HAS* cop 13 tAfcsbw EAttJ BULLETIN OF ILLINOIS COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS CO-OPERATIVE AGREEMENT Issued bi-monthly VOL. II September, 1915 No. 1 State Geological Survey Department of Mining Engineering, University of Illinois U. S. Bureau of Mines BULLETIN 13 Coal Mining In Illinois BY S. O. ANDROS Published by University of Illinois Urbana, Illinois [Entered as second-class matter June 1, 1914. at the Post Office at Urbana, 111., under the Act of Aug. 24, 1914.] The Forty-seventh General Assembly of the State of Illi- nois, with a view of conserving the lives of the mine workers and the mineral resources of the State, authorized an investi- gation of the coal resources and mining practices of Illinois by the Department of ^Mining Engineering of the University of Illinois and the State Geological Survey in co-operation with the United States Bureau of Mines. A co-operative agreement was approved by the Secretary of the Interior and by representatives of the State of Illinois. The direction of this investigation is vested in the Direc- tor of the United States Bureau of Mines, the Director of the State Geological Survey, and the {Head of the Department of Mining Engineering, University of Illinois, who jointly deter- mine the methods to be employed in the conduct of the work and exercise general editorial supervision over the publication of the results, but each party to the agreement directs the work of its agents in carrying on the investigation thus mutu- ally agreed on. Tfye reports of the investigation are issued in the form of bulletins, either by the State Geological Survey, the Depart- ment of Mining Engineering, University of Illinois, or the United States Bureau of Mines. For copies of the bulletins issued by the State an4 for information about the work, address Coal Mining Investigations, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. For bulletins issued by the United States Bureau of Mines, address Director, United States Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C. Mil. ILLINOIS COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS CO-OPERATIVE AGREEMENT Issued bi-monthly State Geological Survey Department of Mining Engineering, University of Illinois U. S. Bureau of Mines BULLETIN 13 Coal Mining In Illinois BY S. O. ANDROS Urbana University of Illinois 1915 1915 CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 7 History 10 Period of exploration ( 1673-1810) 10 Ante-railroad period ( 1810-1850) 13 Railroad period ( 1850-1915) 34 Division of the State into districts . . 50 Description of coal seams 56 District I, Seam 2 56 District II, Seam 2 58 District III, Seam 1— Seam 2 59 District IV, Seam 5 60 District V, Seam 5 62 District VI, Seam 6 64 District VII, Seam 6 65 District VIII, Seam 6 66 Seam 7 66 Mining practice 68 Local mines 70 Unmodified room-and-pillar mines 71 Panel mines 83 Pillar drawing 89 Longwall mines 93 Work at the face 104 Stripping mines 107 Drainage 113 Blasting 114 Timbering 127 Timbering in longwall mines 127 Room-and-pillar timbering 131 Accidents ■ 142 Per capita production of employees 147 Ventilation 150 Ventilation of longwall mines 150 Ventilation of mines other than longwall 154 Mine fires 171 Lighting 174 Haulage 175 Hoisting 191 Preparation of coal 202 Markets and selling price 219 Bibliography • 226 General 226 Annual Reports 239 Mining Laws 240 Index 241 (3) TABLES NO. PAGE 1. Coal production and main track mileage of railroads 35 2. Districts into which the State has been divided for the purpose of investigation 52 3. Alphabetical arrangement by counties 53 4. Comparative percentages by districts 54 5. Average analyses of coal by districts 57 6. Number of mines of specified annual tonnage 1883-1914 69 7. Relation between local and shipping mines 70 8. Dimensions in feet of workings of unmodified room-and-pillar mines. 74 9. Dimensions in feet of workings of panel mines 87 10. Dimensions of workings in longwall mines 100 11. Blasting in longwall mines 106 12. Blasting practice in mines shooting off the solid 115 13. Coal cutting data since 1900 117 14. Blasting practice in mines using undercutting machines 120 15. Cost of mine timbers in District 1 130 16. Data on props in rooms 139 17. Accident per 1000 employees 142 18. Tonnage per accident by districts 143 19. Causes of accidents to employees 143 20. Daily per capita production of employees 148 21. Comparative temperatures in longwall and room-and-pillar mines.... 150 22. Comparison of longwall and room-and-pillar rib dust on haulageways. 153 23. Pressure developed by dust of face samples in explosibility apparatus. 157 24. Total cost of completed stopping 163 25. Material and initial cost of stoppings 164 26. Ventilating equipment of mines producing less than 1000 tons daily.. 167 27. Ventilating equipment of mines producing 1000 and less than 2000 tons daily 170 28. Ventilating equipment of mines producing 2000 tons daily and over. . 172 29. Ton mileage of standard electric locomotives 176 30. Ton mileage of locomotives other than standard electric 178 31. Amount of air required for ventilation with various sizes of gasoline locomotives 179 32. Haulage equipment with mule haulage 183 33. Haulage equipment with mechanical haulage 186 34. Hoisting equipment for mines producing less than 1000 tons daily. . 192 35. Hoisting equipment for mines producing 1000 and less than 2000 tons daily 195 36. Hoisting equipment for mines producing 2000 tons and over daily.. 198 37. Sizes of coal made in Illinois 203 38. Preparation of coal 205 39. Surface plant equipment of mines producing less than 1000 tons daily. 211 40. Surface plant equipment of mines producing 1000 and less than 2000 tons daily , 215 41. Surface plant equipment of mines producing 2000 tons daily and over. 217 42. Capitalization of coal mines 223 (4) ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 1. Copy of Joliet's map made in 1674 8 2. Copy of Marquette's map published by Thevenot, 1681 11 3. Map drawn by Shepard, 1840 29 4. Coincident development of main track mileage and production of coal. 36 5. Surface plant of early railroad period 37 6. Division of the State into districts 51 7. Typical clay vein in District IV 62 8. Igneous dike in coal in District V 63 9. Plan of unmodified room-and-pillar mine 72 10. Arching of top coal in entries in District II 78 11. Wing-room turned to avoid roll in District IV 79 12. Plan of mine in District V with triple main entries 81 13. Offset crosscut in District VII 82 14. Crosscut in District VII to provide small stopping 82 15. Shearing the ribs in District VII 83 16. Plan of panel mine 84 17. Typical block room-and-pillar mine 86 18. Method of drawing pillars in District III 90 19. Method of drawing pillars in District VI 92 20. Plan of longwall mine showing direction of ventilating current 94 21. Entries in shaft pillar in longwall mine 95 22. Pack walls around shaft pillar in longwall mine 96 23. Plan of longwall mine with auxiliary permanent entries 98 24. Method of working panel longwall 99 25. Face of longwall panel mine in dipping seam 101 26. Chute in panel longwall mine in dipping seam 103 27. Props and sprags at face of longwall mine 104 28. Removing top-soil with hydraulic monitors 108 29. Steam-shovel digging shale overburden 109 30. Stripping-mine coal face 1 10 31. Steam-shovel with belt-conveyor spoil-elevator 112 32. A method of placing shots after puncher undercutting machine 118 33. Method of placing holes where black powder is used 119 34. Method of placing holes where permissible explosives are used 119 35. Method of shooting with two benches 125 36. Entry closely timbered in longwall mine 127 37. A typical lye in a longwall mine 129 38. Shaft bottom with roof supported by steel I-beams set on concrete walls 131 39. Inby end of concrete-lined bottom 133 40. Solid concrete pier at branch 134 41. Cog timbering at parting 135 42. Timbering in haulage entry 136 43. Alternation of good and bad roof 137 44. Timbering in caved area in District VII 140 45. Photograph of underground refuge chamber 144 (5) FIGURE PAGE 46. Sketch of underground refuge chamber 145 47. Explosion-door in concrete-block stopping in District V 155 48. Typical gob stopping 156 49. Efficient brick stopping 158 50. Latch in rib dug to receive stopping 160 51. Mixer and mould for making concrete blocks 162 52. Arrangement of plant for making concrete blocks 163 53. Concrete overcast 165 54. Steel hay car and concrete hay room 173 55. Pit-car hauled by dog 178 56. First gasoline mine-locomotive in Illinois 180 57. Amount of "company brushing" necessary after subsidence 182 58. Automatic chain car-haul 185 59. Underground machine shop 190 60. Hopper for receiving coal at bottom of shaft 194 61. Circular hoisting shaft 200 62. Plan and section of concrete-lined shaft 201 63. Equipment for preparation at local mine 204 64. Tipple designed for local trade and shipping 204 65. Inflammable material piled against frame tipple 213 66. Fireproof steel tipple 214 67. Graph showing decline of margin of profit 221 ((>) COAL MINING IN ILLINOIS By S. 0. Andros INTRODUCTION The importance of a nation or a state depends upon its agricultural resources, its coal production, and the extent of its iron manufacture. Coal is indispensable to modern civili- zation and industrial development and the present industrial prosperity of Illinois is due principally to the large area of its coal fields, 36,125 square miles of its territory being under- lain by coal. The annual coal production of the world is approximately 1,450,000,000 tons, of which amount the United States pro- duces about 40 per cent and the State of Illinois more than 4. Illinois is the third largest producer of coal in the United States, being exceeded in production only by Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and its annual tonnage is about 11 per cent of the output of the country. Employing 80,000 men who mine annually 60 million tons of coal worth over 70 million dollars, the coal mining industry must be regarded as one of the most important industries in the State and its economic status is of vital interest. With a desire to be informed about the degree of safety to the miners and the efficiency of mining methods the Forty- seventh General Assembly of the State of Illinois authorized an investigation of the coal resources and mining practices of Illinois by the Department of Mining Engineering of the University of Illinois and the State (Geological Survey in co-operation with the United States Bureau of Mines. Each co-operating party to the agreement furnished trained special- ists for particular phases of the investigations and the work, begun in 1911, lias been continued under annual ratifications of the initial agreement. A general survey of the State has been made by districts and several special problems have been studied in detail and the data thus obtained have been pub- lished in bulletins issued from time to time as the work prog- ressed. (7) THE CENTRAL PORTION OF JOLlET's MAP, 1674, SHOWING THE MISSISSIPPI AS THE "BAUDE."' Fig. 1. Copy of Joliet's map made in 1674 (From "A History of the Misei sippi Valley," by Spears and Clark) INTRODUCTION V That the work of the Illinois Coal Mining Investigations is answering to a real need is shown by the hundreds of re- quests for bulletins which have come from many foreign coun- tries, from every State in this country, and from all parts of Illinois. The object of this bulletin is to abstract and summarize the district reports so as to compare mining practice in the different districts and to make generalizations on the practice of the State as a whole. The need for such a summary bulle- tin is emphasized by the many requests for earlier district reports which are now out of print. In order to make the bulletin more valuable to those in- terested in coal mining in Illinois an historical chapter on the economic development of the industry has been included and a bibliography of the geology, chemistry, and exploitation of the different seams has been appended. The operators, superintendents, mine managers, and mine workers of the chosen mines and the State Mine Inspectors rendered generous and valuable assistance in the collection of data and acknowledgments have been made to them with par- ticularity in the district reports. Further acknowledgments are due to Mr. F. S. Peabodv, Mr. A. J. Moorshead, Mr. C. M. Moderwell, Mr. Horace Clark, Mr. E. T. Bent, Mr. G. W. Traer, Mr. Carl Scholz, Mr. Gordon Buchanan and Mr. D. W. Buchanan for furnishing supplementary cost data, and to Mr. Frank Farrington, President of District 12, United Mine Workers of America, for reviewing the manuscript of this report. The author is greatly indebted to Professor H. H. Stoek, Head of the Department of Mining Engineering of the University of Illinois for his invaluable assistance in arrang- ing the subject matter of this report. HISTORY PERIOD OF EXPLORATION (1673-1810) Up to the present time the first mention of coal in the country which afterwards became the United States has been erroneously credited to Father Louis Hennepin, who shows on a map published in 1689 the location of a "cole mine" along the Illinois River. The credit for this first mention of coal does not, however, belong to Hennepin for the first dis- covery of coal in the United States by Europeans was made by Joliet and Marquette in 1673. Margry's account 1 of Joliet's voyage says, ' ' The said M. Joliet adds, That he had set down in his Journal an exact Description of the Iron-Mines they discovered, as also of the Quarries of Marble, and Cole-Pits, and Places where they find Salt-Petre, with several other things." Joliet's map of 1674 2 (See fig. 1) shows the location of "Charbon de terre" (coal) near the present city of Utica. La Salle in his letter to Frontenac (1680) referring to the Illinois River 3 says, "We have seen no mines there though several Pieces of Copper are found in the Sand when the River is low. There is the best Hemp in that Country I have seen anywhere, though it grows naturally without culture. The Savages tell us, that they have found near this Village some yellow Metal ; but that cannot be Gold, according to their own Relation, for the Oar of Gold cannot be too fine and bright as they told us. There are Coal-Pits on that River." Marquette's Journal was first published in France by Theve- not in 1681. 4 Accompanying the narrative was a map (See fig. 2) copied by Thevenot from one made by Marquette. Both original and copy show the same location of "Charbon de terre" as does Joliet's map. Father Louis Hennepin, a Recollect priest, accompanied La Salle's expedition to the Illinois country in 1680 as chap- lain and in his "A New Discovery of a Large Country in America," published in English in 1689, and dedicated to Wil- liam III of England, says with reference to the country along ^ecouvertes et fitablissements des Francais, I, p. 261. Published at Paris, 1681. 2 Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, Vol. 19, p. 86. 3 Margry, Vol. I, p. 465. 4 Recueil de Voyages. (10) Fig. 2. Copy of Marquette's map published by Thevenot, 1681 (From "A History of the Mississippi Valley," by Spears and Clark) 12 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS the Illinois River from its source to the site of the present city of Peoria: 1 "There are Mines of Coal, Slate, and Iron; and several pieces of fine red copper, which I have found now and then upon the Surface of the Earth, makes me believe that there are Mines of it; and doubtless of other Metals and Minerals, which may be discovered one time or another. They have Already found Allom in the country of the Iro- quoise. " Hennepin's map accompanying this narrative 1 lo- cates a "cole mine" on the Illinois River above Fort Creve- coeur (Peoria) copied from Joliet's map and Marquette's. On the twenty-seventh of September, 1720, Father Char- levoix arrived at the junction of the Kankakee and Illinois rivers. 2 He descended the Illinois to its junction with a river which he mentions as being called the Pisicoui and which flows from the country of Boniere "because they find many Coals in its Environs." (This country was in what is now La Salle County.) In "Travels through the Interior Parts of North Amer- ica in years 1766, 1767, and 1768, by J. Carver, Esq.", the statement is made : "The Mississippi, runs from north to south and passes through the most fertile and temperate part of North America. The more northern parts of its valley contain lead, copper, iron, and coals." Patrick Kennedy in his journal of an expedition under- taken in the year 1773 from Kaskaskias Village in the Illinois country in search of a copper mine, under the date of August 6, 1773, writes," "At sun-set we passed a river called Michili- mackinac (Mackinaw River in Tazewell County). Finding some pieces of coal, I was induced to walk up the river a few miles, though not far enough to reach a coal mine. In many places I also found clinkers, which inclined me to think that a coal mine, not far distant, was on fire, and I have since heard there was. ' ' On the 12th of August while near Utica he wrote, "On the northwestern side of this river is a coal mine that extends for half a mile along the middle of the bank of the river, which is high." ^hwaites, Hennepin's New Discovery, Vol. I, p. 152. 2 Perrin's History of Illinois. y Hicks, Thomas Hutchins. A Topographical Description. HISTORY 13 Morse's American Gazetteer, published in 1797 under the caption Illinois River states : " On the north-western side of this river (near La Salle) is a coal mine, which extends for half a mile along the middle of its banks, and about the same distance below the coal mine are two salt ponds, 100 yards in circumference and several feet in depth. ' ' ANTE-RAILROAD PERIOD (1810-1850) The gradual development of coal mining as the country became settled and as the available timber supply was con- sumed is best shown by extracts from the gazetteers of the period and from the journals of travellers to the Illinois country. It was only natural that mining should begin near the American Bottom, for as Beck 1 said, ' ' The most extensive and fertile within the limits of this state, is the American Bottom, a name which it received when it constituted a part of the western boundary of the United States, and which it has ever since retained. It commences at the confluence of the Kaskas- kia river, and extends northwardly to the mouth of the Mis- souri, being bounded on the east by a chain of bluffs, which in some places are sandy, and in others rocky, and vary from 50 to 200 feet in height. This bottom is about 100 miles in length, and comprises an area of more than 500 square miles, or 320,000 acres. The first settlement of this state was com- menced upon the tract of land above described, and its un- common fertility gave emigrants a favorable idea of the whole country. Coal exists in abundance on this alluvion and the bluffs which bound it. Its first discovery was made in a very singular manner. Many years since, a tree taking fire, com- municated to its roots, which continued burning for some time. Upon examination, they were found to communicate with a bed of coal, which continued to burn until the fire was completely smothered by the falling in of a large mass of in- cumbent earth. The appearance of fire is still evident for a 'A Gazetteer of the States of Illinois and Missouri, 1823. 14 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS considerable distance. About two miles from this place a coal bank has been opened — the vein is as thick as any at Pittsburg. ' ' It was at the point mentioned by Beck that the first mine was opened and we have a record of the shipment of a flat- boat load of coal to New Orleans in 1810 from Brownsville in Jackson County. The existence of coal in other parts of Illinois was known but local need elsewhere had not arisen. In ' ' A Full Descrip- tion of the Military Land, ' ' Van Zandt in 1818 said, ' ' Among the minerals are stone coal containing bitumen and sulphur. The coal is apparently of a very good quality, and may be found in very great abundance." The map accompanying Schoolcraft's Narrative Journal of Travels in 1820 shows a coal mine at the junction of the Fox and Illinois rivers. Schoolcraft writes, "There is a valuable and extensive bed of mineral coal, about forty miles southwest of Chicago on the Fox river of the Illinois, near the point of embouchure. The stratum of coal, which appears on the banks of the river, is said to have an extensive range towards the northwest, and is only covered by a light deposit of alluvial soil, of a few feet in thickness." All the early explorers and travellers refer to outcrops as mines although no mining had been done in them. A description of Illinois Territory in "A History of America" published in 1820 says, "Coal was observed extend- ing half a mile along the high bank of the north-western side of the Illinois river, 276 miles from its outlet, 50 miles above Pioria lake, and near the Little Eocks, which are 60 miles from Forks. It is also found on the La Vase, or Muddy river." The same volume quoting Mr. Fearon says, "The inhabitants of Illinois may, perhaps be ranked as follows : First, the Indian hunters. 2nd, The "Squatters" who are half -civilized and half-savage. 3d, A medley of land jobbers, lawyers, doctors and farmers, who traverse this immense country, founding settlements, and engaging in all kinds of speculation. 4th, Some old French settlers, possessed of con- siderable property, and living in ease and comfort." Beck's Gazetteer of Illinois and Missouri published in 1823 shows HISTORY 15 that at that time there existed a realization of the wide extent of workable coal seams. Speaking of the Illinois river, Beck says, "Coal is very abundant on this stream, and is valuable on account of the scarcity of timber." His references to coal in the various counties are as follows : "Clark County. Coal is very abundant. Greene County. The banks of the Mississippi in the south- erly part of this country are generally composed of perpen- dicular cliffs, varying in height from 80 to 150 feet, consisting of horizontal strata of sand and stone, limestone, slate and coal — Although the latter does not appear on the face of the cliffs, it is found in great abundance a short distance from it near Alton. I would remark that coal is also found similarly situated on the banks of Kickapoo Creek, a small stream emptying into the Illinois near Fort Clark. Jackson County. Muddy river, which meanders through the interior of this county, is navigable for a considerable distance, and affords to the inhabitants every facility for exporting their surplus produce. On this stream, near Brownsville, there is a saline, which has been leased for 10 years. A large body of good stone coal is also said to exist about 25 miles up this stream from which the smiths in the vicinity receive their supplies, and some is even taken to New Orleans. Pike County. At different places on the Illinois, there are immense strata of coal, of the best quality. Sangamon County. Coal is also abundant. He makes further mention of the coal resources in his description of towns, creeks, and rivers, as follows : Alton. Stone coal, of a good quality, is found in abun- dance at a short distance from this place. Big Muddy river. About 25 miles from its mouth, stone coal of a good quality, is found in a sufficient quantity to supply the surrounding country, and afford a surplus for exportation. Cahokia. Cahokia, a post village in St. (lair county, three-fourths of a mile east of the Mississippi river, and five miles south of St. Louis: Coal is found in the vicinity of this 16 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS place. Its discovery was singular and deserves to be men- tioned. (Here he repeats the story of the burning tree.) Chicago Creek. This stream has, for nearly a century, been one of the most common routes to the Illinois and Missis- sippi. The greatest proportion of the furs of the northwest are conveyed through this channel to the lower lakes. Crooked Creek. Coal abounds on the banks of Crooked Creek. Fox Eiver. (Beck quotes Schoolcraft's statement given on page 14.) Kickapoo or Eedbud Creek. On the banks of this stream is an extensive bed of coal, which furnished fuel to the garrison and the inhabitants of Peoria. The stratum is about 12 or 14 feet below the surface, and is overlaid by slate, lime- stone, and sandstone. Otter Creek. Coal is found in abundance on the banks of this stream. Peoria. A small settlement in Pike county on the west bank of the Illinois river, about 200 miles above its junction with the Mississippi. This section of country is not very rich in minerals. Coal, however, is abundant on the banks of Kickapoo creek, about one mile above its mouth. It was first discovered by the soldiers stationed at the fort (Clark), and being of a good quality, was used by them for fuel. It is found 12 or 14 feet below the surface ; it is overlaid by slate, lime- stone and sandstone ; and contains vegetable remains. Spoon river. Coal, of a very fine quality, is abundant on the banks of this stream and will be valuable, on account of the scarcity of timber, particularly in the northern part of the military tract. Sugar Creek. A small stream in the western parts of Madison and Washington counties. Coal is found in great abundance on the banks of this stream.' ' By 1830 the use of local coal by blacksmiths was quite general and in that year Joshua Hughes, a blacksmith of Cen- terville, St. Clair County, began taking coal from a hill side, about a half mile southeast of Centerville. 1 'History of St. Clair County. MacDonough, 1881. HISTORY 17 The increasing use of coal and the beginning of an indus- trial demand for it are shown in Peck's "A Guide for Emi- grants", published in 1831. Referring to Jackson County Peck says : "It is watered by Muddy river and its branches. Twelve miles up the stream is the village of Brownsville. The village now contains only fifteen to twenty families ; but the prepar- ations that are making to manufacture salt, and dig coal will be likely to cause an increase. ' ' Describing Belleville and its industries he states: "It has a steam flouring mill, which makes thirty barrels of flour per day. The engine is of twelve horse power. The fire consumes two cords of wood and seven bushels of bitumin- ous coal in twenty-four hours. The wood costs one dollar per cord, and the coal five and one half cents per bushel, and is hauled live miles from the bluff s." With reference to the widespread occurrence of coal Peck says : "Stone coal abounds in Illinois. It may be seen frequent- ly in the ravines and gullies, and in the points of the bluff. Exhaustless beds of this article exist in the bluffs of St. Clair County, bordering the American Bottom, of which large quan- tities are transported to St. Louis for fuel. It sells in St. Louis from ten to twelve and a half cents per bushel. From twelve to fifteen large ox waggons are employed most of the year in hauling it to market, the distance of seven miles across the American Bottom. There is scarcely a county in the State but what can furnish coal in reasonable quantities. Large beds are said to exist near the junction of Fox river with the Illinois and in the vicinity of the rapids of the latter." Tanner in "A view of the Valley of the Mississippi," published in 1834, says : "Bituminous coal is found abundantly in all parts of this state, in the bluffs, and the banks of the water courses. On the Illinois, and opposite to St. Louis, in St. Clair county, it is very abundant. And many thousands of bushels are sent to St. Louis annually, and sold at the rate of from ten to twelve and a half cents per bushel." 18 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS In 1834, G. W. Featherstonhaugh made a geological re- port on parts of Illinois. He states, " During my late tour I had occasion to examine the bituminous coal beds in various parts of Illinois; and in the bluff, distant about seven miles east from the city of St. Louis, a fine vein about eight feet thick is opened for the consumption of the city." Because the water courses were the only ways along which the products of the country could be transported the movement of freight was of necessity southward. The need of an outlet for freight into Lake Michigan became apparent early and in 1816 the project of uniting the waters of Lake Michigan and the Illinois river was conceived and grew in popularity. In 1823 the route was explored by a board of commissioners and engineers who estimated the cost. At a special session of the legislature an act was passed in Janu- ary, 1836, authorizing the construction of the canal. At this period in the United States every class was filled with the spirit of speculation and schemes of internal improvement absorbed the whole public attention. The canal scheme of Illinois combined with its plan for further internal improve- ments proved lacking in practical utility and resulted in disas- trous consequences. Brown in his "History of Illinois" published in 1844 says : "The route of the canal was principally over marshy ground, covered, for a considerable portion of the time with water. Access to it was exceedingly difficult, and to facilitate the work, and enable the contractors to proceed, forty thous- and dollars and upward, were expended by the acting com- missioner, during the first year, upon a road leading thither. The country along its route was, at that time, in a state of nature. Four years had scarcely elapsed, since it had been the theatre of an Indian massacre, and the whole of its scat- tered population had sought refuge from savage fury,, beneath the guns of Fort Dearborn. Instead of supplying the con- tractors with provisions, they were supplied themselves, from Michigan, Ohio, and even from New York. Having no sur- plus for market and there being, at that time, but few settlers in the country, the necessity, or rather the utility of a canal, at that particular time, was more apparent to the owners of HISTORY 19 'corner lots,' and 'water lots,' than to the candid or judicious observer." Kailroad construction, to the amount of 1341 miles, was authorized in 1837. The scheme as a whole, characterized by Brown as an absurdity, collapsed and in 1842 the State had to show for a debt of 12 million dollars, one railroad only, from Springfield to Meredosia and the whole income of the railroad was insufficient to keep it in repair. The canal was finally completed and opened in 1848. It was a disappointment be- cause the upper Illinois needed much artificial aid for naviga- tion. During this period of expansion and speculation the coal mining industry was affected by the general tendency towards inflation and owners of small mines desired to increase their production as shown by the following letter in the Journal of the Franklin Institute for 1836: "To the committee on Publication Gentlemen — I have received the following information in relation to a locality of coal in Illinois, from Mr. Hall Neil- son, of Kichmond, Virginia, and consider it of sufficient impor- tance to ask you to place it on the pages of your Journal for permanent reference. The coal alluded to is a dry bituminous coal, of which specimens have been placed in the Cabinet of the Franklin Institute, and of the American Philosophical Society. The Mount Carbon Coal Mines are on the margin of Big Muddy River, near Brownsville, Jackson County, Illinois, a short distance from its junction with the Mississippi River. The upper stratum of coal which is now opened, and has been worked on a limited scale for many years, is about six or seven feet thick, and lies in a horizontal position above high water mark, leaving room for wharfage between the river and the mines. This coal combines the qualities of the anthracite with pure charcoal with a remarkable freedom from sulphur, slate, and other impurities, makes an open fire, ignites very easily, and burns with much flame, and a strong heat, produc- ing little smoke, cinder, or ashes. These rare qualities render this coal of great value, and importance in the manufacture of iron and steel, and particularly so, in the production of steam. 20 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS Coal must ere long, be generally adopted for the use of steam- boats, and sugar plantations, on the Mississippi, and for foun- dries, steam mills, sugar refineries, cotton presses, and other works at New Orleans ; there would, besides, if this coal were in the market be a large demand for the outward bound ship- ping from that port, and as ballast for those in the Havana and South American trade, indeed the demand may be con- sidered almost unlimited. Tt is understood, that the present proprietor of these mines wishes that their working should be undertaken by a company, to form which he has made arrangements. A Correspondent. " In the "History of St. Clair County" the information is given that, ' ' Pittsburg is situated on the bluff, in the extreme eastern portion of Cahokia precinct, in sec. 3. It was estab- lished in 1836, and at one time had a population of upwards of 200 inhabitants, mostly coal miners. Coal was obtained here by drifting into the bluff, where in places it cropped out to the surface. As many as seven drifts have been in oper- ation at one time, and from twenty to thirty cars of coal mined in one day; but for several years the mines have been ex- hausted and abandoned." Peck's "New Guide for Emigrants in the West" pub- lished in 1836 states: "There is scarce a county in the State, but what can furnish coal, in reasonable quantities. Large beds are said to exist, near the Vermilion of the Illinois, and in the vicinity of the rapids of the later." Peck gave the following table for increase of population in Illinois : 1810 12 282 1820 55,211 1830 157,575 1835 272,427 He refers to Chicago as the largest commercial town, saying, "It is situated at the junction of North and South branches, and along the main Chicago, near its entrance into lake Michigan, on a level prairie but elevated above the high- est floods. A recent communication from a respectable mer- cantile house, gives the following statistics: 'Fifty-one stores, 30 groceries, 10 taverns, 12 physicians, 21 attorneys, and HISTORY 21 4,000 inhabitants. We have four churches, and two more building, one bank, a Marine and Fire insurance company about to go into operation, and a brick hotel, containing 90 apartments. ' There were 9 arrivals and departures of steamboats in 1835, and 267 of brigs and schooners, containing 5,015 tons of merchandise and 9,400 barrels of salt, besides lumber, pro- visions, etc. ' ' He records an abundance of coal in the follow- ing counties : Bond, Calhoun, Greene, Jackson, La Salle, Madi- son, Monroe, Putnam and St. Clair. In 1837 1 the first railroad in the Mississippi Valley called the Coal Mine Bluffs Railroad, was constructed for the purpose of delivering coal from the bluffs of the American Bottom to St. Louis. "It was built by Governor Keynolds, Samuel B. Chandler, George Walker and Daniel Pierce. In 'My Own Times', Governor Reynolds says: 'I had a large tract of land located on the Mississippi Bluff, six miles from St. Louis, which contained in it inexhaustible quantities of bituminous coal. This coal mine was the nearest to St. Louis, Mo., of any other on this side of the Mississippi River. I had also most of the land on which a railroad might be constructed to convey the coal into market. Under these circumstances, a few others with myself, decided to construct a railroad from the bluff to the Mississippi, opposite St. Louis. This road was about six miles long, and although short, the engineer made an erroneous calculation of the cost — making the estimate be- ing less than one-half of the real cost, We all embarked in this enterprise when we knew very little about the construction of a railroad, or the capacity of the market for the use of the coal. In fact, the company had nothing but an excessive amount of energy and vigor, together with some wealth and standing, with which to construct the road; and we accom- plished it. We were forced to bridge a lake over 2,000 feet across, and we drove down piles more than eighty feet into the mud and water of the lake, on which to erect the bridge. We put three piles on the top of one another, fastened the ends together, battering the piles down with a metal battering- ram of 1,400 pounds weight. The members of the company 'St. Clair County History. MacDonough. 