illinois. As stated in a previous chapter, the Board had to do with the institutions of higher learning in the State, not so much from the policy-making standpoint as from the receiving and analyzing of reports from the various institutions. It should also be added that private colleges and normal schools, as well as certain institutions for the handicapped, submitted reports to the State Office. A financial report was submitted annually by the treasurer of the Board and was included in the Biennial Reports. After the advent of the first World War, Superintendent Blair's reports and communications abound with references to that conflict. He believed that the war was fundamentally a conflict between systems of education, although a host of historians will rise to challenge this view. Undoubtedly, he was a victim of "the fallacy of the single factor." He admitted that while public education was and is a State function, there was much in the ideals and programs of education that was national in scope. The Superintendent paid high tribute to teachers, school officers, and pupils for valiant civilian services rendered to the war effort. But he let loose some of his choicest invectives for those persons, par- ticularly in colleges and universities, who contended that the war was specific evidence of a complete breakdown in our system of public education. His brief statement of rebuttal needs no editorial comment. "Some of these learned brethren who had spent most of their days in the cloistered precincts of some of our institutions of higher learning and who, shaken loose from their chairs by the shocks and concussions of this war, rushed out into the light and with bleared vision thought they discovered that this great institution, the common schools, had failed completely to prepare the nation for the crisis into which it was entering. Thereupon, they immediately climbed into the highest belfries to ring the loudest bells to alarm the people to the meaning of their discovery. Fortunately, for the cause of truth and the interests of the country, these gentlemen were allowed to exhaust their well-meant, but mischievous, energy in adding to the noise of the other owls and bats in the belfry."' But after indulging in this bit of sarcastic rhetoric, Superintendent Blair made a number of significant observations about the contributions of schools, teachers, and pupils. The national administration discovered quickly that no other organization in the county covered so thoroughly every square foot of territory as the school district, and consequently utilized quickly this organization. Teachers responded with alacrity to calls for assistance in the war eflFort, even when most of it meant no pay; and in many instances teachers paid their own transportation costs and hotel bills to go to a central point to help process draft registra- tions. Pupils responded to appeals to sell war bonds in the various liberty loan drives. The State Superintendent exhorted students in the high schools and ' Thirty-second Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1918, pp. 11-12. ' 99 colleges to remain in school as long as possible. He pointed out that, if the war were of brief duration, their services would not be badly needed; if the war were a long one, they would be all the better trained to render the armed services assistance because scientists and engineers were badly needed in the newer type of scientific warfare. However, these pleas were often ignored as the Superintendent recognized, be- cause youth always has high ideals of service. The Superintendent was fully cognizant of other problems which the war had forced upon the schools. There had been a marked increase in the cost of all things used in the schools. The cost of living had more than doubled, but the salaries of teachers had been increased only slightly. As a result, teachers were leaving the profession to take better paying positions. Janitor hire, as well as all labor, fuel, and all materials had doubled in price. With these facts in mind the Superintend- ent addressed a special letter to the Governor and the members of the General Assembly. In this letter he pointed out the financial hardships worked on many school boards. He traced the history of State aid to schools back to 1855 when a two-mill tax was provided by State legis- lation. This tax provided about sixty-five per cent of the total cost of school operation in the State. But in 1872 the two-mill tax was discon- tinued. In 1873 the Legislature appropriated a flat sum of one million dollars in lieu of the two-mill tax. This money pro\-ided about thirteen per cent of the total cost of operating schools. The Educational Com- mission, created by the General Assembly in 1907, had urged the res- toration of the two-mill tax. Committee chairmen in the Legislature frankly admitted that it would be impossible at one sitting of that body to make such an increase in taxes as school people recommended. There was, however, a sort of gentlemen's agreement that there would be an increase of one million dollars per year in the State school fund in each session of the legislature until the total amount would approxi- mate that which would have been yielded by the two-mill tax. But other factors intervened. The Legislature of 1913 failed to make the one million dollar increase. Superintendent Blair then submitted fig- ures to show that for the year 1917 the cost of operating schools in the State totalled $51,897,683.38, and that with only four million appropri- ated, the State fund amounted to only seven and seven-tenths per cent of the amount expended. Then he made bold to urge that the minimum annual appropriation for the next ten years should be at least ten mil- lion dollars per annum. As startling as this amount must have seemed to legislators, it was urged further by the State Superintendent that the school districts be permitted by law to increase the legal limit of levies to two and one-half per cent for building purposes. Excesses in these rates would be allowed by vote of the people. In conclusion, Superin- tendent Blair pointed to the reconstruction period after the war as one where much would be expected of the school system. To be of maximum service to the people, the schools must have more money. However, the Legislature made no such generous appropriations. Marked increase in State aid for schools is of much more recent origin. The year 1918 marked the one hundredth year of Illinois as a state 100 in the Union. The country was in the midst of the war, but the State Office of Public Instruction believed that some suitable observance of the centennial year should be instituted. At the request of the State Board of Agriculture, the State Superintendent prepared an outline of work for the educational exhibit at the State Fair. The purpose of the program was stated thus: 1 . To show one hundred years of progress in education 2. To make it as educational as possible for as many people as possible 3. To awaken interest in educational progress in the several counties and in the State of as many schools and of the people as possible 4. To gather much historical material which in a few years will be lost if it is not gathered and preserved now ^ Photographs of school buildings, the names of noted teachers, direc- tors, and patrons were to be brought together. Biographies of these noted people, letters written, and relics; work of pupils, models, essays, draw- ings, and sketches; and descriptions of pioneer social events, spelling bees, religious services, and any other curios of historical importance were to be considered for the exhibits. All exhibits were to be forwarded to the State Office of Public Instruction. Transportation charges would be paid by the State Board of Agriculture. So the years of Superintendent Blair's third term were crowded ones. The unforeseen war and the work entailed by the State Centennial were only two illustrations of how the State Office was called upon to render service "above and beyond the call of duty." But Mr. Blair seemed to enjoy it all, for he became a candidate for a fourth term. His principal opponent was Edwin Strauss, Democrat; although, as usual, there were minority party candidates in the field. Mr. Blair won the election by an even larger plurality than before: 508,769 votes to 354,405 votes for Mr. Strauss.^ 'Ibid., pp. 60-61. 'Election Returns, 1882-1918, State Officers, Secretary cf State, p. 163. 101 CHAPTER XIV FRANCIS G. BLAIR Fourth Term, 1918 - 1922 The first World War was concluded shortly before Superintendent Blair assumed office for the fourth time. While reconstruction and post- war problems demanded attention, at least the upsetting influences of a nation at war were ended. Reference to the increased cost of living has been made in the previous chapter. While the usual problems of admin- istering the school system of Illinois were always present, a number of them demand special attention here. These problems are emphasized either from the sense of urgency or from the emphasis given them by the State Superintendent in his writings and publications. A list of these problems appears below, without any effort to list them chronologically or in the order of their urgency. 1. The agitation for an appointive instead of an elective State Superintendent of Public Instruction 2. The solvency of the Teachers' Retirement and Pension Fund 3. Difficulties with some text-book publishers 4. The need for additional funds for State normal schools 5. The sustained effort to secure an increased State distributive fund 6. The growing interest in consolidation of schools Concerning the status of the State Office of Public Instruction and a minority movement to make this office an appointive one, Superin- tendent Blair had much to say after reviewing the duties of the State Superintendent as specified in the Illinois Constitution of 1870. These duties were numerous and varied. The opponents of the status quo were quoted as saying that the Office was "largely advisory and clerical." But the Superintendent marshalled considerable evidence in the Thirty-third Biennial Report to show this conception was false. He believed that from the very beginning the Office was administrative, executive, and judicial in character. A report of the Educational Commission had raised the question whether a state board of education should not select a superintendent of public instruction. No actual thesis was held by the Commission that this should be done, however. What actually happened was that some ill-informed people had quoted the Commission as advocating the ap- pointment of a state superintendent by the Governor of the State. This report was entirely erroneous. Superintendent Blair pointed out that at the time the Educational Commission had made its report, the State superintendent of public instruction was nominated by political conven- tion; that now, since the adoption of the direct primary, any objection to the election of such an officer as a political officer had lost much of its meaning. Students of political science would not necessarily believe 103 that the direct primary eliminated political malpractice, regardless of the merits of Superintendent Blair's own case. The Superintendent pointed out there is no method of selectivity which guarantees the right person for the right job. He stated that the premise, that a change from the present plan could not fail to be better, was a fallacious one, and not founded on fact. Actually, the State of Iowa had changed from the elective to the appointive plan but after a short while had returned to the former c«ie. It is indeed surprising that Superintendent Blair did not defend the elective system by pointing out that it has been a traditional American practice for the people to keep the schools close to themselves, with control over the selection of their school officers, viz., school boards, township trustees, and county superintendents, as well as the State super- intendent. Surely this would have been a powerful argument. The Fifty-first General Assembly authorized a commission, generally known as the Pension Laws Commission, to study and report upon the various pension and retirement funds that had been established within the State. The Commission made a most disquieting and alarming report, which no doubt prompted the Governor of Illinois to state in a message to the General Assembly: "The Commission has found that nearly all, if not all, of the several pension funds created by the different municipalities of the State, as well as of the State itself, are hopelessly insolvent." * Statements of such a character caused a wave of alann to rise among annuitants and teacher contributors to the Illinois State Teachers' Pen- sion Fund. Superintendent Blair rushed forward to allay these fears. After pointing out that there was a marked difference between an insurance plan and a pension fund, he submitted figures to show that the Illinois State Teachers' Pension Fund was not, nor had it been, insolvent to July 1, 1919. Every claim had been met when due. Furthermore, the secretary of the Illinois State Teachers' Pension Fund was directed to prepare a detailed report, which he did prepare. But he made some doubtful statements which might well cause apprehension for the future. Superintendent Blair declared that it had been practically impossible to secure a trained actuary, but that studies, notably the one by the Car- negie Foundation, had shown that the security of pension funds was con- tingent upon the good faith of the state in appropriating adequate amounts to meet guarantees in the law made to annuitants. He expressed the opinion that an annual appropriation of at least $300,000 would be necessary to stay within the margin of safety. Teachers over the State had expressed doubts as to the wisdom of that provision in the law which allowed teachers to retire at fifty years of age when most of the laws in other states did not allow retirement until age sixty. At age fifty, the life expectancy of an annuitant was twenty-one years. Where retirement age was sixty, the amounts paid in annuities were reduced by nearly fifty per cent. These figures undoubtedly caused additional apprehension. * As quoted in the Thirtyhthird Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1920, p. 66. 104 A hearing of the Pension Laws Commission was held in Chicago, and when pressed for proof of the insolvency of the Illinois State Teachers' Pension Fund, the Commission advanced the argument that the excessive amount required by the State in proportion to the amount contributed by the teachers might cause the State to withdraw its contributions. As Superintendent Blair pointed out, this was far different from spe- cific proof. He stated emphatically that there was no evidence extant that the State of Illinois would fail to meet obligations incurred by the laws. Bad faith would have to be assumed also. But the fears of teacher contributors were not entirely allayed, and the writer can recall numerous rumors and apprehensions until the new law became operative in 1939. Superintendent Blair experienced some difficulties with certain text- book publishing companies. The Illinois textbook law, which became effective July 1, 1917, provided that publishing houses should list with the Superintendent of Public Instruction the books which they intended to offer for sale in Illinois. These books were to be listed at the lowest wholesale and retail prices, and in no case were the prices to be higher than those at which said textbooks were for sale in other states in the Union. Listing of books by the publisher was voluntary, and the pub- lisher was to post bond as a guaranty of compliance with the law. The prices listed were to be effective for a period of five years. The law of 1917 also made it mandatory for the school board of each district to notify the State Superintendent of Public Instruction if there was any violation of the provisions of the bond of the company where its textbooks had been adopted by the district. The State Superintendent, after receiving such notice, was required by law to notify the violator, and, if the latter disregarded such notice and continued in violation of the law, the Superintendent was to institute legal proceedings for the forfeiture of the bond of the recalcitrant publisher. Textbook dealers had also notified the State Office that textbooks had been billed to them at prices in excess of those listed with the State Superintendent. Superintendent Blair notified the book dealers that any one of them who sold the books at a retail price greater than the law- ful price quoted by the publisher in the State Superintendent's Office would be guilty of a misdemeanor and punished under the law. But he was sensible enough to realize that the five-year rule had worked a hard- ship upon the publisher, when one took into consideration the tremen- dous rise in costs during and after the war. But until such time as a law was enacted, allowing a relisting of books, he had no alternative but to adhere to its provisions. One textbook company sought to mandamus the State Superintendent, compelling him to accept a relisting of its boc^s. This action went before the State Supreme Court. The State Superin- tendent was defended by Assistant Attorney General C. N. Board. The Supreme Court handed down a unanimous decision denying the pub- lishing company a petition for the writ of mandamus. Another aspect of the textbook situation deserves brief mention. The GcHcral Assembly approved an act in 1919 to permit any board of education or board of directors to conduct referenda, upon f>etition 105 of five per cent of the voters, upon the proposition of furnishing free textbooks. If the proposition carried, school boards were permitted to furnish textbooks free to students, after an interval of one year from the date of election. The law stipulated further that nothing of a denominational or sectarian character should be contained in said books. The war had wrought great hardships upon the normal schools of the State. The increase in salaries and costs of all kinds, which had been necessaiy to maintain a reputable standing, had resulted in finan- cial straits for these institutions. In spite of some increases in salaries, the normal schools had found it difficult to retain some of their staff members. Superintendent Blair believed that "some sort of a mill tax" was necessary, comparable to the University of Illinois mill tax. He believed that, if a tax were a specific one, the people of the State would not object too strongly. The State Superintendent professed to see two reasons why it was more difficult to secure increased support for normal schools than for the State University. First, the nature of services rendered by the Uni- versity seemed to appeal particularly to big business interests and to the tax-paying public in general. When experiments and discoveries in improved breeds of sheep, hogs, and cattle or in railroad construction and management were carried on, the appeal was strong. Second, there "was more interest in these activities than in turning out competent teachers for schools; the latter was what the normal schools were attempting to do. Besides, it was extremely difficult, if not altogether impossible, for schools to demonstrate the difference between a well- trained and a poorly-trained teacher. Who could measure or interpret the increase in the spiritual and intellectual resources of the State, as a result of better teachers? Superintendent Blair also doubted if the needs of the normal schools were presented as effectively before the Legislature as were the needs of the University. In 1921, the Legislature did grant an increase of about thirty per cent to the appro- priation of the normal schools, although an all-out effort was made to secure a fifty per cent increase. At the time the increase granted to the Univenity was nearly one hundred per cent. The effort for a sizable increase in the size of the State distributive fund was launched after the close of the war. One of the most inter- esting aspects of this effort was the evolution of the Superintendent's attitude from one of caution to one of downright contention for it, culminating in a controversy with Omar Wright, Director of the Depart- ment of Finance and Chairman of the Budget Committee. This is so interesting that an account of the situation in some detail seems justi- fied. More detailed information appears in the Thirty-fourth Biennial Report.^ A considerable amount of discussion was going on over the State as to just how much school people should ask the coming session of the General Assembly to appropriate. A resolution (calling for an * Thirty-fourth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion. 1922, pp. 35-37; 42-45. 106 annual amount of $20,000,000) was passed by the City Superintend- ents' Association. At the sixty-seventh session of the State Teachers' Association, a resolution was adopted asking for a like amount. Super- intendent Blair believed that caution should be exercised in asking for such a marked increase. He believed that data ought to be gathered as to the cost of maintaining high schools in some twenty or thirty of the larger cities in Illinois. He believed that these data would be necessary to ascertain what effect the asking of a $20,000,000 distribu- tive fund would have upon the movement to confer upon boards of education the power to collect a high school tax when authorized by a vote of the people. The Superintendent also raised the question as to what influence an increased State distributive fund might have upon the assessment of property in local districts. Would there be a tendency to lower the assessed valuation of property within taxing units? He wondered if some local districts might not cut back local taxation and depend more on State funds; at least objectors to an increased distribu- tive fund were using this argument. He believed that data ought to be assembled to present to legislative committees. A final question, always a perplexing one, was, just how large a percentage of the cost of operating a common school system ought to be paid out of the State treasury? After citing some figures from other states, the Superintendent expressed the opinion that the Illinois distributive fund should not be less than twenty-five per cent of the total amount expended for public education. In dollars, this would amount to $15,000,000 per year. Under no consideration should the Legislature consider less than $10,000,000 per year. He expressed these ideas in a letter to Omar Wright, Direc- tor of the State Department of Finance and Chairman of the Budget Committee, under date of November 13, 1920. Following his writing of that letter, according to his own statement, school boards, principals, and both county and city superintendents brought strong pressure to bear upon him, to advocate the larger amount of $20,000,000. On February 2, following, the State Superintendent addressed another letter to Mr. Wright setting forth these facts. Then the Superintendent con- cluded with these words: "Therefore, as the Budget Committee took no action on my former state- ment, I am hereby withdrawing it and submitting in its stead a statement that nothing less than twenty millions of dollars annually in the distribu- tive fund will, in my opinion, meet the actual needs of the school situa- tion during the next biennium. I, therefore, urge that you lend your large influence in the legislative committees to securing favorable action by them on the asking of the State Teachers' Association for twenty millions of dollars annually in the State distributive fund." ' Mr. Wright's reply was prompt, on the same date. After postulating that the welfare of the public schools was of the greatest importance, he stated that the matter of how much ought to be appropriated for schools was entirely within the province of the Legislature. Then Mr. Wright proceeded to state his views in unequivocal fashion: "Under existing law I am not convinced that the present method of dis- ' Ibid., p. 42. 107 tribution of the School Distributive Fund answers the ends desired. Neither am I convinced that it is the duty of the State ta contribute from funds to those school districts which are abundantly able to care for themselves." * Mr. Wright continued by pointing out that a $20,000,000 per year distributive fund appropriation would increase the state tax rate from 40 cents per $100 valuation to 75 cents. He also pointed out that the current appropriation of $6,000,000 per year exceeded what would be derived by a two-mill tax, so long advocated by educators. Mr. Wright called attention to the fact that the so-called Hicks Bill, enacted at a recent session, permitted districts to increase the school tax levy. Superintendent Blair called attention to the fact that Mr. Wright's opposition to the State distributive fund was contrary to ideas conceived by the founders of public education, and to the best current thought among school officers and school authorities. He cited figures and loca- tions to prove that Mr. Wright's contention that school districts were placing too much dependence upon State aid was erroneous. He won- dered if the dim view Mr. Wright took of State aid was not respon- sible for this fund's being reduced from $8,000,000 to $6,000,000 at the preceding session of the Legislature. Somewhat sarcastically, it seemed, he charged Mr. Wright with great keenness and skill in assembling and presenting facts and figures. But the Superintendent concluded with these words: "However convincing and satisfactory these data may be to him, they do not help the school districts to pay off their indebtedness or give any assurance of better school conditions for next year." ' The sum total of the effects of this controversy as far as increased school aid was concerned was to increase the amount from $6,000,000 to $8,000,000. More important, Mr. Wright had been able to raise some doubt in the minds of the people of the State as to whether local school districts were putting forth their maximal financial effort to sup- port schools without too much dependence upon State aid. On the other hand. Superintendent Blair attacked the statistics and premises of Mr. Wright as suspect. Probably somewhere in between lay the truth. One significant act in 1921 was the creation of the new Educational Commission. This new Commission was to consist of six members, of which the Governor was to be ex officio member, and to which he was to appoint five other members. It was stipulated that one member was to be appointed from the State Senate, one from the House of Repre- sentatives, one must be a woman, and all should be selected for their interest in education. The Governor was empowered to designate one of the non-official members as chairman or president of the Commis- sion. The Commission, created for a period of two >'ears, had for its personnel, in addition to Gk>vemor Small, County Superintendent A. M. Shelton, Crystal Lake; Senator W. L. Gray, Coatsburg; Representative Harry Wilson, Pinckneyville ; Dean C. M. Thompson, University of Illinois, Urbana; Mrs. H. B. Leiber, Illinois Federation of Women's Clubs, Winnetka. It is interesting to note in passing that while the pre- * Ibid., p. 43. • Ibid., p. 45. 108 vious Educational Commission consisted primarily of professional edu- cators, the new one consisted of a majority of lay peopJe. The new Commission was generally changed with making an inves- tigation of the entire educational system of the State, and with sug- gesting to the next General Assembly such revision of the school laws as might be necessary. The Commission was directed to review tax struc- ture, noting inequities, and to explore other patented sources of revenue other than direct taxation. The Commission had the power to make investigations, conduct hearings, and issue subpoenas for any books, records, and papers as might be needed. The State Superintendent, believing that the composition of the new Commission was a good one, expressed the willingness of the State Office and of all school people to cooperate. It is apparent from an examination of the Thirty-fourth Biennial Report that the movement for consolidation of school districts was gaining momentum. More than seventy-five pages of the Report are devoted to the subject. Most of the data had been gathered by the Supervisors of Elementary Schools, Mr. Hoffman and Mr. Booth. Circular Number 152, which incorporated the ideas into one medium, is reprinted in the Report. In an introduction to the subject of consolidation, Superintendent Blair extolled the virtues of the one room rural school. He went so far as to say: "There is little doubt that for a hundred years to come rural communi- ties will find the one-room school the only possible, and therefore the best, school for their children." * But he also perceived that "new occasions teach new duties" and that many of the small rural schools had no further right to exist. While seeming to realize that the consolidated school might prove to be a bet- ter instrument for instruction, he urged that the data gathered by his two assistants be studied and pondered. The State Office made a study of consolidated schools in the three states of Iowa, Indiana, and Ohio. School officers were firm in their conviction that consolidation was highly desirable and that school pa- trons, by a large majority, did not wish to return to the old one-room type of school. Opinion differed as to what a consolidated school was. The State Superintendent of Illinois declared it to be: ". . . the union of two or more school districts into one district for the purpose of having a better school." ^ The State Superintendent also believed that a school was not really consolidated until it provided for both the grades and the high school. He cautioned against small consolidations: they should include enough territory to provide adequate revenue. The law providing for consolidation had been passed in 1919, and in less than two years more than sixty consolidations had come to pass. This law was summarized in the Report, to express the belief that con- • Ibid., p. 140. 