LI B R.AFLY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS G30.7 UGb tto. Cop- AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 142 BY HERBERT W. MUMFORD AND H. O. ALLISON URBANA, ILLINOIS, NOVEMBER, 1909 SUMMARY OF BULLETIN No. 142 1. Under the conditions of the experiment, the profit to be derived from short feeding cattle was 7.36 percent interest on the total expenditure for ninety days for lot 1 and 18.88 percent for lot 2. 2. With expenses as figured the necessary margin per cwt. between buying and selling price in Chicago in order to break even was $1.137 for lot 1 (common method of feeding) and $1.166 for lot 2 (chopped hay and self-feeder), when the pork produced is not considered. 3. Mixed feed when fed thru a self-feeder is especially advantageous for accustoming cattle to a heavy grain ration in a short time. 4. By the use of mixed feed and the self-feeder the necessity of a skillful feeder is reduced. 5. Cattle fed chopped hay mingled with concentrates thru a self-feeder will consume larger quantities of feed than when the same feeds are fed separately at regular periods twice per day. 6. By chopping the hay, mingling it with the grain and feeding thru a self- feeder as in lot 2, more rapid gains were secured and at slightly less cost per pound than when these same feeds were fed separately twice per day as in lot 1. 7. The larger gain of lot 2 resulted in better finish, 15 cents per cwt. higher selling price, and $2.05 per steer more profit (not including pigs) than lot 1. 564 SHORT FED STEERS A COMPARISON OF METHODS OF FEEDING BY HERBERT W. MUMFORD, CHIEF IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, AND H. O. ALLISON, ASSISTANT IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY INTRODUCTION Among common methods of beef production there is recognized the practice of short feeding or "warming up" of cattle. This process usually requires from 60 to 100 days and the cattle are generally mar- keted in a half fat or unfinished condition. In this, as in most enter- prises of this sort, the variations of common practice are wide. These variations are in the grade and condition of cattle selected for feeding, the methods of handling, and the rations used. Some feeders, for instance, select heavy fleshy cattle of the better grades while others select cattle thin in flesh, but generally mature, and of the lower grades. 'Then too, the variations in the methods of handling the cat- tle are wide, the chief difference being in the policy of forcing rapid and large gains by the use of a rather expensive ration as compared with that of smaller gains by the use of limited quantities of feed or less expensive feeds. The factors surrounding and the possibilities of short feeding are considerably different from those of long feeding where the cattle are fed for six months or longer and generally marketed in finished condi- tion. It is not intended, however, at this time to compare the practice of short feeding with that of finishing beef cattle. We introduced this work rather to study the methods and possibilities of short feeding. To do this, a test was conducted with two carloads of cattle under conditions comparable to those existing in Illinois. In this work the relative merits of two different methods of feeding were studied and other available data were collected thus supplying a basis upon which the business of short feeding cattle may be judged. CONDITIONS OF THE EXPERIMENT The steers used in the experiment were purchased on the Chicago market August 22, 1905. They consisted of thirty-four head of good to choice, fleshy, three-year-old feeders. All were dehorned and the average weight was 1,073 pounds in Chicago. They were natives and northwest rangers mixed, but all were undoubtedly strictly grass cat- tle. Upon arrival at the experimental farm, they were divided into 565 566 BULLETIN No. 142 [November, two