22 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS themselves hired the hands — at times one hundred a day — and overlooked the work. They built shanties to board the hands in, and procured provisions and lodging for them. They graded the track, cut and hauled timber, piled the lake, built the road, and had it running in one season of the year 1837. This work was performed in opposition to much clamor against it, that it would not succeed, that we would break at it, and such predictions. We had not the means nor the time in one year to procure the iron for the rails, or the locomotive, so we were compelled to work the road without iron, and with horse-power. We did so, and delivered much coal to the river. It was strange how it was possible we could construct the road under these circumstances. It was the first railroad built in the Mississippi valley, and such an improvement was new to every one, as well as to our company. The members of the company and I — one of them — lay out on the premises of the road day and night while the work was progressing; and I assert that it was the greatest work or enterprise ever performed in Illinois under the circumstances. But it well- nigh broke us all.' " The growth of Chicago, the beginning of work on the Illinois-Michigan canal, and the settlement of new towns at- tracted attention to various unworked coal deposits in the State. Mitchell in ' ' Illinois in 1837&8, ' ' refers to coal in Rock Island County as follows : "Iron ore and stone-coal are found in several places along the Upper Rapids of the Mississippi. The latter article, of a good quality, prevades the Rock river bluffs extensively and will, before long, become a very im- portant article of trade with the lead-mines, where the country is destitute of it. The recent improvement in smelting fui naces, and the contemplated introduction of steam-engines to drain the mines on the plan of the miners of Cornwall, England, which must take place before long, will cause the consumption of an immense quantity of stone-coal. They now send to St. Louis for it, and freight it up stream 500 miles. It will not be many years before the business of smelting will be done near the mouth of Rock river for nearly all the lead regions above, from the circumstances that the mineral can be much easier floated down to the fuel, than the fuel can be HISTORY 23 freighted up to the mineral. This will throw into the lately located seat of justice of Rock Island county an immense trade, which is not generally looked upon as being alienable from the immediate neighborhood of the mines." Describing the town of Rock Island, Mitchell states, "The country in the vicinity is abundantly supplied with timber, limestone, and coal. There have been several boat loads of coal taken from there this season to Galena, it being the nearest coal to that point yet discovered. The company who own this site obtained a charter at the last session of the legislature, for a canal to run from Rock river to the Mississippi, terminating at this point, leaving Rock river at the head of the rapids, avoiding the only serious obstacle to the navigation of that stream by a canal of only four miles in length. This will open through Milan all the trade of the Pekatonica and Rock river country, which is one of the best agricultural districts in the state. The transportation of coal alone would make the stock of this canal good property, there being inexhaustible beds along the whole length of it." This publication also refers to "a large vein of coal, several feet thick, and apparently exhaustless," which was struck in excavating the Illinois-Michigan canal, at a point a few miles below Ottawa. It also states that a bed of anthracite coal was discovered on Muddy river in Jackson County and that "the stone coal near Peoria is said to be little inferior to that of Pittsburg and is found in the bluffs of all the creeks and Illinois river. It is generally used for fuel at Peoria in winter; is hauled from one to three miles, and is worth 12 cents per bushel. At Alton brick at the kiln sell for 7 to dollars per 1000; pine boards 25 to 40 per 1000 (they arc brought from the Ohio river); wood for fuel, $3 per cord; coal, 20 cents per bushel. The latter is obtained from the hills, one mile in the rear of the town; and both wood and coal can be got for very little more than the cost of cutting, digging, and hauling. The comparatively high price at which both sell will furnish an- other evidence of the high prices of labour and assure eastern labourers, who are working at this season of the year for 40 cents a day that here thev may soon realize a little fortune. 24 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS This city is surrounded for several miles in extent with cne of the finest bodies of timber in the state, from which vast quantities of lumber may be produced. Bituminous coal ex- ists in great abundance at only a short distance from the town. Peru is the point of termination of the Illinois and Mich- igan canal and is situated in the midst of a most fertile re- gion, abounding in grain, in coal, in iron, and in hydraulic power. These things being considered, is it wrong to sup- pose that a large inland city will here arise ? ' ' The possibilities of Chicago as a future coal market were foreseen in the following article on the Geology of Upper Illinois which appeared in 1838 in Silliman's American Jour- nal of Science, Vol. XXXIV. "Another point of interest occurs in the topography of the valley just before we reach Rockwell. It is where the Cosogin river cuts the bluff and enters the meadows. The mineral resources so remarkably accumulated at this point, the future development of which is destined to confer upon Rockwell numerous commercial and manufacturing ad- vantages. It is within a few rods only of the eastern extremity of the Consogin basin, that the largest out-crop of coal in the valley of the Illinois occurs. A ravine will be noticed as one descends from the high prairie, at a distance of about seven- ty rods from the eastern boundaries of Rockwell. This is the Swanson ravine. Its bed is entirely within the coal strata, and very nearly conforms in direction to their basseting edges. The slopes of the ravine consist superficially, to a consider- able extent, of soil and loose materials. Slight excavations, however, are all that is requisite to reveal the strata, which, on the west side at least are uniform and continuous to the val- ley. Commencing at the mouth of the ravine on its western side, we have a good view of the position of the coal-bed, where it has been partially laid open, for supplying to some extent fuel to the vicinity, especially for blacksmithing pur- poses. I can only state what I was able to learn from others respecting its course beyond Vermilionville. Abundance of HISTORY 25 coal is said to occur at several points for ten or twelve miles up the river, all of which may reasonably be considered as be- longing to one and the same stratum. Indeed it is not impos- sible that future researches will prove the extension of the present outcrop quite across the country, even to the "Wabash, in Indiana. A partial digging has been made into the bituminous shale and coal-seam of Eockwell. And inasmuch as borings for salt have been made to the depth of one hundred and thirty feet below the surface of the river, at a place five miles west of Ottawa, near Starved Rock, we are able to say, that the coal is not repeated for a depth of at least one hundred and sixty feet, sandstone being the only rock for the whole of this depth. We shall now treat of the economical value of the coal to this region. Bituminous coal is valuable in every part of our country; but to a rich prairie section, where the climate in winter is severe, and where wood is scarcely abundant enough to supply materials for fencing and building, its importance is almost incapable of being exaggerated. The deposit, upon which main reliance is likely to be placed for coal, at least for a considerable time to come, is the stratum which crops out in the Swanson ravine. This bed will probably be found workable under the entire tract, bounded by the ravine on the east and the Little Vermilion on the west. At what depth below the surface it will be found, situated on the western portion of this tract, it is of course impossible to say; but from what is known of coal-fields in other countries, we are authorized in believing that as the bed is worked down, its present pitch will alter, and that at no great distance from the ravine it will assume a horizontal position. The thin horizontal bed of coal which has been opened at so many points between Utica and Ottawa, and which is work- ed at several openings near the latter place, is undoubtedly capable of furnishing a large supply of this fuel. But the difference of expense in working a thin and a thick stratum is so great, especially where the thin bed, as in the present instance is horizontal in position, and overlaid by a vase ac- 26 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS cumulation of fissile strata, that it gives to the main deposit an obvious superiority. It is plain, therefore, that the canal commissioners have judged correctly, in affixing a high valu- ation to the coal-mines of the state on section thirteen. The coal at Vermilionville, besides being a number of miles from navigable water, is so situated, with regard to the bed of the river in which it occurs, as to render its exploration unusually inconvenient and expensive. It will not, therefore, be likely to come into market, until the supply near the canal and the Illinois river has been to a degree exhausted. No coal is obtained from down the river short of Henry ; nor even at this place within several miles of the river. It appears quite certain therefore, that Chicago and the legion bordering on the upper lakes are destined, on the com- pletion of the canal, to receive their bituminous fuel very largely from Rockwell and its immediate vicinity, since there is little prospect of the discovery of any nearer source of sup- ply. At present, the region referred to, is furnished by the coal mines of Ohio and Erie canal. It would seem, however, that coal can be delivered cheaper at Chicago from Rockwell, than at Cleveland, for although the distance is the same, yet the dimensions of the Chicago canal and its smaller amount of lockage, will give it a decided advantage over the Erie canal in the expense of transportation. 1 The ease with which it burns and the abundant flame it emits, must serve to render it a most valuable fuel. For while it will afford a warm and cheerful fuel for the grate, it is pe- culiarly adapted also to steam boilers, and to all the operations of heating and evaporating fluids. It will also give rise to a coke of a medium quality, the presence of iron-pyrites not be- ing found so considerable as to interfere with its employment by the blacksmiths of the country, who prefer it indeed in their work, to charcoal. The quality of coal, so far as can be determined from the limited exploration thus far made of the Illinois beds is in no way inferior to that of the Ohio coal. ^'Coal is raised and delivered to the boats in Ohio, at four cents the bushel. It sells in Cleveland at from fourteen to sixteen cents, and in Chicago, at fifty." HISTORY 27 One cubic foot of this coal will, therefore, weigh 79S, pounds, which will give for a bed six feet thick in one acre, nine thousand two hundred and thirty one tons. ' ' By 1838 the general distribution of coal under nearly all of the State had been proved. James Hall in "Notes on the Western States in 1838," says: "As for fuel, there is no difficulty. No part of this country has been explored in which coal does not abound; it is found in the broken lands and bluff banks of all our large water courses, and though seldom met with within the area of a prairie it abounds on the bor- ders of all the streams which meander among these plains. That it has not been brought into use, at all, is a proof of what we have asserted, viz. that wood is abundant." Water transportation was still a factor and St. Louis was demanding more coal each year so that, although the possibilities of the northern part of Illinois were realized, new mines were constantly being opened in southern Illinois. The "History of St. Clair County" gives the following- biography of John Schultz: "For sixteen years he hauled coal from the bluffs to St. Louis. He followed this business in winter. The occupation was not the easiest. Coal brought, in St. Louis, from eight to twelve and a half cents a bushel. In 1840, after his father's death, he rented a farm on the bluffs, below Caseyville, where the Sweigart stone house now is, and mined coal, bought teams, and hauled the coal to St. Louis on his own account. This occupation was heavy and laborious, but profitable. In 1844 he bought eighty acres of land, in section fourteen of township two north, range nine west, for twelve dollars and a half an acre, which, at that time, was considered a high price." Jones in "Illinois and the West" published in L838 tells of the markets for Illinois products in that period as follows: "It may not be irrelevant to put in a note in this place; giv- ing some information as to the market in Illinois. On all the great water courses, St. Louis and New Orleans are the great focuses to which nearly all the surplus produce will go. Rock River, at least the upper part of it, Fox river, and the whole neighborhood of the lake and the great canal which is to connect the Illinois with Lake Michigan, form an exception 28 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS to this general rule. To all this region, embracing the north- eastern part of Illinois, the northern part of Indiana, the northwestern part of Michigan, and the southeastern part of Wisconsin, the northern markets, via the lakes, offer the greatest inducements, and must eventually attract and mon- opolize the largest portion of the production of these terri- tories. But, at present, there is a home market for all this region. It is in fact, worthy of recollection, that bread stuffs are annually imported into the region in large quantities, there not being enough raised to meet the consumption. This is owing entirely to the immense tide of immigration, which is constantly pouring in there, and consuming, like a cloud of locusts, all that is raised and much more. In the summer of 1838, prior to the time of harvests, everything bore the high- est prices. Flour, $14, corn, $1.50, potatoes $2, and so on through the whole list of prices current. And this market will continue for years to come ; and long before the produc- tion shall exceed the consumption, an easy and cheap egress in the northern and southern markets will be afforded to the producers/ ' All mining operations were along the water courses be- cause it was impossible to transport coal overland for any distance. The condition of the roads is described by Jones. Writing of the country near Peoria he says, "Our road through the timber was exceedingly rough and tiresome. Road it ought not to be called, track is a fitter name. Not a tree had been fallen, and everyone went hither and thither among the trees, in search of a better path, as his judgment dictated or his horse inclined. Large and deep holes, still filled with water, whose surface was thickly coated with green slime, continually obstructed our way. Into these were we occasionally obliged to plunge, much to our own annoyance, and that of our poor animals, who were ready to sink under the intense heat." The commercial possibilities of the southwest portion of the State were estimated by Forrest Shepherd, Esq. in his report and map (See fig. 3) in 1840 to the Boston Association for purchasing Mineral Property in Missouri and Illinois. HISTORY 29 Having made an examination of the mineral deposits of these states he reports on Illinois as follows: "To the Boston Association for purchasing Mineral Property in Missouri and Illinois. Gentlemen: — It seemed very desirable to add some con- venient workable coal beds to the above valuable deposits of F ay e u JeAfe Fig. 3. Map drawn by Shepard, 1840 iron ore; and having by repeated and laborious explorations, satisfied mvself that such beds do not exist in the vicinity of 30 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS the Missouri Iron Mountains, nor yet between those mount- tains and Mississippi river, I turned my attention to Illinois, where the first thing of its kind worthy of note, was a bed of excellent bituminous coal, very free from sulphur and earthy impurities, and workable 8 feet in thickness with- out intervention of slate. Its covering is a thin band of shale, and above that, a solid limestone rock. No. 13, is the purchase of the east half of the southeast quarter section No. 29, in township No. 6 south, of range No. 2 west, containing 80 acres. This tract lies a short distance eastward of Beaucoup creek, and the above coal bed under- lies the surface throughout, a little above the level of the stream. The surface of this tract is for the most part level, and the soil is of the very first quality for wheat and corn. The above creek has been navigated by flat-boats to Browns- ville in time of high water. Nos. 14, 15, 16, and 17 are purchases of about 300 acres on the navigable waters of Big Muddy river in Jackson coun- ty. These tracts are covered with a large growth of valuable timber, and possess a soil second to none in the State of Illi- nois ; but their principal value consists in their mineral riches ; namely, their coal and iron beds, and a salt region beneath the coal. No. 17, which has been more particularly examined, I shall here particularly describe. About three miles above Brownsville, the county seat, immediately upon the south bank of the river, in the south half of the southwest quarter of section No. 9, in township No. 9 south, of range No. 2 west, and a few feet above ordinary water level, is a coal bed presenting a breast of five feet in thickness of excellent workable coal. Above the five feet of coal, comes one foot of shale, and immediately above that another foot of good coal. Directly over this last coal seam is a bed of the argil- laceous carbonate of iron, from 10 to 15 feet in thickness and as extensive as the coal formation. The ore consists in nodules and balls, imbedded in soft slate or clay, and may be easily excavated. Both the coal and iron beds, with all the accompanying strata, rise gradually as they recede from the river, so as to afford spontaneous drainage to the levels when worked. When I first discovered this ore bed, HISTORY 31 I felt that I would gladly exchange the privilege of making iron in almost any other place for the opportunity presented here. For with one hand, I could reach the coal, and with the other, the ore containing its own flux; while at my feet was a navigable stream for a great part of the year, to carry the iron to market. The deposits of iron ore and coal on this tract alone, I am confident cannot possibly be ex- hausted in a period of many years. A little higher up the river, on the property of H. Neilson, Esq., the above coal bed has been opened, and carried in boats to the New Orleans mar- ket, where I am informed it uniformly commands a higher price than any other coal. Specimens of the coal and iron ore are in possession of Professor Shepard. Believing that a point on the Mississippi river, where the products of both States may be concentrated for the purposes of manufacturing, would materially enhance the value of the above purchases, the young but enterprising town of Chester was accordingly selected, and, No. 18, is a landing on the Mississippi of two acres, not subject to inundation, with a sufficient depth of water at all times, and on a rock foundation. This has been purchased on certain stipulated conditions for the Association, for the pur- pose above-named, and if necessary, a large number of acres may be added to the landing, without increasing the rate of purchase money per acre. All which is respectfully submitted by Your obedient servant, Forrest Shepherd. (For the information of those who are unacquainted with Mr. F. Shepherd, it may be proper to state, that he is well ac- quainted with practical geology and mineral surveying, and has been employed for several years past by different mining- companies, in exploring mineral deposits. He is permitted to refer to Professor Silliman and Olmsted, and President Day, of Yale Col. In the purchases described in this Report are nearly 2000 acres embracing much good farming land, and eight or ten mill sites.)" 32 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS The analysis of Big Muddy Coal made by Prof. Charles V. Shepard and included in the report checks closely with present day analyses : "Gentlemen: — I beg leave to offer the following state- ment respecting the Ores and Coal from the mining tracts mentioned in the foregoing Report of Mr. Forrest Shepherd. 3d. Bituminous Coal and Iron Stone of Illinois. The coal of Big Muddy and Beaucoup river is possessed of very promising qualities. Its specific gravity is 1.31. It is rich in bituminous matter, burning freely and with a bright flame, without at the same time being so redundant in bitumen as to melt into a slag, which clogs the free circulation of air among the fuel. The bituminous and volatile matters amount from 33.5 to 37.5 per cent., and the carbon or combustible por- tion of the coke, equals from 58 to 55 per cent ; while the earthy ash which remains, rises only to 8.5 parts in the hundred. The specimens presented are quite free from sulphuret of iron, which shows that this coal is admirably adapted to do- mestic and metallurgical uses." By 1840 the coal mining industry had reached considera- ble proportions. MacGregor in ' ' Commercial Statistics of All Nations," Vol. 3, gives the following data on coal mining in 1840 copied in part from the U. S. Census Report. Aggregate Value of Produce, and Number of Persons Employed in the Mines of Illinois, 1840 COAL Anthracite Bituminous Tons raised No. of _ . , No. of No. of _, .. . ..... Capital , . . Capital (28 bushels men . , bushels men , , . . . invested . , , , invested each) employed raised employed 132 2 424,187 152 120,076 The U. S. Census Report for 1840 credits coal mining in Illinois with a capitalization of $120,076, with 152 employees and with a production of 424,187 bushels, distributed according to the following table : Counties Capital Men Bushels Adams 5 2,700 Edwards 1 2,000 Gallatin 2 1,500 Henry 2 2,250 HISTORY 33 Counties Capital Men Bushels Jackson 100,000 21 15,000 Lawrence 110 6 1,650 Madison 1,900 25 97,250 Marshall 200 3 4,000 Morgan 1,000 3 2,000 Peoria 600 8 12,000 Perry 1 1,500 Randolph 525 11 6,011 Sangamon 650 10 82,000 Schuyler 10 5 5,230 Scott 2,331 18 52,200 Shelby 500 2 2,700 St. Clair 12,250 24 129,396 Vermilion . . 2 800 Warren .. 2,800 Hunt's Merchants Magazine for 1841 states: "The coal of Illinois is of the bituminous character, and lies principally in the ravines and points of the bluffs. Exhaustless beds are found in the bluffs of St. Clair county, bordering on the American Bottom, and large quantities are carried across to St. Louis, for fuel. There is, however, scarce a county in the state in which it does not abound. The quantity dug in 1839 was over 376,000 bushels. The following particulars are derived from a tabular statement prepared by J. A. Townsend, of Alton, Illinois No. of persons employed in mining 1,227" Mrs. Steele in "A Summer Journey in the West" pub- lished in 1841 writes of Ottawa thus : "It is the center of an extensive coal basin which cropt out in various places in the neighborhood. Chicago now receives supplies of that article here, which she once obtained from Ohio." The mines in the vicinity of Ottawa were opened on the room-and-pillar system but about 1870 were changed to the longwall system, the Oglesby Coal Company being among the first to make the change in method of mining. The development of the industry was retarded by lack of transportation. Ten years after the authorization by the leg- islature of the comprehensive program of internal improve- ment there were in operation in Illinois only two railroads listed by Colton in "The Western Tourist" published in 1846. These two roads were : 34 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS " Northern Cross railroad completed from Springfield to Meredosia on the Illinois river, a distance of 53 miles. Coal Mine Bluffs railroad extends 6 miles from the Miss- issippi river to the coal mine. " During the session of 1846-7 the legislature granted a charter for constructing a macadamized road from Belleville to St. Louis. The road, almost fourteen miles long, was built. This was the first macadamized road in the State. 1 "The improvement was one of great value to the country and gave the city of Belleville its first advance toward prosperity.' ' The opening of the Illinois-Michigan canal in 1848 was the precursor of better transportation conditions and marks the end of the ante-railroad period. RAILROAD PERIOD (1850—1915) The total mileage of railroads in the State in 1850 was in- significant. The first railroad completed was the six-mile coal track across the American Bottom in 1837. The second road was the small section of the Northern Cross road from Mere- dosia to Springfield. The third was the Galena and Chicago begun in 1849 and opened for a length of ten miles in 1850. 2 In that year congress donated about three million acres of land as security for the building of the Illinois Central Rail- road. Construction on the Illinois Central began in 1852 and the work went rapidly forward. The first line from Chicago to the Mississippi was the Chicago and Rock Island completed in 1854 and the second opened to the Mississippi was made up in part of the Galena and Chicago and of the Illinois Central. 3 Until 1854, coal was hauled by wood burning locomotives and the greatest impetus given to the expansion of the coal industry after the construc- tion of railroads was the purchase by the Galena and Chicago 1 History of St. Clair County. MacDonough. 2 Poor's Manual of Railroads. 1876. 3 Poor. op. cit. HISTORY ts O "t iO On 0\ >^ t(- fO tgvOvOOO'tQ.vON 8 KrHONOO^HOOM(NOMOrHlOrHrH(\J -00 On On O O O O O O • O O O *- ' *-* r-i ,-h ^h ^h i CM CM CM CM CM CM OONCMONNOK\OMioarHOOi^KO\DOO'*aiOS'+rH(\J rHM-t\0NlOl^00v0NWO0\»O< y 5'HOr0'HrH\0OMrHCM CO Tj-fO'— < CM \C 00 O *— i t^t^ O lo Tf ^^O^O^^T^^r^vO O^O^v© 00 vO cm" rj-" cm" cm" m" tvT oC r>T rC on" o" od ■**•" in r^T cm" o" vo" oo" i-T i-T j<" o" in " oC «-T K00C?\O'HfNl< y 5'^ l ^OK000NQ'-iC^i v )^LOvpK00ONO'-iMf0 0000MOO\aO\0M3\a0N0\OOOOOOOOOOO'-ir , '-irH oooocooooocoxooooooooooooONO\ONO\OM7iaM>aoaNONCM7\ £ "u rt OKooovOK^TrorHfot^a,0\CMo^toocO'-io\Ooooo-Hvc rt rt oj 0\ri0\miOiO0\N'*f0MOv000i^O00^'tNUT>0N\0OON *5! u— tNO\i^'-i'-i'-i'-' v )'tO00a\f0iON'HM |y )tiO00MvO00a\O\M ^ ■*-■ p IC\jrvlCVJf^rorOfOrOfO^-T)-»n\OvC>OtNKKKKK000000X00ON SOOOOQOOQQrOQOOQOOOOOQt^OfOvOLOas^H _OOOOOOOQO\OOOOOt^QOOOl^QLOLOt^u-iTj- "'1-OOOOOOOOO^OOOO^OOOO'^OvO'^-OTtCM ^OOOOOOO' oo"o"o"o"o"o"o*o"<^< • ( N )i\QOl>OOOOOOlOMvNU«NUUJU")UU'- | l x 4r-n\JUt y }lN t^ vO t^ 00 OCM lo OOO^OO^O O ^.C^CM^O^ L l ^.°, T ~l t> \^ H . T ~1. CV| °° •"• ^^^^<^^(^<^cnrn-rf-*finininin so vO aT cm" cm"*— <"»-<" " o" o" o* o" o" -^ Tf" ooooo00i^oooooqoooo >oqooo<^ooooooooqooo L "1 ^-t °. "1 °„ °_ °\ °, „ °_ ° °. °. R. °„ ^L P f t>T oo" o" cm" rt-" i n \d" >rf oo" i n o o" « n o* o* o" o oo _ to o o< o c o"t^oo"o"cvfTfu-r-o">o"oo">o"o"o"io'o*o'o''QO -I^HrHrlfNIMr^f^t^P^f^Tj-TrTfTj-lO "io irTo'O o o o < y i , ^iOv0K000\O'-iMr0tiO tsOOO\0--iMrOTti0^lNCOON tT rf Tf lo m m »o «o 1 n y*> vo 10 j£ 00000000000000000000000000 36 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS in that year of five locomotives "guaranteed to burn the bitu- minous coal mined in Illinois." 1 The increase of main track mileage of all railroads in Illinois and the coincident development of coal mining is shown in Table 1 and by a graph in fig. 4. In 1851 "a railroad was built by the Illinois Coal Com- pany 2 operating at Caseyville, from that point to Brooklyn, a short distance north of East St. Louis, which was completed in February, 1851. It was supplied with T rails. Up to this Fig. 4. 1640 Coincident 1650 I860 development of 1670 I860 main track mileage and p 1910 roduction of o coal time the company had hauled coal by ox and mule teams to St. Louis. In three years the company failed; the road and fix- tures were sold to the Ohio and Mississippi Railroad Com- pany and the rails were taken up and used in the construc- tion of that road. The old road bed can still be traced. ' ' The Gartside Coal Company sunk its first shaft at Alma in St. Clair County in 1851. Until 1854 the current of Illinois river had carried south- ward most of the products of central Illinois and only those 'History of the Illinois Central Railroad. -St. Clair County History. MacDonough. HISTORY 37 from the northern part of the state sought the Lake outlet. 1 But from this time the stream of traffic was deflected at right angles towards the eastern market and by 1856 Chicago had become the center of railroads radiating to the Mississippi. In 1855 Taylor in his "Statistics of Coal" says : "A Chi- cago paper states there are, or will be, in operation on the 1st of July, 1855, in the State of Illinois, 3,715 miles of rail- road. There are now in operation, leading into the City of Chicago, 1,626 miles of railroad." All over the State new mines were opened up along new railroads. Fig. 5 shows a typical surface plant of this period. m I ^#£> • ' : ~ i *^+%j - -- i^ f ^m^ dt Jr3i Yi ffj^^^™^~^^~!_z^' ^■t&s=*r-.-=ei_ . ,.?&K^|m^l=«s| j^mmM ^r^^ RFINrnkCSMiNC N°2 .AT Bcllcv/llc on the 1 g. N R R SrCum Co. Ill Fig. 5. Surface plant of early railroad period Taylor, describing coal fields in the United States, says further, "Passing now to the southward, we enter the great Illinois coal-field, which occupies an extent nearly equal to that of England; yet the State has but recently commenced to make use of the coal with which nature has so bountifully provided her. Except in the vicinity of the larger towns and rivers, the business of mining coal here had made but small progress." The coal trade of the lakes in 1855 is discussed by Taylor who says, "Large quantities of bituminous coal are obtained from coalfields in the north-western part of Pennsylvania, 60 to 80 miles south of Lake Erie. Another source of supply of bituminous coals, is from beds lying on the line of the Michi- gan and Illinois canal, in Illinois, distant from Chicago on 'American History and Tts Geographical Conditions. Semple. 38 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS Lake Michigan, 60 to 80 miles. This canal was opened in 1848, and but little coal came to market that year. In 1849, 5,150 tons reached Chicago. The upper part of these beds furnished coal highly charged with sulphur, which confines the use of it principally for household purposes. Boats and other machinery make but little use of it for steam, it being so destructive to grate-bars and boilers. But the quality of coal is improving the deeper the beds are worked, and the prospect is that coal of equal quality will soon be raised from them, as free from this objectionable matter as the Cleveland and Erie. The production of these mines is not definitely known, but a writer in the Cleveland Herald, estimates the entire consumption of coal by the Lake region in 1853, at 300,000 tons." He gives details of the production of Illinois in 1855 as follows: "There is no coal on the Ohio river nearer to its junction with the Mississippi than Saline, near Shawneetown, 116 miles above the mouth of the first named river. On the Mississippi, it is rather a shorter distance, being sixty miles to Muddy creek, and thence twenty-five miles up that creek to the first coal-bed there, or twelve miles of land. Some coal operations commenced here some few years ago, having in view the supply of the towns along the Mississippi, as far even as New Orleans. The present supplies of coal to the lower country are obtained from a vast distance up the Cum- berland and Tennessee rivers, but especially from Wheeling, Pittsburg, and the intermediate points, 900 miles further from the market than the Illinois coal of Muddy creek. The estimated expense of delivering this coal at New Orleans, by arks, is about $2.25 per ton ; while the minimum price of coal there is 25 cents a bushel, or $7.50 per ton. In winter time from 50 to 62>4 cents per bushel, or $12 to $15 per ton have been occasionally the retail price there. This Muddy Creek coal seam is a horizontal bed six or seven feet thick, above which is another vein, not heretofore worked. Coal can be thrown from the mouth of the drift into a boat. Its quality is most excellent, igniting readily, and caking together per- fectly, without making much clinker. It has been used for HISTORY 39 fifty years by the old French settlers, to make edge tools, which have borne a high reputation. What is termed St. Louis coal, supplied to the steamers, burns with a good flame, and cements like that of Pittsburg; ashes dark gray, in small quantity, and consumes with little waste. It is often mixed with yellow sulphuret of iron in flakes occurring on each face of the sectional fracture; and consequently is not, we understand, in so good repute for the purposes of iron manufacturing. Toward the north-west boundary of this district, several coal seams are seen in the tongue of land which lies between the Mississippi and Eock rivers. One of these beds is from five to six feet thick; its quality is fair, and evidently im- proves as the workings proceed. To the south of Eock river are several good coal seams which are capable of supplying almost any required quantity of this fuel. Their local position and advantages render them of great value to the country lying north of this." With the advent of transportation facilities new fields were opened away from the large towns and rivers. The rail- road network spread and the markets of the State were opened to coal from a distance. In 1856 1 three companies in La Salle County sunk shafts from 100 to 200 feet deep: The La Salle Coal Mining Company, the Northern Illinois Coal and Iron Company, and the Pern Coal Mining Company. By 1860'- Illinois had 73 mines producing 728,400 tons valued at $1,285,500. There were employed in the mines 1430 men and boys. Mining in St. ('lair County still offered possibilities to the investor. Joseph Yoeh opened a mine known as Yoch 's mine in 1859 on the old Breeze farm, two and a half miles west of Belleville and the Van Court mine east of O 'Fallon with a seven foot vein lying at a depth of 207 feet was opened in 1863. 