'Ibid., p. 141. 109 solidation could be accomplished best in the open country, in villages and cities, and in Community High School Districts. The summary recognized the importance of good roads as a condition precedent to transportation and predicted that Illinois would soon have a network of improved roads extending all over the State, which situation would alleviate much of the current objection. After analyzing the material on consolidation in the Report, one recognizes the attempt at objectivity toward the whole subject. Yet one gains the distinct impression that Superintendent Blair did not take a strong positive stand for it. If he had taken such a stand, it seems only fair to assume that consolidation in Illinois would have been effected much sooner than it was. Certainly, he did not take such a forthright stand as he had taken on other school reforms, such as increased State aid, for instance. A few brief statistics may be in order to show how the educational enterprise stood at the end of the second decade of the twentieth cen- tury. In the interest of brevity and accuracy, these statistics are pre- sented in graphic form exactly as given by Superintendent Blair in the Thirty-fourth Biennial Report.* TEN YEAR COMPARISON OF SCHOOL STATISTICS OF ILLINOIS EXHIBIT I Population, Minor, Census, School Census, and School Enrollment Population (Federal Census) (1911) 5,638,591 (1920)6,485,280 Percentage of Increase 15.01 Minor Census (Taken by School Districts) (1911)2,245,443 (1921)2,622,552 Percentage of Increase 16.79 School Census (6 to 21) (Taken by School Districts) iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiia (1911) 1,545,625 uiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin (1921 ) 1 , 795,437 Percentage of Increase 16.16 Public School Enrollment iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiui (1911) 1 ,007,894 iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuuuiiiuijiiH (1921) 1,200,922 Percentage of Increase 19.14 'p. 81-82. It will be noticed in the above diagrams that there is a capitali- zation of the same word in some places and not in others. This is the way it appeared in the original. 110 EXHIBIT II Enrollment in the Elementary Grades of the Elementary Schools (1911)941.549 (1921) 1,060.304 Percentage of Increase 12.61 EXHIBIT III Number of Men and Women Teachers and Total Number of Teachers Number of Men Teachers (1911) 5.424 (1921)6.064 Percentage of Increase 11.79 Number of Women Teachers (1911)24.436 (1921)32.215 Percentage of Increase 31.83 Total Number of Teachers (1911)29.860 (1921) 38.279 Percentage of Increase 28.27 EXHIBIT IV Average Salaries of Teachers Women $$$$$$ (1911) $584.60 $$$$$$$$$$$$$ (1921) $1,246.60 Percentage of Increase 113.21 Men $$$$$$$ (1911) $720.50 $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ (1921) $1,501.15 Percentage of Increase 108.34 All $$$$$$ (1911) $609.37 $$$$$$$$$$$$$ (1921) $1,286.93 Percentage of Increase 111.12 111 EXHIBIT V Per Capita Current Cost of Education $$$ (1911) $30.26 $$$$$$ (1921) $61.15 Percentage of Increase 102.08 EXHIBIT VI Money Spent for New Grounds and Buildings $$$$$$ (1911) $5,733,777 $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ (1921) $15,452,924 Percentage of Increase 169.50 EXHIBIT VII Total Bonded Debt of School Districts $$$$$$$$ (1911) $7,930,750 $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ (1921) $28,511,897 Percentage of Increase 259.51 EXHIBIT VIII Number of High Schools (1911)519 (1921) 17.446 Percentage of Increase 111.08 Number of High School Teachers (1911)2,785 (1921)6,924 Percentage of Increase 148.61 Average Annual Salary of High School Teachers $$$$$$$$$$$ (1911) $1,014.88 $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ (1921) $1,910.47 Percentage of Increase 88.24 Hence, it can be seen that the public school enterprise had enjoyed a marked growth in the ten year period. Again, Mr. Blair sought re-election in 1922. His victory in the November election was quite decisive. He defeated principal opponent, James A. Murphy, 950,624 votes to 668,366.* *EUcti»n Returns, State Officers, Secretary of State, 1922-1950, p. 2. 112 CHAPTER XV FRANCIS G. BLAIR Fifth Term, 1922-1926 When he took his oath of office for a fifth term, Mr. Blair had aheady established a record for the number of consecutive years he had served as a Superintendent of Public Instruction. Subsequently he was to establish an all-time record for tenure as a State Superintendent by being elected for seven terms. Early in Superintendent Blair's new term he noted the phenomenal growth of the American high school. No one could have predicted this growth. Critics of the high school had said earlier that the school pro- gram broke down after the sixth grade. The courses of study and incompetent teachers resulted in students' running around on the streets or working in factories. After these accusations had been proved false, other critics of the high school began saying that the public school system would break down because of over-crowding at the higher levels. While discounting the validity of this latter statement, Super- intendent Blair was quick to realize that the phenomenal increase in enrollment at the upper grade level and in high school had brought perplexing problems before school boards and administrative officers. The State Legislature had recognized this situation by authorizing the State Superintendent of Public Instruction to appoint high school supervisors to advise school officers concerning problems of administra- tion, instruction, and organization of the high schools of the State. At this time there were three such supervisors in the State Office: John Calvin Hanna, H. M. Thrasher, and Roy L. Moore. The latter was a recent appointment. AH kinds of propaganda were going around the State about the proper way to reorganize the management and instruction of high schools. Panaceas of different kinds were being offered as the final and ultimate solutions of the problem of the high scliool program. In order that this loose thinking might be scotched, the State Superin- tendent directed the writing and printing of "Standards For Recog- nizing High Schools." Standards for recognition were set up. Directions were given to indicate that schools might secure recognition only by first corres- ponding with the State Superintendent of Public Instruction and falling out application blanks provided by his Office. After the proper inspec- tion and approval, or in a few cases correspondence, three types of certificates of recognition might be granted: the type for a recognized two-year high school, the type for a recognized three-year high school, and the type for a recognized four-year high school. A "probationary" certificate was also issued under certain circumstances. Such certificates were to be framed and displayed in plain view at all times. Detailed instructions were given for filling out the annual report, which was 113 required after recognition was secured. Private schools might secure recognition after meeting all the requirements for recognition of a public high school. May it be said that many private schools made application because the teacher certification act of the State required that all who entered the teachers' examinations be graduated from a recognized high school or an equivalent preparation. Reference was made previously to a controversy between the State Superintendent of Public Instruction and the University of Illinois High School Visitor over the jurisdiction of each in the process of high school visitation. This conflict was finally resolved by the two parties in a plan which became effective in 1923, and was entitled, "Plan of Cooperation in Inspection of High Schools." The announced purpose of said plan was: "For a purpose of greater economy and effectiveness in the inspection of the Illinois four-year public high schools to determine whether they meet the requirements for recognition by the Superintendent of Public Instruction and for the accrediting relation with the State Univer- sity; . . ."' The two parties divided the State into an eastern and a western division by drawing an arbitrary line from the northern boundary of Illinois and extending it southward along the eastern boundary of the following counties: Jo Daviess, Carroll, Lee, Bureau, Stark, Peoria, Tazewell, Logan, Sangamon, Montgomery, Fayette, Marion, Jefferson, Franklin, Williamson, Johnson, and Pulaski. AH counties east of this line were in the eastern division, and all west, in the western division. During the first year of the agreement, 1923-1924, all requests from high schools for inspection or reinspection were addressed to the Superintendent of Public Instruction from the western division, and to the University of Illinois from the eastern. The plan was to be followed each succeeding year, except that the divisions assigned to each agency would be reversed or alternated. The high school visitors of the University and the high school supervisors of the Office of Public Instruction agreed to confer in order that the requirements set by each institution should be clearly under- stood, and for the purpose of bringing about a somewhat complete cooperation. If a representative from the Office of Public Instruction decided that a high school met the requirements for accreditation by the University, and his report and recommendation so stated, it had the same force as if the high school were visited by a high school visitor from the University. Recognition status could also be acquired by a school if it were visited by a representative of the University. In other words, there was reciprocity. It should be noted that this agree- ment applied only to four-year recognized high schools. Probationary recognition schools were not included in the agreement. Chicago high schools were to be inspected whenever it was deemed necessary by inspectors from both agencies in collaboration. It was further stipulated that all corresppndence concerning recogni- tion was to be addressed to the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- * Thirty-fifth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion. 1924, p. 318. 114 tion and all correspondence concerning accreditation to the High School Visitor at the University of Illinois. The relationship of the school officers of the state to the Office of Public Instruction remained unchanged. Thus, a controversy was resolved, and there was begun between the University of Illinois and the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction a practice of cooperation, which has continued to the present. The elementary schools, particularly the one-room rural, came in for their due share of attention and planning- Mr. U. J. Hoffman, State Supervisor of Rural Schools, addressed a monograph to the Illinois elementary school teachers. In a publication entitled. Organ- izing and Conducting a One-Teacher School, Mr. Hoffman emphasized the directing of learning. The supervised study movement was under discussion and the monograph of Mr. Hoffman attempted to focus the attention of the teacher upon the importance of directing learning rather than imparting it. After tracing the history of the elementary school from an ungraded one, through the establishment of a graded one, and through the in- novation of the alternation of subjects, Mr. Hoffman proceeded to his point of emphasis, viz., that the pupil must do the learning and that the teacher must help him. The answer was directed study. It was believed that primary pupils must learn from the teacher but that in the grades above three the students learned from books. It was assumed that students above third grade could read. This assumption would seem to be at least debatable if the situation then were as it is now. After pointing out some evil tendencies in teaching, Mr. Hoffman suggested that individual instruction and directed study would have the advantage of making pupil and teacher better friends, serve each pupil according to his needs, make it easier for absent pupils to make up their work, and eliminate the mere hearing of recitations. Class instruc- tion would not be minimized as a result, but rather improved. After other observations and directions, he emphasized how important it was for the teacher not to spread the news that she was teaching a different way, but to go ahead and post the regular program, and institute the new plan, without seeming to create an impression that the old was being abolished, and all things new were to be instituted. If this were done, opposition was certain to be the result. All of the suggestions for the improvement of instruction cannot be enumerated, but these inter- esting suggestions were made: emphasize socializing the school; make it a democratic experience; train the pupils for right living; utilize the faith of the child. At last John Dewey's philosophy was filtering into the rural schools of the State! The State Legislature, in 1923 amended the State School Fund Law, adding one section in particular that changed materially the re- quirements for distributing State aid. Superintendent Blair thereupon instructed the teachers and school officers about their duties and respon- sibihties, but before he could seal the letter, the Attorney General gave as his opinion that the new Law was "inoperative and void." 115 However, the Act in substantially the same form was re-enacted in 1927, and with modifications, obtains at the present time. Since the revision of this Act is of considerable significance. Section 211a is reproduced in part verbatim: "Data up>on which distribution of the common school fund shall be taken from statistics pertaining solely to the school year next preceding July 1st. "Thirty days before the close of each school year the superintendent, principal or teacher in charge of each school shall submit in duplicate to the county superintendent of schools the names of the several teachers employed in the district and their training classification as provided in this Act. The county superintendent shall compare said lists with the lists certified to him by the proper certificating authorities and shall return within ten days after receipt the duplicate together with his cor- rections to the superintendent, principal, or teacher making the report, who shall compile the school district budget up>on the information therein contained. "The board of education or the board of directors of each school district shall prepare and certify to the county Superintendent not later than July 15th of each year its school district budget on blanks to be provided by the Superintendent of Public Instruction." ' Then followed a suggested form for the school district budget, which the Act said must be sustantially in that form. The Act continued: "Failure on the part of the board of education or the board of directors to prepare and certify the school district budget to the county superin- tendent on or before August 15 shall constitute a forfeiture by the district of its right to participate in a distribution of the common school fund for the succeeding year.'" The Section of the Act concluded by establishing a deadline of October first for the county superintendent to submit the county budget to the Superintendent of Public Instruction. He, in turn, was required to submit to the Auditor of Public Accounts not later than December first a State budget setting forth the amount of money due each county from the common school fund. The State Office issued a fourteen-page bulletin, containing instruc- tions, advice, and anticipated questions about the new law. Anyone who has held a public administrative office can readily understand the extra work and tension involved in administering a new law, especially when a considerable number of people at large must complete certain paper work to meet a deadline. Procrastination and lethargy of indi- viduals make it a time of stress for the administrator to fulfill his duties, when these are contingent upon others doing the same thing. The writer can speak from experience, having served as a county superin- tendent of schools. It is, of course, increasingly true at the higher level, the Office of Public Instruction. Not much has been said up to this point about special charter school districts.* As time passed they tended to decline in number, but a few holders of special charters steadfastly refused to surrender them * Laws of the State of Illinois Enacted by the Fifty-third General Assembly, 1923. pp. 581-582. * Ibid. *This typ>e of district was created by and op>erated under a charter granted by the Legislature, rather than under the general School Law. 116 and operate under the general School Law. There may have been some justification for special charter districts many years ago when schools were fewer and when general interest in the schools was small. The arrangement may have permitted some progressive districts to proceed in their educational plans without too much hindrance from outside. But if this reason were ever valid, the time has long since passed for special districts to continue. One of the most potent criticisms is the fact that the State Legislature must take its time to legislate specifically for these districts. Then, too, such progress has been made in school legislation that all schools can and should operate under the general School Law. Finally, the existence of these special districts poses some administrative problems for the State Office. The reason this editorial comment is included here in the discussion is that one is struck, while examining the Thirty-fifth Biennial Report, by the number and nature of changes in the laws of the Fifty-third General Assembly concerning these special charter districts. It must be borne in mind that these acts must go through the same procedure as all other bills in the General Assembly. Students of government gen- erally oppose special legislation as unnecessary and unwise. Vocational education in Illinois was making considerable progress, and considerable credit for this progress must go to State Superintend- ent Blair. As Executive Officer of the Board for Vocational Education, he was active in the planning and in the administrative program. He was empowered, with the approval of the Board, to appoint all super- visors, technical experts, clerks, stenographers, and other personnel to carry into effect the decisions of the Board. The membership of the Board consisted of the Director of Registration and Education, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Director of Trade and Com- merce, the Director of Agriculture, and the Director of Labor. This agency was charged with the conduct and execution of the provisions of the Federal Vocational Education Act, and was granted all power necessary for cooperation with the Federal Board for Vocational Edu- cation, particularly concerning the administration, supervision, and expenditure of State and Federal funds. In 1924, the executive and supervisory staff, in addition to Superintendent Blair, consisted of six supervisors and assistants, two each in the departments of industrial education, agricultural education, and home economics education. The Thirty-fifth Biennial Report contains a detailed five-year plan, issued by Superintendent Blair, with the approval of the Board.' Superintendent Blair's services to vocational education were not confined to administration. In a letter to Governor Len Small in 1924, he pointed out an unhappy situation. The Illinois Legislature had failed to appropriate enough money to match the federal appropriation, dollar for dollar. The result had been that seventeen downstate school districts that had established courses in home economics did not receive one cent for reimbursement for the year. Of the total amount of $485,184.25 of state and federal funds to reimburse the school boards of the State, Chicago had received 44.1 per cent. In concluding the • Thirty-fifth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1924, p. 359ff. 117 letter, the Superintendent appealed to Governor Small to recommend to the General Assembly an appropriation sufficiently large to match Federal funds, dollar for dollar. He repeated this same plea two years later in the letter of transmittal to the Governor of his report. One of the great services of Superintendent Blair during his fifth term was the focusing of attention upon the striking inequalities of educational opportunities in the State of Illinois. After pointing out that the framers of the first school of Illinois recognized these inequal- ities, he stated that only within the previous ten years had there been any attempt at a detailed study of these inequalities and their influence upon education. He gave much credit to the State Teachers' Associa- tion study, conducted by Secretary Robert C. Moore and Research Director Lester R. Grimm. So significant did he believe this study to be that he included it in the Thirty-sixth Biennial Report. A few high- lights in the disparity of opportunity follow.^ Stark County had a "wealth quotient" of $4,374.27 to be used to support a child educa- tionally. On the other hand, Williamson County had only $728.02.^ District 50 in Lake County, a one-room district, had an equalized assessed valuation of $2,394,345.; in contrast, District 151 in Wayne County had one of $10,180.^ What did this mean in tenns of the tax- paying public and the children? It meant that with a gigantic tax effort the poor counties could provide little in the way of opportunity, whereas the wealthier counties with a relatively small effort could provide quite generously for the support of education. Superintendent Blair believed that this situation was a distinct violation of the whole spirit of de- mocracy. Many more interesting statistics are in the Report. Superintendent Blair also pointed out that for many years people had been asking him how Illinois ranked educationally in comparison with other states of the Union. Many taxpayers seemed to have the opinion that their taxes were so exorbitant that Illinois must rank very high in its support of the educational enterprise. Superintendent Blair had not been able to furnish authentic and concise answers to these questions until the Educational Finance Inquiry Commission published the results of its exhaustive study about 1925. Volume VI of the series of thirteen volumes was entitled Financial Statistics of Public Education in the United States — 1910-1920. Superintendent Blair cited some significant statistics from this volume.® Here are a few. In percentage of state and local expenditures going to education in 1910, Idaho ranked first with 47.7 per cent; Illinois ranked twenty- second with 27.6 per cent. In 1920, Iowa was first with 44.7 per cent; Illinois was twenty-third with 28.6 per cent. In 1920, in state taxes going to education per capita, Nevada was first with $7.51; Illinois was thirty-eighth with $1.47. Superintendent Blair projected this latter figure, pointing out that if Illinois had raised by State taxes as much * The reader may i>eruse for himself the more complete details in the Thirty- sixth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1926, pp. 52-90. ' Ibid., p. 53. *Ibid.,p. 67. • Ibid., pp. 84-85. 118 money per capita for education as did Nevada, Illinois would have raised over $48,000,000. The State Superintendent editorialized thus: "This makes our $8,000,000 state school fund look small indeed.'"" In a section of the Thirty-sixth Biennial Report entitled "The Junior High School Situation In Illinois," Superintendent Blair deplored the indiscriminate use of the term "junior high school." He realized that much could be said for departmentalized instruction; but while the 6-3-3 plan of organization seemed to be the one most generally approved, of the forty-three districts having an organization called a junior high school, only eight had the 6-3-3 plan.^^ The others really had departmentalized seventh and eight grades. Much of this informa- tion came to light as the result of a questionnaire sent out by Super- visor of Elementary Education, W. S. Booth. The State Office of Public Instruction took an active part in the observance of the centennial of the passage of the School Law of 1825. A considerable portion of the Superintendent's Report is devoted to this centennial. As a matter of fact, Superintendent Blair was the author of a pageant entitled, "The Light Bearers," extracts of which appear in the Report. It can be seen by the reader, that the State Office of Public In- struction not only was acquiring more responsibilities but larger ones as well. While the personnel had increased to enable the Office to dis- charge its statutory duties, yet it must be said that the responsibility rested ultimately with the State Superintendent himself, as is true of all administrative officers. However, Superintendent Blair was not deterred from seeking re- election in 1926. He defeated his opponent, Alexander W. Jamieson, by nearly 400,000 votes.^^ Ibid., p. 25. 'Ibid., p. 161. "Election Returns, 1922-1950, State Officers, Secretary of State, p. 32. 119 CHAPTER XVI FRANCIS G. BLAIR Sixth Term, 1926 - 1930 Reference was made in a preceding chapter to the Illinois State Teachers' Pension Fund. Specifically, this reference had to do with a feeling on the part of some contributors that there might be an element of danger in the solvency of the Fund. Superintendent Blair's views were stated in this connection. In 1928 the Pension Department consisted of R. O. Clarida, Secre- tary; Marion Strickland, Clerk; and two stenographers. The members of the Board of Trustees numbered five, of which Superintendent Blair was president. The Board set up five committees to facilitate its work. These committees were concerned with annuities, auditing, finance, loans, and office help. Regular quarterly meetings of the Board were held, and a copy of the minutes was included in the Superintendent's Biennial Reports. Part V of Mr. Clarida's report to the Pension Board for 1928 shows some interesting facts. This report covered the school year 1927-1928, ending June 30 of the latter year. Total receipts were $794,555.29; the total disbursements were $813,480.99. However, loans of $155,500.00 were included in the disbursements. Subtracting the amount of the loans, the amount was $657,980.99 about $136,000.00 in round figures above income. Annuities amounted to $639,622.91. The expenses of administer- ing the Fund were relatively small. One interesting item under receipts was the one of $294,502.14, the allotment from the school tax. This was larger than the salary deductions of $238,052.44. But other items under receipts make the exhibit look somewhat prepossessing: back assessments, $25,623.62; interest on back assessments, $16,895.82. The financial statement concluded with a tabulation of assets: Cash balance on hand, July 1, 1928 $ 359,642.87 Loans 1,094,200.00 Total Assets $1,453,842.87 Hence, it can be seen that the Illinois State Teachers' Pension Fund was in fair condition, although the cash on hand on June 30, 1928, was less than on June 30, 1927, by some $19,000.00.^ One of Superintendent Blair's strong convictions was the inequitable way in which State school funds were distributed. After commenting ujx>n the School Law of 1855 and the principle of gathering taxes where the wealth was to be found and distributing the money where the children were to be found, he pointed out that this system tended to equalize * All of these statistics contained in Thirty-seventh Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1928, p. 198. 