THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF ILLINOIS 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
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 NOT A PERIODICAL 
 
Return this book on or before the 
 Latest Date stamped below. 
 
 University of Illinois Library 
 
 DEC 2 4 1953 
 
 496V 
 

 Wage Bargaining on the Vessels of 
 the Great Lakes 
 
 HENRY ELMER HOAGLAND 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This study is an attempt to trace the development of methods 
 of wage bargaining in the transportation industry of the Great 
 Lakes. Beginning as an industry in which both profits and 
 wages were highly speculative, lake traffic has been so modified 
 that the returns to both capital and labor have become standard- 
 ized. This has been made possible by the ever-increasing con- 
 centration of control of physical property and by the unification 
 of the interests of wage earners. In the early days one man 
 owned but one vessel and carried freight for other men each of 
 whom owned but a small fraction of the supply of such freight. 
 At present one corporation controls through ownership and 
 charters a majority of the available tonnage, and in addition 
 owns an even greater majority of the freight to be shipped. 
 Formerly the wage earner identified his interest with that of his 
 employer. Later he banded with his fellow workers into unions 
 for the purpose of bargaining with the employers. More re- 
 cently he has had the terms of his labor contract dictated by the 
 same corporation which dominates the management of the phy- 
 sical property involved in lake traffic. 
 
 Much of the information was collected while the writer was 
 employed as special investigator for the United States Commis- 
 sion on Industrial Relations. Grateful acknowledgment is made 
 to representatives of employers' associations, to union officials, to 
 government agents connected with lake traffic, and to the many 
 individuals who have assisted in furnishing the background of 
 facts from which to interpret labor relations on lake vessels. 
 From the nature of the problem investigated, much of the testi- 
 mony obtained from interested parties was necessarily contradic- 
 tory. For this reason care has been taken to avoid reliance upon 
 oral statements. Reference has been made to published records 
 wherever possible. Throughout the entire investigation the writ- 
 er was impressed by the desire of all parties interested in lake 
 traffic to have the subject of labor relations on lake vessels fully 
 and fairly presented. It is his earnest hope that this desire has 
 been satisfied in this study. 
 
 The writer is indebted to his colleagues, Prof. E. L. Bogart, 
 for suggestions concerning the form of presentation of the mate- 
 rial in this study, and Dr. M. H. Hunter, for assistance in read- 
 ing proof. H. E. HOAGLAND 
 
 Urbana, Illinois 
 October, 1917 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTEB I 
 BEGINNINGS OF ORGANIZATION 9 
 
 CHAPTEB II 
 GROWING CONCENTRATION 23 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 TRADE AGREEMENTS 37 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 DISRUPTION OF THE UNIONS . 61 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 OPEN SHOP 84 
 
 APPENDICES 
 
 A. WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKE ERIE DOCKS 103 
 
 B. GRAIN HANDLERS ' AGREEMENTS 110 
 
 0. WAGE BARGAINING IN THE LUMBER CARRYING INDUSTRY . 116 
 
CHAPTER I 
 BEGINNINGS OF ORGANIZATION 
 
 Previous to 1840 nearly all traffic on the Great Lakes was 
 from the East to the West to supply the needs of a new country. 
 Earlier than this the chief traffic eastward was in grain and as 
 late as 1836 the total receipts of grain at Buffalo were only a 
 half million bushels. 1 This came largely from Ohio ports. The 
 first grain shipped from Chicago to Buffalo, a few bags of wheat, 
 was sent in 1831. 2 By 1840 the total traffic in grain from 
 Chicago to Buffalo was only a few thousand bushels. From then 
 on, however, grain shipments increased rapidly, until in 1846 
 Buffalo received six and a half million bushels from Ohio and 
 other western states. 3 
 
 The boats which had supplied the west-bound traffic were built 
 for miscellaneous freight and passenger service. The east-bound 
 traffic in grain brought forth in 1850 the first bulk freighter, a 
 small sail-boat capable of carrying about 13,000 bushels of 
 grain.* Relatively few west-bound boats were built for con- 
 tinuous service, their chief purpose being to take their cargoes 
 to the new West, much as the arks were used on the Ohio River 
 or the prairie schooners were used in land transportation. Once 
 at their destination the early west-bound boats were broken up, 
 the materials of which they were made were used for other pur- 
 poses and the men who operated them entered other occupations. 
 
 1 Marine Eeview, May 30, 1907, p. 22. 
 
 2 Ibid., Feb. 22, 1906, p. 15. 
 s Ibid., May 30, 1907, p. 22. 
 
 * Marine Becord, Aug. 25, 1898, p. 6. The Marine Becord and the 
 Marine Review were both trade journals, patronized by and representing 
 lake shipping interests. The former was- established in 1878 and the 
 latter in 1890. Both were published at Cleveland. On August 14, 1902, 
 they were consolidated and for a year and four months appeared under 
 the name of Marine Eeview and Marine Becord. In January, 1904, the 
 name was changed to Marine Beview. 
 
10 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [160 
 
 The new grain freighters changed the character of lake traffic 
 and created a demand for a class of men to follow lake sailing as 
 a vocation. A typical crew of these early days consisted of a 
 captain, two mates, twelve sailors, a cook and a royal boy. 5 
 
 The captain not infrequently was also the owner of the boat. 
 At any rate he was always complete master of it, making an 
 accounting with its owner only at the end of the season. 6 The 
 risks of the traffic were great and freights were high. The 
 chances of great profits induced investment in boats and with 
 good fortune a captain could hope to pay for his boat in one or 
 two seasons. Very often boats were built for captains with no 
 other security than faith in the integrity of the purchaser. 
 
 Sailing was a trade to be learned in the school of apprentice- 
 ship. In the winter time the sailor was engaged in repairing 
 his boat and in fitting it for the coming season, if not indeed in 
 making a new boat. 7 Knowledge of sailing was required of the 
 men who did this work. The hazards of the sailing occupation 
 and the hardships to be endured demanded that the sailor 
 be a rough, uncouth pioneer. Being such and having served 
 his apprenticeship, he had a right to expect to become some day 
 a captain and perhaps the owner of a boat if he could demon- 
 strate his integrity and his ability to control the men under him. 
 
 It was this type of men who formed the first sailors' organiza- 
 tion on the Lakes the Seamen's Benevolent Union of Chicago. 
 The early records of this organization indicate that it was 
 formed August 18, 1863, and that it received a charter from 
 the State of Illinois in 1867. 8 The scaricty of labor at this 
 time made wages high without collective action. This condition, 
 together with the absence of direct antagonism between em- 
 ployer and employee, confined the object of the organization 
 to the "moral, mental and mutual improvement of its mem- 
 bers." Similar organizations followed at other ports, but all 
 of these, like the parent union, were short-lived. It was not 
 until there developed a real need for collective action that the 
 organization of lake sailors was again attempted. 
 
 5 Marine Record, Aug. 25, 1898, p. 6. 
 
 6 Marine Review, Dec. 15, 1904, p. 21. 
 
 7 Ibid., Dec., 1909, p. 528. 
 
 s From an old seal and miscellaneous records in the office of the present 
 Lake Seamen's Union. 
 
161] BEGINNINGS OP ORGANIZATION 11 
 
 About 1870 began two of the contests which have helped to 
 revolutionize lake traffic; the first was the contest of iron ore 
 with grain for first place in shipments, and the second was the 
 contest of steam with sail as the motive power of lake transpor- 
 tation. Iron ore was discovered on the Marquette range Sep- 
 tember 19, 1844. 9 The first ore removed from the mines was 
 carried on the backs of prospectors. For several years attempts 
 were made to make iron in the upper lake district and it was not 
 until 1853 that plans were laid to ship the ore itself to the lower 
 lakes. In September of that year, 152 tons were shipped in 
 four vessels from Marquette to Sault Ste. Marie where it was 
 portaged over the falls, reloaded upon another boat and carried 
 to Erie, Pa. The Sault Ste. Marie canal was opened June 18, 
 1855, and immediately iron ore shipments began to assume 
 importance. 
 
 It was not until several years later, however, that the ore trade 
 equaled the grain trade or even the lumber trade. For ex- 
 ample, in 1866 the grain receipts at Buffalo alone were 1,500,000 
 tons; the lumber receipts at Chicago alone were 400,000 tons; 
 while the ore receipts at all Lake Erie ports together amounted 
 to only 279,000 tons. By 1880 grain shipments were double 
 those of 1866, while ore shipments increased sevenfold and to- 
 talled approximately 2,000,000 tons. Eight years later ore ship- 
 ments exceeded 5,000,000 tons and for the first time surpassed 
 grain shipments. Since then iron ore has had no competitor in 
 lake tonnage. The 1890 shipments were almost double those of 
 1888 ; 1899 more than double 1890; 1906 more than double 1899 ; 
 while by 1912 the annual ore shipments by lake boats had reached 
 almost 50,000,000 tons. 10 
 
 As late as 1863, 93 per cent of all lake tonnage was sail. 11 
 Barges were first used on the Lakes in 1861 in the lumber 
 trade. 12 Four to six were towed by propellers or tugs. None 
 of the early steam-boats were ore carriers. All of them carried 
 
 This brief historical statement is condensed from an article appear- 
 ing in the Annual Report -of the Lake Carriers' Association for 1910, pp. 
 102 et seq. 
 
 10 Marine Review, Dec., 1912, p. 440. The unprecedented war demand 
 for ore caused a further increase in lake shipments to 65,000,000 tons in 
 1916. Ibid., Feb., 1917, p. 75. 
 
 11 Ibid., Apr. 14, 1904, p. 30. 
 
 12 Ibid., June 2, 1904, p. 52. 
 
12 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [162 
 
 passengers and were ill-fitted to carry ore though some of them 
 occasionally carried a deck load. 13 The first steam-boat built 
 for the iron trade a 200 footer appeared in 1869. A sec- 
 ond followed the next year, built to carry 1,200 tons. The 
 second was built as the consort of the first. This started a 
 method of ore transportation which was the prevailing practice 
 for nearly twenty years. Sail-boats carried up to 600 tons and 
 had, until 1870, almost a monopoly of bulk freight trade. Steam 
 gained very rapidly from then on. 
 
 The early steam-boats, like the schooners, were built of wood. 
 The first iron steamer to be used on the Lakes for commercial 
 purposes was built in 1862 ; 14 this had a gross tonnage of 861 
 tons. The first to be used in the ore trade was built in 1882. 15 
 Two years later steel boats appeared and by 1886 iron ceased to 
 be used for ship-building on the Lakes. 16 As late as 1887 all 
 but 42 of the freighters on the Lakes were built of wood. The 
 largest number of steam vessels built in any one year previous 
 to this time was five. In 1888 14 were built. With the advent 
 of steel boats wood ceased to be used for ship-building material 
 and sail-boats gradually gave place to steam-boats. No sail 
 freighters have been built since 1891 and by 1904, 97 per cent 
 of the tonnage on the Lakes was propelled by steam. 17 
 
 The draught of ore vessels has always been regulated by the 
 depth of the water hi the locks at the Sault Ste. Marie so that 
 increase in the size of vessels has depended upon the activity of 
 the United States government in deepening channels, building 
 locks, installing lights, and in other ways making traffic more 
 safe and providing for a larger class of boats. The response to 
 such improvements has been rapid and the boats have contin- 
 ually increased in size. The first of the ore boats carried less 
 than 1,000 tons. The largest cargo in 1882 was 1604 tons; by 
 1892 the largest cargo was almost double that of 1882 ; by 1898, 
 almost double that of 1892; while with the appearance of the 
 500 footer in 1900, a cargo of 10,000 tons was made possible. 18 
 
 is Annual Eeport Lake Carriers' Association, 1910, p. 106. 
 
 i* Marine Review, Feb., 1910, p. 64. 
 
 is Ibid., June 2, 1904, p. 53. 
 
 ^ Ibid., Feb., 1910, p. 64. 
 
 IT Ibid., Apr. 14, 1904, p. 30. 
 
 is Annual Eeport Lake Carriers' Association, 1910, pp. 109 et seq. 
 
163] BEGINNINGS OP ORGANIZATION 13 
 
 Even this amount has been increased more than 40 per cent since 
 1900. 
 
 After the first real boom in lake traffic, beginning in 1871, 
 came the depression of 1872 from which the lake trade did not 
 recover until 1878. 19 The labor riots which accompanied the de- 
 pression resulted in the revival of the spirit of organization, this 
 time under changed conditions. Wages were low ; the boats had 
 increased in size and hence in cost; the percentage of captains 
 owning their own boats had decreased and in their places had 
 appeared vessel owners who began to try to run their boats on a 
 more business-like basis. Following the Chicago riots of 1877 
 one of the labor leaders a longshoreman organized a strong 
 union in his own trade and then turned his attention to the sea- 
 men. Under his leadership the old seamen's union was reorgan- 
 ized on April 1, 1878, under the name of Chicago Seamen's 
 Benevolent Union, having as its object the "mental, moral and 
 financial improvement of its members. ' ' 20 Immediately branches 
 were organized at other lake ports nine within a year. Con- 
 trol of the organization, including the branches, was retained in 
 the parent union at Chicago. 
 
 The return of prosperity in 1878-1879 found the sailors well 
 organized and ready to dictate terms to the vessel owners. Only 
 sailors those with practical knowledge of operating sail- 
 boats were admitted to membership in the union, but mates 
 and even captains were included at times, since the interests of 
 captain and owner were no longer identical. The increased de- 
 mand for sailors gave the union a sense of power and "scab" 
 became anathema. 21 Union members were not permitted to sail 
 with non-union men 22 and those who incurred the enmity of the 
 organization by refusing to join it were, in some instances, for- 
 ever prohibited from becoming members or were driven from the 
 Lakes if even harsher methods were not used. When necessary 
 to keep non-union men off the boats union men were permitted 
 
 is Marine Review, Feb., 1910, p. 64. 
 
 20 As stated in its constitution, in ms. 
 
 21 Boarding-house keepers were boycotted for harboring non-union sail- 
 ors and even an undertaker who had buried a non-union man was placed 
 on the unfair list for a period of 99 years. Journal of the Chicago Sea- 
 men 's Benevolent Union, in ms., passim. 
 
 22 Constitution, 1879, sec. 7. 
 
14 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [164 
 
 to work at less wages than the scale adopted by the union itself. 
 
 The idea of a trade agreement, fixing for a season wages and 
 conditions of work, was not thought of. Union members looked 
 with distrust upon any conference with boat owners and pre- 
 ferred to dictate the terms under which they were willing to 
 work. 23 The sailing year was divided into four seasons: 1. 
 Pre-season shipments began before the regular spring shipments 
 were definitely started. High freights due to unusual risks of 
 the weather tempted some boats to make a trip or two before 
 spring really opened. 2. The regular spring season began with 
 settled weather conditions. 3. The fall season was characterized 
 by decreasing traffic and the disappearance of "summer sailors" 
 from the Lakes. 4. Post-season shipments were made under 
 conditions similar to the very early shipments. In the first and 
 fourth periods wages were usually paid at so much per trip since 
 the time required to make a trip was uncertain and day wages 
 might prevent shipments since wages might amount to more 
 than the freights received. Wages during the second and third 
 periods were paid by the day. It was customary for the captain 
 to pay off his crew upon reaching port and to hire a new crew 
 only when again ready to sail. 2 * 
 
 Under these conditions the union forbade its members to ship 
 for a round trip when sailing to a port which had a branch 
 union. For it was not unusual for wages to be changed every 
 few days if the union members thought freight rates warranted 
 an increase in wages. The method of increasing wages was as 
 follows: the union men at any port were called together and 
 asked to vote an increase of $.25 per day. Such increases al- 
 ways took effect the following day. Hence a member shipping 
 from Chicago to Buffalo, for example, at $1.75 per day might 
 find upon reaching the latter port that wages had been raised 
 to $2.00 per day. In fact such increases became so frequent 
 that at the second general convention of the union, in 1879, it 
 was voted that no branch could raise its wages above the scale 
 set by the Chicago union. 25 
 
 In reality of course this was an attempt to establish a sliding 
 scale of wages to be governed by freight conditions. But when 
 
 23 Ms. records of Lake Seamen 's Union, passim. 
 
 24 Marine Record, Oct. 17, 1901, p. 11. 
 
 25 Journal of Chicago Seamen 's Benevolent Union, in ms., passim 
 
165] BEGINNINGS OF ORGANIZATION 15 
 
 left to an irresponsible group of sailors to learn first what freight 
 rates prevailed and then to adjust wages accordingly, it often 
 resulted in tying up the boats because the wages demanded in- 
 cluded profits as well. Indeed it was not unusual for the 
 union to call a second meeting within a day or two after voting 
 to raise wages in order to reduce them again if its members 
 thought the boats would not leave port under the wages set. 
 
 In the hands of the union the individual vessel owners were 
 at a disadvantage. If they secured non-union men, these were 
 either driven from the Lakes or into the union. The owner 
 must either have accepted the terms offered by the union or 
 have kept his boats tied to the docks. After almost three years 
 of submission to union dictation the vessel owners at Cleveland 
 met on September 1, 1880, and formed the Cleveland Vessel 
 Owners' Association, having as its chief purpose the destruction 
 of the seamen's unions. The owners at other ports were favor- 
 able to the formation of a general vessel owners' association to 
 effect this and other purposes and on February 16, 1881, a gen- 
 eral meeting was held at Chicago to discuss such an association. 28 
 Already the ore trade was centered in Cleveland, the grain trade 
 in Buffalo, and the lumber trade in Chicago. There was not 
 yet sufficient community of interest to insure the success of a 
 general organization and the Chicago meeting failed to accom- 
 plish its purpose. Instead the local associations continued and 
 met with varying success. The most successful were those at 
 Buffalo and Cleveland. 
 
 The Cleveland Vessel Owners' Association began by estab- 
 lishing shipping offices at Cleveland, Ashtabula, and other near- 
 by ports, for the purpose of securing non-union men and of pro- 
 tecting them on the boats. As its chief shipping officer the 
 association secured a man who though once a union sympathizer 
 and a member of a sailors' union, had since cast his lot with the 
 opponents of unionism and had already demonstrated his ability 
 as a strike breaker. Being a prize fighter of no mean ability 
 and a police officer with notches on his gun barrel he was the 
 type of man needed by the association to do battle with the 
 turbulent unionists. 
 
 Calling to his assistance men of his own type, the shipping 
 officer began a twenty years' war upon the sailors' unions. The 
 
 26 Beers, History of the Great Lakes (Chicago, 1899), p. 465. 
 
16 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [166 
 
 first open' fight occurred during the season of 1881 and resulted 
 in a victory for the employers. When the union began to re- 
 coup its losses two years later it turned first to demands for 
 legislation as a means of remedying its ills. The lobby at "Wash- 
 ington to secure the passage of various seamen's bills was es- 
 tablished at this time. 27 Failing in immediate success in its 
 demands for legislation, the union again gave battle to the Cleve- 
 land Vessel Owners' Association and again met defeat in 1885. 
 
 In addition to a return to legislation after the second defeat, 
 the union turned to the Knights of Labor for support and on 
 March 24, 1886, secured a charter for the Seamen's Assembly 
 of the Knights of Labor. 28 The war against the Cleveland Ves- 
 sel Owners' Association was continued as before, but the Knights 
 of Labor failed to accomplish for the seamen more than the 
 latter had been able to do for themselves. Furthermore the 
 type of men who sailed the Lakes were not greatly enthused 
 over the ritualistic ceremonies demanded in the meetings of the 
 Knights of Labor, nor were they willing to grant their officers 
 the deference due a Venerable Sage, an Unknown Knight, a 
 Judge Advocate, or an Almoner. 
 
 Union membership failed to increase and the Vessel Owners' 
 Association retained control over wages and labor conditions on 
 the boats. At the same time a new cloud began to assume huge 
 proportions on the horizon of the seamen's union. Up to this 
 time the union was composed of sailors men on sailing vessels 
 only. Here, with the exception of the master of the boat, there 
 was little distinction of skill among the workers. All were 
 sailors members of a skilled trade. While on the steam-boats 
 there were various grades of men with the unskilled deckhands 
 and firemen in the majority. The sailors looked with disdain 
 upon these two classes of men and "Wooden boats, iron men: 
 iron boats, wooden men" became their slogan. 29 
 
 27 The first appropriation noted in the journals of the seamen's union for 
 the purpose of defraying the expenses of a representative at Washington 
 was in 1884. Since that time much attention has been given by the union 
 to legislation. The now famous so-called LaFollette Seamen's Law is 
 based upon the same demands made by the imion in 1884. 
 
 28 Branches of the union were given proper names in addition to their 
 K. of L. numbers. For example, the Buffalo local was called the ' ' Perry 
 Labor Club," Local Assembly 6166, K. of L. 
 
 29 Ms. journal of Lake Seamen's Union, Feb. 20, 1894. 
 
167] BEGINNINGS OP ORGANIZATION 17 
 
 In spite of its two decisive defeats by the Vessel Owners' As- 
 sociation and in spite of the fact that the steam-boats were 
 steadily taking over the business of the sailing vessels and hence 
 reducing the demand for sailors, the union had continued its 
 system of voting changes in wages whenever it seemed at all like- 
 ly to succeed in forcing an advance. To be sure, its failures 
 since 1881 had far outnumbered its successes. Nevertheless it 
 continued the plan. By 1888 the union leaders realized that 
 steam-boats would soon completely displace sailing vessels and 
 that if the union would prosper it must organize the men on the 
 steam-boats. The rank and file of the men did not realize the 
 change taking place in lake traffic and opposed any plan to ex- 
 tend the jurisdiction of the union. Then too the Vessel Owners' 
 Association so thoroughly controlled the situation that the steam- 
 boatmen did not dare join the union at this time. 
 
 In 1889 offers were made to the vessel owners to have a com- 
 mittee of the union meet a committee of the association and try 
 to effect 'an amicable settlement of their differences. 80 These 
 offers were ignored. The year 1889 was a dull season for sailing 
 vessels on the Lakes and the owners had little difficulty in se- 
 curing non-union men at any wages they were willing to pay. 
 Failing in their request for a conference, the union leaders then 
 proposed that any attempt to set a union scale of wages be 
 abandoned and that the organization be continued merely as a 
 beneficial association. This too was opposed by the members 31 
 and for two years longer the losing fight was continued. 
 
 The union suffered an unusual loss of membership in 1889 
 and at the opening of 1890 prospects looked discouraging. With- 
 drawal from the Knights of Labor was discussed though not 
 acted upon. It was voted, however, that the question of wages 
 "shall not be entertained in any way, shape or form collectively 
 by any branch or body attached to this Association;" and that 
 "members shall make no discrimination as to whom they shall 
 sail with or as to where they shall obtain this employment. ' ' 32 
 Later in the season the demand for seamen increased and the 
 
 so Circular letters were sent out by the union to the members of the 
 association. 
 
 si At the same meeting, however, the union modified its policy toward 
 non-union sailors by permitting its members to sail with such men. 
 
 32 Journal of the union, in ms., Jan. 21, 1890. 
 
18 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [168 
 
 above action was rescinded. Union shipping offices were estab- 
 lished, wage scales were again voted, and union members were 
 prohibited from sailing with non-unionists. 33 The vessel own- 
 ers' shipping offices were boycotted and members of the union 
 found within such offices were fined heavily. The Vessel Own- 
 ers' Association resorted to its accustomed practice of securing 
 non-union men from the Atlantic ports and succeeded in pre- 
 venting any effective action by the union. 
 
 Near the end of the season of 1890 all available vessel tonnage 
 was in commission and the outlook for 1891 was good. The 
 spirit of unionism revived. The determination to withdraw 
 from the Knights of Labor and to substitute a strong union of 
 lake-faring men for the old conglomerate organization of all 
 trades had become general enough to lead the members of the 
 union to follow the advice of their leaders. One faction of the 
 union, led by the Milwaukee branch, remained loyal to the 
 Knights of Labor for two years longer. 
 
 The seceders formed a new organiation but they were still im- 
 bued with the industrial union philosophy of the Knights of 
 Labor, as is indicated by the following announcement to the press 
 at the time of organizing: 
 
 We want to number among us every man on the Great Lakes who is em- 
 ployed in any capacity connected with the Lakes. We want the man who 
 builds the boat; the man who runs her engines and fires her boilers; the 
 man who loads and unloads her; her deckhands; cook; every man who de- 
 pends for a living upon the vessel owner. When we have these men enrolled 
 as members we will be on an equal footing with the owner of floating prop- 
 erty, and not until then. Then we can go to our employers and demand fair 
 compensation for our labor, and we will be in a position to back up our 
 claims. 
 
 This action was followed the next year by the formation of the 
 National Seamen's Union of America to include the unions on 
 the Lakes, the Pacific Coast, and the Gulf of Mexico. The unions 
 on the Atlantic Coast were not represented but sent their greet- 
 ings. The national union also was to be a democratic organiza- 
 tion, to include all men who ' ' make a living by following the sea 
 or on the Lakes in any capacity in steam or sailing vessels. ' ' 34 
 The dreams of the founders of these organizations were never 
 
 33 Journal of the union, in ms., passim. 
 84 Proceedings of the union for 1892, p. 3. 
 
16!)] BEGINNINGS OF ORGANIZATION 19 
 
 realized but their success was immediate and helped to bring 
 about a change in the employers' associations on the Lakes. 
 
 As already noted, the attempt to form a general vessel owners' 
 association at Chicago in 1881 failed because there was not yet 
 sufficient community of interest to hold the local associations to- 
 gether. Their interests were, for the most part, local in their 
 nature and as such could be handled better by local organiza- 
 tions. These local associations continued their separate exist- 
 ences, with the Cleveland association leading in importance and 
 at times assuming the character of a general organization. Hav- 
 ing succeeded in defeating the seamen's union in its first open 
 battle in 1881, the Cleveland association turned its attention to 
 legislation, navigation problems, etc., retaining its shipping of- 
 fices and its non-union policy as its chief reason for existence. 
 
 The Lake Carriers' Association was formed at Buffalo May 21, 
 1885, after a preliminary meeting of vessel owners from the 
 various lake ports had been held at Chicago April 14, 1885. 35 
 According to its constitution, the purpose of the association was 
 ' ' to consider and take action upon all general questions relating 
 to the navigation and carrying business of the Great Lakes and 
 the waters tributary thereto, with the intent to improve the 
 character of the service rendered to the public, to protect the 
 common interest of the lake carriers, and to promote their gen- 
 eral welfare. " 36 It was composed at first of passenger and 
 package freight lines and was dominated by the larger interests. 
 It was opposed by the smaller owners in this class of business and 
 by the bulk freighters who already had membership in the ex- 
 isting associations. In order to overcome the opposition of the 
 latter, the new association eschewed labor troubles and refused 
 to consider any question of a purely local nature. It encouraged 
 the formation of local associations for these purposes and was 
 instrumental in building up a strong local association at Buffalo. 
 