3 In 1865 coal was found in digging a well on a newly settled farm in the Wilmington districl in Will County. This region soon assumed considerable importance. En I860 the 1 Coal Regions of America. MacFarlane. 1873. *U. S. Census Report. 1860. 3 History of St. Clair County. MacDonough. 40 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS Chicago and Wilmington Coal Company 1 was organized by Boston and Chicago capitalists and shortly after its formation it was consolidated with the Vermilion Coal Company, a new concern under the name of the Chicago, Wilmington and Ver- milion Coal Company. Operations were immediately started on a large scale, all the product being shipped to Chicago over the Chicago and Alton railroad. In the Vermilion County field mining on a commercial scale began in 1866 when Wm. Kirkland, Hugh Blankeney and Mr. Graves opened a stripping mine on Grape Creek. In the Caseyville precinct of St. Clair County the first shaft of the Abby Coal Mining Company was sunk on the Vandalia line in 1868 by Matile and Williams. The U. S. Census Eeport for 1870 credits Illinois with an output of 2,624,163 tons of coal pro rated among the vari- ous counties as follows: Coal Product of Illinois in Tons Counties Year 1870 Bureau 32,339 Christian 60 Clinton 9,000 Fulton 22,850 Gallatin 11,600 Grundv 51,375 Henry" 62,750 Jackson 166,800 Tersev 2,623 Knox 97,225 La Salle 173,864 Livingston 49,360 Logan 17,000 McDonough 60,750 McLean 55,000 Macoupin 7,000 Madison 116,924 Marshall 17 330 Menard 17,360 Mercer 14,040 Montgomery 18,000 Peoria . . .'. 6,000 Perrv 195,400 Randolph 11,000 Rock Island 127,630 Sangamon 84,500 Schuyler 8.100 Scott 2,950 Shelby 5,700 Engineering and Mining Journal. 1874, p. 306. HISTORY 41 Counties Year 1870 Stark 14,554 St. Clair 798,810 Tazewell 5,300 Vermilion 1 16,640 Warren 11,729 Will 228,000 Williamson 1,600 Woodford 4,000 Total 2,624,163 In 1870 considerable work was done at the West Ver- milion Heights shaft in Vermilion County and through the early seventies the Grape Creek Coal Company opened up what are now known as the old Grape Creek mines, about four miles southeast of Danville, midway between Danville and Westville on the line of the C. & E. I. R. R. The Abby shaft No. 2 in St. Clair County 1 was sunk in 1873 by the Abby Coal Mining Company. "The depth and vein is about the same as at the other mine. The Springfield mine, still east of the others, was sunk in 1874, by the Bartlett Coal Company, and is now operated by the Springfield Company. Coal is reached at 160 feet, and the vein is full six feet in thickness." Bennett's coal mine, two miles west of Lebanon, in St. Clair County, on the O. and M. Railroad, Avas opened in 1873 by Jeremiah Bennett, and a five and one-half foot vein was reached at a depth of 180 feet. In 1874 the Grundy County deposits which had been pros- pected in 1866 were opened up. Upon the completion of the Chicago and Illinois River Railroad across La Salle County in 1874 the county began to supply outside markets. Along the Illinois Central railroad in this same year three new com- panies sunk shafts, 2 the Chicago Coal Company, the Illinois Valley Coal Company and the Kenoska Coal Company. The Belleville district in St. Clair County in 1875 was the most important mining district in the State and an ex- cellent description of mining conditions there in that year is given in the History of East St. Louis by R. A. Tyson. He says, "St. Louis obtains its principal supply of bituminous 1 St. Clair County History. MacDonough. -'Coal Regions of America. MacFarlane, L873. 42 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS coal from what is known in coal regions as the Belleville dis- trict, in St. Clair County, Illinois. It is brought to East St. Louis by the St. Louis and Illinois, commonly known as the Pittsburg Eailroad. This Eailroad is only 12 miles long, from East St. Louis to Belleville, but it intersects the western boundry of the coal measures at Centerville six miles out from E. St. Louis, and runs six miles through the coal field. St. Clair county, contains 450 square miles of coal, or three- fourths of the county, embracing all the central and eastern portions, with a thickness of about 300 feet of the lower and most productive of the coal measures, embracing five coal seams, only two of which, however, appear to be of economical value at this time. In 1871 there were transported by this railroad, from Belleville, and Centerville to East St. Louis, 361,630 tons. The last United States census reports the coal production of St. Clair County at 798,810 tons. This is, therefore, by far the most productive, and, in that respect, the most important coal region in Illinois. The thickest coal seam outcrops in the river and along the western borders of the coal measures in the southwest portion of the county. The dip is very moder- ate, not more than five or six feet to the mile, and is in an easterly direction, or a little north of east, and in consequence the coal lies deepest below the surface in the eastern portion of the country, and crops out to the surface near East St. Louis. The Belleville coal seam, No. 6, is the principal one worked, and it was probably the first ever worked in the State. Its natural outcrop along the bluffs, in such close proximity to St. Louis, called attention to its value at an early day. Its general thickness in this county ranges from five to seven feet, and it has a solid limestone roof, so that it can be worked with safety and in the most economical manner. This coal is generally quite regularly stratified, and the two upper layers, which vary in their aggregate thickness from 16 to 24 inches, are much the purest in quality. It is us- ually separated from the lower coal, and sold at about three cents per bushel higher, as a blacksmith coal; thus: heating coal, six cents ; blacksmith coal, nine cents per bushel. HISTORY 43 The main coal seam No. 6 has been opened at many points about Belleville, and the river bluffs back of the outcrop. It is reached by twenty-five shafts, sunk to the depth of from 50 to 150 feet. In Alma shaft the coal was found at a depth of 170 feet below the surface, and the seam is seven feet thick. It is the same thickness at Mascoutab, at 132 feet deep, and 6 T /> thick at Urbana or Freeburg, and about the same depth below the surface. In the southern part of the county the Belleville coal is opened at many places along its outcrop, and retains its full thickness of about seven feet. Everywhere it seems to be from six to seven feet thick. It will be seen that the coal measures underlie all the highlands in the county of St. Clair, except a narrow belt from three to five miles wide across the southwest border, and the land is also among the most productive agricultural lands in Southern Illinois. The analysis of the Belleville coal shows the following results : Loss Carbon Specific in W't of Mois- Vol'e in Ash Carbon gravity coking coke ture matter coke coal Casey's mines 1.304 39.8 60.2 6.0 33.8 55.2 5.0 55.3 Pfeifer's mines 1.293 44.3 55.7 8.5 35.8 51.2 4.5 57.5 Belleville m 1.293 45.0 55.0 5.5 39.5 49.6 5.4 54.6 Dill & Knapp's m 1.340 42.51 57.49 4.43 38.8 44.48 13.9 54.28 Churchill m 1.315 45.40 54.60 6.00 39.40 45.70 8.90 52.63 Belcher m 1.296 44.66 56.34 8.10 35.56 47.71 8.60 54.50 Professor Worthen says that from the analysis, the Belle- ville coal will compare favorable with the average of bitu- minous coals from the other localities either of this or adjoin- ing States. Cheap Coal in East St. Louis. Coal is cheaper in East St. Louis by the cost of transpor- tation across the Mississippi. It is brought in wagons and cars on a down grade, six or eight miles from the outcrop in the bluffs to East St. Louis. The process at the mines is as follows : After the coal is mined the cars are drawn horizontally up grade into the mine by a mule. The mule is detached; the 44 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS cars filled, started out of the mine by hand, and carried down grade by their own weight to a trestle at the entrance. Here they are dumped. Coal cars receive the falling coal. These are standing ready to receive it. When full the coal train starts and moves a considerable distance down grade, unaided. Engines are then attached, which complete the transportation to East St. Louis. Coal can be delivered to any part of East St. Louis on railroad track or switches at six cents per bushel There are 80 lbs. in a bushel ; 2,000 lbs. in a ton. There are as many bushels in a ton as equal the number of times which 2,000 lbs. contain eighty lbs ; equals 25 bushels ; 25 x .06 equals $1.50 per ton, far cheaper than cord wood in the forest re- gions. It can be delivered to the manufacturing establish- ments of East St. Louis at from one-third to one-half less than it can be delivered west of the river. Tracks can be run from almost any road to any furnace door. Coal can be contracted for by the year, and thus this great want be conveniently and cheaply met. Enough coal to last for ages All this coal is of easy access by rail on a down grade to the very doors of the furnaces of the East St. Louis manufac- tories, costing but $1.60 per ton delivered.'' The development of the industry to the proportions it had reached by 1875 had not been unaccompanied by labor dis- putes nor by periods of depression and ruinous competition. Tyson appends the following extract from the Belleville Democrat of August, 1875 : ' ' Coal mining in detail — by a miner Appended is a document which appeared in the Belleville Democrat, during August, 1875, which is of interest to coal producers and consumers. It will be seen that an immaterial advance of a cent per bushel in price is asked by this union : Platform and Constitution of the Eeorganized Miners of St. Clair and Adjoining Counties. Eesolved. 1st. That we demand three cents per bush- el for mining, and will take no less. HISTORY 45 2nd. That we have fair and just railroad weight, and are paid twice a month — upon the 5th and 20th of each month. 3rd. That no coal shall have a screen to exceed one inch between the bars of said screens. 4th. That we will not mine coal for any coal mining com- pany that will sell coal for less than seven and one-half cents per bushel in the coal yard on this side of the river, and eight and three-quarter cents in the yard on the Missouri side, and eleven cents per bushel when delivered in or with wagons. 5th. That we will not mine any coal for any coal oper- ators who will sell coal to another operator when his miners are on a strike, when the same is made a known fact. We have given the above resolutions due consideration, and do not see in them anything that is of an extortionate or tyrannical character. Jt is a known fact that less than three cents is not a living price for mining coal, though we will ad- mit that three cents is more than we have had for the last nine months; but in viewing our condition we also know that we have been going in debt all the time, and many of us cannot get out of debt in the next twelve months, even at three cents and steady work. As for steady work, we know that we cannot all get it; and let me say, right here, that if the gro- cery men and butchers were to stop giving us credit, we would be starving or else stealing for a living. These statements are facts. This being the case, most assuredly we are entitled to a fair price for our labor. The 2d, 3d, 4th and 5th of our resolutions are to protect the three cents for mining. Past experience has taught us than when the warm season conies there is not work for us all. Then we forget our brother coal miner, and only think of self. Then in order to get steady work we come down on the price. Some coal boss will say to the miners that are working for him, 'Boys, there, is a con- tract to be let, and if you miners will take two and three-quar- ters, or two and a half cents per bushel, and say nothing about it, I can get that contract, and you will have steady work. ' The answer will be, 'all right; go ahead and get the contract.' The contract is then taken at a reduced price that will not allow three cents for mining. Then go and ask these men how it is and they will reply, 'I don't know; we are getting district 4(5 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS prices.' That is the beginning of the reduction of price, and the downfall of our Union. Now, I claim that a uniform price in the market will show every one of us that the coal is sold for a price that is not too high for the consumer, and will give the miners three cents for mining. But when sales are being made every day that show clearly to other coal operators that they cannot sell so low and save themselves, it will naturally be supposed that the miners are mining cheaper, and gener- ally they are right ; so there conies strife and contention with the coal operators, and also with the miners that are at work at some other mine. They cannot see how it is that such a coal operator can make anything on that contract. If he does, he is bound to cheat his men in some way. The fact of the case is, his miners have told him what to bid, or at least they told him what they would do — how much cheaper they would mine if they could get steady work. So the contract is taken at such low figures that no other coal operator can sell coal at the same price without losing money. If he does not sell at the same price he will lose his trade. So he begins to grumble with his miners, stating that there is something wrong. By this time there is another contract to let. They then go for it at the least price — perhaps a half-dozen bids in, with an understanding with the men that they will mine under price if they get the contract. When the bids are opened they find that their black bids are nowhere by the side of some other black bids. After they and their black bids are de- feated, then their miners curse and fume and swear that they can dig coal as cheap as any blacklegs that ever lived, so down goes the price for mining and down goes the price in market. When we look fairly into the coal business we perceive that the whole cause of the price coming down is through the miners and operators, not through the consumer. That taken for a fact, we can safely say if we fail to get a living out of the trade, it is our own fault. The consumers must have coal, and will pay a living price for it if we will demand it, but we must not demand it, we must not demand an unreasonable price. We must at all times take into consideration the con- dition of the country financially, and base our demands in pro- portion. Now, three cents is a very low price for mining this HISTORY 47 coal, and seven and a half in the yard is cheap on this side of the river. Eight and three fourths is cheap on the Missouri side in the yard, and eleven cents delivered is equally cheap. For proof : Three cents for mining 3 Two and a half cents for freight 2y 2 One half cent for royalty y 2 One and a half cent for hoisting and margin. . . . iy 2 In the yard on this side 7% Shipping across the bridge I14 In the yard on the Missouri side 8% Three and a half cents for hauling and delivering this side of the river 7 1 / 4 Hauling from river 3y 2 Deliver by wagon 1 1 ' ' The prosperity of East St. Louis was accounted for by the number of railroads radiating from it in 1875. Tyson gives the following list : 1st. The Illinois and St. Louis Coal Road. First built of wooden rails, in 1837, by Ex-Grov. Reynolds and others, from here, six miles, to the coal bluffs, and extended six miles further to Belleville, in 1870. Horse power was first used. 2nd. Ohio and Mississippi Railroad. Ground broke in 1852. Terminated here, June, 1857. 3rd. Terre Haute, Alton and St. Louis Railroad, now known as the Indianapolis and St. Louis Railroad. 4th. Illinoistown and Belleville Railroad, now known as the Cairo Short Line. This road now inns to Duquoin, on the Illinois Central, and connects there For Cairo. 5th. The Chicago, Alton and St. Louis Hail road. Its first termini were at Chicago and Alton. 6th. The St. Louis, Yandalia and Terre Haute Railroad, now known as the Vandalia Line. 7th. The Decatur and East St. Louis Railroad, now owned by and known as the Toledo, Wabash and Western. 48 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS 8th. The Rockford, Eock Island, and St. Louis Railroad. This Road comes in from Alton Junction, on the track of the Vandalia line. 9th. St. Louis and Southeastern, which has several branches. 10th. The American Bottom Lime, Marble and Coal Company, now known as the East St. Louis and Carondelet Railway. It has a branch running to Falling Springs. 11th. Cairo and St. Louis Railroad. This Company commenced running on the 15th of September, 1873, to McLeansboro, 111., 90 miles ; there tapping the celebrated Big- Muddy coal fields — which coal is the best for smelting pur- poses in the United States. The company soon formed a contract to transport coal for three years to supply the South St. Louis furnaces with fuel. For the year ending May 31, 1875, its gross receipts were $267,884.94. Operating expenses were about 60 per cent of receipts. During the same year (ending May 31) the coal traffic ran very light, owing to the closing of most of the furnaces at St. Louis.'' In 1880 the production of coal in Illinois amounted to six million tons produced by counties as follows : Counties Tons Brown 400 Bureau 65,890 Clinton 40,000 Coles 320 Fulton 336,171 Gallatin 80,400 Greene 3,260 Grundy 183,812 Henry 155,695 Jackson 64,412 Jasper 24 Jersey 2,300 Johnson 27,000 Kankakee 1,000 Knox 26,462 LaSalle 716,487 Logan 60,000 Livingston 118,230 Macoupin 247,284 McDonough 82,304 McLean 63,000 Madison 273,807 Marion 39,943 Counties Tons Marshall 5,450 Menard 61,120 Mercer 79,531 Montgomery 42.400 Morgan 13,500 Peoria 273,640 Perry 222,186 Randolph 69,958 Rock Island 237,589 Saline 2,320 Sangamon 427,619 Schuyler 5,115 Scott 5,700 Shelby 6,504 Stark 22,143 Saint Clair 956,265 Tazewell 61,348 Vermilion 228 850 Warren 15,467 Washington 4,000 Will 611,311 Williamson 73,500 Woodford 101,060 HISTORY 49 In 1881 the First Biennial Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics was published which contained a report on the coal mines of the State. The history of Illinois mining from 1881 is available in the reports of the Bureau and in the subse- quent Reports of the State Mining Board. DIVISION OF THE STATE INTO DISTRICTS The Illinois Coal Mining Investigations preparatory to its study of mining conditions in Illinois divided the State into eight districts as shown in fig. 6, on a basis of geographical location and physical and geological conditions. The boun- daries of these districts were so chosen that all the mines in a district work under similar conditions. One hundred typical mines were chosen for examination, distributed among the districts proportionately to their im- portance and in accordance with the variations of mining methods in the mines of each district. Three of the mines thus chosen were dropped from the list for various reasons, but the remaining 97 were examined in great detail. The en- gineers who made this detailed study were S. 0. Andros, 0. M. Young, J. J. Eutledge and R. Y. Williams. Based upon this field examination and a great volume of subsequent corre- spondence with mining men in the State a detailed report of mining practice in each district has been published. Complete details of the organization of the staff and of the methods of collecting data can be found in Bulletin 1, "A Preliminary Report on Organization and Method." The averages in the tables in this bulletin based upon the 97 mines examined compared with similar averages for all the mines of the State as given in the Coal Reports of the State Mining Board show that the 97 mines examined are really typical of the mines of the State and that conclusions based upon the data gathered at the chosen mines apply to the State as a whole. (50) Fig. 6. Division of the State into districts 52 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS Table 2 gives the districting of the State by counties. Table 2. — Districts into which the State has been divided fo? the purpose of investigation Coal seam II 2 III 1 and 2 IV V 5 VI 6 (East of Duquoin anti- cline) VII VIII 6 (West of Duquoin anti- cline) 6 and 7 (D anville) Method of mining Longwall Room-and-pillar Room-and-pillar Room-and-pillar Room-and-pillar Room-and-pillar Room-and-pillar Room-and-pillar Counties ni V. W bo S3 M £ - i • .V. CO CO <>> • -4>i o O 00 i-H o oc CO 1-] r^ o -r ON LO On lO <0 -t LO Tt" o i^ t^ ,_, -f _ >o -* <0 CO -r vO ^f ON CM LO Tt CO LO NO -r LO LO CO co CO CO ro <0 <0 co <^o CO ON O r c o -1- CM 00 ,_, t^ t^ O 00 00 o> O 00 00 ^H LO NO CM >— H CM CM o *; J5 £ CM t -6 LO ON LO o LO LO LO 00 LO ON «! CM ^ 'X r-x CM "fr CO <* rH t^ 00 rf LO ONON-^-CMOfO 00 n k O O *-h 1-4 «-< t>4 <-h O CM O -h On <0 ON ON ro On © © © © i-h © 00 O O 00 O O i-4* o N fOK h a 00 00 1-4' Tf' ON CM Tf-' ON t^ LO CM -h O ON CM 5-NOfO O "3- co~ On lo t>T — i -4 r^ o to O <=> i2 § B TJ O ° C M c« is c •£ nj 3 g « S B >• & bfi s ^ s u - & DIVISION OF THE STATE INTO DISTRICTS 55 A comparison of the production in 1912 and 1914 indi- cates that since 1912 there has been no material change in the general conditions upon which the comparisons in this bulle- tin are based. DESCRIPTION OF COAL SEAMS The chemical composition and calorific value of the coal from the seams worked in the eight districts are given in Table 5. 1 The following brief description of seams is intended to cover only those geological conditions which affect mining practice. The detailed geology of District I is given in Bul- letin 10, Illinois Coal Mining Investigations, Coal Eesources of District 1 (Longwall), by G. H. Cady and that of District VII in Bulletin 11, Illinois Coal Mining Investigations, Coal Resources of District VII, by F. H. Kay. Reports on the geology of the other districts will be made in similar bulle- tins which will be published in the future. References to other publications on the general geology of the Illinois coal fields are included in the bibliography appended to this bulletin. In this description the coal seams are numbered accord- ing to the correlation of the State Geological Survey. DISTRICT I, SEAM 2 Seam 2 in District I varies in thickness from 2 feet, 8 inches to 4 feet, averaging 3 feet, 2 inches. The chief physical characteristic is the fine lamination of alternately bright and dull coal. On account of these lam- inations the luster is not so pronounced as that of the coal from the No. 6 seam ; but this aspect is not due to impurities. The persistent dirt and sulphur bands of No. 6 are absent, but in places are thin bands of flat or lenticular pyrites. There is, however, no regularity in the distribution at any horizon of the layers of pyrites or of the local bands of pyri- tous mother coal and dirt bands. The thickness of these various layers of impurities varies from y 2 inch to 4 inches. The La Salle anticline which runs in a general northwest- southeast direction divides the district into two fields with slightly different physical conditions : the Wilmington on the 1 Complete chemical data upon the 97 mines sampled will be found in Bulletin 3, Illinois Coal Mining Investigations, A Chemical Study of Illinois Coals, by Prof. S. W. Parr. (56) DESCRIPTION OF COAL SEAMS n •00 •CM •LO :*-" •00 •00 14,546 14,663 • tN. :*" •CM •CO :*" •LO •CO •LO :* •IN. • tN. • co :* • tN. •LO •LO •o •tN W 00 o ©"erf 00 LO 00 o "3- tN cm"> . 2 >- «'o J- ?o en < © * in! od CM © In CO LO nO LO ON CM 00 tJ-^-h 00* On'^h t^. on CO © LO * © CM * On © O On On ^On tNLO CO On" cO^h CO 00 ©*-! ^CM COON ON© COIN. ONTfr ON^h' 4; O op H P 'o 0\ ^H 00 CM JN.IO ro Tf cmtt ©CM LOU") ©r-l 00 CO CO* * CM LO CM r-I © fO^ *LO LO CM fc3 CMLO IN. CM CO* CM* Tj-LO ©;& 00 CM Tt LO On* CO * CO^H LO CO tNLO CO'*' CO Tf co 00 00 CO 00 M3 co Tf 8$ coin! co co fN © ©CM rHTt CO CO © nO co © co rF co Tf ON CO In, co nO co CO * $8 lOCO CO co ©LO ©* *In! CO co LOCM ©LO 00 co CO* CO TY- COON lo'^h' COTf ON^-C CM © 00 3" CO* oo x 00 >, CM £' On'Q 28 >> 3 >> LO l_ t h lo'P jn!Q LOG CM C On'Q nO >, LO C cmQ cm'Q 6 "a en CO LO l-H CO * LO CM 00 LO g CO 00 s CM CM *-i CM LO LO NO O sO 1 5 - - 3 £* > > > > 58 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS east and the La Salle, locally called the Third Vein field, on the west. The coal lies at greater depth on the west of the anti- cline where it has 350 to 550 feet of cover. The immediate roof in the Wilmington field is usually a smooth gray shale, called "soapstone" by the miners. In places sandstone forms the roof material and causes difficulty in brushing. In the La Salle field the roof is generally a gray shale, free from grit but containing small flattened nodules of ironstone which make difficult the manufacture of brick from the roof material. Near the anticline the immediate roof is in some portions a gray, calcareous shale, called "soapstone"; in others, a black, carbonaceous shale. The black shale is generally lam- inated and commonly includes "niggerheads" of pyritous ma- terial. It is harder than the gray shale. In the Wilmington field a dark-gray fireclay generally lies directly under the coal and varies in thickness from a few inches to several feet. The clay heaves badly under pressure when wet. In some localities ironstone balls and root remains have been found imbedded in the clay. In the La Salle field the coal is generally underlain by fireclay, but in parts of some mines a hard sandstone lies directly beneath the coal. Generally bed No. 2 in this district lies nearly flat or is slightly rolling, but on the La Salle anticline it dips as much as 51 degrees. DISTRICT II, SEAM 2 Bed 2 in Jackson County has only a shallow cover, the coal lying at depths varying from 25 to 160 feet. A charac- teristic feature of the bed is its division into two benches by a gray laminated shale band varying in thickness from y 8 - inch to 36 feet. Where this parting is thick the lower bench has sometimes been called, erroneously, seam 1. The bottom bench varies in thickness from 3% to 4 feet, averaging 3% feet. The top bench averages 2 feet. The bed contains few nodular concretions of iron pyrites, but has a layer of bone 2 to 3 inches thick, generally next DESCRIPTION OF COAL SEAMS 59 to the floor. This floor in most places is sandstone, but in sections is shale or fireclay. The coal shows a pronounced cleavage, northeast to southwest. Where the parting is thin and the two benches are united, the roof over the coal is a hard gray shale, but where the parting is thick and only the lower bench is worked the parting becomes the roof. Where this parting is a light gray shale it is easy to support ; where it is dark colored it slakes much on exposure to the air. Numerous small faults occur in all mines and horses, usually of a hard dark gray micaceous sandstone, are found in the vicinity of the faults. The presence in places of a quicksand deposit about thirty feet below the surface has a marked effect on surface subsidence after roof-caves. Reference to Table 5 shows the superiority of the coal in District II. It has less volatile matter, more fixed carbon, less ash and moisture, and a higher calorific value than the coal of any other district. DISTRICT III, SEAM 1— SEAM 2 Seam 1 in the mines examined lies at depths varying from 40 to 213 feet. The topography of the surface in many places is rolling, with hills about 150 feet high near Mather- ville. The seam averages 4 feet in thickness and is broken in places by small faults, slips, clay veins, and rolls. The coal has weak vertical cleavage, dull luster, and banded text- ure. On cleavage faces thick plates of calcite and iron py- rites are deposited. Near Ellisville sulphur bands 2 to 6 inches thick and in places 50 feet long are found at various horizons. A poorly developed parting divides the bed into two benches, the upper of which is in most places about 2 feet thick. The immediate roof in the northwestern part of the dis- trict is a hard black shale that is easy to support. In the southern part of the district in places a bituminous calcar- eous shale, 2 to 5 inches thick, lies immediately over the coal. This shale, called clod, is hard when first exposed but after 60 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS exposure to the air becomes soft and falls. Throughout the district the cap rock is limestone. In limited areas where the shale is missing this limestone is the immediate roof over the coal. Above the cap rock is a dense, fine-grained non- crystalline limestone locally called "blue rock." Below seam 1 in places there is an irregular band of hard bone, 3 to 6 inches thick. The floor proper is a light gray micaceous fireclay which contains plant stems and roots. This clay heaves badly when wet and in places swells enough to fill the entry. In parts of some mines a carbonaceous shale lies between the fireclay floor and the coal and in other parts, sandstone. These casual deposits are called "false bottoms." Seam 2 varies in thickness from 1 foot, 10 inches to 4 feet and averages 2y 2 feet. The seam has a slight east dip for the district. The coal has a weak cleavage and dull lus- ter, is finely laminated and has numerous bands of mother coal and dirt, none of which is continuous. A band of mother coal and iron pyrites persists throughout the seam at a dis- tance of 14 inches from the roof. The immediate roof is a calcareous shale known locally as soapstone. It is regular and smooth and contains fossil leaves in places. The floor is a soft gray fireclay which contains nodular concretions of iron pyrites called "sulphur balls." DISTRICT IV, SEAM 5 The topography of the surface in District IV is flat in some areas, and rolling, with hills as high as 300 feet in others. No. 5 coal outcrops in Peoria, Fulton, and Knox Counties but lies at depths of 300 to 600 feet in Macon County, 400 feet in McLean, and 260 to 300 feet in Logan. The average thickness of the coal is 4 feet, 8 inches as reported in the Thirty-first Annual Coal Report of Illinois from 240 mines. The seam has a uniform appearance from top to bottom and the coal is hard and massive. It shows fine laminations with knife-edge mother coal partings. In some places there are discontinuous bands of pyrites near DESCRIPTION OF COAL SEAMS 61 the middle of the seam. The seam lacks the blue-band char- acteristic of No. 6 1 . Udden states that, "in the mines near East Peoria and at Edwards the coal runs out against the drift in several of the entries. Miners recognize that these defects in the coal are due to erosion and they speak of the drift as 'wash.' The drift generally consists of sand or silt, which in some places has been found to contain embedded trunks of trees and other vegetation. Experience has shown that the surface of the bedrock does not always conform to the present topography of the land and operators are careful to avoid unprofitable explorations of places where 'wash' has been encountered 2 . The immediate roof is a black sheety shale locally called slate. This shale varies in thickness from a few inches to 35 feet and in places contains "niggerheads" of iron pyrites. In many mines between the coal and the shale there is in places a layer of iron pyrites two or three inches thick. Where this layer is present the shale is protected from the air and stays up ; where it is not present the shale falls badly and in places caves to a height of 35 feet. The cap rock in most mines is limestone but in a few is a fine-grained micaceous sandstone. In some places the shale of the immediate roof is absent and the cap rock comes in contact with the coal. "When the limestone is disseminated and mingled with the shale the roof is soft and weathers quickly owing perhaps to the presence of marcasite. 3 It is then called clod and the niggerheads are iron carbonate. From the viewpoint of the miner the chief characteristic of the district is the great number of clay veins extending through the coal and the roof shale crossing their bedding plans. Fig. 7 shows a typical clay vein. These clay veins are fissures which have been filled with a hard light-gray clay. Besides clay veins the physical features which affect mining are small faults, slips, and rolls. In one mine where the shale of the immediate roof is absent the sandstone has cut out the coal for 150 feet along an entry. 'Bulletin 14, Illinois Geological Survey, Coal Resources of Illinois, DeWolf. 2 Bull. 506, U. S. G. S., Geology and Mineral Resources of the Peoria Quadrangle, Illinois, Udden. 