121 educational opportunity. For example, railroads passed through only a few districts in a county. Natural wealth and the location of large industrial establishments were concentrated in districts where there were relatively smaller numbers of children to be educated. While the method in vogue in the earlier days of distributing money to counties based upon minor population may have had some faults, the State Superintendent believed that the practice had much to recommend it. Fundamentally, the practice recognized the principle of the obligation of the entire wealth of the State to every child in the State. The two-mill tax was the means by which this thinking was implemented. But, of course, the two-mill tax was no longer used. As has been mentioned, the General Assembly made flat sum appropriations from time to time. Superintendent Blair had contended vigorously for the restoration of the two-mill tax, but had been unsuccessful. In his 1928 Report he stated categorically that State school funds must be collected and distributed on the basis of the earlier law. He pointed out that the law of 1923 which rewarded teacher preparation, longer terms of school, and regu- larity of attendance as a basis for the distribution of State aid had some- thing to recommend it. He also recognized that the plan of distribution appealed to some educational leaders. It was the opinion of the State Superintendent that the school districts which were richer and had pro- vided the best educational opportunities for the children received an undue proportion of the State distributive fund. To quote his own words, "There is no point whatever in collecting a State school tax from Stark County and after having this tax pass through various hands, return it to that county. It would be better to leave the local communi- ties to tax themselves and keep their own money if that principle is to obtain in the distribution of the State school fund." * Stark county was used for illustrative purposes as it was one of those counties strong in ability to support a program of education. Mr. Blair stated that the Research Department of the State Teachers' Association and the Statistical Department of his Office had for the first time assembled a considerable number of data which would be placed before the Legislature in an effort to have the law amended. These views of Superintendent Blair went to all the teachers and school officers of the State in an open letter printed in the Educational Press Bulletin for January, 1927. But, important as the State distributive fund was to the Superintend- ent, it yielded in importance, in his opinion, to the dire need of the State teachers' colleges. He contended constantly that these institutions were neglected as far as legislative appropriations went, while the Univer- sity of Illinois secured better treatment. This point has been mentioned before in this study, but it is repeated here to show that Superintendent Blair, much like Cato, always used his opportunities to make his favorite point. One misses much of the meaning of Superintendent Blair's adminis- trations if he fails to recognize the spiritual and moral tone of his writings and speeches. Many illustrations might be cited, but one in particular, ' Ibid., p. 12. 122 in the Educational Press Bulletin for May, 1927, may not be surpassed. It relates the dramatic story of Anna Louise Keller, a teacher in a one- room school in Greene County, Illinois. Older readers may remember how this teacher, through great presence of mind and a selfless devotion to her pupils, gave her life during a tornado which struck her school. As the storm approached, she quietly ordered her students to crawl under their desks and remain there. One story relates that she remained on guard, trying to hold the door shut, when the brick building collapsed and she lost her life, but not one student was seriously injured. Both houses of the State Legislature passed resolutions honoring her heroism, and the people of the community undertook the erection of a monument to her memory. Superintendent Blair eulogized her heroic act and violated one of his strong principles of not endorsing solicitation of funds by asking the people of the State to contribute to the monument. Super- intendent Blair also extolled the virtues of a woman teacher who carried a pupil to his home in a blinding blizzard, freezing her feet, and dying from the effects. One other illustration may be cited for the point being made. On May 18, 1928, Superintendent Blair attended the fiftieth anniversary of seven people who were graduated from Farmington High School. He had his picture taken with the class. While some might maintain that this was good politics, and undoubtedly it was, yet the comment of Super- intendent Blair in the June, 1928, issue of the Educational Press Bulletin, would show how deeply moved he was by the spirit of the occasion. Superintendent Blair found time to attend many small gatherings of a similar nature, mostly it would seem, because of his love of people and his friendly nature. Superintendent Blair interested himself in the raising of requirements for teachers' certificates. He pointed out, quite aptly, that while Illinois compared favorably with the other states of the Union in the quality of its school houses and physical equipment, it did not compare favorably in the amount and kind of qualifications for beginning teachers. He par- ticularly deplored the existence of many provisional and emergency certificates. It was pointed out that World War I had been partially responsible for the situation. Provisional certificates had been issued to people who had taken the teachers' examinations and failed. The law in force at the time stipulated that no county might have more of these certificates in force than ten per cent of the total number of teachers employed. During the war, school officers and county superintendents had experi- enced such difficulty in keeping schools open that the General Assembly struck the limitation from the law. The emergency certificate was intended to take care of people who for one reason or another were unable to secure certificates in time to begin school. For example, those who came from other states, were well trained, and had valid certificates in their respective states were given emergency certificates. Originally these were not renewable, but during the war county superintendents had been allowed to renew them. The State Superintendent believed, however, that the justification for 123 these two kinds of certificates had long since disappeared. A sufficient number of qualified teachers were available to obviate the necessity of these inferior certificates, except in a few cases where emergency certifi- cates might be granted for a short time. The State Superintendent urged county superintendents to resist firmly local influences to keep these cer- tificates in force. The writer, a former county superintendent, recalls that as late as 193^, strong pressure was brought to bear upon him by a provisional certificate holder to renew the certificate when it expired by law. The holder reminded the author that he had been most active in the latter's behalf during the preceding election. The certificate was not renewed. The Secretary of the State Examining Board set forth a strong case for a determined effort to eliminate inferior certificates at the next session of the General Assembly. A study of the statistical tables convinces one that there were very few counties in Illinois where emergency or pro- visional certificates could be justified. An analysis of the situation will be made presently. In an extremely able manner, the Secretary of the State Examining Board traced the background for the development of high standards in such professions as law, dentistry, and medicine. No one denied the fact that members of these professions should have adequate preparation. Increased training and higher standards were brought about by members of the professions themselves. Several state legislatures fixed professional requirements pretty much as the members themselves directed. People, in a vague sort of way, subscribed to the importance of the teaching profession and the competence of its members. But they did not have sufficiently strong convictions about the training of teachers to insist that the best trained ones be hired. In some communities the teacher who would serve for the lowest salary was hired. Underbidding even existed in some districts. All of this narrative led to the Secretary's case for the elimination of provisional and emergency certificates. He quoted some startling figures to show that there was no necessity for the hiring of poorly trained teachers with inferior grades of certificates. For the year ending June 30, 1927, the State Examining Board approved the college credentials of 6,026 applicants for certificates. None of these had less than one year of college training. Furthermore, 1,742 had at least a Bachelor's degree, and 2,600 others had completed two years of college. These 6,026 people would be sufficient in number to replace all teachers who retired, and to fill all new positions.^ Hence, there could be no justifiable reason for claiming a teacher shortage or declaring that school authorities were unable to secure competently trained teachers. No incumbent teacher with less than the desirable amount of training would be inconvenienced. No legislation had ever been introduced nor was any contemplated which would deprive any teacher of her certificate to teach. These data were presented only to show that certificates should be granted only to those persons who had made reasonable preparation. * All of these statistics were taken from the Educational Press Bulletin, Decem- ber, 1927, p. 2. 124 A quick glance at a statistical table shows some revealing facts. In the 101 Illinois counties outside of Cook, in 1927, there were 1,375 un- employed teachers who were duly certificated. In these same counties there were 106 provisional certificates and 153 emergency certificates in force.* A study of the situation in a few specific counties chosen at random is interesting. Kankakee County had 35 provisional certificates and 50 imemployed certificate holders. Christian County had 25 emer- gency certificates in force, and 12 unemployed certificate holders. Perry County had 2 provisional and 3 emergency certificates and 15 unemployed certificate holders. In order not to distort the statistical table, it should be noted that 14 of the 101 counties had no unemployed teachers, and of these, 5 had no provisional nor emergency certificates in ctfie or both of the categories in force, but did have a considerable number of un- employed teachers. The figures quoted above bear totaling: there were 1,375 unemployed certificate holders, and 106 provisional and 153 emer- gency ones in the 101 counties alluded to in the study. The Fifty-fifth General Assembly passed a new law relative to the distribution of the State school fund. Although signed by the Governor on June 21, 1927, the provisions of the law did not become effective until July 1, 1928. This was because the formula for distributing the money was contingent upon the gathering of several kinds of statistical data. The principal features of the new law were : 1. Every school in the State conducting a school as prescribed by law could collect $9.00 per child in average daily attendance in grades one through eight. Each district was allowed to count 18 pupils in average daily attendance, even though the actual number was fewer. 2. If low valuation districts levied the maximum rate for educa- tional purposes without referendum (1%) they might make an additional claim by: a. multiplying $25.00 by the number of pupils in average daily attendance, actual or allowed. b. multiplying $850.00 by the number of full time elementary teachers employed. 3. If one of these products exceeded the levy of 1% on full valu- ation, the district would secure the excess as sf>ecial aid. The attitude of the State Superintendent toward this legislation was a curious one. He seemed to "damn with faint praise." He merely stated that school men who were active in behalf of the bill were convinced that the new method should accomplish considerable in equalizing educa- tional opportunity. Usually the State Superintendent came out emphati- cally in approval of legislaticm that he deemed significant. His whole atti- tude, as can be gathered from his statements, seemed t® be merely to inform school officials of the change. Furthermore, in his Biennial Report, *tbid.,p. 3. 125 under the title, "Helpful Laws Passed By the Fifty-fifth General Assem- bly," it was not listed.^ But Superintendent Blair was enthusiastic about an amendment to the School Law permitting boards of directors to transfer classes or grades from one district to another and to pay their transportation and tuition. Township and commimity high school boards could arrange with under- lying elementary school districts to operate seventh, eighth, and ninth grades together under the auspices of the high school board, the elemen- tary school board paying tuition for seventh and eighth grade pupils. The Superintendent believed that this would relieve the teacher of the one-room school of much work and also stimulate the junior high school movement. The State Superintendent was equally enthusiastic about the work of the General Assembly in its 1929 session. He believed that this session did more constructive and beneficial things for schools than any other for the past ten years. The accomplishments which seemed most signifi- cant to him were codifying of the State Truancy Law, increasing the amount of the State distributive fund by 25 per cent, extending the mini- mum length of the school term to eight months, enacting an improved teachers' certification law, increasing the salaries and wages of the personnel of the five State teachers' colleges, and amending certain other sections of the School Law which would enable school officers to per- form more effectively their duties.® As one studies the record of Superintendent Blair's administration, it is amazing to note the attention he gave to details. For example, the school children of Pulaski were honoring the memory of the great Polish patriot, Casimir Pulaski, after whom the county was named. The State Superintendent addressed an open letter to the children of the county in the October, 1929, issue of the Educational Press Bulletin. One sentence in this letter was significant for that day, and equally so at the present time. "In these days when some people are afraid of any name that has a foreign spelling, it is well for us to recall that Johann DeKalb, Baron Frederick William Augustus Henry Ferdinand von Steuben, Tadeusz Kosciusko, and Casimir Pulaski all came to us as volunteers in the darkest days of the Revolution and rendered distinguished and noble services in the cause of American freedom." ' One of the most interesting parts of the Thirty-eighth Biennial Report is an account of the revival of the controversy engendered by the Ayres Report of 1918. Before discussing the revival of the controversy, a bit of background material is essential for a better understanding. In 1918, Professor Leonard P. Ayres made a study of certain data in the Office of the National Commissioner of Education. The results were published the same year. The purpose of the study was to show * See Thirty-seventh Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1928, pp. 47-48, 51-53. * Educational Press Bulletin, October, 1929, p. 1. * Educational Press Bulletin, October, 1929, p. 1. 126 the relative standing of education in the several states of the Union. The method used was that of assigning an index number for each of ten evaluative items^ and adding these ten index numbers to arrive at a total index number for each state. This number indicated the educa- tional rank of the state. At the time the study was made, the National Commissioner of Education warned that due to difTerences in definitions and methods of compiling statistics in the various states, any comparisons would be invalid and untrustworthy. Be that as it may, Illinois ranked twenty-fourth in the study. Interestingly enough, the results of the study showed such progressive educational states as New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Indiana below Montana and Arizona. The ten criteria or items upon which the study was based follow in order to give the reader a better understanding of the controversy : 1. Per cent of school population, age (5-17) attending school daily 2. Average days attended by each child of school age (5-17) 3. Average number of days schools were kept open 4. Per cent of high school attendance to total attendance 5. Per cent of boys to girls in high schools 6. Average expenditure per child in average attendance 7. Average expenditure per child of school age 8. Average expenditure per teacher employed 9. Expenditure per pupil for purposes other than teachers' salaries 10. Expenditure for salaries per teacher employed^ The details of the study were discussed by the Schoolmasters Club at the Peoria and Decatur meetings in 1921. From time to time inquiries about the Ayers study were received in the State Office, and the Office replied to these inquiries by sending printed copies of the Educational Press Bulletin for November, 1921, which treated the subject in detail. The whole matter was of only sporadic interest until 1929, when a speaker before the Illinois State Teachers' Association used the Ayres Report to show that Illinois had declined in educational rank between the years 1910 and 1918. Incidentally, the Ayres study included the years 1900, 1910, and 1918 as points of reference. In 1900 the total index number for Illinois was 37; in 1910, 50; and in 1918, 57. So the entire study was attacked as unfair and invalid. Complete details appear in the Superintendent's Report.^ In addition to the State Superintendent's verbal rebuttal to the Ayres Report, there were other rebuttals in the form of studies. Mr. Frank M. Phillips, head statistician for the Federal Bureau of Education, made an independent study, showing Illinois to rank much higher than the Ayres study indicated.^" Mr. W. E. White, statistician in the Office of Public * As quoted from the Thirty-eighth Biennial Report of the State Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, 1930, pp. 25-26. ^ Ibid., pp. 22-23. ""Ibid., pp. 24; 31-32. 127 Instruction, made a study including thirty items showing educational progress in Illinois from 1900 to 1928. Mr. Blair compiled a comprehensive list of legislation, State Office practices, and many other items aiming to show that real progress had been made in Illinois during the period 1900-1929. He concluded his remarks in the Biennial Report with these words: "Now if anyone out of these facts can reach the conclusion that Illinois actually declined educationally in that period, that person can by the same method of reasoning prove that a horse chestnut is a chestnut horse." " In the Educational Press Buletin for September, 1929, some school statistics were given showing enrollment increases and decreases in the elementary and high schools of the State. Chart maps show these figures by counties.^^ By way of summary, a few trends may be noted. For the ten year period, total enrollments increased by 26.6 per cent. Whereas, the rate of increase for elementary schools was 13.7 per cent, that for high schools was 138.9 per cent. In 57 counties of the State, there was a decrease in elementary school enrollment; in only one county was there a decrease in high school enrollment. As a general rule, elementary school declines took place in southern Illinois, whereas, the greater increase in high school enrollment took place in the same section. Superintendent Blair attributed the latter to a slow start toward the development of the high school. Elementary school losses in enrollment were generally in the predominantly agricultural counties.^^ Each time that State Superintendent Blair was re-elected, he estab- lished a new record for consecutive years in service. He was re-elected for a seventh and final term in November, 1930. His principal opponent, a Democrat, was Eva Batterton, who had been a county superintendent of schools. Mr. Blair's plurality, 83,686 votes, was smaller than at any time since 1914.^* " Ibid., p. 33. ^Educational Press Bulletin, September, 1929, p. 2. "/fczi., p. 1. ^* Election Returns, 1922-1950, State Officers, Secretary of State, p. 58. 128 CHAPTER XVII FRANCIS G. BLAIR Seventh Term, 1930 - 1934 Shortly after his new term began, Superintendent Blair announced some new appointments in the Office. Mr. U. J. Hoffman had passed away, and after due consideration, the Superintendent appointed Mr. T. Arthur Simpson. He had been county superintendent of Lake County and had done much to place the schools of his county in the forefront of progress. His responsibility was primarily that of supervision in the rural and village elementary schools of the State. Superintendent Blair asked the General Assembly for authority to create a new office of Assistant Superintendent for the Supervision of Rural Schools. The General Assembly created the new position and increased the salary of another position, making it possible to appoint two new assistant super- intendents who gave their chief time and attention to rural schools. One was to act as Supervisor of Rural Schools for the southern part of Illinois, the other as Supervisor of Rural and Village Elementary Schools in central Illinois. The former position was delegated to Mr. J. E. W. Miller, County Superintendent of Madison County, and the latter position to Mr. Charles H. Watts, County Superintendent of Cham- paign County. Mr. Simpson, of course, would be responsible for the schools in the northern part of the State. In addition to their supervisory duties, these men were expected to cooperate closely with the rural school departments of the five teachers' colleges and the county super- intendents of the State. It should be added here that a previous session of the State Legislature had authorized an office of State Supervisor of Physical Education, and Mr. Louis Kulcinski had already assumed his duties in the previous administration. If World War I had created perplexing problems for the schools of the State and the Department of Public Instruction, they were dwarfed by the problems of the great depression era. As one studies the State Superintendent's Biennial Reports and his letters in the Educational Press Bulletin, the impact of the depression becomes strikingly apparent. As early as 1930, in addressing school officers, particularly custodians of school funds, about their responsibilities for these monies, the State Superintendent had referred to the instability of the banking situation. Even as late as February, 1931, Superintendent Blair had not become duly alanned about the depression. He pointed out that ever since the establishment of the public school system, there had been panics which caused retrenchment in school expenditures. But these curtailments in school endeavors had been temporary. Strangely enough, he referred to the industrial depression but not a word this early about the general depression, particularly in agriculture. He did not seem to grasp the magnitude of the situation, as these words will attest: "But the general attitude of school officers should be that the depression 129 is temporary and that no serious impairment of their school system should be made to meet a temporary situation."^ (Italics by author.) Yet, in the very next issue of the Educational Press Bulletin the State Superintendent stated: "Not in twenty-five years have the schools of Illinois faced a more serious financial situation." ' He stated that closed banks had tied up school funds, that Cook County had failed to make its assessments on time, and that the depression liad affected all parts of the State. But the optimistic view still prevailed when he said that it was confidently believed that the financial difficulties were only temporary.^ In the issue of the Educational Press Bulletin for June, 1931, there were reprints of pleas from Willis A. Sutton, President of the National Education Association, and William John Cooper, U. S. Commissioner of Education, for school boards to stand fast against any attempts to curtail educational opportunities for the children of the nation. In September, 1931, Superintendent Blair had reached the point in his thinking where he advised teachers and school officers to face the gravity of the situation with complete candor. Beginning in 1932, almost every written pronouncement in the Educational Press Bulletin dealt in some way or other with the depres- sion. In January, 1932, Superintendent Blair cautiously raised the ques- tion if the township treasurer might not have outlived his usefulness. Difficulties in securing adequate bonds and in securing competent people to serve prompted him to suggest one treasurer for the county to handle school funds. Certain economies could thereby be effected without serious impairment of the school program. In the Educational Press Bulletin there is a complete financial exhibit of the number of township treasurers in Illinois, their total salaries, highest and lowest salaries paid, incidental expenses of trustees, and cost of publishing annual reports. Total salaries paid to 1,680 treasurers amounted to $318,011, accord- ing to the source quoted above, although the Thirty-ninth Biennial Report gave the amount as $318,094. Total expenses of trustees were $116,974, and the cost of publishing annual reports was $24,729. The highest salary paid any treasurer was in Cook County, $9,000 per year; although a total of thirty-two counties reported one or more treasurers who served with- out salaries.* An examination of the salaries of treasurers, $318,011, plus the inci- dental expense of trustees, $116,974, adds up to a total of $434,985. What would this money do in the payinent of teachers' salaries? Assuming a salary of $75.00 per month for an eight-month's school, which would be a high figure for a one-room school teacher in the early 1930's, the expenses of the treasurers' offices, not counting cost of publishing the annual report, would provide yearly salaries for nearly 725 teachers! Superintendent Blair repeated his ideas about the consolidation of ^Educational Press Bulletin, February, 1931, p. 1. ' Educational Press Bulletin, March, 1931, p. 2. ' Ibid., p. 2. * Educational Press Bulletin, January, 1932, p. 3. 130 the treasurers' jobs from time to time, but this reform did not come until much later, during Superintendent Vernon L. Nickell's administration. The question of larger school units came to the fore again in 1932, but with a distinct implication as an economy measure. The State Super- intendent, with some reproach, pointed to the School Law of 1842, which made it mandatory for the various townships of the State to be divided into school districts, approximately two miles square. The State Teachers' Association for many years had campaigned for the restoration of the township as the smallest school unit, but none of the efforts had received any serious consideration by the State Legislature. In 1907, the Educa- tional Commission was created by legislative enactment to recommend such changes in the law as might be deemed conducive to the improve- ment of the State school system. One of the recommendations was that the township be made the smallest unit for taxation and administration. But the State Superintendent summed up the case against it by stating: "It is now pretty generally understood that the farm people and land owners of the state will not favor any law which attempts to force upon them a kind of school unit which they do not desire." * And so the whole matter of larger school units was postponed for a later day. The city of Decatur provided an interesting attempt at retrench- ment, which backfired in a most unusual sort of way. When the school budget for the year 1932-33 was made, the superintendent and teachers took a voluntary reduction in salary because of the diminishing tax returns. A few weeks after, the county board of review reduced the assessed valuation of property in Macon County to the extent that the expected school revenue for Decatur district would be reduced about $200,000. It was decided by the teachers and superintendent to propose an increased tax levy of forty cents on the hundred dollars. But the members of the school board believed that the public would not support a tax increase during a depression. Upon advice of an attorney of the board, it was decided to eliminate the fourth year of the high school and allow all of their high school pupils to be maintained by the non-high school boards. There was a strong popular reaction against this proposal. Mass meet- ings were called. After a conference with the Department of Public Instruction, the school board rescinded its action and submitted the forty-cent tax proposal to the people in order that the high school be maintained as a part of their own system. Opposition was vocal and active; but when the votes were counted, the proposition carried by a ratio of more than 16 to 1. Truly, this was a most unusual circumstance for a depression era. Perhaps this is the time to place specifically before the reader a con- cise statement of facts as to just what did happen to the schools of the State during the depression. While each locality had some particular problems of its own, in general these are the tangible results of the depression: 1 . There was a marked reduction in school budgets. * Educational Press Bulletin, February, 1931, p. 2. 131 2. Salaries and wages of school personnel were reduced. 3. Many school terms were shortened. 4. Certain school subjects were dropped from curricula, notably music, art, home economics, and some vocational courses. 5. Some grades were combined, thus greatly increasing teacher- pupil ratios. 6. In many cases teachers were not paid because of funds in closed banks or because of delinquent taxes. 7. Needed physical equipment was not added, nor worn out equipment replaced. 8. Needed building repairs were postponed or dropped entirely. 