 The new association was opposed especially by the Cleveland 
 Vessel Owners' Association because the former was dominated 
 by Buffalo interests while the latter largely dominated the policies 
 of the local associations at other lake ports. But in spite of 
 strong opposition, the Lake Carriers' Association included in its 
 
 as Marine Record, Jan. 26, 1899, p. 15. 
 36 Beers, op cit., p. 466. 
 
20 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [170 
 
 membership, at the end of its first year, one-fifth of all lake ton- 
 nage, steam, sail, and barge. Its first official act was to secure 
 the services of a representative at Washington to watch legisla- 
 tion affecting lake interests. Other subjects which received at- 
 tention early were the establishment of lights, the clearing out of 
 obstructed channels, and the building of bridges over connecting 
 water courses. 
 
 From 1885 to 1891 the Lake Carriers' Association and the 
 Cleveland Vessel Owners' Association remained independent of 
 each other, occasionally acting in harmony but more often work- 
 ing at cross purposes, even though seeking the same end. 87 The 
 weakening effect of this division of forces, together with the 
 growing strength of the seamen's union, brought about at the 
 beginning of 1891 a demand among the vessel owners for an 
 amalgamation of the two major associations and the absorption 
 of all other such organizations on the Lakes. Throughout the 
 latter part of 1891 conferences were held at various ports around 
 the Lakes and on April 28, 1892, a general conference at De- 
 troit effected the reorganization of the Lake Carriers' Associa- 
 tion to include all vessel owners on the Lakes and to take over 
 all activities of existing associations. 38 
 
 The new association took over the shipping offices formerly 
 maintained by the Cleveland Vessel Owners' Association and in 
 addition established similar offices at other important lake 
 ports. 89 Almost immediately thereafter a war of extermination 
 was begun against the reorganized seamen's union. 40 Shipping 
 offices were established in New York City and men were sent 
 from there to the Lakes to take the places of the union seamen, 
 the Lake Carriers' Association paying the cost of transporta- 
 tion. 41 Violence was practiced by both sides and personal en- 
 counters became very common. 42 Numerous murders have been 
 
 37 Annual Report Lake Carriers' Association, 1892, pp. 14 et seq.; ibid., 
 1893, p. 1. 
 
 SB Ibid., 1893, pp. 1-2. 
 
 39 Ibid., 1893, p. 2. 
 
 ^Proceedings International Seamen's Union, 1893, p. 7; 1895, p. 7. 
 
 4* Annual Report Lake Carriers' Association, 1893, p. 22. 
 
 42 Ibid., 1893, pp. 13-14. The prosecution of union men and the defense 
 of non-unionists arrested during fights and pistol duels caused one of the 
 greatest items of expense for the association during this year. 
 
171] BEGINNINGS OP ORGANIZATION 21 
 
 charged to these encounters. Police protection varied inversely 
 with the strength of unionism in politics and directly with the 
 degree of influence exerted by the members of the Lake Carriers' 
 Association. For example, in Buffalo, one of the two chief cen- 
 tres of the Lake Carriers' Association strength, ninety police 
 officers were detailed by the city authorities to give non-union 
 men protection while in port. And this without expense to the 
 vessel owners. 43 While in Chicago, the centre of union strength, 
 the vessel owners and their non-union employees were left to the 
 mercy of the union pickets. 
 
 Measured by the shipments of iron ore, lake traffic decreased 
 over 30 per cent in the depression of 1893 and the 1892 figures 
 were not reached again until 1895. This slump in traffic created 
 a surplus of labor and, together with the dissensions which de- 
 veloped within the ranks of the union, helped the Lake Carriers' 
 Association in its fight to disrupt the union. In spite of the 
 inclusive declaration to the press which accompanied the re- 
 organization of the Lake Seamen's Benevolent Association in 
 1891, 44 the rank and file of the union were still opposed to ac- 
 cepting steam-boatmen as members. After a two years' strug- 
 gle to prevent the lake seamen from withdrawing from the 
 Knights of Labor, the Milwaukee local gave up the fight at the 
 beginning of 1894 and started a new organization to be composed 
 of steam-boatmen and sailors and to be called the Lakefaring 
 Men's Union. 45 It was thought by the seamen's union that this 
 new organization was fostered by the Lake Carriers' Association 
 to divide the forces of the seamen. At about the same time the 
 Steamboatmen 's Protective Association, to be composed of 
 wheelsmen, lookoutsmen, watchmen, and stewards, was started at 
 Chicago with 150 members. A general organization to include 
 all steam-boatmen on the Lakes was planned. 46 
 
 The general dissatisfaction with the failure of the Lake Sea- 
 men's Benevolent Association to withstand the attacks of the 
 Lake Carriers' Association in 1893, together with the formation 
 of the dual organizations, brought about another reorganization 
 of the parent union in 1894 under the name of Lake Seamen's 
 
 43 Annual Report Lake Carriers' Association, 1893, p. 12. 
 
 44 Cf. supra, p. 18. 
 
 45 Journal Lake Seamen '3 Union, in ms., Jan. 30, 1894. 
 
 46 Marine Review, Jan. 5, 1892, p. 12. 
 
22 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [172 
 
 Union. 47 A definite effort was then made to enlist in its mem- 
 bership the able seamen on steam-boats. Men were plentiful at 
 this time, however, and the efforts of the union were unavailing 
 for a time, either to increase its membership or to secure favor- 
 able terms from the vessel owners. 
 
 For the third time the owners of the vessels which carried 
 iron ore had succeeded in driving the seamen's union from the 
 Lakes twice when organized in the Cleveland Vessel Owners' 
 Association and once in the Lake Carriers' Association. At no 
 time had there been any serious talk of compromise, of trade 
 agreements, of giving the men on the boats a voice in the de- 
 termination of the conditions under which they worked. In- 
 censed at the dictatorial methods of the early unions, the owners 
 began a counter attack and won the first open battle in 1881. 
 Intermittent guerrilla warfare during the succeeding four years 
 was followed by the second open fight in 1885 and again the 
 owners won. Again the union resorted to secret attacks upon 
 non-unionists and vessel owners until, encouraged by reinforce- 
 ments in 1891, its members began the third campaign against 
 the combined forces of their union-hating employers. Like the 
 vessel owners, the unionists did not wish compromise or trade 
 agreement, but sought dictation of the terms of their employment 
 instead. 
 
 47 Journal of Lake Seamen's Union, in ms., Mar. 6, 1894. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 GROWING CONCENTRATION 
 
 By 1896 the bulk freight traffic on the Lakes had become 
 definitely established as primarily a movement of iron ore. Ship- 
 ments of coal up the Lakes were increasing to be sure, but such 
 cargoes were profitable only when carried in the vessels which 
 brought ore down the Lakes. The coal was carried to offset the 
 charges of returning the vessels to the ore mines. The ship- 
 ments of grain, the nearest rival to ore, amounted in 1896 to 
 less than 5,000,000 tons; the shipments of ore amounted to more 
 than twice as much as the shipments of grain. The banner 
 year for grain shipments was 1898 when slightly more than 
 6,000,000 tons were received at Buffalo. 1 Since then the grain 
 trade has declined nearly 50 per cent. This decline has been 
 due to changed conditions of agriculture, more grain now being 
 fed to stock than formerly, and to larger shipments south rather 
 than east. 2 
 
 On the other hand, annual ore shipments since 1896 have in- 
 creased from 10,000,000 tons to 65,000,000 tons. Owing to the 
 depression in the early nineties, but little more ore was shipped 
 in 1896 than in 1890 ; but beginning in 1896 the increase in ore 
 traffic has been rapid and, except for occasional lean years, 
 continuous. 
 
 During this time capital invested in every branch of the iron 
 and steel industry and hence control of every branch of the in- 
 dustry has become concentrated into fewer hands. This con- 
 centration of control has affected lake traffic as well. Previous 
 to 1897 there had been corporate control of a part of the vessels 
 and the furnace interests were large owners of boats. But up to 
 this time the independent boat owners, those with no mine or 
 
 1 Marine Record, Oct. 20, 1898, p. 8. 
 
 2 Marine Review, Jan. 22, 1906, pp. 15-16. 
 
 23 
 
24 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [174 
 
 furnace connections, had maintained a fair balance of power. 
 Small fleets were most common. 
 
 The Mesabi Range was opened in 1892. 3 Three years later it 
 took the lead in ore shipments, sending nearly 3,000,000 tons to 
 the Lake Erie ports. By 1901 it was furnishing approximately 
 one-half of the ore shipped from Lake Superior. Since 1905 it 
 has furnished from 60 to 75 per cent. 4 Before the formation 
 of the United States Steel Corporation, it had not been the 
 policy of the Carnegie interests to own either mines or vessels. 
 Hence when the Rockefeller interests secured control of the 
 Mesabi Range 5 they sold the ore to the Carnegie Steel Company 
 and also secured a contract to convey it to the Lake Erie ports. 
 In December, 1895, Rockefeller placed orders for seven steamers 
 and five barges which formed the nucleus of the fleet which for a 
 short time exerted a great influence in lake ore traffic. 6 Rocke- 
 feller's contract for selling ore to the Carnegie Steel Company 
 stipulated that the Rockefeller fleet would be given a minimum 
 of 1,200,000 tons annually at the going rate for the season. 7 
 The importance of this clause will be noted later. 
 
 The coming of the Rockefeller or Bessemer fleet meant many 
 changes in the methods of dealing with the various classes of 
 labor on the boats. Although the managers of the new fleet in- 
 troduced relatively few new ideas, they put into successful oper- 
 ation for the first time many ideas already in the minds of the 
 managers of other fleets. With the appearance of the large steel 
 steamer and the organization of the larger fleets, the old system 
 of leaving the entire control of the vessel, including the charter- 
 ing of cargoes, collecting of freight, etc., to the captain gradually 
 had disappeared. But as yet the captain had received but little 
 dictation in the actual management of his boat or in the control 
 of his men. 
 
 Up to this time the two chief requirements of the captain were 
 
 3 During this year it sent 4,245 tons of ore down the Lakes. Marine 
 Record, Dec. 14, 1899, p. 9. 
 
 * Annual Eeports of Lake Carriers' Association, passim. 
 
 5 During the panic of 1893 John D. Eockefeller secured his title to the 
 ore deposits, accidentally perhaps. Annual Report Lalce Carriers' Asso- 
 ciation, 1910, p. 112. 
 
 Marine Review, Dec. 12, 1895, p. 5. 
 
 7 Ibid., Jan. 14, 1897. 
 
175] GROWING CONCENTRATION 25 
 
 that he be a successful navigator and that he be able to handle 
 his men, using force if necessary to quell mutinies and other 
 disturbances on the boat. These were heritages from the days 
 when the sail-boat and the sailor dominated lake traffic. Then 
 small investments in boats made wages the chief element in the 
 cost of delays. And if delays were occasioned while the boat 
 was in port, even this cost was reduced to a minimum since only 
 the captain and the cook were retained on the pay-roll. 
 
 All this was changed when a costly steam-boat with a heavy 
 overhead expense replaced a cheap sailing vessel with prac- 
 tically no costs but wages and repairs. Then too, in the sailing 
 vessel the captain had at one time or another filled every position 
 from royal boy up; on the steam-boat he was a graduate of the 
 forward end of the boat only and he knew nothing of the opera- 
 tion of the boat's machinery. In the first place, then, the an- 
 cient prerogatives of the master of the boat began to be over- 
 ruled by the owner of the boat who insisted upon a more business- 
 like management of his large investment; and in the second 
 place, the supreme authority of the master began to be ques- 
 tioned by the chief engineer, a man who looked upon his position 
 as of at least equal importance with that of the captain and who, 
 therefore, looked to the owner of the boat rather than to the 
 captain for his orders. 
 
 These changes were accentuated in the Bessemer fleet. A 
 shore captain or commodore was appointed to whom the captain 
 must look for his orders. 8 The engineer received his orders 
 from a similar official known as the fleet engineer. Dispatch 
 meant greatly increased dividends and attention was given to 
 fuel costs, time studies in running light and in running loaded, 
 etc. Definite schedules were made showing the amount of fuel 
 to burn per hour and the rate of speed to be followed. In 
 numerous other ways system replaced luck and efficiency be- 
 came the watchword. Masters were required to give orders to 
 engineers in writing in order to place responsibility in case of 
 mistake. 9 
 
 Finally, another important change occurred in the attitude 
 of the owner toward the employees on the boats. In sailing days 
 
 a Marine Review, Feb. 27, 1896, p. 7. 
 o Ibid., passim. 
 
26 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [176 
 
 it was customary for the captain to hire for a single trip and 
 to dismiss his crew as soon as he reached port. In securing a 
 new crew upon leaving port he might, of course, hire a part of 
 the same men. This was largely a matter of accident. In so far 
 as the unions controlled the men the chances were against a man 
 sailing on the same boat very long at a time, for if there were 
 idle men in port these were given first opportunity to ship. 
 Furthermore, but little inducement was offered to keep men on 
 the boats. Living quarters furnished the minimum accommoda- 
 tions for physical well-being and food was poor in quality and 
 illy prepared. 10 Seamen were considered to be so many units of 
 labor power and that captain was considered most successful 
 who could extract this power with least expense and least open 
 hostility. This failure to provide physical comforts and to con- 
 sider sailors as more than machines had its effect in the low 
 class of men who were attracted to this work. 
 
 In the early days of steam-boat supremacy this attitude was 
 continued and it was not expected nor desired that unlicensed 
 men should remain long on a boat. Firemen and deckhands es- 
 pecially were recognized as a shifting lot of rough characters 
 and no owner expected much of these men except the exercise 
 of brute strength during the time they were employed. A few 
 owners were beginning to take steps to change these conditions 
 when the Bessemer fleet was organized, but it was left to this 
 line of boats to announce the change as a definite policy of the 
 management. As soon as these boats were launched the man- 
 ager announced that he proposed "to offer every inducement 
 for crews to remain aboard their vessels, year after year, and to 
 seek promotion, with a full understanding that they are to be 
 promoted if they are deserving of it, and that a system of ad- 
 vancement, from firemen up, is to be encouraged on the com- 
 pany 's boats. ' ' " Wholesome food and comfortable quarters 
 were provided and attention was given to the selection of men 
 employed on the boats. 
 
 In 1896 the ore carrying tonnage on the Lakes was increased 
 over 20 per cent by the appearance of thirty new boats having a 
 gross tonnage of over 100,000 tons. 12 This increase in tonnage 
 
 10 Marine Review, passim. 
 
 11 Ibid., July 2, 1896, p. 7. 
 
 12 Ibid., Feb., 1910, pp. 64-65. 
 
177] GROWING CONCENTRATION 27 
 
 was equal approximately to the additions of the preceding three 
 years. In the absence of a combination to fix rates, the competi- 
 tion produced by this addition to the carrying capacity of the 
 ore boats reduced charter freights for the following year from 
 $.91 per ton to $.63 per ton. 13 In 1897 eighteen more boats 
 with a tonnage of 58,000 were built and in 1898 freights ruled at 
 $.61 per ton. 14 
 
 In the fall of 1898 unusually severe storms on the Lakes made 
 a considerable reduction in the available tonnage. The Span- 
 ish-American War drew from the Lakes a large number of wage 
 earners 15 and attracted to the Atlantic Coast numerous lake 
 bulk freighters. 16 At the same time the boom period on the 
 Lakes, following the return of prosperity in the late nineties, 
 created an unprecedented demand for both boats and men. In 
 spite of the fact that dispatch in loading and unloading boats 
 and time study in running the boats were greatly increasing the 
 possible annual carrying capacity, ore freights rose from $.61 
 per ton in 1898 to $.95 in 1899. Other freights rose in pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Such freight rates on tonnage approximately as great as that 
 in 1896 made the year 1899 by far the most prosperous ever 
 experienced by the vessel owners. The increasing demand for 
 iron and steel products indicated a banner year for 1900. As 
 stated above, the Bessemer Steamship Company was guaranteed 
 an annual tonnage of 1,200,000 tons by the Carnegie Steel Com- 
 pany at the going rate for the season. Anticipating a capacity 
 demand for vessel tonnage in 1900, the Rockefeller interests be- 
 gan as early as October, 1899, to charter all available boats for 
 the following season. 17 The knowledge of this fact in itself 
 forced up charter rates for 1900. In addition, boats represent- 
 ing a total capacity of 100,000 tons were held at the docks by 
 
 is These are average freights from the mines at the head of Lake Su- 
 perior to the receiving ports on Lake Erie. 
 
 i* In December, 1897, the executive committee of the Lake Carriers' 
 Association discussed a change in the by-laws of the association to permit 
 the adoption of minimum freight rates for the following season. This ef- 
 fort to fix freight rates by the association, like previous similar attempts 
 in the same direction, failed. Marine Review, Dec. 9, 1897, p. 7. 
 
 is Ibid., June 16, 1898, p. 8. 
 
 is Marine Eecord, Mar. 16, 1899, p. 10. 
 
 17 Ibid., Oct. 26, 1899, p. 7. 
 
28 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [178 
 
 the Bessemer Steamship Company in June, 1900, and another 
 increase was effected. 18 The rate for 1900, corresponding to 
 those already quoted, was $1.05 per ton an increase of $.10 
 over 1899. During the same year freights on coal and grain 
 fell as follows : hard coal Buffalo to Chicago, $.73 to $.48 per 
 ton ; soft coal Ohio ports to Milwaukee, $.69 to $.45 per ton ; 
 and wheat Duluth to Buffalo, $.036 to $.020 per bushel. 19 
 
 The reaction which resulted from this demonstration of the 
 ability of the Rockefeller fleet to control freight rates on iron 
 ore brought about important changes in the control of lake traf- 
 fic and in the relations of the vessel owners to the men employed 
 upon the boats. 
 
 There had always been a fairly constant relationship between 
 the wages of one class of men on the boats and those of each of 
 the other classes. So that to the vessel owner one union strong 
 enough to maintain wages or to force increases was as undesir- 
 able as an effective union for each class of employees. Up to 
 this time the seamen's union had occasioned most annoyance to 
 the owners. When the Lake Carriers' Association had ended 
 their campaign of 1893 against this union the only barrier be- 
 tween the vessel owner and his right to manage his boat as he 
 saw fit had been removed. In the absence of any effective labor 
 organization, the owners had little trouble in reducing wages. 
 The reductions from 1893 to 1897 were as follows: 20 
 
 WAGES PER MONTH 
 
 STEAMERS 
 
 1893 1897 
 
 First mates $60-$80 $50-$75 
 
 Second mates 45-60 40-50 
 
 Wheelsmen 30-37.50 25-30 
 
 Watchmen and lookoutsmen 30- 37.50 25- 30 
 
 Deckhands 15-20 15 
 
 Chief engineers 
 
 First class boats 115-125 105 
 
 Second class boats 100-115 90 
 
 Third class boats 80-100 60- 75 
 
 i& Marine Record, June 7, 1900, p. 11. 
 is Marine Review, Dec. 26, 1907, p. 23. 
 
 20 From data compiled for the writer by the secretary of the Lake Car- 
 riers ' Association. 
 
179] GROWING CONCENTRATION 29 
 
 Second engineers 
 
 First class boats 75- 80 70 
 
 Second class boats 70- 75 65 
 
 Third class boats 60- 70 50 
 
 Firemen 30-37.50 25-30 
 
 Oilers 30-37.50 30 
 
 Chief cooks 45- 55 40- 50 
 
 Second cooks and helpers , 15- 20 12- 15 
 
 SAIL-BOATS AND CONSORTS 
 
 First mates 45-60 30-45 
 
 Second mates 35- 45 35 
 
 Cooks 30-37.50 25-32 
 
 Seamen 30-37.50 20-30 
 
 Deckhands and boys 15- 20 13- 17 
 
 The wages for 1898 were the same as for 1897. By 1898 the 
 general unrest among the wage-earners on the Lakes had taken 
 the form of increased union activity and membership in all lake 
 organizations grew very rapidly. The heavy enlistments in the 
 Spanish-American War took many workers from the boats and 
 perhaps would have made labor scarce even in a normal year. 
 But in a year of unusual traffic the scarcity of men was very 
 marked and gave the unions considerable advantage. More 
 wages were demanded and at the opening of navigation in 1899 
 the following wages were paid as compared with those paid in 
 1898 : 21 
 
 WAGES PER MONTH 
 
 STEAMERS 
 
 1898 
 
 First mates $50-$75 
 
 Second mates 40 50 
 
 Wheelsmen 25- 30 
 
 Watchmen and lookoutsmen 25 30 
 
 Deckhands 15 
 
 Chief engineer 
 
 First class boats 105 
 
 Second class boats 90 
 
 Third class boats 60-75 
 
 Second engineer 
 
 First class boats 70 75 
 
 Second class boats 65 70 
 
 Third class boats 50 55 
 
 21 From data compiled for the writer by the secretary of the Lake Car- 
 riers ' Association. 
 
30 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [180 
 
 Firemen 25- 30 30- 35 
 
 Oilers 30 35 
 
 Chief cooks 40- 50 45- 55 
 
 Second cooks and helpers 12 15 17- 20 
 
 SAIL-BOATS AND CONSORTS 
 
 First mates 30- 45 35- 50 
 
 Second mates 35 40 
 
 Cooks 25-32 30-35 
 
 Seamen 20- 30 25- 30 
 
 The success of this wage demand gave the men on the boats 
 confidence in their organizations and made the union leaders 
 conscious of their power. The wages paid at the beginning of 
 1899 had scarcely restored the scale paid in 1893. 22 Increases 
 ranging from $2.00 to $5.00 per month were granted to all em- 
 ployees on the boats below the licensed officers on August 15, 
 1899, and in September the third increase for the year, ranging 
 from $2.00 to $22.00 per month and applying to practically all 
 men on the boats, was granted to take effect October 1, 1899. 23 
 Again at the opening of navigation in 1900 the employees below 
 the licensed officers received substantial advances over the high- 
 est wages paid in 1899. 24 In the scramble for the unusual profits 
 to be had in the ore carrying trade, the owners did not dare 
 risk a tieup of their boats in a strike. Hence the demands of the 
 unions met no organized opposition and indeed but little objec- 
 tion from individual owners. 
 
 In order to understand the development of union policies at 
 this time, a brief summary of the history of the labor organiza- 
 tions on the Lakes is necessary. The history of the Lake Sea- 
 men's Union has already been traced to 1896. In its reorgan- 
 ization after its third disruption by the Lake Carriers' Asso- 
 ciation, it definitely abandoned its opposition to steam-boatmen 
 and depended upon this class of men for increases in its mem- 
 bership. In fact, from this time on it was dominated by able 
 seamen who worked on steam vessels. The organization of deck- 
 hands was discussed from time to time, but it was not until 
 January, 1902, that a majority of the membership of the union 
 
 22 Marine Record, Aug. 17, 1899, p. 13. 
 
 23 Hid., Sept. 28, 1899, p. 5. 
 
 24 From data compiled for the writer by the secretary of the Lake Car- 
 riers ' Association. 
 
181 j GROWING CONCENTRATION 31 
 
 was made to see that every deckhand was a potential wheels- 
 man or watchman, especially if trouble should come with the 
 owners. Separate organization of deckhands was discussed for 
 a time but finally, in January, 1902, it was voted to accept them 
 as members of the Lake Seamen's Union, to be given a black 
 book or ordinary seamen's book. 25 Even then some of the local 
 unions refused to abide by the decision of the Lake Seamen's 
 Union and made little effort to join the deckhands within their 
 jurisdiction. At the same time the deckhands were not easily 
 organized. Being a shifting conglomerate of tramps, criminals, 
 school boys, and young men who had some expectation of fol- 
 lowing the Lakes for a living, the changes from deckhands to 
 able seamen and the desertions from the boats to enter some 
 other work made it almost impossible to gather together and to 
 hold such men in a union. Hence for a year after it was voted 
 to accept deckhands to membership in the union all efforts to 
 organize them failed. 
 
 With the increase in the number and size of steam-boats on 
 the Lakes, there developed the need for organization of firemen 
 and engineers. The first firemen's union was formed at Cleve- 
 land, April 12, 1888. On April 28 of the same year a similar 
 organization was formed at Buffalo. These two organizations 
 were unaffiliated except as they had mutual interests in the 
 Knights of Labor. In 1891 the firemen withdrew from the 
 Knights of Labor and incorporated in the State of New York 
 under the name of Marine Firemen, Oilers and "Water Tenders' 
 Benevolent Association of the Great Lakes. This charter was 
 retained until 1898. 26 During these ten years the methods em- 
 ployed by the firemen in dealing with their employers were very 
 similar to those employed by the seamen. As a rule the fire- 
 men were as difficult to organize as were the deckhands and 
 because the nature of their work demanded on the whole a hard- 
 ier set of men they were perhaps even more difficult to manage. 
 
 The firemen's union was always numerically weak and the 
 Lake Carriers' Association had even less difficulty in subduing 
 them than in keeping the seamen quiet. In 1899 the firemen 
 numbered but 300. They had applied several times for admit- 
 
 25 Proceedings Lake Seamen 's Union, 1902, p. 16. 
 
 26 Ibid., 1906, pp. 94-95. 
 
32 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [182 
 
 tance to the seamen's union, but the sailors looked upon the 
 firemen with the same contempt as they applied to the deckhands 
 and refused the applicants admittance. In 1899 the firemen af- 
 filiated with the International Longshoremen's Association and 
 under the leadership of this organization increased in numbers 
 very rapidly. 
 
 Previous to 1902 the cooks had no lake union. In the days of 
 sail-boat supremacy, very often the cooks were members of the 
 seamen's union. Those employed on steam-boats in 1901 who 
 were members of any labor organization belonged either to the 
 Hotel and Restaurant Employees' International Association or 
 to the Bartenders' International League of America. Outside 
 of the Buffalo local, the marine cooks formed the minority in 
 these organizations. In 1900 and again in 1901 the Lake Sea- 
 men's Union tried to organize the cooks on the lake boats, but 
 the opposition of the American Federation of Labor prevented. 
 In February, 1902, the Marine Cooks' Association of the Great 
 Lakes was formed at Cleveland. 27 Early in 1903 this union 
 called a general convention of all cooks on the Lakes to meet in 
 Detroit. It was here decided to withdraw from the hotel em- 
 ployees' and bartenders' unions and to affiliate with the Lake 
 Seamen's Union. 
 