3 Udden, op. cit. 62 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS The coal in this district in many places sticks to the roof and is separated from it with difficulty. In one mine about an inch of coal is left up to protect the roof shale from the moisture of the air. ■ ,, , Fig. 7. Typical clay vein in District IV The floor in most places is a dark gray fireclay which heaves badly when wet. At one mine the floor is a blue fire- clay containing nodular concretions of iron pyrites. DISTRICT V, SEAM 5 Seam 5 in Saline and Gallatin Counties lies at a depth of 25 to 40 feet, being nearer the surface along the southern portion. The seam varies in thickness from 4 to 8 feet, aver- aging 5 Yz feet in Saline County and 4 feet in Gallatin County. DESCRIPTION OF COAL SEAMS Do The roof of No. 5 in this district is a shale varying in color from light gray to black, and locally may be laminated and interbedded with bone and stringers of coal for a distance of 3 feet above the seam. The roof usually contains also many concretions of iron pyrites called "niggerheads". These have more cohesion with the rest of the roof material than do the niggerheads in the Danville district. The floor is fireclay which in places contains much sand and heaves badly when wet. The bed does not lie as flat as the unfaulted No. 6, but contains many hills and rolls causing FlG. 8. Igneous dike in coal in District V grades as high as 15 per cent in the entries of some mines. The coal is not pinched out at these hills but follows their contours with undiminished thickness. The district is characterized by the presence of an igneous intrusion identified by Albert Johansen, formerly of the U. S. Geological Survey, as mica-peridotite. This dike in some places penetrates and has its apex in the coal, as shown in fig. 8; in others it extends on through the bed into the overlying strata. The dike varies in thickness at the coal horizon from a few inches to many feet, and can be 64 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS traced lineally for several miles. Considerable gas and water are generally f onnd in the vicinity of the intrusion. DISTRICT VI, SEAM 6 Seam 6 is described as follows by E. W. Shaw and T. E. Savage in Folio No. 185, U. S. Geological Survey : "The bed is uniformly thick, ranging from 7y 2 to 14 feet and averaging 9 feet 5 inches in 130 borings. The coal is shining black, commonly banded, and on close inspection appears laminated with alternating bright and dull lines. A 'blue band' or dirt band, found almost everywhere 18 to 30 inches above the floor, generally consists of bone or shaly coal or of gray shale. Its thickness varies from one-half to 2y 2 inches, with an average of 1 2 A inches. "A clean persistent parting of mother coal lies 14 to 24 inches below the top of the bed, and a second parting gener- ally appears 5 to 8 inches lower down. Above the upper parting the coal is in layers 3 to 6 inches thick, with partings of mother coal between them. Local lenses of mother coal, 6 inches to 5 feet in length and 1 inch to 4 inches thick, are common in the upper third of the bed. Small pyrite lenses and streaks of bone, varying from a few inches to a foot or more in length and from one-fourth inch to 1 inch in thick- ness, are found here and there in the middle portion of the bed, a short distance above the 'blue band.' In the middle and lower parts of the bed the lamination is less distinct but the bedding is still evident. "Above the coal there is a bed of gray, impure shale, 15 to 110 feet thick, the lower part of which generally con- tains a great number of plant impressions. This shale does not stand well when the coal is removed, and for this reason the 18 to 30 (60) 1 inch zone of coal above the charcoal parting is usually left for a roof until the rooms are mined out, after which it may be taken down. The clay beneath the coal is hard and generally thin, ranging in thickness from 4 inches to 8 feet. It is generally underlain by a limestone. Some rock rolls occur at the top, the larger ones extending down into the coal 2 to 3 feet." Author, DESCRIPTION OF COAL SEAMS 65 In addition to the structural features mentioned above, faults of considerable magnitude for Illinois have been dis- covered in mining. One block fault in which the block has dropped 50 feet has been recorded by F. H. Kay of the State Geological Survey. In a few mines where cleat in the coal is developed the roof is jointed and can be easily supported only in rooms driven east and west. In some mines there are small areas in which the cap rock is lacking. If the coal is removed under these areas the roof caves in filling the entries with clay and sand and caus- ing surface subsidence. DISTRICT VII, SEAM 6 In District VII the No. 6 coal does not have the bright luster of the No. 6 coal to the east of the Duquoin anticline. The thickness varies from 2y 2 to 14 feet, averaging 7 feet. The seam is characterized by its numerous dirt and sulphur bands of which the most persistent throughout the district is the "blue band" of hard dark gray or black shale from y 2 - inch to 4 inches thick situated in places 6 inches above the floor but at an average height of 18 inches. Bands of pyrites from i^-inch to 4 inches thick are located at varying heights in the bed; in places are other bands of impurities called by the miner "steel band", "nine-inch band", or "dirt band", according to their hardness and location. There is a well- defined parting plane in the coal about 18 inches from the roof. The upper bench or "top coal" is left where the roof is black shale and where the coal is 7 feet thick or over. The roof is either a non-calcareous black shale, a calcareous gray shale called locally whitetop or soapstone, an unconsolidated dark-gray or black shale called clod made up of fragments of varying size and hardness and extremely difficult to support, or a hard gray limestone called "rock top." A poorly defined cleat or cleavage in the coal may be seen in some places. 66 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS DISTRICT VIII, SEAM 6— SEAM 7 In District VIII seams 6 and 7 are mined. In both seams there are numerous rolls of roof and floor called "faults" or "horsebacks" by the miners. In many cases the roll entirely displaces the coal. Seam 6 averages 6 feet in thickness. Its chief charac- teristic in the presence of a blue-band which divides it into upper and lower benches. This blue-band varies from soft dust to hard gray shale and occurs about 2 feet above the floor. In addition to this blue-band there are several shale and sulphur-bands of variable horizontal and vertical extent. The roof over coal No. 6 is variable. Near Danville the immediate roof is a grayish black shale about 6 feet thick. This shale, lying between the coal and the cap-rock of dark gray nodular limestone makes an easily supported roof. In the vicinity of Westville and Georgetown, the immediate roof is usually a gray shale which shows no distinct bedding, has little cohesion, falls in conchoidal masses, and is extremely difficult to support. Further, stringers of coal extend from the seam proper into the roof material and render the roof more difficult of support. In isolated cases there are 3 to 4 inches of black shale between the coal and the gray shale which forms the cap rock. Wherever this black shale is broken, air and moisture disintegrate the gray shale cap-rock and the roof becomes insupportable. In all parts of the Danville district the floor is a soft fireclay. Seam 7 varies in thickness from 2% to 5% feet and aver- ages 5 feet. The coal has two benches separated by a clay- band 1 inch thick, which persists through the bed from 6 to 8 inches above the floor. The two benches present no great difference in appearance or in physical character except lo- cally where the top bench is harder and has a brighter luster. The No. 7 seam generally has slightly more impurities than the No. 6 seam, higher volatile matter, lower fixed carbon, and higher sulphur content as shown by Table 5. The bands of pyrites occur persistently at a height of 20 to 26 inches above the floor and "sulphur balls" or nodular concretions DESCRIPTION OF COAL SEAMS 67 of pyrites are present in such quantity as to make profitable their separation from the coal by hand picking in the mine and by a further separation on the surface in rotating cylin- ders. MINING PRACTICE The earliest mining in Illinois consisted in gophering in outcrops in the river bluffs or in stripping the shallow over- burden from seams lying near the surface. The coal thus obtained was used by blacksmiths and to a limited extent for domestic purposes. The demand for coal for industrial pur- poses developed rapidly after 1850 and the profit in coal min- ing led to the opening of mines requiring slopes and shafts and to the extension of the earlier drift mines further under cover. The mines opened previous to 1870 were shallow and a crude room-and-pillar system of mining was developed with the relation between room and pillar widths determined largely by trial and failure. The operators of the period from 1870 to 1890 were usually men of small means but having chosen those portions of the seams most easily worked could mine profitably even with crude methods because the market for coal occasioned by the marvelous industrial growth of Illinois and by the increasing population readily absorbed the production at a comparatively high price. These shallow mines were cheaply opened and by 1900 there were over 900 mines in the State. The change in the number and size of the mines in the State is shown by Table 6. About 1890 the deep and thick No. 6 seam of southern Illinois began to be worked and the mines in this seam opened since that time, and especially since 1900, were designed for large production, and required a greater initial outlay of capital and greater technical skill in development. The need of an immediate return on this capital investment, however, prevented the projection of a retreating mining system calling for several years of develpoment work before a large tonnage could be produced but an improvement was made on the earl- ier system. Many of these new mines were projected on the panel system but the coal is gained almost entirely on the advance and the unsuitable dimensions of rooms and pillars of the older mines usually have been retained. There are at the present time in Illinois five types of coal mines: 1, the small "country-bank" or "local mine" with a (68) MINING PRACTICE 69 Table 6. — Number of mines of specified annual tonnage 1883-1914 1 Year Under 1,000 tons 1,000 and under 10,000 tons 10,000 and under 50,000 tons 50,000 and under 100,000 tons 100,000 and 1 200,000 1 under tons and 200,000 ! over 1 tons Total mines 1883 209 233 133 39 10 15 639 1884 262 273 148 38 16 4 741 1885 286 290 143 40 13 6 778 1886 316 280 135 44 11 3 780 1887 320 278 141 42 18 2 801 1888 327 272 151 47 20 5 822 1889 321 316 139 55 20 3 854 1890 398 301 155 54 24 4 936 1891 402 260 161 52 37 6 918 1892 332 239 151 65 46 6 839 1893 282 232 140 75 47 12 788 1894 312 252 161 61 44 6 836 1895 319 276 145 61 45 9 855 1896 330 280 128 63 45 16 862 1897 346 250 120 79 41 17 853 1898 351 244 151 86 42 7 881 1899 346 261 123 77 57 25 889 1900 340 295 123 70 65 27 920 1901 313 308 124 79 58 33 915 1902 314 263 152 76 72 38 915 1903 313 293 120 75 87 45 933 1904 301 275 140 72 98 46 932 1905 321 299 147 83 88 52 990 1906 336 282 167 89 97 47 1,018 1907 260 262 145 91 95 80 933 1908 248 256 146 98 92 82 922 1909 270 239 134 66 90 87 886 1910 261 239 125 87 94 75 881 1911 235 213 138 82 101 76 845 1912 266 228 119 70 91 105 879 1913 239 231 108 66 82 114 840 1914 236 208 90 64 95 103 796 1 Thirty-third Annual Coal Report of Illinois. production of 10 to 50 tons per day existing solely for the supply of a small local demand ; 2, the unmodified room-and- pillar mine, including (a) the mine opened 15 to 40 years ago and still operated on a crude unmodified room-and-pillar system, and (b) the room-and-pillar mine opened recently; 70 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS 3, the panel mine, including (a) the older mine which has changed its system from unmodified room-and-pillar to panel, and (b) the mine opened in recent years on the panel system; 4, the longwall mine in seams not thicker than 4y 2 feet ; and 5, the stripping mine. LOCAL MINES Only a few of the mines examined are local mines, called "country-banks", because although in number they comprise 56.8 per cent of all the mines in the State they are unimport- ant as a factor in the coal production, their annual output amounting to only 2.5 per cent of the tonnage of Illinois. There is no uniformity in the operation of local mines and they frequently consist of one entry with a honeycomb of rooms off each side. The area covered by their workings is usually small. At one of the local mines examined the work- ings consisted of one room 35 feet wide and 600 feet long ; at another from both sides of a single entry 6 feet wide rooms 15 Table 7. — Relation between local and shipping mines No. mines Percentage of local mines in district District Total Local Shipping I 36 2 34 5.6 II 8 8 III 128 123 5 96.9 IV 240 165 75 68.9 V 33 12 21 36.3 VI 78 18 60 23.1 VII 196 46 150 23.5 VIII 49 31 18 63.3 State 879 499 380 56.8 feet wide are turned on 20-foot centers. In District II where the coal is nearly all worked out there are no local mines but they are found in every other district and comprise 96.9 per cent of the mines in District III. Table 7 gives the relation between local and shipping mines for each district. MINING PRACTICE 71 UNMODIFIED ROOM-AND-PILLAR MINES A typical unmodified room-and-pillar mine where the coal is reached by a shaft, as shown in fig. 9, has two parallel en- tries, one used for haulage (A) called the main entry vary- ing in width from 6 to 21 feet and averaging 12 feet, and one (B) for carrying the intake ventilating current called the back entry. These entries are driven on each side of the shaft through the solid coal towards the property boundaries. Cleavage or " cleat" is not usually sufficiently pronounced in Illinois coal to determine the direction chosen for driving entries or rooms in Illinois. The main-entry pillar between these two entries varies in width at the mines examined from 12 to 80 feet and averages 31. The entries are advanced sim- ultaneously, and outside the shaft pillar are connected at 60- foot intervals by crosscuts for the purpose of maintaining a flow of air through the entries to the working face. At a distance from the shaft, commonly 300 feet, such that the solid coal surrounding the shaft will be sufficient to protect the shaft from injury by surface subsidence, a pair of cross-entries is driven to the right and left of the main entries and at a right angle to them. These cross-entries vary in width from 6 to 21 feet, averaging 12 and the coal between them, called the cross-entry pillar, varies from 12 to 50 feet, averaging 27. Rooms are turned off at a right angle to the cross-entries at a distance of 50 to 150 feet from the main entries, and there- after at regular distances. The coal between the main-entry or the back entry and the first room is the main-barrier pillar and varies in width from 10 to 150 feet, averaging 46. The rooms vary in width from 15 to 43 feet. The room necks vary from 6 to 21 feet in width and 6 to 25 feet in length, the average neck being 12 feet long and 12 feet wide. In wid- ening the rooms either of the two following methods is adopted : 1. One side of the necks is continued in a straight line forming a side of the room. In this case the width of the room is gained by driving off the opposite side of the neck at an angle either of 45 degrees or of 90 degrees from the direc- 72 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS ililUUiUiili rmrar Ml 11m In ,LlLLLi.i.ii n i i JlljlUijlJ warn Sljiljjjj .mpiiTi JJmi LiULLUUi fe MINING PKACTICE 73 tion in which the neck was driven, until the full width of the room has been reached ; 2. An angle of 45 degrees or of 90 degrees is turned off each side of the neck, and when the full room width is reached the driving is continued parallel to the direction of the room neck. In a few mines rooms have no necks but are turned full width from the entry. The length of rooms varies from 100 to 500 feet, averag- ing 250 and the coal remaining between the rooms, called the room pillar, varies from 3 to 45 feet, averaging 19. Table 8 gives dimensions of workings for the unmodified room-and- pillar mines examined. The mines in District I are operated on the longwall sys- tem but the unmodified room-and-pillar system is used exclu- sively in Districts ITT, V, and VIII and in a great proportion of the mines of all other districts in Illinois. The wide range between minimum and maximum dimensions is an index of the great variation in roof conditions and difference in judg- ment of the management. The worst immediate roof in the State is in Districts V and VIII. In District VTTT entries are driven narrow but room pillars are commonly insufficient. In District V entries are much too wide and clean-up expense from roof falls is high. Room pillars are narrow and because too little surveying is done and oversight is lax there are fre- quent blows-through. The easiest immediate roof to support is in Districts ITT and IV. The mines in District VI are the deepest of those ex- amined and the heavy roof weight causes squeezes in mines with unsuitable pillar dimensions. A squeeze is the crushing of coal by the weight of the overlying strata insufficiently sup- ported by too narrow pillars. Tn one mine 85 acres were squeezed; in another 80. There have been from one to six squeezes in every unmodified room-and-pillar mine examined in this district and attempts to stop them have seldom been successful. In one mine in which they advance slowly, enough pillars are drawn ahead of a squeeze to cause a break; the roof weight is relieved and the squeeze sometimes is checked. 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In another, all entries are driven on two benches. The upper bench, 4 feet high, is carried 6 feet ahead of the lower bench, which is 3 feet high. In an 18-foot entry a cut wide enough for a man to work in is hand-sheared 6 feet from the rib, and extends from the top coal to the lower bench. It is claimed that this method of entry driving is fast- er than undercutting with machines. In another mine, rooms but not entries are driven on two benches. PILLAR DRAWING Pillar drawing is not general in Illinois. The mineral resources of the State should not longer be subjected to the drain occasioned by the waste of 45 per cent of the coal in the seam through unsuitable or antiquated mining methods. In other states, notably western Pennsylvania, West Vir- ginia, and Maryland, almost complete 1 recovery of the seam is being made by driving narrow rooms and leaving wide pil- lars, mining most of the coal in the second working. The small value per ton of the coal in the ground based on the purchase price of the coal lights is a factor in Illinois that makes for wasteful mining. At 100 dollars per acre for coal 6 feet thick the value per ton in the ground is approx- imately 1 cent per ton. Very much of the coal land now being worked has been purchased for a price a great deal less than 100 dollars per acre. Tn a number of cases in Illinois where surface subsidence has followed a squeeze or the drawing of pillars the mining company owning only the mineral rights has had to pay damages greatly in excess of the value of the land. Companies that are financially able should, therefore, secure the surface right before beginning mining and sys- tematically take 1 out all of the coal by working on the re- treating system or on some other system by which all of the pillars may be drawn. The surface can then be tiled and re- sold. The waste of pillar coal is due largely to a lack of un- derstanding of the comparative cheapness of pillar work and to the fact that if the space left by the removal of the coal is not filled with packing surface subsidence may occur with the removal of the pillars. Tn several districts the surface 90 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS has subsided over certain sections of some shallow mines so as to outline plainly the rooms in the workings below. Sub- sidence is sometimes gradual but it may take place rapidly. Within 36 hours after one squeeze the surface subsided 4 feet over an area of ten acres. Houses have sometimes been damaged and fences and sidewalks broken as the surface settled. In several mines the cap rock over the coal is mis- sing in some places, and where the coal is removed clay and sand break through into the rooms or entries and sink-holes appear on the surface. In District II at one mine some pillar coal is recovered. In this mine adjacent rooms are driven up and the room pillar is drawn, where it has not been gouged, by taking a 6-foot slice off each rib. It is said that one-half of the pillar coal is thus drawn. (a) (b) (0 Fig. 18. Method of drawing pillars in District III A very successful example of pillar drawing is found in the mines of the Coal Valley Mining Company in District III These mines are worked on the unmodified room-and-pillar system. After the cross-entry has been driven to the boun- dary and the rooms on it worked out, beginning with the last pillar on the entry, room pillars are drawn until the pillar between rooms 3 and 4 is reached. The room pillars between the main entry and room 4 are left as a protection to MINING PRACTICE 91 the main entry and air course. The method of drawing pil- lars is shown in fig. 18. When the room is driven up full length a 12-foot cut is made at the face of the room through the pillar (Fig. 18, "a"). A slab 5 feet wide (Fig. 18, " a") is then shot off the side of the pillar, after which a slab 4 feet wide is shot off the end (Fig. 18, "b"), and the pillar end is squared up again by shooting another slab 4 feet wide off the end (Fig. 18, "c"). The slabs shown in fig. 18, "b" and "c", are usually shot off with one 8-foot hole and a pop shot but occasionally a pop shot is unnecessary as the first shot sometimes breaks off the entire slab. The process is repeat- ed beginning again as in fig. 18, "d". The hard roof is easy of support and often stands before a break takes place while 25 to 200 feet of pillar is being drawn. When the roof weight becomes too heavy the roof breaks at the pillar ends but the cracking of the props gives ample warning of the break and work is discontinued until the roof comes down. The inter- val between the first heavy cracking of props and the roof break is usually not more than 12 hours. A break line of about 25 degrees with the face of the rooms is roughly maintained. It sometimes happens that roof falls prevent the men from getting into the squared-up pillar ends to continue drawing as described above, in which case a 12-foot cut is again made completely through the pil- lar as was done at the face of the room when drawing began and with this new pillar end the procedure continues as be- fore. Very little pillar coal is lost from this cause. Mr. Carl Scholz, President, Coal Valley Mining Company, states that at mine No. 3 at Matherville not more than 4 per cent of the pillar coal is lost. The cost of producing coal is much less on pillars than on advance work in rooms. Room coal costs an average' of $1.25 per ton at the pit mouth at the No. 3 mine of the Coal Valley Mining Company and pillar coal, $1,015. This dif- ference in cost exists because track, yardage, bottom digging, and driving through rolls and slips, are very properly charges against room coal while there are no such charges against pillar coal. When pillars are drawn, therefore, the average cost per ton for the total production is materially reduced. 92 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS At this mine rooms are worked with one man at the face but two men are placed at each pillar and at the face of each entry. In District IV pillars are drawn in only a few mines and in these drawing is not done systematically but is confined to shooting slabs off the pillars where they are thickest. In nearly all mines in this district room-pillars are tapered to cross-cuts as shown in fig. 11. In one mine an attempt was made to draw pillars and track was laid along the rib but objections were raised by the miners to this position of- the track and the attempt was abandoned. In District VI in some mines an attempt is made to draw pillars and pull top coal but it is doubtful if more than 5 to 10 r^ V t^ji (a) (b) (c) Fig. 19. Method of drawing pillais in District VJ (d) per cent of the top coal is recovered. It is usually pulled be- fore pillars are drawn. At one mine a fairly good recovery of it is made after rooms are driven up by making a cut in it 12 inches wide across the room at the face and a cut 5 feet long along each rib beginning at the face. Props under the block of top coal thus cut out are then pulled and the coal falls. After this block has fallen the cuts along the ribs are extended 5 feet further and the props are pulled under this second block letting the coal come down. This procedure is continued as far as possible along the room. In this mine about one-half of the top coal in the rooms is thus recovered. The most common methods of gaining pillar coal in Dis- trict VI are: (1) Taking a 5-foot slab from each rib, and MINING PRACTICE V6 (2) making a cut about 18 feet wide through the pillar half-way between the cross-cuts required by law. The first method seems to be productive of squeezes inasmuch as the span of unsupported roof is widened by slabbing the pillars. The second method does not make a sufficient recovery. A more elaborate but seldom used method is shown in fig. 19. In this sketch "a" shows the pillar between the two cross- cuts; "b", the first cut through the pillar; "c", the second step in drawing; and u d", the pillar after drawing is com- pleted. There would probably be less waste if the blocks were divided into rectangles rather than triangles. Room stumps, if recovered, are not drawn till all rooms on the entry have been driven up and all room pillars drawn. LONGWALL MINES Nearly all. of the longwall mines in Illinois are located in District I but there are 4 in District IV. They all are worked according to the advancing system. Whether the coal is reached by a shaft, slope, or drift, the entire seam is re- moved during the advance, the work progressing in a long- continuous face as shown in fig. 20. In an Illinois shaft mine operated on the longwall system the workings may be likened to a wheel. The hub may repre- sent either the pillar of coal left to preserve the air and hoist- ing shafts, or the building about these shafts if no shaft pil- lar is left for roof support. The haulage ways maintained through the gob represent the spokes of this wheel, and the working face represents the rim. For some mines this wheel would be elliptical rather than circular. In a slope or in a drift mine in which the longwall system is used the work- ings could be shown by one-half of this wheel, either a semi- circle or a semi-ellipse. The greatest difficulty in starting longwall operations is in leaving the shaft pillar and establishing the longwall face. A common method of procedure in this district, after the hoisting shaft and air shaft have reached the coal, is to drive a main entry, as shown in fig. 21, from each side of the hoist- ing shaft for a distance of about 225 feet. From the airshaft two entries are driven in opposite directions at right angles 94 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS to the main entry, and are continued until each entry reaches that point where a side of the shaft pillar is to be blocked out, or the air shaft may be offset from the line of this entry as shown in fig. 20. The shaft pillar is now usually blocked out by driving a narrow entry around it, called the "entry- around-pillar. " No formula is used to determine the size of shaft pillar necessary with a given thickness of overlying Overcasts shown thus: X Curtains shown thus? — Fig. 20. Plan of long wall mine showing direction of ventilating current. (After Swift) strata, and pillars are found in the district as small as 60 feet square where the coal has 100 feet of cover. Large pil- lars are desirable because, in addition to preserving the integ- rity of the shafts, they provide for more mining places when operations begin. A critical time in longwall mining is when the first roof- break occurs at the working face. The roof may not break MINING PRACTICE 95 until the face has advanced about 100 i'eet from the shaft pillar ; and after the face break has taken place there is a large area of settling roof overhanging from and supported by the shaft pillar. Consequently the roof will break at the shaft- pillar. The subsidence of roof following this break continues violently for three weeks and more gradually for a year. Fig. 21. Entries in shaft pillar in longwall mine Unless the entry-around-pillar is protected by a pack wall or coal pillar, it will be closed by this first violent roof subsidence. After the entry-around-pillar has been established, openings 9 feet wide as shown in fig. 21, which is a sketch of an actual shaft pillar, are driven into the coal face a1 intervals usually 96 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS of 42 feet. When these openings have progressed 15 feet, cuts 9 feet wide are made on each side of each opening at a right angle and are driven until the cut at the left of one open- ing meets the cut driven from the right of the one adjacent. These cuts serve the double purpose of establishing the long- wall face and of leaving a 15-foot coal pillar for the protection of the entry-around-pillar. Fig. 22. Pack walls around shaft pillar in longwall mine Sometimes when it is feared that the coal of the shaft pillar and entry pillar may spall off into the roadway a strip of coal 15 feet wide is sliced off completely around the shaft pillar as shown in fig. 22 and is replaced by a pack wall. The 15-foot pillar left for entry protection is also replaced by a MINING PRACTICE 97 pack wall. The method of blocking out the shaft pillar by driving narrow entries around it is in general use, but occa- sionally entries 27 feet wide are driven around the pillar, and two pack walls are built as the entry advances. One pack wall 12 feet wide is built alongside the shaft pillar, and one 6 feet wide on the future longwall face, leaving a haulage road 9 feet wide between the two walls. The necessary open- ings through the walls are left for haulage. From the time when both hoisting shaft and air shaft reach the coal, 7 to 10 months are required for driving entries through the shaft pillar and for blocking it out. Actual mining is not usually begun until the entries-around-pillar are connected, inasmuch as there is no direct ventilation before the entries are holed through except by means of temporary air-boxes or pipes. An elliptical shaft pillar may be used instead of the rec- tangular. In nearly all new mines opened in the district a pillar of coal has been left around the hoisting and air shafts, but among the older mines occasional examples are found where no coal has been left to support the roof ; a total coal extrac- tion having allowed the roof around the shaft to settle grad- ually till roof and floor meet. When no shaft pillar is to be left for roof support, as soon as the hoisting shaft reaches the bottom of the coal the horned set is placed on soft wood doorhead posts, about 12 by 12 inches in size, and the coal is removed from all sides of the shaft. The space left by the removal of the coal is filled with soft wood cogs called shanties, and with packs of brushing and mining rock. Through the gob a 7-foot roadway is opened up from each side and from each end of the shaft, The roadway props are sawed off at the top an inch at a time as the roof settles and new cap pieces are driven in. In some cases this sawing must be attended to daily and the roadways brushed every few days to keep them open. As the roof settles the packs and shanties are com- pressed and squeezed into the fireclay till roof and floor meet. The shaft bottom is then widened and timbered. The advantages claimed for removing the coal around the shaft are that the expense of timbering the bottom is reduced, and that the roof-weight begins sooner to ride on the 98 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS working face. Those operators who leave coal for shaft pil- lars admit these advantages but reason that the uncertainty of being able so to control subsidence that the shafts will not be thrown out of plumb when the pillar is removed is too great. After the shaft pillar has been blocked out and re- moved and the longwall face established the work progresses regularly in a long continuous line. From each side of the Fig. 23. Plan of longwall mine with auxiliary permanent entries centers of the openings which were left in the entry pillar the coal of the face is removed. In order to provide for haulage from all parts of the face to the shaft, roadways 9 feet wide, called rooms, are maintained as shown in fig. 20, by building- pack walls of rock. These rooms are continuations of the openings through the entry pillar, and the pack walls pro- tecting them are usually 12 feet thick. When pack walls are first made they are often spaced 10 to 12 feet apart to allow MINING PRACTICE 99 for bulging when the roof weight sets on them which causes narrowing of the roadways. A track is laid to the face of each room. In order to save the expense of a road for haulage from the face of each room to the main entry in the shaft pillar, cross-entries maintained through the gob by pack walls, are turned off near the shaft pillar as shown in fig. 20 and in- tersect the rooms at an angle of 45 degrees. The second set of cross-entries is usually 225 to 300 feet from the first. This distance is maintained throughout the workings. This form of longwall working, often called the "Scotch 45-degree system," prevails where no unusual conditions ob- tain, but various modifications of the system are found where Fig. 24. Method of working panel long wall. (After Ede) the seam dips steeply or where roof and floor characteristics necessitate a departure from the usual method. To provide a better haulage from the face in one mine where heavy tim- bering is necessary, entries are maintained from the shaft pillar as shown in fig. 23, bisecting each quadrant formed by the four main roadways, making eight main haulage ways in the mine. From both sides of these eight main roads at 225- foot intervals cross-entries are maintained at an angle of 45 100 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS degrees. When the cross-entries from adjacent permanent roads intersect, one entry is continued and the other is abandoned. Every 1,700 feet along the left side of each of the eight main haulage roads is turned a haulage entry per- manently timbered. Where the coal seam lies in the LaSalle anticline its dip becomes as steep as 51 degrees, and the methods of work approach those of metalliferous mining. While the general longwall system of main and cross-entries and rooms on the 45-degree plan is followed, a longwall panel is operated at the face as shown in fig. 24. The coal from all the face below Table 10. — Dimensions of workings in longwall mines c en U £ ross! feet ross h main egrees o and pries down the undermined coal with a pick, or wedges it down. This method does not allow the slow breaking of the coal by roof weight ; consequently more accidents occur, and more slack and smaller coal result than when full under- mining is insisted upon. Enforcement of spragging would be a distinct advantage to the miner and to the operator. The disproportionate number of accidents in the district in ratio to its tonnage would be decreased, and 10 to 15 per cent more lump coal would be made if proper undermining were en- forced. Table 11. — Blasting in longwall mines Is coal shot down? Ih V O Pi "o > S.s ^ -, .5 5 M if* Drill holes in coal V 1 c E .5 5 -5 be > en tn J3 rO CL) •*3 Hh i \0 iO ON >0 O ■O O nO t"x N 00 N N N [BOO JO UOJ -I3d S}U30 Ul N K OS N fO N N On fO K M fO fO M N 00 r*5 tx 00 t^ ooroo On On O On O On On © 00 On On 00 In! On LO 00 00 On ts! ON lONK }soo aapMo'j aapMod 00 00 O 00 tv. 00 00 NO ^h 00 ON ^h rt- On ^h O -h 00 CM 00 O "^ in JO S35J J3<3 y—t y— 1 »-H 1— 1 1— 1 r— c .— < 1 — 1 Ol rH pH (\J (N) rt CO CM CM r-i CM ^h m CM CM [HOD JO SUOJ, u •d fe fc u u u u fe fe -0 u u **- *o *o T3 *o c c r3 c c V rt to * to u to * * u to to to W to to to to -Otototooooouotoou to to U to to to . > > in 1— 1 — 5 116 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS ,saipui %\ J3AO \VOO to O Cn. • o o vO sO vO • vO K o o o to o **■ t^. vO to «o «— i O to CM rf- to to t^ l^ vO to \0 to \Q JO }U30 J3J >» X) T3 C/5 41 4) 4) 4) 4) 4) 0 [BOD JO UO} -13d S}U33 UI l^ ro <0 O Tf O O O t^ O 00 t^ 00 00 t>» to t^ ro o\ 00 00 o k »d 00 oo O t^ r^ lo t^ t^! r>! vd "^t- oo }SOD .lapMOJ japA\od O N t ") M m io m o ^ O 00 O O vO "*f nO cm JO S33J J3d cm ^h cm cm 3 "a ^t- CO "in EJ | — ' h-H ^ ^ 1— 1 1— 1 H M_l -Q HH 1— I K' 1-^ M 1/1 5 > > &P"C Jr. 03 i2 2^ < < BLASTING 117 sary to bring down the tight coal of the advanced half. Shoot- ing off the solid should be abandoned in Districts V and VI where the combination of explosive gas and dust renders the practice especially dangerous. At the mines examined 22 tons of coal were gained per keg of powder as against 101 tons per keg after mining ma- chines. Table 12 gives data for the practice in solid shooting mines. The percentage of coal undercut by machines is in- creasing too slowly. Table 13 gives comparative data on coal cutting and blasting conditions in Illinois since 1900. This table does not show the decrease in amount of powder that should be expected from the increased use of coal cut- ting machines. Table 13. — Coal catting data since 1900 1 Year Total production Per cent mined by machines No. mining machines Tons of coal pei keg of powder 1900 25,153,929 22.2 430 40.7 1910 48,717,853 37.3 1289 35.7 1912 57,514,240 AAA 1581 38.9 1913 61,846,204 48.8 1689 40.9 1914 60,715,795 51.8 1828 42.3 1 Shipping mines only. Compiled from Thirty-first Annual Coal Report of Illinois. Electric chain, air puncher, and few pneumelectric under- cutting machines are used in the State. Puncher machines are usually found at mines of moderate production where mules are used on the main haulage. At mines equipped with electric haulage electric mining machines are usually in- stalled. The chain-breast machine is commonest in Illinois, but the chain short-wall is rapidly growing in favor. At the mines examined the average number of tons of coal undercut per day per machine is 113. The puncher machine usually undercuts from 40 to 90 tons per day and the chain-breast machine from 135 to 200. The average chain machine will supply coal for 15 loaders. Table 14 gives blasting data for mines undercutting the coal by machines. 