9. Children of poorer families attended irregularly, or not at all, because of inadequate clothing during cold weather. In many cases, parents could not afTord to buy books and school supplies, and school boards did not have the funds to provide them, as the law required. Many intangibles could be listed, such as low morale, unrest among cer- tain classes of people, and downright anger and hostility of people toward public officials and school officers. In January, 1933, the newly elected Governor, Henry Homer, sent as a part of his message to the General Assembly a strong statement to consider ways and means to provide adequate financial support to the schools. He also committed himself to the proposition of calling an educational conference to consist of economists, educators, tax experts, and members of industry and commerce. The Superintendent of Public Instruction was asked to suggest names to be invited to the conference and to issue a call for it in the Governor's name. This Superintendent Blair did, including men and women from education, agriculture, civic groups, business, journalism, and labor. The list of names is an interesting one. It appears in the May, 1933, issue of the Educatio7ial Press Bulletin. The State Conference on Education and Taxation, as it was called, met in the Centennial Building on May 2, 1933. In the meantime, however, the General Assembly enacted a sales tax law, which was to supplant the State general property tax. Part of the proceeds of this tax went to the counties of the State for relief pur- poses and part of it for aid to schools, depending upon the relief needs of the counties. It is interesting to note in passing that amounts to be distributed to the schools by the county superintendents should be based upon the relationship that the average amount expended by the district between 1928 and 1932 bore to the total amount so certified by all dis- tricts in the county. Whatever amount was distributed to the school districts was to be used for educational purposes for grades one through eight. Any excess of this money that accrued upon the basis of the average expenditures, as certified, was to be apportioned to high school districts, including the non-high school district, upon the basis of assessed valuations. There were some other requirements about the certification of levies and valuations which will not be discussed. Superintendent Blair was fully cognizant of some of the fallacies and loopholes in the arguments of those people who contended constantly 132 for retrenchment in school expenditures. One of these fallacies was pointed out by him in June, 1933, by his proving that the decrease in net expenditures was greater than decreases in assessed valuations. For example, in Alexander County the decrease in net school expenditure was 43.2 per cent, while in assessed valuation only 11.05 per cent. In Clay County the figures were 21 and 5.03 respectively.* While these figures were only for two years, Superintendent Blair believed that the argument favoring decreased valuations being neces- sary for decreased expenditures was of doubtful validity, especially in view of the percentages cited. This is only one illustration of the intelli- gent insight that he possessed into the school affairs of the State as well as into the minds of men. There had been rumors going the rounds in 1933 and 1934 that the Federal Government planned to render financial assistance to the schools of the nation, but Superintendent Blair ascertained that federal assistance, if any, was to be given for building construction, and then only under certain conditions. But the State Superintendent did not believe that the school needs of Illinois were predicated upon buildings. In a strongly worded letter to Governor Horner under date of December 7, 1933, he said in part: ". . . our school emergency does not consist, as you know, in the need for new buildings. The emergency which may entail the closing of hun- dreds, if not thousands of schools in Illinois during this year, is due to the fact that they have issued anticipation warrants and teachers orders, millions of dollars of which, on account of lowered assessed valuations and delinquent tax collections remain unpaid." ' Then after a more detailed recital of needs, Mr. Blair continued: "... I am therefore coming to you with an urgent request that you call a special session of the General Assembly, or include in the call of any contemplated special session, provisions for such action as will bring immediate and direct relief to the school districts of this State." * The Governor agreed to and did call the special session of the Legislature. But Superintendent Blair did not stop with his letter to the Governor. In the official publication of his Office, the Educational Press Bulletin, March, 1934, he addressed an open letter to the members of the General Assembly, urging the need of financial assistance to schools. After point- ing out that school districts had made valiant efforts to economize, to the extent of $32,000,000 in two years, many of them were faced with the necessity of closing their doors unless some immediate financial aid were furnished by the State.^ This letter is of additional interest because it is evident that the State Superintendent had become convinced that the depression was more than a temporary panic. The author has been unable to find any tangible evidence that Superintendent Blair had expressed himself in this vein previously. The concluding paragraph of the letter states unequivocally: "The situation is so critical as to make imperative the laying aside of ^Educational Press Bulletin, June, 1933, p. 1. ''Educational Press Bulletin, January, 1934, p. 1. ' Ibid. ^Educational Press Bulletin, March, 1934, p. 1. 133 all minor differences of opinion among school officers for a united, con- centrated effort to aid the legislature in the performance of this duty." " Earlier, Governor Homer had made it plain that educators had dis- agreed over the details of a plan of action, and he seemed a bit irked that some kind of agreement upon a program had not been reached. Pursuant to this point of view of the Governor, Mr. Fred L. Blester, Chairman of the Legislative Committee of Illinois State Teachers' Associ- ation, transmitted the following program: "1. Provides a means by which the State shall fund its past obligations to the schools from the State Distributive Fund in the sum of ap- proximately twelve million dollars and in addition shall make an emergency appropriation of two million eight hundred thousand dol- lars for distribution to high schools on the basis of nine dollars per pupil. Both of these sums are to be distributed during the present school year; "2. Provides for a State Distributive Fund beginning with the school year 1934-35 of approximately thirty million dollars to be distributed to public elementary and high schools on the basis of twenty dollars per each elementary and high school pupil in average daily at- tendance. Equalization up to eleven hundred dollars per teacher shall be provided for the elementary school on the basis of an eighty cent tax rate. No equalization is provided for high schools. The revenue to carry out this program shall be realized from new sources of revenue other than property such as a 2 per cent in- come tax, a grain futures tax and a net corporation income tax or other types of taxes which the legislature may choose. "3. Provides for the repeal of the present law which limits school dis- tricts to a levy equal to the average of levies from the past four years. . . . "4. Provides for the appointment, by the Governor, of a joint commis- sion of legislators and educators to study the problem of education in Illinois and present a basis for reorganizing and proper financing to the regular session in 1935." " In some respects these proposals were too extreme for the Legislature to take in toto. But the Third Special Session of the General Assembly did provide material assistance to the schools. Senate Bill 70, Section 8, of the Motor Fuel Tax Bill provided that after a sufficient amount had been reserved for administering the act, one third should be apportioned to the common school fund. This law was approved May 4, 1934, to become effective July 1, 1934.^^ Senate Bill 73 also provided that twenty- eight per cent of the fund should be distributed to districts conducting high schools and seventy-two per cent to elementary school districts.^^ Before leaving the work of the Third Special Session of the Fifty- eighth General Assembly, it should be mentioned that this body memo- rialized the Congress of the United States, in Senate Joint Resolution No. 4, to enact legislation making possible loans to school districts then in distress. The question of loyalty oaths for the teachers of the State came to the fore in 1934. In one of his letters to the general public, through the " Ibid. " Ibid, p. 2. " Laws of the State of Illinois Enacted by the Fifty-eighth General Assembly at the Third Special Session, 1934, p. 227. " Ibid., pp. 253-254. 134 Educational Press Bulletin, Superintendent Blair stated that he had little fear of the necessity of such an oath. For this feeling he submitted several reasons. First, teachers instruct the pupils under a mandate of the State Constitution. Second, they are required by law to teach the principles of representative government as enunciated in the Declaration of In- dependence and the Federal Constitution. Third, they are certified and employed under provisions of the laws of Illinois. Fourth, refusal to per- form any of these duties would be grounds for dismissal. Fifth, by educa- tion and training teachers tend to be conservative. Sixth, the teachers had demonstrated their loyalties during the vicissitudes of the depression.^* Toward the end of his seventh, and last, term, in December, 1934, State Superintendent Blair laid down five indispensable conditions for the adequate education of the children of the State of Illinois. In ab,- breviated and paraphrased form they were: the largest possible unit of taxation and administration; a state appropriation large enough to equalize school opportunities throughout the State, an amount not less than 25 per cent of the total cost of education; each pupil pro- vided with a well trained teacher; adequate provision for a well trained supervisory force; and the necessity for educational leaders to take their programs and policies to the people. ^^ For the eighth time, Mr. Blair, in 1934, became a candidate for the Office of Public Instruction. His Democratic opponent was Mr. John A. Wieland, Superintendent of Schools in Calumet City, Illinois. After a strenuous campaign by both candidates, Mr. Wieland defeated Mr. Blair 1,485,560 to 1,189,812 votes.^« So after a period of more than a quarter of a century, Mr. Blair brought his period of public service to a close. In a sort of "farewell address" Mr. Blair, through the medium of the December, 1934, Educa- tional Press Bulletin, expressed appreciation for the opportunity to serve the people of the State as State Superintendent of Public Instruction. For his successor he wished the utmost in cooperation of all the teachers and school officers of the State. ^* Educational Press Bulletin, June, 1934, p. 1. "See Educational Press Bulletin, December, 1934, p. 1. "Election Returns, 1922-1950, State Officers, Secretary of State, p. 105. 135 STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLEC INSTRUCTION Legal Department Statistical Department Supervisory Department Pension Department Certification Department Text Book Department COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS Rural Schools Teachers Boards of Directors ALL THE CHILDREN of ALL THE PEOPLE Extra Attendance NYA, WPA, etc. PTA Com. Clubs Publicity Conventions Professional Advice Adult Education Federal Reports NEA-ISTA 136 CHAPTER XVIII JOHN A. WIELAND First Term, 1934 - 1938 "It is with a deep sense of the weight of responsibility resting upon me in my official capacity that I write this first official greeting to the teach- ers, principals, superintendents, and school officials of the State of Illinois. I am not unmindful of the task that confronts me in this important State office."' Thus spoke Superintendent Wieland in February, 1935, to the edu- cational leaders of the State. He thanked his predecessor for the sup- port urged for his new administration and characterized him as a man of "magnanimous spirit." Then he continued with a pledge: ". . . to give to public education all that I possess of training, ability, experience, and good judgment in dealing with school problems." * Early in his administration the State Superintendent of Public In- struction emphasized the importance of educational supervision. He made a clear distinction between inspection and supervision. He believed that the former was diagnostic in character, while the latter should represent cooperation and assistance in problem solving situa- tions. Two supervisory principles were enunciated: supervision must be statesmanlike, constructive, and dynamic; and the nature of super- vision must vary with the needs of particular communities. On facing page is reproduced an organizational chart, showing the relationship of the State Department of Public Instruction to the schools of the State. This appeared in the Educational Press Bulletin for December, 1935. Superintendent Wieland divided the State of Illinois into three su- pervisory districts: Northern, Southeastern, and Southwestern. Super- visors assigned to these districts were to visit, inspect, and supervise rural, city elementary, and high schools. Each of the top administrative and supervisory personnel, with one or two exceptions, had a Master's Degree, and two of them had earned Doctorates. A short biographical sketch of each appears below. Charles C. Stadtman, Executive First Assistant, had earned a Mas- ter's Degree at Washington University, and prior to appointment to the State Office, had served as Principal of the East Alton-Wood River Com- munity High School. O. F. Patterson had secured both Bachelor's and Master's Degrees from the University of Illinois. He had served as a high school principal, and for five years as Superintendent of the Shelbyville Public Schools. He was appointed Chairman of Supervision of the Northern District and represented the State Superintendent of Public Instruction in all matters pertaining to the North Central Association. ^Educational Press Bulletin, February, 1935, p. 1. ' Ibid. 137 Claude E. Vik had secured his Doctorate at Washington University and, in addition to experience as a teacher and a superintendent of schools, had served ten years as Head of the Dq^artment of Education at McKendree College. Lewis W. Ragland, Assistant Supervisor of the Northern District, had received his Master's Degree from the University of Illinois. He also had experience as Superintendent of the Normal Public Schools. Otis Keeler, who had secured his Master's Degree at the University of Illinois, was appointed Chairman of Supervision of the Southeastern District and was special advisor to the State Superintendent on school buildings. Prior to appointment to the State Office, he had been Su- perintendent of Schools at Marshall, Illinois. Paul E. Belting, in addition to public school experience, had for- merly been a professor of secondary education at the University of Il- linois. He had secured his Doctorate from Columbia University. In addition to his supervisory duties in the Southeastern District, he car- ried the responsibilities of a special consultant in the field of physical education. E. S. Simmonds, newly appointed Chairman of Supervision of the Southwestern District, had received his Master's Degree from the University of Illinois, had been a high school principal, and for several years had been Superintendent of Schools at Pittsfield. J. Roy Byerly, Assistant Supervisor of the Southwestern District, like many of the supervisory personnel, had secured his Master's De- gree from the University of Illinois. Previously, he had been a teacher at the University High School at Urbana. He also held the responsibil- ity of representing the Department of Public Instruction as a consultant on problems of the handicapped child. Jay Earle Hulct, prior to teaching at Proviso Township High School, had been Superintendent of Schools at Astoria. He had earned a Mas- ter's Degree at the University of Illinois. Mr. Hulet was appointed to the position of Chief Clerk. T. A. Reynolds, in addition to earning a Master's Degree from the University of Illinois, had earned a law degree at St. Louis University. He had been Superintendent of Schools at Sheffield. Mr. Re^Tiolds was appointed as Chief of the Legal Division, with the rank of Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction. Maurice C. Lipman was assigned to the Northern District as a su- pervisor. In addition to earning a Master's Degree from the University of Illinois, he had made a distinguished record for himself as a teacher and principal in the Chicago Public Schools. His particular supervisory duties were confined largely to the metropolitan area in and around Chicago. However, he resigned shortly after his appointment. C. H. Engle, Superintendent of Schools at Cuba, possessed a Mas- ter's Degree from the University of Illinois. He was appointed to the position of Statistician, although he subsequently became Supervisor of Certification. 138 A. L. Whittenberg, who had served as Secretary of the State Ex- amining Board under Francis G. Blair, was retained by Superintendent Wieland in that capacity. Thus it can be seen that the newly elected State Superintendent surrounded himself with a corps of well trained, experienced people. Perhaps this indicates a trend of the times, namely, that men in high positions in the State Department held graduate degrees. Incidentally, this trend was to continue in subsequent administrations in the Office of Public Instruction. By 1936, at the time the State Superintendent submitted his Bi- ennial Report, there had been some changes and additions in the official family of the State Office. E. L. Coberly had become Chief Statisti- cian, Ward N. Black had been appointed to the supervisory staff, and assigned to the Southeastern District. C. H. Engle had become Secre- tary of the State Examining Board, O. M. Karraker had become Sec- retary of the Teachers' Pension and Retirement Board, and of course there had been a considerable turnover in the minor positions in the State Office. Before the end of his first term. Superintendent Wieland had changed existing personnel from one department to another, and had added new ones as the duties of the office required. E. L. Coberly became head of the Statistical Department and performed a real serv- ice by his innovations and reforms in statistical procedures. Don Cash Seaton became Director of Physical Education. After the passage of the George-Deen Act in 1936, Kenneth Lawyer became Director of this enterprise in the State Office. Early in Superintendent Wieland's administration another Educa- tional Commission was created. Five members were to be selected from the State Senate, five from the House of Representatives, and ten to be appointed by the Governor. One of the ten members appointed by the Governor was State Superintendent Wieland. According to the statute creating the Commission its duties were: (a) To redefine the aims and functions of the public schools of this State (b) To study and make recommendations concerning the organi- zation, administration, and control of public schools and public education (c) To study and make recommendations concerning the financ- ing of public schools and public education (d) To report their findings to the General Assembly within thirty (30) days after the General Assembly convenes so that the necessary action, as indicated by such findings and rec- ommendations may be taken by the General Assembly.^ The act provided further that such expert assistance as was needed might be procured, and $15,000 was appropriated for the work of the Commission. 'Laws of the State of Illinois Enacted by the Fifty-ninth General Assembly at the Regular Biennial Session, 1935, p. 1350. 139 According to the volume of the Session Laws this act was approved July 5, 1935, although Superintendent Wieland announced passage of the act in the April, 1935, issue of the Educational Press Bulletin, stating that the Governor had approved the act on February 9, 1935. Actually, the Commission held its first meeting on March 12, 1935.* Superintendent Wieland made a strong plea for thorough and prompt cooperation of school officers in furnishing data to the Com- mission. He urged also that all citizens both inside and outside the teaching profession watch the work of the Educational Commission. He remarked that many studies had been made previously with few tangible results. In an effort to render a statesmanlike service to education in the State, Superintendent Wieland appointed the Superintendent's Educa- tional Advisory Council of 18 members consisting of some of the most distinguished educators in the State. While Mr. Wieland believed that he had a competent staff, it was his opinion that: "There is need, however, in any staff for the sober judgment of other trained and experienced people who see the problems from the outside with probably greater objectivity than is often possible for staff members themselves." The members of the Council represented a cross section of educa- tional activity: administrative, teacher training, research, academic, and associations of teachers. It was believed that much progress could be made as a result of the counsel of such a group. A new feature was incorporated into the Educational Press Bulletin by the State Superintendent. It was entitled "Legal Departement" and appeared regularly each month in the publication. This feature proved to be most helpful to county superintendents and other school officers, because the former had many inquiries as to what was and was not legal, particularly after a meeting of the State Legislature. T. A. Rey- nolds, Chief of the Legal Department of the State Superintendent's Office, was to establish a reputation for great ability in matters of school law. But the reader must not receive the impression that the State Su- perintendency was involved only in administrative and organizational procedures. As one examines the records of the Office and studies the official publications, he receives a strong impression that the improve- ment of instruction in the schools of Illinois, particularly in the ele- mentary, was of paramount importance in the mind of the State Super- intendent. There is a mass of evidence to support this view. In a strongly worded article in the Educational Press Bulletin, the State Superintendent pointed out that great emphasis had been placed upon strengthening the high schools of the State. This emphasis might have been attributed to the fact that in order to collect tuition from non high school districts, a high school must maintain a recognized standing. Although the State Superintendent did not so state, it may * Educational Press Bulletin, April, 1935, p. 2. * Educational Press Bulletin, May, 1935, p. 1. See also names of personnel of this Council. 140 have been the active high school visitation by the State OfRce and the University of Illinois that had accentuated high school standards. To be sure, there had been previous efforts to establish criteria for elementary school excellence. But these criteria had taken the form of requirements for "recognized" and "superior" schools, and perhaps an undue influence had been exerted in the realm of physical standards. Possibly too much emphasis had been placed upon the one-room rural elementary school. Numbers alone would seem to justify greater atten- tion to elementary schools, as the ratio of attendance in elementary schools to hieh schools was 76 to 24. Then, too, legislation pertaining to the State distributive fund, and equalization quotas, particularly by the Fifty-Ninth Session of the Gen- eral Assembly, had a distinct bearing on the situation. Beginning in 1936, all money received by "Special Aid Districts" had to be used for educational purposes. For the benefit of the lay reader, may it be said that "educational purposes" meant teachers' salaries, books, equipment, etc., and not repairs or replacements on the school building itself. The State Superintendent pledged himself to a serious consideration of im- provement in instruction in the elementary schools, particularly the rural. Numerous other illustrations of educational activity might be cited: the interest of the State Department in safety education; a campaign for better school libraries; a study of trends in history, rather than of historical personalities; emphasis upon better trained teachers; added impetus to vocational education upon the secondary level; health edu- cation; publication of a manual on laboratory equipment and apparatus; an activity program for dictionary study. This list is but a partial one. Early in 1936, Superintendent Wieland announced that an or- ganization for curriculum study would be formed in the near future. Any curriculum revision, in the opinion of the Superintendent, must be preceded by a period of research and analysis. Any curriculum pro- gram should cover a fourteen grade scope, from first grade through the junior college. Subsequently, there appeared a number of State Cur- riculum Bulletins which will be referred to below. In pointing up the need for curriculum development, C. G. Stadt- man. First Assistant Superintendent, declared that no movement had ever been initiated in Illinois involving all the instructional units of the public school system. This was in spite of the fact that from time to time the Legislature had designated certain "branches of study" to be taught. In December, 1936, Superintendent Wieland laid before the Gounty Superintendent's Association the need for a curriculum development program. This group unanimously endorsed the idea and designated its president, Albert Walker, to work with Frank A. Jensen, President of the Gity Superintendent's Association, and Superintendent Wieland. The committee, thus constituted, named a State steering committee, vested with the responsibility of evolving a philosophy and setting up the machinery for a curriculum building program. After due deliberation, a committee of fifteen representative edu- cators was chosen. These members came from the county superintend- ents, city superintendents, teachers colleges, the Department of Public 141 Instruction, and the University of Illinois. Dr. Samuel T. Everett of the University of Illinois was named curriculum consultant.^ Work proceeded in spite of severe budgetary limitations. On March 6, 1936, a meeting was held at Normal, Illinois, where sLx conclusions or guiding principles were reached. The hope was expressed that cur- riculum conferences could be held during the summer sessions at the teachers colleges and at the University of Illinois. Various agencies and committees which had already been studying or experimenting with curricula were to been listed in support of the new effort. The Office of Public Instruction was to serve as a clearing house for the various committees. The Organization Committee made a report that six specialized com- mittees be created: Committee on Aims, Committee on Institutional Cooperation, Committee on Public Relations, Committee on Study Pro- gram, Committee on Rural Education, and Committee on Social Trends. The teacher colleges and other institutions of higher learning co- operated in devoting a considerable portion of their educational confer- ences in the summer of 1936 to the subject of the curriculum. County committees to encourage and set up curriculum study groups were recommended by the Steering Committee. Curriculum Bulletin Number One had been prepared and was intended as a guide for these study groups. Pursuant to considerable pressure from county superintendents, the Committee on Rural Education issued a tentative course of study for rural schools. Five areas of work were decided upon: language arts, applied and fine arts, natural science, social science, and mathematics. Each teachers college was assigned one area and asked to assume lead- ership of the production committees. By studying the diagram on the following page^, one can see that developmental areas rather than grades were emphasized. Fusion and flexibility were advantages claimed for such a plan. It was emphasized that this curriculum guide was only tentative, and that it might be used as a basis for continued efforts to improve instruction. So Curriculum Bulletin Number One was for purposes of orientation. In September, 1938, it was announced that Curriculum Bulletin Num- ber Two was ready for the final editing. It was announced by G. G. Stadtman that "This bulletin is truly a rural curriculum guide."® Reduction in the number of classes and integration of subject matter were two important innovations. County superintendents were deemed key people in the installation of the program. It was hoped that after production was attained in rural schools, the program might be ex- tended to city elementary and high schools. A study of Superintendent Wieland's Biennial Reports reveals that they are briefer than those of preceding Superintendents of Public In- struction, particularly those of Superintendent Blair. They contain less of the Superintendents' educational philosophy and fewer miscellaneous * For names of entire committee, see Educational Press Bulletin, April, 1936, p. 6. ^ Reproduced from Educational Press Bulletin, March, 1938, p. 8. 'Educational Press Bulletin, September, 1938, p. 17. 