 The first union of steam-boat engineers on the Lakes was 
 formed at Buffalo in February, 1854, to resist a reduction in 
 wages. 28 The movement was successful and the union continued 
 in existence until 1857. By this time wages were satisfactory 
 and union activity was permitted to lapse. "Wages were re- 
 duced in each of the two years following the breakup of the 
 union. When the outbreak of the Civil "War failed to restore 
 wages to their former level, the union was reorganized on Feb- 
 ruary 25, 1863, and a considerable increase in wages was ob- 
 tained. Buffalo was at this time the centre of Lake Erie ship- 
 ping and it was not until several years later that the operation 
 of steam-boats became an important trade at other lake ports. 
 
 The lake engineers joined in the movement for the organ- 
 ization of the National Marine Engineers' Association of the 
 
 27 Marine Record, Mar. 20, 1902, p. 8. 
 
 28 Proceedings Marine Engineers' Benevolent Association, 1899, pp. 
 101-2. 
 
183] GROWING CONCENTRATION 33 
 
 United States of America which- was formed at Cleveland, Feb- 
 ruary 21, 1875. 29 This association was not a wage regulating 1 
 union at the time of its organization, although from the begin- 
 ning a minority of its members insisted that the regulation of 
 the wages of its members should be one of its objects. It con- 
 tinued as a benevolent and fraternal association and in 1882 it 
 amended its constitution to prohibit any subordinate association 
 from dealing with the question of wages. 30 To make this policy 
 of the association clear, the name of the organization was changed 
 the following year to National Marine Engineers' Benevolent 
 Association. 31 
 
 Indirectly, however, the actions of the association did influence 
 wages. For example, an applicant for the government license 
 required of engineers must be recommended by two men who 
 already held such licenses. As early as 1885 the association 
 voted that its members must not sign such applications until 
 given permission to do so by the nearest subordinate association. 32 
 The association has also given much attention to legislation af- 
 fecting lake navigation, the number of men required by law to 
 man the boats, etc., so that by these means it has influenced the 
 supply of available engineers on the Lakes and hence, indirectly, 
 wages. 
 
 At various times as in 1895 and in 1899 the association 
 took a direct stand for wage increases. 33 It was not until the 
 latter year, however, that the trade union minority became the 
 majority and brought about a definite change in the policy of 
 
 29 Proceedings National Marine Engineers' Association, 1875, p. 4. 
 
 so Ibid., 1882, p. 28. 
 
 si Proceedings National Marine Engineers' Benevolent Association, 1883, 
 p. 77. With this definite statement of policy concerning wages came a 
 change in the attitude of the vessel owners toward the association. For- 
 merly opposed to it because some of the local associations carried on minor 
 strikes, the owners now gave their support to the association and in some 
 instances refused to hire engineers who were not members. 
 
 32 Ibid., 1885, p. 320. 
 
 as In 1895 the president of the union asked the Lake Carriers' Asso- 
 ciation for a wage conference but was refused. Marine Review, Feb. 7, 
 1895, p. 10. In 1899 the union took part in the general demand for wage 
 increases on the boats and after threats to strike secured an advance of 
 20 per cent, to take effect October 1, 1899. Proceedings Marine En- 
 gineers' Benevolent Association, 1900, pp. 210, 329, 330. 
 
34 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [184 
 
 the organization. This change is best shown by the address of 
 president of the association in his annual report delivered Jan- 
 uary 22, 1900. In discussing the futility of depending entirely 
 upon legislation and the need for a change in the policy of the 
 association he said in part: 8 * 
 
 The policy that for years has dominated our methods and procedures in 
 their application to the establishment and continuance of suitable and just 
 recompense for our labor, hours of service, and assistance in our particular 
 department, has outlived its usefulness and the policy of conservatism and 
 reserve is no longer sufficient to meet the conditions that they once over- 
 came, for the inclination on the part of the owners, managers, agents and 
 others to be just and fair, has given way in a majority of instances, to 
 arrogant spirit of selfish presumption that can be met only by the defiant 
 courage of a body of men who have not yet forgotten that we have as much 
 right to name our price, as the great trusts of the present day have to offer 
 remuneration that hereafter can only be spurned as not worthy of considera- 
 tion, and which can only be interpreted as an attack upon the value, use- 
 fulness and integrity of a profession, without which they cannot operate, 
 and who will hereafter see to it that they are recognized in all matters 
 where their interests are involved, or where their comfort, their manhood, 
 and their self-respect are at stake. . . 
 
 The people with whom we are dealing must be made to understand that 
 the Marine Engineers of this country have discarded the swaddling clothes 
 of timidity, humiliation and fear, and that they stand forth today, happy in 
 the knowledge that the door of opportunity stands wide open, that at last 
 they are awake, and henceforth will work under conditions that will in a 
 sense, guarantee some adequate return for the responsibilities, dangers, dis- 
 comforts, and distress of our profession. 
 
 This declaration launched the marine engineers upon a cam- 
 paign as a militant union which was destined to give vessel 
 owners much concern for several years. 
 
 The history of associations of captains or masters up to this 
 time is somewhat like the history of the Marine Engineers' 
 Benevolent Association; having in common the absence of ag- 
 gressive unionism. Formerly mates and occasionally a captain 
 who did not own his boat were members of the seamen's union. 
 This was not the general practice except as the seamen tried on 
 one or two occasions to force the masters into their union in or- 
 der to fortify themselves against discrimination by the owners 
 since the master hired the men. 
 
 As already noted, the introduction of the steam-boat, involv- 
 ing a large investment of capital and a heavy overhead expense, 
 
 3* Proceedings Marine Engineers' Benevolent Association, 1900, p. 210. 
 
GROWING CONCENTRATION 35 
 
 forced a change in methods of ^navigation which in turn de- 
 manded a different type of men to command the boats. The 
 line managers at Buffalo were the first to insist that their cap- 
 tains obtain more knowledge of navigation and suggested the es- 
 tablishment of a nautical school for this purpose. The masters 
 rebelled and refused to be considered novices at their trade or pro- 
 fession. At the same time some of the more thoughtful recog- 
 nized the change taking place in lake navigation and offered as a 
 substitute an association of the masters themselves. According- 
 ly, on March 2, 1886, the Excelsior Marine Benevolent Associa- 
 tion was formed by the captains at Buffalo. 35 One of the ob- 
 jects of the new association was ' ' to discuss matters of benefit to 
 those in our calling, so as to make us more desirable to the owner 
 of the craft we navigate." In 1887 organizers were sent out to 
 other ports and other locals were formed. 36 In 1891 a general 
 organization was formed, retaining the name of the original 
 Buffalo local. In 1893 the name was changed to Ship Masters' 
 Association. 87 Except for its beneficial features, this associa- 
 tion has always been more closely identified with the owners' 
 associations on the Lakes than with the marine trade unions. 
 
 Parallel with this association another and more inclusive or- 
 ganization developed, including in its membership masters and 
 mates on the Lakes. On January 17, 1887, the American 
 Brotherhood of Steamboat Pilots was formed in New York City 
 as a benevolent and fraternal association. 38 In 1893 its name 
 was changed to American Association of Masters and Pilots. For 
 some time it gained little support on the Lakes because of the 
 success of the Ship Masters' Association. The latter soon came 
 to be influenced largely by the boat owners, many of whom had 
 once been captains and members of the association. Some of 
 these retained their membership even after leaving the boats. 
 
 35 Beers, op. cit., p. 491. The organization of this association did not 
 immediately satisfy the owners, however, for during the same year the 
 Lake Carriers' Association started a school for masters and mates at Buf- 
 falo and gave serious consideration to a proposal not to hire in 1887 any 
 but those who could pass the examination conducted by their school. An- 
 nual Report Lake Carriers' Association, 1886, p. 9. 
 
 se Beers, op. cit., p. 492-3. 
 
 37 Marine Review, Jan. 26, 1893, p. 6. 
 
 ss Beers, op. tit., p. 495. 
 
36 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [186 
 
 Other owners were warm personal friends of members of the 
 association and through their friendship helped to influence the 
 policy of the organization. Gradually, as the Ship Masters' As- 
 sociation became more conservative, and as the American Asso- 
 ciation of Masters and Pilots became more radical and wage- 
 conscious, the latter seemed to many masters on the Lakes to 
 more nearly meet the needs of their calling and it gained in 
 strength. Especially was this true in 1899 and the following 
 years when the general labor unrest on the boats spread to many 
 of the younger captains and mates. 39 Other short-lived frater- 
 nal and benevolent associations of masters and mates on the 
 Lakes, such as the Whales or the Lake Pilots' Aid Association, 
 had ceased to exist by 1899 and hence had no influence upon the 
 period of trade agreements which began at this time. 
 
 89 Marine Eecord, Jan. 31, 1901, p. 7; Feb. 28, 1901, p. 8; March 14, 
 1901, p. 7; July 18, 1901, p. 6; etc. 
 
CHATER III 
 TRADE AGREEMENTS 
 
 At the time of the amalgamation of the Cleveland Vessel 
 Owners' Association and the Lake Carriers' Association, each 
 was composed of fleets aggregating about 300,000 tons. During 
 the first year of the reorganized Lake Carriers' Association, the 
 enrolled tonnage was as follows : 1 
 
 Number of Boats Tonnage 
 
 Steamers 360 430,880 
 
 Schooners 255 149,039 
 
 Total 615 579,919 
 
 This tonnage increased to 842,248 in 1900. 2 In the meantime 
 the character of enrolled ships underwent a great change. The 
 schooners largely dropped out of the association as did also the 
 steam-boats under 1200 tons and the fleets composed entirely of 
 vessels under 1400 tons. 3 By 1900 the Lake Carriers' Associa- 
 tion had became an organization of ore carrying boats and the 
 schooners and smaller steam-boats had been relegated to the 
 lumber trade. 
 
 In 1897 the Bessemer Steamship Company, with a tonnage of 
 48,661, constituted but 7 per cent of the tonnage of the Lake 
 Carriers' Association; while the eight largest fleets in the asso- 
 ciation made up less than one-third of its tonnage. By 1900 
 the Bessemer fleet had increased to 114,964 tons which was but 
 13.6 per cent of the enrolled tonnage of the association. Never- 
 theless the appearance of the Bessemer fleet was the signal for 
 opposition on the part of independent vessel owners who feared 
 a Rockefeller-Carnegie combination which would deprive them 
 of their business. The steel producers, with the notable excep- 
 
 1 Annual Eeport Lake Carriers' Association, 1893, p. 3. 
 
 2 Marine Eecord, Jan. 17, 1901, p. 10. 
 
 s Ibid., Jan. 18, 1900, p. 20; Jan. 16, 1902, p. 13. 
 
 37 
 
38 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [188 
 
 tion of the Carnegie Steel Company, had for a number of years 
 carried a part of their own ore and collectively had exerted 
 enough influence upon lake traffic to defeat previous attempts 
 by the independents to regulate ore freight rates. But when 
 freights fell to the lowest point in the history of lake traffic in 
 1897 and 1898, the independent vessel owners gave an undue 
 share of the blame to the Bessemer Steamship Company and 
 again planned to regulate ore rates. 4 In the rush for a share 
 of the great profits which resulted from carrying ore during the 
 two prosperous years which followed, the plan was abandoned. 
 
 The temporary success of the Rockefeller interests in boosting 
 freights in 1899 prompted the formation of the Pittsburg Steam- 
 ship Company by the Carnegie interests at the close of that 
 season. 5 Starting with six boats at the beginning of the follow- 
 ing season, it soon increased the number to twelve and planned 
 the building of a ship-yard at Conneaut. Although the Rocke- 
 feller interests had succeeded in maintaining an artificial stand- 
 ard of freight rates, the high charter fees paid to the inde- 
 pendents had absorbed most of the profits. This fact, together 
 with this possibility of a rival Carnegie fleet, induced the Rocke- 
 feller interests to sell out to the Carnegie Steel Company in 
 August, 1900. 6 
 
 Then came the organization of the United State Steel Corpora- 
 tion. "When first announced nothing was said about the pur- 
 chase of mines or boats, but in March, 1901, it was announced 
 that the former Rockefeller interests on the Lakes, including 
 the Bessemer Steamship Company, had been absorbed by the 
 Steel Corporation. 7 In addition the Pittsburg Steamship Com- 
 pany, the Steel Corporation fleet, purchased other fleets so that 
 in 1901 it owned 112 boats having an aggregate tonnage of 285,- 
 
 * The real basis for complaint by the independents was the f act that 
 their boats have always been used merely to carry ore which the boats 
 owned by the furnace interests cannot handle. In a dull season such as 
 1897 it could easily happen that the furnace interests could carry all the 
 ore they needed. Their boats were kept busy during both dull and heavy 
 seasons, while they employed outside tonnage only when the demands for 
 ore exceeded their own carrying capacity. 
 
 5 Marine Eecord, Nov. 16, 1899, p. 11. 
 
 e Ibid., Aug. 16, 1900, p. 6. 
 
 T Ibid., Mar. 21, 1901, p. 6. 
 
189] TRADE ARGEEMENTS 39 
 
 565 tons, or 33 per cent of all 'tonnage enrolled in the Lake 
 Carriers' Association. 8 
 
 Having absorbed the Rockefeller fleet and finding the inde- 
 pendents fighting each other for charters, the reorganized Pitts- 
 burg Steamship Company had little difficulty in ruling ore 
 freights in 1901. The independents again discussed combination 
 to maintain rates, but the uncertainty of securing charters for 1 
 all, in the presence of a single shipper owning a fleet with a 
 carrying capacity of more than one-third of the ore to be brought 
 down the Lakes caused a rush for charters instead. 9 As a result 
 ore freights fell from $1.05 in 1900 to $.84 in 1901, in spite of 
 the fact that the boats were held at the dock until the middle of 
 May by the engineers' strike. 10 During the year the absolute 
 power of the new fleet was demonstrated when independent 
 vessels were held up at both the upper and the lower docks to 
 permit the Pittsburg Steamship Company's boats to exercise 
 greater dispatch in loading and unloading their cargoes. 11 
 These delays caused considerable loss to the independent owners. 
 Nevertheless the independents were largely dependent upon the 
 Steel Corporation for their cargoes so that they dared not com- 
 plain. A further decrease to $.76 per ton was experienced in 
 1902. 
 
 Vessel owners had never been regular attendants at the meet- 
 ings of the Lake Carriers' Association, leaving the management 
 in the hands of the executive officers. In fact, the association 
 had existed only from year to year. Not all of its membership 
 was constant and members withdrew from or joined the associa- 
 tion according as its policy displeased or pleased them. 12 This 
 was especially true of the independents in regard to the labor 
 policy of the association. One of the greatest offenders in this 
 respect was the owner of the largest independent fleet, a man who 
 in 1901 controlled over 11 per cent of the tonnage of the asso- 
 
 s The total tonnage in 1901 was 874,203 tons. Annual Report Lake 
 Carriers' Association, 1901, pp. 19-20. 
 
 a Marine Record, Apr. 11, 1901, p. 7. 
 
 "Also ore shipments were nearly 8 per cent greater in 1901 than in 
 1900. 
 
 11 Ibid., Dec. 5, 1901, p. 7. 
 
 12 Proceedings Lake Carriers' Association, passim. 
 
40 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [190 
 
 elation. 13 If an increase in wages was granted by the association, 
 and he believed he could secure non-union men at lower terms, 
 he often refused to abide by the ruling of the association and 
 withdrew for a time. On the other hand, if an increase in wages 
 was demanded and refused and a tie-up of traffic was threatened, 
 he never failed to grant the union's demands if by so doing he 
 could operate his boats and secure profits while others were idle 
 at the dock. In this policy this fleet was followed by others of 
 smaller size but which, taken together, at times forced the Lake 
 Carriers' Association to change its decision. 
 
 Being a purely voluntary, year-to-year organization, the asso- 
 ciation had no power to discipline members who violated its rules 
 or refused to abide by majority vote. Meantime the power of 
 the Steel Corporation as a boat owner was feared by other mem- 
 bers of the association and the organization of the corporation's 
 fleet almost disrupted the association. Owning the most up-to- 
 date boats on the Lakes, and being able at all times to drive their 
 vessels to the limit, the owners of this fleet expected to secure 
 the most efficient men available to man their boats and were 
 willing to pay high wages to such men. Other members of the 
 association recognized that a standard so set would be forced up- 
 on them also. Hence they sought a means to control the pay- 
 ment of wages to all employees on the Lakes. A third factor 
 which aided in bringing about a reorganization of the Lake Car- 
 riers' Association was the growing strength of the unions, in- 
 cluding at this time every man on the boats from the captain 
 down. 
 
 The Bessemer Steamship Company's insistence upon a busi- 
 ness-like management of its vessels was but a beginning to the 
 changes which took place when the United States Steel Corpora- 
 tion assumed control in 1901. Captains were shifted about from 
 boat to boat in the interests of efficiency. 14 They were no longer 
 permitted to hire their men but every employee on the boat, 
 from the chief engineer to the deckhand, was supplied by the 
 management on shore. It had been customary for the captain, 
 upon reaching a port near his home, to visit his family while his 
 boat was being loaded or unloaded. Now this privilege was de- 
 is Proceedings Lake Carriers' Association, 1901, p. 18. 
 i* Marine Record, June 20, 1901, p. 6. 
 
191] TRADE ARGEEMENTS 41 
 
 nied him and he was not permitted to leave port except by per- 
 mission of his manager. 15 In these and other ways the reins 
 over the captain were gradually tightened until he came to feel 
 that he had no greater privileges or authority and was considered 
 of no greater importance than a deckhand. 
 
 At its annual convention in January, 1901, the Marine En- 
 gineers' Benevolent Association made a new classification of 
 lake boats, 16 involving a demand for more help in the engine 
 room and a considerable increase in wages. 17 The demands were 
 presented to the Lake Carriers' Association on January 26, 1901. 
 At first they were ignored by the Lake Carriers' Association but 
 later the president of the union was told that he must deal with 
 the individual owners. 18 Being protected by their licenses so 
 that strike breakers could not be secured to take their places, the 
 union set a date for settlement and threatened increased demands 
 if their original terms were not complied with. A strike was 
 called on February 27 and owners outside of the association 
 hastened to accept the classification proposed by the union. 19 
 Members of the association were more hesitant about accepting 
 the union's terms but by May all of the owners, acting individ- 
 ually and including the Pittsburg Steamship Company, had 
 made peace with the union upon terms which gave its members 
 all their original demands and a wage scale considerably in ad- 
 vance of that at first submitted. 20 
 
 To prevent a repetition of such a strike, the Pittsburg Steam- 
 ship Company, at the close of the season of 1901, asked its en- 
 gineers to sign individual contracts which would permit it to 
 hold back the first month's pay in order to insure continuous 
 
 18 Marine Record, Sept. 5, 1901, p. 7. 
 
 is Formerly this was done by the Lake Carriers' Association alone, 
 without consulting with any of the employees. Marine Record, Jan. 31, 
 1901, p. 10. 
 
 17 Proceedings Marine Engineers' Benevolent Association, 1901, p. 159. 
 
 is Annual Report Lake Carriers' Association, 1901, p. 10. 
 
 is Proceedings Marine Engineers' Benevolent Association, 1901, p. 233. 
 
 20 Marine Record, May 2, 1901, p. 7. Aside from increases in wages, the 
 chief gain for the union was an increase in the number of assistants on 
 the boats. In discussing this gain the president of the union said: 
 ''Steamers that have never carried oilers are now carrying one, and in 
 many cases two." Proceedings Marine Engineers' Benevolent Associa- 
 ti^n, 1901, p. 244. 
 
42 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [192 
 
 service throughout the season. 21 The officials of the union ad- 
 vised against this policy, fearing that a few contracts might pre- 
 vent any aggressive action by the organization. In spite of this 
 warning a small number of contracts were signed for the season 
 of 1902. However, they were not numerous enough to warrant 
 any wage reductions by the Pittsburg Steamship Company in case 
 any such action was contemplated. In addition to these con- 
 tracts, the Pittsburg Steamship Company declared a bonus to 
 their engineers for the season of 1901, ranging in amount from 
 $77 to $100, to be paid when the engineer had actually started 
 to work for the season of 1902. 22 
 
 Neither the Ship Masters' Association nor the American Asso- 
 ciation of Masters and Pilots took any part in the engineers' 
 strike of 1901. 23 After failing to induce either of these asso- 
 ciations to act, a small number of captains, some of whom were 
 members of one or both of these organizations, formed a new 
 organization in March, 1901, to help the engineers. They called 
 it the Ship Masters' Protective Association. 24 It did not gain 
 sufficient strength of numbers to be of use to the engineers and 
 after the settlement of the strike it disbanded. 
 
 Under the restrictions imposed by the Pittsburg Steamship 
 Company throughout the season of 1901, the captains became 
 more and more dissatisfied and the hitherto small minority in 
 favor of a trade union began to increase in strength. Through- 
 out the season unionism was urged until by fall the masters and 
 mates on the Lakes were pulling in three directions: Those in 
 control of the Ship Masters' Association constituted the con- 
 servative wing and advocated closer relations with owners rather 
 than any action which would incur their enmity. Those in con- 
 trol of the American Association of Masters and Pilots proposed 
 sufficient action to restore to the master his former authority on 
 the boat, but without at the same time forcing him to sacrifice his 
 individual rights in dealing with his employer. The radical 
 wing proposed the withdrawal of the lake members of the Amer- 
 ican Association of Masters and Pilots and the reorganiaztion of 
 
 21 Proceedings Marine Engineers' Benevolent Association, 1902, p. 252. 
 
 22 Marine Record, Jan. 23, 1902, p. 7. 
 
 23 Ibid., Mar. 21, 1901, p. 7. 
 2* Ibid., Mar. 7, 1901, p. 6. 
 
193] TRADE ARGEEMENTS 43 
 
 the Ship Masters' Protective Association on distinctly trade 
 union lines. 25 At the beginning of the season of 1902 such reor- 
 ganization was actually attempted but again failed to gain suffi- 
 cient support to make it effective. 28 
 
 At the opening of navigation in 1902 the firemen demanded 
 an increase in wages. 27 The Pittsburg Steamship Company took 
 the initiative in calling a conference of vessel owners to take 
 some action in reaching an agreement with the firemen. Some of 
 the owners objected to this method of procedure as did the union 
 members who feared that the lack of responsibility on the part 
 of the owners, meeting informally, would not insure the accept- 
 ance of a new scale by all vessel owners. It was finally decided 
 to leave the settlement to the Lake Carriers' Association and the 
 union. Since the association had no power to discipline its mem- 
 bers in case of violation of its rules, the settlement as finally 
 agreed upon made the individual owners rather than the asso- 
 ciation responsible for the faithful observance of its terms. The 
 agreement fixed wages at $45.00 per month until September 1, 
 and at $52.50 per month for the remainder of the season. 28 
 
 The firemen had acted independently in this matter and had 
 not consulted the seamen. Hence the latter were not included 
 in the advance promised for September 1. Spring wages for 
 seamen were $45.00 for able seamen and $25.00 for deckhands. 29 
 The latter were not members of the seamen's union at that time. 
 Although it was customary to raise wages in the fall, the seamen 
 had no assurance of an increase as had the firemen. When Sep- 
 tember came the seamen too demanded an advance to $52.50 and 
 were at first refused. 30 But realizing the strength of the union 
 and the inability of the Lake Carriers' Association to hold to- 
 gether in case of a threatened tie-up of their boats, the owners 
 granted the demand to take effect October 1. The seamen were 
 asked to make the new scale rule for the remainder of the season. 
 This request was refused. Instead, on November 1 they de- 
 
 25 Marine Record, Dec. 26, 1901, p. 6. 
 28 Ibid., Jan. 30, 1902, p. 11. 
 
 27 Ibid., March 20, 1902, p. 7. 
 
 28 Ibid., Mar. 27, 1902, p. 11. 
 
 29 From data furnished the writer by the secretary of the Lake Car- 
 riers ' Association. 
 
 so Marine Review, Sept. 4, 1902, p. 26. 
 
44 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [194 
 
 manded and received another advance to $60.00 per month. 31 
 Although the fireman had agreed to finish the season at $52.50, 
 this second advance to the seamen called for an equal advance 
 to the firemen to prevent a strike by that union. 
 
 Anticipating the final outcome of the growing strength of the 
 labor organizations on the Lakes in 1899 and 1900, the owners, 
 at the end of the latter season, sought a means of counteracting 
 union activity. In December, plans were laid to form an or- 
 ganization to include all men employed on the boats; such or- 
 ganization to be managed and controlled by the Lake Carriers' 
 Association under the name of Lake Carriers' Beneficial Feder- 
 ation. 32 In order to overcome expected opposition from union 
 leaders it was proposed that this federation be a sort of accident 
 insurance association and that membership in it would not debar 
 an employee from membership in any other organization. At 
 the same time it was expected that membership in such an or- 
 ganization would insure greater loyalty to employers and greater 
 continuity of service on the boats. In one of his letters to the 
 vessel owners, explaining the benefits of the federation to the 
 employers, the secretary of the Lake Carriers' Association made 
 it clear that the owners would be expected to give preference in 
 employment on their boats to holders of benefit books and that 
 "unfaithfulness" in service would cause the forfeiture of the 
 book and all claims to the fund. 33 
 
 The plan for the federation was definitely announced in Jan- 
 uary, 1901, and some of the captains were notified to see to it 
 that the men on their boats made application for membership. 
 Because of the weakness of the loose organization of owners in 
 the Lake Carriers' Association, it was announced that the plan 
 would not be put into operation unless 90 per cent of the owners 
 agreed to it. 34 The engineers' strike in the spring of 1901; the 
 very outspoken opposition of all union leaders, backed by the 
 almost unanimous union sentiment in all branches of labor on 
 the boats; the growing dissatisfaction of the captains and the 
 consequent uncertainty of their support in case of trouble with 
 
 si Marine Review, Nov. 20, 1902, p. 17. 
 
 32 Contemporary numbers of Marine Review, passim and pamphlet en- 
 titled Welfare Plan, issued by the Lake Carriers' Association in 1909. 
 
 33 Marine Record, Jan. 10, 1901, p. 7. 
 s* IUd., Feb. 21, 1901, p. 10. 
 
195] TRADE ARGEBMENTS 45 
 
 the other employees; and the independent owners' distrust of 
 Steel Corporation control all combined to defeat the plan. When 
 it was found that the requisite 90 per cent of the vessel owners 
 were unwilling to sanction the formation of the federation, the 
 Lake Carriers' Association announced that labor conditions ren- 
 dered a test of the plan "inexpedient" at that time and that 
 the matter would be held in abeyance ; but that the work already 
 done ' ' will be available in the future if the time shall come when 
 the members of the Association desire to revive the plan. ' ' 35 
 
 Although victorious for the moment, some of the union leaders 
 foresaw some of the possibilities of a revival of such a plan by 
 the vessel owners and immediately increased their activities in 
 two directions : First, to increase their own membership ; and 
 second, to get into closer relationship with other employees en- 
 gaged in lake traffic. 
 