lots of seventeen head each. In this division every effort was made to make the lots as nearly alike as possible in quality, condition and weight. In order to make the test as practical and simple as pos- sible, the usual preliminary feeding period was dispensed with and the steers were put on experiment two days after their arrival. To secure the corrrect weight of the steers at the beginning of the experiment, they were weighed on three consecutive mornings, August 24, 25, and 26, before feeding and watering. The average of these weights was then taken as the correct weight at the beginning of the test which began on August 25. The experiment was divided into periods of two weeks, the cattle being weighed at the end of each period under the same conditions as to water and feed. Both lots received the same feeds consisting of corn meal, oil meal, and clover hay. Lot 1 received these according to the common method of feeding, that is, whole hay and concentrates fed separately at regular feeding periods twice per day. In the case of lot 2 the clover hay was chaffed by running it thru an ordinary ensilage machine and it was then mingled with the grain portion of the ration and fed thru a self-feeder^ to which the cattle had access at all times. Four pigs were placed in each lot to utilize whatever undigested feed passed thru the steers. While it was thought at the time that more pigs might have been used to advantage, the difficulty in securing them made the trial impossible. FEED LOTS AND EQUIPMENT With the exception of the method of feeding, the conditions sur- rounding both lots were alike. Owing to the prevailing warm weather at the begining of the experiment, it was thought best not to confine the steers to a small feed lot with no shade other than that provided by the shed. Consequently they were given the run of small paddocks 237 x 112 feet which adjoined the feed lots. Along one end of these extended a double row of soft maple trees which furnished ample shade and under which the cattle spent most of their time during the day. These paddocks were sodded with blue-grass, but as it had been pastured during the forepart of the season there was no available feed when the cattle were turned in, and because of the tramping and soil- ing from the droppings, the steers obtained no feed from this source. It may be said, however, that the pigs ate some of the grass and likely profited slightly thereby. The feed lots proper were paved with brick and measured 36 x 48 feet, with a 12 foot shed running along the north side. In these small lots the cattle were fed and allowed to run at all times. The steers had access to pure, fresh water supplied in galvanized steel tanks into which it was drawn from the University plant. The concentrates were supplied to lot 1 in an open feed-box similar to that used in the ordinary feed lot, while the clover hay was fed in mangers along the side of the lot. As the hay and grain were mixed for lot 2, a specially adapted self-feeder was constructed thru which the mixture would run as the cattle needed it. 1909] SHORT FED STEERS 567 PLATE 1. SECTIONAL VIEW OF SELF-FEEDER. 568 BULLETIN No. 142 [November, Plate 1 shows a cross section of the self-feeder giving the essential features of its construction. It was so arranged that the feed could be conveyed by means of a feed carrier on a suspended track from the barn to the feeder into which the feed was dumped. The track was similar to those used for hay carriers and is shown at point T. The rectangular frame which was 5 feet wide and 10 feet high was con- structed of 4 x 4-inch material. This served as a frame for the feeder as well as a support for the track. It will be noticed from the cut that the bin was but 16 inches wide at the opening and this opening was 6 inches high. This construction seemed necessary in order to enable the cattle to work the