142 UPPER GRADE Note — The radii can be rotated to provide the proper time for each area. articles on education. Whereas, these Reports give considerable insight into the administration of the State Superintendent and remain the fountainhead of statistical information, required by law for many years, the Educational Press Bulletin furnished much information as well as insight. In April, 1935, the "house organ" of the State Superintendent's Of- fice, the Educational Press Bulletin was increased in size from four to eight pages. In March, 1936, the form of the Bulletin was changed from letterhead size to a pamphlet size approximately nine inches by five inches. The new size made it much more convenient for filing. In addition to the change in size of the publication, there was a change in format, which brought specialized articles or information under the by- 143 line of a department head or specialist in a particular field. The first article was usually the message from the State Superintendent for that particular month. Another desirable feature was the appearance of a photograph of the writer of the article, although this was not an in- variable practice. The Bulletin also carried an attractive cover and included a table of contents for quick and convenient reference. It would be well to consider a few statistics about the public school enterprise at the end of the fourth decade of this century. Figures for the school year 1939-1940 show there were 907,922 pupils enrolled in the elementary schools of the State. This represented 70.55 per cent of the total pupils in all public schools of the State. In the high schools, there were 379,163, or 29.45 per cent of the total. The grand total 1,287,085 students was further reduced to 1,248,827 after corrections for duplications in enrollment were made. This total number of pupils was taught by 49,132 teachers, of whom 23,721, or 48 per cent, had degrees of one kind or another. The average cost per elementary pupil was $90.76; for each high school pupil, $114.83.^ State Superintendent Wieland summarized what he considered the principal accomplishments of his first administration. This summary appeared in the January, 1939, Educational Press Bulletin as the first item in the Forty-third Biennial Report. What did the State Superin- tendent believe to be the principal accomplishments? First, the supervisory program had been organized and carried on with the principal object of unifying all levels of education into one school system. A system of recognition had been instituted for the elementary schools, rural and village, of the State. Modern educational equipment, adequate library facilities, improvement in teacher prepara- tion, and rehabilitation of inadequate buildings were some of the cri- teria included in the recognition system. Similar improvements had been effected for high schools. Through consultatory service there had been much progress in dovetailing the work of the high schools with that of the elementary schools. Second, the State Superintendent had delegated the duties and responsibilities of administering and supervising vocational education to the Department of Vocational Education, where for four years the subject had enjoyed an unprecedented growth. Third, the Legal Department of the State Office had rendered some 14,000 legal opinions in four years, and had held more than 2,000 office conferences with school officers and patrons. The Department published and kept up to date the School Law of Illinois. As a new service, more than 200 meetings on school law had been held in various counties of the State. A monthly article on legal matters had been made a regular feature of the Educational Press Bulletin. Fourth, the Illinois State Examining Board for Teachers' Certificates had made some significant and popular changes in the institutional credit blanks for certificate applications. Blanks had been consolidated * All statistics from Forty-third Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Pub- lic Instruction, 1940, pp. 252-253. 144 into one form to reduce the work of registrars in institutions of higher learning. Fifth, the Statistical Department of the State Office rebuilt and standardized the systems of pupil and financial accounting to conform more readily than the previous systems had conformed with the School Law and modem accounting procedures. Through a system of keyed interlocking reports, the State Department had gained a reputation throughout the nation for the simplicity and adequacy of its school accounting. It had made scores of statistical reports each year for legis- lators, educators, and other interested persons. Sixth, the status of the Illinois State Teachers' Pension Fund had been strengthened. At the instigation of the State Superintendent, the Board of Trustees sold some property which had been acquired, re- financed loans, and strengthened the cash position of the Fund. Finally, the Department of Textbooks and Publications had func- tioned efficiently and well. In four years time, thirty-seven special bulletins, circulars, and reports had been issued.^° The year 1938 was election year for the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Superintendent Wieland had opposition in the Democratic primary in the person of Mr. Frank A. Jensen, Super- intendent of Schools at Rockford, Illinois. Although the reasons were somewhat obscure, there were some persons who believed, at the time, that Mr. Wieland had let himself become involved in the 1936 guber- natorial race between Mr. Horner and Mr. Bundesen and that in reprisal Governor Horner brought out Frank Jensen. Whether this was true or not. Superintendent Wieland was nominated. His Republican opponent in the November election was Wiley B. Garvin. The official returns showed that Superintendent Wieland received 1,599,286/2 votes, to Mr. Garvin's 1,466,167." " For more detail, see Forty-third Biennial Report of the State Superintendent oj Public Instruction, 1940, pp. 12-14. ^'Election Returns, 1922-1950, State Officers, Secretary of State, p. 128. The author is unable to account for the /a vote received by Mr. Wieland, but it is given in the source cited, which is the official source. 145 CHAPTER XIX JOHN A. WIELAND Second Term, 1938 - 1942 As John A. Wieland looked ahead to the work of his second administration, he was convinced that he faced two principal problems. The first was the improvement of classroom instruction, and the other was finding improved methods of financing the public schools of the State. The solution of the first problem depended largely upon the people of the school districts, with strong leadership from principals, super- intendents, county superintendents, and the Superintendent of Public Instruction. The second problem depended for solution upon the use of school revenue in such a way that educational opportunities might be increased, and, in the poorer schools, revenues equalized up to a reasonable minimum. The State distributive fund should be increased so as to reduce the local property tax burden. The matter of school reorganization was involved in this financial problem. Two schools of thought prevailed in regard to school reorganization: one believed that radical and immediate reorganization should precede any increase in State aid. The other held that increased State aid should precede re- organization. With this latter view the State Superintendent agreed. He believed further that reorganization should be permissive and not compulsory.^ Much evidence can be presented to prove that the conditions precedent to the improvement of instruction had been met by the time Superintendent Wieland began his second term. The Educational Press Bulletin abounds with accounts of improvement. Curriculum accomplishments have been treated in a previous chapter. The super- visory staff of the State Department of Public Instruction had accom- plished much. A system of recognition for elementary schools, instituted by the Superintendent, had resulted in notable improvements. County superintendents were reporting much progress to the State Office. School libraries were improved: maps, charts, and globes were being pur- chased in increasing numbers; new and up-to-date textbooks were being adopted; Pupils' Reading Circle book sales had nearly trebled in four years; new dictionaries and encyclopedias had been added. All of these improvements were in addition to marked ones in physical facilities: sanitary toilets, artificial lighting systems, re-painted exteriors and in- teriors of schools, improved heating plants, double roller shades, and many other items. Nor had the improvement of school facilities for instruction been confined to the elementary schools. The Department of Public Instruc- tion and the University of Illinois had worked together to outline con- 'Forty-third Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1940, p. 16. 147 editions for the recognition and accrediting of the high schools of the State. In 1937 a bulletin was issued by the State Office showing that 921 public high schools were fully recognized. In addition, 152 private high schools had attained a recognized status. Others had been granted probationary recognition, raising the total number to 1,154, the greatest number ever to have applied for recognition in the history of the State. ^ C. A. Bell, reporting on vocational education for the school year 1938-1939, stated that more and more schools were attempting to meet the standards established through the state and national program of vocational education. A few figures are significant. During the year cited, 69 more schools had departments of vocational homemaking approved than the year preceding; 36 schools had established newly approved programs of vocational agriculture; 13 new programs of trade and industrial education had been approved; and in the newly develop- ing field of distributive education, 9 more schools had conducted pro- grams than had the year before.^ As has always been the case, improvement of instruction and adequate financial resources go hand in hand. As indicated above. Superintendent Wieland considered adequate financial assistance one of the recurring problems of education. Some progress was made by act of the Sirty- first General Assembly. Superintendent Wieland announced that the State distributive fund had been increased for the current biennium from $26,114,000 to $29,494,000." However, the appropriation act in the Session Laws of the General Assembly stated that for the first year of the biennium there would be $14,120,000; and for the second year $15,260,000.^ This did not include the $57,000 annual appropriation which was interest on the State school fund, referred to in one of the early chapters. Simple addition of $14,120,000 and $15,260,000 results in the sum of $29,380,000. But more important than the trifling discrepancies in amounts was the appropriation by the Legislature of $500,000 for the transportation of pupils. This was the first time in the history of the State of Illinois that State aid had been provided for the transportation of pupils. No school district might receive more than $15 per child transported, and, only then, if standards for transportation set up by the State Super- intendent of Public Instruction were observed. Other significant features of the new distributive fund law was an increase of equalization quotas. For elementary schools the level was raised from $30 to $40 per pupil in average daily attendance. High schools which levied a 75 cent rate for educational purposes, and non- high school districts also, might receive $80 per pupil. Unit districts which levied $1.50 might also qualify. This was the first time in the educational history of the State that high schools received State aid. 'Educational Press Bulletin, September, 1938, p. 7. 'Educational Press Bulletin, October, 1939, pp. 9, 19. * Educational Press Bulletin, December, 1939, p. 3. ° Laws of the State of Illinois Enacted by the Sixty-first General Assembly, 1939, pp. 111-112. 148 Slowly, but surely, the State Legislature was increasing the size of its appropriations for State aid. One of the increased duties devolving upon the State Superintendent of Public Instruction was the sponsorship of a state-wide educational program of the Works Progress Administration. One of the aspects of this program was the nursery school. In downstate Illinois there were six districts with 50 nursery schools, employing 150 teachers and 140 other employees consisting of cooks, janitors, and laundresses. The State Superintendent for W.P.A. nurseiy schools, Dorothy A. Duckworth, wrote interestingly of these schools, enrolling about 1,500 children, in one of the issues of the Educational Press Bulletin.^ An interesting illustration of the impact of federal legislation upon the school children of the several states of the Union is found in the Social Security Act. T. A. Reynolds, Assistant Superintendent in charge of legal matters, called attention to a letter from John W. Studebaker, United States Commissioner of Education, to State Superintendent Wieland. Under the survivor's insurance benefits to dependent children, payments to those between 16 and 18 years of age were contingent upon school attendance. Mr. Reynolds explained the working of the law and caused a sample of the blank forms to be printed in the Educational Press Bulletin for February, 1940. Another illustration of the impact of federal legislation was the National Youth Administration (NYA) program. It was designed to take youth of high school age off the streets and get them back into school. A student might receive a maximum of six dollars per month if, after investigation, he was found worthy of being placed upon the NYA roll. Students were expected to work, under supervision, for the stipend received. Important as this small sum was to the student, there was a great deal of opportunity for a guidance program to grow out of an NYA program. One such program in action, in Jacksonville High School, was described in the Educational Press Bulletin for May, 1940. Other pro- grams of educational guidance were reported in the same issue. Super- intendent Wieland recognized the growing importance of educational guidance in these words: "Educational guidance is not only a helpful part but an essential part of the school pi-ogram. It is concerned with all activities in the school which are directed toward informing the pupil, in helping him make intelligent choices and adjustments for the present and the future." ' Indicative of the fact that all NYA programs were not so effective in some schools as in others was a conference in August, 1940, of all states east of the Mississippi River. Each state sent a representative of its state office of education, its state NYA director, and a person rep- resenting the National Association of Secondary School Principals. Illinois was represented by E. L. Coberly, Mary S. Anderson, and G. W. Sanford, representing respectively each of the organizations men- tioned above. •May, 1939, pp. 17-18. ''Educational Press Bulletin, May, 1940, p. 2. The entire issue of this pub- lication is devoted to the subject of guidance. 149 The conference resulted in the recommendation that each state set up a school work coimcil composed of educators for the purpose of improving the school aid program. The purposes of the program were sharpened by five objectives: ( 1 ) Improvement of NYA student work projects. (2) Correlation of in- and out- of school NYA projects. (3) Introduction of more real work experiences into all areas of the curriculum. (4) Cooperation with national defense programs. (5) Encouragement of local programs concerned with living in a democratic social order.® Superintendent Wieland and others, particularly Mr. Coberly, gave much thought and attention to the implementation of the NYA pro- gram. In the Spring of 1940, the State Superintendent renewed his efforts to make school boards and other school officers conscious of the need for improvements in the physical features of the schools. Two entire issues of the Educational Press Bulletin were devoted to plans and speci- fications for lighting facilities, water supply, toilets, safety against fire, ventilation, heating, and seating.^ This campaign was well-timed because in the weeks ahead school boards would be considering and planning improvements for the full term of school. Not only that, but the Municipal Budget Act required complete budgets containing proposals for expenditures in both the edvicational and building funds. Under the provisions of the law, these budgets must be available for public inspection. For some time, leading authorities in the field of education had considered the importance of radio to instruction. Various and sundry programs had been tried, but too many of them were, in the words of Harold W. Kent,^° "deadly, dull, and sophomoric." But such an impor- tant medium of communication as radio could not long be relegated to the background, and in 1940 the State Superintendent of Public Instruction appointed the permanent State Radio Committee. The Com- mittee consisted of C. H. Engle, Chairman; Ward N. Black, Secretary; David J. Heffernan, radio consultant; Charles C. Stadtman and Sewell E. Baker. After due deliberation the Committee submitted to Mr. Wieland a program calling for a survey to determine the number of schools with radios, the number of children listening to radio broadcasts, the pro- grams used, and suggestions which schools had to make for the improve- ment of educational broadcasts. Superintendent Wieland's philosophy of the value of radio in educa- tion was a sane one: he did not "go overboard" in a blind advocacy * Educational Press Bulletin, October, 1940, p. 8. " Issues of March, 1940, and April, 1940. '" Director Radio Council, Chicago Public Schools. 150 of radio as an educational medium. He did not advocate a program by the State Office as its own. Rather, he believed that a study and evaluation of programs then on the air might be made in order to determine which ones were worthy of reception in the schools of the State. He believed that the principal interest of education in radio should be one of utilization. He recognized fully that schools should regard radio as a supplementary tool and in no sense use it to sup- plant the system of formal education. Nor did he believe that the value of radio programs was to reinforce the formal subjects of the curricu- lum, but rather to contribute in general to the cardinal objectives of education. The State Radio Committee advocated the use of radio programs carefully planned in advance and, as nearly as possible, articulated with the units of work of the class. It encouraged individual listening to enhance pupils' appreciation and understanding of drama, music, and art. The Committee drew up a list of recommendations for the use of radio in the schools and compiled a bibliography on the subject of radio in education to be made available for distribution from the State Office of Public Instruction. County superintendents cooperated with the State Office; they were of the opinion that the phenomenal growth of rural electrification prom- ised much for the increase of radio sets in the schools. The interest in radio as an educational medium was not a tran- sitory one. Superintendent Wieland noted a year later that members of the educational profession had been working with the research departments of the large broadcasting companies in an effort to reach a conclusion as to the type of information best disseminated by radio. Many classroom teachers were avid in seeking guidance how best to utilize the potentialities of radio. The Superintendent reiterated his pledge to place the resources of the State Office at the disposal of those interested in radio education. Assistant Superintendent Ward N. Black reported in December, 1941, that the National Broadcasting Company through its affiliates, WENR, WMAQ, WLS, and WCIL, were presenting educational offer- ings in various fields. Stations WIND, WJJID, and WAIT had regularly scheduled educational programs through the school week days. Programs ranged in interest from the kindergarten level through the senior high school. The Sixty-second General Assembly passed many acts of significance for the schools of Illinois. All of the new legislation was of such a nature as to increase responsibilities for the Office of Public Instruction. This study does not propose to discuss at all some of the acts, nor any of them 'tn great detail; however, it will give attention to some of them in topical form. Appropriations. $15,011,000 for the first year, and $16,255,000 for the second year of the biennium, 1941-1943, was appropriated from the common school fund. This was somewhat higher than for the preceding one. $775,000 was appropriated for transportation reimbursement. Total excess costs of $1,101,450 for education of handicapped children were 151 appropriated. The sum of $650,000 was granted for the work of the Board for Vocational Education. ^^ Certification of Teachers}^ The new act required that a teacher must be at least 20 years of age, a citizen of the United States, and of good health in order to be granted a certificate. The latter require- ment meant that the applicant for a teacher's certificate must present a certificate from a reputable physician that he was free from com- municable diseases. Any elementary teacher who desired a certificate without examination after July 1, 1943, must have a degree from a recognized institution of higher learning, with not less than 120 semester hours, including sixteen hours in education, five of which must be in practice teaching under close supervision. This law was not retroactive, as will be noted from the effective date of the new law. Those already holding a limited state elementary certificate with less than a college degree might have their certificates renewed upon evidence of professional growth. Teacher Tenure Law. This law difTcred in its application to boards of directors and to boards of education in districts containing less than 500,000 inhabitants. In the former, the law required that teachers, prin- cipals, and superintendents must be notified before April 25 of each year as to whether they would be rehired the following year. In the case of schools governed by a board of education, after two years of probationaiy service the law required that a teacher must receive notice in writing if he were not to be rehired, and reasons must be included with the notice. The law also required this notice to be in the teacher's hands at least sixty days before the end of the probationary period. A teacher's right of appeal from a dismissal notice after he had secured tenure was provided by the law. Education of Handicapped Children. For the first time in the history of education for handicapped children a specific sum of $13,060 was earmarked to the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the super- vision of special classes for handicapped children. Claims for excess costs of these classes were required to be approved by the Superintend- ent of Public Instruction instead of by the Department of Public Wel- fare. Another bill provided for the reimbursement of school districts for the operation of special classes for crippled children. A third bill provided that children with defective hearing be included in special classes for the deaf in public schools. Qualifications for County Superintendents. After July 1, 1943, a nominee for county superintendent of schools must hold a State limited or State life supervisory certificate, and at some time during the two preceding years be actively engaged in teaching or supervising in the public schools of Illinois. It was only a question of time until the War Preparedness Program " Laws of the State of Illinois Enacted by the Sixty-second General Assembly, 1941, Volume I, pp. 60, 68, 69, 78. "Illinois Revised Statutes, 1941, State Bar Association Edition (Smith-Hurd), Chapter 122, Sections 501a, 501c. 152 of the national government should make its influence felt in the public schools. This reference is to the period preceding December 7, 1941. As early as December, 1940, G. A. Bell stated, "Vocational education for the National Defense is both a tribute and a challenge to the public schools and the schools of Illinois under the State Board for Vocational Education have accepted that challenge." " Mr. Bell pointed out that the primary objective of the defense training program was, by specific training, to increase the skills of employable workers that they might be used in jobs required for the production of material for the defense effort. Program for out-of-school people, CCC enrollees, and youth on NYA projects were to be instituted. Mr. Bell was proud of the fact that Illinois had been alert to the need and that Illinois ranked second only to New York in enrollments in the courses.^* A month or so later, State Superintendent Wieland gave voice to the great importance of the defense training effort. He believed that the National Defense Program was imperative to protect American democ- racy. He was convinced that the responsibilities of education for the fostering and protection of democracy had increased over the years. New demands made on education were constantly increasing. The Educational Press Bulletin for January, 1941, contained such articles as the following:: '& ' "What Our Schools Can Do To Promote National Defense," by Ros- coe Pulliam, President of Southern Illinois State Normal University "National Defense Program In The Springfield High School," by Lyman K. Davis, Principal Springfield High School "What Can Elementary Schools Do In The Defense Program?," by Warren P. Shepherd, Superintendent of Taylorville Elementary Schools "The Teaching of Democracy and American Way of Life," by Charles Bruner, Superintendent of Kewanee Schools "Citizen Education For Defense of Democracy" — A Bibliography by E. S. Simmonds, Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction A renewed effort was made by the State Office of Public Instruc- tion to stimulate improved programs of physical education. The Office had been constantly hearing excuses, given as reasons, for something less in the way of a program than the law envisioned. The Office cited the' physique of our service men in the World War I as a reason for increased implementation of physical education programs; although it admitted that using the war situation for this purpose was unfortunate. Kenneth Lawyer, Supervisor of Distributive Education in the De- partment of Public Instruction, described the growth of the program of distributive education in the State, citing its implication for the defense effort. Because of the draft and defense jobs there had been a severe drain on retail personnel. Some married women who had worked in the retail field had resigned to make possible their husbands' claiming draft exemption for dependent wives. Another asset of the distributive occupation training was the acquisition of knowledge in merchandising, greatly needed in the armed services. State Superintendent Wieland took a statesmanlike attitude toward "Educational Press Bulletin, December, 1940, p. 15. " Ibid. 153 the work of the schools during a period of war, refusing to be stam- peded into a program that bore the imprint of a war hysteria. He pointed out there should be no unjustifiable dislocation of the school program. "Desperation is not a proper substitute for preparation" was the epigrammatic way that he stated his point. He counselled against lengthening the school day or week and shortening the term. He be- lieved that this would jeopardize the health of the students. In the primary grades especially, he believed that the school should provide a home of refuge from the emotional turmoil of the time. The State Superintendent exhorted school board members to resist the pressures for reduced school budgets during war time, pointing out that educational costs would probably rise and that it would be short- sighted and unfair to curtail educational opportunities for pupils. He maintained that teachers' salaries should be raised because it would be increasingly difficult to retain qualified and competent teachers; that standards for sanitation, health, physical education, and play and recreational facilities .should not be waived; and that standards of schol- arship should be raised rather than lowered. The State Superintendent believed that America had the man power to win the war; the schools could do much to provide the will power. By the opening of school in September, 1942, the impact of the war was increasingly evident: there was an acute shortage of teachers in some fields; equipment of certain kinds was in short supply; build- ing repairs and improvements were being postponed. The Educational Policies Commission urged the schools to give priority to war duties, without abandoning the essential services of the schools. This they did in a big way. Although a complete enumeration of war-time school activities is impossible, a partial list would include such activities as the following: 1. Sale of war bonds and stamps 2. Collection of scrap metal 3. Collection of milkweed pods 4. Formation of labor pools in rural communities, particu- larly during planting and harvesting seasons 5. Establishment of Junior Red Cross units 6. Institution of first aid training courses 7. Cultivation of victory gardens 8. Establishment of courses for store workers and defense in- dustries 9. Construction of model airplanes for the Navy 10. Creation of courses for amateur radio operators In December, 1942, State Superintendent Wieland gave official sanc- tion to the organizing of a victory corps in the high schools of the State. The objectives of the corps included pre-flight training in aeronautics, competence in physics and mathematics, physical fitness, wartime citi- zenship training, and others. Every high school student was eligible to join, and the a\ owed purpose was to help win the war. 154 In the midst of all the duties of war time, 1942 was election year for the Office of State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Mr. Wieland was a candidate for re-election. His opponent was Mr. Vernon L. Nickell, Superintendent of Public Schools in Cham- paign, Illinois. Mr. Wieland was defeated by Mr. Nickell, 1,333,679 votes to 1,497,550 votes.