 Previous to this time the relations of the organizations on the 
 Lakes which called themselves unions had been cordial, for the 
 most part. When unionism revived in Chicago in 1877-1878 the 
 man most instrumental in organizing the longshoremen also took 
 the initiative in organizing the seamen. During the following 
 decade these unions usually relied upon each other for support 
 in time of strike. At the beginning of the season of 1888 the 
 formation of a trades council of lake unions was discussed but 
 no action was taken. 36 Again in 1890 when the Seamen's As- 
 sembly was little more than a name and when withdrawal from 
 the Knights of Labor was under discussion, a proposal was made 
 to the longshoremen for the formation of an Interstate Union of 
 Sailors, Vessel Loaders, and Unloaders. 37 Before the plan could 
 be adopted the seamen withdrew from the Knights of Labor and 
 for a time succeeded independently. In 1891 both the longshore- 
 men and the seamen became affiliated with the American Federa- 
 tion of Labor. The cooperation idea continued in the minds of 
 its originators but now became federation rather than amalgama- 
 tion. 
 
 This idea took definite form in December, 1891, in the or- 
 ganization of the Marine Trades' and Labor Council of the 
 
 ss Annual Eeport Lake Carriers' Association, 1901, p. 10. 
 
 36 Journal of Lake Seamen 'a Union, in ms., Feb. 28, 1888. 
 
 37 Ibid., Dec. 9, 1890. 
 
46 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [196 
 
 Great Lakes, including in its membership unions of longshore- 
 men, ship carpenters and caulkers, salt unloaders, and seamen. 
 It was expected that the unions of coal shovelers and hoisters, 
 iron ore trimmers, grain trimmers, coal unloaders, and marine 
 engineers would join also. The original council continued an in- 
 different existence for four years. It was given no power and 
 while its advice was plentiful not even the delegates who framed 
 its resolutions heeded them while sitting as members of their 
 own unions. 38 
 
 In the meantime the longshoremen had formed an interna- 
 tional union in 1892. The seamen in the same year had formed 
 the International Seamen 's Union. The latter had given up their 
 industrial union idea of including in their organization "every 
 man on the Great Lakes who is employed in any capacity con- 
 nected with the Lakes" and had but gradually indeed permitted 
 men of their own class employed upon steam-boats to join their 
 organization. On the other hand, the longshoremen, beginning in 
 1892 as an international union of lumber shovers, had steadily ex- 
 tended their jurisdiction until by 1901 they included the follow- 
 ing trades : lumber handlers ; coal handlers ; coal, grain, and ore 
 trimmers; ore handlers; hoisters and engineers; car dumpers, 
 pinchers and wall trimmers; freight handlers; grain scoopers; 
 marine firemen, oilers, and water tenders; stationary dockfire- 
 men ; marine divers, helpers, tenders and steam pump operators ; 
 top dock men; general dock laborers; mjll men; lumber in- 
 spectors and sealers; and lumber pilers and yard men. 39 
 
 Except for occasional aid given to vessel owners or dock man- 
 agers in furnishing strike breakers when the other union was on 
 strike, these two organizations maintained an indifferent attitude 
 toward each other during the decade following 1892. The sea- 
 men raised no objection to the expanding policy of the longshore- 
 men until the marine firemen, oilers, and water tenders were ab- 
 sorbed in 1899. As already noted the seamen had themselves re- 
 fused admittance to the firemen on several occasions. But when 
 the International Longshoremen's Association accepted the fire- 
 men, the seamen appealed to the American Federation of Labor 
 
 ss Journal of Lake Seamen's Union, in ms. passim. 
 **Procedings International Longshoremen's Association, 1901, pp. 48 
 et seq. 
 
197] TRADE ARGEEMENTS 47 
 
 for jurisdiction over this class of labor on the Lakes. 40 This 
 started a jurisdictional fight which weakened both organizations 
 in their dealings with their employers. 
 
 The proposal of the Lake Carriers' Association in 1901 to form 
 a federation of all employees on the boats, to be managed and 
 controlled by the vessel owners, aroused the unions to a renewed 
 effort to band together for mutual protection. The marine coun- 
 cil idea was revived. The Milwaukee unions took the lead and 
 organized a council composed of representatives of the following 
 unions: International Longshoremen's Association; Marine En- 
 gineers' Benevolent Association; American Association of Mas- 
 ters and Pilots; Licensed Tugmen's Protective Association; Ma- 
 rine Firemen, Oilers, and Water Tenders' Union; and Lake Sea- 
 men's Union. 41 
 
 These councils existed throughout 1902 but never became a 
 factor in the labor movements on the Lakes for the following 
 reasons : First, as before, the councils were given no powers but 
 were merely advisory bodies. And second, the aristocracy of 
 labor prevented a close cooperation of unions. The captains 
 considered themselves to be on a higher plane than the engineers 
 and refused to join in a movement demanding an equality of 
 interests. 42 The engineers in turn considered the masters to be 
 ignorant sailors with sufficient experience and years of service 
 to gain for them a position to command other sailors. Both 
 captains and engineers looked with disdain upon all other classes 
 of labor on the Lakes. The seamen continued to hold themselves 
 aloof from the firemen and longshoremen since their work re- 
 quired a higher degree of skill and intelligence and hence at- 
 tracted the most desirable of the unlicensed men. 
 
 Finally, the unions were individually too strong to make ef- 
 fective cooperation necessary. With the exception of the cap- 
 tains, no class of labor on the boats had failed to secure its de- 
 mands from the vessel owners since the beginning of the boom 
 period on the Lakes in 1899. The failure of the captains was due 
 to their own inability to work together rather than to a lack of 
 outside assistance. In the face of these successes, the fear of a re- 
 
 <o Proceedings International Seamen's Union, 1902, p. 9. 
 
 41 Marine Record, Nov. 11, 1901, p. 11. 
 
 42 Marine Review, Feb. 8, 1906, p. 34. 
 
48 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [198 
 
 vival of the federation by the Lake Carriers' Association was not 
 sufficiently marked to force the unions to make concessions to each 
 other. Above all, the other unions were unwilling to make con- 
 cessions to the longshoremen which would in any sense recognize 
 the equality of the latter. While the longshoremen, being at 
 the bottom of the list, did not hesitate to admit to its membership 
 any class of labor ; but being one of the strongest unions on the 
 Lakes, it refused to relinquish any of its power to a weaker or- 
 ganization. Hence the movement, begun for cooperation, soon 
 developed antagonism instead. 
 
 The men who were responsible for the policies of the Interna- 
 tional Longshoremen's Association were industrial unionists in 
 the extreme sense. 43 In 1901 they started to organize the marine 
 engineers and hoped to absorb the lake membership of the Marine 
 Engineers' Benevolent Association. Some of the lake members 
 of the latter organization were favorable to such a plan and one 
 local was actually organized but the general association defeated 
 the scheme at its annual convention in 1902. Both the Inter- 
 national Longshoremen's Association and the Lake Seamen's 
 Union tried to break up the organiation of cooks in the Hotel 
 and Restaurant Employees' International Association and in 
 the Bartenders' International League and to induce them to join 
 their own organizations instead. Attempts were made by the 
 Longshoremen's Association in 1901 to induce the captains, 
 mates, and seamen to affiliate with them but they were unsuc- 
 cessful. 44 
 
 In 1902 more strenuous efforts were made to make the Inter- 
 national Longshoremen's Association a more inclusive organiza- 
 tion and in the convention of that year a suitable name to de- 
 scribe the type of organization desired by the leaders was dis- 
 cussed. Among the names proposed were the International 
 Marine and Railway Freightmen's Association and the Interna- 
 tional Association of Marine and Transport "Workers. The name 
 finally adopted was International Longshoremen, Marine and 
 Transport Workers Association. 45 The adoption of this name 
 
 4? Each annual report of the officers urged the extension of the jurisdic- 
 tion of the union to cover all employees engaged in the transportation in- 
 dustries. 
 
 ** Proceedings International Longshoremen's Association, 1901, p. 49. 
 
 Ibid., 1902, p. 160. 
 
199] TRADE ARGEEMENTS 49 
 
 was considered a declaration of. war by the Lake Seamen's 
 Union 46 a war which lasted for six years and which was a 
 continual source of weakness to both unions in dealing with em- 
 ployers. The Lake Carriers' Association utilized this union war 
 in playing one antagonist against the other whenever occasion 
 required it. 
 
 The attempts of the independent vessel owners to maintain ore 
 freights in 1901 had failed; instead a new competitor, owning 
 one- third of the tonnage in the Lake Carriers' Association and 
 carrying more than one-third of the ore, and at the same time 
 shipping more ore than all other shippers on the Lakes, had 
 come to dominate freight rates. An attempt to form a labor 
 federation to defeat the purposes of the unions had likewise 
 failed because the vessel owners could not work in harmony. 
 While in the wake of this failure every branch of labor on the 
 boats, except the captains, had forced increases in wages from 
 the vessel owners. By the end of 1902 the Lake Carriers' Asso- 
 ciation was besieged from without by the growing power of 
 unionism and from within by the fear of "trust" dictation and 
 by the underhand methods of a floating membership which 
 worked in harmony with the majority only when personal gains 
 could be increased by adherence to the rules of the association. 
 
 In an attempt to fortify themselves against the unions, the 
 Steel Corporation, and the floating membership in the Lake 
 Carriers' Association, a number of the vessel owners planned a 
 complete reorganization of the association at the end of the 
 season of 1902, involving a definite change in its policy in deal- 
 
 46 The American Federation of Labor was appealed to for a settlement 
 of the differences between the two organizations as early as 1902. Pro- 
 ceedings International Seamen's Union, 1902, p. 9. The A. F. of L. re- 
 ferred the matter back to the two unions for the purpose of inducing them 
 to reach a satisfactory agreement without outside interference. Four years 
 later, the feeling had become more bitter than ever and the A. F. of L. 
 finally held a hearing on the controversy in April, 1906. The decision was 
 not rendered until June, 1907. It was so favorable to the seamen that the 
 longshoremen rejected it at their next convention. In the award was an 
 order for the seamen and the longshoremen to establish some form of fed- 
 eration. Ibid., 1907, passim. But before anything could have been ac- 
 complished in this direction, even if the two organizations had been favor- 
 able to such a plan, both unions were involved in difficulties with their 
 employers. 
 
50 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [200 
 
 ing with labor. 47 The first plan of reorganization which was dis- 
 cussed excluded the Pittsburg Steamship Company from mem- 
 bership. 48 This seemed to be satisfactory to the management of 
 this company since it opposed any reorganization of the associa- 
 tion. A reconsideration of the proposed plans gave the company 
 an opportunity to join but found the manager in a non-receptive 
 mood. 49 Only after numerous conferences, involving certain 
 changes in the plan of reorganization, was the committee able to 
 induce him to enroll his fleet in the association. 
 
 The reorganization was completed in January, 1903, and the 
 association was incorporated under the laws of West Virginia. 
 The objects of the association, as stated in the articles of in- 
 corporation, were as follows: 
 
 To establish and maintain shipping offices for the convenient securing of 
 seamen for vessels on the Great Lakes, their connecting and tributary 
 waters; to establish and maintain and procure the establishment and main- 
 tenance of aids to navigation; and improve and secure the improvement of 
 channels, docks, wharves, loading and unloading and terminal facilities; 
 to establish and maintain, by contract or otherwise, such amicable relations 
 between employers and employed as would avoid the public injury that 
 would result from lockouts or strikes in the lake carrying service; to pro- 
 vide, so far as may be, for the prompt and amicable adjustment of matters 
 affecting shipping and the interests of vessel owners on the Great Lakes 
 and their connecting and tributary waters, and to lease, rent, purchase or 
 sell such real or personal property as may be necessary or convenient in 
 carrying out the foregoing purposes. 50 
 
 The capital stock of the association was apportioned according 
 to the enrolled tonnage of each fleet, one share being allotted for 
 each 100 net tons. 51 Management of the affairs of the associa- 
 tion was vested in a board of directors of twenty-one members. 52 
 This opened the way for control by the large fleets. 
 Previous to this time the labor policy of the vessel owners, 
 
 47 Marine Eeview, Dec. 18, 1902, p. 22. 
 
 *Ibid., Jan. 3, 1903, p. 25. 
 
 *9 /bid., Jan. 29, 1903, p. 23; Feb. 5, 1903, p. 22. 
 
 BO Articles of Association of the Lake Carriers' Association, 1903, art. 
 iii 
 
 si Ibid., 1903, art. vii. 
 
 62 By-laws of the Lake Carriers' Association, 1903, art. vi. Control 
 was further concentrated by forming within the board of directors an ex- 
 ecutive committee of five members authorized to exercise all the powers and 
 functions of the board when the board was not in session. Ibid., art. vii. 
 
201] TRADE ARGEEMENTS 51 
 
 first in the Cleveland Vessel Owriers' Association and later in 
 the Lake Carriers' Association, had been one of open non-union 
 shop when unions were weak and closed non-union shop closed 
 against the unions when unions were strong. As already re- 
 lated, this had resulted in occasional open conflicts, from which 
 the owners usually returned victorious, followed by continuous 
 guerrilla warfare involving endless trouble for the owners and 
 considerable losses to the unions. During the four prosperous 
 years preceding the reorganization of the Lake Carriers' Asso- 
 ciation, the demand for men had been great and the owners 
 could not risk tie-ups of their boats by refusing the demands of 
 the unions. Because there had been these four years of high 
 freights on a very rapidly increasing tonnage, following two 
 lean years, the owners gave less attention than usual to the 
 unions and permitted the latter to gain a position which seemed 
 to insure continuous control of wages. 
 
 Lake traffic had always been a chance investment. There 
 never was any certainty that freights would pay the running ex- 
 penses of the boats. On the other hand, seasons which returned 
 in profits half or even full value of the boats had not been un- 
 known. This was especially true of small boats whose safety 
 was endangered even in the ordinary storms on the Lakes. Then 
 too, the element of chance in freight changes was so great that 
 in the early days season charters were the exception rather than 
 the rule. In an anticipated dull season the shipper refused to 
 grant charters, preferring to rely upon the competition for car- 
 goes to reduce freight rates; and in a boom season, the carriers 
 took advantage of the competition for boats to reap the profits 
 from increasing rates. The range and frequency of these rate 
 fluctuations is shown in the following table : 53 
 
 RULING FREIGHT RATES ON ORE PROM ESCANABA TO LAKE ERIE PORTS 
 
 Date Bate Date Bate 
 
 May 1 $0.60 August 2 1.00 
 
 May 29 0.55 August 4 1.10 
 
 June 24 0.65 August 6 1.00 
 
 July 6 0.75 August 12 0.90 
 
 July 21 0.80 September 10 1.00 
 
 July 30 0.85 September 23 1.05 
 
 ss Marine Review, Dec. 17, 1891, p. 3. 
 
52 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [202 
 
 September 26 1.00 October 30.. 0.85 
 
 October 3 . 90 November 1 . 90 
 
 October 5 $0.85 Novembers 1.00 
 
 October 8 0.75 November 6 1.20 
 
 October 10 0.65 November 10 1.25 
 
 October 12 . 75 November 12 1.30 
 
 October 23 0.85 November 19 1.25 
 
 October 26 0.80 November 22 1.30 
 
 Likewise, wages were never settled and often fluctuated 300 
 per cent or more within a season. Previous to the late nineties, 
 the system of employing men by the trip instead of by the month 
 was universal. This usually involved idle days in port since the 
 men were discharged as soon as port was reached and were not 
 hired again until the boat was ready to start. Since the man- 
 agement of the men while on the boats had not been such as to 
 encourage the men to return to that boat for the succeeding trip, 
 it became the custom for all below the rank of licensed officers 
 to be floaters. Furthermore, the men employed on the boats 
 were usually single men and had no ties to bind them to a job. 
 This combination of the chance element of high wages or no 
 wages; of work days of long hours, fatiguing work, poor food, 
 unsanitary living conditions, and ill treatment by the officers of 
 the boat, followed by idle days in port spent in drunkenness 
 and carousals; and the lack of ties which make men look to the 
 future and try to provide for it, served to attract to the Lakes 
 an irresponsible set of men and to make them more unsteady and 
 irresponsible the longer they remained on the boats. As oppor- 
 tunity offered, these men not only shifted from boat to boat but 
 from the lake trades to other work of similar grade. In the 
 summer it was next to impossible to hold the men on the boats 
 when the upper lake ports were reached for the high wages of 
 the harvest fields offered too strong an appeal. After a few 
 weeks some of them drifted back to the Lakes only to answer the 
 call of high wages again when a chance came to work in the 
 logging camps. 54 Even without the promise of higher wages or 
 a change of work, many of these men could not be held at work 
 they were expected to perform and they became instead habitual 
 deserters. Especially among deckhands and firemen, the de- 
 serter was the rule at certain seasons of the year, while the man 
 
 s* Marine Eecord, passim. 
 
203] TRADE ABGEEMENTS 53 
 
 who remained on the boats throughout the sailing season was the 
 exception. 
 
 The size of the ore carrying boats increased 50 per cent from 
 1898 to 1902. This fact, coupled with increased knowledge of 
 lake water courses, better facilities for transportation through 
 locks and connecting rivers, and greater efficiency in the man- 
 agement of the boats, had increased the safety of navigation. 
 These factors tended to decrease the risks of the vessel owner 
 and to make his gross income for the season more definite and 
 more secure. On the other hand, the Steel Corporation had 
 appeared as the shipper of a large share of the ore and as a boat 
 owner with a very great influence upon freight rates. Further- 
 more, competition was increasing: 26 boats with a tonnage of 
 114,284 tons were constructed in 1900; 34, of 116,671 tons in 
 1901 ; and 35, of 142,195 tons in 1902. 55 This continued increase 
 in the available lake tonnage gave the independent boat owners 
 a greater incentive for making sure of business throughout the 
 season by securing season charters. 
 
 A large element in the boat owners' expenditure was wages. 
 Up to this time little had been done to make season wages certain, 
 although they had already been made more steady during the 
 past few years than formerly. Only a contract for the season 
 could remove this uncertainty. It was out of these conditions 
 that the trade agreement on the boats evolved. And it was with 
 this purpose in mind rather than to continue the fight against 
 the unions that the Lake Carriers' Association prepared for re- 
 organization at the close of the season of 1902. 56 
 
 The vessel owners had never in the past conceded the right of 
 an employee to have a voice in fixing his wages or the conditions 
 under which he worked. It had been customary for both unions 
 and owners to frame a scale of wages. Might decided which 
 scale should rule. In signing contracts with the unions at this 
 time the policy of the owners did not change. Since 1899 might 
 had been partly at least with the unions. Signing the contract 
 meant to the Lake Carriers' Association merely that the vessel 
 owners were trying to define the terms which they expected the 
 
 ss Marine Review, Feb., 1910, pp. 64-65. 
 
 68 The Pittsburg Steamship Company at first opposed the reorganiza- 
 tion because it did not wish to give up to the association the right to deal 
 directly with the laborers on its boats. Ibid., Jan. 22, 1903, p. 18. 
 
54 WAGE BABGAINING ON LAKES [204 
 
 might of the unions would exact of them with or without such 
 an agreement. At the same time the owners were trying to 
 place responsibility for the faithful observance of the terms 
 agreed upon. 
 
 The Lake Carriers' Beneficial Federation was planned in 1901 
 to standardize conditions on the boats and to secure greater re- 
 sponsibility on the part of the employees upon terms satisfactory 
 to the vessel owners. The weakness of the association and the 
 strength of the unions prevented the fruition of this plan. The 
 trade agreements of 1903 with the unions representing the em- 
 ployees below the licensed officers were granted by the Lake Car- 
 riers' Association to standardize conditions on the boats and to 
 secure greater responsibility on the part of the employees upon 
 terms acceptable to the unions. 
 
 The idea of a trade agreement was not new on the Lakes. As 
 early as 1889 the Lake Seamen's Union had asked the ore car- 
 riers represented in the Cleveland Vessel Owners' Association 
 for a conference for the purpose of drawing up an agreement. 57 
 To be sure the union was weak at this time and reversed its posi- 
 tion two years later. But beginning in 1899 representatives of 
 the Lake Seamen's Union and of the firemen's union attended 
 the annual conventions of the Lake Carriers' Association and 
 asked for agreements. 58 Since 1899 the Lumber Carriers' Asso- 
 ciation and the dock managers had had agreements with their 
 employees and even the Lake Carriers' Association had a con- 
 tract with the grain scoopers at Buffalo. As a matter of fact the 
 methods employed by the association in dealing with the men 
 on the boats in 1901 and 1902 practically amounted to an 
 agreement. 
 
 As soon as the association was reorganized and it became 
 known that it expected to deal with the unions, the latter planned 
 for conferences and drew up terms to be submitted. The 
 American Association of Masters and Pilots submitted a classi- 
 fied wage scale for masters and mates. 59 Without "recognizing" 
 this organization, the Lake Carriers' Association reached an un- 
 derstanding with its representatives concerning wages for the 
 season, granting a monthly scale to mates which was about 20 
 
 57 Cf. supra, p. 17. 
 
 58 From ms. records of these unions. 
 
 5 Marine Review, Jan. 22, 1903, p. 20. 
 
205] TRADE ARGEEMENTS 55 
 
 per cent higher than the wages paid in 1902. 60 The Marine En- 
 gineers' Benevolent Association was not ''recognized" either, but 
 its wage scale was accepted by the Lake Carriers' Association. 61 
 Before the other unions met the Lake Carriers' Association an 
 attempt was made to have a joint conference in order to strength- 
 en their positions in effecting an agreement. The growing ani- 
 mosity between the Lake Seamen's Union and the International 
 Longshoremen's Association prevented such a conference so that 
 each union worked alone instead. 
 
 Previous to the conference with the owners, each union met 
 and framed a set of demands which exceeded their expectations 
 and which they could reduce in conference without sacrificing 
 what they thought was justly due. The agreements made by the 
 delegates of the Lake Seamen's Union were never effective until 
 ratified by a referendum vote of the union. This proved to be 
 a formal proceeding only since no agreement which was recom- 
 mended by the delegates was ever rejected by the union. 62 In 
 spite of continued protests by the Lake Carriers' Association, 
 this referendum was used year after year for it gave the union 
 a decided advantage. In case satisfactory terms could not be 
 secured from the Lake Carriers' Association, the proposed con- 
 tract could be submitted to referendum vote of the union without 
 recommendation or even with secret recommendation to reject it. 
 In this manner responsibility could be shifted from delegates to 
 union, a decided vote against acceptance of the contract would 
 show the strength of union sentiment, and the union would have 
 
 so The Pittsburg Steamship Company objected to a monthly scale, desir- 
 ing to make a season contract with its mates instead. One of the conces- 
 sions made to this fleet at the time of the reorganization of the Lake Car- 
 riers' Association was the insertion in the by-laws of the following sec- 
 tion : "In order to increase the efficiency of the service by systems of 
 bonuses and profit sharing, the right and privilege shall always remain 
 with each individual stockholder of this Association to make contracts with 
 employees running for a year or more on such terms and conditions as may 
 be desired." By-laws of the Lake Carriers' Association, 1903, art. i, sec. 
 1. This clause was used a great deal by this fleet. At this time the op- 
 position of the captains' union prevented the manager of the fleet from 
 making yearly contracts. Marine Eeview, Mar. 26, 1903, p. 22. 
 
 ! The engineers tried to obtain recognition and a closed shop agree- 
 ment but failed. Proceedings Marine Engineers' Benevolent Association, 
 1903, p. 513. 
 
 62 Ms. records of union conferences, passim. 
 
56 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [206 
 
 time to prepare for a strike while a second conference was being 
 arranged. 
 
 All other unions gave their delegates power to sign binding 
 agreements without reference back to the unions. The executive 
 committee of the Lake Carriers' Association always had power 
 to sign agreements binding upon all members of the association. 
 The executive committee was always represented by the president 
 of the association and Mr. Coubly. 63 Sometimes other members 
 attended. In any case the president usually made formal state- 
 ments while Mr. Coulby gave decisions on moot points. 64 To all 
 intents and purposes Mr. Coulby represented the vessel owners 
 in wage conferences. 
 
 In opening a conference the demands of the unions were al- 
 ways presented formally, accompanied by a statement of griev- 
 ances showing why hours should be reduced, wages increased, 
 the number of men on the boats increased, etc. The president of 
 the association usually made a formal reply stating that the 
 exigencies of lake traffic and the uncertainties of the current 
 year would prevent any increases in men or wages or reductions 
 in hours, or perhaps he would instead present a counter-demand 
 for a reduction in wages. The clauses of the proposed contract 
 were then taken up seriatim and those which were agreed upon 
 were voted accepted on first reading. All others were passed 
 for the time being. After going through the entire contract in 
 this manner the union usually withdrew to consider modifications 
 in the rejected clauses while the executive committee of the asso- 
 ciation considered substitutes for such clauses. Upon re-con- 
 vening, the conference again took up such clauses seriatim and 
 worked upon all except wages until some sort of a compromise 
 was reached. Usually the unions were forced to withdraw some 
 demands and reduce others. Occasionally they thought they 
 were receiving a grant of some demand when a later interpreta- 
 tion showed that it meant something different from what the 
 union had expected it to mean. 
 
 Wages were always left to the last. Because of the direct re- 
 lationship between the wages of one class of unlicensed men and 
 those of other classes, the Lake Carriers' Association usually 
 
 fts Cf. infra, p. 60. 
 
 6* Ms. minutes of wage conferences, passim. 
 
207] TRADE ARGEEMENTS 57 
 
 wished to settle with the weakest union first. The wages of the 
 cooks and seamen were usually settled at one conference and the 
 firemen at another. In 1907 only were they all settled at once. 
 A contract with any union affiliated with the Lake Seamen's 
 Union was never accepted by the delegates until agreement had 
 been reached with the other affiliated unions. 65 
 
 The Lake Seamen's Union was given a closed union shop agree- 
 ment in 1903 which classified the boats in the association, stating 
 the number and grades of men to be employed upon each and the 
 wages to be paid each class of men. 66 Spring wages remained 
 the same as in the fall of 1902 but fall wages were increased ap- 
 proximately 20 per cent. Although but few of the deckhands 
 had joined the seamen's union at this time, their wages were fixed 
 in the seamen's agreement. Deserters were to be punished by 
 being denied re-employment for a period of thirty days. Police 
 protection for the boats was abolished but the union agreed not 
 to strike for any cause whatsoever. In case of disagreement the 
 men were to continue at work until the grievance could be arbi- 
 trated. The question which was hardest to settle and which 
 caused vessel owners most trouble was the hours of labor. 67 Pre- 
 vious to this time the seamen were accustomed to be on duty 18 to 
 36 hours at a time while in port loading ore or shifting the 
 boat. 68 For this extra work the members of the union received 
 no extra pay. 
 