feed out as needed and to prevent clogging. The studding, which were 2 x 4-inch material, were placed four feet apart inside the bin and served as supports to the sides. Other than these points the feeder was not essentially different from those commonly in use in the corn belt. QUALITY AND COST OF FEEDS The feeds used were corn meal, oil meal, and clover hay. The corn graded No. 2 yellow, and the clover hay No. 1. The oil meal was "Old Process," ground linseed cake, pea size. The cost of these feeds and their preparation was as follows : Per ton Cost of grinding corn, $0.060 per cwt. or $ 1.200 Chopping hay by running thru ensilage machine, $0.05 per cwt. or 1.000 Shelled corn, $0.35 per bu. or 12.499 Ground corn, including cost of grinding 13.699 Clover hay 8.000 Chopped clover hay 9.000 Oil meal (ground linseed cake, pea size) 28.000 METHOD OF FEEDING STEERS Owing to the shortness of the feeding period it was thought best to get the cattle on full grain feed as soon as possible in order to secure the greatest gain in live weight and best finish, as this principle was thought to be desirable in short feeding. Oil meal was used to supplement the ground corn because it has been found at the Illinois Station that it contributes to the production of larger gains by stimu- lating the appetite so that larger quantities of concentrates are con- sumed to advantage.* The full grain feed was reached by gradually increasing the grain ration in lot 1 and the proportion of concentrates to roughage in lot 2, the rate of change varying somewhat with the appetite of the cattle. At the end of four weeks they were practically on full feed with no bad effects noticeable except with one steer in lot 1. He appeared to have a slight attack of indigestion and did not eat well from September 16 to 22. Table 1 shows the average daily ration per steer by periods. These periods correspond with the periodical weights which were taken every two weeks. Period 1 extended from August 25 to September 8 ; "Illinois Bulletin No. 103 Page 80. 1909] SHORT FED STEERS 569 Period 2, September 8 to 22; Period 3, September 22 to October 6; Period 4, October 6 to 20; Period 5, October 20 to November 3 ; Period 6, included 19 days from November 3 to 21. TABLE 1. AVERAGE DAILY RATION PER STEER BY PERIODS (POUNDS) Periods Average 89 days. Aug. 25 to Nov. 21 Lot Feeds 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 Ground corn. . . Oil meal 9.45 1.81 18.47 18.69 2.98 14.60 17.92 2.71 15.05 20.91 3.23 13.39 23.19 3.23 11.53 22.81 3.41 9.13 19.05 2.92 13.45 Clover hay. . . . 2 Ground corn. . . Oil meal 10.78 2.06 16.63 21.59 3.27 17.85 22.01 2.52 12.60 27.26 3.82 12.18 25.20 3.79 10.50 22.06 3.31 8.39 21.52 3.13 12.77 Chopped clover It will be seen from Table 1 that lot 2 cosumed the most feed. This was also noticeable from the appearance of the cattle during the experiment as lot 2 carried the best fill. We can attribute this to no other cause than the method of feeding, as lot 1 could not be induced to take more feed. The decreased consumption in Period 3 in the case of lot 1 was due to a change in ground corn which it was impossible to avoid. While the meal seemed sweet and good in every way, it was ground by the burr process while the plate grinder had previously been used. As a result it took the cattle in lot 1 several days to become accustomed to it, whereas with lot 2, the corn being mingled with the hay, the falling off was not so noticeable. TABLE 2. PROPORTION OF CONCENTRATES TO ROUGHAGE Periods Average 89 days 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lot 1 Lot 2 1:1.64 1:1.29 1:0.67 1:0.71 1:0.72 1:0.51 1:0.55 1:0.39 1:0.43 1:0.36 1:0.34 1:0.33 1:0.61 1:0.51 The above table shows the proportion of concentrates to rough- age for both lots during different periods. The plan was to cater to the appetites of the cattle in these proportions and as a result