^^ In his farewell statement to the teachers and school officers of the State, Superintendent Wieland said in part: "It is with a certain degree of satisfaction that I note the improvement during the past eight years in the curricular offerings of the school; in the preparation and professional growth of teachers; in the quality of instruction; in the buildings and educational equipment; in the finan- cial support of public education; and in the school and community relationships. These and related improvements encouraged through the over-all program of 'Recognition' which was extended to include the elementary as well as the high school, here meant a richer and fuller experience for the thousands of boys and girls in the schools of Illinois — the boys and girls who are the tomorrow of America and the hope of democracy." " Superintendent Wieland then urged the continuance of school people's cooperation and support for the new administration. ". , . to the end that educational opportunities may be further improved and equalized for the boys and girls of Illinois." " ^Election Returns, 1922-1950, State Officers, Secretary of State, p. 153. ^^Educational Press Bulletin, January, 1943, p. 3. " Ibid. 155 CHAPTER XX VERNON L. NICKELL First Term, 1942-1946 Vernon L. Nickell brought important experiences and qualifications to the position of Superintendent of Pubhc Instruction. He had been a rural teacher, a superintendent of village schools, principal of the elementary schools and junior high school and later superintendent of the public schools of Champaign, Illinois. He had earned a Master's Degree at the University of Illinois and had been prominent in educa- tional and professional organizations, notably as President of the Illinois Education Association and as a member of important committees of the National Education Association. His interest in civic, religious, and fraternal organizations was marked, and his contributions sub- stantial. In all probability he was the best known man ever to be elected to the Office of State Superintendent of Public Instruction. In addition to the usual problems that faced a newly elected State Superintendent, Mr. Nickell assumed office in the trying situation brought about by World War II. Some of the problems, outlined in the previous chapter, were accentuated as the war progressed. The newly elected State Superintendent was fully aware of some paradoxes in education in Illinois when he uttered these words: "Illinois schools, in some communities, are oi>erating under pioneer day regulations and equipment, while we live in an era of high speed air- planes and the highest industrial age of all-time. "Actual education is the attainment of the ability to think and act for one's self. What the student should consider and how he may best be equipped to increase his knowledge is the immediate concern of modern day leaders of education." ^ In indicating the principal aim of his administration and the func- tion of the Department of Public Instruction he stated plainly: "The OflSce of Illinois Superintendent of Public Instruction has one principal aim for all students. That aim is a true American education, minus all other considerations. That means a total vacation from the school systems of politics, or any other influence that might detract from the sound preparation of all good Americans for their later lives." ^ Fully cognizant of the part of education in the war eflFort, and in the period following the war, Superintendent Nickell declared suc- cinctly: "The schools must be fit to meet the immediate war needs and the trials that come with the winning of the peace." ^ Superintendent Nickell. in selecting top personnel for his office, chose well-known educators. A brief biography of each appears below. ^Educational Press Bulletin, February', 1943, p. 2. ' Ibid., p. 3. ' Ibid. 157 Gary C. Byerly was chosen First Assistant to the Superintendent. Mr. Byerly had a Master's Degree from the University of Chicago. He had done graduate work at the University of Southern California, Northwestern University, the University of Illinois, and the University of Chicago. Early in his professional career he had been a high school teacher and a superintendent of schools, and prior to his appointment was Superintendent of the West Chicago Public Schools. He helped to organize and later became president of the DuPage Valley Division of the Illinois Education Association. He was a member of the Steering Committee for the Illinois Curriculum Program. He had also served as president of the Superintendents' Roundtable. Luther J. Black, newly appointed Executive Secretary of the State Teachers' Examining Board, had a Master's Degree from the Univer- sity of Illinois. He had been a teacher in the grade schools, and for twelve years served as County Superintendent of Schools in Douglas County. He was a past president of the Eastern Division of the Illinois Education Association, past president of the Illinois County Superin- tendents' Association, and at the time of his appointment was Manager of the Illinois Teachers' Reading Circle Board. Robert G. Smith, appointed by Superintendent Nickell to act as Chief Clerk, was a native of Greene County. His education was secured at Illinois State Normal University, Western State Teachers' College, and the University of Chicago. His experience had been varied: teacher, high school principal, and city superintendent of schools. He had served as president of both the Western Division and the Mississippi Valley Division of the Illinois Education Association. For a number of years he had served on the Public Relations Committee of the latter Division. L. W. Hinton was designated as Assistant Superintendent in Charge of Statistics. A graduate of the University of Illinois, he had served as an instructor in the Springfield Public Schools. For four years he had served as an assistant county superintendent of schools in Sangamon County, in which position his experience in handling such affairs as state aid claims and annual reports had provided him with an excel- lent background for his new position. Paul H. Prehn was chosen Director of Personnel. For nine years he had served with success as head coach of boxing and wrestling at the University of Illinois. He had also served as Chairman of the Illinois Athletic Commission. He was the author of two widely used textbooks in scientific wrestling. In 1936 he was listed in Who's Who Among America's Young Men. N. E. Hutson, Assistant Superintendent in Charge of Legal Matters, earned his law degree from the University of Illinois. In his home town, Monticello, Illinois, Mr. Hutson had served as president and member of the board of education, had represented school boards in legal mat- ters, and had served as city attorney and master-in-chancery. Walter V. Brown, Supervisor of Textbooks and Publications, was a social science instructor in the Hillsboro Community High School prior to his appointment to the State Office. He had secured a Master's Degree from the University of Illinois. 158 Ray Graham was named Director of Education for Handicapped Children. He had had a broad experience in the elementary and high schools of the State, and at the time of his appointment was principal of the Hay-Edwards School in Springfield. He had earned a Master's Degree from die University of Illinois and had done additional gradu- ate work at the University of Southern California. Ray O. Duncan, newly appointed State Director of Health and Physical Education, was a native of Granite City, Illinois. He had a Master's Degree and at the time of his appointment was working toward his Doctorate. He came to the State Office from the physical education staff of the University of Illinois. He had served as a president of the lUinois State Physical Education Association. M. M. Cruft, Director of School Transportation, came to the State Office from Cass County. He had been Superintendent of Public Schools in Virginia, Illinois, and subsequently was elected County Superintend- ent of Schools of Cass County. He came to the State Office from that position. Ernest J. Simon was appointed by Superintendent Nickell to the position of Director of Vocational Education. Mr. Simon had received his Master's Degree at the University of Illinois and had completed residence work for a Doctorate. At the time of his appointment to the Department of Public Instruction, he held the position of Director of Vocational Education in the Champaign Public Schools. Between the years 1938-1943, he had served in the State Department of Public Instruction as Supervisor of Trade and Industrial Education, Acting Supervisor of Distributive Education, and Assistant State Director of War Production Training. In each case, he had been given a leave of absence from his position in Champaign. O. M. Karracker was retained as Executive Secretary of the Teachers' Pension and Retirement Board. Superintendent Nickell also retained Otis Keeler and Ward N. Black from the previous adminis- tration. Mr. Keeler remained as Chairman of Supervision of the South- eastern District, and Mr. Black, in the capacity of Assistant to the State Superintendent in Charge of the war program. No attempt has been made to list all of the new personnel in the State Office of Public Instruction. People came and went, transfers were made from department to department, and, as the press of duties was increased, new appointments were made. The year 1943 witnessed a prodigious amount of work in the Office of the State Superintendent. The impact of the war upon education and educational personnel was tremendous. Almost every mail brought to the Office some communication from the federal government con- cerning the all-out war effort. Every'one recognized that winning the war in the soonest possible time was the most demanding problem. There were specific duties to perform; morale had to be kept high. One example of the willingness of the State Office to cooperate in the war effort was furnished at the annual meeting of the Illinois Association of School Boards on October 26 and 27. A unique element of the meeting was the consultation hour. State Superintendent Nickell 159 brought his entire staff to the meeting for consuUation. School boards had the opportunity to discuss school law, lunch programs, vocational education, the school's part in the war effort, and many other topics. During May, 1943, the United States Office of Education sent out educational experience summary cai-ds to all secondary schools in the United States. The War Department designated these cards, and the information to be recorded thereon, as the official basis for preliminary selection of candidates for the Army Specialized Training Program. State Superintendent Nickell had sent out a letter explaining the intent and purposes of the card. Since guidance and occupational infonna- tion were necessary, he assigned the administrative procedures to the Occupational Information and Guidance Service, State Board for Vocational Education. One person was designated by the State Superintendent to devote full time to the victory corps and the other phases of the war program in schools. Addresses, meetings, and communications became increasingly numerous for the State Superintendent and his staff members. But the war was not allowed to obscure educational progress. Ray Graham, Director of Education for Exceptional Children, outlined the "Illinois Plan" of speech correction in 1943. First Assistant, C. G. Byerly, annoimced the preparation of A Handbook for School Boards. Transportation of students presented problems. School buses were in short supply. Results of the examination of drivers and the inspection reports on buses had to be filed and processed semiannually. A new law required students in the public schools to have a health examina- tion once in four years. Legal interpretations of the existing School Law, new legislation, and Supreme Court decisions required a great deal of attention, as was usually the case. The subject of the reorganization of school districts in Illinois was revived. The Illinois Rural Education Committee approved a state- ment of principles and procedures basic to gradual reorganization in Illinois. Among the several recommendations was one for a full-time planning staff in the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. Another recommendation was for the creation of an advisory committee on program, this committee to include lay members, and be named by the Superintendent of Public Instruction. A revision of the State Course of Study was being considered by the Office of Public Instruction, specifically by Assistant Superintendent Robert M. Ring. In the midst of these multifarious activities, State Superintendent Nickell found time to sound a note of warning about child labor abuses. He stated in part: "The lure of war-time wages is threatening classroom attendance. Youth must not be prematurely exposed to the physical and mental dangers of mechanized industry and agriculture. "America is experiencing the temptation to reduce the standards of employment by the false premise that this is a needed step for the war effort. The removal of time-tested safeguards against child employment will cause a slowdown in production and it will radically reduce our standards of education . . . 160 "In all states, the chiselers are hard at work, trying to break down child- labor laws it has taken this, country 125 years to build up."* By 1944 it was apparent that the Axis Powers would be defeated. This feeling was reflected in the Office of Public Instruction. The Division of Rehabilitation of the Board for Vocational Education, which cooperated closely with the State Superintendent's Office, was looking ahead in its plans for disabled veterans. Kenyon S. Fletcher, Supervisor of Operations War Production Training, emphasized possible changes in the business and industrial structure of the nation in the period after the war. He pointed out that the public schools having made their facilities available for war production training, would be able to offer occupational courses and to give counselling and guidance in the post-war era. Increased opportunities for the exceptional child were persistently urged by the State Office. The importance of visual aids in the educa- tive process was noted. The Health and Physical Education Department of the Office of Public Instruction had been conducting Demonstration Clinics in the closing months of 1943 with the result that its program was advancing rapidly. Some attention had been given by the Office to the problems of the junior college. To attempt anything like a complete account of the duties of the Office of Public Instruction during the years 1945-1946 is impossible in this study; consequently, a few sentences concerning the highlights of these years must suffice. The significant event was the ending of World War II. The State Superintendent perceived quickly the implications of a new atomic age. He raised the question if humanity dared to invent an atomic bomb faster than it developed a philosophy and practice of peace. Recon- version had a particular meaning to the Superintendent. "Reconversion has its greatest challenge in education. The problem is far greater than proper planning and programming for returned service men and women. All people of all ages must be rehabilitated to the new situation. We must get acquainted with international governments, with world travel, with new inventions, and new restraints and enthusiasms." ' But Superintendent Nickell could not permit himself the luxury of prolonged speculation. The Sixty-fourth General Assembly had been productive of much significant school legislation. Senate Bill 295, the so-called "Unification Bill," brought all laws pertaining to special education into one law. Instead of several State agencies dealing with the problems, the entire responsibility was now ledged in the Office of Public Instruction. The Legislature in another bill appropriated $4,910,694 for special education of handicapped chil- dren for the biennium 1945-1947.® The State Superintendent of Public Instruction had to unify the program; he had to set up standards for classes; he had to approve claims of school districts for reimbursement of excess costs; he had to supervise the schools. An appropriation pro- * Educational Press Bulletin, May, 1943, p. 12. * Educational Press Bulletin, October, 1945, p. 2. * Laws of the State of Illinois Enacted by the Sixty-fourth General Assembly, 1945, pp. 80-&1. 161 vided for the administration of the newly unified program made it necessary for Mr. Nickell to recruit competent people. Two changes in certificating requirements for teachers became effec- tive July 1, 1945. One of these changes, enacted by the Legislature, dealt with the issuance of emergency certificates. The other change, made effective by the State Examining Board, provided for the issuance of Limited State Vocational certificates. The Legal Department of the Office of Public Instruction was besieged with requests for clarification and interpretation of new tax laws which became effective January 1, 1946. Ihese had to do with assessments and the new requuement tliat the 1946 levy had to be made before September 25, 1945. The General Assembly increased the conunon school fund sub- stantially in 1945. i'or general apportionment the amount for students in grades one to eight was raised Irom i})i3 to JJ>19 per pupil, and lor students in grades nme to twelve from $2 to $4 per pupil. 1 lie. equaliza- tion factors were raised from $62 to $85 per pupil m grades one to eight, and from $85 to $90 per pupil in grades nme to twelve. 'I'his necessitated considerable extra work in tlie Statistical Department, which handled claims for State aid. For several years a new course of study had been in preparation in the State Office. In 1945 the Illinois General Assembly made an appropriation of $2U,000 for the printmg and distribution ol the Illinois Curriculum and Course of Study.' Assistant Superintendent Robert M. Ring served as chairman of a committee consistmg of six county super- intendents of schools in addition to himself." I'he pubfication came off the press in 1946. The Sixty-fourth General Assembly gave impetus to the movement for school reorganization by the enactment of a new school survey law. This law speciticaily provided for the creation of the State Advisory Commission of nine members, to be appointed by the State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction after due consultation with interested groups. By this law, the State Superintendent was to serve as secretary ex olficio to the Commission. If directed to do so by the Commission, the secretary was empowered to employ professional personnel, deter- mine the aims and goals, principles, and procedures in reorganization, and prepare and distribute a manual regarding tlie law for distribution throughout the State. The State Superintendent was also made respon- sible lor the allocation of funds to the various county committees and for die expenses of the State Advisory Commission. Only two of the nine members of the Commission might be professionally engaged in educational pursuits. The Commission was required to report to the Legislature concerning its work not later than January 1, 1950. County survey committees, consisting also of nine members each, five from rural and four from urban areas, were required by law to ' Ibid., p. 284. ' Personnel of Committee consisted of Ruel E. Hall, Marjorie B. Leinauer. Wilbur L. Pickering, Oscar Schmitt, Russel D. Rendelman, and Roe M. Wright. 162 plan and study school reorganization. The county superintendent of schools, in each case, was required to serve as executive secretary to the county committee. Tentative reports and recommendations of the counties were to be filed with the State Advisory Commission and the Superintendent of Public Instruction before June 1, 1947. A final report with adjustments was to be submitted by January 1, 1948. Thus the Illinois General Assembly set in motion the machinery for reorganization. Why, at this particular time? This legislation was enacted, the reader will recall, prior to the end of World War II. A number of reasons suggest themselves: (1) Legislation had been enacted denying recognition to schools with less than 7 pupils in average daily attendance. (2) A minimum salary law for teachers, effective July 1, 1946, undoubtedly caused some schools to consider the wisdom of maintaining costly schools with small enrollments. (3) Advocates of increased State aid had been told even during the administration of Governor Homer that some kind of school reorganization should be effected. (4) A considerable number of county superintendents of schools had been active in advocating reorganization. (5) Tax-payers' federations and other kindred groups had raised the question of the advisability of reorganization. (6) A relatively small but active number of school board mem- bers had advocated reorganizing school districts as a means of equalizing educational opportunity. (7) The Report of the Illinois Agricultural Association School Committee in November, 1944, undoubtedly provided a strong stimulus. For example, the Report set forth four major conclusions in its summary of recommendations: "Educational Opportunities Should Be Equalized" "Costs Should Be more Equitably Distributed" "Freedom of the Schools Should Be Maintained" "Cooperation Required" ' One of the genuinely important actions of the Sixty-fourth General Assembly was the enactment of the School Code of 1945. The Sixty- second General Assembly in 1941 had created the Illinois Public School Commission, consisting of nine members appointed by and holding office during the pleasure of the Governor. This Commission was charged with the responsibility: ". . . to codify all laws of the State of Illinois pertaining to public schools and public education." " This responsibility was discharged, and the General Assembly in 1945, Article I, Section 1, stated: "This Act shall be known and may be cited as The School Code,"" * Report of the Illinois Agricultural Association School Committee, Novem- ber, 1944, pp. 62-67. " Volume One of the Laws of the State of Illinois Enacted by the Sixty- second General Assembly at the Regular Biennial Session, p, 1149. " Laws of the State of Illinois Enacted by the Sixty-fourth General Assembly at the Regular Biennial Session, p. 1332. 163 Anyone familiar with the propensity of legislatures to add to or amend laws, with the result of a hodge-pod^c of legislation, can testify to the importance of codifying the School Laws of Illinois. On June 4, 1946, the President of the United States signed the new School Lunch Act, known as Public Law No. 396. This act placed the administration of school lunch programs in the Office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Two years prior to 1945, the General Assembly had passed a law reimbursing schools 2}/^ cents for every Type A meal served. This was in addition to the 9 cents paid by the federal government. Congress had also appropriated $10,000,000 to be used by schools for school lunch equipment. Of this sum, Illinois was allocated $382,000. There were about 2,000 schools in Illinois eli gible to receive a share of this fund. Believing that the dictates of efficiency demanded it. State Superintendent Nickell assumed the addc I responsibility of administering both federal and state programs. This included the processing of applications of schools for funds just men- tioned for the adding of lunch equipment. These added duties for the State Department were accepted as a part of the general philosophy that it was the function of the State Superintendent to do everything possible to give the school children of the State the best of opportuni- ties and advantages. Although it has been impossible to relate all of the details of the increased importance of the State Department of Public Instruction, enough has been said to indicate that much progress had been made. While much of the energy of the Office was absorbed by the impact of World War II, this event had not been allowed to reduce or mini- mize the primary responsibility of directing the work of educating the boys and girls of the State. Superintendent Nickell received the nomination of the Republican Party for a second term. His Democratic opponent was C. H. Engle, who had been Secretary of the State Teachers' Examining Board tmder State Superintendent John A. Wieland. Mr. Nickell was elected by a plurality of 520,093 votes.^^ "Election Returns, 1922-1950, State Officers, Secretary of State, p. 163. 164 CHAPTER XXI VERNON L. NICKELL Second Term, 1946 - 1950 After taking the oath of office for a second term as Superintendent of Public Instruction, Vernon L. Nickell expressed his great appreciation for the honor of reelection. He pointed out that: "Progress requires that all the people be familiar with our program of education; our educational objectives; that every child has the oppor- tunity to take the training that will enable him to exercise full responsi- bility as a citizen, and assume the role of doing effectively his share of the world's work." ^ Superintendent Nickell reviewed briefly the educational progress of the State during the preceding four years. The General Assembly was entitled to credit for much of this progress. In four years State aid for schools had been increased from $31,380,000 to $44,087,300; equali- zation level for elementally schools had been increased from $56 to $80 per pupil, and for high schools from $80 to $90; a minimum annual salary for teachers of $1,200 had been enacted into law; State reimbursement for transportation of pupils had been increased to $20 per pupil; the program for exceptional children had been greatly expanded. The Office of Public Instruction was entitled to much credit for this educational progress. The supervisory stafT had worked assiduously at the problem of improving instruction; the Illinois Curriculum and Course of Study Guide had been completed and placed in the hands of teachers; a superior health and physical education program had been instituted; a hot lunch program was functioning in more than 2,200 schools; a program for exceptional children had been stepped up; and the contribution of educational agencies loomed large in the history of the war effort. At the risk of oversimplification, it might be said that the keynote of Superintendent Nickell's second administration was the emphasis upon the progress of the whole child. Certainly, recognition of this con- cept had been present during his first administration, and much evi- dence exists that this was continued during his second term. Increased emphasis was placed upon providing dental inspection and care, the work of the school nurse, the mental health of children, and school lunches. But the physical welfare of school children was not emphasized to the exclusion of other factors. Very early in Superintendent Nickell's second term, attention was directed to Schools for a New World, a book prepared by a group of the American Association of School Administrators.^ It was emphasized that there must be built new school ^Educational Press Bulletin, January-February, 1947, p. 2. ' Resum6 by Assistant Superintendent .John K. Price in the Educational Press Bulletin for January- February, 1947, pp. 4>-7. 