 Failing in their demands for a general observance of "watch 
 and watch" the able seamen accepted instead a provision for 
 overtime pay and a provision that no unnecessary work be re- 
 quired on Sundays or legal holidays. The regular day in port 
 was fixed at 10 hours (between 7 A. M. and 6 P. M.) unless the 
 
 85 Ms. minutes of wage conferences, passim. 
 
 88 These agreements were always printed so that facts given here are 
 taken from the agreements themselves. 
 
 87 This was true at every conference with this union. Unquestionably 
 unduly long hours had been the rule at times but when the union obtained 
 an agreement fixing the hours of labor on the boats its members demanded 
 a rigid adherence to the agreement at all times, regardless of the reasons 
 for the captains' desire to use their discretion. This rigid adherence to the 
 rule-book caused both owners and captains much trouble throughout the 
 life of the agreement system. 
 
 68 Marine Review, Mar. 13, 1902, p. 15. The average time for such work 
 was about 26 hours. 
 
58 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [208 
 
 men were given watch and watch. From the beginning this 
 section gave a great deal of trouble since it was a direct depart- 
 ure from age-long custom on the boats. Furthermore, it was 
 not fully understood by masters and men and caused trouble be- 
 cause of diverse interpretations. As soon as the agreement was 
 given a trial and the source of the trouble was found, a second 
 conference was held and "overtime" was more fully denned so 
 as to be clearly intelligible to all concerned. 
 
 The Marine Firemen, Oilers and Water Tenders' Union, rep- 
 resented by the International Longshoremen's Association, was 
 given a closed union shop agreement which denned the number 
 of men to be employed on the boats and the wages to be paid. 
 The spring scale gave an advance of $2.50 per month over the 
 fall scale of 1902 and the fall scale of 1903 carried an advance 
 of about 20 per cent. Deserters were to be punished by a re- 
 fusal of re-employment for a period of 30 days. Strikes were 
 prohibited and differences were to be settled by arbitration, the 
 men to remain at work in the meantime. 
 
 The Marine Cooks and Stewards' Union was given a closed 
 union shop agreement which defined the number of men to be 
 employed upon each class of boats and the wages to be paid each. 
 Some adjustments were made in this classification to approach 
 more closely a fixed standard of wages, but in general the scale 
 adopted provided for an advance of 15 to 20 per cent over the 
 scale for 1902. The cooks had not been included in the advance 
 to seamen and firemen in 1902. Provisions to cover desertions 
 from the boats and the settlement of strikes were the same as in 
 the seamen's and firemen's agreements. 
 
 Trouble started as soon as the season opened. When the mates 
 refused to sign the season contracts offered by the Pittsburg 
 Steamship Company the company withdrew the proposal but 
 later punished some of the mates who had led the opposition. In 
 September the American Association of Masters and Pilots de- 
 clared a strike against the Pittsburg Steamship Company because 
 its manager carried non-union mates, although this organization 
 had not been given a closed shop agreement. 69 The manager or- 
 dered the boats to lay up as soon as they reached port. He kept 
 his barges in commission, having them towed by independent 
 
 6 Marine Review, Sept. 17, 1903, p. 22. 
 
209] TRADE ABGEEMENTS 59 
 
 boats. The union requested the independents not to do this but 
 upon threat of loss of Steel Corporation business they were 
 forced to continue the practice. The Lake Carriers' Association 
 at first supported the Pittsburg Steamship Company, but in try- 
 ing to settle the strike a temporary break occurred in the asso- 
 ciation. Thus relieved of the support of the association, the 
 manager removed the non-unionists and settled the strike. 70 
 
 By October, 1903, the American Association of Masters and 
 Pilots had practically a 100 per cent organization on the Lakes. 71 
 Finding themselves being deprived of more and more of their 
 accustomed prerogatives by their employers on the one hand, 
 and, on the other, having their authority questioned by the men 
 under them who very early looked to their agreements rather 
 than to the captain as the source of authority on the boats, the 
 masters had been gradually forced to band together for self pro- 
 tection. 72 By the close of 1903 they began to make demands up- 
 on the vessel owners for the right to hire all men on the boats, 
 chief engineers included. 73 The owners anticipated trouble for 
 the opening of the season of 1904. 
 
 In December, 1903, A. B. Wolvin retired from the manage- 
 ment of the Pittsburg Steamship Company and Harry Coulby 
 
 TO Marine Review, Oct. 1, 1903, p. 17. 
 
 71 Probably included all but one captain and one mate. Ibid., p. 18. 
 
 72 These changes were especially marked in the Pittsburg Steamship 
 Company's fleet. Writing editorially concerning these changes the editor 
 of the Marine Review said on October 1, 1903 (pp. 17-18) : "The opera- 
 tion of a fleet so large as this involved certain radical changes in system. 
 Instead of being owned by individuals whose temperament and habits, 
 whose strength and frailties, were intimately known to those who sailed the 
 vessels, they became owned by an indeterminate number of persons, scat- 
 tered from Maine to Mexico, and known under the general classification 
 of stockholders in the United States Steel Corporation. In other words 
 the evolution was from the personal to the impersonal; and impersonal 
 things must be managed in an impersonal manner. The human element is 
 lacking. . . There is no doubt whatever that the Steel Corporation trod 
 on the toes of a great many captains when it extended its system of opera- 
 tion to the vessels. While there has been a tendency of late on the part of a 
 number of owners to limit the authority of the master, the Steel Corpora- 
 tion took a long step in that direction and left him practically shorn. And 
 it must be admitted that members of other unions on board ship did not 
 temper the wind to the shorn lamb." 
 
 73 Ibid., Aug. 20, 1903, p. 24. 
 
60 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [210 
 
 succeeded him. 74 Mr. Coulby had been manager of the Picands 
 and Mather fleet and of the Great Lakes Towing Company, 
 familiarly known as the Tug Trust. He was already an in- 
 fluential member of the executive committee of the Lake Carriers' 
 Association. As president and manager of the Pittsburg Steam- 
 ship Company Mr. Coulby has dominated the labor policy of the 
 Lake Carriers' Association since December, 1903. The source 
 of his power is three- fold : First, his position as executive head 
 of the largest fleet on the Lakes ; second, his relation to the Steel 
 Corporation, which in addition to owning this fleet, ships more 
 ore down the Lakes than do all other shippers together; and 
 third, his personal qualities which alone make him a leader whose 
 counsel would be sought by other men in his business. 
 
 74 Marine Eeview, Dec. 24, 1903, p. 23. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 DISRUPTION OF THE UNIONS 
 
 In general the agreements of 1903 were a marked improve- 
 ment over previous methods of dealing with labor on the boats. 
 The friction which accompanied the introduction of the contract 
 plan gradually disappeared as the parties came to understand 
 each other better. In the cases of some obstreperous individuals, 
 however, notably among the firemen, the agreement served only 
 to make them more irresponsible and more difficult to control. 
 They often refused to do what the "red book" did not speci- 
 fically require of them and even then their interpretation of its 
 requirements was not always correct. Such cases were perhaps 
 exaggerated in number and importance when related by those 
 who were aggrieved. Nevertheless the inability of the union of- 
 ficials to exercise complete control over their members from the 
 start caused some of the vessel owners to hesitate about renewing 
 agreements for 1904. The internal difficulties of the Lake Car- 
 riers' Association had largely been eliminated by the close of the 
 season of 1903, due partly to the fact that some misunderstand- 
 ings had been removed and partly to the degree of control exer- 
 cised by the executive committee of the association, by which it 
 could easily over-ride objections to the association policy by in- 
 dividual members. 
 
 In his annual report for 1903 the president of the Lake Car- 
 riers' Association said: "We have had the experience of one 
 season. The conditions before us are essentially different from 
 what they were last spring. ' ' a The association took no action 
 either in favor of or against agreements but left the matter of 
 renewals in the hands of the executive committee. There were 
 always members of the association who were opposed to any 
 ' ' recognition ' ' of the unions and who were ready at any time to 
 throw down the gauntlet and resort to the former methods of ex- 
 
 1 Annual Eeport Lake Carriers' Association, 1903, p. 8. 
 
 61 
 
62 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [212 
 
 terminating warfare. A number of the owners discussed seces- 
 sion from the policy of the association in dealing with labor and 
 the establishment of a policy of "open shop" instead. 2 In the 
 face of the growing solidarity of the owners at this time this 
 minority might have gained a larger following but for the fact 
 that they could not rely upon the support of the captains and 
 without this support they could not hope to keep the union men 
 off the boats. 
 
 The activities of the American Association of Masters and 
 Pilots in 1903 led the Lake Carriers' Association to expect 
 trouble from this source in 1904. At the beginning of the year 
 1904 the Steel Corporation had enough ore in its furnace yards 
 and on the Lake Erie docks to last it until August even if no 
 ore was brought down the Lakes during that time. 3 
 
 The Carnegie plan of granting bonuses to employees in a posi- 
 tion to effect economies and increase efficiency had been extended 
 to the Pittsburg Steamship Company and its chief engineers and 
 masters had received such bonuses since 1901. 4 The individual 
 contract system, tried upon the engineers after the success of 
 their strike in 1901, was now tried upon the masters. Other 
 vessel owners followed the lead of the Pittsburg Steamship Com- 
 pany is asking their captains to sign individual contracts. After 
 a rumor had been spread that the Pittsburg Steamship Com- 
 pany expected to reduce the pay of the captains in 1904, the new 
 manager let it be known that captains could not consider them- 
 selves in his employ for the coming season, as was the custom 
 for regularly employed vessel captains on the Lakes, but that 
 they must make application for their former positions. 5 The 
 consumption of iron and steel products had decreased during the 
 previous year and Steel Corporation dividends were not as high 
 as expected. 6 A policy of retrenchment w r as announced. 
 
 "While the Lake Carriers' Association was trying to break the 
 solidarity of the masters, the other unions, after having planned 
 for the coming conferences since the close of the season of 1903, 
 
 2 Marine Eeview, March 24, 1904, p. 26. 
 s Ibid., July 21, 1904, p. 23. 
 * Ibid., Jan. 2, 1902, p. 6. 
 
 s Ibid., Jan. 14, 1904, p. 18; Feb. 25, 1904, p. 22. 
 
 e Ore shipments were 12 per cent less in 1903 than in 1902 but furnace 
 interests had greater reserves at the end of 1903 than of 1902. 
 
213] DISRUPTION OF UNIONS 63 
 
 were put off from time to time until the last of April and the 
 first two weeks in May. The season started late owing partly to 
 trouble with the masters and mates and partly to the uncertainty 
 of the market for ore. As in 1903, the Lake Carriers' Associa- 
 tion did not "recognize" the Marine Engineers' Benevolent As- 
 sociation nor sign an agreement with them ; but on May 13, 1904, 
 the Lake Carriers' president wrote the lake business manager of 
 the union as follows : 7 
 
 In reply to your proposition for scale of wages for steamers of the Lake 
 Carriers' Association for the season of 1904, would say that our Executive 
 Committee have accepted your proposition, and herewith beg to notify you 
 of such acceptance. 
 
 The scale was the same as for 1903. 
 
 The delay in starting the boats, added to the greater solidarity 
 of the owners in resisting demands of the unions, placed the 
 Lake Carriers' Association in a more advantageous position in 
 bargaining with the other unions. The firemen were signed up 
 first on April 27, 1904. 8 The important changes in this con- 
 tract were as follows: A reduction of wages of $2.50 per month 
 to October 1. This made firemen's wages the same as for able 
 seamen in 1903. Twelve hours' notice was required before a fire- 
 man was permitted to quit a boat and captains were permitted 
 to lay off crews when delayed in port longer than three days. 
 Barge engineers were eliminated from the agreement. 
 
 The contract with the Lake Seamen's union eliminated the 
 overtime clause and permitted the owners to lay off crews when 
 vessels were delayed in port longer than three days. Barge en- 
 gineers were to be employed regardless of their union affiliation. 
 This contract was signed May 12, 1904. Both the Lake Sea- 
 men's Union and the International Longshoremen's Association 
 presented demands for an agreement for a union of cooks, but the 
 demands of the longshoremen were not founded upon a sufficient- 
 ly representative membership to gain the support of the Lake 
 Carriers' Association and the cooks affiliated with the seamen 
 were given the contract instead. 9 Nevertheless the existence of 
 the dual unions weakened the bargaining power of the cooks. 
 The season differential from. $66 per month in the spring to $86 
 
 7 Proceedings Marine Engineers ' Benevolent Association, 1905, p. 36. 
 s Information taken from printed agreements. 
 9 Ms. minutes of wage conference, 1904, p. 15. 
 
64 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [214 
 
 after October 1 was changed, to a flat rate of $70 per month for 
 the season. The question of carrying porters on boats was 
 eliminated and a provision was inserted permitting the captains 
 to employ women cooks under specified conditions. The cooks 
 were also deprived of their freedom from working under police 
 protection. This contract was signed May 12. 
 
 In February, 1904, the American Association of Masters and 
 Pilots asked for a conference with the Lake Carriers' Associa- 
 tion. 10 This request was ignored. Meantime the captains re- 
 turned the individual contracts to the owners, unsigned. The 
 association then decided to meet the captains and throughout 
 April and May conferences were held between the representa- 
 tives of the masters and the executive committee of the owners 
 but no agreement was reached. The basic issue involved was the 
 demand for recognition of the American Association of Masters 
 and Pilots by the Lake Carriers' Association. All other issues 
 either emanated from this or were soon waived by the union. 11 
 "When a deadlock occurred and a season's tieup of the boats was 
 threatened, the Cleveland branch of the National Civic Federa- 
 tion offered its services as arbitrator of the dispute. Both the 
 union and the association laid their cases before the Federation, 
 but the association was unwilling to submit its case to arbitra- 
 tion. 12 
 
 The Lake Carriers' Association stated that their refusal to 
 deal with the American Association of Masters and Pilots was 
 due to the fact that in this union the master of the boat, the per- 
 sonal representative of the owner, was banded together with his 
 subordinates who, through superiority of numbers, could outvote 
 him and hence control the union. 13 In rendering its decision the 
 committee of the Civic Federation said : 
 
 The Lake Carriers' Association gave us to understand that they would 
 not only be willing to deal and make contracts with an association formed 
 by the mates alone and another association formed by the masters alone, 
 but that they would encourage and facilitate the organization of such 
 
 10 Marine Review, Feb. 11, 1904, p. 26. 
 
 11 Other demands made at first inclu.ded the right of captains to hire 
 mates and the payment by the owner of a full season's salary unless the 
 captain be discharged for cause. Statement "by Lake Carriers' Association 
 to the Cleveland Civic Federation, 1904, p. 10. 
 
 12 Marine Review, June 9, 1904, p. 24. 
 
 is Statement to Civic Federation, op. tit., p. 4. 
 
215] DISRUPTION OF UNIONS 65 
 
 unions or associations, as they believe, the organization of such separate 
 unions or associations would be along the lines of other separate and inde- 
 pendent organizations pertaining to the lake commerce. . .1* 
 
 It is the opinion of the committee, based upon information received by 
 them during these various hearings, that growing out of the change which 
 has been going on so rapidly, which has resulted in the passing of the 
 ownership of the lake vessels from individual and private ownership to 
 corporate and syndicate ownership, various abuses have crept in, of which 
 the masters and mates have reasonable ground to complaints 
 
 While negotiations for settlement were under way, the officials 
 of the Lake Carriers ' Association were making all possible efforts 
 to secure enough licensed men to start a few of the boats and 
 break the strike. Threats were made that steps would be taken 
 to have the licenses revoked unless the men returned to their 
 boats. 18 All other labor on the boats was under contract not to 
 participate in a strike so that the owners had no fear of a sympa- 
 thetic strike. They recognized, however, that the masters alone 
 could prevent the operation of the boats if they only held to- 
 gether ; for without licensed men to operate them, the boats could 
 not leave port. A minority of the owners were willing to grant 
 the demands of the union rather than have their boats continue 
 idle. Again the Steel Corporation threatened a loss of business 
 to any who surrendered to the union and the members of the 
 Lake Carriers' Association were ordered by their executive com- 
 mittee to keep ' ' hands off the captain question altogether ; not to 
 start any boats and not to try to start any. " 1T 
 
 The furnace interests, and especially the Steel Corporation, 
 were determined to carry the fight to a finish at this time. To 
 do so they must break the union and at the same time hold the 
 owners together. To break the strike it was necessary to secure 
 
 i* Mr. Coulby, in addressing the committee on this subject, said : " I don 't 
 stand before you people as an opponent of organizations. . . I have 
 said here, and I say it again, and am perfectly willing to stand by it, that 
 in this Twentieth Century, when a man speaks against organizations he is 
 behind the times. I believe in organizations. Have no objections to the 
 captains organizing by themselves, but I think as he occupies that unique 
 position, there should be no subordinates to control him. ' ' At the same 
 time Mr. Coulby expressed a willingness to deal with a captain's organiza- 
 tion and a mates' organization, "properly organized." Statement to Civic 
 Federation, op. cit., pp. 21-22. 
 
 15 Marine Review, July 9, 1904, p. 35. 
 
 i Statement to the Civic Federation, op. cit., p. 2. 
 
 " Ms. minutes of proceedings, May 20, 1904. 
 
66 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [216 
 
 only a few strike-breakers, enough to start a few boats and in- 
 duce others to follow. It was suggested that three or five year 
 contracts be given any who would withdraw from the union. 18 
 By appealing to the personal friendship and allegiance of some 
 of the older and more conservative captains and by promising 
 rapid advancement to some of the young and ambitious mates, 
 enough men were secured to break the strike. As soon as the 
 break came the masters and mates very rapidly sought to make 
 terms with the owners. By the time the head of the union ad- 
 vised a return to work 150 boats were in commission ; 19 and by 
 the middle of June the strike was over. The iron industry was 
 not affected by the strike since the surplus of ore on the docks 
 was more than sufficient to supply all demands of the furnaces. 
 On the other hand, the American Association of Masters and 
 Pilots disappeared from the Lakes. The captains resigned in a 
 body and the mates were forced to withdraw before they were 
 given positions on the boats. 20 
 
 In reality it was the individualism of these men which defeated 
 their collective purposes. Being in a position to dictate to 
 others on their boats, rather than to be dictated to, the masters 
 had suffered long before joining in a collective protest to the 
 vessel owners. And when they finally rebelled, the same refusal 
 to abide by the dictation of others, even though such others be a 
 majority of the men in their own trade, caused some of them to 
 accept an immediate satisfaction of their individual desires in 
 preference to a postponed satisfaction of their collective de- 
 mands. Another factor which made them hesitate to risk their 
 chances of employment was the fact that these men possessed a 
 degree of skill as master of a boat which could not be transferred 
 readily to any other line of work. Their union was, after all, an 
 anomaly since the purpose of the captains was not at all the pur- 
 pose of the mates. The captains wanted, first of all, a return 
 of their authority and prerogatives as absolute masters of their 
 crafts and control over all men under them, including the mates. 
 Many of the mates had first papers and were potential captains. 
 Hence the captains must have secured their cooperation to pre- 
 
 is Ms. minutes of proceedings of executive committee of Lake Carriers' 
 Association, May 24, 1904. 
 
 i Marine Eeview, June 16, 1904, p. 22. 
 20 Ibid., June 23, 1904, p. 32. 
 
217] DISRUPTION OF UNIONS 67 
 
 vent their use by the owners in case of strike. The mates, on the 
 other hand, desired an organization for trade union purposes. 
 
 The executive committee of the Lake Carriers' Association 
 had endorsed the principles of unionism in their statements to 
 the Civic Federation, but had objected to a union which con- 
 tained both masters and mates. Nevertheless the same commit- 
 tee at its meeting on July 21, 1904, discussed the formation of an 
 organization of captains, mates, and vessel owners so formed as to 
 safeguard the interest of the latter. 21 No action was taken, 
 however, but instead arrangements were made to secure admis- 
 sion of owners, managers, and stockholders to honorary member- 
 ship in the Ship Masters' Association which had continued its 
 existence as a beneficiary organization through the rise and de- 
 cline of the American Association of Masters and Pilots. 22 
 
 Following the lead of the Pittsburg Steamship Company, the 
 owners took various means of getting into closer touch with their 
 captains. They tried to overcome the antagonism of interest 
 which had developed with the appearance of impersonal manage- 
 ment of the boats. The Lake Carriers' Association too gave 
 recognition to the captains and asked some of them to aid in 
 making agreements with their subordinates on the boats. 23 This 
 
 21 Ms. proceedings, July 21, 1904. 
 
 22 Annual Report Lake Carriers' Association, 1905, p. 26. 
 83 Ms. minutes of wage conferences, passim. 
 
 The association admitted the truth of the complaints made by the cap- 
 tains against the impersonal management of the boats. Concerning this 
 question the president of the association said: 
 
 " 'It is an ill wind that blows nobody good.' While the strike was 
 costly to everyone concerned; while it at the time engendered very much 
 misunderstanding and consequent bitterness, yet it remains to be said that 
 the thorough consideration of the whole subject opened the eyes of the 
 owners, the masters, the mates and all licensed officers to the fact that 
 abuses had been permitted to come into the business of operating our ships. 
 One which was the most striking was the tendency which had been de- 
 veloping of operating ships too much from the shore. Just as the owners 
 saw the incongruity of having a number of men in an association regulate 
 the conduct of the masters and other licensed officers under general rules 
 upon some dead level which might or might not regard the needs and busi- 
 ness conditions of the owner and the ship, so were the owners impressed 
 as the result of this study that they should, as far as possible, separate 
 those matters which must be attended to in the office from those which re- 
 late to the executive duties of the masters, engineers and mates, whom they 
 employ on their ships, and who are required to act from hour to hour upon 
 
68 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [218 
 
 led to a more cordial relationship between owners and captains 
 and helped to kill the spirit of unionism among the latter. But 
 it did nothing to satisfy the demands of the mates except as the 
 mates looked forward to promotion and identified their interest 
 with that of the masters. 
 
 Although forced to surrender membership in the American 
 Association of Masters and Pilots in order to obtain employment 
 after the strike, the mates still cherished hopes of an effective 
 union. Taking the Lake Carriers' Association at its word, the 
 mates started a movement to form a union at the close of the 
 season of 1904. 24 The association not only refused to recognize 
 this union but at the meeting of the executive committee on 
 February 22, 1905, it was voted that no member of the associa- 
 tion be permitted to hire a mate who was a member of any 
 marine organization on the Lakes. 25 Recognition was refused to 
 the new union on the ground that the mate was next in line to 
 succeed the captain and already exercised his functions during 
 the captain's absence from the boat. 
 
 The Lake Carriers' Association had anticipated trouble with 
 the masters and yet were surprised at their strength. A more 
 systematic method of acquiring knowledge of the strength of the 
 other unions, to be used in future difficulties if necessary, was 
 planned on July 21, 1904, when the executive committee gave the 
 president of the association power to ' ' incur the expense for such 
 information as he may think necessary/' At the same meeting 
 a general organiation of the men on the boats, "which would is- 
 sue to employees a book similar to the present union book" and 
 which would be managed and controlled by the Lake Carriers' 
 Association was discussed. 26 The chief counsel of the association 
 announced that he was already at work upon plans for such an 
 
 their judgement at the moment and be responsible for reasonable judgement 
 and efficiency and results." Annual Report Lake Carriers' Association, 
 1904, p. 7. 
 
 24 Marine Beview, Dec. 29, 1904, p. 21. 
 
 25 Ms. proceedings, Feb. 22, 1905. Previous to this time the Pittsburg 
 Steamship Company had given its masters permission to employ their mates, 
 subject to the approval of the company, but it was "specifically reserved 
 that mates belonging to a union shall not be employed." Marine Review, 
 Jan. 5, 1905, p. 23. 
 
 26 Ms. proceedings, July 21, 1904. 
 
219] DISRUPTION OP UNIONS 69 
 
 organization and that he would submit his plans as soon as they 
 were completed. 
 
 On November 7, 1904, the executive committee considered the 
 matter of requiring the engineers employed by the members of 
 the association to withdraw from the Marine Engineers' Benevo- 
 lent Association since an engineer's affiliation with that union 
 was declared to be "inconsistent with the full and free per- 
 formance of his duty to his employer. ' ' 27 Remembering the 
 bitter experience with this union in 1901 and anticipating 
 trouble with some of the other employees in 1905 no action was 
 taken. Instead it was decided to try to induce the engineers to 
 withdraw from their union without strike if possible. Mr. Coulby 
 planned to meet with the engineers of the Pittsburg Steamship 
 Company in December, 1904, and discuss the matter with them 
 but later decided that the time was not yet ripe for such a move 
 and withdrew the call for the meeting. 28 
 
 During the winter of 1904-1905 labor questions were given 
 much attention by the Lake Carriers' Association who looked 
 with alarm upon the growth of the lake unions and of the Amer- 
 ican Federation of Labor which was already represented on the 
 Lakes by the International Longshoremen's Association with its 
 many trades and the Lake Seamen 's Union, and which had made 
 overtures to the Marine Engineers' Benevolent Association 29 
 and the mates. 30 At the meeting of the executive committee on 
 January 11, 1905, during the discussion of labor troubles the 
 need of a treasury of $100,000 was urged "in order to provide 
 for any emergencies which may arise which would require the 
 use of a large amount of money. " 81 At the general meeting of 
 the association two days later the president dwelt upon the grow- 
 ing strength of labor and urged that the Lake Carriers' Asso- 
 ciation should "gradually, at least, prepare itself so that its 
 members will be able to absolutely control the property under 
 
 27 Ms. proceedings, Nov. 7, 1904. 
 
 28 Marine Eeview, Dec. 29, 1904, p. 32. Again Mr. Coulby tried to make 
 individual contracts with the engineers in his fleet, offering them more than 
 they would obtain through a trade agreement with the Lake Carriers' As- 
 sociation. Ibid., Jan. 5, 1905, p. 23. 
 
 29 Marine Record, Jan. 30, 1901, p. 7. 
 so Marine Review, June 9, 1904, p. 23. 
 81 Ms. proceedings, Jan. 11, 1905. 
 
70 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [220 
 
 their charge." Open shop was discussed and a minority urged 
 that the time was ripe to take action against the unions and 
 suggested the immediate adoption of the policy of "open 
 shop. ' ' 32 The decision was left with the executive committee 
 since certain complications prevented the adoption of such a 
 policy at that time. 
 