118 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS The usual method of supplying air to puncher machines is as follows: From the surface 9-inch mains run down the pipeway in the shaft to a receiver placed 300 feet from the bottom of the shaft. From the receiver a 6-inch line is run to the face of the main entries and this 6-inch line is tapped by a 3-inch branch running to each pair of cross- entries to the rooms. Fig. 32 shows a typical method of placing shots after a puncher machine. E i}20" 2'-Q ^.BlueDand FRONT PLAN Fig. 32. A method of placing shots after puncher undercutting machine "~The face which is undercut by chain machines is sup- posed to be snubbed for a depth equal to one-half the depth of the undercut. Snubbing usually is only 18 inches deep, however, and the height of face snubbed varies from 18 to 24 inches. In No. 6 seam the face is snubbed to the blue band. Fig. 33 shows a common method of placing holes after chain machines where black powder is used and fig. 34, where per- missible explosives are used. The position of drill holes and their number vary between wide limits. The usual practice with chain machines is to use one-third pick bits and two- thirds chisel bits. In District IV seam No. 5 has always been BLASTING 119 considered hard and in this district only chisel bits are used in the chain. In a mine in District VI where entries are driven on two benches, shooting is done with size F black powder, and the PLAN Fig. 33. Method of placing holes where black powder is used PLAN Fig. 34. Method of placing holes where permissible explosives are used holes are arranged as shown in fig. 35. At another mine in this district all holes are drilled with air-drills. Unless the miner desires to point his own holes all holes are pointed by 120 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS ^aipui pii /-^ ,-v *' O O rv OO • • CM O • ^ t^ lo O 1^ sO t^ t^ • • r^ 00 vO vO • JO 1U33 .13J on t« Cfl C/) >> O, a a a CT5 as a rt u U u u VI (Q U] XI J2 J2 3 eo ot w 3 -° 3 „, *o ■g ^^ __, en ca) 3 3 3 3 c« en p 3 3 C/5 tfl o3 ui 3 rt 03 3 3 D 1 O" O" — 3 cr cr cr 3 3 CJ ,, °" c o CO CO CO era fe fc CO CO CO fe Ph rrj [ 0*0 10 O O S828S CO LO • ro \0 O §83 punod-52 J 3d CM ITJ -r 1^ . T-H LO O T-H ID T3 3 : 3 > 5 ft fe h fc fe fe P-l [i, Ph £ oJ Q u 2 : .g « Q : ^ fc t* '3 fe fo fc fe fe Ph fc Ph Ph Ph j* rt fe Pr, N 03 u CQ 03 JSmqqnus jo' ? qSp H 00 00 00 00 GO 00 Tf 00 lo CO 00 rt- r^ Tt • 00 00 00 oc i—i »-H CM T-H T-H T-H T-H CM CM • t-h T-H T-H jjp^s -I3d IT) O CM O O -CM O O O LO O CM • LO LO auiqoELU J3d ro lo t-H O LO -T-H LO LC JBOD JO SUOJ, H~i Hr* t4n J33J UI rjno Tj- VO LO ^ vO vO v O vO *0 ^o ^o O LT Tt- t^ • VO ^O LO jo HJdaa bo Ui U. u D QJ > > s "ft •" t) bo w BLASTING 121 iS^qoui pi l J3AO [BOD JO }U33 J3J >> ,Q T3 U tR in o lo c \ O O "* fOOOLOOJiOTf o> i>. t^ r^ w t^ i^ r>N LO I— 1 On On CM On O CM Squibs Fuse and caps Fuse Fuse Squibs Squibs Squibs Squibs Squibs Fuse Squibs CO cr C/3 . CO • a v 3 co : cr 3 CO cr ! m ■ saqaui ut sajoq jo'j3;3uibiq CM CM CM CM CM CM •CMCMCMCM'-'CMCM'-* CM i-h CM -+n c*t Hm }33j ui saioii jo 'qiSuaq LO lo vO O lo Tf- LOt^LOLOLOvOvONOLO vO LO SO LO Tl- LO punoa aad s^oq -o N 't fo n fo m ro Tf rj- O CO lo CO LO CO -T ro fO jbod jo uo; J3d SJU33 UI }sod japMo'j PO CM fO On On CM •Or-HvONOrOONOOO X nO lo -r LO LO CM CM CM CM CM CM .^_ r _^ H __0'-iCM »""< ' H -H •"- 1 CM i-h aapA\od jo Sa>i punod-S2 J3d TBOD JO SUOl lo O lo O lo O f^ t-h t^ vO nO CO •iOI^^hOCMOOO . i^ lo t— i t-h co On O On — — O Tf -T CM O CM u & o c "o u N in Suiqqnus jo';qSt3 H }jiqs J3d suiqoBiu ^^d JBOO jo suo j '5 pL, ,o fc (i| PL, ^ fc fo [^ (i, u U •O T3 fe oo co oo co -i- -r H H H rH (\| M •CNli-OOOOODiOOO 00 LO CM CO 00 O O 00 <^) oo o 1 s c o CM CM c o lo O O lo O f\] i^ Ul (\) N loOOloOI^loOO O TT 00 vC LO CV1 On lo lo 433j ui jno jo qid3Q t-HCl —id vO nO nO O LO lo He* >-v> Hm Hn vO LO O LO LO LO Kind of undercutting machine u u .s .s .s .s "S Hi ui rt nl iU C C J3 X! ,fi 43 3 3 U U U U P^ Pu ■6 .s "u "S .a .s .a .a .a Chain Puncher Chain Puncher Puncher Puncher auiiu •ojnj t>x CO On O CM ro LO LO LO O NO nO O CO O ^ CM rO ^ vO sO nO On i^ i^ h* r^ t^ o* 00 On 00 00 CO s 6 o s > > 5.2 aj a i/i EPuSJ 122 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS J3AO[BOD JO JU3D .13J >> T3 V u » nO O Squibs Squibs Fuse Fuse tn saipui ut s3[oq jo '.lajaiuBiQ . HN rH|-)< — JD< 1 H« CM CM • i-H i-H CM CM 1-+* Hct • infco Hm -4n CM CM CM • CM rH CM CM }33J ui sajoq jo 'mSua-] 00 uo • Tfio ^ vO 10 vo vo • 10 10 vO to puno.i jad S3[Ol{ -o^ Tt- co i (M n fO { punod-53 iad IBOO jo suoj. O O O O ON 00 LO O u-j O 00 <0 O CM fO 00 -- IOO00O'— 1 CMTfi— 1 CM •>• © CM © 5 6 c U U fe fe fc fe Suiqqnus jo'}qSp H 00 00 00 H H H M tO (V) 00 00 00 On On On 00 On Ijiqs J3d auiqoBUX .iad P3O0 jo suox • • • • O K co co Tf OO OO ON Tf CM T-H ,-H J33J ui jno jo qjdaQ vO -O LO vO nO to vO | LOVOO 10 O \0 to bo ji.£ .5 cu « ^ c 5 U, Ui .S .3 "5 .S .S *S rt c5 C rt rt C u 9uiut -ox vO t^ 00 On O 00 00 00 00 On On s as > Averages by- districts II IV V VI VII VIII Average of 43 mir BLASTING 123 the drill-runner. The operator of this mine states that on ac- count of the differential in wage scale he finds no advantage in the nse of power drills. Hydraulic mining machines have been tried in one or two districts but the machines did not perform successfully on account of the strength of the coal and the lack of cleat. There are used in blasting coal annually in Illinois about 32 million pounds of black powder and about one million pounds of permissible explosives. The standard sizes of black powder according to the Revised Mining Statutes of Illinois are the following : Name Size in inches CCC Through 40/64; over 32/64 CC Through 36/64; over 26/64 C Through 27/64; over 18/64 F Through 20/64 ; over 12/64 FF Through 14/64 ; over 7/64 FFF Through 9/64 ; over 3/64 FFFF Through 5/64; over 2/64 The larger the grain, the slower combustion proceeds and the slower does the force of the explosion develop. The sizes in ordinary use in Illinois range from CC to FF. In a comparatively soft material like coal it is obvious that FF, a "quick" powder will have a greater shattering effect than the coarse-grained CC which rends more than it shatters. With a quick powder too much slack coal is made, but since the gross-weight law went into effect FF is the favorite pow- der with the miners. The waste of lump coal resulting from its improper use in too large quantities has been very great. This is especially true in undercut coal where the size of the powder is usually too small and the weight of the charge too great. With explosive gas in quantities large for Illinois and with an explosive dust the use of a long-flame explosive in Districts V and VI should be abandoned. Nearly every mine in these districts has had one or more fires and explosions caused by the flame of black powder igniting feeders of gas near the face. As tested in an unyielding steel cannon the flame of black powder will extend more than three times as far into the open air as the flame of an equivalent shot of permissible explosive, and in coal, owing to the quick action of the permissible, the drill hole will be enlarged and in many 124 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS cases the flame will not emerge from the hole. In order to ignite inflammable gas and dust mixtures a high temperature acting through a certain length of time is necessary. The flame temperatures of all explosives are higher than is neces- sary to ignite these inflammable mixtures, and the duration of black powder flame is much longer than the minimum for an ignition. The flame of permissible explosives in proper charges properly detonated is of such short duration that it does not ignite these mixtures. The quantity of permissible used for a shot should not exceed 1% pounds. In Illinois only nitroglycerin powders are used. They contain free water or an excess of carbon for the reduction of flame temperature and usually contain salts that decrease their strength and shattering effect. They detonate easily and are very little affected by moisture. The explosive is usually purchased in cartridges 6 to 8 inches long and 1% inches in diameter. In one mine a test showed that 25 pounds of a permissible gained 180 tons of coal and 25 pounds of black powder 91 tons. Permissible explosives are, therefore, cheaper for the miner, as 25 pounds of black powder cost $1.75 and 25 pounds of a permissible explosive $2.45. It is generally supposed that a permissible explosive with its great- er shattering effect gives a larger per cent of slack coal. This depends in a great measure upon the manner in which it is used and the physical characteristics of the coal. Used pro- perly a permissible does not make more slack. The use of permissibles is fortunately increasing in Districts V and VI. The amount used in Illinois during the last four years is, as given in the Coal Reports of Illinois : No. pounds of per- Year missible explosives used 1911 243,099 1912 328,075 1913 603,420 1914 930,596 A Co-operative Bulletin by J. R. Fleming, U. S. Bureau of Mines on "The Use of Permissible Explosives in the Coal Mines of Illinois, ' ' will soon be published. In 90 per cent of the examined mines which shoot off the solid shots are fired with fuse but in mines undercutting the BLASTING 125 coal 60 per cent of the shots are fired with squibs. In Dis- trict IV shots formerly were fired by squibs in the mines examined but as numerous accidents occurred through miners or shot-firers returning too soon to the face to discover the cause of missed shots fuse was substituted. ^==m - —=^ — i - — - ■ - -=_— ^= =. ■■DM r Ir 3 ■ * 6' . 2'- • - 4'l- J 18+18" 11.18 — u 1 Fig. 35. Method of shooting with two benches With fuse and squibs in black powder and with fuse and caps in permissibles about 1 per cent of the holes misfire. Fireclay makes good tamping but it is easier to use bug dust, that is pick or machine cuttings, for filling dum- mies than to dig clay from the floor. Bug dust is often used for tamping although its use is forbidden by the State law. The usual custom throughout the State is to use 21/2 feet of tamping in holes charged with black powder or permissibles. To blast without shot-firers or in mines not free from gas in Illinois requires the restriction of the weight of a charge 126 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS of black powder to two pounds. In many cases this restric- tion is not observed. By relying on large quantities of powder per round the miners are becoming less skillful in placing their shots. At one mine where two men were- killed by a blown-out shot a drill hole was measured eleven feet in length and three inches in diameter. At many mines the number of tons of coal gained per keg of powder has decreased from 25 to 16 since the introduction of shot-firers. The miners drill longer holes and put in heavier charges when they do not fire their own shots and when consequently they are not exposed to the danger resulting from blown-out shots. The excess of powder above that necessary to bring down the coal shat- ters it producing an unnecessary amount of slack, cracks the roof increasing the danger of accident from roof-fall, and causes fires at the face. Carelessness in filling cartridges is common. The men can see better with their lamps on their caps than when their lamps are at the required distance from the cartridge. Occasional explosions of powder while the miner is opening the metal keg with a pick emphasize the danger of this general custom. In District VI much of the powder is purchased in paper kegs but in other districts the metal keg is preferred. For the transportation of powder from the top to the partings, special cars have been built at some mines. Several explosions of powder during transport in the last two years resulting in loss of life and partial wrecking of t the mines emphasize the need of specially protected cars for the deliv- ery of powder to the face. Fires at the face after shooting are frequent in Districts V and VI at mines where black powder is used and at these mines fire-runners are employed to inspect the blasted coal after shooting. In some mines 20 to 30 fires start after each shooting. There are no fires after shooting with permissibles. TIMBERING The difference in mining methods between the longwall and room-and-pillar systems makes it impossible to compare timbering in District I and the other districts consequently timbering in District I (Longwall) will be discussed sep- arately. TIMBERING IN LONGWALL MINES The continued settling for a considerable period of time of the strata overlying the coal in longwall mines makes tim- Fig. 36. Entry closely timbered in longwall mine bering of roadways difficult and expensive. Permanent tim bering can be extended only to that point where the first rapid and violent settling has ceased, and it is not usual (127) 128 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS to extend permanent timbering to any point until the face has been advanced beyond it for at least two years. Eoof breaks destroy the cohesion of the shale and large masses of rock must be supported by timber so that the collars of the three- piece gangway set must be heavier than those ordinarily used in room-and-pillar entries. For usual timbering with ordin ary roof conditions an 8-inch cross bar is supported by 6-inch legs. The legs are battered 1% inches for each vertical foot between rail and cross bar. Under bad roof the entry is usually closely timbered as shown in fig. 36. The frames in this illus- tration have white oak legs 8 inches in diameter and 10-inch white oak cross bars. These frames are spaced on 6-foot centers, and the top and sides of the entry are lagged with split and round props 4 to 5 inches in diameter. When it is necessary to support the increased area of roof resulting from turning off a cross entry from the main entry, or from turning rooms from a cross entry, cogs called "branch cogs" are built with props. These cogs are filled to two-thirds of their height with waste rock and mining dirt. They are not completely filled because it is necessary to allow for settling of the overlying strata which crushes the cog as the weight comes on it. A cog built 4 feet high above the floor will in 18 months be crushed to a height of but 18 inches above the floor. If cogs were entirely filled with waste rock and dirt they would offer too much resistance to roof subsi- dence and the roof would "cut" at the cog. This roof caving would increase the danger of accidents from roof falls and would add to clean-up expense. Article V of the Third Vein District Agreement states: "The price for turning a room where the company does the brushing and builds the cog shall be $5, and where the miner does the brushing and builds the cog the price shall be $8,747, the company to have the option of method." Besides the branches at entry and room junctions two other wide roof areas must be supported, that is, the shaft bottom and the lyes, called partings in room-and-pillar mines. In this dis- trict the timbering of the bottoms does not generally differ from the timbering of the bottoms in room-and-pillar mines. The roof is supported by props alone, by timber-sets, by TIMBERING 129 masonry, or by steel I-beams. In one mine in which pillar coal was removed, after roof and floor met the bottom was widened and timbered with 10 by 12-inch frames spaced on 4-foot centers and lagged with 3 by 12-inch planks. No trouble from roof cutting has ever been experienced in this mine. In a few mines the inner lyes are in abandoned rooms but generally the lye is formed by widening the entry at the desired location. The usual width of a lye, as shown in fig. 37, is 14 feet. Ten-inch collars and legs are used for the tim- Fig. 37. A typical lye in a longwall mine ber sets which are spaced 6 feet apart. The lye in fig. 37 is 75 feet long and provides storage for 13 cars on each track. Where a soft wet fire clay several feet thick underlies the coal it is sometimes necessary to build short cogs as a foun- dation for the legs of the frames in the lyes. A cog of 4-inch props is usually constructed 3 feet high and 4 feet square. On the top of this cog, a 3 by 12-inch plank 4 feet long is placed. The bottom of the leg rests in a notch cut in this plank. As the roof weight settles on the frames the cog is pushed into the clay and the settling is gradual and con- tinuous. 130 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS The high temperature of the return air current in long- wall mines is very favorable to fungus growth. The heavy and expensive entry timbers on the return fail through decay in from 2 to 4 years. In one mine preservative treatment is given to the timber used on the main roads. At this mine the life of an untreated white-oak collar averages two years on the intake and less than one year on the return. Treated timbers have already been in service on the return for three years without sign of decay. The timbers to be treated are peeled and sun-seasoned. Before taking them underground they are painted with a heavy coat of carbolineum. The cost of labor and carbolineum for treating two legs 7 feet long and 6 inches in diameter, and one collar 6 feet long and 7 inches in diameter, is 16 cents. The cost of the untreated timbers is 45 cents. The cost of timbering in longwall mines where conditions of roof and floor are so widely different varies with each mine. Total cost of timbering varies from 5 to 8 cents per ton of coal mined. At that mine in which the total cost of timbering- was 8 cents, the cost of face props was 6 cents per ton of coal mined. A mine producing 1,450 tons a day employed 8 day- timbermen and used daily 1,500 props, 70 cross bars 7 feet in length, 50 bars 8 feet in length, and 2 bars 10 feet in length. Props 3y 2 or 4 inches in diameter are usually bought. From y 2 -cent to 1 cent per linear foot is paid for props and the number used per ton of coal mined varies from 1% to 3. Table 15. — Cost of mine timbers in District I Length Feet Diameter Inches Average cost Cents 6 7 8 OOOOO 15 16 80 10 14 10 12 125 190 The expense of cross bars increases rapidly with in- creased diameter and length of span. Table 15 gives aver- age cost in the longwall district of mine timbers of various diameters and lengths. These figures do not include the cost of placing in position but refer only to the timbers as piled on the surface. TIMBERING 131 ROOM-AND-PILLAR TIMBERING Timbering* in unmodified room-and-pillar and panel mines in Illinois is characterized by excessive waste in spite of the steadily decreasing timber supply and constantly increasing- cost of mine timber. Generally no attempt is made to save room props by pulling them after rooms have holed through and props are abandoned even though they could easily be FlG. 38. Shaft bottom with roof supported by steel I-beams set on concrete walls (photo by K. Y. Williams, I' S. Bureau of Mines) pulled at small cost. The high cost of white-oak props of standard 4 1 /2~inch diameter for lengths up to 5 feet has led to the false economy of buying props of poor quality and smaller diameter. This is especially true in District V where many operators buy shipments in which less than one per- cent of the props are white-oak, the remainder consisting of red oak, water oak, elm, hickory, sassafras, and hemlock 132 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS with an average prop diameter of only 3% inches at the small tip. At very few mines is preservative treatment given per- manent timbers, and these mines are principally in District IV. At one time in this district where loss by decay has been heavy timbers are treated with one gallon of creosote per cubic foot. Untreated round, white-oak timbers with a small end diameter of 10 inches cost 10 cents per running foot. The treated timber at the pit mouth costs 17 cents per running foot. At two mines in District IV carbolineum is used; at one where crossbars have broken after decay the timbers of all new sets are treated with it ; at the other, it is being used on new shaft sets. In the newer large mines in the State where there is a heavy roof load with frequent failure of timber crossbars steel I-beams are substituted for timber. Steel is not used to any extent for roof support in Districts II and III but it is used extensively in District VI, in several mines in Dis- tricts IV and VIII, and in a few in Districts V and VII. The standard I-beam of structural steel which combines a high degree of resistance to bending with minimum weight of metal has proven well fitted for use in mines. Steel I-beams can often be purchased at second hand from the wrecking companies in the large cities for a cent a pound. An average estimate for new I-beams in place is 3 cents per pound includ- ing labor cost. Where much rock work must be done the cost is higher. At a mine in District IV where considerable rock work was necessary in placing sets an entry-set composed of a 10-inch 35-pound steel I-beam 16 feet long on 8-inch white-oak legs costs approximately $20.00 in place. The cost of setting timber and steel collars is about the same. The standard relation in Illinois between span and diameter of round white-oak crossbars or size of steel I-beams is : Diameter of round Span in feet white-oak timbers in inches I-beams 10^2 pound ; 4-inch 8 6 or 18 pound ; 8-inch 17^4 pound; 6-inch 10 7 or 8 or 18 pound ; 8-inch TIMBERING 133 Span in feet 12 Diameter of round white-oak timbers in inches Size and weight of Steel I-beams 18 pound ; 8-incl 14 10 40 pound ; 8-inch 16 18 12 14 40 S2_ 52 70 pound ; 8-inch or pound ; 12-inch pound ; 12-inch or pound ; 18-inch Witn this relation frames are usually spaced on 'ly^-foot centers. Eight-inch diameter rough white-oak legs are used with spans of 8 and 12 feet and 10-inch legs are used for Fig. 39. Inby end of concrete-lined bottom greater spans. It is not certain that for entry timbering steel legs are economical. The cost in place of a 4-inch 28- pound steel leg 6 feet long is approximately $5.00. An 8-inch round white-oak leg 6 feet long costs about 80 cents at the pit mouth. Inasmuch as sets fail in the crossbars when not sub- jected to lateral presure and the labor cost of replacing a leg is small the use of steel legs may entail an unnecessary ex- pense. Old railroad and streetcar rails are used as crossbars in Districts IV, VI, VII and VIII. Old rails have been pur- 134 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS chased in one district for $12 per ton. When bought for roof support their weight varies from 50 to 75 pounds per yard. In District VIII 60-pound rails used as crossbars failed under the roof weight. No rail lighter than 70 pounds per yard should be used under heavy roof presure and even heavy rails are inferior to I-beams because their carbon content is high causing them to break more easily than the I-beam and their section is not adapted to the purpose. Shaft bottoms at many mines in all districts are crudely timbered usually with 16 to 24-inch framed 3-piece sets carry- Fig. 40. Solid concrete pier at branch ing 2-inch lagging or with round timber legs and crossbars. Steel in nearly all new mines is being used for roof-supports at shaft bottoms. Concrete in all large mines is coming into general use as a substitute for close or massive timbering as at shaft bottoms or at pillar points at partings. Fig. 38 shows a shaft bottom at a mine in District VI where the roof is supported by steel I-beams resting on concrete walls and fig. 39 shows the inby end of a shaft bottom in District VIII which is lined throughout with concrete. The walls of the lining are 24 inches thick at the bottom and the thickness of concrete is TIMBERING 135 gradually reduced till at the crest of the arch it is 12 inches. A gob filling is packed between the arch and the roof. The length of concrete bottom on each side of the shaft is 165 feet. The concrete was made in the following proportions : 1 Portland cement; 1 sand; 4 washed gravel. Proportions for concrete which are frequently used for massive work are : 1 Portland cement; 1 washed sand; 4 sifted cinders. Fig. 40 shows the point of the pillar at a cross entry in a mine in District VI. The coal pillar is cut back 20 feet and the roof at the point is supported by a solid concrete pier. The chief object in removing the coal at pillar points and building brick Fig. 41. Cog timbering at parting or concrete piers is to provide a substantial root support which will not be knocked away if hit by a trip which happens to leave the track when rounding the curve. In a few large mines other than Longwall timber is used instead of concrete where a large bearing surface is desired. At one mine where wide partings are built the roof is sup- ported by cogs 8 feet square built of (i-inch props, as shown in fig. 41. These cogs are not filled with gob and are weaker than filled cogs used in longwall mining in Illinois. In entries in nearly all mines the support under bad roof is the 3-piece entry set, either with two long legs, with < ne 136 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS leg short and the other long or with two short legs resting in latches cut in the ribs. Where a curve occurs in the entry the short-legged frames are commonly used because a trip which jumps the track is likely to break the legs of long- legged frames and bring down bad falls. Fig. 42 shows the methods of leg arrangement in the three-piece entry set. In District V hundreds of feet of entry with bad roof are sup- ported by props alone and sets are seldom used at any of the mines examined. The quality of timber is poor and the three-piece gangway set when used is generally constructed of split room-props of small diameter. Fig. 42. Timbering in haulage entry It is to be expected that where roof conditions are so varied as in the eight districts of Illinois different types of timbering will be found. The roof may require no timber- ing or there may be an alternation of "rock top" and clod as shown in fig. 43. Where the transition from limestone roof to clod is abrupt it is productive of many accidents from roof falls. At a mine in District VII there is a thick shale deposit overlying the coal and the roof on both sides of the shaft caved to a height of 42 feet from the floor. This cave ex- TIMBERING 137 tended 110 feet along the main entry. Fig. 44 shows the method of timbering the entry in the caved area. The frames shown were set on 4%-foot centers. In many of the mines examined in Districts II, IV, VI, and VII top coal was left where the immediate roof over the coal was thick black shale. Top coal prevents variations of temperature and humidity from affecting the shale of the roof proper, which spalls badly when exposed to the air. As a rule where no top coal is left the shale falls with the coal or is drawn. Where there is less than four inches of shale between the coal and the cap rock it is drawn. Where the #fei Fig. 43. Alternation of ^ood and bad roof shale is over 4 inches thick it is propped in some mines, but in others it is drawn unless it is over 2 feet thick. In District II where the two benches of the bed are united and the coal is over 6 feet thick, top coal is left up in entries and the roof is arched. In this district no timber is used in entries under top coal except where it is broken by slips. Where the lower bench only is mined the roof is supported by three-piece timber sets having 8-inch crossbars and 6- inch legs. White oak is generally used for entry timbering. In rooms in Illinois the variations in propping are as wide as are those in entry timbering. The roof may be limestone 138 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS or hard shale requiring no propping or top coal may be left or the roof may be clod with such slight cohesion that it breaks at the prop or it may be black shale so difficult of support that it requires cross-bars on props. A mine prop is supposed to have one inch of diameter for each foot of length but this relation seldom obtains, the diameter usually being less than in this ratio. The cost of props increases rapidly with increasing length and the pre- vailing prices in Illinois are: Length in feet Cost in cents per prop 4/ 2 4/ 2 5 5 sy 2 6/ 2 6 10 6/ 2 13 7 17 8 25 9 30 At each mine examined several rooms were chosen as typical and inspected carefully. The width of a room was measured and the number of props in place counted in a measured length. From these data the number of props per 100 square feet of roof was calculated. Table 16 gives figures concerning props in rooms for each mine and average number and cost of props per 100 square feet of roof for each dis- trict. Dicipline at the face is lax and in every mine examined rooms under dangerous roof were found in which the nearest prop to the face was 20 feet distant from it and in many mines the distance was over 50 feet. No man under shale roof should be allowed to work 20 feet ahead of his last prop. Many miners will not use sufficient care in propping un- less compelled to do so and the greatest need for safer min- ing is more face bosses. In Districts V and VIII this need is especially apparent. It is difficult to understand the oppo- sition to a provision in the State Mining Law for a fixed number of face bosses for each hundred men employed. In rooms in District V the number of props is inadequate for safe roof support and the miners are not compelled to keep their props close to the face. In District VIII the necessity for close propping is obvious because the numerous Table 16. — Data on props in rooms District II TIT TV VI o o O u O OJ '~ l *o C I* fO N K Tl- 00 io i—i ^£§8 t^ ^h r^ > tj- cm oo CO o t ^ lO <0 K i_, fO LO rf > PO O ^ <0 W iO N t N K sO CM 00 H U > t 00 fO "3- Tt vO P< H CO Q 00 o o n \Q n- > ■^- cm io i— i O 00 t^ vO -1- i-H lo CM 00 Tf ro r-l t£ VO CM O r*3 ^ 00 lo iO M X CO . ro to • LO cm • cm o ; o "l" C\) i-H 2 £S 323 -* . c . CD • T3 T3 rt fl «3 d rt jj !S - ** acc fata non- fc- ' u u ^ LO 3 o > w -* CM 00 CM m CM o t^ LO ,_, "* t^ l-H f -r sO "-. o "t R t*: ,_ ,_ !> to CM PO :/) H U CO CO tf sO H 5»i C/J o Q sx, > 5 « cu w a © < H X. W ■^ co s Ph u o « i^. t^ 1/-, vO o -r X O CM CM £^ CM •O - CM o co r^ ,_! 