lot 1 took a larger proportion of hay than lot 2. When we consider that the cost of digestible nutrients in the case of lot 1 is .9029 cents per pound in form of hay and .8692 cents per pound in form of corn (which is .0337 cents per pound greater in the form of hay than in corn),* it is probable that this larger proportion of roughage would work as a handicap to lot 1 in the cost of producing gain. It will.be noticed that from the first period on, the proportion of grain was gradually increased until at the close of the experiment the grain ration was about three times that of the roughage. 'Average Composition of American Feeding Stuff Henry's Feeds and Feeding. 570 BULLETIN No. 142 [November, TABLE 3. AVERAGE DAILY GAIN PER STEER IN POUNDS BY PERIODS AND AVERAGE FOR WHOLE TIME Lot No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average 89 days 1 2 4.117 4.147 1.910 2.794 3.025 3.088 2.976 3.655 3.466 4.242 2.554 2.337 2.984 3.326 TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF TABLE 3 (POUNDS) Periods Lot No. Aug. 25 to Sept. 22 Sept. 22 to Oct. 20 Oct. 20 to Nov. 21 Aug. 25 to Nov. 21 1 2 3.014 3.470 3.000 3.371 2.941 3.146 2.984 3.326 Table 3, shows the average daily gain per steer during the periods corresponding to those in Table 1. Owing to the great variation in the weights of steers it has seemed best to summarize these six periods into three in order to study the relative rate and cost of gains. Con- sequently periods 1 and 2, 3 and 4, and 5 and 6 are summarized in Table 4. From this it can be readily seen that lot 2 made the larger gains, but the difference in rate of gain decreases as the feeding period advances. This indicates that the mixed feed fed thru a self-feeder may be especially advantageous for accustoming cattle to a grain ration. It also indicates that the difference in its favor would probably be more marked in the short than in the long feeding period. TABLE 5. AVERAGE COST PER POUND OF GAIN BY PERIODS AND AVERAGE FOR THE ENTIRE EXPERIMENT (Value of pork produced not credited to steers) Aug. 25 to Sept. 22 Sept. 22 to Oct. 20 Oct. 20 to Nov. 21 Aug. 25 to Nov 21 89 days Lot 1 Lot 2 $0.0650 0.0650 $0.0770 0.0797 $0.0832 0.0798 $0.0753 0.0749 (Value of pork produced credited to steers) Lot 1 Lot 2 0.0637 0.0638 0.0753 0.0747 0.0817 0.0763 0.0739 0.0711 Table 5 summarizes the cost of gains. While the data presented here are probably not sufficient to warrant a definite conclusion, it in- dicates that the diminishing efficiency of the feed consumed as the feeding advances was slightly more marked in lot 1 than in lot 2. In the lower part of the table the value of the pork produced was de- ducted from the expense, thus reducing the cost per pound gain of beef. Another point of significance as shown by Table 5, is the simi- larity in the average cost of gain for the two lots for the entire period. 1909] SHORT FED STEERS 571 Large consumption of feed in order to produce maximum gains is generally associated with expensive gains. In this case, however, the self-fed cattle (lot 2) produced an average daily gain per steer of .342 pounds more, and not figuring value of pork produced, the cost was four hundredths of a cent per pound less than the hand fed lot, (lot 1). It should also be kept in mind that the cost of the chopped hay was one dollar per ton more than the ordinary hay and this extra charge was figured in the cost of gain. This indicates strongly then, that for short feeding cattle, there is an advantage in chopping the hay, mingling it with the grain and feeding thru a self-feeder. TABLE 6. WEIGHT OF STEERS AND EXTENT OF GAINS IN POUNDS Total Wt. 17 steers Average Wt. per steer Average gain in 89 day Lot No Beginning of Exp. Close of Exp. Beginning of Exp. Close of Exp. Total per steer Per steer per day 1 2 18,110 18,176 22,625 23,200 1065.29 1069.17 1330.88 1364.70 265.58 295.52 2.98 3.32 