 Less than 22,000,000 tons of ore had been brought down the 
 Lakes in 1904. This was a smaller amount than had been 
 brought down during either of the two preceding years and al- 
 though the furnace demand had decreased during 1903-1904 the 
 amount of ore in reserve at the end of the season of 1904 was 
 small. Therefore it was thought best not to risk a tie-up of the 
 boats at the beginning of a year when shipments were expected 
 to be heavy. For this reason trade agreements were continued. 
 The captains were dealt with individually. Some owners ob- 
 jected when the Pittsburg Steamship Company made contracts 
 with its captains in December, 1904, and thereby set a standard 
 which other owners were unwilling to pay. But since such con- 
 tracts were permitted by the constitution of the Lake Carriers' 
 Association no action could be taken. 
 
 As in the two preceding years it was decided that it would not 
 be good policy to "recognize" the Marine Engineers' Benevolent 
 Association by giving its officers a signed agreement. Instead 
 the lake business manager of the union was notified that the as- 
 sociation would pay the union scale for the season of 1905. 33 
 This was the same as for 1904 except that a few engineers on 
 boats of more than 5,500 tons gross register received the follow- 
 ing increases: $5 per month for second assistant engineer, $15 
 for first assistant, and $25 for chief engineer. 
 
 The agreements with the seamen and the cooks were signed 
 March 3. The seamen asked a considerable advance in wages but 
 the only increase granted was tha.t given to deckhands a 
 change from $25.00 to $27.50 from the opening of navigation to 
 the first of October. The clause in the 1904 contract which pro- 
 vided that a boat detained in port could dismiss its crew only at 
 the end of three days was left out of the 1905 contract. The 
 cooks also demanded a large increase in wages but were given 
 
 32 Marine Review, Jan. 19, 1905, p. 17. 
 
 33 Report of Lake Business Manager of Marme Engineers ' Benevolent 
 Association, 1905, p. 24. 
 
221] DISRUPTION OF UNIONS 71 
 
 none. 34 A porter was granted on vessels of over 4,000 tons 
 gross tonnage and on smaller vessels whenever three or more 
 passengers were carried. Both the seamen's and the cooks' de- 
 mands were for additional concessions and the Lake Carriers' 
 Association had little difficulty in defeating them. 
 
 The ease with the firemen was different. In 1904 the wages 
 of the firemen had been reduced and this union laid its plans to 
 regain the loss. Anticipating possible trouble with this union, 
 the Lake Carriers' Association was anxious to sign the other 
 unions early so that the firemen would be the only class of labor 
 to deal with in case of trouble. Another danger which the asso- 
 ciation was trying to guard against was the possibility of the 
 firemen trying to aid the mates. Before a conference was 
 granted to the firemen's union, the president of the Lake Car- 
 riers' Association secured promises from the officials of the 
 Lake Seamen's Union and the Marine Engineers' Benevolent 
 Association that these two organizations would help the owners 
 to secure strike-breakers in case the firemen's union started a 
 strike. 35 The demands of the firemen for increased wages' were 
 then refused. After a threatened strike and a referendum to 
 the members of the union, the 1904 scale was accepted. As in 
 the case of the seamen, the three day retention clause was left 
 out of the contract for 1905. This agrement was signed March 
 27, 1905. The mates were not strong enough to make collective 
 demands and they accepted the scale set by the Lake Carriers' 
 Association. 
 
 Throughout the season of 1905 the firemen continued to give 
 the vessel owners a great deal of trouble by deserting the boats 
 at the upper lake ports and by violating the agreements in other 
 ways. At the 1905 wage conference Mr. Coulby suggested that 
 the firemen deposit their union books with the captain, to be 
 forfeited in case the agreement was violated. 36 This suggestion 
 was overruled by the union delegates. The association then sys- 
 tematically laid their plans to rid themselves of the firemen's 
 union and the president of the association conducted a campaign 
 to learn of all violations of agreements by the firemen in order 
 
 s* Annual "Report Lake Carriers 1 Association, 1905, p. 3. 
 ss Ms. proceedings of executive committee of Lake Carriers ' Association, 
 Mar. 22 and 23, 1905. 
 
 ss Annual Eeport Lake Carriers' Association, 1905, p. 5. 
 
72 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [222 
 
 to have ' ' ammunition ' ' to use against the attacks of other unions, 
 members of the association who were hesitant about antagonizing 
 the union, and the public. 37 
 
 In the meantime complications arose in the mates' controversy. 
 Their union not only was not "recognized" by the association, 
 but its members were blacklisted by the vessel owners. Surplus 
 captains could be used in their places in case of strike, while 
 wheelsmen and watchmen were always in line to succeed them as 
 soon as licenses could be secured. Alone the mates' union was 
 powerless. They could no longer rely upon the captains for 
 support so they must look to the unions of their subordinates. 
 Both the seamen and the longshoremen were not only willing but 
 anxious to accept their affiliation. In fact immediately after 
 the strike in 1904 both of these trades took steps to reorganize 
 the mates. 38 In the case of the seamen this was a defensive 
 move while in the case of the longshoremen it was another step 
 in the direction of the hoped-for industrial union of lake trades. 
 The mates were in a position to hire and discharge seamen. By 
 having them affiliated with the International Longshoremen 's As- 
 sociation, the officials of that union could control the seamen and 
 force them to pool their interests. To avert this danger the 
 Lake Seamen's Union offered aid to the mates as a defensive 
 measure. 
 
 Throughout the season of 1905 the fight to organize the mates 
 was continued. Both sides claimed a majority at the opening of 
 the season in 1906 though there is no evidence to show that the 
 Lake Seamen's Union had more than a mere handful in their 
 organization ; while the stronger International Longshoremen 's 
 Association had attracted a majority of the mates on the Lakes. 
 When the seamen met the Lake Carriers' Association to arrange 
 contracts for the seamen and the cooks to cover the season of 1906 
 demands were made for the recognition of the seamen contingent 
 of the mates. 39 Threats were made that without such recogni- 
 tion no agreements whatever would be signed. This demand was 
 refused and upon the declared intention of the association to 
 terminate the conference and institute "open shop" the demands 
 
 37 From correspondence concerning firemen. 
 
 38 Proceedings Lake Seamen's Union, 1905, p. 17. Proceedings Interna- 
 tional Longshoremen's Association, 1905, p. 36. 
 
 so Marine Review, Mar. 29, 1906, p. 23. 
 
223] DISRUPTION OF UNIONS 73 
 
 were withdrawn. Both, the seamen and the cooks signed con- 
 tracts for 1906 which were essentially the same as for 1905, ex- 
 cept that the seamen were again granted payment for overtime. 
 The usual understanding was reached with the engineers. 
 
 The longshoremen refused to deal with either the Lake Car- 
 riers' Association or the Dock Managers' Association until the 
 former were willing to recognize the longshoremen contingent of 
 the mates. 40 The agreement with the dock managers did not 
 expire until May 1, 1906. At midnight, April 30, all members 
 of the International Longshoremen's Association, including all 
 men employed on the docks, the grain scoopers, the men em- 
 ployed on the tugs, and the firemen, oilers, and water tenders on 
 the boats, were called out in sympathy with the mates. Only 
 the mates themselves refused to strike en masse, 41 By offering 
 inducements and making threats the vessel owners were able to 
 keep enough mates on the boats to break the strike which was 
 officially called off May 9, 1906. 42 Again the vessel owners were 
 successful and a second union disappeared from the Lakes. 
 
 Since 1902 the seamen had been trying to induce the firemen 
 to break with the longshoremen. The firemen were still hopeful 
 of increasing their wages and expected an increase in 1906 by 
 supporting the strike for the mates. With the union defeat in 
 this strike the firemen accepted the 1905 scale and conditions. 
 Even then, because of the numerous troubles with the firemen, 
 the Lake Carriers' Association wanted only a trial agreement, to 
 be abandoned if not lived up to. 43 The failure to secure the ex- 
 pected increase in wages was blamed by the firemen upon the 
 officials of the International Longshoremen's Association. 
 Trouble arose within the firemen's union and a movement was 
 started to withdraw from the longshoremen. Partly because of 
 these internal troubles, the Lake Carriers' Association exper- 
 ienced unusual difficulties with the firemen during 1906. 44 Vio- 
 
 40 Marine Eeview, Mar. 22, 1906, p. 22. 
 4i/&id., May 3, 1906, p. 27. 
 
 42 md., May 10, 1906, p. 21. 
 
 43 Ms. minutes of wage conference, 1906, passim. 
 
 ** Marine Eeview, Sept. 27, 1906, p. 22. In his report for 1906 the pres- 
 ident of the Lake Carriers' Association said that "constant complaint and 
 appeals to the officers of the firemen's union were unavailing to remedy the 
 evils, largely due to the fact, I am inclined to think, that they were utterly 
 
74 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [224 
 
 lations of agreements, especially the clause requiring twelve 
 hours ' notice before quitting the boat, were numerous throughout 
 the season. In addition, the union was able to furnish only about 
 60 per cent of the number of firemen required on the boats, in 
 spite of the fact that they had a closed union shop agreement 
 and were obligated to supply all the men required. The initia- 
 tion fee of the union at this time was $25, a prohibitory fee for 
 that class of labor. The Lake Carriers' Association took advan- 
 tage of this opportunity to secure and train non-unnion men 
 and again planned to exterminate the firemen's union. 45 
 
 It had been customary for the seamen and cooks to refuse to 
 sign agreements with the Lake Carriers' Association until its 
 representatives were ready to sign with both unions. During 
 the year 1906 the firemen withdrew from the International Long- 
 shoremen's Association and affiliated with the Lake Seamen's 
 Union. 46 When the wage conferences were held in 1907 the 
 officials of the union refused to sign for one of its three classes 
 of members until the association was willing to sign for all. 
 This forced the issue as to whether or not the fight would be made 
 upon the firemen in 1907. The outlook for the year was so 
 bright that the owners did not wish to experience the delays of 
 a strike so the agreements were renewed. Conferences were held 
 late because of Mr. Coulby 's absence from the Lakes. The agree- 
 ments were signed April 13, 1907. 
 
 In exchange for the overtime clause, which was again stricken 
 
 unable to control their men." Annual Report Lake Carriers' Association, 
 1906, p. 4. 
 
 45 In reply to a letter from a captain protesting against the violations of 
 agreements by the firemen, the president of the Lake Carriers' Association 
 said on July 30, 1906: "I fully agree with your sentiments expressed in 
 your letter. The position with the firemen this year has become nearly 
 unbearable. There are several reasons which make it worse than usual. 
 They are having internal dissensions; they also have practically a prohibi- 
 tion price or initiation fee which prevents their getting new members; they 
 have not near enough men to furnish what is required; their officers seem 
 to have lost control of them. It will certainly be a happy day when we are 
 rid of the whole bunch. In my judgment the sooner we reach that point 
 the better we will be off. The middle of the season of course is a bad time 
 to have a break if it can reasonably be avoided but I feel reasonably sure 
 that our Executive Committee will take some drastic measures this winter 
 regarding the future." 
 
 *6 Proceedings Lake Seamen's Union, 1907, p. 3. 
 
225] DISRUPTION OF UNIONS 75 
 
 from the agreement, the able seamen were given an advance in 
 wages from $45.00 to $50.00 per month from the opening of navi- 
 gation to October 1, and the deckhands were given an increase of 
 $2.50 per month throughout the season. 47 The firemen and cooks 
 received advances similar to that of the able seamen. The cap- 
 tains were given individual appointments as usual and the mates 
 accepted the Lake Carriers' Association scale which was an ad- 
 vance of about 8 per cent over the preceding year, to correspond 
 with the advances granted their subordinates on the boats. 
 
 For the first time in the history of the union, the Marine En- 
 gineers' Benevolent Association received a signed agrement in 
 1907. Since 1905 a few of the fleet engineers had assisted the 
 executive committee of the Lake Carriers' Association in fram- 
 ing agreements with the unions. After another unsuccessful at- 
 tempt to induce the engineers to sign individual contracts, the 
 Lake Carriers' Association called together the fleet engineers to 
 form a permanent auxiliary association to be known as the Fleet 
 Engineers' Association. 48 Its chief purpose was to deal with 
 the engineers. It met with the Marine Engineers' Benevolent 
 Association representatives and framed a tentative contract for 
 1907 which, upon approval by the executive committee of the 
 Lake Carriers' Association, was signed by the new association. 
 
 Following the slack season of 1904, ore shipments increased 
 over 50 per cent in 1905, while the 1907 shipments were more 
 than double those of 1904. By early fall, 1907, it was known 
 that 1908 ore demands would be light and that lake traffic would 
 suffer greatly. 49 The movement of ore in 1907, however, was not 
 checked until furnace yards had become congested and the stor- 
 age capacity of the docks had become exhausted. 80 The largest 
 ore reserve in the history of lake traffic up to that time remained 
 at the close of the season of 1907. It was estimated that with 
 normal consumption, the furnace interests and especially the 
 
 *f In speaking of the elimination of the overtime clause the Annual Ee- 
 port of the Lake Carriers' Association said in 1907 (p. 10): It "served 
 in a large measure to reduce, although not to entirely eliminate, the friction 
 that has heretofore existed between the officers and employees aboard the 
 vessels. ' ' 
 
 48 Marine Review, Feb. 14, 1907, p. 24. 
 
 49/fctd, Oct. 24, 1907, p. 21. 
 
 so Ibid., Feb. 20, 1908, p. 23. 
 
76 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [226 
 
 United States Steel Corporation had enough reserve ore to run 
 the furnaces until September, 1908, if none were brought down 
 the Lakes during that time. 51 
 
 It had been the custom for several years to maintain dock 
 police to keep the peace and to protect property. In fact, since 
 the organization of the Cleveland Vessel Owners' Association 
 such officials were always within call in case of need. During 
 the season of 1907 this sort of protection was supplemented by 
 the construction of high board fences around the dock property 
 and the introduction of a system of admittance within the en- 
 closure of none but those who could prove that their business 
 within was in the interest of the vessel owners or the dock 
 managers. 
 
 The vessel owners had never given up their intention of re- 
 turning to non-unionism as soon as a favorable opportunity of- 
 fered. 52 Some of the independents were willing to try a test of 
 strength at any time since every tie-up of the boats meant higher 
 freight rates when traffic was resumed. The managers of these 
 fleets wrote many letters to the president of the Lake Carriers' 
 Association, asking him to take action in ousting the unions. As 
 with all policies of the association, it was the shipper, and es- 
 pecially the United States Steel Corporation, who determined the 
 time for discontinuing the contracts with the union. Agree- 
 ments were considered to be a makeshift truce and not the foun- 
 dation of permanent peace. The officials of the unions recog- 
 nized this fact also. They knew that the existing relations with 
 the owners were temporary only and that the tension might reach 
 the breaking point at any time. 58 
 
 5i The United States Steel Corporation had 12,000,000 tons in reserve at 
 the close of the season of 1907. Annual Eeport Lake Carriers' Association, 
 1908, p. 9. 
 
 52 Marine Review, Apr. 16, 1908, p. 20, said editorially: "Lake interests 
 have never abandoned the principle of open shop, though for the past few 
 years it has seemed inexpedient to enforce it." 
 
 ss For example, as early as January, 1907, the officials of the Lake Sea- 
 men 's Union urged the necessity of an increase in dues to build up a large 
 defense fund ' ' to prepare for the inevitable struggle with the owners. ' ' 
 Proceedings Lake Seamen's Union, 1907, p. 42. Again, on January 14, 
 1908, before the unions knew that the Lake Carriers' Association expected 
 to terminate the agreements, a joint conference of the unions affiliated with 
 the Lake Seamen 's Union passed the following resolutions : ' ' Resolved : 
 that in the event of any emergency arising in the nature of a strike or lock- 
 
227] DISRUPTION OP UNIONS 77 
 
 In the eyes of the vessel owners, trade agrements had failed. 
 No complaint was made about the Marine Engineers' Benevolent 
 Association, except that through this strong organization the en- 
 gineers were able to exercise an undue influence in fixing wages. 
 Individually the engineers had never been a source of annoyance 
 to the owners. Even the jealousy between the engineers and 
 the captains worked to the advantage of the owners because it 
 weakened the bargaining power of both classes of employees. 
 The owners felt that they had nothing to gain by agreements 
 with their engineers while their experience with the Marine En- 
 gineers' Benevolent Association had been one of victory for the 
 latter. As already noted, this union was never ' ' recognized ' ' by 
 the Lake Carriers' Association and in only one year, 1907, was 
 it given a contract by a subordinate association. 
 
 In the same manner the owners believed that they had nothing 
 to gain by granting contracts to unions of the mates and captains. 
 Wages were not subject to sudden changes for this class of labor 
 since the mates were accustomed to a monthly scale, set by the 
 Lake Carriers' Association for the season, and the captains to a 
 yearly salary to be agreed upon between the individual captain 
 and his employer. Under this system the owner himself was the 
 arbitrator of disputes. Under an agreement, such as was pre- 
 sented for approval in 1904, the owner would have relinquished 
 this power to the union of captains and mates. It was this 
 possibility, rather than any specific demands for changes in 
 wages or conditions of work, which caused the Lake Carriers' 
 Association to refuse to "recognize" the American Association 
 of Masters and Pilots. 
 
 out, particularly during the coming season, the affiliated Lake District 
 Unions of the International Seamen's Unon of America shall work in con- 
 junction with each other at all times, and that in order to have a clear and 
 definite understanding of the acts and intentions of the Unions affected, be 
 it further 
 
 "Resolved: that none of the affiliated Unions of the Lake District shall 
 in any way involve itself or themselves in any sympathetic strike of any 
 nature or form any alliance with any of the organizations not a part of 
 the International Seamen's Union of America except with the consent and 
 approval of the other Lake District Unions. And be it further 
 
 "Resolved: that no action likely to precipitate a strike or lockout shall 
 be taken by any of the organizations without first consulting with the 
 executive officers or executive authorities of the other unions." Ms. pro- 
 ceedings, pp. 2-3. 
 
78 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [228 
 
 Aside from the fact that it was the strength of the other 
 unions and the weakness of the Lake Carriers' Association which 
 forced the introduction of contracts with all employees below 
 licensed officers in 1903, the vessel owners hoped that such con- 
 tracts would make two advantageous changes in their methods 
 of dealing with their employees: First, that yearly contracts 1 
 would insure the absence of fluctuations in wages; and second, 
 that union officials would be able to discipline their members and 
 bring about a stability of tenure which, up to this time, had never 
 been known on the boats. 
 
 The agreement system accomplished the first of these hoped- 
 for results. From 1903 to 1907 inclusive there were no author- 
 ized wage strikes on the Lakes. In only one instance indeed 
 was there even an approach to a strike for wages. In 1906 one 
 fleet violated the age-long custom of paying for 31 days in May 
 and July and paid its engineers and chief cooks for 30 days in- 
 stead. A strike against this line was threatened but the officials 
 of the Lake Carriers' Association refused to uphold this breach 
 of custom and the manager of the fleet paid for 31 days. 54 
 Numerous instances occurred where unauthorized strikes of the 
 fireman or deckhands on a single boat resulted when a deserter at 
 an upper lake port demanded pay, in violation of his contract, 
 and was refused. But in general stability of wages resulted 
 from the agreements and a vessel owner was reasonably certain 
 of his probable wage cost for the season or so much thereof as his 
 boat was in commission. Without doubt this gain was absolute 
 and exceptions were a negligible factor. 
 
 Furthermore, but little change was made in wages during the 
 time the agreements were in operation. From 1903 to 1907 but 
 one increase was granted. This affected only the deckhands and 
 amounted to but $2.50 per month from the opening of navigation 
 to October 1. This increase took effect in 1905. Even this in- 
 crease was offset by a similar decrease to firemen, beginning in 
 1904. This failure to increase wages at a time when the general 
 level of wages throughout the United States was rising may be 
 explained in part by the fact that the wage scale on the boats in 
 1903 was perhaps a little higher than the average for that class 
 of labor. The balance of bargaining power was in favor of the 
 unions at that time and the element of chance was still a potent 
 
 6* From correspondence concerning this case and its adjustment. 
 
229] DISRUPTION OP UNIONS 79 
 
 factor in the determination of both- wages and profits. By 1907 
 this chance element had been reduced to a minimum. Except 
 for a slight decline in 1904 when shipments decreased, freight 
 rates remained nearly stationary from 1903 to 1907. In 1907 a 
 small increase in wages, averaging about 5 per cent, was given 
 the unions in exchange for the overtime clause and hence was 
 probably not an increase after all. In other respects than wages, 
 the 1907 contracts were considerably less advantageous to the 
 unions than were the contracts of 1903. 
 
 The second hoped-for result stability of tenure on the 
 boats was only partially effected under the agreements and 
 can be discussed only in relative and not in absolute terms. To 
 understand the problem involved, a brief restatement of condi- 
 tions already described is necessary here. In the early days of 
 lake traffic it was customary for the captain to hire men for a 
 trip only and to discharge them upon reaching port. Since a 
 new crew was not secured until the vessel was ready to leave 
 again, it was not expected that a man should remain on the boat 
 for more than one trip at a time. It had become the custom, 
 therefore, for a captain to exact of his men the greatest amount 
 of work with the least expenditure for food and the comforts of 
 life. Moreover the system of hiring and discharging men made 
 a constant day-to-day fluctuation in the demand and supply 
 curve of labor on the Lakes. In every activity of the employee 's 
 life irregularity and chance ruled. Since their work kept them 
 away from their families for nine or ten months in the year, un- 
 married men and young men with whom family or local ties were 
 insufficient to enforce steady habits more often took up this work. 
 This set of conditions in itself attracted to the Lakes a class of 
 irresponsible adventurers. The work which they were required 
 to do, the conditions under which they lived, and the treatment 
 which they received from the men in authority over them, all 
 tended to make them more irresponsible and more unsteady in 
 their habits. 
 
 Beginning in the late nineties, some of the larger fleets took 
 steps to remove the causes of unsteadiness of the men on their 
 boats and to make changes which would attract to the Lakes a 
 more desirable class of men. This was a mere beginning and 
 scarcely touched the real problems which have received so much 
 attention since. Under the agreements the efforts of the owners 
 
80 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [230 
 
 to make the work which they had to offer more attractive were 
 not pushed with the vigor that the situation merited. Instead, 
 the unions were made responsible for the proper conduct of their 
 members. Under existing circumstances this responsibility was 
 oftentimes too great; with more encouragement and cooperation 
 from the vessel owners, much more could have been accomplished. 
 
 The firemen gave most trouble. They were the most irrespon- 
 sible men on the Lakes. Some of them were habitual deserters 
 and could not be held on any boat for more than a few trips. On 
 the other hand, some boats could not keep the best of firemen 
 more than a few trips at a time. The work required of the men 
 and the treatment which they received made it physically im- 
 possible for them to continue in the service of the boat. Irreg- 
 ular habits, the nature of their work, and the associations in port 
 made drunkenness common. This in turn reacted upon the char- 
 acter of the work and their attitude toward their superiors. 
 Local officials of their unions were often professional office hold- 
 ers some of whom had been firemen while others had ben bar- 
 tenders or had followed some other shore trade. In any case 
 their tenure of office depended upon the suffrage of their con- 
 stituency. This made them subject to the whims of any group 
 of firemen with influence enough to make them a factor at elec- 
 tions. Furthermore, the general officers of the firemen's union 
 were not always dependable and the demands of their members 
 sometimes influenced them more than did the signed agreements. 
 As a result, violations of agreements by firemen were common. 
 It sometimes happened that a fireman who deserted his boat and 
 was refused pay which was not due him under the agreement 
 appealed to the local agent of the union. That official, either 
 through fear of jeopardizing his job or through sympathy for 
 the deserter, at times called other firemen off the boat, also in 
 violation of the agreement. If appeal was made to the general 
 officers of the union these officials were not always willing or 
 able to discipline the offenders even though the offense was 
 proved to them. 
 
 Previous to 1907 but little advance had been made in the 
 direction of greater stability of tenure of the firemen. Indeed 
 to some of them the agreement was an excuse for further ex- 
 cesses than formerly for with the power of the union back of 
 them the fear of discharge or blacklist disappeared. Although 
 
231] DISRUPTION OF UNIONS 81 
 
 affiliated with the International Longshoremens' Association, the 
 officials of that organization were never able to exercise the 
 control over the firemen that they exercised over their other 
 members. The Lake Seamen's Union had better success with 
 the firemen in 1907 and made considerable progress in disciplin- 
 ing those who violated agreements and in preventing such viola^ 
 tions. 
 
 Next to the firemen the deckhands gave most trouble to the 
 vessel owners. In addition to their duties as forward deck 
 employees they were used as coal passers. Boats were then so 
 constructed that coal passing was required. This was unusually 
 hard work. The hours of the deckhands were long, often re- 
 quiring their presence on deck 18 to 36 hours on one shift while 
 in port. In the absence of provision for extra pay for overtime, 
 the length of the working day was left to the discretion of the 
 officers in charge of the boat. While their work was perhaps not 
 as enervating as that of the firemen, the same irregular habits 
 and the same sort of treatment resulted in attracting to the 
 deckhands' work much the same class of men. The same system 
 of election resulted in some instances in the same class of local 
 agents, although this evil was not so common as in the firemen's 
 union because of the presence in the former case of the better 
 judgment of the able seamen. 
 
 One notable difference existed between the firemen and the 
 deckhands; the general officers of the seamen's union were always 
 more competent, more responsible and more able and willing to 
 discipline their members who violated agreements. This is due 
 largely to the fact that the seamen's union contained both able 
 seamen and deckhands. Since the latter were always a shifting 
 lot of men, the union was always controlled by the former. De- 
 sertions by deckhands continued, in violation of agreements, but 
 they were relatively less frequent than before the operation of 
 the agreements. Violations of contracts by able seamen and 
 cooks were much less common than by firemen and deckhands, 
 though they were not unknown. Both decreased as the agree- 
 ments continued from year to year. 
 
 Any provision for overtime or any statement in the seamen's 
 agreements which interfered in any way with the discretion of 
 the captain and mates in fixing the hours of labor of the deck- 
 hands and able seamen was a source of continued complaint by 
 
82 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [232 
 
 both parties. Even after the owners took steps to effect a more 
 friendly relationship with the captains the union contract re- 
 mained in the way of the free exercise of full control over the 
 men by the captains. At times the union men insisted upon a 
 strict observance of the letter of the agreement when an obsevr- 
 ance of its spirit, but involving a few minutes actual violation, 
 would have saved the boats hours of delay. 
 