1^ PO LO CM <"0 CM ON t^ I , o CM LO SO CM CM > CM C r^ CM o X -t" ON On > i— i <-o po i^ O © r*3 r^ t^ t^ On ro fO sO o o t LO LO LO CM fa fO c*b TT i— i o o o o o f^ o o o O = o LO o o o ro o o o o LO CM 00 o o o o o t^ o o o © M o o o o o LO LO CM o o o <"0 sO vO o o oo sd sd o o O0 On o © © 1^.' — ' i-J o © £ rt a as — o X O bJD MH O ° y c o o *-• ■ «*- 4, a 5 u« cu D O 5 Pu d, U £ 144 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS clean up the gob lying alongside the tracks which is a con- tributory cause of the numerous accidents from pit-cars in all districts, and especially in Districts IV, VI and VII. There seems to be no relation between percentage of coal undercut and number of accidents. The causes of accidents in Illinois are much the same as in other coal mining states. Attention has been called repeatedly to them in the reports of the State Mine In- spectors and they are covered by provisions of the Illinois Mining Law and the agreement between the operators and miners but throughout the State the enforcement of the State Mining Law is lax and its provisions are frequently disre- garded. Hay is taken to the underground stables in open Fig. 45. Photograph of underground refuge chamber cars, open lights are taken into the stables, powder is handled carelessly in transportation and is stored underground in greater quantity than is allowed by law, powder kegs are opened with picks, cartridges are filled while the miner's open lamp is on his cap, dummies are filled with "bug-dust," and gob is kept so close to the track that in some places the hubs of the pit-car wheels touch it in transit. The injuries and fatalities in Illinois will not lessen until stricter enforcement of the common-sense provisions of the State Mining Law is compelled by mine inspectors, operators, and miners. The Peabody Coal Company in its Peabody mine at Sherman in District IV has prepared an underground refuge chamber in its mine so that if the miners are imprisoned ACCIDENTS 145 through any cause they may have a safe place of retreat where communication with the surface can be maintained. This refuge chamber, shown in fig. 45, a photograph of the interior, and in lig. 46, a sketch showing the method of con- Plan Longitudinal Section through Center Fig. 46. Sketch of underground refuge chamber struction, is lined with concrete and closed by an air lock protected with steel explosion-proof doors. A hole 8 inches in diameter is drilled from the surface into the chamber which is 7 feet high, 28 feet long, and 16 feet wide. The 146 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS shale roof of the chamber is supported by six concrete pil- lars two feet square. An empty powder can placed in the mouth of the drill hole shows its position in fig. 45. Through the drill hole fresh air can be pumped to the chamber and sup- plies can be lowered. Refuge chambers in coal mines are an admirable precaution and at least two should be built in every mine, particularly in mines in southern Illinois in which explosive gas and dust are found. The state of Illinois has provided three Mine Rescue Stations at which crews are maintained for rendering as- sistance in case of explosions or mine fires. A number of mining companies also maintain rescue and first aid crews and equipment. PER CAPITA PRODUCTION OF EMPLOYEES The factors which enter into the total amonnt of labor necessary to prodnce the tonnage of each district are : Nation- ality of employees, thickness of seam, system of mining, per- centage of tonnage undercut, character of roof, daily tonnage of mines, and the extent of preparation of coal for market. In analyzing Table 20 which contains data on daily per capita production of employees it is noticeable that District 1, the longwall district, produces only 2.1 tons per day per em- ployee and only 2.8 tons per day per face worker. This low production is due partly to the method of mining but prin- cipally to the thin seam which in this district averages 3 feet, 2 inches in thickness. Longwall mines in District IV in a seam 4 feet, 8 inches thick average 3.5 tons a day per em- ployee and 4.2 tons a day per face worker. It takes the same amount of labor at the face in longwall mining to gain a slice of coal 3 feet, 2 inches thick as to gain one 4 feet, 8 inches thick. In Districts II and III the mines are all small and the average number of tons a day per face worker is high be- cause in District II almost all the coal is undercut and in both districts the labor is chiefly American, English, and Scotch and the coal is easily mined. In Districts IV, Y, VI, VII, and VIII, in which the mines are of larger capacity, the percentage of undercut coal is the chief factor in high per capita production although the number of men employed in rescreening plants and washeries, thickness of seam, and the nationality of emplovees are minor factors in Districts VI, VII, and VIII. The coal mining industry is now in a critical condition in Illinois. The principal cause of the present depression is that it has been too easy to open a mine. The Mining Inves- tigation Commission of the State of Illinois in its report to Governor Charles S. Deneen, March, 11)11, said: "The number of shipping mines in Illinois is greatly in excess of the number required to supply the maximum demand for Illinois coal. This has resulted in the actual annual aver- (147) 148 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS -I o o CM H < PER CAPITA PRODUCTION OF EMPLOYEES 149 age running time of all mines operating in Illinois for sev- eral years past being materially less than two hundred days per year. With a more reasonable adjustment of mining capacity to the greatest possible maximum demand (which is entirely feasible in so far as the commercial or physical considerations are concerned) it should be possible for the mines to be operated an average of at least two hundred and fifty days per year. The result of this condition is that all of the mine employees in Illinois (now about seventy thous- and) are idle on an average at least sixty days per year more than need be if there were a reasonable adjustment of mining capacity to the fullest trade requirements. Stated in another way, the entire force of mine em- ployees is idle one-fourth of the time they should be able to work after making all allowance for unavoidable idle time. This has the same effect as though one-fourth of them were idle all the time. In other words, fifteen thousand men, in effect, are idle throughout the entire year, but held in the industry by the attraction of the excessive number of mines nominally in operation. This is an enormous economic waste.' ' On account of the lack of a uniform system of accounting- it is difficult to make comparisons between the cost of similar operations in different districts and to adjust selling quota- tions for the different fields according to actual costs. The books of many operators do not segregate the cost items for different phases of mining operations so that the profit leaks can be discovered. VENTILATION The causes of mine-air pollution are: respiration of men and animals; gases from the use of explosives; fumes from miners' lamps; absorption of oxygen by coal and pyrites; exudation of gas from the seam ; emanations from excrement ; decay of timber ; coal dust from mining operations, etc. These factors often combine to impoverish mine air and render it injurious to the health of the miners. The problem of pre- venting excessive pollution of the air is, therefore, very im- portant. The fundamental difference between the longwall sys- tem and the unmodified room-and-pillar and panel systems necessitates separate discussions of ventilation in longwall mines and in mines other than longwall. VENTILATION OF LONGWALL MINES The ventilation of mines operated on the longwall sys- tem presents few difficulties, and the problem of supplying air to the men at the working face is easy of solution. In Table 21. — Comparative temperatures in longwall and room- and-pillar mines ■r. en X. be u o a u o rt Location Mining tempe at bott take degrees tempe at bott take legrees rt rt .H system « .s . ata bo4) , " + r S 5 JaT3 2SJS 8&JS 3 ° p, cfl O in > « O in «•*< ** fc < <£ Q Oglesbv Longwall 39 52.2 74.0 21.8 La Salle do 47 58.3 76.9 18.6 Benton Room-and-pillar 40 53.9 64.9 11.0 Glen Carbon do 44 56.9 68.0 11.1 Average for longwall Longwall 43 55.3 75.5 20.2 Average for room- and-pillar Room-and-pillar 42 55.4 66.5 11.1 room-and-pillar mining, the faces of the rooms, that is, the working places of the miners, are outside the direct flow of the air current except when the face of a room is at the point where a cross-cut is driven through the room-pillar. In (150) VENTILATION 151 longwall mines the air current always flows along the work- ing face, as shown by fig. 20. More physical discomfort is suffered by the longwall miners, however, because the tem- perature at the face of the longwall mines is greater than at the face of room-and-pillar mines. This is shown in Table 21 which gives return air temperature for mines under both systems. This table shows that during passage through the work- ings of a longwall mine of average size the ventilating cur- rent undergoes an average rise in temperature of 20.2 degrees above that at the bottom of the downcast shaft. In a room- and-pillar mine of ordinary extent of workings the air cur- rent has its average temperature raised 11.1 degrees F. while passing through the mine. This average difference throughout the year of 9.1 degrees between the temperatures of longwall and room-and-pillar mines is largely because in the former a much smaller quantity of air with lower velocity passes over more men and lamps. Sometimes the gob fires in longwall mines increase the temperature. When mining is done in the clay under the coal tew gob fires occur because then not much coal finds its way into the gob. (Job fires are more frequent where undermining is done in the coal be- cause every condition necessary for spontaneous combustion is then found in the gob about 15 feet from the face. The necessary factors are : Fine particles of coal. Finely divided iron pyrites. Moisture. Air confined in the interstices of the gob. Initial heat produced perhaps by roof pressure on the gob. Where the gob is not heated to the point of combustion its temperature may be raised considerably by the oxidation of coal and pyrites. Because the presence of air is necessary for this process gob fires do not occur much farther behind the face than twenty feet as beyond this point the settling of the roof has packed the gob so tightly that air is excluded. That sufficient heat is developed by a few gob fires to bring- about the increased temperatures at the longwall Pace is 152 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS shown by a temperature reading of 84 degrees F. taken at the face 10 feet from a gob fire after the air current has passed the sealed-off fire, and by a reading of 73 degrees F. taken at the face 100 feet distant from the fire before the current has passed over it. The cost of removing sulphur from the mine varies from % to 1% cents per ton of coal mined. Fires in the gob of longwall mines are easily sealed off. The usual method is to build around three sides of a fire a solid wall of roof rock leaving the gob which has been packed by roof settling as the fourth side. A lining of fine sand is placed inside of the wall. The sand is usually brought into the mine for this pur- pose and stored underground to be ready for immediate use when needed. Including cost of sand the expense of sealing off a small gob fire approximates $25. In some mines road dust instead of sand is used for sealing off fires and serves the purpose as well because road dust consists principally of inert shale pulverized by car wheels on the track and by the feet of men and animals on the roadways. If a fire occurs from 5 to 20 feet from the face between two rooms, it is reached in some mines by digging through the burning gob which is then loaded out if possible before sealing off is begun. This method of walling off is regarded as very effic- ient because the sand or road dust packs remain effective for at least two months and before the end of this period the fires are extinguished. Very little marsh gas is found in longwall mines, although occasionally pockets are discovered in small sand deposits im- mediately above the shale roof. Wherever it thus occurs it is quickly diffused in the air and becomes so dilute that no cap is shown by a testing lamp. Roof falls caused by the expansion and contraction of roof material on account of temperature changes are numer- ous, because cracks extend several feet into the immediate roof. Two of the mines examined heat the intake air in winter to keep the temperature more constant and also to prevent the formation of ice in the intake shaft. The amount of roof fall is in this way lessened. In one of these mines the exhaust steam from the fan engine is put into the down- VENTILATION 153 cast air shaft through a 4-inch pipe and as a precautionary measure against a temperature so low that exhaust steam could not keep the shaft free from ice, a l>4-inch pipe for live steam also runs into the shaft. It is seldom necessary, however, to use this live steam. In the other mine the live steam is sent down the intake shaft through a 3-inch pipe, which leads to a cylindrical radiator 7 feet in diameter placed at the bottom. The necessity for artificial humidification to prevent coal- dust explosions has not been apparent in longwall mines. In- asmuch as all the coal is removed from the seam as the face advances and as the excavation is filled with waste rock the only sources of supply for coal dust are the daily working face of fresh coal and the spillings from the pit cars. In room-and pillar mines the ribs of the entire workings and sometimes also the roof and floor are of coal and the spalling of this coal furnishes a cumulative supply of dust that becomes con- stantly drier and more explosive. The coal dust from mining at the face in longwall mines is covered with shale and clay within a few days after it is made so that there is no accumu- lation of it. The dust brushed from the ribs of longwall mines is not inflammable. The analyses of samples thus taken show that the dust consists principally of shale or other inert matter. Table 22 gives the average of analyses and of pressures developed in the explosibility apparatus for 14 sam- ples of longwall rib dust collected in the haulage ways. Table 22. — Comparison of longwall and room-and- pillar rib dust on haulage ways. Mining system Number samples Proximate analysis of coal — First: "As received" with total moisture. Second: "Dry" or moisture free. Pressure in pounds per square inch developed in ex- plosibility flask at 2102° F. Moisture Volatile matter Fixed carbon Ash Average longwall Typical room-and-pillar mine in southern Illinois 14 3 1 3.45 I 14.68 I Dry 15.19 f 5.54 34.89 I Drv ! 39.94 6.77 7.01 39.21 41.51 75.12 77.80 20.37 21.56 0.175 4.760 The high average temperature of the air in longwall mines decreases the relative humidity and considerable mois 154 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS ture is absorbed from the dust of ribs and roads so that, un- less additional moisture is supplied by seepage water or by sprinkling, the dust of the roadways becomes very dry. In a few longwall mines the haulage roads are sprinkled at inter- vals varying from one week to three months. A co-operative bulletin on the character of the dust in Illinois mines will soon be published. VENTILATION OF MINES OTHER THAN LONGWALL Explosive gas is found in every district in Illinois but in Districts II, III, IV, and VIII gas is found in active workings usually only in roof caves and at slips and in small quantities in abandoned areas. In these districts an occasional accident occurs by ignition of small bodies of gas in these areas. In Districts V and VI and in the northeast part of District VII, however, the subject of ventilation is a vital one inasmuch as there have been serious explosions of gas and dust in many mines resulting in much loss of life and destruction of property. The disastrous explosion at the Zeigler mine in 1905 and the fire in 1908 and the explosion at the North mine, Eoyalton, in 1914, will be recalled by those familiar with Illinois mining history. Frequent explosions of less magnitude in other mines, many of them resulting in loss of life and all of them entailing great expense in recover- ing the mine or a portion of it, have caused these districts to be regarded properly as dangerous. The mines less than 100 feet deep seem to be comparatively free from explosive gas. As the rock strata of the shallow cover are broken and in places eroded, the spaces left by rock removal being filled with sand and clay, much of the gas in the bed has escaped. Where the bed lies at depths greater than 100 feet it is usually undrained and contains the greater part of the gas originally formed in it. Mallard states that gas impregnates a coal bed just as water impregnates a porous substance and that its escape results directly from a difference of pressure be- tween the interior and the exterior of the mass. The highest pressure of gas in the solid coal which was recorded by Dar- ton in this district was 33 pounds per square inch although the pressure is probably higher in certain areas. However, VENTILATION 155 a difference in pressure of a few pounds only is sufficient to set up a steady flow of gas from the coal into the workings. The actual volume of gas found in the return air current at any time will depend chiefly upon the number of active work- ing places in the mine unless the bed contains large storage basins of gas, that is, it will depend upon the area of fresh coal face exposed daily. This statement is borne out by Dar- ton's findings. In one mine 418 feet deep with a daily produc- tion of 2,300 tons he records 181 cubic feet of methame per minute in the return air current when the mine was operating Fig. 47. Explosion-door in concrete-block,. stopping in District V and 78 cubic feet per minute after a suspension of 5 to 15 days. " In the flat-lying undisturbed Illinois beds, depth over 200 feet does not seem to be a factor in the amount of gas in the bed. 1 " The presence of large volumes of gas can not be predicted for any area unless it is known by previous workings that the area is one in which the coal is broken by structural movement so that it acts as a reservoir for a considerable surrounding area of the bed. In the deeper mines of this district, however, there is a continuous emanation of gas from the fresh coal and 1 J)arton, N. II., Occurrence of Explosive Gases in Coal Mines, !'. S. Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 72. 156 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS such reservoirs may be broken into at any point. Although different exposures of fresh coal do not give off uniform quantities of gas, some exuding none and some large quan- tities, the aggregate emanation is considerable. The return air in the upcast shaft at one mine contained 0.28 per cent methane. The irregularity of emanation in different sections is well illustrated at one mine where the upcast air contained 0.20 per cent methane and a cross-entry, on which there were 23 working places, near its intersection with the main entry contained 1.08 per cent. In another mine with 0.26 per cent methane in the main return, samples taken in two rooms at the face showed 5.53 per cent in one and 10.35 per cent in the other. /WMMBj ' r , J ' 1 ' - *■'■ '■ -if. i <4 . ■•. S & 1 '■V* --» '- . ^ .i. r H p . ; \ Wfjr^^ji *N*t \ f f ' t ,- - ^gST'^aaw, tl'*i h \ ' i»fi??JL '. 1 y ~! ^:.m •-' / -' m- " L.WJ Wmt 1 Fig. 48. Typical gob stopping In almost every mine examined in Districts V and VI gas is found in development entries and in the face of all work- ings driven to the rise. Inasmuch as naked lights are allowed throughout these districts the safety of the miners depends upon the thoroughness of the examination of the mine exam- iner. A single dereliction of duty may result in great loss of life and the wrecking of the mine. In many mines the use of naked lights should be abandoned unless the quantity of air VENTILATION 157 supplied to the face is very materially increased. In a few mines the nse of safety lamps in certain sections is insisted upon, but mixed lights are dangerous and in other states have frequently caused serious explosions. Wherever workings in a gassy mine have been aban- doned they are usually sealed off by stoppings of various ma- terials. A large amount of methane soon collects in these abandoned areas. In one mine in which a squeezed area has been sealed off by a concrete stopping, air samples drawn through a 3-inch relief pipe in the stopping showed 38.17 per cent methane. It is reported that since the data on which this bulletin is based were collected all sealed-off areas in Franklin County have been opened up and ventilated. Details of a study of gas in mines in southern Illinois will be found in Co-operative Bulletin 72, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Occurrence of Explosive Gases in Coal Mines, N. H. Darton. Face samples of the coal when ground to 200-mesh, dried and tested in the laboratory in Urbana, show that the unadul- terated coal dust of every district is explosible. The average pressures developed in the explosibility apparatus are given for each district in Table 23. Table 23. — Pressure developed by dust of face samples in explosibility apparatus District No. samples Pressure in pounds per square inch at 2192' I 11 8.400 II 5 5.880 III 5 7.805 IV 17 7.700 V 7 7.105 VI 16 5.950 VII 24 7.175 VIII 6 8.925 In Districts II, III, IV, VII, and VIII the dust found on the ribs of entries is not very explosible because it has such a high moisture and shale content. Shale dropping from the roof is ground up by car wheels and by the feet of men and mules and the inert dust thus produced is mixed with the coal dust on the ribs and acts as a diluent. However, although the 158 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS coal dust may not be sufficiently explosible to initiate an ex- plosion when an explosion is once initiated in mines in these districts by ignition of gas or by a blown-out shot the dust will propagate the explosion as violently as any other. The rib dust of Districts V and VI, which are gassy dis- tricts, is dry and in District VI is not likely to be adulterated with shale because the constant dropping of top coal adds to the supply of pure dust. Every precaution should be ob- served in these districts for the prevention of dust explosions and for checking them if they are initiated. At a few mines in these districts, notably at those in which there have been rv v v*. Fig. 49. Efficient brick stopping explosions, attempts are made to lessen the danger. In Dis- trict V in one mine where road dust is thick calcium chloride is put on the floor of entries. Calcium chloride being a hygro- scopic salt absorbs moisture. Coal dust when covered with it becomes moistened and remains damp as long as the cal- cium chloride continues to absorb moisture. The finest coal dust is thus prevented from being thrown into suspension in the air current. At this mine it was found that by using 1% pounds of granulated calcium chloride per square yard of floor, fine coal dust lying one inch thick was kept moist for six months. The use of this salt has been so satisfactory at VENTILATION 159 this mine that a much greater floor area will be covered in the future. In the small quantity bought for experimentation calcium chloride cost $13. per ton. This cost will be consider- ably less if the salt is bought in large quantity. Provision is made at another mine in this district for the expansion of an explosion wave, the idea being to prevent the propagation through the main entries of a loca] explosion in a room or entry. An explosion door (fig. 47) is built into every eighth stopping along the main entries. This door is built of two thicknesses of one inch shiplap boards, and swings vertically on a one-inch iron rod. Uprights and casings are built into the stopping. The width of the door, 4 feet 3 inches, is the same whatever the width of the crosscut, but the height varies Avith the stopping. In District VI at one mine water is piped to the face of every room and the ribs, roof, and props of every room are hosed before shooting. In a few other mines the ribs of entries are hosed every two weeks. In another mine the haul- age roads are ballasted with ashes. It takes 70 cubic feet of ashes to cover 40 linear feet of road. When the road bed becomes covered with coal dust more ashes are sprinkled on it. The roads are sprinkled with water nightly. In this mine an explosion which killed 8 men died out for lack of explosive dust after traversing a short stretch of entry in which ash ballast had been used. A bulletin dealing with the explosibility of coal dust in Illinois mines is in press and will soon be ready for distribu- tion. The subject of humidity of air in Illinois mines has been covered in Co-operative Bulletin 83, U. S. Bureau of Mines, The Humidity of Mine Air, by R. Y. Williams. The humid- ity of return air in Illinois mines throughout the year aver- ages 96 per emit and the temperature averages (54 degrees F. The average humidity of the outside air in Illinois is 72 per cent and the average temperature 52 degrees F. The moisture gained by the air current is extracted from the ribs and where there is no seepage of water the moisture is obtained from the dust on the ribs. I Inmidification of mine air is attempted at a few mines. At two mines in 160 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS District IV the intake air is heated; at one by passing it over a coil of one-inch pipe 695 feet long throngh which live steam is passed at a pressure of 80 pounds per square inch; at the other by jets of steam exhausted into the air shaft from the fan engine. At these mines it is stated that in the coldest weather the intake air at the bottom of the air-shaft has a temperature above freezing. Clean-up ex- pense in this district can be lessened materially by heating the intake air and every mine in the district could profitably install a steam coil or drum. The initial expense would be small and the expense of operation slight compared with the Fig. 50. Latch in rib dug to receive stopping saving in clean-up cost. The shale roof spalls off badly in spring and summer in many mines and in some continues to fall till the limestone or sandstone cap rock is exposed. In several mines in this district in new entries driven during winter the roof begins to fall with the advent of summer and caves to the cap rock. The cause of the falling is chiefly the expansion of the black shale with the rise in temperature of the intake air current. Maintaining the air current at a more nearly constant temperature by means of preheating with steam coils would decrease the roof falls by decreasing the seasonal range of temperature. VENTILATION 161 In District VI in three mines exhanst steam from the fan engine is turned into the intake air-shaft in winter to prevent the formation of ice in the shaft. At one of these mines the exhanst steam is carried over a radiator heated by live steam. The radiator is made of 1,000 feet of 1%-inch pipe. One of the mines nsing exhanst steam reports that it causes roof to fall badly. In District VIII exhaust steam was turned into the air- shaft at one mine to prevent the formation of ice. At the mines examined in other districts the only water introduced into the mine is in sprinkling the haulageways for the purpose of laying the dust. This procedure aids very little in humidification of the air but adds to the efficiency of the mules by temporarily lessening the amount of dust thrown up by the passage of cars and by the feet of men and animals. At most mines in Illinois the fans are always run as blowers but in a few they exhaust in summer and blow in winter, and in the vicinity of Pana they always exhaust. The quantity of air delivered by the fans usually is small in some mines the amount being less than 25,000 cubic feet per minute. The average mine with about 1,500 tons daily output usually has a ventilating current of approximately 50,000 cubic feet per minute. There are only a few mines in Illinois at which the ventilating current supplies 200,000 cubic feet per minute and these mines are nearly all in the gassy District VI. The fan at one of the mines examined in District V has a capacity of 200,000 cubic feet. Although at most mines enough air is delivered by the fan to provide the legal amount in proportion to the number of men and mules underground stoppings are often so inef- ficient that only a comparatively small amount of air reaches the last cross-cut on the entries or arrives at the working face. At many mines a large percentage of the air blown by the fans into the air-shaft short-circuits through the leaky stop- pings into the return air. In one mine with lumber stop- pings, a careful study by J. T. Ryan, U. S. Bureau of Mines, showed only 12% per cent ventilating efficiency. Frequently only 20 per cent of the air supplied by the fan reaches the last cross-cut. A co-operative bulletin by R. Y. Williams, 162 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS "The Efficiency of Mine Stoppings " will soon be issued by the U. S. Bureau of Mines. At nearly all of the smaller mines in Illinois stoppings are built of gob, sometimes loosely packed, more often tamped. Fig. 48 shows a typical gob stopping. In a few mines gob stoppings are plastered with mud and in some with mud and wood-fibre. Besides gob the materials of which stoppings are made are : powder cans and mud mortar, old ties and fine gob, lumber and wood-fibre, expanded metal and wood-fibre, pressed gypsum blocks called Pyrobar, brick, concrete blocks, and monolithic concrete with various aggregates. Fig. 51. Mixer and mould for making concrete blocks In one instance noted stoppings had been built of %- inch-mesh expanded metal nailed on props with one side of the expanded metal plastered with wood-fibre y 2 -inch thick. The metal rusted and the stoppings fell in six months. They were replaced by concrete monoliths. Berkytt lath nailed to props and covered with wood-fibre %-inch thick is used exten- sively for stopping material in District VI. This stopping is efficient for a short time. Two men can build three of these VENTILATION 163 stoppings a day. One 100-pound sack of wood-fibre costing $10. per ton f. o. b. mine will cover one stopping 8 by 10 feet. Berkytt lath bought in lengths to fit a mine car costs $15.50 per thousand board feet. At a mine in District VII stoppings are built of shiplap with shale, slack, and fireclay banked on each side of the lumber stopping. Block Machine HOUSE Chute CINDER BIN u Cinder Conveyor BOILEK HOUSE Chute Fig. 52. Arrangement of plant for making concrete blocks. (After Ross.) Pyrobar stoppings are found in several mines. Pyrobar is a gypsum block made in two sizes ; 12 by 30 by 4 inches and 12 by 30 by 15 inches, and to decrease the weight three longi- tudinal core holes are made in the blocks. The block 4 inches thick has a compressive strength of 154 pounds per square Table 24. — Total cost of completed stopping Cost of manufacture in cent? Cost of building in cents Total laid cost in cents Per square foot of surface Per block 5.58 4.96 5.04 4.48 10.62 9.44 inch and the block 5 inches thick a strength of 102 pounds, the greater compressive strength of the block five inches thick being due to greater thickness of its walls. The four-inch block weighs 12 pounds per square foot of surface and the five-inch block, IS 1 /*? pounds. The price of the four-inch block 164 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS Table 25. — Material and initial cost of stoppings Material of stopping II Concrete i blocks III Gob IV Pyrobar ! Concrete V blocks VI VII VIII Berkytt lath and wood fibre Concrete Concrete Concrete Brick coated with cement Tamped gob Tamped gob Concrete blocks Concrete Proportions of concrete 1 Portland cement ; 6 cinders bo c c ° ° • « in * is £8-2 REMARKS 1 cement ; 2 , sharp wash- ed sand ; 4 ! crushed lime stone 48 4 12 Wa 1 Portland cement ; 2 sand ; 7 sifted cind- ers 1 cement ; 6 sifted cind- ers 1 cement ; 2 sand ; 5 slack from floor 14 1 Portland cement ; 6 crushed cinders 1 cement; 5 unsifted cinders 72 144 21 6.0 11.4 15.0 16.6 5.4 7.0 10.6 25.1 5 by 8 by 20 4 by 12 by 30 6 8 by 12 by 24 6 by 10 by 20 8 by 8 by 16 Blocks cost 6 cents each at pit mouth Unnecessary aggre- gate. Blocks weigh 180 pounds. Labor costs 8 cents per block Blocks cost 4 cents each at pit mouth To replace expanded metal and wood fibre Brick cost $9 per M. delivered. One man builds one stopping 7 feet by 12 feet in 2 days Cost of transportation of gob not included Cost of transportation of gob not included VENTILATION 165 is four cents per square foot, f. o. b. Fort Dodge, Iowa. The Pyrobar block is well adapted to mine stoppings and fire seals in dry mines where it is not subjected to heavy roof settle- ment. The blocks can be sawed into desired sizes with a hand saw. The mortar used in building stoppings with this ma- terial has a gypsum base and costs $6.50 per ton. Two men can build three 6 by 12-foot stoppings in eight hours. In this district a 6 by 12-foot stopping in place costs $6.50; about nine cents per square foot of surface. Fire seals can be built easily and quickly with these blocks which are fire resistant. Fig. 53. Concrete overcast Fig. 49 shows an efficient brick stopping in a mine in District VI. This stopping lias one course of brick laid on the broad side. The rib, roof, and floor are cut away for a depth of 6 inches to provide a tight joint. In the center a stiffener course is laid at a right angle to the other bricks. Mortar is made of 1 part Portland cement and 3 parts sand. After the bricks are laid, both sides of the stoppings are plastered %-inch thick with this mortal-. A 7 by 12-foot stop- ping is said to cost $12. In another mine in District VI stoppings are built of con- crete with unusual ingredients. One part Portland cement is 166 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS mixed with 2 parts sand and 5 parts slack shoveled from the floor. The larger pieces of coal in the slack are picked out by hand. Stoppings with this mixture in good condition were noted which have been in place 11 years. Monolithic concrete is extensively used for stoppings in the larger mines. Concrete stoppings are not always insert- ed deeply enough in the ribs, roof and floor and consequently sometimes allow air to short-circuit around them. Fig. 50 shows a stopping in District V with blocks set in cuts deep enough to provide a good joint. The cut is made about 2 inches wider than the bearing side of the blocks, and the joint in rib, roof, and floor is packed with cement mortar with the proportions, 1, Portland cement ; 3, sharp washed sand. The rib cut is 14 inches deep. The usual aggregates for concrete blocks or monolithic concrete are : graded gravel, sand and crushed limestone, sand and uncrushed cinders, crushed cinders. At the No. 1 mine of the Superior Coal Company at Gillespie the system for making concrete blocks is very efficient. The blocks which are made on the surface are proportioned as follows : 1 Port- land cement ; 4 crushed cinders. The mould makes with one filling a block 8 by 8 by 16 inches and another 8 by 8 by 8 inches. Two men can make 300 moulds per day, which is equivalent to 450 blocks 8 by 8 by 16 inches, as the 300 smaller blocks are equal to 150 of the larger. The mixer and mould are illustrated in fig. 51. The arrangement of the plant is shown in fig. 52. A cinder crusher delivers cinders under 114-inch mesh and a 6 H.P. Westinghouse motor operates the crusher and the mixer which handles 1/5 of a cubic yard per batch. The cost of manufacturing concrete blocks at this mine and delivering at the pit mouth is in cents per block: Labor 1.08, material 3.88, total 4.96. Each block has 0.888 square feet of face and, therefore, the cost per square foot of face is 5.58 cents. To obtain a proper set the blocks are ripened on the sur- face for two weeks. To estimate the cost of a stopping in place, costs of material transportation from the top to the required location in the mine and of stopping construction Table 26. — Ventilating equipment of mines producing less than 1000 tons daily Fan V District No. seam 1 O) c 1 6 a -o f District VII, bv F. H. Kay. (171) 172 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS Table 28. — Ventilating equipment of mines producing 2000 tons daily and over Fan District No. seam s S 6 u c ! £ "3." "o.S Q" Size in feet of air shaft in clear Type of fan 1 c u id I* 36 2450 200 7\ by 15 Stevens 12 4 IV 5 37 2700 235 10 by 14 Buffalo -Forge 16 5 39 43 50 2400 204 160 726 10 by 12 8 by 8 Capell Clifford-Capell Capell 13 20 n V 5 2500 si 2000 10 by 15 7 52 2400 640 9 by 13 Capell 11 5 53 2500 417 12 by 12 Robinson 18 8 58 2500 515 9 by 13 Paddle-wheel 13^ 6 VI 6 59 3000 220 10 by 14 Paddle-wheel 21 6 60 2250 112 Crawford & McCrimmon 20 8 62 2325 190 8 by 12 Blakslee 20 6 63 66 2600 4000 140 332 10 by 12 8 by 14 Robinson Miller 20 18 6 6 68 2500 387 7 bv 12 Duncan 22 6 71 2500 205 8 by 18 Sullivan 10 6 72 4000 287 9 by 12 Capell 20 8 73 3750 318 8 by 18 Duncan 21 6 VII 6 74 2800 330 81 by 17 Paddle-wheel 22 5 75 2000 310 8J by 51 Crawford 16 2 76 2120 370 11 by 22 Capell 15 6 77 2500 462 9 by 16 Sullivan 10 5 82 3000 192 7 by 10 Paddle-wheel 20 5 84 93 2000 320 186 6 by 8 Paddle-wheel 15 24 8 VIII 6 and 7 2600 8 by 12 Capell 7 Averages by districts IV 5 2517 213 91 by 131 14 SI V 5 2500 160 8 by 8 13 Si VI 6 2447 370 9| by 13 18 6i VII 6 2834 319 8h by 14 17 51 VIII 6 and 7 2600 186 8 by 12 24 7 Average of 24 mines 2641 311 9 by 13 17 6 1 Paddle-wheel refers to straight blade type of fan. MINE FIRE 1(6 underground is attended with more care than in any other district in Illinois. In almost every mine examined in this district the provisions of the State law with respect to the transportation of hay to underground stables are scrupulous- ly observed. The hay, which is baled, is carried in a specially constructed car. Fig. 54 shows a steel hay car in an under- Fig. 54. Steel hay car and concrete hay room. (Photo by R. Y. Williams., U. S. Bureau of Mines.) ground stable in which a concrete-walled room is provided for the storage of small quantities of hay. At a great majority of the mines in Illinois mules are stabled underground, but at many mines the mules are stabled on the surface. At one mine having 24 mules on the second- ary haulage they are hoisted out each night. It requires thirty minutes to hoist and the same time to lower them and the total expense of these operations is $0.000888 per ton of coal hoisted. 