Table 6 shows the total and average weights of the steers at the beginning and close of the experiment and the total and average daily gain per steer. As the increase in live weight of mature cattle is largely fat, we might suppose that the steers in lot 2, which had gained 29.94 pounds per steer more, would be fatter and consequently worth more on the market. This was corroborated by the values placed on the steers in Chicago at the close of the experiment. MARKETING In preparing the cattle for shipment three feeds of timothy hay were substituted at the last for the clover hay usually fed. Two of these were included in the feed before the final weights were taken. No special account is made, however, in the feed tables of this hay, as it was thought to be of too little difference in value and importance to be considered as affecting the gains or the cost to any noticeable ex- tent. The last feed lot weight was taken on the morning of November 22, before the cattle had been fed or watered. They were then fed timothy hay and about half the usual grain feed. They also had ac- cess to water for an hour, after which it was removed. In the afternoon, between three and four o'clock, the cattle were quietly driven a distance of about a mile to the loading chutes, where they were loaded at about five o'clock. They arrived and were un- loaded in Chicago the following morning at 6 :30 Thursday, November 23. After being allowed to fill, their value was estimated by expert judges. Lot 1 was estimated at $5.45 and lot 2 at $5.60 per cwt. on the then existing market. This makes a margin between buying and selling price of $1.20 per cwt. in the case of lot 1, and $1.35 per cwt. for lot 2. For commercial reasons the two loads were turned together and sold as one bunch for $5.60 per cwt. The Chicago weight was 572 BULLETIN No. 142 [November, taken at 9 a. m. November 23 and showed a shrinkage for the entire thirty-four head of 1,175 pounds, an average of 34.558 pounds per steer. As the cattle were sold to'gether the dressing percentages obtained were for the entire 34 head. They are as follows, 58.10 percent beef; 6.80 percent fat, and 6.65 percent hides. There is little to be said concerning these figures. In general, however, the cattle were "Good" to "Choice" in grade at the time of marketing. ITEMIZED STATEMENT OF COST OF FEEDERS To 34 steers, 36,490 Ib. @ $4.25 per cwt $1,550.82 Commission 20.00 Freight, two cars 41.88 Feed prior to experiment 4.00 Total expense $1,616.70 The above statement shows the expense to be $1,616.70, and since the cattle only weighed 36,286 pounds at the beginning of the experi- ment, having shrunk 204 pounds, or 6 pounds per head, their actual cost was $4.455 per cwt. at the feed lot. ITEMIZED FINANCIAL STATEMENT Lot 1, 17 steers To 17 steers, 18,110 Ib. @ $4.455 per cwt $806.800 14.416 tons ground corn @ $13.699 per ton 197.488 2.214 tons oil meal @ $28.00 per ton 61.999 10.175 tons clover hay @ $8.00 per ton 81.404 Freight Champaign to Chicago, commission, feed and yardage.. 38.440 Total .expenditures $1,186.131 By 17 steers 22,037.5 Ib. @ $5.45 per cwt $1,201.043 140 Ib. pork @ $5.00 per cwt 7.000 Total receipts $1,208.043 Total expenditures $1,186.131 Total profit $ 21.912 Profit per steer : 1.288 ITEMIZED FINANCIAL STATEMENT Lot 2, 17 steers To 17 steers, 18,176 Ib. @ $4.455 per cwt $ 809.740 16.282 tons ground corn @ $13.699 per ton 223.050 2.375 tons oil meal @ $28.00 per ton 66.500 9.661 tons chopped clover @ $9.00 per ton < 86.950 Freight Champaign to Chicago, commission, feed and yardage.. 