 Nor were violations of agreements entirely one-sided. Indi- 
 vidual captains and engineers persisted in disregarding the terms 
 of the agreements with the men under them until called to ac- 
 count by their employer or the officials of the Lake Carriers' 
 Association; while occasionally a manager of a fleet ran his 
 boats regardless of any contract betwen the Lake Carriers' Asso- 
 cition and his men. For example, on April 24, 1906, the presi- 
 dent of the association wrote to a member of the executive com- 
 mittee concerning the labor policy of one of the fleets in the 
 association during the preceding year as follows: "They ab- 
 solutely paid no attention to our labor contracts, violated them 
 time and again, and kept me in perpetual hot water trying to 
 arrange difficulties, which in almost every case we had not the 
 shadow of an excuse and no ground to defend ourselves." In 
 1906 when the firemen were causing so much trouble, even the 
 president of the Lake Carriers' Association advised his members 
 to violate the closed union shop contract with the firemen 's union 
 by retaining non-union men longer than one trip provided for in 
 the contract. 55 
 
 On the whole, grievances presented to the union officials by the 
 president of the Lake Carriers' Association received prompt at- 
 tention. Attempts were made to locate offenders and if the of- 
 fense was proved punishment usually followed. Numerous union 
 agents were removed from office at the request of the president 
 of the association for collusion with the men on the boats in the 
 
 65 In a letter to a fleet manager, dated August 21, 1906, the president of 
 the Lake Carriers' Association said: "I have written to all of our mem- 
 bers who have made complaints and who have had to put on non-union men 
 on account of the inability of the Firemen's Union to furnish them, not to 
 discharge them if they give satisfaction, to pay no attention whatever to 
 what the union might or might not say regarding the carrying of non-union 
 men." The agreement provided that in case the union "is unable to fur- 
 nish sufficient men when called for by the engineer or his representative, he 
 may ship non-union men to fill such shortage for not longer than the ensuing 
 round trip." 
 
233] DISRUPTION OP UNIONS 83 
 
 violation of agreements. Likewise, grievances presented by 
 union officials were investigated and if substantiated, measures 
 were taken to remove their cause. 
 
 From the beginning the agreements declared against strikes 
 for any cause whatsoever. Every agreement contained an arbi- 
 tration clause but this method of settling disputes was seldom 
 employed. In the few cases in which arbitration was tried a 
 union official, a member of the Lake Carriers' Association us- 
 ually an official and a third man selected by these two consti- 
 tuted the board. The executive committee of the association 
 were usually more adept at wording agreements than were the 
 union delegates and sometimes the agreement did not grant what 
 the union thought it was receiving. If an arbitration of such 
 clauses was requested the association confined evidence to the 
 agreement itself and would not permit verbal statements, how- 
 ever definite or undisputed, to be presented at the hearing. In 
 this manner the arbitrators must make a literal interpretation 
 of the agreement, regardless of the justice of the claims of the 
 union on other grounds. Some owners looked upon the loss of 
 an arbitration board case as a surrender to the union and were 
 willing to suppress pertinent evidence or use any other means to 
 win. One such manager of a fleet, in writing to the president of 
 the Lake Carriers' Association concerning the arbitration of a 
 case in which he was involved said: "We want to win and I 
 don't care how much money it costs us, if by spending money we 
 can win this arbitration. ' ' 56 
 
 The unions distrusted arbitration and seldom asked for it. 
 Even before agreements were entered into the Lake Seamen's 
 Union went on record against state or national arbitration. 57 
 Nevertheless the officials of the union have always shown a dis- 
 position to state their grievances to a disinterested third party. 
 This the Lake Carriers' Association has always objected to. Its 
 officials have never agreed to arbitration by outside parties and 
 only once have they even appeared before such a body when 
 arbitration of disputes which could not be settled otherwise has 
 been offered. 
 
 56 in the same letter the manager suggested that he would have a better 
 chance to win if the engineers in his fleet were not permitted to testify at 
 the hearings of the arbitration board. 
 
 si Proceedings, 1902, p. 21. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 OPEN SHOP 
 
 Since the vessel owners had never been favorable to trade 
 agreements except as a temporary measure to avoid the uncer- 
 tainties of dictation by unions, many of them were willing to 
 abolish the agreement system at any time. Others, led by Mr. 
 Coulby, were unwilling to permit any break in the truce with 
 labor which might result in a tie-up of the boats during a time 
 when the steel industry might be injured thereby. In 1904 the 
 making of agreements could not be interfered with because the 
 owners did not have the support of the captains and the mates. 
 With a constantly increasing demand for iron ore in 1905, 1906, 
 and 1907, it was better to continue the agreements than to risk a 
 tie-up of the boats. When it became evident that 1908 would 
 be a dull season, the shippers took advantage of the situation to 
 break up the unions. Having fortified themselves by piling up 
 sufficient reserve ore to last well into the season of 1908 and hav- 
 ing fenced the docks to aid in the protection of strike breakers, 
 they had little to fear from the opposition of the unions. 1 
 
 It was expected that if a strike occurred strike breakers could 
 be secured at Atlantic ports to take the places of all men below 
 the licensed officers. No trouble was anticipated from the un- 
 organized captains and mates. 2 More trouble was expected from 
 the strong Marine Engineers' Benevolent Association. For sev- 
 eral years the Pittsburg Steamship Company had tried to induce 
 its engineers to sign individual contracts, offering them more 
 money than they received under collective bargaining. One of 
 the results of the uncertainties of the dull season of 1908 was a 
 
 i On May 1, 1908, the ore on Lake Erie docks amounted to 5,480,300 tons. 
 This compared with 1,976,988 tons in 1907 and with a previous high of 
 less than 4,000,000 tons in 1904. Marine Review, May 14, 1908, p. 21. The 
 total reserve of ore on the docks and in furnace yards on May 1, 1908 was 
 approximately 19,000,000 tons. Ibid., May 21, 1908, p. 21. 
 
 12 Ibid., Apr. 23, 1908, p. 20. 
 
 84 
 
235] OPEN SHOP 85 
 
 meeting of the officials of this company and the engineers in its 
 employ. At this meeting, held April 9, 1908, individual con- 
 tracts were again tendered and most of them were signed. 
 
 In the meantime the owners were holding meetings at the 
 various ports and discussing labor questions. The owners living 
 at Cleveland met on March 26, 1908, and declared for open shop. 
 At the meeting of the Lake Carriers' Association two weeks 
 later, on the afternoon of April 9, Mr. Coulby displayed his en- 
 gineers' contracts which had been signed that morning and an- 
 nounced his readiness to cease making contracts with the unions 
 and to revert to the policy of open shop. 3 On roll-call all owners 
 of bulk freighters voted for open shop. The only members of the 
 association who did not vote for the motion were the managers 
 of the package freight lines. Their business was not directly af- 
 fected by the slump in the ore business and they did not wish to 
 incur the enmity of the unions. They were excused from voting. 
 
 Previous to this time the unions had asked for the usual con- 
 ferences with the Lake Carriers' Association but their requests 
 were either ignored or were met with the statement that the asso- 
 ciation was not yet ready to meet them. 4 When the association 
 voted to establish open shop, April 9, 1908, the announcement 
 was given to the press and such published statement was con- 
 sidered sufficient answer to the unions' requests for conferences. 
 Contrary to the expectations of the association, no strikes oc- 
 
 s Marine Review, Apr. 9, 1908, p. 21. These contracts read as follows: 
 
 "Dear Sir: You are hereby appointed for the season of 1908 Chief 
 
 Engineer of our Steamer , at the rate of 
 
 per month on the following terms: 
 
 "That the Company reserves the right to dispense with your services at 
 any time for reasons satisfactory to it. That you faithfully abide by and 
 cooperate in carrying out the rules and regulations of the Company in 
 respect to all matters in your department. 
 
 "As we have decided upon the policy of open shop, you will be expected 
 to, and by your acceptance hereof, will agree to fully cooperate in this pol- 
 icy and in keeping off from the ship any representatives of other interests 
 than the ship and owner, as far as your department is concerned. Also if 
 the Company decides not to put and keep the Steamer in commission you 
 agree to serve, if requested, as Second Engineer on any Steamer of the 
 Company at which you may be assigned without, however, any reduction in 
 the rate of your salary above stated." Proceedings Marine Engineers' 
 Benevolent Association, 1909, p. 466. 
 
 4 Ibid., 1909, p. 464. 
 
86 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [236 
 
 curred during 1908. The unions realized that during a dull 
 season many members would be tempted to desert their organiza- 
 tion if necessary in order to secure one of the comparatively few 
 available jobs. The officials accepted open shop temporarily 
 while they renewed their efforts to hold their members together. 
 The Lake Carriers' Association, on the other hand, started in 
 at once to disrupt the unions. On May 6, 1908, it was voted that 
 no union delegates be allowed to board the vessels at any point. 5 
 Later union members were discriminated against in seeking em- 
 ployment. Union membership books were first demanded of 
 them and later they were asked to sign declarations that they 
 were not members of any labor organization. 6 About the only 
 way a member of the union could obtain a job was by subterfuge 
 and deceit. Union officials advised their members to sign the 
 
 s The manager of one fleet ordered his captains as follows : ' ' Keep the 
 delegates off the ship, and if you find any agitators among your crew or 
 any men who are not loyal to you and to the interests which you represent, 
 fire them." Marine Review, July 7, 1907, p. 57. 
 
 6 Two kinds of such declarations were used. The first read as follows : 
 
 ' ' I declare upon my word of honor that I apply to ship free to act for 
 myself, not belonging to any union, and in case of a strike, sympathetic or 
 otherwise, will remain on board and perform my duties in a proper and sat- 
 isfactory manner ; also I will have no one under me, except as above. ' ' 
 
 The second declaration, in the form of an oath, was as follows: 
 
 " , being first duly sworn, deposes and 
 
 says as follows: 
 
 ' ' I hereby renounce all allegiance to any and all labor unions, partic- 
 ularly the stewards', seamen's, firemen's, and oilers', and I declare it to 
 be my intention not to join either as long as I follow sailing for a living. 
 
 "I am therefore, a non-union man, and if I get a position on a lake 
 
 vessel, in the event of any strike of any description involving the 
 
 union, I will stay by the ship and faithfully perform my duties as such 
 employee despite such strikes or orders of any unions. 
 
 ' Subscribed in my presence and sworn before me this day of 
 
 , 19.. 
 
 Notary Public." 
 Eeprinted in report of Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, 
 
 House of Eepresentatives, Feb. 17, 1910, p. 53. 
 
 The president of the Lake Carriers' Association denied knowledge of the 
 
 practice of his shipping masters in requiring these oaths from applicants 
 
 for jobs and stated that he forced them to discontinue the practice as soon 
 
 as he learned of it. Ibid., p. 24. 
 
237] OPEN SHOP 87 
 
 contracts offered by the association, retaining their union mem- 
 bership secretly until a more favorable time to retaliate ap- 
 peared. 
 
 At a meeting of the Ship Masters' Association, Mr. Coulby ex- 
 pressed views on "open shop" and on methods to be employed 
 in enforcing it as follows : 
 
 What we are trying to do is simply to get back to the old conditions 
 aboard ship. We don 't want any members of the crew to see if it is in the 
 Bed Book before they do it. You masters have got to go on the picket 
 line; you've got to win this fight for us. For my own company, I can say 
 that we are going to win if it takes one day, one month, one year or five 
 years. If any man pulls a book of rules on you, he is not an open shop 
 man. Put him on the dock. If any engineer, first, second or third, wheels- 
 man, watchman, mate declines to obey orders, put him on the dock. We will 
 help you fill their places. 1 
 
 At its meeting July 2, 1908, the executive committee of the 
 Lake Carriers' Association empowered the chief counsel "and 
 such other assistance as in his judgment may be found neces- 
 sary" to proceed to England to investigate the methods of the 
 Shipping Federation of Great Britain in dealing with labor on 
 the boats. 8 At the same meeting some members of the committee 
 suggested a reduction in wages but Mr. Coulby prevented such 
 action. The chief counsel reported to the board of directors on 
 October 28, 1908, concerning the labor policy of the English 
 federation and the question of the adoption of a similar policy 
 on the Lakes was referred to the executive committee with power 
 to act. The plan, to be known as the Welfare Plan, was an- 
 nounced during the winter of 1908-1909. 9 
 
 The essentials of the plan are as follows : 1. Assembly rooms 
 were established at the principal ports for the use of the men 
 who carried the Welfare certificate. A nominal charge of $1.00 
 per year was charged to unlicensed men and a higher rate to 
 licensed officers. 2. Certificates were obtained in the following 
 manner : 
 
 Any officer or seamen applying for a certificate or recommendation of 
 the Lake Carriers' Association must declare himself willing and pledge 
 himself to discharge his lawful duties towards the ship on which employed, 
 
 T Marine Review, Apr. 16, 1908, p. 24. Other representatives of vessel 
 owners spoke at the same meeting. Some of the masters were asked to 
 speak but all declined. 
 
 * Ms. proceedings, July 2, 1908. 
 
 Marine Review, Dec. 10, 1908, p. 22-23. 
 
88 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [238 
 
 regardless of membership or affiliation on his own part or that of any other 
 member of the officers and crew with any union or association of any kind; 
 and these certificates once given must be revocable at the discretion of the 
 Association upon such information as it shall have received and requiring 
 that its consideration and decision of the matter shall be exclusive and final. 
 
 3. Continuous record discharge books were given holders of 
 these certificates. In addition to an identification description 
 these books contained a continuous service record of the holder, 
 showing the vessels upon which he had worked, the capacity in 
 which he worked, the time of entering and of leaving such ser- 
 vice, and the character of the service. Upon accepting a posi- 
 tion on the boat the holder of the book deposited the same with 
 the captain. If the character of the service was either good or 
 fair an entry to that effect was made in the book, attested by the 
 captain (or chief engineer in the case of men in his department) 
 and the book was returned to its owner. If the service was, 
 for any reason, not considered either good or fair, the book was 
 sent by the chief officer to the executive office of the Lake Car- 
 riers' Association, together with any statement which the officer 
 might see fit to send. 4. In case of death by accident, incident 
 to employment on board ship or in the line of duty to any ship, 
 dependents of employees who carried discharge books were as- 
 sured the receipt of fixed sums from the Lake Carriers' Associa- 
 tion, ranging from $75.00 for ordinary seamen to $500.00 for 
 captains. 10 
 
 As in 1908, the engineers, including assistant engineers in the 
 Pittsburg Steamship Company, were required to sign individual 
 contracts in 1909. The Marine Enginers' Benevolent Associa- 
 tion again objected to these individual contracts and called a 
 strike against the Lake Carriers' Association. 11 The engineers 
 induced the firemen to join the strike and by May 1, every union 
 
 Annual Report Lake Carriers' Association, 1908, pp. 11-29. Eeprinted 
 in pamphlet form by the association, under the title of Welfare Plan. 
 
 11 The Lake Carriers' Association had anticipated this action by the en- 
 gineers' union. In speaking of the possibility of a strike, at the annual 
 meeting of the association in January, Mr. Coulby had said : "If the 
 M. E. B. A. should come out with a declaration that they are opposed to 
 the open shop policy of the Lake Carriers' Association, which I understand 
 they are now contemplating, I will say to you right now that there won't 
 be an M. E. B. A. man on our ships. ' ' Marine Review, Jan. 12, 1909, p. 23. 
 The association endorsed Mr. Coulby 's statement and adopted it as the pol- 
 icy of the association. 
 
239] OPEN SHOP 89 
 
 on the boats was on strike. The other unions were opposed es- 
 pecially to the discharge book system which constituted a very ef- 
 fectual blacklist and which provided the discharged employee no 
 appeal from the decision of his superior officer on the boat. In- 
 deed it did not even provide that he should know the reason for 
 his failure to have his book returned to him. 
 
 On May 11, 1909, the arbitration boards of New York, Ohio, 
 Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan met in formal joint 
 conference in Chicago in the hope of effecting a settlement of the 
 strike. 12 Representatives of the union appeared before this con- 
 ference and stated their side of the case. The officials of the 
 Lake Carriers' Association did not even acknowledge receipt of 
 the formal invitation sent them by this conference of state boards 
 to attend and state their side of the controversy. The confer- 
 ence then adjourned to meet in Detroit on May 20, and another 
 invitation was extended to the Lake Carriers' Association to as- 
 sist in the settlement of the strike. This invitation was declined, 
 but the president of the association sent to the conference and 
 simulaneously gave to the press a brief statement of the vessel 
 owners' views on the principle of open shop and concluded by 
 saying that such principle cannot be arbitrated. 
 
 Having no powers of arbitration nor of enforced attendance 
 at its hearings, the joint conference then appealed to the National 
 Civic Federation for cooperation in getting the parties together. 
 The Lake Carriers' Association did not give up its opposition to 
 such a conference but through the efforts of the president of the 
 National Civic Federation a meeting of "prominent vessel own- 
 ers," the president of the Federation, and the members of the 
 joint conference of arbitration boards was held at the office of 
 the Pittsburg Steamship Company on June 1, 1909. Mr. Coulby 
 was spokesman for the vessel owners and again refused to arbi- 
 trate the principle of open shop. Following this conference all 
 efforts by disinterested parties to settle the strike were discon- 
 tinued and the Lake Carriers' Association and the unions were 
 left to fight their own battles. 
 
 The season of 1908 had been, as anticipated, unusually dull 
 and ore shipments were but 61 per cent as large as in 1907. 
 
 *2 A complete record of the efforts to settle the strike appear in the 
 Bulletin of the New YorTc State Department of Labor for June, 1909, pp. 
 132-158. 
 
90 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [240 
 
 Many of the men were unemployed throughout the season or 
 were given work but a part of the time. This loss of wages, 
 added to the uncertainties of all obtaining work during 1909 and 
 the threats of the Lake Carriers' Association to drive the mem- 
 bers of the Marine Engineers' Benevolent Association from the 
 Lakes if that organization opposed the open shop policy, caused 
 many engineers to withdraw from their union rather than give 
 up their contracts. Enough others were secured from Atlantic 
 ports or elsewhere to start the boats. Likewise, either through 
 newspaper advertisements or more direct methods strike-breakers 
 were procured to take the places of other striking employees. It 
 has been claimed by some of the union leaders that strike-break- 
 ers were imported directly from Europe and that they received 
 pay as well as expenses during their journey to the Lakes. 
 
 The strike lasted three years but the vessel owners were able to 
 secure enough strike-breakers to keep their boats in commission. 
 Ore traffic was affected but litle except in the greater costs due 
 to accidents caused by inexperienced men on the boats. The 
 1907 shipments were surpassed in both 1909 and 1910. Al- 
 though the strike was not declared off until 1912 it had a neg- 
 ligible influence after 1910. By the end of that season the 
 unions were completely disrupted. 
 
 Since 1908 wages, hours, and the conditions of work on the 
 boats have been determined by the Lake Carriers' Association. 
 Although some adjustments of the grades of men on the boats 
 have been made during this time, involving a few slight changes 
 in wages, 13 the general level of wages has been changed but 
 little until recently. 14 At the meeting of the board of directors 
 on April 21, 1910, it was recognized that if the Lake Carriers' 
 Association was then dealing with the unions, the wages on the 
 boats would undoubtedly be forced up to correspond with the 
 
 !3 Annual Eeport Lake Carriers' Association, 1910, p. 19. 
 
 !* The war conditions of the past two years has created an unprecedented 
 demand for iron ore. Lake traffic has enjoyed unusual prosperity and the 
 demand for men has increased accordingly. In 1916 the union leaders be- 
 gan to be active again and threatened a strike against the Welfare Plan of 
 the Lake Carriers' Association. By granting three separate increases in 
 wages during the season, trouble was averted. Coast Seamen's Journal, 
 Dec. 20, 1916, p. 2. Again at the opening of the season of 1917 the unions 
 threatened a strike (Ibid., May 2, 1917, p. 1) and again the Lake Carriers' 
 Association responded by granting an increase in wages. Marine Beview, 
 June, 1917, p. 202. 
 
241] OPEN SHOP 01 
 
 general increases in wages in other branches of industry. 15 A 
 
 voluntary increase was discussed and decision was left to the 
 
 executive committe with the understanding that any increase or 
 adjustment of wages should not exceed 5 per cent of the ship's 
 payroll. Accordingly the following adjustments were made to 
 take effect June 1, 1910 : 16 
 
 STEAM-BOATS 
 
 Men Affected 1907 Scale 1910 Scale 
 
 (last year of 
 agreements) 
 
 First mates, 1st class steel boats $125 $130 
 
 First mates, 2nd class steel boats 108 112 
 
 First mates, 1st class wood boats 108 112 
 
 First mates, 2nd class wood boats 90 94 
 
 Second mates, 1st class steel boats 86 90 
 
 Second mates, 2nd class steel boats 75 78 
 
 Second mates, 1st class wood boats 75 78 
 
 Second mates, 2nd class wood boats 60 62.50 
 
 Wheelsmen-watchmen (new classification) .... 55 
 
 Deckhands 30 31.50 
 
 Chief engineers, 1st class steel boats 150 to 175 155 to 175 
 
 Chief engineers, 2nd class steel boats 125 to 150 140 to 155 
 
 Chief engineers, 1st class wood boats 125 140 
 
 Chief engineers, 2nd class wood boats 114 125 
 
 Second engineers, 1st class steel boats 100 to 115 110 to 125 
 
 Second engineers, 2nd class steel boats 90 to 100 100 to 110 
 
 Second engineers, 1st class wood boats 90 100 
 
 Second engineers, 2nd class wood boats 84 100 
 
 Third engineers 75 to 80 84 
 
 Firemen 50 52.50 
 
 Oilers 50 52.50 
 
 Water tenders 50 52 . 50 
 
 Chief cooks, 1st class boats'] 90 
 
 Chief cooks, 2nd class boats I. . . .Not classified 75 to 86 78 
 
 Chief cooks, 3rd class boats] 78 
 
 Second cooks and helpers 34 36 
 
 Porters 28 30 
 
 SAIL-BOATS AND CONSORTS 
 
 First mates 70 to 75 73 
 
 Cooks 50 52 . 50 
 
 Seamen 50 52 . 50 
 
 Deckhands 30 31 . 50 
 
 Engineers on tow barges 70 73 
 
 15 Ms. proceedings, Apr. 21, 1910. 
 
 is From data furnished by the secretary of the Lake Carriers' Associa- 
 tion. 
 
92 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [242 
 
 No other changes in wages were made for eight years after the 
 contract system was discontinued. 
 
 Anticipating the passage of a Federal law reducing the hours 
 of marine firemen from twelve to eight per day, the Lake Car- 
 riers' Association in 1913 changed their system of working their 
 firemen six hours on and six hours off to three hours on and six off 
 and increased the number of firemen accordingly. At the same 
 time the deckhands were relieved from the work of coal-passing 
 and the firemen were required to pass the coal when necessary. 
 Mechanical changes have been made during recent years which 
 have reduced the amount of coal to be passed. Vessel managers 
 and captains have been instructed by the Lake Carriers' Associa- 
 tion to grant their seamen watch and watch ' ' whenever possible. ' ' 
 The captain is the sole judge of the existence of such a possibility. 
 The hours of seamen were increased somewhat after the agree- 
 ments were discontinued, although they are less than they were 
 before the agreements were introduced. Mechanical devices have 
 changed the work of the seamen and have opened the way for 
 greater dispatch so that care is taken to save minutes where 
 formerly hours were wasted. This tends to increase the tension 
 under which the men work at times. 
 
 The Lake Carriers' Association has followed three plans in its 
 campaign to acquire stability of tenure on the boats. In the 
 first place the conditions of living have been made much more 
 attractive. Since 1909 the "Welfare Committee has been the most 
 active committee of the Association. Continued efforts have 
 been made in the search for improvements which would increase 
 the attractiveness of life on the boats without entailing a loss 
 to the vessel owners. In this work the Pittsburg Steamship Com- 
 pany has taken the lead and has served as the experiment station 
 for the entire association. It has been recognized that such im- 
 provements can be introduced and maintained only by education 
 and that such education must begin with those in authority on 
 the boats. As a rule, vessel captains, and especially those who 
 have served on sailing vessels, are opposed to innovations. 
 
 Since 1905 the Pittsburg Steamship Company has met its cap- 
 tains in annual sessions and since 1909 has met its engineers at 
 about the same time. Other fleets have since adopted the same 
 plan. At these meetings the various problems connected with 
 the operation of the boats are discussed and changes, mechanical 
 or otherwise, are explained. Committees of captains and others 
 
243] OPEN SHOP 93 
 
 of engineers have a place in studying the evils to be corrected 
 and in making recommendations. Every proposed change has 
 first been tried out by a few of the boats. If it has been success- 
 ful here, it gradually finds favor with a majority of the pro- 
 gressive officers. The declared policy of the Pittsburg Steamship 
 Company is that it will not issue an order that a change must 
 become operative until 50 per cent of the captains (or engineers 
 as the case may be) are favorable to it. In time many of the 
 changes introduced by this fleet have been accepted by other 
 vessel owners and managers, and somewhat later have become 
 rules of the Lake Carriers' Association, to be followed by all 
 vessels. 
 
 In this manner many improvements have been made in the 
 methods of providing for the physical comforts of the men on 
 the boats. Having educated the captain, it is an even greater 
 task to educate the unlicensed men to take advantage of some 
 of the provisions made for them, such as sanitary toilets and 
 bathing facilities. Much attention has been given also to the 
 quality and preparation of food and some needed improvements 
 have been made here. Changes have been made in the methods 
 of paying the men so that payment of even deckhands and fire- 
 men monthly by check is finding increasing favor among vessel 
 owners and managers. Men are encouraged to save their earn- 
 ings and arrangements have been made with the Cleveland Trust 
 Company by which the Lake Carriers' Association will deposit 
 whatever portion of a man 's wages he desires to have entered on 
 a savings' account. Captains have been instructed to use every 
 means to urge their men to take advantage of this opportunity. 
 Such accounts were first opened in May, 1911. The early pro- 
 gress of the plan is shown in the following table, covering three 
 years of its operation : " 
 
 DEPOSITS OF VESSEL EMPLOYEES WITH CLEVELAND TRUST COMPANY 
 
 Dec. 31, 1911 Dec. 31, 1912 Dec. 31, 1913 July 31, 1914 
 
 Total withdrawals to. . 
 
 58,393.84 
 
 218.418.89 
 
 415,417.33 
 
 508,080.69 
 
 Net total deposits on. . 
 
 47,756.02 
 
 113,577.55 
 
 154,921.04 
 
 153,614.30 
 
 Accounts opened to. ... 
 
 844 
 
 2,443 
 
 3,919 
 
 4,765 
 
 Accounts closed to .... 
 
 329 
 
 1,779 
 
 2,945 
 
 3,329 
 
 Accounts in force on. . 
 
 515 
 
 644 
 
 974 
 
 1,427 
 
 !7 Data for this and the following tables furnished by the secretary of 
 the Lake Carriers' Association. 
 