165 programs, which, in turn, would necessitate improved qualifications for teachers and administrators, improved buildings, equipment, and educa- tional plans consistent with these programs. The cost would be great, perhaps many times what Americans had been accustomed to spending , for education. Another point of emphasis in Superintendent Nickell's administra- tion was good citizenship and staunch Americanism. Americanism and good citizenship were largely matters of the inculcation of morals and a sense of responsibility for one's duty in a democratic society. Educa- tion, in the opinion of the State Superintendent, had a tremendous responsibility and an active role to play in developing desirable traits of citizenship in this country. For a considerable length of time. Superintendent Nickell, in articles, speeches, and news releases, had referred to the need for broadening the school base by extending of the educational program of the State through the high school level into the years that included adult educa- tion. In commenting upon the situation current in secondary education, Superintendent Nickell stated: "We now face a situation full of contradictions. We strive to develop the individual needs of a pupil in an organization which exposes him to a curriculum of education arranged for groups." ' He went on to show that, while in the earlier period of the high school, emphasis had been placed upon subject matter and college pre- paratory curricula, this era was passing, and that the present emphasis in education was upon the concept of developing the individual as an entity. Secondary education needed to become much more than prepa- ration for college. The Secondary School Principals' Association of Illinois had ap- pointed a committee to study the curricular problems of secondary schools. Realizing the significance of these problems. Superintendent Nickell asked the Sixty-fifth General Assembly for an appropriation of $35,000 to help advance the study. This sum was granted, and the Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program was organized. With cooperation sought from and extended by professional and lay groups, the Program was launched under the sponsorship of the Office of Pub- lic Instruction in September, 1947. On July 28, 1948, Mr. C. C- Byerly, First Assistant Superintendent, presented a paper for Superintendent Nickell before an administrative conference at the University of Illinois. This paper is of interest because it recoimted the purposes of the Program and revealed the extent of cooperation in the State. The purposes, six in number, are listed here: first, the sponsoring of certain basic studies, designed to ascertain facts necessary in considering any intelligent long-range program of curricular improvement; second, the encouraging of developmental or experimen- tal programs in representative schools in which classroom materials would be developed, placed on paper, and distributed to other schools in the State; third, the preparing and distributing of publications; fourth, the establishing of a sound organization for curriculum work; * Educational Press Bulletin, March, 1948, p. 3. 166 fifth, the conducting of workshops for principals and teachers; sixth, the cementing of relationships with institutions of higher learning. Cooperating in the Program were thirty-two lay and professional organizations, some of which were the Illinois Association of School Boards, the County Superintendents' Association, the Illinois Agriculture Association, the Illinois Manufacturers' Association, and numerous labor organizations, in addition to the Illinois Secondary School Principals' Association and the Office of Public Instruction, the two organizations that had instituted the movement. It is quite evident that this was a splendid example of the principle of cooperative educational planning, a type of endeavor that Superintendent Nickell was extremely success- ful in implementing. In addition to Superintendent Nickell, Mr. James E. Blue, Past President of the Secondary School Principals' Association, and Mr. C. W. Sanford, Coordinator of Teacher Education at the University of Illinois, rendered valuable services to the Program; the latter was director. The entire issue of the Educational Press Bulletin for March, 1949, was devoted to a progress report. State Superintendent Nickell conceived of the Office of Public In- struction as fundamentally a service office. Of all the services rendered, he believed that the supervisory function was of cardinal importance. Certainly supervision can justify its existence only as it aids in the improvement of instruction. From time to time new members were added to the staff": the Assistant Superintendent in Charge of visual education, the Director of School Library Service, the Director of Trans- portation, and others. Supervision was regarded as a cooperative team project, with mem- bers of the State supervisory staff, school officials, teachers, and even school patrons meeting together after school visitations. The traditional inspection was discarded for cooperative supervision. Actvially, most of the personnel of the State Superintendent's Office could be said to have a supervisory function in one way or another. On one occasion Super- intendent Nickell told the author that one of the things he wanted to be remembered for was the improved quality of supervision. One of the results of World War II was the great impetus given to the movement for adult education. A part of this impetus came from the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, which made possible the education of servicemen and women in both institutional and on-the- job training programs. Another factor was a study made by a legislative council at the request of Superintendent Nickell. This study revealed that in 1940 the average grade attainment of adult citizens was 8.5, although in some communities it ranged as low as 7.5.* At first the educational objective was conceived as one enabling adults to meet the minimum reading and speaking needs of adult life. But, as time went on, it became apparent that people desired citizenship education, vocational education, and programs of a cultural nature. Citizens of the State came to believe that the public schools had a distinct respon- sibility for promoting and conducting programs of adult education. The University of Illinois found that its extension programs increased in * Educational Press Bulletin, February, 1948, pp. 7-8. 167 enrollment and popularity. Correspondence schools, of varying quality, did a thriving business. The Illinois Adult Education Association was organized to give advice and to assist those interested in starting adult education projects. State Superintendent Nickell recognizing the growing sentiment for adult education in the State, devoted the November, 1950, issue of the Educational Press Bulletin to this subject. In a prefatory statement he reminded his readers that the School Law now permitted school boards in districts fewer than 1,000 people to establish classes for per- sons over 21 years of age. He recalled that reports coming in to the State Office contained much information about adult education pro- grams, particularly about the ones in districts conducting junior college programs. Conservation education found favor in the Office of Public Instruc- tion. Superintendent Nickell designated Assistant Superintendent Ring as chairman of a committee to head up a program of in-service con- servation training for teachers. The teachers colleges of the State and the University of Illinois cooperated in offering courses and workshops in conservation study and in giving college credit for the successful com- pletion of these courses. They prepared and issued two publications with the approval and cooperation of the State Superintendent. Between 1946 and 1949 more than 3,000 teachers had enrolled in such courses. Not so glamorous nor spectacular as the foregoing services, but quite important to many people, was the service rendered by the Office of Public Instruction in assuming the responsibility of the General Educa- tional Development Testing Program. This responsibility was in coopera- tion with the Commission on Accreditation of Service Experiences of the American Council on Education. Walter V. Brown, Director of Veterans' Education, in the Office of Public Instruction, was assigned to direct and supervise the Program. Very briefly explained, the GED Program was a series of tests to be administered to veterans, to members of the Armed Forces before March 1, 1948, and to civilians over 21 years of age. If passed success- fully, these tests would enable a person in one of the above groups to secure a high school diploma, although he might not have completed his high school course work. This program was highly important in that many people might secure employnment where a high school diploma was a prerequisite, meet requirements for state licenses, and qualify for college entrance. The State Superintendent's Office was charged with the responsi- bility of designating official testing agencies for conducting the tests. These agencies were expected to make reports to the Office of Public Instruction at the close of each semester, the report forms being fur- nished by the State Office. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of this service. Men who left high school to enter the Armed Forces, returning veterans, and civilians over 21 years of age had an opportunity to enhance their economic and cultural status and become economically productive. If such a program had not been conducted, they might not have been able to do so. 168 Another aspect of the service rendered by the Department of Public Instruction was in the area of teachers' pensions. Teachers are primarily interested in two features of their pension system; viz., safety and adequacy. Reference has been made from time to time in this study to the evokition of the teachers' pension in Ilhnois. It was not until 1939 that the State Teachers' Pension and Retirement Fund was put upon an actuarial basis. Teacher contributions and other monies re- ceived into the fund had to be invested, and the law specified the types of investment which the Teachers' Pension Board might make. Aubrey J. Holmes, Executive Secretary of the Teachers' Pension Board, made frequent reports of his trusteeship. In an excellent and informative article in the March, 1947, Educational Press Bulletin, he explained with marked clarity how monies from the pension Fund were being invested. This created a feeling of security and confidence on the part of the teachers in their Fund. Mr. Holmes also kept the teachers posted about changes in the Teachers' Retirement Law. State Superintendent Nickell, of course, deserves much of the credit for this desirable state of affairs, as Mr. Holmes was one of his appointees. Toward the end of Superintendent Nickell's second term he reviewed the educational progress made in the State during the previous 50 years. In an article in the Educational Press Bulletin entitled "Mileposts and Objectives," the Superintendent of Public Instruction paid tribute to an "alert populace" for much of Illinois' progress. Some of the "mile- posts" of educational significance were the institution of public kinder- gartens; the rapid development of vocational education; the reorganiza- tion of 7,000 school districts; the improvement of the teachers' pension system; the transportation of 250,000 children in 3,500 school buses each day; 62.000,000 lunches served to nearly a million pupils in school year 1948-1949; required safety instruction in grades 1-9; the largest appropriation bv the General Assembly for the State distributive fund in history: $100,319,000 for the biennium 1949-1950.^ A glance at a few statistics for the decade ending June 30, 1950, reveals some interesting facts. In 1942 the total number of pupils enrolled in the elementary schools was 883,789. This number comprised 70.96' per cent of the grand total enrolled in the public schools of the State. The total number of pupils enrolled in the high schools of the State was 361,645, or 29.04 per cent of the total. ^ In 1950, as of June 30, the total number of pupils enrolled in the elementary schools, not allowing for duplications, was 908,999, which represented 74.86 per cent of the total number of pupils enrolled in the public schools of the State For high schools the number, not allow- ing for duplications, was 305,238, or 25.14 per cent of the total number enrolled.'' It will be readily seen that the percentage of elementary school Dupils enrolled rose by approximately 4 per cent. ^Educational Press Bulletin, March, 1950, pp. 2-4. • Forty-fourth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1942, p. 340. ' Forty-eighth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1950, p. 44, 169 Exclusive of Chicago, in 1950, 97 per cent of all high school teachers had earned a degree, while only 49 per cent of the elemen- tary teachers had done so.^ But in case the per cent of elementary teachers having a degree seems surprisingly high, bear in mind that only 8 per cent of the rural teachers outside of Chicago had degrees!' The median salary for a rural elementary teacher was $1,958; that of elementary teachers as a whole was $2,695.^° Once more Superintendent Nickell received the nomination of his party, and became a candidate for reelection. Again, his Democratic opponent was G. H. Engle. Mr. Nickell was reelected by a substantial plurality, 1,995,495 votes to 1,505,297 for his opponent.^^ » Ibid., pp. 443, 444. » Ibid., p. 445. " Ibid. ^^ Election Returns, 1922-1950. State Officers, Secretary of State, p. 171. 170 CHAPTER XXII VERNON L. NICKELL Third Term, 1950-1954 Shortly after taking his oath of office for a third term, Superin- tendent Nickell pointed to the many accomplishments of the public schools in this country. His excellent summary was accurate and, in reality, traced educational progress for the past several decades. "The schcK)ls have increased their holding power; almost complete equal- ity obtains amon.er the educational opportunities afforded to boys and girls and men and women; administrators and teachers are prepared much more adequately than in earlier years; school buildings have been improved; better text books are available; improved instructional equip- ment is used, including many audio-visual aids; the instructional program has been enriched and made more interesting by the addition of work in such areas as health, physical education, art, music, agriculture, home economics, work experience, social and personal relationships, and con- servation; advances have been made in making subjects more functional; and education is now generally looked upon as a continuous process last- ing throughout life, with few persons regarding education as completed when a certain age has been reached." * In speaking of educational progress in Illinois, the State Superin- tendent related some specific recent accomplishments and plans in the making for improvement. Among the specific accomplishments was school reorganization, which, in the period from 1944 to 1950, had reduced the number of school districts from 11,955 to 4,580.^ It was a matter of special pride that school people had become increasingly professional. The schools of Illinois had followed the principle that the educational program was for all youth, not for just the intellectually gifted alone. In pointing to contemporary educational improvements that were being tried, Superintendent Nickell referred to the Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program. In this cooperative effort were teachers, administrators, university professors, college personnel, and the Office of Public Instruction. At least 300 secondary schools were trying out one or more phases of the Program. The United States Office of Edu- cation, as well as many states of the Union, had called on personnel, either from the State Office of Public Instruction or from cooperating universities, to confer with school officials working on curriculum reforms. Then, too, Illinois was emphasizing citizenship education, and edu- cation for exceptional children. Superintendent Nickell expressed the opinion that one of the next important developments in education in Illinois would be the more extensive use of lay groups. There were no fewer than 135 advisory councils of one kind or another assisting in the development of programs in local school systems. Certainly, the educational leadership of Illinois was not idle. ^Educational Press Bulletin, May, 1951, p. 6. ' Ibid. 171 As usual, almost every session of the General Assembly resulted in more work, or new and additional duties for the Office of Public In- struction. The session of the Sixty-seventh General Assembly was no exception. House Bill 825 established county boards of trustees of seven members each (with certain specified exceptions). The appropriation of $10,000 for expenses of these coimty boards of trustees for the biennium was to be administered by the Superintendent of Public Instruction. House Bill 491, providing for State aid on a basis of $400 for each pupil in attendance at a recognized normal school main- tained by district or county, w'as to be administered by the Superin- tendent of Public Instruction. House Bill 750, which changed the teachers' certification law in Illinois, added more duties to the State Office. House Bill 671 provided that pa^Tnent of county superintend- ents' salaries would be made only upon certification of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction that county superintendents pos- sessed the necessary qualifications. House Bill 579 made it the duty of the Superintendent of Public Instruction to apportion the money avail- able from the common school fund. This had previously been the duty of the State Auditor. House Bill 472, authorized the State Superintend- ent to determine standards for the establishment of junior colleges. House Bill 348 made the State Superintendent responsible for pre- scribing uniform regulations for determining the efficiency as well as standards for safety, comfort, and convenience in the operation of a transportation program. House Bill 336 made the Board for Vocational Education part of the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. The legislation specifically cited did not include all of the indirect duties involved in numerous other amendments to the School Code. This was the work of just o7ie session of the General Assembly. As onerous as these administrative additions were, they did not cause the State Office of Public Instruction to forget that educational leadership in the improvement of instruction in the schools of the State was paramount. Believing that something needed to be done in stim- ulating the fine arts curriculum, Superintendent Nickell announced in November, 1951, that Miss Beulah I. Zander had been appointed Director of Music Education. Miss Zander announced as her objective the enrichment of music education in all schools of Illinois. Less than two years later, the State Superintendent announced the appointment of Mr. William Bealmer to the position of Director of Art Education. It was Mr. Bealmer's function to act as consultant to teachers, administrators, and school patrons in interpreting the value and philosophy of art education in the total school program. Students of public education know how alarming the teacher short- age became in the period following World War II and the Korean War. Three factors conspired to make the teacher shortage acute: the continued drafting of men into the Armed Ser\aces, the employment of teachers in business and industry at salaries well above their teach- ers' income, and the rapidly increasing school enrollment. The State Department of Public Instruction estimated that, by 1960, the elemen- tary schools of Illinois would need 963 new teachers a year to handle in- 172 creases in enrollment. If Illinois were to retain its place in the educational standing of the nation, some specific action should be taken. It was well known that other professions recruited people to fill their ranks, and that educational agencies must compete with the other professions for its share of competent people. Sheer necessity, then, seemed to dictate that a Division of Teacher Recruitment be established in the State Office. This was done and, in 1951, Superintendent Nickell selected Arthur Adams to serve as the first Director of Teacher I-lecruitment. In a nationwide survey of teacher recruitment activities, Mr. Adams found that only seven other state departments of education were giving any serious attention to teacher recruitment. There was also a striking increase in the issuance of emergency certificates in 15 states. Two studies on teacher shortage in Illinois give a detailed analysis of the subject: one by Luther J. Black, Secretary of the State Teacher Cer- tification Board of Illinois, and one by Harold E. Gibson, Director of the Bureau of Appointments, Illinois State Normal University.^ In December, 1952, Superintendent Nickell announced the appoint- ment of M. G. Moore to the position of Coordinator for Civil Defense in Illinois schools. In commenting upon the creation of this position, the State Superintendent said in part: "Since the creation of the federal civil defense agency and the state civil defense organization, it has become increasingly apparent that the office of public instruction should provide a trained educator who can work cooperatively with the state and federal agencies in the develop- ment of those policies and programs which affect all the schools, their teachers, boards of education, parent-teacher groups, local civil defense officials and the lay public. . . . Illinois, with its large population, and several cities in critical target areas, should take immediate steps to pro- vide consultant services in the area of civil defense." * Mr. Moore plunged into the duties of his office and expanded somewhat the nature of his assignment into general disaster training for schools. In this expansion he included directions for action during tornadoes, as well as possible bombings by the enemy. Since the schools had been emphasizing safety education in their curricula for some years, this disaster training program was entirely consistent with the whole question of safety. In 1954 the Office of Public Instruction announced the institution of a "Storm Warning Plan for Schools." This plan was the result of a cooperative effort of the Office of Public Instruction, the United States Weather Bureau, the United States Air Force, and the Illinois Defense Agency. The plan was discussed in detail at the several county Superintendents' conferences held in the State during August. One of the advantages of the plan, in addition to the safety aspects, was that it re- duced hysteria by an intelligent approach to a problem. When the read- er reflects upon school tragedies caused by tornadoes, fires, and gas explosions, much can be said for the anticipatory and preventive fea- ^ Luther J. Black, Report of Supply and Demand of Teachers in Illinois for 1953-1954 and Other Information Concerning Certification of Teachers, Spring- field, January 15, 1954. Harold E. Gibson, "The Teacher Shortage in Illinois," Educational Press Bulletin, May, 1954, pp. 5-14. * Educational Press Bulletin, December, 1952, pp. 14-15. 173 tures of this program to protect the lives of boys and girls in the schools of Illinois. State Superintendent Nickell repeatedly emphasized the desirability of a well organized and functioning program of citizenship education in the schools of Illinois. This program was not to be the traditional "drum and trumpet" kind, but one of many facets. In 1951, in com- menting upon citizenship education, Superintendent Nickell said: "Our plan in Illinois calls for the creation and try-out of new approaches to use in teaching citizenship; for the development of new and unique and challenging instructional materials; for the testing of new materials that have been developed at Columbia and in the eight pilot schools in the East; and for the distribution to schools of instructional materials that have been tried and that seem to offer promise of providing im- proved opportunities in citizenship for boys and girls." ' First Assistant Superintendent, G. C Byerly, traced the history of the thinking of the State Legislature which indicated a "fundamental and continuing interest" in the subject. Prior to 1953 the School Code of Illinois had provided for the teaching of: "American patriotism and principles of representative government as enumerated in the American Declaration of Independence, the Consti- tution of the United States of America, and the Constitution of the State of Illinois, and the proper use and display of the American flag ... in all public schools and other institutions supported or maintained in whole or in part by public funds." * In addition, the law provided for the instruction in methods of vot- ing by the Australian Ballot system. Other requirements of the School Code included the teaching of American history. Although no legal re- quirement existed for students passing an examination in American history or civics prior to 1953, this requirement was included in the action of the Sixty-eight General Assembly in 1953. There was also a provision in the School Code prior to 1953 that: "Every public school teacher shall teach the pupils honesty, kindness, justice, and moral courage for the purpose of lessening crime and raising the standard of citizenship." ' The law of Illinois had required, in addition, the teaching of the nature and harmful effects of alcohol and narcotics, kindness to ani- mals, physical education, and safety education. But these legal require- ments were regarded as minimum rather than maximmn requirements. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction, with the cooperation of lay and professional groups, had sponsored the Gitizenship Education Project, which was a part of the Illinois Gurriculum Program. The Illinois Curriculum and Course of Study Guide for Elementary Schools had developed a suggestive course of study in the social studies which made provision for citizenship education. Important emphases had been placed upon other aspects of the school programs of the State as having important implications for citizenship education. The physical education program held that a * Educational Press Bulletin, May, 1951, p. 8. •Article 27, Section 3. ^Article 27, Section 11. 174 healthy citizen tended to be a happy and useful citizen. It was em- phasized in school lunch programs that one of the concomitant ad- vantages was the practice of courtesy and politeness with one's fellow students around the lunch table. Conservation education emphasized that a conscientious citizen could not remain indifferent to the waste and exploitation of our natural resources. Auto driving courses called at- tention to the material losses of property and the waste of human resources through reckless and incompetent driving. The same held true for instruction in the harmless effects of alcohol and narcotics. Thrift education as an aspect of good citizenship was emphasized by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction and the members of his staff. For three consecutive years, 1951, 1952, and 1953, Superintendent Nickell requested cooperation with the Federal Government in its drives to sell United States Savings Bonds. In 1951 he pointed out that the bond program had three tundamental purposes: a finaiicial purpose to encourage reg"ular purchases of savings stamps and bonds; an edu- cational purpose to promote understanding of the benefits of personal thrift and the wise use of resources; and lastly an idealistic purpose to strengthen the beliefs in democracy and freedom as opposed to the pernicious doctrine of communism. In 1953 Superintendent Nickell summarized the importance of thrift in these words: "Thrift is a good personal habit. Good personal habits make good citi- zens. Good citizens make a good community, state, and nation." ° Even this brief summary of the principal aspects of citizenship education makes it clear that such education, as envisioned by the State Office of Public Instruction, was more than a formal part of a course of study. Interest in adult education continued in Illinois. Much of the re- sponsibility for veterans' education was lodged in the Office of Public Instruction. The State Superintendent designated Assistant Superintend- ent Ward N. Black as Director of Institutional Approvals, Veterans Training. I'he Congress of the United States enacted Public Laws 346, 679, and 610, whicti provided for training for non-disabled veterans of World War II. Public Law 550, known as the Korean G.I. Bill was passed subsequently. Very briefly, these bills provided a variety of training courses for veterans' schools, equipped and qualified under standards specified. Both public and proprietary schools were included. In case there was any temptation for proprietary schools to become "rackets," the Ofiice of Public Instruction was designated as the State Approval Agency for the State of Illinois for all training schools. Applications for approval had to be submitted to the Ofiice of Public Instruction. After approval, the schools were rigidly supervised by the State Office. Any school which failed to maintain standards after securing approval, was removed from the list of approved institutions. Of more than 981,000 World War II veterans in Illinois, about one-half had some kind oi training under the Educational Press Bulletin, November, 1953, p. 3. 175 public laws. The State was reimbursed by the federal government for salaries and travel of personnel, but all other expenses entailed by the program were paid by the State out of state-appropriated funds. The University of Illinois also stepped up its program for adult education. During the calendar year ending in June, 1953, the Exten- sion Division of the University had conducted 317 classes, 155 of them for University credit, in 47 counties, serving 6,928 people." Since 1945, school reorganization had been proceeding so rapidly that it was impossible for the average citizen, as well as educators, to secure up-to-date statistics. The Office of Public Instruction published figures in December, 1951, and again in December, 1953. The speed and extent of school reorganization was amazing. For example, in 1945 the total number of school districts was 11,955. In 1953, the total number had been reduced to 2,607. This represented a percentage of reduction of 78 per cent. The per cent of the area of the State in unit districts had reached 60 per cent.