174 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS In many mines an unnecessary liability of fire is added by allowing comparatively large quantities of lubricating oil to be stored in the run-around or at other points near the shaft. In one mine two full barrels of oil and four empties were kept within 25 feet of the main hoisting shaft, while 200 feet away were stored two full and three empty barrels. In the newer mines danger of underground fire is reduced to a minimum by prohibiting the storing of oil in the run-around. The daily supply taken below is stored in a small room driven in the rib near the shaft and closed by a fireproofed door. The oil is also heated here by steam coils. In District VIII at the Little Vermilion mine of the Bunsen Coal Company an unusual method of conveying oil to the shaft bottom was noted. On the surface at a distance of 100 feet from the hoisting shaft three oil tanks are sunk 5 feet deep in the ground. One tank of 400 gallons capacity contains black oil ; one of 250 gallons capacity contains engine oil ; and a third of 200 gallons capacity holds cylinder oil. Pipes from these tanks are carried down the pipe-way in the hoisting-shaft and the various oils are pumped direct to the bottom as needed. This method obviates the necessity of taking oil into the shaft in barrels or in cans and does away with storing oil in the run-around. LIGHTING Carbide lamps are used extensively by the miners. At one mine in District VI the management forbids their use and insists on the use of oil lamps. The smoky oil lamps pollute the air in rooms and in mines where they are used air at the working face is noticeably more impure than where carbide is used. The use of open lamps should be carefully regulated in Districts V and VI. The bottoms and main haulage en- tries of 207 mines in Illinois are lighted by electricity. HAULAGE The flat lying seams of Illinois offer every opportunity for the development of speed in haulage but it is only since 1906 that the introduction of locomotives and the opening of mines of large capacity have developed the present rapid transportation of coal from the face to the shaft bottom. Lo- comotives are rapidly superseding mules and rope haulage on the main haulageways. This is clearly shown in the follow- ing tabulation : Kind of Haulage in Illinois Shipping Mines 1 No. Mines Using on Main Haulage Year Locomotive Cable Mules Hand pushing 1907 75 25 303 5 1908 88 32 283 4 1909 96 16 268 4 1910 106 25 251 8 1911 137 24 219 7 1912 165 4 210 1 1913 185 13 168 1914 191 139 1 1 Compiled from Thirty-first Annual Coal Report of Illinois. Local mines do not need mechanical haulage and their output would not support it. In most of them cars are pushed by hand and in some are hauled by mules. Tn one mine in District IIT cars were hauled by dogs for many years as shown in fig. 55. In 1912 locomotives were used in 167 of the mines in the State, rope haulage was used in 21, mules in 339, and in 244 the cars were pushed to the bottom by hand About 80 per cent of the production is hauled by locomotives, 19 per cent by mules, and less than 1 per cent by cable. Standard electric locomotives were used in 45 of the mines examined, rack-rail locomotives in 4, and gasoline loco- motives in 7. Tables 29 and 30 give data on performance of the three types of locomotives. Electric locomotives in the mines ex- amined make the greatest number of ton-miles per day. The combination third and rack-rail locomotive is used only in mines of small outputs where rolls and pitches in the seam cause steep grades. The third-rail in coal mines is dangerous and leakage of power through it is serious where the floor is • (175) 176 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS wet. At one mine in District VII power loss through the third-rail was so great that a trolley was strung and the loco- motive fitted with a pole. Gasoline locomotives are used chiefly in mines where formerly mules were used and where the haul from parting to bottom has become too long for profitable mule haulage. Table 29. — Ton mileage of standard electric locomotives District No. seam No. mine Weight of locomotives in tons Miles traveled per shift Ton mileage per shift I | 2 8 11 II 2 13 25 10 26 Hi 39.8 1356 28 10 37.9 1136 IV 5 31 12 34.1 1355 33 7i. 20.0 780 36 12 31.1 1434 37 15 30.0 1716 38 10 15 38.6 1622 43 29.8 1509 44 10 14.2 1167 V 5 45 10 18.0 675 48 6 21.8 575 49 8 42.3 888 50 15 18.9 796 51 10 9.5 296 52 12 30.7 1266 53 54 12 6.8 320 56 10 22.8 592 VI 6 57 8 58 13 34.1 1381 59 15 37.9 2040 60 13 27.3 851 62 10 27.3 745 63 65 8 35.0 735 HAULAGE 177 Table 29. — Continued District No. seam No. mine Weight of locomotives in tons Miles traveled per shift Ton mileage per shift 66 15 34.1 1823 67 7\ 47.0 1598 68 10 10.6 875 70 7\ 41.7 1337 71 13 30.3 1560 72 12 23.0 1127 73 10 VII 6 74 12* 26.5 1432 75 10 15.1 920 76 10 22.7 977 77 13 21.0 992 82 12 36.0 4095 84 12 15.9 730 86 12 15.2 1045 87 10 32.5 1366 VIII 6 and 7 93 13 38.4 1208 Averages by districts IV 5 11 33.1 1343 V 5 10 25.2 963 VI 6 11* 25.0 902 VII 6 11 26.6 1420 VIII 6 and 7 13 38.4 1208 Average of 45 r nines 11 27.5 1198 Their great advantages are cheapness of installation and flex- ibility. The necessity of bonding rails is obviated, no surface plant is required, and the change from mule haulage can be made without stringing trolley wires. They are subject, how- ever, to the usual defects of the gasoline engine when required to do variable work. Their limitations for use in mines are clearly shown by Prof. O. P. Hood, Chief Mechanical En- gineer of the U. S. Bureau of Mines. 1 Prof. Hood says, "The size of a gasoline locomotive that may with safety be intro- duced into a mine depends upon the amount of air that can be 1 Gasoline Locomotives in Relation to the Health of the Miners. American Institute of Mining Engineers, October, 1914, p. 2607. Bulletin of the 178 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS Fig. 55. Pit-car hauled by dog. (Photo by Mr. James Taylor) Table 30. — Ton mileage of locomotives other than standard electric Kind 5 No. mine Weight of locomotive in tons Miles traveled per shift Ton mileage per shift Gasoline III 19 5 28.4 512 24 7 11.4 150 IV 29 8 13.3 270 39 12 33.1 1392 64 8 27.3 458 VI 79 6 12.7 468 "7 81 5 16.6 518 Rack-rail 2 23,4 33.0 528 II 15 VII 88 5 40.0 1593 89 4 35.0 1556 Average : Standard electric Third-rail electric Gasoline 11.0 3.9 7.3 27.2 36.0 20.4 1198 1226 538 HAULAGE 179 mixed with the exhaust gases in the most unfavorable portion of the run of the locomotive. For each cubic foot of carbon monoxide possible to generate in the engine there should be available 2,000 cu. ft. of air to mix with the exhaust gases if this air is for continued breathing, while for short and infre- quent intervals the proportion may rise to one part in one thousand." Table 31 gives data compiled by Prof. Hood. Table 31. — Amount of air required for ventilation with various sizes of gasoline locomotives Amount of air c (Cu ft. per "" a Id Maximum probable amount of nox- min.) required V e ious gases (Cu. ft. per min. at to dilute ex- .2 1/3 6o° F. and 30 in. barometer) haust gases to 1 !_ V produced with part CO per c '>, Pi n u 1000 parts of air 2 c c 2 3 Good carburation ] carl be c a Oh W w CO co„ CO Bad 2 3 -a 3 3-° 4.75 by 5.25 4 800 172 2.61 6.80 9.91 3.65 2,610 9,910 5 by 5 4 600 136 2.06 5.37 7.84 2.88 2 060 7,840 5 by 5 4 800 182 2.76 7.18 10.48 3.86 2,760 10,480 5 by 6 4 800 218 3.30 8.60 12.56 4.62 3,300 12,560 5.5 by 5 4 600 165 2.50 6.51 9.50 3.50 2,500 9,500 6by6 4 700 275 4.17 10.86 15.85 5.82 4,170 15,850 6 by 7 4 500 229 3.47 9.04 13.19 4.85 3,470 13,190 6.5 by 7 4 500 269 4.07 10.63 15.50 5.70 4,070 15,500 6.5 by 8 4 650 399 6.04 15.76 23.00 8.46 6,040 23,000 7 by 7 4 500 312 4.73 12.33 17.97 6.62 4,730 17,970 7 by 7 6 500 468 7.08 18.49 26.97 9.92 7,080 26,970 8by7 4 500 407 6.16 16.08 23.45 8.62 6,160 23,450 8 by 7 6 500 610 9.24 24.10 35.14 12.93 9,240 35,140 a Area piston in square feet multiplied by stroke in feet multiplied by number of cylin- ders multiplied by revolutions per minute. 2 Maximum amount of carbon monoxide which can be breathed for short and infrequent intervals without injurious effects. The first gasoline locomotive used in Illinois mines was built by the Sangamon Coal Company and put in its mine at Springfield in 1904. This crude machine, fig. 56, pulled in a trip seven to nine pit cars each weighing loaded 4,000 pounds. The rails in the mine at that time weighed 16 pounds per yard. In Illinois gasoline locomotives in mines average 30.8 ton- miles per gallon of gasoline and about 700 ton-miles per gal- 180 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS Ion of engine oil. Their average travel per shift is about 20 miles. Rope haulage is still used in a few mines and with limited outputs furnishes economical transportation of coal. In two mines hauling with main-and-tail rope cost of haulage from parting to bottom averages 2% cents per ton. Gathering is usually done with mules. Standard 5 or 6- ton electric locomotives are used for gathering in a few mines Fig. 56. First gasoline mine-locomotive in Illinois. Frank R. Fisher.) (Photo loaned by Mr. and storage-battery locomotives in one. The storage-battery locomotives for gathering in mines without any steep grades are reported to be successful and cheap to operate. Mules are kept in good condition in Illinois mines. Their useful life is decreasing because the increased production of the mines and the substitution of locomotives for mules on the long hauls have limited the work of the animals to gathering, HAULAGE 181 and as this must be done at high speed to keep the locomotives supplied with loads the life of a mule has consequently been shortened. In many mines in this district and throughout the State the limit of the average mule 's work underground is 3 years. The expense per mule including feed, shoeing and harness repair is estimated to be 75 cents to one dollar a day. Figures on ton-mileage of mules are seldom available. In one mine on a 2 per cent grade in favor of the loads two mules weighing 1300 pounds each made seventy-five loaded trips of 700 feet with four cars weighing empty 1000 pounds apiece, each car having a capacity of 3500 pounds. With this load and haul the daily ton-mileage for each mule was 54.67. At one mine with a 2 per cent grade in favor of the loads a spike team of 3 mules hauls trips of 17 cars each weighing empty 1800 pounds and holding 2100 of coal, making a total weight of 3900 pounds per loaded car and approximately 33 tons for the trip. At a mine in District VIII where there is a 0.6 per cent grade against the loads mules travel 8.9 miles per day, averaging 64 ton-miles. On account of incomplete segregation of cost items the cost of gathering can not be obtained with accuracy. It prob- ably ranges from 4y 2 to 7 cents. Total cost of haulage in mines other than longwall varies from 6 to 15 cents. In one mine which was recently abandoned because it was worked out, haulage cost 25 cents per ton of coal. In longwall mines the costs of haulage and maintenance of haulage ways are high per ton of coal because from 14 to l A of the entire tonnage hauled to the bottom is waste. Fur- thermore, the continuous settling of the roof, and in many mines, the heaving of the floor, add an expense for brushing roof and floor which is not an item in room-and-pillar mines. The roadways are usually maintained 4 feet high and 7 to 9 feet wide. The miners brush the roof at the face, but the settling as the face advances necessitates a further 1) rushing which is done in the LaSalle field by the company. Pig. 57 shows the amount of "company brushing" necessary at one mine after subsidence. This brushing of roof and floor costs the operators in the LaSalle field approximately 15 cents per ton of run-of-mine coal. Labor for haulage costs approxi- 182 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS mately 12y 2 cents. Maintenance of mules and car repairing costs 5% cents. The total cost items chargeable to haulage and maintenance of haulage roadways amount to about 33 cents in a typical mine with mule haulage on both main and cross entries. The chief reasons for high haulage costs in mines other than longwall are failure to keep partings close enough to the working face to enable gathering mules to fill them with loads Fig. 57. Amount of "company brushing" necessary after settling between trips of the locomotive, pit cars with high friction of running gear, light rails on main haulage, steep grades, sharp curves, and gob on the track. In nearly all mines haulage costs can be materially reduced. Pit cars are often leaky and spill coal along the track thus adding to the supply of dust on the ribs. On account of poor track and road-bed wrecks are frequent in many mines. At one mine in District VII with a daily production of 1050 tons it is necessary to clean up an HAULAGE 183 P^rt- O o bo 0\ lo 00 Os CM O r^ CO "3- 00 — • o co o CM co CM CM co CO OvOOMOH ^ CM CM "3" CO o o\ "<*■ CM CO On ^h 00 O Tf 0\ CO CM CO CM co CM CM O lo ■Tf co 00 CM t^ CM CM CM CM "1- "tf- 00 Tf — < cm' cm 2 o CM CM lo rf r-I CM r-i (M* O ^t ^ \Q co t-i so CM CM CM CM CM CO* CM CM 00 iomK f< i-H CM co' cm' o o o o o o O O O O lo o O iO O O vO 00 CM CM i-H — i CM *-h o o o o o o o o o o o o o o oo^rocoiocoo ^ CM oo lo CMCMCOCMCOCMCOCMCM CMco -u-O X. a bo 3 O LO O O O O O O r\] r-H ? §88 o c 00 CM \ r-> © lo CM H H HHH M saipui ut 33BS spBj'x 3UIIU o^ O O O CM CM vO'NJ OOCMOOCMvO OO OOCMO coco rococococoCMco y— i co lo Q\ O CMTj-f^CMTf-iOO^CM «— ' — • .— i CMCococO'^-'^-'^- 184 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS «- c 0-- T3 ^"£2 «* c-S-S Tt N lOlO On On nO 00 O <* »-H ui K K K ^"' Tf' CO O d rh CM* L £ * CO CM ro CO CO co co r}- co CO CO feuO p-s 1* .«- rt o o~ o o bo K vO NK On On rf 10 LO 00 T— 1 .z .^.ir IS— i* CM # CM »-* r-n' h J t>i h CM cm' CM o c """ .tJ C Is 3 OOOO OOOO OOOO O O t^ O 10 10 10 on cm r>. ^ 10 CM CO O nO a a 10 CO CM CM i-i CM CM CM CO CO CM C8 " CO u ca o s c "" in OOOO 10 u-j On O CO LO u-j O O LO ON J3 n m CO CO MS 00 *— ' CM CM O »-H y- 1 LO -r CO CM |& r— I .— 1 1—1 »— 1 .— 1 1— 1 1— < 1— 1 i—< ■— > 1— 1 en 12 <« >, C U5 C 3 O is vO O O O ^ 't IO O LO NO LO o «- c a u i-h CM CM CM CM CM « CO S9l{DlII UI 00 00 00 vO CO CO co CO 00 't •* >^ CM s LO 3SbS 3J3BJJ, co CO CO co co CO 9UIUI "OJNJ r-H CM 10 r^ On On On On s r- tN CM CM lo LO O TD c 6 rt » 1 4J •Q en O 1— 1 1— 1 w - s > > M i— i h- 1 > > > 3 < HAULAGE 185 average of 20 tons from the haulageway each night because of the many wrecks and the loss of coal from pit cars in transit. At another mine which has low grades, easy curves and a good road-bed, the coal lost from pit cars through leaks and by overloading necessitates an average nightly clean-up of 24 tons. Where large faults in District VI are met near the shaft the difference in elevation is usually overcome by an air lift or by an automatic chain car-haul as shown in fig. 58. In two mines the loads from the high side are lowered by a cable and drum down an incline. Fig. 58. Automatic chain car-haul Equipment for haulage is excellent in all of the newly opened large mines and at many of them there are tight steel cars of large capacity, many of which have roller-bearing wheels. Tables 32 and 33 give equipment data for mines with mule and mechanical haulage on the main entry. In mines with mechanical haulage the average track gage is wider and the rail weight heavier than with mule haulage, and the ratio of coal carried to weight of empty car is greater, 186 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS pEC } I IBJOl UI vO nO CM CO ON t^ 00 CO O 00 M ifl NONO'-HvOOCM'^-OOCOTf .jSl3A\ JHO 3 }U3D J9J n ■*' a n od a CM co CM CO CM CM in cm CO ■<*• oo Tf co r^ CM co co co t-hOncocovOCMiOnOnOio COCMCMCMCMCOCMCMCMCM }U3I3AV JED O; TBOO JO OpB^J vO 0\ Tf O iO ■* oo -t- "■) on o r^ CMiOCOCMOOONONt^OOON CM ^ CM CM CM CM T— 1 7— 1 CM »-h CM ^h CM CM CO co CM CM CM CM CM CM CO spunod ui X^iDBdBJ 2200 1700 2000 1000 2700 2600 88 CO O rf co O O O O O O O O CM co co CM 8888888888 ^NOMNOtOOOO CMcocotJ-cO"3-T\OCMu-> £ spunod ui 840 900 825. 500 1100 1100 88 rr CM CM CM 8888 00 SO lo CM OOOOOOOOOQ oooooooooo CM^OONCOcoONU^CMOt^ h^ "^ Rail weight in pounds per yard Cross entry CM vO CM vO vO vO vO o O O vO CM M -H TH ^ CMnO^OnOOOnOnOOO HHHrHMrHHHHM 1 vO O O vO O ""> rH 1- M H ro CO o o co co O O O lo vO CM co CM OOOOLOlOOiOlOO cOTtcoco^cococOcoco S3ipui UI CO CM CM co co co CM O ^T co On vO nO nO CM co co co \OCM\OMDnOCMnOCMvOCn1 c0^fcococOTj-fO"^-cO'^- One 10; three 6; one 3 One 12; one 7; one 6 Two 10 One 8 Two 12 ; one 6 Two 1\\ two 5 Two 12 One 15; two 13 One 10; two 8 Three 12 : : «H< o . 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S i o o o o o LO O O ~ o ~ o o o LO LO O O O LO «- S s rf r^ fO h ro co <0 co c Tf -t "t co rf LO CM <0 CO CO co S3l{3Ul UI 3SbS JJOB-l J OIM O N O CM CM CM vO -S- CM CM CM CM CM CM CM nO nO fO Tf ^t 't ■+ TT T Tf Tt CO f" TT Tj- Tj- Tf Tf Tf •rj- CO CO ^T» r^ "to o •fid- r^ ,-H bo *".fl vO vO ^§s a $ s s 5 o o 10 5 ; one 5 ; one 13 C O O LO 1—1 o o o co io" 2 5J CM LO ^O co co 11 H rH ^U V u o o y y y _C y t> # U O u u u y C .° "C us "C "C "C 'C 'C 'C 'C 'C 'C *C •c "il] 'l, 'ui 'C 'C 'C ^ s « t*j o * J U U CJ CJ V O CJ o c l __ t .2 > Q 188 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS pEOj |b;oj ui Tf N H H Tf VO Tj- CO vO to CM vO On o O Tj- c CM co On NO NO o> }USI3A\. JBD t HOfOOlO to CO nO vO Tf ON CM CO CM CM co t-H to LO O rj- u- CM co ^h oo r^ »-H JO 4U3D J3J C\J co co CM CM CM CM CM CO CM O CM co co CO "^t l^SpM i-i CM co «0 O On ON O 00 00 ON CM On o CO T-H c tO O T-H o CO Tf JO OpB^ CO CM CM co co CM CM CM CM CM ^h rj- CM CO CM co r^ CO CM CM 1— 1 CM •"• spunod ui 888888 888888 O O t^ O t^ co iO vO t}- iO N ■* O o RR R O 00 CO o O s XjIDBdB^ lO 00 CO O O 00 \0 CM nO "<*■ nO to o O CM i/ lO o to u cd o "* CO t^ NO I" t^ CM CM r LO CM spunod ui O Q O O O Q O © t-h o in o O Q O O O O © © O O O to 8 Q 8 © O o o c c o o o o o o O o o o 8 IM^pM ^h co t^ CM ^h O On O t^ 00 O O *r o o li- O rf ^h CM CM 00 CM i-i CM i-i CM CM _ ro ^H ^H rj- ,-H *" ' CO CM CNjHH CM CM en f>> O 00 vO vO o o O O 00 O O O NO NO o o <^ O ON NO NO nO .G 05 £ o T3 u (N) rt rH ■rt- CM co CO ^o CO lO lO c/)>*- •« to Crt a o« vO vO ^ O -t-> c B ° § ° o o CM .. _ © ... CM .« i— 1 In h h In ^'J ii-o -o a o"43 a.3 u u o u o ° •4- o u o a o o u o u <- o o *-• o ^3 V U V U V (J a> £j > HAULAGE 189 pBOJ p3}0} UI VO T-J r^ o o o o co vO o as fO t\ O K 00 lO 00 JO iu33 J3J CO CO CO CM CM CM CM co CM JBD O} p300 CO vO O 00 0\ K N ON to cm' i-H cm' cm cm' cm' CM i-h" CM* JO OpB^; CO O O O O 00 CM O o spunod ui CO lO O Tf O 00 o to iO On 00 >J"> O t^ CM co Tf lo lO CO lO en X + pBdB3 O vO CM co 5 spunod ui £ 8 i-O o o o o\ o t^ u-> O O CM O CO LO m8»M O0 co CM TT r^ ^ o\ o t^ CM l-H t-H l-H CM T-l CM l-H ■ CO +j to vO vO vO O 00 00 vO t->! J! "> O £ i-H i— c CM •— 1 i— 1 ,— 1 weig ound yard C J c c >> CO « c a .-. 1. o o rf Tt o\ o r^ co CM Ch~ kS ~ CM co CO co CM co CM CM CO S 11 vO saipui ui 33b8 jpe-ij. CM vO CO co o oo o -h t^ r^ CO co Th ^J - co co CO c o~ O 4-. +■' I- _c c^.SP S-sS > c S *o o - 2 « -a o > s>3 3UIUI -OJSJ CM t>> 0] CM CM *2 lo to vO o *2 03 03 C 1 — vO vO ^ >» o .o *j2 Crt t— 1 l-H ~ > > > ~ s > > *n O O 13 *o > < < 190 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS which shows that less money is expended in hauling excess weight of cars. The percentage of car weight in total load of car and coal is about 28. This is the relation which obtains between weight of modern steel railroad cars and total weight of car and load. The pressed-steel railroad cars with a ca- pacity of 100,000 pounds weigh empty from 38,000 to 46,000 pounds. To keep locomotives in good repair there are well equip- ped machine shops underground in a few mines (See fig. 59) where locomotives are examined daily for defective parts and poor adjustments. The locomotives are consequently kept up to the highest possible mechanical efficiency. K^ 1 ~~ K "" KWraS """~"~ ' / l . Jul ^. -'-j * ■ « i * • i Fig. 59. Underground machine shop Mixed ties with dimensions 4 inches by 4 inches by 5y 2 feet are usually bought for the haulage roads. Mixed ties can be bought at Mulkeytown in District VI at 10 cents f. o. b. They are elm, hickory, water-oak, white-oak, and sassafras. The average shipment in Illinois contains about 10 per cent of white-oak ties, which are the most desirable. Mixed ties cost the middleman 7 cents each, of which amount 4 cents is paid for cutting and trimming in the woods and 3 cents for hauling to the shipping point. When white-oak ties are spec- ified the purchaser pays 15 cents each f. o. b. shipping point, and the middleman 12% cents. About 1000 ties can be cut from an acre of timber. HOISTING In Illinois in the year ended June 30, 1912, the coal was reached by a slope at 93 mines, by a drift at 214 and by a shaft at 572. Hoisting, according to the Illinois Coal Report for that year, was done by steam at 555 mines, by horses at 59, and by hand at 151. A few mines did not report hoisting- methods. At a few mines hoisting at the present time is done by electricity. Hoisting speed is remarkable in the mines of large pro- duction. In District VII at the No. 3 mine of the Superior Coal Company at Gillespie, where the bottom of the shaft is 346 feet below the dumping shoes in the tipple, 5,195 tons were hoisted in eight hours on June 3, 1915. At this mine the daily tonnage for a month was 4530. In Mine No. 1 of the New Staunton Coal Company at Livingston 1673 hoists in eight hours were made through a shaft 287 feet deep, an average of 3.48 hoists per minute. From July 1, 1914 to April 30, 1915, the number of tons hoisted daily at this mine averaged 4514. Automatic caging is provided for in nearly all of the largest mines but there are some large mines where caging is done by hand. Shaft bottoms often are too short and have not sufficient storage space for loads and empties to provide for hoisting very long after an accidental interruption of haulage. The standard self -dumping cage is in common use except in District I where there are many platform cages often de- signed to hold two pit cars tandem. At one mine in this dis- trict and at two in District II an adaptation of ore skip is used which was designed by Mr. Robert E. Lee. Pit cars from the face on reaching the shaft bottom have their contents dumped, as shown in fig. 60, into a two-compartment hopper 9 feet deep lying below the floor. Each compartment of the hopper has a capacity of two pit cars and automatically dis- charges its contents into the skip. The skip is provided with a vertically-sliding door which is automatically lifted into the tipple discharging the contents of the skip on to the screens. (191) 192 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS in inSuaq }33J ut J3}3UIBIQ •3.5 c Suidump j[3g oo oo t^ ■* rr no -vo t^OO -r^^CMOO \O00iO00fOU-)00vO OMNOOONO cOCOTtcOCMco-si-CM 00 Tf CM vO CM 00 nO CO GO ^ jz; >h |z; Jh >h CM CM CM CM OO00 >.>>>> >>co >>>>>> .£> ,Q 4= ,0 r-i .O X> Xi lOOOOLO o o o OOn^F po ooo vO tJ- Tf vO CM tj- rCi JD X> X> rO X> NtJ-OOOvOK 00 vO CM rj- nO vO O ,Q .Q ^D ,0 U= U2 .O OOONOOO NO '—' vO t^ nO •*? OO00ONOW) KiOvOOOONO ,-i,-i CM h CM<0 £! « S ~ -. ^ ^ W O Oh O O O O O o 'OQOQO OOOOO Tj-OsOOt^CM lO o oooooo o olou-) cr>m ooiooooo CO OOOOOiOOiO OiOLOlOlOtN»OCM OMOO\^\OCn)KcO CMCOTl-iONOt^OOON V • c +* °< s S3 3 •- JS wfifi HOISTING 193 133J III l[}Jgll3 r ] }39J UI J3131UBIQ t^ oo -*r cm "3- >o co k. oo oo Tt-cviTfTj- OK ■iOCir,-t lo nO^o • \0 m 10 10 lo % •X5 vOO •nO • 1—1 CM-O CM O tJ- 00 lO vO ><><><>< ^ >h £ ! ><>< >H »-< ^f -^" O tJ- CM ^t CM ,0.0,0.0,0.0.0 .0.0.0 lOKKOOvOOON K\OiO O O O O t^ u-> O OO • fO OvOO'tOOOvC T On -CM N^hM^N ^ CM CM ,0.0.0.0,0,0,0 .O K \0 ON 00 O K vO nO O O 00 rf ON 00 fO o ^r on Tf oo ^r t^ ~ CO — I CM MrH M ,;3St30 Suiduinp-jpg ^5 £ >< ;>,><£ ^ ^ O hj G d ooo o^ooooo oooo iO O O OOOOOOO LOOmO t^-^OO iO 00 CO 00 00 t)- iO H00 fO 00OKO 0\oo-h(^ko\0 CMTt-mr^ nO tN. 00 00 00 00 On ON On On On =1 K CM t^ 9 Ol CM ^ lO lo nO ^ c e oo CO NO ^H NO o i > Average district II III IV V VI VIII rt < o 194 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS The skip can be adjusted to hoist men. Weighing is done at the bottom. In the larger mines of District I the steam ram and transfer table are used in the tipple. Fig. 60. Hopper for receiving coal at bottom of shaft A skip is also used at one mine in District VI. Here the shaft was sunk 33 feet below the bottom of the coal. A bin was then built with its sloping bottom extending from beyond the tracks to the shaft. The pit cars, which are bottom- dumping, unload when a dog on the bottom of a car strikes a cam between the rails. The coal from the bin discharges into a skip 11 feet deep holding 7 tons. The shaft has three com- partments ; two 6V4 by 7 feet each for coal hoisting, and one 4 by 7 feet, for hoisting men by cages. Weighing is done at the shaft bottom of this mine. On account of the great weight of skip and load the hoisting engine is second motion. The Peabody Coal Company at Nokomis has self -dump- ing cages holding two cars side by side. The pneumatic signalling device is found at all but small mines. At these, signalling from shaft bottom to engine room is done by pulling a wire which rings a bell in the engine room. HOISTING 195 ■ He H* Hc-i 133J NOOOO lO vO O • CO CM CO LO -00 LO CO CO LO O O ^f SSi UI ijiSuaT •~ ' -2. • s u S3 ^ Q jaaj ui J313UIEIQ Hw -bi CO 00 00 00 t^ lo vO • CO sO vO • O • so 00 t^ ^ lo ■+* c© <© CM CO CM O NO \0 vO O vO sO vO O 00 O CM O « e t ^ t «o co co Tf co co co co co co co co Tt- co co co c© -o.S C\j c >>>>>> >> >> >» >> >> >>!>>>>>> >> >^ >>>»>>>. >> « c J3 ^3 XI 42 XI XJ Xi X XJ Xi X! X) X X! X5 X) X X) Xi 53 Tf T^- Tf 00 00 00 "if Tf CM O CM Tj- t ^t rSg '3 w '3 CM CM CM i—i i-h ,-. • CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM ^ CM CM ^h Cg •to CO CO CO ■ti e/i en en en en V) . cfl tfl en en en en tn en en en en en en ">.« CU H >H >H > ><><£><>< ^ > >H >H >H >H >H >, >H >4 ^ ^3 e -4^ Hcq -*N c© « CM O CM O NO lo 00 vO Tf O Tf CO CO CM SO O O LO Tj"' • CM c© c© «8 >> >» >^ >> >> >> >> >> >> >>>>>>>> >>>,>.>,>. >^ : rt C/) X X J2 ■° Xi Xi Xi Xi X> Xi XI X Xi Xi X> Xi Xi Xi Xi -*M -*CJ -4m r-b* HM ^ CO CM CM C\ Q\ 00 00 N 00 ts 00 On On Q\ OONN C\ O be C § • y^ CO 53 '5 ^3 © jjj .5 CO O O 2 10 10 10 10 00 00 ON 00 ^1- r^ ^r ON 00 O 00 CM CM O^ ■go HCCO r^ cm 10 co Q Tt Tj" LO ^ -h — « CM CM CM co -^ co ■«3- co »-• LO CO ^H CO CD .§ 5 <;9Sbd iduinp-jps H rH tn en en en en tt) (f) V) en tn en en en en fe Si OOO £ £ 53 CU ^ > > > cu cu O cu CU CU cu >H >H £ >H >. >H >H © ^ CO OOO LO Tf O^ CM_ O 00000 0000 0000 0000000 O O O O O LO O CM vO OJ_ tJ-^ vO co^ vO O 00000 rt CM CM LO LO 1 ^ to 1 \6 CO g P5 - HH > > > < 5 — to li to 196 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS }33J in q}.§u3q }33J UI J313UIBIQ L> Suidmnp-j[3g s x NO r^ 00 r>. NO NO r^ nO l>» NO CM o ■o o o CM CM NO CM sO r^ NO r^ TO nO NO CO CM CO CO CO ** CO CO Tf CO CO CO CO r CO CO >* >. >> >> >. >> >N >, >> >, >> >> >. >1 >> >> X — I ,0 X) — _■ _ X X X ,a — X2 Him -: X ,Q O rM o on CM -t vn ^1- Tf Of) o CM On -r T—l CM i — i CM '-J CM CM CM CM CM CM Cxj CM co en co CO CO i^ |H ?^ ?^ ?^ i^ 1 p*" 1 > r-> >> !>> >, >. >. >, >, >» >. >. >> ^ >> >> >s X X X! ,o X HN hn X Hn X -° X J3 rU ^J X Him 00 M l^ r>. i^ On hs oo ON 00 'UN oo r>. 'JO CO o CM hs LO O nO LO t^ rf ^1- oo -1- i^ o> ^s NO CM On CM -r -r co (V) r^ ON 1- -i- 00 CO -r LO CM rf r o CO CM CM CM CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO D 4) H >H >H >H >H >H >H ^ o o o o o o o O nO O O O CM CM O LO LO LO O O O O lo LO t- i O O O CM CM lo CM CM CM t^ O CM 00 O CM CM CO co co "3- co CM CO 1— 1 T— 1 1— 1 1— 1 1— ( 1— I 1—1 1— 1 t^ O ON O LO nO 00 y—t NO t^ K OO 00 CX! 00 On ^ r^ NO "S CM CM lo lo nO nO ^ CO rt rt pj NO NO g 8 >> <-H X2 O ^ > Averages district II IV V VI VII VIII > < HOISTING 197 The compensating conical drum is generally preferred in the deeper mines and the first-motion hoisting engine is gen- eral, the geared engine being found only at the old mines. Tables 34, 35, and 36 give different hoisting data for mines of different daily tonnage. Tonnage is the chief factor in determining equipment for hoisting because at the deepest mine in Illinois the hoist is only 1004 feet. At slope mines hoisting is often done by a partly balanced rope on a two-track incline where the weight of the descend- ing empties assists in hoisting the loaded cars. The State Mining Law by a provision passed in 1913 specified that all shafts sunk subsequent to the passage of the law shall be hreproofed. Since 1913 one or two shallow ma- sonry-lined shafts have been sunk but nearly all new shafts are lined with concrete. One of the earliest concrete-lined shafts built in this country is at the No. 6 mine of the Big- Four Wilmington Coal Company at Coal City. Two circular shafts were sunk, one of which, the air shaft, 10 feet in diame- ter, was finished in May, 190.'). The hoisting shaft, 13 feet in diameter, as shown in lig. 61, was completed in June, 1903. Both of these shafts were lined with concrete 14 inches thick from rock 40 feet deep to a point 8 feet above the surface level, making a total of 48 linear feet of concrete lining. Pig. 62 shows the plan and section of a hoisting shaft in District V. The excavation was made through the top soil and sand- stone and the lining was built up from the bottom beginning with the water seal at solid rock. The concrete is reinforced vertically with %-inch by 2-inch iron bars and horizontally by 3 /4-inch twisted rods. The proportions of the concrete used are: 1 Portland cement; 2 sharp washed sand; 4 crushed limestone. The linings of both shafts were built with great care and are excellent examples of fireproof shaft construc- tion under the new State law. Below the concrete the shafts are limestone except the last 91 feet which is gray shale. The buntons below the seal are placed in hitches cut in the rock. The yellow pine guides are made up to (> by 8 inches. Where the shaft at a depth of 100 feet from the surface passes through bed 7 it is bricked by a wall 9 feet high and 12 inches thick. 198 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS 133} vO tO CO to tO Tt" — Tt- lo ■ CM to CO co t^. • 00 • vO O to 00 to s in ipSuaq 3 }33J UI i-*N -I3J3UIBIQ en U 00 r^ t^ vO o o o 00 O K K vO 00 00 NO 0000C0C0NONN vO nO vO CM 00 O0 o CM CM O nO O Tf -rf co co co NO NO NO CO co co nO nO nO vO nO O nO nO cococococotI-coco w y co CO co CO Tl- Tf- CO -o c c >> >> >> >> >> >> >. >> t>> >» >» >> >>:>>>> >>>>>>;>,:>>>>;>>>> U5 C ^3 X> .O X2 X X3 ua .fl^^l ^43 J3 J3 ^3 xxxxxxxx V >»•" c •a a w "* Tf CM 00 00 -O oo t t OTfTf Tf tJ- o TJ-TfTtTt-TJ-TfTl-Tj- "t/> CM CM CM — < CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM si Cfl CO CO en (A CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO cocococococococo CU H >H >H J* >h^^;>h^^^^ ^i^^^^^^^^^t^ Hn rH|!N _c ON vO O CM 00 K. X t^ CM O K vO -t in co ^NOOrf-tNjvOoOOi ^H ^H CM T-H ,-H ^^^H^fXJ^H^^H *>3 !>> >^ >> !>» >> >> >> >> >>>.>> >» >>>>>> >>>»>>>>>.>,>,>> "c3 nJS .O X> X5 •^ X X ,a J3 ^3 ^3 ^3 j: XXX XXXXXXXX i c/5 HM HM r-*N 1-4M r-tM r^ * d\ © © ^1- O On t^ On 00 O On O 00 00 00 OOOOOnOO^hOnOnOO bo. '5 jH 00 to rf CO O O O O o O O CM O O fNJ K Tt KOOOOOCMCMO "£ w CO vO CM tJ- in r-i CM t-h on t^- co 00 On COHCOrHN\00\M CMcocococotJ-'-hco &£ CM CM CM r^ \o -t LO C\l t-I ^H ,— 1 CO co T-H Q ^aSBO en co en en en CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO cocococococococo CU CU • >* >, >H >-l >H >H >H >H > > > >,>H>H>H>.^>H>H 5k8 o © O O o o o O O O to o O O O oooooooo OtoOOCMOOO O t^ 00 O »-h to o^ o_ £~ 2 tO O O o 8°- o O O to CM O o o o O to to «*■ t^ Tf tO lO to © CM CO vO < 2 cm cm" cm" of cm" cm cm" CM co" cm" cm" cm" Tf cm" cm" rj-" CO" CM" CM" CM" CM" co" Cm" 1 •o t^ On CO O CM CO 00 On O CM co ■O 00 ^h (Mco^i-toNor^CMTr 6 co co co ^f tO tO to to to vO nO nO \D OK NKNNKKO0O0 o| tO to vO O ^ en 'J en > > > > 5 HOISTING 199 ui ijiSuaq }33J Ul J3}3UIBIQ Suidiunp-jp^; . vO oo 00 f>. oo «o o CM o\ o vO 00 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO >> >> >i >» >> >> >> X2 — ,Q -4n *° — J=> ^t CO X CO -f Tf "*■ CM cm CM CM CM CM en OJ >* -r. r-*M rf X -1 t>s sO ^r NO »-~ ' >> >> >> >» >> >> >, •° pQ U= .Q J3 ^2 On c- - ^ ON ON ON On vQ O ^f 00 vO CO 00 CM i^ X M CO CO en CD ^ o 1 s o tN. TT 8 NO s >r. — IT} ^ CO x^ 5 CM CM CM CM cm" CM* cm' CO On l>» r^ LO LO nO o a en n a sO vO CM ,£> o ►H en o t> £> |-< HH HH 0) Cij 1-4 r> bfi rt <> 01 [> < / K> CD -1 200 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS With but few exceptions the shafts sunk prior to 1913 are timber lined. The development of the cement gun has pro- vided a means of fireproofing these shafts. The timber lining- can be given a concrete cover by means of the cement gun which sprays under air pressure of about 40 pounds per square inch a cement mortar composed of about 1 part Port- land cement and 3 parts coarse sharp sand. At a shaft in District VI the timber lining was covered with a 2-inch layer of "Gunite", as concrete applied by this method is called, at the rate of 190 square yards in 8 hours. The walls of the shaft were first covered with American Steel and Wire Com- pany's No. 7A netting as a reinforcement for the concrete. Fig. 61. Circular hoisting shaft Gunite sets in 2% to 3 hours. The cost of application varies from 16 to 24 cents per square foot depending largely upon the amount of water the shaft makes. With a dry and smooth timber lining the work should average about 20 cents per square foot. The shafts of all mines in Illinois are of moderate size, the largest at the mines examined being 11 by 22 feet. No serious difficulties have been encountered in sinking them. Water flow has never been large. At one mine in District VI a considerable body of quicksand necessitated a reduction of shaft size but in general shaft sinking is comparatively cheap and speedy. Coping Fig. 62. Plan and section of concrete-lined shaft PREPARATION OF COAL About 20 per cent of the production of Illinois mines is sold as run-of-mine coal. This coal on reaching the tipple is dumped into chutes and loaded directly into cars without re- ceiving any preparation. The remaining 80 per cent of the output receives treatment before shipment. Fig. 63 shows the equipment for preparation at a local mine. As regards the preparation of their coal for market the mines of the State may be divided into those at which the raw coal is sized on shaking screens only; those at which the product passing through the 2 to S^-inch holes of the shaking screens is re- screened in revolving screens; and those at which the coal under 3 or 3%-inches is washed. At mines where the coal receives no further treatment than separation into sizes on shaking screens four sizes are usually made at a time. These sizes vary widely in different districts and at different times of the year. They are called generally lump, egg, nut, and screenings but the same term does not mean the same size in different districts. The coal which passes over the largest sized holes in the screen is called lump whether the holes are l 1 /^ inches, 6 inches, or any intermediate size. Table 37 gives the variations in names and sizes. Six-inch lump is made in all districts and refers always to the oversize from screens with 6-inch holes. Where the coal is rescreened but not washed a typical separation is: 1 Per cent of Name Size in inches total output Lump Over 6 15 Egg Over 3 l /2 ; through 6 19 No. 1 nut Over 1^4 ; through d>y 2 16 No. 2 nut Over 1 ; through 1^4 15 No. 3 nut Over Y$ ; through 1 7 No. 4 nut Over Y^ ; through 24 7 No. 5 nut Through ^ 21 At different mines and in different districts sizes vary somewhat but those given in the table may be taken as aver- age. A bulletin dealing with the dry sizing of coal has been (202) PREPARATION OF COAL 203 prepared for the Engineering Experiment Station of the Uni- versity of Illinois by Prof. E. A. Holbrook and will soon be published. Table 37.- -Sizes of coal made in Illinois Name District Size in inches 8-inch lump IV Over 8 6-inch lump I, II. Ill, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII Over 6 4-inch lump VIII Over 4 3-inch lump IV, VIII Over 3 2^4-inch lump II Over 2Y A 2-inch lump III, IV, VII Over 2 1^-inch lump I, II Over V/ 2 1J4 -inch lump I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII I Over \% Chunk Through 6; over 2>y 2 Egg I, II, III, IV, V Over 4; through 6 Over 3; through 6 Over 2; through 6 Over \% ; through 6 Nut II, III, IV, V, VI, VII Over 2; through 3 Over \]/ 2 ; through 3 Over 1*4 ; through 3 Over 1*4; through 2 Over V/g; through V/ 2 Over 24; through \y 2 Over ^4; through \y Over ]4; through 1% Pea III Over y; through 1*4 Screenings I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII Through 2y Through 2 Through V/2 Through \y Over 1 ; through 1^4 Through \ l /% F. C. Lincoln in Bulletin No. 69, Coal Washing in Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station, University of Illinois, says 204 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS tj^ariatf Emm I \ *&■ j§ jmBKt* "jf MpwXT^ 'J \ '***€ ~~~' M § >#'* . m - ■W Fig. 63. Equipment for preparation at local mine. (From unpublished report by Prof. E. A. Holbrook.) that no two washeries in Illinois make washed coals of exactly the same sizes. The range in inches is as follows : No. 1 No. 1 No. 2 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 extra extra Always under. Always over . 