38.440 Total expenditures $1,224.680 By 17 steers 22,612.5 Ib. @ $5.60 per cwt $1,266.300 325 Ib. pork @ $5.00 per cwt : 16.250 Total receipts $1,282.550 Total expenditures $1,224.680 Total profit $ 57.870 Profit per steer 3.404 1909] SHORT FED STEERS 573 The itemized financial statement shows that no charge was made for the labor involved in feeding the steers after the feed was pre- pared. The general custom is to allow the value of the manure produced to balance the cost of the labor involved. There seemed to be but little difference in the amount of labor necessary to feed the two lots, altho it was of a little different nature. For lot 1 the skill of the feeder was an important factor and called for regularity in the work. On the other hand for lot 2 the work was not necessarily regular, but involved considerable labor in mingling the concentrates with the chopped hay. The larger amount of pork produced in lot 2 accounts for part of the difference in profit. The reason the pigs. did better in this lot was partly due to the steers throwing small quantities of feed out of the self-feeder. Being from this source it seems proper to credit the ac- count with this full amount of pork produced. In general, the financial results of this experiment are favorable to the method of feeding used for lot 2. While the data given in this publication are not extensive, they indicate that for short feeding cat- tle the plan of chaffing hay, mingling it with grain, and feeding thru a self-feeder is worthy of further investigation and trial by feeders. TABLE 7. EFFECT OF VARIOUS PRICES OF CORN ON PROFIT OR Loss Lot 1 Cost per bushel, cents 35 40 45 50 ' Profit total -f- $21. 912 $ 3 831 $29.574 $55.317 Profit per steer + 1.288 0.225 1.739 3.253 Lot 2 Cost per bushel, cents 35 40 45 50 Profit total +$57.870 +$28.795 $ 0.280 Profit oer steer. . . + 3.404 + 1.693 0.016 1.726 The matter of profit or loss in feeding operations naturally de- pends upon the cost of the feed as compared with the price of beef. For this reason the above will be of interest as it gives the effect of various prices of corn on the financial statement. In the above table the plus or minus signs refer to profit or loss. Five cents per bushel difference in the price of corn changes the total expense of lot 1, $25.743 ; of lot 2, $29.075 ; or an equivalent in the final cost of the mar- ket weight of the cattle of 11.6 cents per cwt. in case of lot 1, and 12.8 cents with lot 2. 574 BULLETIN No. 142 [November, TABLE 8. PROFIT OR Loss AS INFLUENCED BY THE MARKET Falling Stationary Rising Total Per steer Total Per steer Total Per steer Lot 1 Lot 2 $33.181 + 1.331 $1.951 + 0.078 +$21.912 + 57.862 +$1.288 + 3.403 +$77.005 +114.393 +$4.529 + 6.729 The cattle were bought and sold on practically a uniform or sta- tionary market. That is, they would have sold at the time they were purchased for about the same price that they did at the close of the experiment had they been in the same condition. These conditions do not always exist, however/ so in order to see the effect of a fall or rise of 25 cents per cwt. in the market Table 8 is presented. Under the falling market the selling price for lot 1 is figured at $5.20, sta- tionary $5.45, and rising at $5.70 per cwt., making a difference in total receipts in each case of $55.094. For lot 2 the falling market was figured at $5.35, stationary $5.60 and rising at $5.85 per cwt., making a difference in total receipts in each case of $56.531. The minus signs in the table indicate a loss while the plus signs indicate a profit. 1909] SHORT FED STEERS 575 576 BULLETIN No. 142 [November, 1909] SHORT FED STEERS 577 s o w w in < Cvf 578 BULLF.TIN Xo. 142 \' or ember, 1909.] AUTHOR INDEX AUTHOR INDEX 579 PAGE Burrill, T. J., and Barrett J. T. , Ear rots of corn, Bull. 133 63-110 Crandall, C. S., Bordeaux mix- ture, Bull. 135 199-296 Folsom, J. W., The insect pests of clover and alfalfa, Bull. 134 111-198 Forbes, S. A., Experiments with repellents against the corn root-aphis, 1905 and 1906, Bull. 130 1-28 Forbes, S. A., Habits and be- havior of the corn-field ant, Lasius niger americanus, Bull. 131 2946 Fraser, W. J. and Brand R. E., Dairy suggestions from Eu- ropean