^° Additional statistics in the area of special education indicate the growing importance of this enterprise. In 1951 there were programs of special education in 91 of the 102 counties in Illinois. These programs served 55,443 children. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction, in September, 1951, certified excess cost claims to the State of Illi- nois for $4,923,132.54.11 One of the most significant acts of the Sixty-eighth General Assem- bly was changing the number and status of township trustees and the township treasurer. "The territory in each county, exclusive of any school district governed by any special act which requires the district to appoint its own school treasurer, shall constitute a county school unit as of July 1, 1954. County school units of less than one hundred eighty thousand inhabitants shall be known as Class I county school units and the office of township trustees in such units shall be abolished on that date and all records of such trustees shall be forthwith thereafter transferred to the county board of school trustees. County school units of one hundred eighty thousand or more inhabitants shall be known as Class II county school units and shall retain the office of township trustees." " The law then specified that the county board of trustees in Class I county school units should consist of seven members, no more than one of whom should be a resident of any one congressional township, unless there were fewer than seven townships, in which case not more than two might be residents of the same township. Terms of members were stag- gered at the beginning, but thereafter members' terms were for a six- year period. Nomination was to be made by petition signed by no less than 200 qualified voters. Election of members was to be held on the second Tuesday of April of each even-numbered year, which in Illinois is primary election day. The president of the board of trustees was to be selected from one of its own number. The county superintendent was designated by the statute as secretary of the board. This board was a bodv politic and corporate. 'Educational Press Bulletin, November, 1953, p. 21. ^° Educational Prejs Bulletin, December, 1952, p. 15. ^^Educational Press Bulletin, December, 1951, pp. 18-19. " Laws of the State of Illinois Enacted by the Sixty-eighth General Assembly at the Regular Biennial Session, 1953, p. 1418. 176 In Class II counties the trustees of schools were to appoint a treasurer for a term of two years, which person became ex-officio clerk of the board. In Class I counties each school board was authorized to appoint its own treasurer. The term was to be three years. Two or more school boards might appoint the same treasurer.^^ These new provisions of the School Law were epoch-making, and many questions arose concerning interpretation and implementation. State Superintendent Nickell believed that it was necessary to appoint a special committee to prepare a set of rules and regulations. This com- mittee of thirteen members consisted of school administrators, attorneys, and public accountants, with Assistant Superintendent Samuel M. Bishop as chairman. The results of the work of the committee were published in the Educational Press Bulletin for March, 1954. Superintendent Nickell again received the nomination of the Repub- lican Party in 1954. His Democratic opponent was Mark M. Peterman, well known as a coach and physical education director in Springfield High School. Mr. Nickell carried 84 of the 102 IlHnois Counties, but with a reduced plurality of 37,849 votes. However, he ran well ahead of the Republican candidate for United States Senator who was defeated by 240,655 votes.^* An objective analysis of Superintendent Nickell's three terms dis- closes that much careful planning and hard work had been done. Much educational progress had been made. Mr. Nickell believed that major accomplishments could be pointed to in a number of areas. First, leader- ship and a high quality of results were manifest in the education of the handicapped or exceptional child. Second, the supervisory functions of the State Office had been greatly extended and improved. Third, a new Course of Study and Curriculum Guide for Elementary Schools had been completed. Work is even now in progress toward a revision of the course of study. Fourth, there had been a tremendous increase in the cooperation of other lay and professional groups in the educational planning for the State. Fifth, phenomenal progress had been made in the reorganiza- tion of school districts. Sixth, the State Department of Public Instruction had made an important contribution to World War II, and to the problems immediately following the war. Seventh, Americanism and citizenship education had been emphasized. Eighth, the people of the State of Illinois had been taken into his confidence and kept fully informed of plans for educational improvement. Ninth, teaching and school administration had been more thoroughly professionalized than ever before. Tenth, the General Assembly had become increasingly syin- pathetic toward and generous to the financial needs of education in Illinois. "For complete details see The School Code of Illinois, Circular Series A, No. 98, pp. 39-43. " Statistics taken from Official Vote of the State of Illinois Cast at the Gen- eral Election, November Z, 1954, pp. 8, 14. 177 CHAPTER XXIII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This study has endeavored to acquaint the reader with the importance of the Office of Public Instruction, State of IHinois, to the educational history of the State. The personnel of this office have played such vital roles in the development of public education that it seems incredible that no systematic history of the office has been written prior to this one. The development of the Office of Public Instruction from a personnel of one or two people to the present staff including scores of specialists is a manifestation of the increasing complexity of our governmental institu- tions. The trained student of history and government can understand this complexity, but too often the average citizen, ignorant of laws of cause and effect, is quick to reach the conclusion that public offices have become a haven for unemployed politicians. As people demand an increasingly large number of services from government, they must realize that these demand increased costs and necessitate increased personnel. The Office of Public Instruction is no different in these respects from any other government office. This study has emphasized that nearly every session of the General Assembly brought to the Office added duties and respon- sibilities, most of which were mandatory. But the discharge of mandatory duties has been a small part of the total educational effort put forth by the Office. It was expected that the State Superintendent of Public Instruction would render a high quality of educational leadership to the schools of the State. In general, it has done this. The sources indicate that the overwhelming majority of State superintendents of public instruction were men who, activated by high ideals of service to the school children of the State, worked hard at their jobs. Often they were handicapped by inadequate appropriations from the General Assembly. Then too, especially in the earlier years, their work was made arduous and even frustrating by popular apathy, indifference, or even downright hostility to the concept of public education. It is worthy of comment that, once Illinois provided for an elective State Superintendent, the office was never abolished, as was the case in several other states. The Illinois Constitution of 1870 made the State Superintendent a constitutional officer, whose office could not be abolished except by constitutional amendment. At first the chief school officer of the State was elected for a two year period, but the shortcomings of this practice became so apparent, that in 1865 the length of his term was increased to four years. In general, the early years of the State Superintendency seemed to be pervaded by a crusading spirit. This may have been necessary for reasons pointed out in the body of this study. The author believes that genuine professional school administration began with the administration of Francis G. Blair; although there were sporadic manifestations of this earlier. 179 Gaining insight into the various personalities of the men who held the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction was one of the reward- ing experiences which came to the author out of his research for this study. Their temperaments and abilities varied; their programs and public pronouncements reflected these variances. There were among these men crusaders, silver-tongued orators, plodders, planners, men with vision, altruists, practical-minded politicians, and individuals possessing qualities of several of these types. For the past fifty or sixty years the people of Illinos have not been inclined to change their chief school officers frec^uently. Since 1898 there have been only four difl'erent Superintendents and since 1906 only three. Francis G. Blair established an all-time record for Illinois of seven con- secutive terms or twenty-eight years. This situation would tend to refute the criticism that the elective system for a state superintendent should be abolished in favor of the appointive one. Men have not been turned out of the State Superintendency with kaleidoscopic frequency, even though there were frequent political reactions that affected other State officers. Of course, it is a fact that political sentiment does have some bearing, that the dominance of a particular political party is reflected in the election of school officers. Most important, however, is the fact that control of the schools and those who administer them is retained by the people. This study has noted the impact of three major wars upon the schools of Illinois, as well as the impact of the most severe depression in our history. The Ci\il War and the two World Wars did not paralyze the educational effort, although they did bring strong influence to bear upon the schools. It is to the credit of the State Superintendents of Public Instruction that they did not allow war to obscure the importance of their maintaining educational opportunity for the boys and girls of the State. Probably the most significant reform in recent years was the reor- ganization of school districts during the period following 1944-1945. And yet the need of some kind of reorganization had been felt as far back as the administration of Alfred Bayliss. The roots of other recent educational refomis can be traced back to the precedent century: bet- ter training for teachers, numerous salary laws, teacher tenure, retire- ment provisions, transportation of students, and many others. Many of the earlier Superintendents of Public Instruction sought educational reforms, although they did not witness the fruition of their hopes. The demand for specialized services in the public schools has been noted. Education for the exceptional child, citizenship education, voca- tional education, transportation of pupils, school lunches, adult edu- cation, safety education, and physical education constitute only a partial list of these specialized services. As each demand became an actuality, the Office of Public Instruction found that it had to organize new pro- grams, inform the school officers, and supervise the efforts of individual schools. Once these demands were implemented into school programs, they could not remain static; revisions, refinements, and improvements were constantly needed. The Office of Public Instruction has become the 180 clearing house for all the educational programs and plans of the school systems of the State. In the future, it may be said safely, the Office of Public Instruction will assume added duties and responsibilities. This expansion will neces- sitate a high quality of educational statesmanship, increased personnel, continued cooperation of the public, and, above all, an ever-present awareness on the part of all the people that education provides the best hope for the future. The schools will face a strong competition from other governmental agencies for funds; and because the boys and girls are not organized into pressure groups and lobbies, the parents and all citizens must see to it that adequate funds are provided for the educa- tion of "all the children of all the people." 181 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE The first half of this study is based almost entirely upon the author's perusal and analysis of the session laws of the Illinois General Assembly and the biennial reports of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion. He believed that these primary sources had been largely neglected and that any attempt to make an objective study of the Office of the State Superintendent of Schools made this method imperative. It is true that the author consulted two or three secondary accounts on the subject; but, for the most part, these were highly subjective, and, to a large extent, much of the material in them was irrelevant. It should be said in all fairness, however, that these accounts were more in the nature of a histoiy of education in Illinois, than of a treatment of the Office of Public Instruction as such. For Part III of this study the author used the Educational Press Bulletin to good advantage. It should be regarded as a valuable primary source. As time went on, this "house organ" of the Office of the State Superintendent of Schools came to reflect the educational philosophy of the State superintendents as well as to furnish an authentic account of plans, programs, statistics, and actual workings of the personnel in the State Office. As a result, the biennial reports of the State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction became purely statistical. In the State Archives Building there are two volumes entitled Elec- tion Returns, State Officers, Secretary of State, which give the official election returns for 1882 to 1918 and 1918 to 1950. These records are written in longhand, although in recent years the Secretary of State pmblishes election returns in a printed pamphlet entitled, Official Vote of the State of Illinois. Appendix A records some "sidelights" on Francis G. Blair. They are taken from his published writings, and do not appear in the body of the paper. These sidelights appear in The Schoolkill River Anthology, in Educational Addresses, and in the Report of Francis G. Blair, Chief Executive Officer for the Illinois Board for Vocational Education, 1918. The three publications are in the Illinois State Historical Library. Some issues of the Chicago Daily News and the Illinois State Journal were examined for the purpose of securing election totals, or ascertain- ing names of candidates, particularly the defeated ones. I. PRIMARY SOURCES 1. Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public In- struction, First Biennial Report through the Forty-ninth. 2. Blair, Francis G., Educational Addresses, 1906-1920, Illinois Printing Company, Danville, Illinois, 1921. 3. Blair, Francis G., Schoolkill River Anthology, C W, Bar- deen, Syracuse, New York, 1920. 183 4. Blair, Francis G., Report Chief Executive Officer for the Illinois Board for Vocational Education, 1918, Illinois State Journal Company. 5. Cases Adjudged in the Supreme Court of the State of Illi- nois, 1840. 6. Educational Press Bulletin, April, 1907 to December, 1954. 7. Election Returns, State Officers, 1882-1918, 1918-1950, Sec- retary of State (2 volumes) . 8. Illinois Revised Statutes, State Bar Association Edition 9. Laws of Illinois, First General Assembly through the Sixty- eighth. 10. Newspapers a. Chicago Daily News November 10, 1898. November 4, 5, 1902. November 7, 1906. b. Illinois State Journal November 9, 10, 1898. November 5, 1902. November 6, 7, 1906. 11. Report of the Illinois Agricultural Association School Com- mittee, November, 1944. 12. The School Code of Illinois, Circular Series A, Number 98, Issued by Vernon L. Nickell, Superintendent of Public Instruction. II. SECONDARY SOURCES 1. Bateman, Newton and Shelby, Paul, Historical Encyclo- pedia of Illinois, Munsell Publishing Company, Chicago, 1906. 2. Cook, J. W., Educational History of Illinois, The Henry O. Shepard Company, Chicago, 1912. 3. Edwards, Newton, and Richey, Herman C, The School in the American Social Order, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Com- pany, 1947. 184 APPENDIX A "Sidelights" on Francis G. Blair Note: Thus far so much has been said about Francis G. Blair in his official capacity as the chief school officer of the State that one may well ask, "What was this man like as an individual? What distinctive personal qualities did he possess?" One little known work, written by Mr. Blair entitled, Schoolkill River Aiithology, provides a potential an- swer to these questions. The sub-title reads, "A Graveyard Review of Educational Fads, Follies, and Fallacies." It is quite apparent to the reader that this brief work by Mr. Blair was written in a light vein. It purports to expose to the light of day, in an ironical and facetious man- ner, some of the educational panaceas of the day. But it may represent something else: the desire of the author to get away from such writings as formal speeches and biennial reports and to enjoy himself by presenting in a clever way some of the inhibitions that he could never let come to the surface in the regular line of duty. It was published in 1920, about half-way through the seven administra- tions of Superintendent Blair. A few paragraphs from this book would seem in order. At the beginning of the book, in the form of an "Apology" author Blair states that such an apology is directed "First to 'Spoon River Anthology,' whose form furnished the pattern for this clown's coat cut out of colored calico. Second, to those somber, humorless educators who cannot abide a little nonsense, either now or then. Third, to that power which could 'the giftie gie us to see our sels as others see us' for seeming to assume that such a power resides in these lines. Fourth, to those living friends and relatives of the deceased who may feel hurt by the brutal frankness of these post mortem confes- sions. Fifth, to the author, ourself, for having deemed an apology necessary." ^ In addition to a Prologue and an Epilogue, there are a number of "voices" who speak from the tomb: Voice of the Big Word, Voice of Correlation, Voice of the. Standard Tests, and seventeen others. One is reproduced below in its entirety. Voice of Correlation / was conceived in a department store, born in a zoological gar- den, And died in a curiosity shop. My life was Platonic and promiscuous — I was forced into all sorts Of relations, with all sorts of things, in all sorts of ways. No wonder I went to pieces. Like the chameleon on the Scotch plaid Trying to be all things at all times I ceased to be Any particular thing at any particular time. ^ Francis G. Blair, Schoolkill River Anthology, p. 5. 185 Like Dido's hullhide, cut into such fine strips And stretched over such a vast territory, my presence Was hardly noticeable at any time or in any place. Even what God had put asunder I tried to join together 'Tvuas these many maladjustments which brought on the mal- ady Which laid me in this malodorous graveyard of malcontents And maledictions. However, this is not my first or worse bur- ial place. I have been buried a thousand times in dull lectures and books. But this is the only grave that anyone Has shown any interest in visiting Although none of my numerous Correlations have ever honored me with a call.' Another interesting facet of Mr. Blair's personality should be men- tioned. The author has noted frequently that many times when a reform or innovation reached the point of general adoption by educators, Mr. Blair would seem to be opposed and advance arguments against it, rather ably, too. But in a relatively short time he would be a staunch advocate of the same policy. Why was this? Was it because of sudden change of opinion? Was it because pressure was brought to bear on him by educators? Or, was it politically expedient? No answer can be found: only the questions raised. But one precise example is cited here of this "changeability." In a speech before the National Education Association at Kansas City in 1917, Mr. Blair made a rather devastating case against increased participation of the federal government. The very title of his speech is illuminating: "Observable Tendencies Toward National Education." In commenting upon the passage of the new Vocational Education Bill (Smith-Hughes) , he directs an attack at its form of administration, notably the National Commission of Vocational Education and the appointment of a group of paid experts. What are these paid experts to do? Make surveys and investigations? Too many educational crimes have already been com- mitted under the survey and investigation techniques, believed Mr. Blair, and he wanted none of it. As far as federal aid to state programs of voca- tional education was concerned, he expressed his reaction in these words : "One of the most compelling powers on earth is a hand filled with glitter- ing gold. It is not all complimentary to human nature to have to record what sudden and almost unaccountable changes have been brought about by that extended, bounteous hand, and how some who have accepted it with hasty joy have been all unprepared to find in the other hand a gleaming sword." ^ Other reasons were advanced in opposition to the administration of the Act, and withal, to the whole philosophy of the Act itself. Some brief backgroimd material for a later pronouncement is nec- ' Ibid., p. 25. 'Francis G. Blair, Educational Addresses, 1906-1920, pp. 145-146. 186 essary. The Illinois General Assembly had delayed action in establish- ing vocational education work. The federal law was amended permitting adoption of the Act by proclamation, and this the Governor did on November 14, 1917. Superintendent Blair was most complimentary to the prompt action of Governor Lowden, saying, in part, "It is most difficult to see how anyone familiar with the long drawn out effort to make a beginning in this important field of education, and who really and earnestly desired to see such work established and devel- oped, can look upon the action of Governor Lowden in any other way than as a bit of great good fortune." * (Italics by author) Educational Press Bulletin^ Januaiy, 1908, p. 1 A Statement From Superintendent Blair A recent news item created the ridiculous and absurd impression that the Superintendent of Public Instruction advocates "courses in love and courtship in the public schools." The reporter who started the joke may not have foreseen how seriously some people would take it. To save any serious friend of the common schools from being misled by such a report, I have deemed it wise to say in this public manner that the story is a gross misrepresentation of what I said and that neither in my thought nor in my utterance did I advocate any such scheme. F. G. Blair Supt. of Public Instruction Educational Press Bulletin, June, 1908, p. 1 Between May 4 and June 26, Blair made 33 educational addresses — 1 missed at Mt. Vernon because of train wreck. These were from Lock- port to Carbondale, Illinois; State Teachers Association, North Carolina; State Normal School Commencement, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan. Educational Press Bulletin, September, 1908, p. 1 To the New Teachers: Fret not thyself if thy pupils love thee not, but cover thyself with sack cloth and ashes if they respect thee not. * Report of Francis G. Blair, Chief Executive Officer for the Illinois Board for Vocational Education, 1918, p. 7. 187 APPENDIX B in » T z o p o < a O z o o z "SO •n Ui » ►- > •/> u 'X OS E c _ 2 ; a. SI > Ul < «J 5 «• & o .? " » >: 2 > Z L U - ' > « Irt .i > I- £ _ O : S f E i ' S » D — o E U .2 o It S.S. ,5 i = ^ -o < o " • ° o < K i/l l£ U .1 * •^ o ■O > O 1= o Iff o ~ £ o i£ ^ ;S ii "i s e o « - ^ = 5 E ** So" 0» ••- 2 « w o E X = u _aj i_ 0*0 ui Q. >. - i o5 ♦* £ o o _ o '5 *5 m i T li ■ O *n U TJ O O a I. m I "D o j: '- — -.'*' ca u o o o o o ' ■£ O « c ~ u O «i ' if o - o CO?' ■ t '^ *~ ; "o ** -o : ; ~ "D C ' -D B> O I O c O O. o -c Q.-= U -»— V S 2* V ■-300JC0D0 « O i< i .2 o o l.?s u X X ; m O t/i a. 2 • o o J- _ .■- c .£ •- o <0 Ji£ - .. t !r- • K i "tl ■-•"Si -og 91 .! m -^ :j < O < > U a Z Z H U 4 2 So £ = s E S i e a o f ^ " 2 ac Ik S % £ -S -S ^ ^1 — n o i: o i o« ►" ^ o J: m »« 5 c " ■£ S C E "S 1 • ."5 S >0 ia - C — O I S J.2Z ' • ■" «» _ < o o a. o la 188 APPENDIX C OFFICE OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION Current Publications Circular Series #12 Circular Series A #12 — The Physically Handicapped Circular Series B #12 — The Educable Mentally Handi- capped Circular Series C #12 — Those With Impaired Hearing Circular Series D #12 — The Visually Defective Circular Series E #12 — The Speech Defective Circular Series F #12 — The Maladjusted Circular Series A #19 — ^A Handbook for Rural Elementary Schools Circular Series A #21 — A Handbook for City Elementary Schools Circular Series A #30 — A Manual for County School Survey Committees Circular Series A #31 — Geography for High Schools with Ele- mentary Supplement Circular Series A #35 — A Guide for Planning School Buildings Circular Series A #37 — Illinois Syllabus in Driver Education and Training Circular Series A #39 — Manual of Legal Procedure for Reorgani- zation of School Districts in the State of Illinois Circular Series A #46 — A Teacher's Manual in Safety Education — Elementary Schools of Illinois Circular Series A #51 — Guide to the Study of the Curriculum in the Secondary Schools of Illinois Circular Series A #52 — Guide for Classification of School Ac- counts Circular Series A #54 — Illinois Guide to Healthful School En- vironment Circular Series A #60 — Report of School Health Program Circular Series A #64 — Five Years of General Educational Devel- opment Testing in Peoria 189 Circular Series A #72 — The School Code of Illinois Circular Series A 4^77 — Supreme Court Decisions Concerning Reading of the Bible and Religious Educa- tion in the Public Schools Circular Series A :#:81 — Functions of the Nurse and the School Health Program Circular Series A #84 — The School Code of Illinois (Supplement) Circular Series A #86 — Criteria for Institutions Training Veterans Under Public Law 550 Circular Series A #87 — Summary of the Provisions of the Com- munity Unit School District Law Circular Series A #88 — The Illinois School Report (July 1, 1950- June 30, 1952) Circular Series A #89 — 1953 Annual Statistical Report Circular Series A #90 — Recognition of High Schools (1953-1954) Circular Series A #92 — Illinois School Directory (1954-1955) Circular Series A #93 — A Directory of Public and Private Educa- tional Institutions in Illinois Offering Ap- proved Courses Under Public Laws 346- 610-550 THIS IS OUR SOIL EDUCATIONAL PRESS BULLETIN (MONTHLY) (Missing Numbers Are of Publications No Longer Available) 190 LIST OF ICP PUBLICATIONS FOR "HISTORY OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION" Circular Series A #51 Guide to the Study of the Curriculum in the Secondary Schools of Illinois, Bulletin No. 1 Principal Findings of the 1947-1948 Basic Studies of the Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program, Bulletin No. 2 How to Conduct the Hidden Tuition Costs Study, Bulletin No. 4 How to Conduct the Participation in Extra-Class Activities Study, Bulletin No. 5 How to Conduct the Study of the Guidance Services of the School, Bulletin No. 6 Human Relations in Curriculum Change, Bulletin No. 7 Guides to Curriculum Building — The Junior High School Level, Bulletin No. 8 The Story in Nineteen Schools, Bulletin No. 10 How to Conduct the Follow-up Study, Bulletin No. 11 Educating the Mentally Handicapped in the Secondary Schools, Bulletin No. 12 How the Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program Basic Studies Can Help Improve Your High School, Bulletin No. 13 A Study of the Practices and Opinions in Physical Education, Health, . and Safety, Bulletin No. 14 The Schools and National Security — Recommendations for Ele- mentary and Secondary Schools, Bulletin No. 16 Principal Findings of the Follow-up Study of the Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program, Bulletin No. 17 Reading for Living: An Index to Reading Materials, Bulletin No. 18 Curriculum in Physical Education for High School Boys, Bulletin No. 19 Designing Modern Health Education Experiences for Youth, Bul- letin No. 20 191 Citizens Today: Young Citizens in Action in Illinois Schools, Bul- letin No. 21 Science Teaching Aids for a Stronger America, Bulletin No. 22, Part A Mathematics Teaching Aids for a Stronger America, Bulletin No. 22, Part B Guidance Aids for a Stronger America, Bulletin No. 22, Part C Social Studies Teaching Aids for a Stronger America, Bulletin No. 22, Part D English Teaching Aids for a Stronger America, Bulletin No. 22, Part E How to Conduct the Holding Power Study of the Illinois Curriculum Program (Revised), Bulletin No. 23 The Nature of the School Population in the State of Illinois, Bulletin No. 24 How to Conduct the Local Area Consensus Studies of the Illinois Curriculum Program, Bulletin No. 25 How to Study Your School Population, Bulletin No. 26 7200-SI5 C 192 m^m^® HO. 3.141.-12J UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 379.773SH45B C002 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC 0112 025307270