354 2/ 2 3/ 2 m 2% 13/8 2y A 1/2 The impurities in the coal which are shale, fireclay, and nodules of pyrites, are separated as far as possible at the face. Where fireclay is shot up with the coal the separation underground is comparatively easy on account of the contrast in color. A further picking is made at many mines on the screen and car ; six pickers being employed at some mines. Fig. 64. Tipple designed for local trade and shipping S3ipUl J^ \ .13AO JO 1U30 13 C ] PREPARATION OF COAL c Uf u in u "O "O oc o X X On • o\ 1 ' }OOJ jad saipui 'llOJJBUipUJ f^fO^fOfOfOfO^ CO CO m*s»-^f-< v O ^t^TfrJ-ro C .5 (LI sQ \0 \0 ^O vO \0 ^o ^o 00 iO vO 00 nO O N N nO o io u rt be be fcC be bfi be be bo :/. c/ 0/. be bi C/ tx b/. be be — G q a G H G c G G c fi C c C G £j' c J* ^ ^ ^ _^ JM ^ Jd Jd J* id ^ pM ^ pid _^ JU > pid 03 rt rt C« c: rt a3 rt rt rt a pd .-; rt rt a3 03 a3 A C/3 CO C/2 C/3 CO CO CO CO CO C/5 CO CO CO CO c/: ■CO o CO £ JD J3 £ J j2 EEEEEEE^E H H H H H H P co H 'S oj 52 o 4-> u rtj x u u d o o C* £ (^ £ pQ 2*x vi S lOOJ jad saiput 'uopuuipiij T3 C 4; U Kaoo^a\0\0\oo\oooo -t^a\ OOvDOOO^oOO aoooooooooooooo lOOJ J3d saipu; 'UOIlHUlfDlij IT'- .2 5 ttOTj-fO^CO't'tfO OOOOMOONNOO^aoO -00 • o t^ . 1— I OOOOOvONKOOKN Length in feet NO00MO • "") © 00 rH Tf M rt fO -LOlOTt a H 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 12 15 15 15 15 15 w w w w w w in in Ui w ui tt ui in in u a: .a bflbfibcbobjobcbcbfi "> 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 Ui .<"! .'"! . r i .'"! .'"I . r 1 . H r^ OmmmmWWinm 12 CD CD CD > 208 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS SaipiU %\ J3AO jn'djno jb;o; JO }U33 J3(J \0 tN. r-HlOi-H • O OJ O N -t^OlOLOO O O lO O LO O "^- N vD O LO lO o o a V- 15 15 '> j:j;xixi^^£j:^;^ <-> .13 .g *h cocococococococococoOcocoO Gravity bar Gravity bar Gra\ity bar Shaking Gravity bar Shaking Material of tipple c c c o o o s- u u d d d o a *£ LO vO N00O\O--'Mf01-iOv0N00aO NNK0C00000000000000C000O\ 1-1 CM co Tf to N On On On On On On 2j nO 03 to S > .> PREPARATION OF COAL 209 sail OUl ^i I J3AO jn'djno ibjoj jo JU33 aaj WOOONOOOOONt^ r^ O Is coal i escreened or washed? en > H "c5 T « , w •° „ O o (UU £h hh ?* >> ^ S H-. ^ > < < 210 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS Shaking screens are of various types. They are built with one, two, or three decks, and are from 12 to 75 feet long and 4 to 12 feet wide. They make from 48 to 120 strokes per minute. Their inclination averages 4 inches per foot. Revolving screens in rescreeners vary in length from 16 to 24 feet, in diameter from 2y 2 to 6 feet, and in inclination from 1% to 214 inches per foot. They average 15 revolutions per minute. District IV was among the first in Illinois to attempt to remove the separable impurities from coal and to separate sizes. Several large cities are located in the district and the local trade for domestic purposes has always been and still is a prominent factor. Fig. 64 shows a tipple designed for handling local trade and shipping. Those mines located in or near cities naturally separate the coal into more sizes than the others and for this purpose several of them have installed rescreening plants. A typical separation at a mine catering to local domestic or " wagon' ' trade is: N'ame Size in inches 6-inch lump Over 6 3-inch lump Over 3 1*4 -inch railroad lump Over \% 6-inch egg Over 3 ; through 6 Nut Over 2; through 3 Pea Over 24; through X% Screenings Through Yi, The location of some mines near cities having diversified manufactures and various kinds of domestic furnaces leads to particular demands. At one mine 30 per cent of the output is crushed to 2-inch size for use in distilleries. At another, 8-inch lump and egg are in demand. Several mines make a nut through 1*4 inches and over 1 inch and one makes a " do- mestic lump" over 3 inches. In District VIII in seam 7 where iron pyrites or "sul- phur" is not disseminated through the coal but is present in nodular form, it can easily be separated from the coal by hand at the working face. This separation serves the double purpose of making cleaner coal and of segregating a valuable by-product. The amount of pyrites thus obtained was suffi- cient at two mines working in No. 7 bed to warrant the erec- PREPARATION OF COAL 211 • CO N^. CO =0 • — S3 3 c <" ° 00 " cv> • © • • • m • • • r\i ir, o m o '° ° ° '° rt C 3 U fj [fl 4J il 00 > ~ to _o TOCh o w HS . 88 o o ©coo m © © m io »— i -r ^i in n ^ In©on m m in © <^i m in C\ in O Ol In ro In 212 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS gg," Cm C ^ 10 cc '£.3 o o • LO LO CM CM • o • LO • CM o t^ • • CM • CM 00 iO CM O LO CM • o ■ CM o LO CM O LO CM o LO CM 00 CM CM CM LO CM • On • 00 o LO X cc CM CM On oo ooooooo t lo ^TOloOloloO CMCM ^ n - i O lo t O OOt^roCMLorot^ CO CM t-h O © t ^h *-* LO i- fO t ro (M Tf f\) ro CO CM ro Tf t i- ro i- .— i ro »— i fO "3- O ^O r"i rO f5 CM "3 S 00:0000000 000000000 Tf00 lo 00 00 00 00 t lo 0000 LO O LO o h 00 ro otto t^ O fO LO O t^ O <^ LO o C 55 1 I\ CM t^ LO O C O CM CM "O LO LO O *2 c 5 ^H O STB £ > > £ G PREPARATION OF COAL 213 tion of small plants for removing before the pyrites is ship- ped to a sulphuric-acid plant the coal that adheres to the nod- nles of pyrites. The pyrites with adhering coal is crushed to l^-inch mesh and elevated to a bin whence it is discharged into a revolving trommel 4 feet long and 3 feet in diameter with 2-inch round holes. The oversize from this trommel goes to a one-cell jig for washing. The undersize goes to a second trommel with 14-inch perforations and the undersize from the second trommel is discharged into a three-cell jig which separates coal and pyrites. The oversize from the sec- ond trommel and the undersize from the first trommel are elevated to a third trommel with %-inch perforations from which the oversize goes to market and the undersize to the three-cell jig which cleans the fine pyrites. Table 38 gives data on tipple equipment for coal preparation. Fig. 65. Inflammable material piled against frame tipple Power at surface plants is usually obtained by burning slack under steam boilers. The efficiency of nearly all of these plants is low. At only a few mines has the steam plant the refinements of the mode 111 manufacturing plant. From 1.7 to 4.3 per cent of the output of each mine is burned under boilers at the surface plant. Wasted coal ranges from 0.5 to 0.7 per cent. In District IV good combustion under boilers is obtained at one mine by the use of steam blowers and the slack burns with no clinkers. Electric power is purchased at a few mines and at one where power is purchased at 2y 2 cents per kilowatt-hour, three-phase 60-cycle alternating current is brought to the plant at 4000 volts and there transformed to 275 volts. The installation consists of three 15 II. P. motors. An A. C. elec- tric locomotive is used on the main haulage. Alternating 214 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS current is reported to be less satisfactory for haulage than direct, but by using an A. C. locomotive a converter is dis- pensed with. — — ~--~~- — | S "S'* „ "'" *|Plf Fig. 66. Fireproof steel tipple At the older mines tipples are usually of frame construc- tion and at many of them proper precautions against lire are neglected. Often inflammable material, such as empty oil barrels shown in fig. 65, is stored near the tipple. The fre- quent loss of tipples by fire emphasizes the need of greater care in the storing of combustible material on the surface. At almost every new mine a steel tipple is built. Fig. 66 shows a typical modern surface plant in District VI. Tables 39, 40, and 41 give power plant equipment for mines of differ- ent daily outputs. The average cost of preparation where the coal is neither rescreened nor washed is said by Mr. B. L. Shepard to be 3 cents per ton of coal. S5i <©> ©5 ©J I ©> ©> ©i I 1 - § © CO PREPARATION" OF COAL 215 CM C S s o 00000 LO LO LO LO LO LO CM ! CM CM CM CM CM LO O O O LO • O O rs. to LO 10 LO t^. • LO L/> CM CM CM CM CM CM • CM CM 00000 0000 000 OOOlolo OiOOLO OlO CMr-nrOr-Hi-. rOr-H^Hr-H i-H CM O O o o ro CM rt § 3 00 u n) tn On On D O O O O O to O lO to LO to to t^ to CM CM CM CM CM CM CM o to CM OOOnOlo^tO ^ tototototototo to CMCMCMCMCMCMCM CM O O lO o o o o O iO CM O O O O ^H ,-H T-H ^H ^H CM CM o oioolocmoo ^r N (M 00 N O ^ r- 1 \0 4J « "I s u rt tn m «j in < a O O O O O O O 00 ON »— i On O O i— i o CM r^ to r^ o ro r^ o cm On CM On -h O ON CM O O O O O O to O o o o o to r^ o On to tj- to ■<*■ to ^r o o <0 OOLOtorJ-CMO ON OO^OCMt^fOO -h ON ON NO >0 NO LO ^O NO d 00 LO Tj" T}- Tf to lO CM t^NOLO-^-tOlOCM to Average daily tonnage ' o o o o o o o to to O O O O to CM^ CM_ r^ > Averages by districts II IV V VI VII VIII Average of 28 mines PREPARATION OF COAL 21 g-3.S 3 c m 3 cr if! 2 « . . . O • o • • m lo o o o • • • • o • o o oc • o • • 00 -o K W (X) • o -ao Ph j; V •- & CM • co • CM CM CM CM ,-< ■ i-H • CM CM o LO O LTJ CM LO CM CM loOOOOOOO \OOlolololololo CM^CMCMCMCMCMCM OOOloOOOOOOO CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM bo p i- u « w 218 COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS • CM t^ to u ?? 2 w ■ 00 00 00 O CM ^ CM CM CM CM CM £ o fO O t^ 00 © t^ s lO M Ifl Tf Tf LO CM M »— 1 '-h i-i CM CM CM «. o r>s © r^ tj- 8 vO s rH o ^- ?r> LO IT) Tj- 00 s >T3 g < B CM cm" cm" cm" cm" cm" cm" . > U3 C/3 "3- CM t> £J ■G> > r a ^ «+H £ hH bfl i— i o .2 > > 0> Q > < -5 bfl > pes of 191 Cahokia, coal near 15 Cairo and St. Louis Railroad 48 Calcium chloride, use of on floor.. 158 I lalhoun County, coal in 21 Capitalization of coal mines 223 in 1840 32 ( larbide lamps, use of 174 Carbolineum, use of in treating tim- ber 130, 132 Cartridges, carelessness in filling.. 126 ( larver, J., Journals of 12 Caseyville, coal mine at, 1851 36 ( 'axes, timbering in 137 Causes of accidents 142, 143, 144 Cement gun. use of in lining shafts. 200 Centerville, mining of coal near. ... 16 Chain-breast mining machines, tons undercut per day by 117 ( harlevoix, Journal 12 Chicago, a market for Rockwell coal in 1837 26 Chicago, Alton & St. Louis Rail- road 47 (241) 242 1 N DEX — Continued PAGE Chicago & Rock Island Railroad completed 34 Chicago & Wilmington Coal Com- pany 40 Chicago Coal Company 41 Chicago, Illinois coal sold in, 1841 . . 33 largest commercial town in 1836. . 20 railroads leading into, 1855 37 shipment of coal to 38 Chicago, Wilmington and Vermilion Coal Company 40 Christian County, mining of coal.. 53 coal production in 1870 40 Clay veins in seam 5 61 Clark County, coal 15 Cleat in coal 77 Clinton County, coal production in 1870 40 in 1880 48 Coal, analyses of face samples of.. 157 annual production 35 causes of present low prices 219 cutting 117 cutting machines, kinds 117 first discovery in Illinois 10 gained per day by puncher ma- chines 118 impurities 204 markets for 219 preparation of 202 production in Illinois, 1870 40 selling price 219 set sizes for wagon trade 210 sizes 202, 203 use by blacksmiths in 1830 16 value in the ground 89 Coal washing in Illinois 203 sizes of coal made in 204 Coal wasted at mine 213 Coal dust, adulteration of bv shale dust 158 analysis 153 explosibility 157 explosions, prevention of... 153, 159 Coal fields of Illinois 37 Coal mining, decline of profit 221 early methods 68 first in Illinois 19 Coal Mine Bluffs Railroad 21, 34 Coal mines, capitalization 223 local 70 local in District 2 70 local in District 3 70 room-and-pillar 71 shipping 70 types of in Illinois 68 unmodified room-and-pillar 71 Coal production of Illinois 7 of United States 7 of world 7 value in 1840 32 Coal seams, description 56 Coal Valley Mining Company, pil- lar drawing 90 Cogs in longwall mines 128. 129 Coles Countv, coal production in, 1880 48 Competition between Illinois coals. 219 ! Competition of Illinois coal with other coal 219 : Concrete, use 134 use for overcasts 165 Concrete blocks, cost in stoppings. .166 use for stoppings 163 Cost of coal at stripping mines... Ill Country banks 70 Creosote, use for preserving tim- bers 132 Crooked Creek, coal in banks 16 Cross barrier pillar, dimensions. ... 83 Crosscuts, offset in District VII. . . . Cross entries, width 71 Cross entry pillar, width 71 D Danville District, stripping mines.. 107 Danville, mining near 41 Decatur and East St. Louis Rail- road 47 Decay of timbers in longwall mines 130 Description of the militarv land, Van Zandt ' 14 Dikes in seam 5 63 Dimensions of workings in unmodi- fied room-and-pillar mines 74, 75, 76 Discovery of coal, first in United States 10 District I, analysis of coal 57 counties 52 seams 52 District II, analysis of coal 57 counties 52 seams 52 two benches in mines 78 District III, analysis of coal 57 counties 52 seams 52 District IV, analysis of coal 57 counties 52 seams 52 INDEX — Continued 243 PAGE District V, analysis of coal 57 counties 52 seams 52 District VI, analysis of coal 57 counties 52 seams 52 District VII, analysis of coal 57 counties 52 seams 52 District VIII, analysis of coal .... 57 counties 52 seams 52 Districts of Illinois Cooperative In- vestigation 51 Division of State into districts.... 51 Drainage 113 Draw slate in District V 80 Drill holes, position 118 E East St. Louis, price of coal in 1871 43 railroads radiating from in 1875 47 Edwards Countv, emplovees in mines, 1840 '. 32 coal production in 1840 32 Egg coal 202 Electric generators, volts 211, 212 kilowatts 211, 212 Electricity, use in lighting 174 Electric locomotives, ton mileage per day 176 Ellisville, sulphur hands in coal.... 59 Employes in coal mines 32, 33 nationality 147 of coal mines, 1840 32 production per capita in longwall mines 147 production per capita 147, 148 total in State 54 Entry sets, in longwall mines 129 kinds 135, 136 Explosibility of coal dust 157 Explosion door 159 Explosions 154 causes 123 coal dust, prevention 159 Explosive gases in Illinois districts. 154 nature 154 Explosives, use in longwall mines.. 106 F Face bosses, number 138 Fan engines, operation 169 j Fans, quantity of air supplied 161 Featherstonhaugh, Geological Re- port on Illinois 18 PAGE Fireclav, heaving 80 Fires 171 Fires, after shooting 126 causes 171, 174 causes in longwall mines 151 causes in stables 171 cost to extinguish 171 quenching 152 sealing off 171 First Aid crews in Illinois 146 Floor, heaving 80 Forrest, Shepherd, map drawn in 1840 29 report in 1840 28 Fox River, coal in banks 16 Fulton Countv, coal production in 1870 ....". 40 1880 48 seam 5 outcrop 60 Fuse, percentage of shots fired by 120, 121, 122,' 124 use in blasting 124 Galena and Chicago Railroad, con- struction 34 Gallatin Countv, emplovees in mines, 1840 32 coal production in, 1840 32 1870 40 1880 48 seam 5 62 thickness of coal 62 Gartside Coal Company 36 Gas, explosive, occurrence 157, 156, 154, 155 in longwall mines 152 presence in development entries. . 156 pressure in solid coal 154 volume in air current 155 Gasoline locomotives 176 advantages 177 amount of air required for ven- tilation 179 carbon monoxide generated 179 first in Illinois 179, 180 ton mileage 178 Gathering, cost 181 with mules 180 Gazeteer of Illinois and Missouri, Beck 14 Geology of Illinois districts 56 of Upper Illinois in 1838 24 Gob, alongside tracks 80 Gob fires, cause of in longwall mines 151 sulphur in gob, cause of 107 244 INDEX — Continued Grape Creek Coal Company 41 Greene County, coal 15, 21 Greene County, coal production in, 1880 48 Grundy County, first mining 41 mining begun, 1874 41 coal production in 1870 40 1880 48 Guide for Emigrants, Peck 17 Gunite, cost per square foot 200 use for shaft linings 200 H Haulage 175 amount of air required for venti- lation with gasoline locomo- tives 179 brushing of roof 181 by dogs 175, 178 cost 181 cost of gathering 181 equipment. .183, 184, 186, 187. 188, 189 hand 175 kind of in shipping mines 175 lifting the floor 181 locomotive 175 maintenance of mules 182 mule 175 reasons for high costs 182 rope 175 A. C. electric locomotive 213 gasoline locomotives 176 mules in gathering 180 rack-rail 175 third rail 175 Hay, transportation 171 Hennepin, Father Louis 10 Henrv Countv, employees in mines o"f, 1840"........" 32 coal production in, 1840 32 1870 40 1880 48 History of East St. Louis, Tyson.. 41 History of St. Clair County 20 Hoisting 191 by hand 191 horses 191 steam 191 engines 197 equipment. . 192, 193, 198, 199 record of United States 191 speed 191 Horse scrapers at stripping mines. Ill Humidification of mine air ...153, 159 use of steam in 160, 161 Humidity of mine air 153, 159 | PAGE Hydraulic mining machines, use... 123 Hvdraulic monitors at stripping mines 108, 111 I I-beams, steel, cost in place 132 Illinois, annual production of coal. 7 area of coal fields 7 coal production in 1855 38 1860 39 employes in mines in 1839 33 first discovery of coal 10 increase of population 20 inhabitants 14 markets for coal in 1838 27 number of coal mines. 1860. ... 39 production of coal in, 1839 33 railroads in, 1855 37 Illinois and St. Louis Coal Road.. 47 Illinois and the West in 1838..... 27 Illinois Central Railroad, authori- zation of building 34 Illinois coal, in competition with lake coal 220 in Missouri and Iowa markets. . .220 Illinois-Michigan Canal authorized by Legislature 18 coal discovered in excavating . . . 23 completion 19 first mention 18 opening 34 Illinois River, coal at junction of Fox River 14, 17 coal in banks. ... 7, 13, 14, 15, 17, 24 location of "cole mine" in. 1689.. 10 Illinoistown and Belleville Railroad 47 Illinois Valley Coal Company 41 Inclination of screens 210 J Jackson Countv, capitalization of mines of, 1840 33 Jackson County, coal 15, 21, 23, 30 coal seams in 1840 30 description of coal seam 58 employees in mines in, 1840 33 first mining in Illinois in 19 mining of coal in 17 coal production in, 1840 33 1870 40 1880 48 seam 2 58 Jasper County, coal production in, 1880 48 1870 40 INDEX — Continued 245 PAGE Jersey County, coal production in, 1880 48 Johnson County, coal production in, 1880 48 Joliet's discovery of coal 10 Joliet's map 8 Journal of the Franklin Institute.. 19 K Kankakee County, coal production in, 1880 48 Kenoska Coal Company 41 Kennedy, Patrick, Journal 12 Kickapoo Creek, coal in banks 16 Knox County, coal production in, 1870 40 1880 48 seam 5 outcrops in 60 L Labor disputes in 1875 44 Lake region, consumption of coal 1853 38 Lakes, coal trade in 1855 37 Lamps, proper use 156 open 174 La Salle anticline 56 longwall mining 99 La Salle Coal Mining Company. ... 39 La Salle County, coal 21, 39 coal production in 1870 40 1880 48 La Salle field, price paid miners. . . . 102 La Salle's letter to Frontenac 10 Lawrence County, capitalization of mines, 1840 33 employees in mines, 1840 33 coal production, 1840 33 Lighting 174 Livingston Countv, coal production in 1870 .' 40 1880 48 Local mines, area of workings.... 70 percentage of tonnage of State.. 70 Locomotives, number of in Illinois mines 175 repair 190 ton mileage 178 types 175 Locomotives, R. R., wood burned in 34 Logan County, depth of seam 5 in 60 coal production in 1870 40 1880 48 Longwall mine, plan 94 Longwall mines 93 PAGE blasting 106 dimensions of workings 100 entry-around-pillar 94, 95 gas 152 haulage roads 98 lyes 129 march props 104 method of opening 94 percentage of lump coal pro- duced 105 shaft pillars 94 sprags 105 undermining 105 use of explosives 106 ventilation 150 Longwall mining 73, 93 causes of gob fires 151 cogs 128 cost of timbering 130 establishment of face 98 establishment of in Illinois 93 filling space left by removal of coal .' 101 first roof break 94 gob 99, 101 in dipping seams 99 modifications 99 pack walls 95, 97. 102 places 104 panels 100 percentage of lump coal produced 105 permanent timbering 127 price paid miners 102 production per capita 147 removal of shaft pillar 97 roof breaks 101 roof brushing 101 rooms 98 Scotch 45-degree system 99 spalling of shaft pillar 96 surface subsidence 103 temperature of air 130 undermining 101 work at the face 104 Lump coal 202 produced in longwall mines 105 waste in blasting 123 Lyes in longwall mines 129 M Mackinaw River, coal in banks 12 Macon County, depth of seam 5. . . . 60 Macoupin Countv, coal production in 1870 40 1880 48 Madison County, capitalization of mines, 1840 33 coal 21 246 INDEX— Continued PAGE employees in mines, 1840 33 coal production in, 1840 33 1870 40 1880 48 Main barrier pillar, dimensions 83 Main entries triple in District 5 . . . 80 Main entry, width 71 March props in longwall mines 104 Marion County, coal production in, 1880 48 Markets for Illinois coal.. 31, 219, 220 Markets, percentage of shipments to each 221 tonnage shipped to each 222 Marquette, first discovery of coal in Illinois 10 Journal 10 map 11 Marshall County, capitalization of mines, 1840 33 employees in mines, 1840 33 production of coal, 1840 33 1870 40 1880 48 McDonough County, coal produc- tion in 1870 40 1880 . . 48 McLean County, depth of seam 5 in 60 coal production in 1870 40 1880 48 Mechanical haulage, equipment.... 186, 187, 188, 189 Menard County, coal production in 1870 40 1880 48 Mercer County, coal production, 1870 40 1880 48 Mine air, pollution 150 Mine fires 171 method of quenching 152 Mining, first in Illinois 13 Mining machines, hydraulic 123 Mine Rescue stations 146 i Mississippi River, coal at upper rapids 22 coal in banks 12 Mississippi Valley, first railroad. ... 21 Monroe County, coal 21 Montgomery County, coal produc- tion in 1870 40 1880 :•■;••: 48 Morgan County, capitalization of mines, 1840 33 employees in mines, 1840 33 production of coal, 1840 33 1880 48 ! Mount Carbon coal mines 19 I PAGE Muddy Creek, coal in banks of. 1855 38 Mule haulage, equipment 183, 184 Mules, condition 180, 181 cost 181 maintenance 182 stabling 173 N Narrow work, dimensions 82 Nationality of employees 147 New Orleans, coal shipped to, 1840 31 Illinois coal shipped to, 1855.... 38 price of coal, 1855 38 New Orleans, shipment of coal to. 14 Northern Cross railroad 34 Northern Illinois Coal & Iron Com- pany 39 Notes on the Western States in 1838, Hall . 27 No. 6 seam, first one worked in State 42 Nut coal, sizes 202 O Oglesby Coal Company, began long- wall mining 33 Ohio and Mississippi Railroad Com- pany 36, 47 Oil, carelessness in storing 174 Oil lamps, use 174 Ottawa, coal near 25, 33 Otter Creek, coal in banks 16 Overcasts, cost 169 P Pack walls in longwall mines 102 width of in longwall mines 103 Panel mine, plan 84 Panel mines 83 dimensions 87, 88 Panel system, advantage 85 change to from room-and-pillar system 85 new mines projected on 68 Peabody Coal Company 144 Permanent timbering in longwall mines 128 Permissible explosives, advantages in use 123, 124 cost 124 increase in use 124 quantity per shot 124 Peoria, condition of roads near in 1838 28 discovery of coal near 12, 16 price of coal in 1837 23 seam 5 60 INDEX— Continued 247 Peoria Countv, capitalization of mines, 1840 33 employees in mines, 1840 33 coal production, 1840 33 1870 40 1880 48 Perry County, capitalization of mines, 1840 33 employees in mines, 1840 33 production of coal, 1840 33 1870 40 1880 48 Peru, coal 24 Peru Coal Mining Company 39 Pike County, coal 15 Pillar coal, cost 91 waste 89 Pillar drawing 89 methods 90, 92, 93 Pit cars, weight 190 Pittsburg, mining 20 railroad 42 Pneumatic signaling 194 Pneumelectric mining machines, tons undercut per day by 117 Pollution of mine air, causes 150 Population, increase of in Illinois.. 20 Powder, carlessness in handling. . . .144 charges 114 tons gained per keg 117 total number of kegs used 54 transportation 126 Power at surface plants 213 electric purchased 213 Preparation of coal, cost 214 equipment.... 205, 206, 207, 208, 209 Preparation of coal 202 Preservative treatment of timbers. 132 cost 132 Preservatives used for timber 130 Pressure of gas in solid coal 154 Prices, causes of present low 219 Production of coal per capita 147 of employees per capita 148 Profit, decline of in coal mining... 223 ! Props, cost 131, 132, 138 number and cost in rooms 139 number for safe mining 138 number per 100 square feet of roof 138 number per ton of coal 140 safe distance of from face 138 Puncher machines 117 method of supplying air 118 tons undercut per day 117 Putnam County, coal 21 Pyrites, separation of from coal. . . .210 Pyrobar, use of for stoppings 162 R PAGE Rack-rail locomotives, ton mile- age of 178 Railroad construction authorized bv State in 1837 19 Railroad rails, use of as cross bars. 133 Railroads, construction of Galena and Chicago 34 first from Chicago to Mississippi 34 first in Illinois 34 first in Mississippi Valley 21 in Illinois in 1846 33 main track mileage 35 mileage in 1850 34 mileage in Illinois, 1855 37 purchase of coal burning loco- motives 34 serving coal mines 223, 224, 225 Randolph County, capitalization of mines, 1840 33 employees in mines, 1840 33 coal production in 1840 33 1870 40 1880 48 Refuge chamber in Peabody mine. . 144, 145, 146 Rescreeners, sizes of coal made. . . .202 Revolving screen, diameter 210 length 210 revolutions 210 Rockford, Rock Island and St. Louis Railroad 48 Rock Island, coal near 23 Rock Island County, coal 22 coal production 1870 40 1880 48 Rock River, coal in banks 39 coal seams along 39 Rock top in District VII 77 Rockwell, coal mined at 25 Rolls, in Districts IV and VIII... 80 Roof, arching of in District 11.78, 137 brushing 79 cost 181 conditions by districts 73 spalling with temperature changes 80 shooting to prevent squeezes 77 Roof breaks in longwall mines, dis- tance between 101 Roof falls, cause 152 Roof weight, in longwall mines.... 101 Room-and-pillar mines 71 Room-and-pillar system, evolution. 68 modifications... 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82 Room necks, dimensions 71 Rooms, dimensions 71 length 73 Run of mine coal, percentage 202 248 INDEX— Continued PAGE St. Clair County, capitalization of mines, 1840 33 coal 17, 21 employees in mines, 1840 33 mining in, 1851 36 production of coal, 1840 33 1870 40 1871 42 1880 48 St. Louis and Illinois Railroad, coal tonnage transported, 1871 42 St. Louis and Southeastern Rail- road 48 St. Louis coal 39 St. Louis, demand for coal 26 price of coal 17 price of coal, 1831 17 1834 17 1838 27 St. Louis, Vandalia & Terre Haute Railroad 47 Saline County, production of coal in 1880 48 seam 5 62 | thickness of coal 62 Sangamon Countv, capitalization of mines, 1840 33 coal 15 employees in mines, 1840 33 coal production in, 1840 33 1870 40 1880 48 Schoolcraft's Narrative Journal of Travels 14 Schuyler County, capitalization of mines, 1840 33 employees in mines, 1840 33 coal production in, 1840 33 1870 40 1880 48 Scott County, capitalization of mines, 1840 33 employees in mines, 1840 33 production of coal, 1840 33 1870 40 1880 . . . : 48 i Screens, inclination 210 types 202 types of shaking 210 Sealed off gas areas 157 Seam 1, analysis in District III. . . . 57 description in District III 59 characteristics in District III.... 59 thickness in District III 59 Seam 2, analysis in District 1 57 analysis in District II 57 analysis in District III 57 PAGE characteristics in District 1 56 characteristics in District II.... 58 characteristics in District III.... 60 description, District 1 56 District II 58 District III .. .. 59 thickness in District I . 56 District II 58 District III 60 Seam 5, analysis District IV 57 District V 57 characteristics in District IV. .60, 61 characteristics in District V 63 clay veins 61 description in District IV 60 description in District V 62 thickness of in District V 62 District IV 60 Seam 6, analysis District VI 64 District VII 57 District VIII 57 bands in District VII 65 blue band in District VI 64 District VIII 66 characteristics in District VI.... 64 in District VII 65 in District VIII 66 description in District VI 64 District VII 65 District VIII 66 mines in Southern Illinois 68 opened Belleville 43 thickness in District VI 64 District VII 65 District VIII 66 Seam 7, analysis in District VIII.. 57 characteristics in District VIII.. 66 description in District VIII 66 Seam 7, thickness in District VIII. 66 Seams, description of 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67 Shaft bottoms 191 storage space 191 timbering 134 Shaft pillars, advantage of remov- ing in longwall mines 97 disadvantage of removing in long- wall mines 98 Shafts, fireproof lining 197 plan of concrete lined 201 sinking 197 size 200 use of cement gun in lining 200 Shearing the rib 78, 82 Shearing the rib in panel mines .... 89 Shelby County, capitalization of mines of,_ 1840 33 employees in mines, 1840 33 INDEX — Continued 249 production of coal, 1840 33 1870 40 1880 48 Shipping mines, average days of operation 219 excess 147 Shooting off the solid 114 in shipping mines 114 Silliman's American Journal of Science 24 Shot firers in gassy mines 125 Skip, use of for hoisting 191, 194 Slack, use of as aggregate for con- crete stoppings 165 Snubbing, depth 118 kind 118 Solid shooting, excess powder used. 123 waste of coal 123 Southern Illinois, coal 43 working of No. 6 seam 68 Spoon River, coal in banks 16 Sprags in longwall mines 105 Springfield Coal Company 41 Squeezes, causes of 73, 77 checking 77 longwall mines 102 panel mines 85 percentage of in panel mines... 85 Squibs, use of in blasting 125 Stables in mines 173 Stark County, coal production in 1870 40 1880 48 Starved Rock, coal near 25 State Mining Law, need for en- forcement of 144 Statistics of coal, Taylor 37 Steam, use of in humidification of mine air 152, 153 Steam shovels at stripping mines.. 107 Steel, use in mines 132 use in overcasts 169 Steel T-beams, cost of in place.... 132 Stoppings, efficiency 161, 162 material and cost 162, 163, 164, 165, 166 Stripping, methods 109, 111 tons of coal per keg of powder. Ill Stripping mines 70, 107 blasting Ill coal face 110 cost of mining Ill hydraulic monitors 108, 111 Danville District 107 thoroughcut Ill use of horse scrapers Ill use of steam shovels 107 PAGE Stripping system, evolution 107 Sugar Creek, coal in banks 16 Sulphur, separation of from coal.. 210 Surface employees, total in State.. 54 Surface plant equipment 211, 212, 215, 216, 217, 218 of early mine 37 Surface plants, power 213 Surface, rights, should be owned by operators 89 Surface subsidence 90 damage 90 in longwall mining 104 Tamping used in blasting 125 Tanner, A View of the Valley of the Mississippi 17 Tazewell County, coal 12 coal production in 1870 40 1880 48 Temperature of air, in longwall mines 130 in mines 150 Terre Haute, Alton and St. Louis Railroad 47 Third Vein field, description of coal in 58 longwall mining 103 Thoroughcut at stripping mines.... Ill Ties, dimensions 190 material 190 Timber, waste of in room-and-pillar mines 131 Timbering 127 cost of, in longwall mines 130 cost per ton 140 cost of props 138 cost of steel T-beams 132 caved area 137 longwall mines 127 room-and-pillar mines 131 number and cost of props in rooms 139 number of props per 100 square feet of roof 138 number of props per ton of coal. 140 permanent in longwall mines. ... 128 preservative treatment 132 safe number of props 138 sizes of steel I-beams 132 total cost of per ton of coal 140 use of cogs 128, 135 use of creosote as preservative. . 132 use of steel 132 decay o f in longwall mines 130 Tipples, construction 214 250 INDEX— Continued PAGE Tongue-and-groove lumber, use of for lining overcasts 169 Tonnage of Illinois coal mines.... 69 Top coal, arching 78 District II 78 recovery of 92 Transportation, facilities for in Illi- nois........ 223, 224, 225 Transportation in 1838 28 water courses utilized 18 U Undercut, depth in longwall min- ing 105 height in longwall mining 105 Undercutting by chain machines. .. 118 Undercutting in longwall mines. . . .105 Undercutting machines, Chain Breast 117 Chain Short-wall 117 puncher 117 United States, annual coal produc- tion of 7 first discovery of coal 10 Unmodified room-and-pillar mines, dimensions 71 Utica, coal near 25 V Van Zandt, description of the mili- tary land 14 Vandalia Railroad 40 Ventilating equipment of mines.... 167, 170, 172 Ventilation 150 cost of 169 of longwall mines 150 Vermilion County, first mining in.. 40 production of coal, 1840 33 PAGE 1870 40 1880 48 Vermilion River, coal in banks of . . 20 Vermilionville, coal at 26 W Warren County, production of coal 1840 33 1870 40 1880 48 Washington County, production of coal in 1880 48 Waste of timber in room-and-pillar mining 131 Water, character in Illinois mines. 113 in Illinois mines 113 quantity in Illinois mines 113 Westville, mining near 41 West Virginia, cost of coal produc- tion 219 White oak in timbering 128 Will County, discovery of coal.... 39 production of coal in 1870 40 1880 48 Williamson Countv, coal production in 1870 40 1880 48 Wilmington District, discovery of coal in 39 Wilmington field, immediate roof. . 58 description of coal 58 Wing-rooms, turning of to avoid rolls 80 Woodford County, production of coal, 1870 40 1880 48 World, annual production of coal.. 7 Yardage, avoidance of payment.... 82 PUBLICATIONS OF THE ILLINOIS COAL MINING INVESTIGATIONS Bulletin 1. Bulletin 2. Bulletin 3. Bulletin 4. Bulletin 5. Bulletin 6. Bulletin 7. Bulletin 8. Bulletin 9. Bulletin 10. Bulletin 11. Bulletin 12. Bulletin 13. ^Bulletin 72. ^Bulletin 83. Preliminary Eeport on Organization and Meth- od of Investigations, 1913. (Out of print.) Coal Mining Practice in District VIII (Dan- ville), by S. 0. Andros, 1914. A Chemical Study of Illinois Coals, by Prof. S. W. Parr. (In press.) Coal Mining Practice in District VII (Mines in bed 6 in Bond, Clinton, Christian, Macoupin, Madison, Marion, Montgomery, Moultrie, Perry, Bandolph, St. Clair, Sangamon, Shel- by and Washington counties), by S. O. An- dros, 1914. Coal Mining Practice in District I (Longwall), by S. 0. Andros, 1914. (Out of print.) Coal Mining Practice in District V (Mines in bed 5 in Saline and Gallatin counties), by S. 0. Andros, 1914. Coal Mining Practice in District II (Mines in bed 2 in Jackson Countv), by S. 0. Andros, 1914. Coal Mining Practice in District VI (Mines in bed 6 in Franklin, Jackson, Perry, and Wil- liamson counties), by S. 0. Andros, 1914. Coal Mining Practice in District III (Mines in beds 1 and 2 in Brown, Calhoun, Cass, Pul- ton, Greene, Hancock, Henry, Jersey, Knox, McDonough, Mercer, Morgan, Rock Island, Schuyler, Scott, and Warren counties), by S. 0. Andros, 1915. Coal Resources of District I (Longwall), by G. H. Cady, 1915. Coal Resources of District VII (Counties listed in Bulletin 4), by Fred H. Kay, 1915. Coal Mining Practice in District IV (Mines in bed 5 in Cass, De Witt, Fulton, Knox, Logan, Macon, Mason, McLean, Menard, Peoria, Sangamon, Schuyler, Tazewell, and Wood- ford counties), by S. 0. Andros, 1915. Coal Mining in Illinois, by S. 0. Andros, 1915. U. S. Bureau of Mines, Occurrence of Explosive Gases in Coal Mines, by N. H. l)arton, 1915. U. S. Bureau of Mines, The Humidity of Mine Air, with Especial Reference to Coal Mines in Illinois, by R. Y. Williams, 1914. •Copies of this bulletin may be obtained by addressing the Director, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C.