conditions as seen in the British Isles, Hol- land and Denmark, Bull. 140 459-522 Hume, A. N., Center, O. D. and Hegnauer, Leonard Methods of seeding oats, drilling and broadcasting, Bull. 136.. ...297-312 PAGE Lee, C. E., Pasteurization as a factor in making butter from cream skimmed on the farm, Bull. 138 369-438 Lee, C. E., and Barnhart, J. M., Composition of market but- ter, Bull 139 439-458 Lee, C. E., Hepburn, N. W., and Barnhart, J. M., A study of factors influenc- ing the composition of but- ter, Bull. 137 313-368 Mumford, H. W., and Allison, H. O., Short fed steers, A comparison of methods of of feeding, Bull. 142 563-578 Obrecht, R. C., Relative effici- ency of different rations for fleshing horses for markets Bull. 141 523-562 Smith, L. H., The effect of se- lection upon certain physi- cal characters of the corn plant, Bull. 132 47-62 580 INDEX INDEX [November, (The headings in capitals are the subjects of entire bulletins) PAGE Agricultural shows 481-4 Alcohol, Treatment of seed corn with 11,15 Allograpta obliqua 147-8 Aphidius 151-2 Bacteria on corn 91-2 Bordeaux- arsenate of lead com- bination, further trial of 280-2 BORDEAUX MIXTURE.. 199-296 Adhesiveness 217-9 Changes occurring in 248-9 Chemistry of 215-7 Conclusions 292-6 Copper, solution of, in 223-8 Discovery of 205-7 Experiments, reports on 253-73 Formulas 207-10 Fungicidal action of 233-4 In glass dishes 250-1 Injuries to foliage 220 Introduction of, in the United States 208-10 Making 211-5 Materials for 210-17,288-90 On foliage of apple trees in pots 251-2 Problem of solubility of the copper of 249-50 British Isles, Dairying in... 462-80 England 462-8 Ireland 469-71 Scotland 472-80 Bruchophagus funebris 125-33 BUTTER, A STUDY OF FAC- TORS INFLUENCING THE COMPOSITION OF (with tables) 313-68 BUTTER, COMPOSITION OF MARKET (with tables) 439-58 Illinois 443,450-1 PAGE Iowa 444-5,451-2 Minnesota 445-7 ,452 Wisconsin ...447-9,452 Butter, Composition of Changes in, made by each revolution in working 320-2 From cream, pasteurized and un pasteurized 324-9 Half-worked and worked 319-20 Influenced by time cream is held at churning tem- perature 323-4 Made in two different churns 322-3 Salting, Influence of dry and wet, upon 331-2 Butter fat churned and recover- ed in the butter 352-8 Butter in Holland 501 Butter samples, analysis of, ac- cording to states Illinois 443 Iowa 444-5 Location unknown 449 Minnesota.. 445-7 Wisconsin 447-9 Butter, sampling 316-9,441 Callipterus, trifolii 175-8 Description 175-6 Life history 177-8 Carbolic acid, treatment of seed corn with 11,15 Carbon bisulphid, treatment of seed corn with 13 Carbonated water, action of 282-8 Cheese and butter in Holland 498-501 Chlorid of lime, treatment of seed corn with 12 Chrysopidae 145, 149-51 1909.] INDEX 581 PAGE Clover Callipeterus 175-8 Hay-worm.. 168-71 Leaf-midge 171-5 Leaf-weevil 114, 117,155-64 Louse 117,138-54 Root borer 114,164-8 Root mealy-bug 189-95 Seed-Caterpillar 114,133-7 Seed-chalcid 114,125-33 Seed-midge 114,118-25 Sitones jlavescens. 184-9 Steam-borer 178-84 Clover seed crop, failure of the 115-7 Coccinellae 145-6 Copper, accumulation of, in the soil 219-20 Fungicidal action of, dis- covery of 204-5 Not absorbed thru trunk and branches 237-8 Penetration of, into leaf tissues 228-33 Solubility of, influence of lime in excess on the 275-7 bordeaux mixture on leaves 249-50 under influence of long continued moist con- ditions 290-2 Solution of, in bordeaux mixture 223-8 Sulphate 210,219-20 Injection of 240-2 Solution absorbed hurt wounds 238-40 Treatment of seed corn with 13 CORN, EAR ROTS OF 63-110 Bacteria 91-2 Causes .. 70-2 Diplodia zeae 65,66,71, 72.73-85 Fusarium, species of .. .65,66,72,85-91 History and synonomy ...94-6 Injury, amount of 69-70 Observations, general. 65-9 Plates and description of.. 97-109 PAGE Prevention 92-4 Corn, Injury to, by ants 41-2 Learning 51 Plates 54-5,59,62 CORN PLANT, THE EFFECT OF SELECTION UPON CERTAIN PHYSICAL CHARACTERS IN THE (with plates) 47-62 CORN ROOT-APHIS, EX- PERIMENTS WITH RE- PELLENTS AGAINST THE, 1905 AND 1906. . . . 4 .1-28 Agency for destruction of.3-4 Corn-field experiment, A, 1906 15-23 Destructive ability of the... 3 Fields, comparison of in- fested 23-4 Minor test .. .. 24.5 Plot experiments 5-15 Prevention, general pro- gram of... 26-8 Repellent applications to the seed 4-5 Corn, effect of selection of, on maturity 56 yield. 56-7 CORN-FIELD ANT, LASIUS NIGER AMERICANUS, HABITS AND BEHAV- IOR OF THE 29-48 Colony, area occupied by a single 37-8 Beginning of a new 32-4 Size of 34-5 Effect of change of crop. . .42-4 Hostilities, intercolonial.. 35-7 Injury to corn by 41-2 Nests, adapation of, to changing conditions 40-1 Behavior within the 38-40 Contents of 31-2 Plate 45 Relation to other species.. 38 Corn-field experiment, A, 1906 15-25 Description of 16-8 582 INDEX [November, PAGE Results of 18-23 Cow stables, Holland 493-6 Cow testing association 514 Dairy cattle Denmark 510-1 England 464 Holland 489-91 Ireland 469-70 Scotland 474-6 DAIRY SUGGESTIONS FROM EUROPEAN CONDI- TIONS AS SEEN IN THE BRITISH ISLES, HOL- LAND AND DENMARK 459-522 Dairying in the British Isles England 462-8 Ireland 469-71 Scotland 472-80 Dairying in Denmark 503-20 Dairying in Holland 485-502 Dasyneura leguminicola 118-25 Dasyneura trifolii 171-5 Denmark City milk supply 515-6 Cow testing association. . . .514 Dairy cattle 510-1 Farm buildings 507-9 management 504-6 Feed and care 511-4 Manufactured products. . .516-8 What we may learn from 519-20 Diplodia zeae 73-85 Effects of acid and alkalin media 78-80 Growth in culture 76-8 History 94-6 Inoculation experiments. ..83-5 Life history on ears 73-4 stacks 74-6 Spores, distribution of, by wind. 81-3 Germination of 80-1 Ear rots Appearance 65-6 Causes 70-2 Influence of locality, soil etc 67 Prevention 92-4 Seasonal occurrence 66-7 PAGE Ears, (corn) Erect and declining 57-62 High and low.. 51-7 Enarmonia interstinctana 133-7 England City milk supply 466-8 Farm buildings 466 management 462-4 Feed and care 465-6 Live stock 464 Manufactured 468 Farm buildings Denmark 507-9 England 466 Holland 493-6 Scotland 477-8 Farm management Denmark 504-6 England. 462-4 Holland 487-9 Ireland 469-71 Scotland 477 Feed and care of dairy cattle Denmark 511-4 England 654-6 Holland 491-2 Ireland 469-71 Scotland 477 Feed lots and equipment 566-8 Feeds, quality and cost of 568 Foliage, condition of, of trees sprayed with lime 277-80 Injuries to 220 Foliage injury, The relation of meteoric waters to 242-92 Formalin, treatment of oats 311 Formalin, treatment of seed corn with 11-15 Formica schaufussi 38 Fungi 71-72-221 Fungicides. 204 Fusarium, species of 85-91 Appearance in culture on the ears 86-7-89-91 , stalks.. 86 Germination of spores. . . .87-90 Growth in various media 88 Hay-worm, clover 114-168-71 Control 170-1 Injury 168-9 Life history and habits.. 169-70 Stages . . 169 1909.] INDEX 583 PAGE Hylastinus obscurus 164-8 Holland- City milk supply 496-8 Cheese and butter 498-501 Cow stab'es 493-6 Dairy cattle 489-91 Farm management 487-9 Feed and care 491-2 Horses Box stall, Effect of 547 Exercise, Effect of 546-7 Feeding, methods of. ..528-9-540 Preliminary 527-8-540 Feeds, Quality and cost of - 529-541 Health and thrift of 529- 34-541-60 Rations, Effect of 534-8 Fed to 528-9-540 Stabling 527-539 Used in experiments. .527-539-40 Watering 527-539 Hypsopyyia costalis 168-71 INSECT PESTS OF CLOVER AND ALFALFA, THE (with plates) 111-98 Insects, Control of clover 117-8-123-132-3-137 153^4-164-167-184-188 Injury to clover by 113-5- 125-7-133-4 Ireland 469-71 Iron sulphate, Treatment of seed corn with 13 Kainit, Treatment of seed corn with 12 Kerosene, Treatment of seed corn with 4-5-6-8-9-10-14 Kerosene emulsion, Treatment of seed corn with 5-6-7-8 Languria mozardi 178-89 I;