Average 
 attendance 
 
 Number 
 club-rooms 
 
 Average 
 attendance 
 
 102 
 
 8 
 
 322 
 
 201 
 
 11 
 
 528 
 
 150 
 
 11 
 
 423 
 
 212 
 
 11 
 
 390 
 
 255 
 
 11 
 
 528 
 
 94 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [244 
 
 Club-rooms have gradually been made a little more attractive 
 and night schools for the winter months have been introduced. 
 The club-rooms are maintained from December 1 to March 31 by 
 dues paid to the welfare fund by the members of the welfare 
 plan. The number of such club-rooms and the average daily at- 
 tendance for the years, from 1909 to 1914, are as follows: 
 
 AVERAGE ATTENDANCE AT CLUB-ROOMS 
 
 Licensed men Unlicensed men 
 
 Number 
 
 Year club-rooms 
 
 1909-10 4 
 
 1910-11 6 
 
 1911-12 6 
 
 1912-13 7 
 
 1913-14 7 
 
 During the winter of 1913-14 night schools were maintained 
 as follows, at a total cost of $823.66, also paid from the contribu- 
 tions to the welfare fund: 
 
 NIGHT SCHOOLS, 1913-1914 
 
 Total Average 
 attendance attendance 
 
 797 22 
 
 843 23 
 
 468 17 
 
 730 14 
 
 376 14 
 
 Unlicensed men are urged to prepare themselves for license ex- 
 aminations and schools have been opened for the purpose of 
 furnishing them needed instruction. 
 
 In the second place, a great deal of attention has been given 
 to the question of discipline on the boats. Not only are the mer 
 in the employ of the members of the Lake Carriers' Association 
 admitted to membership in the welfare plan, but others as well 
 are enrolled upon application so that there is normally a surplus 
 of men from which vacancies on the boats are filled. The num- 
 ber required to man the boats in commission during the three 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 Place 
 
 Length of term 
 
 classes 
 
 enrolled 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 Jan. 9, 1914, to 
 
 
 
 
 March 28, 1914 
 
 36 
 
 135 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 Jan. 9, 1914, to 
 
 
 
 
 March 28, 1914 
 
 36 
 
 158 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Jan. 9, 1914, to 
 
 
 
 
 March 28, 1914 
 
 27 
 
 71 
 
 Duluth 
 
 Jan. 9, 1914, to 
 
 
 
 
 March 28, 1914 
 
 53 
 
 49 
 
 Marine City 
 
 Jan. 9, 1914, to 
 
 
 
 
 March 6, 1914 
 
 27 
 
 63 
 
245] OPEN SHOP 95 
 
 years from 1911 to 1913, as compared with the number of men 
 registered in the welfare plan is as follows : 
 
 Year Number to man boats Number registered 
 
 1911 8,030 15,106 
 
 1912 9,628 18,197 
 
 1913 10,476 19,481 
 
 During these three years the percentage of men actually em- 
 ployed who were members of the welfare plan was respectively 
 93.54, 91.69, and 84.91; so that a more exact statement of the 
 information in the above table would read : 
 
 No. positions to be filled by No. registered to fill 
 
 Year members of welfare plan these positions 
 
 1911 7,510 15,106 
 
 1912 8,828 18,197 
 
 1913 8,895 19,481 
 
 It must be recognized, of course, that there is always more or 
 less shifting of men from the Lakes to other sections of the coun- 
 try and to other occupations. As a partial offset to the move- 
 ment of the men from the Lakes, there are relatively few changes 
 in licensed officers during a season or even from season to season. 
 Hence during a normal year there is never a very great surplus 
 of licensed men to fill the vacancies that occur in their positions. 
 But of unlicensed men there is nearly always a surplus. For 
 example in the above table, while 1911 was a dull season, both 
 1912 and 1913 were good years. This continuing surplus of un- 
 licensed men makes possible a selection of the types most suit- 
 able to the vessel owners. Preference is always given to young 
 men of sober habits, whose loyalty to their employers reduces to 
 a minimum their activity as union agitators or as trouble makers 
 of any kind. The discharge book gives the officials of the Lake 
 Carriers' Association a continuous record of the character of a 
 man 's work and of his attitude toward his employers as reflected 
 in his work. In addition, the individual owners and the asso- 
 ciation, through various kinds of spy systems, keep in close 
 touch with the activities of the unions and of the men most 
 prominent in them. Hence it is possible at any time to remove 
 men who make trouble, whether in the cause of unionism or 
 otherwise, and replace them with others more loyal to the vessel 
 owners. 
 
96 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [246 
 
 Finally, the Lake Carriers' Association has made conscious 
 and persistent efforts to secure for service on the boats different 
 types of men than formerly worked there. As firemen, the 
 former irresponsible floaters have been replaced by southern 
 Europeans, especially Greeks, Poles, Italians, Austrians, and 
 Slavs. These men have been found to be willing workers, tem- 
 perate in their habits, oftentimes without a home or domestic 
 connections other than those afforded on the boats, and for the 
 most part they are unacquainted with unionism or collective ac- 
 tion of any sort. Most of them are frugal in their habits of liv- 
 ing, anxious to earn and anxious to save. They are willing to 
 undertake hard tasks for what to them is a high wage and they 
 obey orders, when they understand them, uncomplainingly. It 
 has ceased to be the universal custom on the Lakes to expect fire- 
 men to become engineers and these men are in many cases ex- 
 pected to continue to do the work of firing the boilers. Some 
 effort has been made by the Lake Carriers' Association to secure 
 as oilers and handymen graduates of engineering and technical 
 schools from whom engineers are expected to be developed. 
 
 A large percentage of the masters and mates live in small 
 towns near the Lakes or in rural districts. During the last few 
 years these men have been expected to bring their deck crews and 
 especially their deckhands with them at fitting out time in the 
 spring. These farmer youths are unacquainted with unionism, 
 have no prejudices against their employers or the employing 
 class, are regular in their habits, and for a time at least are glad 
 to accept without question the change of work and the relatively 
 high wages offered them. Opportunities for advancement are 
 afforded them and the possibility of their becoming licensed of- 
 ficers within a relatively short time holds many of them on the 
 boats in preference to a return to the farm or rural village where 
 the outlook for the future is more narrow. Under the system 
 employed by some fleets, again led by the Pittsburg Steamship 
 Company, which provides that promotions shall be made only 
 from the ranks of employees of that fleet, continuous service on 
 one boat is considered a strong recommendation when promotions 
 are to be made. Southern Europeans are also used as deckhands 
 on some boats. 
 
 From statistics compiled by the Lake Carriers' Association, it 
 
247] OPEN SHOP 97 
 
 appears that this combination of the substitution of southern 
 Europeans and farmer youth for the older types of firemen and 
 deckhands; greater care for and attention to the physical com- 
 forts of the men on the boats; encouragements offered for con- 
 tinuous service ; and rigid discipline and the dismissal of trouble 
 makers has resulted in greater stability of tenure of unlicensed 
 employees. For example, the experience table for able seamen, 
 including wheelsmen, watchmen, firemen, handymen, oilers and 
 stewards, for the years from 1911 to 1913 indicates that these 
 men remain on the boats longer than formerly : 
 
 CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE EXPERIENCE TABLE OP ABLE SEAMEN 
 
 Percent of total 
 
 Years of experience on lake boats 1911 1912 1913 
 
 Under 1 year 4.59 1.99 
 
 1 year or less 11.66 10.22 6.22 
 
 2 years or less 28.33 20.01 13.39 
 
 3 years or less 43.42 33.91 23.03 
 
 4 years or less 53.58 45.84 34.76 
 
 5 years or less 61.77 54.13 44.10 
 
 10 years or less 81.78 78.79 73.16 
 
 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 
 
 While this table shows that an increasing percentage of the 
 able seamen remain on the Lakes, it does not prove that an in- 
 creasing percentage of them remain on one particular boat longer 
 than formerly. However, in view of the other facts previously 
 stated regarding the efforts to increase the stability of tenure 
 of this class of labor, such inference is perhaps permissable. 
 The age table for able seamen indicates the same thing as the 
 experience table : 
 
 CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE AGE TABLE OF ABLE SEAMEN 
 
 Percent of total 
 
 Years of age 1911 1912 1913 
 
 20 or less 9.48 7.24 5.37 
 
 21 or less 15.78 13.07 10.15 
 
 22 or less 23.79 19.75 16.39 
 
 23 or less 32.90 27.81 23.57 
 
 24 or less 40.27 35.57 30.73 
 
 25 or less 46.48 42.07 37.35 
 
 30 or less 69.50 66.59 63.10 
 
 35 or less 82.17 80.22 78.91 
 
 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 
 
98 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [248 
 
 The experience and age tables for ordinary seamen, including 
 deckhands, second cooks, and porters, show a similar progressive 
 increase in the percentage of men who remain on the Lakes, 
 though relatively smaller changes are recorded than in the case 
 of the able seamen. Since the able seamen are recruited from 
 the ordinary seamen, it is to be expected that more changes 
 would occur in the latter class of men than in the former. In 
 considering the experience table of ordinary seamen it should be 
 noted that the year 1911 was a dull year on the Lakes so that 
 the proportion of inexperienced men attracted to the Lakes and 
 employed by the vessel owners would be smaller than in a normal 
 year. Hence the percentage 34.59 is hardly representative of 
 the general trend. 
 
 CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE EXPERIENCE TABLE OF ORDINARY SEAMEN 
 
 Years of experience on lake boats 1911 1912 1913 
 
 Under 1 year 34.59 49.93 49.84 
 
 1 year or less 67.23 66.88 66.02 
 
 2 years or less 83.12 78.83 75.88 
 
 3 years or less 90.69 87.03 83.92 
 
 4 years or less 93.80 91.14 88.95 
 
 5 years or less 95.46 93.29 91.61 
 
 10 years or less 98.47 97.71 97.11 
 
 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 
 
 CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE AGE TABLE OF ORDINARY SEAMEN 
 
 Percent of total 
 
 Years of age 1911 1912 1913 
 
 19 or less 23.31 21.30 18.47 
 
 20 or less 32.46 30.85 28.63 
 
 21 or less 45.36 42.52 40.92 
 
 22 or less 56.02 53.48 51.85 
 
 23 or less 64.22 61.11 59.67 
 
 24 or less 69.53 67.08 65.63 
 
 25 or less 73.64 71.87 70.29 
 
 30 or less 86.12 86.12 85.70 
 
 35 or less 92.40 92.31 92.55 
 
 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 
 
 There has been relatively little change in the age of ordinary 
 seamen since the years from 1905 to 1907 when trade agreements 
 were in force, except that the older men are gradually being 
 displaced by the younger. The following age table for ordinary 
 
249] OPEN SHOP 99 
 
 seamen enrolled in the Lake Seamen's Union during the years 
 from 1905 to 1907 inclusive is compiled from data furnished by 
 the secretary of the union: 
 
 CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE AGE TABLE OF ORDINARY SEAMEN IN THE LAKE 
 SEAMEN 's UNION, 1905-1907 
 
 Percent of total 
 
 Years of age 
 21 or less 
 
 1905 
 41.33 
 
 1906 
 45.69 
 
 1907 
 45.28 
 
 25 or less 
 
 66.84 
 
 70.18 
 
 69.05 
 
 30 or less 
 
 80.33 
 
 82.94 
 
 82.73 
 
 35 or less 
 
 88.05 
 
 89.18 
 
 89.50 
 
 Total . 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 Since there is no record of total shipments of men per year 
 during the period of trade agreements, it is not possible to state 
 definitely whether or not there has been a gain in the stability 
 of men on individual boats since the agreements were discon- 
 tinued. Any gain that has been made is relative at best since 
 there is still considerable shifting of men, especially among fire- 
 men and deckhands. The following table shows the amount of 
 such changes in each grade of employment on the boats enrolled 
 in the Lake Carriers' Association during the season of 1913: 
 
 STABILITY OF TENURE ON LAKE BOATS, 1913 
 
 Total number Average Largest number re- 
 Class of work shipped per boat quired on any boat 
 
 Deckhands 23,415 55 6 
 
 Firemen 10,891 26 6 
 
 Wheelsmen and watchmen. . . . 6,074 15 4 
 
 Second cooks 1,482 4 1 
 
 Porters 2,473 6 1 
 
 Oilers 1,788 4 2 
 
 This table shows that an average of more than nine changes 
 were made during the season in keeping each job of deckhand 
 filled ; 18 that an average of more than four changes were made 
 in keeping each job of fireman filled, in spite of the extensive use 
 of southern Europeans in this work and in spite of the fact that 
 during the season the hours of firemen were reduced from twelve 
 to eight per day: and so on. 
 
 is In reality the average was even larger ; for not all of the boats used 
 six deckhands at any one time. The same is true of the other averages 
 quoted in this table. 
 
100 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [250 
 
 From the foregoing it appears that even though considerable 
 progress has been made, the goal of the Lake Carriers' Associa- 
 tion in its dealings with labor has not yet been reached. 
 
 While it is undoubtedly true that the threats of the union 
 leaders to call a strike against the Welfare Plan in 1916 and 
 again in 1917 helped the members of the Lake Carriers' Asso- 
 ciation to decide upon increases in the wages of their employees 
 during these two seasons, there is little evidence to indicate that 
 the unions are strong enough to overthrow the labor policy of 
 the association at the present time. Indeed, with the vessel 
 owners and the employees organized as they are at present, it is 
 hard to foresee the time when union recognition and trade agree- 
 ments will again be granted by the Lake Carriers' Association. 
 Dominated as it is by the desires of interests whose policy in 
 dealing with labor in all the varied industries from mine to 
 finished product is to refuse to deal with labor in its collective 
 capacity, the Lake Carriers' Association may be expected to con- 
 tinue to shape its labor policy to conform to that of the dominat- 
 ing interests. And unless the various unions whose members 
 man lake vessels develop strength not yet apparent, the associa- 
 tion may be expected to continue to be successful in maintaining 
 non-union control of labor engaged in lake traffic. 
 
 In the absence of trade agreements, there are apparently three 
 ways in which progress may be made in the direction of improve- 
 ment of labor conditions on the boats : First, the threat of the 
 return of union control through the maintenance of strong 
 unions; second, welfare work initiated and furthered by the 
 vessel owners; and third, legislation. 
 
 Unquestionably the maintenance of strong unions is in itself a 
 source of power to their members, even though such unions do 
 not receive recognition. But where labor organizations are 
 frowned upon by employers it is no easy task to keep men in the 
 union, especially in an industry where there is normally a con- 
 siderable surplus of labor from which the employers may draw 
 workers to take the places of those found to be undesirable for 
 any reason by their superior officers on the boats. It is only in 
 the unusual, rush seasons, when the demand for labor increases 
 so rapidly that all available workers are employed at full time, 
 leaving no surplus and providing no new source of supply, that 
 
251] OPEN SHOP 101 
 
 the threats of the partially representative unions become effec- 
 tive. For eight years after trade agreements were discontinued 
 on the Lakes, the demands and the threats of the unions were 
 successfully ignored by the Lake Carriers' Association. It was 
 not until the unprecedented demand for labor to help move the 
 ore required in war times had depleted the surplus of unemployed 
 men seeking employment on the boats that the association saw 
 fit to give heed to the threats of the union leaders. And even 
 now there is no assurance that labor will retain the wage gains 
 of these two seasons or any part of them after the existing period 
 of labor shortage has passed. 
 
 Though the Lake Carriers' Association persistently refuses to 
 deal with the representatives of organized labor, the vessel own- 
 ers have not closed their eyes to the necessity for giving attention 
 to the comfort and well-being of their employees. Both as in- 
 dividuals and as an association they have made improvements in 
 the living conditions of the men on the boats. Measured by the 
 conditions which ante-dated the agreements, the welfare commit- 
 tee of the Lake Carriers ' Association and many of the individual 
 owners have done much constructive work in making life on the 
 boats more attractive. Of course all expenditures that have been 
 made in the name of welfare work have paid satisfactory returns 
 to the vessel owners and it may fairly be assumed that profits 
 will not be sacrificed in whatever extension is made in welfare 
 work in the future. 
 
 Several laws have been passed which affect directly the work of 
 men employed upon lake boats. These laws, in so far as they de- 
 fine the conditions of labor which must be observed upon the lake 
 boats, constitute, of course, a substitute for trade agreements. 
 But it can hardly be expected that the laborers on lake vessels 
 will ever attain sufficient political importance to induce Congress 
 to consider all of their grievances. Furthermore, many of these 
 grievances are not peculiar to lake traffic but are common to 
 other industries as well. The experience of the unions on the 
 lake boats in their defeat by the Lake Carriers' Association is 
 but one of the many instances where the unaided forces of or- 
 ganized labor have proved impotent before the onslaughts of or- 
 ganized capital. It would seem that if labor is to regain its 
 bargaining power in such industries, it must enlist the support 
 
102 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [252 
 
 of outside forces, possibly the government through legislation, 
 which will strengthen unionism in its struggles with organized 
 capital. 19 To accomplish this end means a closer unity of labor 
 interests than obtains at present and a comprehensive program 
 of legislation which has not yet been effectively worked out. 
 
 19 Since these lines were written a press announcement indicates that 
 the Federal government has become a party to the labor contract on the 
 lake boats. The Chicago Tribune of November 1 contains the following 
 statement : 
 
 Seamen on the Great Lakes will rejoice today to learn that by agree- 
 ment the so-called discharge book . . . is to be abolished. In its place 
 will spring up a discharge certificate system, operated under government 
 supervision, which will guard against incompetency. 
 
 The announcement comes at the close of an investigation, started early 
 in the fall when a far reaching strike on the Great Lakes was imminent. 
 
 The Tribune statement quotes the decision of the shipping board as 
 follows : 
 
 The shipping board has received the report of the investigation into the 
 Welfare Plan and discharge book of the Lake Carriers' Association in 
 operation on the Great Lakes and the matter of overtime work and pay. 
 Upon all the evidence received this board has decided that the discharge 
 book is undesirable and should be abolished. 
 
 The matter of overtime work and pay is under further consideration. 
 The board desires if possible to work out and put into effect a plan for 
 taking up and promptly adjusting any grievances as they may arise. 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 NOTE 
 
 The three appendices constitute three short studies of wage bargaining 
 in industries very closely related to the operation of vessels owned by the 
 members of the Lake Carriers' Association. All three studies were made 
 while the writer was in the employ of the United States Commission on In- 
 dustrial Relations and none of them have been carried beyond the season 
 of 1914. 
 
 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKE ERIE DOCKS 
 
 The first bulk ore brought down the Lakes was shoveled from 
 the hold of the vessel to an intermediate staging and from there 
 to the deck. 1 It was then conveyed in wheelbarrows over a 
 bridge to the dock. The first improvement upon this method of 
 handling the ore was the use of a whiskey barrel sawed in two, 
 with knotted ropes passed through eye holes on each side. This 
 formed a bucket into which the ore was shoveled. A block and 
 fall fastened to one of the spars of the vessel and a horse at the 
 end of the rope was the machine that hoisted the bucket of ore 
 from the hold to the deck. The wheelbarrows were still used to 
 transport the ore to the dock. 2 
 
 In 1867 a dock engine replaced the horse after its superiority 
 had been demonstrated beyond question to the skeptical vessel 
 captains. 3 The next decade brought the swinging crane to con- 
 vey the buckets of ore directly from the deck of the vessel to the 
 dock or cars. 4 In the following decade the Brown hoisting and 
 conveying machine came into general use. It did away with the 
 necessity for wheeling the ore or swinging it by cranes, but it 
 made very little change in the method of handling it in the hold 
 
 1 Marine Beview, June 15, 1905, p. 21. 
 
 2 Marine Record, Nov. 10, 1898, p. 9. 
 
 3 Marine Eeview, Dec. 1, 1904, p. 18. 
 * Ibid., Sept. 20, 1906, p. 31. 
 
 103 
 
104 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [254 
 
 of the vessel since the Brown buckets had but one ton capacity 
 and were filled by the ore shovelers. 5 
 
 In 1901 the first clam-shell grab bucket was erected. This had 
 a capacity of ten tons and was expected to remove 90 per cent of 
 the ore without the aid of shovelers. 6 By improving upon the 
 principle of the grab bucket and by changing the construction of 
 the boats so as to bring the maximum amount of ore within the 
 reach of these automatic unloaders, it is now possible to remove 
 97 per cent of the vessel's cargo without the aid of shovelers. 
 Modern grab buckets have a reach of twenty-one feet and a 
 capacity of twenty tons. 
 
 It has been a common saying on the ore docks that no device 
 for unloading ore has ever been permitted to wear out. It has 
 always been replaced by more modern machinery before it 
 reached that stage. Each new invention reduced the cost of 
 handling the ore. Even the change from the shovel-bucket- 
 wheelbarrow method to the Brown hoist reduced the cost from 
 $.50 per ton to $.18 per ton. 7 Modifications followed each other 
 so closely that dock managers protested against too frequent 
 changes which would give one manager an advantage over his 
 rivals. 8 Another result of the effects of such competition was 
 the formation of price agreements or understanding almost as 
 soon as ore handling became a large enterprise on the Lakes. 
 
 By the early nineties the ore and coal handlers had organized 
 unions and had begun to try to dictate terms of employment to 
 the dock managers in much the same manner as the seamen tried 
 to dictate terms to the vessel owners. Gradually these unions 
 joined the International Longshoremen's Association until by 
 1899 almost every man working on the Lake Erie docks was a 
 member of that organization. The dock managers fought the 
 unions up to this time, but the boom in lake traffic and especially 
 in ore shipments created such a demand for men in this and the 
 following year as to give the unions an advantage over their em- 
 ployers. The unions used this advantage and called frequent 
 strikes for advances in wages. Recognizing the existence of price 
 agreements, the unions played one port against another and ef- 
 
 s The first Brown hoists were useed in 1881. Marine Eeview, May 14, 
 1903, p. 26. 
 
 Marine Eecord, Nov. 29, 1900, p. 11. 
 7 Marine Eeview, May 14, 1908, p. 13. 
 s Ibid., Sept. 20, 1906, p. 30. 
 
255] LAKE ERIE DOCKS 105 
 
 fected general increases by taking advantage of local conditions. 9 
 There was always uncertainty about the wages necessary to ob- 
 tain sufficient men and even about the ability to obtain men at 
 any wage during busy seasons. 
 
 Ore handling was difficult work, involving long hours. It was 
 also casual work since the boats arrived at the docks irregularly. 
 The hard work, long hours and irregularity of work attracted a 
 shifting class of laborers among whom drunkenness was common. 
 The predominance of unskilled laborers placed the control of the 
 unions in the hands of irresponsible men. Only the minority of 
 skilled men, the hoisters and engineers, were permanent workers 
 and even these were held at their machines by the bonus system 
 for regular work. 
 
 In order to systemize their work and if possible to place re- 
 sponsibility for the regular attendance of their men when they 
 were needed, the dock managers granted the request of the union 
 for trade agreements in March, 1900. 10 The employers had no 
 permanent organization but met each year as individuals to fix 
 prices, discuss labor questions, legislation, and any other matters 
 of common interest. Each man financed his own trip to the 
 annual meeting at Cleveland and the association had no treasury. 
 Agreements were signed by all who expected to abide by their 
 terms and violations by managers were expected to be punished 
 by the union. In the same manner the union was expected to 
 force any hesitant manager to sign the agreement which had been 
 accepted by his competitors. 
 
 The agreements signed in March, 1900, granted to the Inter- 
 national Longshoremen 's Association closed union shop to govern 
 the unloading of ore for the season. Although the conference 
 was brought about by the general officers, representatives of the 
 local unions were present. Some of the locals objected to any 
 conference with the employers, as a display of weakness, and 
 desired to continue the system of taking advantage of the em- 
 ployers whenever a favorable opportunity was offered. The main 
 issues covered in the agreement were as follows : u For the first 
 time the hours of ore unloaders were fixed for the season. Prev- 
 ious to this time the working day for the rush season was the 
 
 9 Marine Record, Jan. 27, 1898, p. 5. 
 no Ibid., Mar. 15, 1900, p. 6. 
 11 From copy of agreement. 
 
106 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [256 
 
 limit of the physical endurance of the men and sometimes reached 
 as high as forty-two hours at one shift. Under the agreement, 
 hours were fixed at twelve per day with arrangement for a 
 limited amount of overtime when necessary. There was to be 
 no work on specified holidays or on Sundays unless the vessel 
 was in a wrecked condition. Wages were fixed in the agreement 
 according to the class of work. Both time rates and piece rates 
 were used. The selection of gangs to unload the boats was to 
 be by rotation, to avoid the practice of favoritism which had pre- 
 vailed formerly. Gang bosses were to be members of the union 
 to be selected jointly by the dock superintendent and the men 
 interested. Hoisters and engineers were given a monthly wage. 
 Intoxication or the bringing of liquor to the docks was pro- 
 hibited. All grievances were to be settled by arbitration, with 
 no cessations of work in the meantime. 
 
 During 1900 and 1901 two agreements were made for each 
 year; one to cover the regular navigation season, May 1 to De- 
 cember 1, and the other to cover the winter season from Decem- 
 ber 1 to May 1. Beginning in 1902 agreements to cover both 
 seasons were granted annually until 1906. Winter hours dur- 
 ing 1900 and 1901 were ten per day. In 1902 the hours for the 
 navigation season were reduced to eleven, 12 while the winter hours 
 remained at ten. Slight increases in wages were granted from 
 time to time and minor changes were made in the agreements. 
 Although occasional unauthorized strikes were called by local 
 unions, the general officers succeeded in making conditions of 
 work on the docks much more stable than formerly and much 
 more satisfactory to the dock managers. 
 
 In 1906 no real differences existed between the dock managers 
 and the union and it was not anticipated that any trouble would 
 be had in reaching an agreement. Then the union refused the 
 dock managers a conference pending its attempt to force the 
 Lake Carriers' Association to recognize the union of mates. 13 
 This involved a general nine days' strike when the agreement for 
 the winter of 1905-1906 expired on April 30, 1906. On May 
 
 !2 This was the first season in the half century that ore handlers had 
 been employed that their regular hours of work were less than twelve per 
 day. The reduction affected about 20,000 men. Marine Eecord, Apr. 3, 
 1902, p. 7. 
 
 is Cf. supra, p. 73. 
 
257] LAKE ERIE DOCKS 107 
 
 9, 1906, the strike was declared off .and two days later an agree- 
 ment was reached. At the request of the dock managers its term 
 was extended from one to two years. The only material change 
 from the former agreement was a further reduction of the day 
 to ten hours. 14 
 
 Although the first automatic grab bucket was constructed in 
 1901, it took considerable time for a complete change to be made 
 on all the docks. Whenever such an unloader was installed a 
 large number of ore shovelers were thrown out of employment in 
 spite of the rapidly increasing receipts of ore at the Lake Erie 
 docks. At the same time the demand for skilled workers, men 
 capable of operating the machines, increased. By 1908 the total 
 number of men employed on the docks had been gradually re- 
 duced and the character of the work of unloading the ore had 
 changed from hand work to machine work. A few shovelers 
 were still used to clean up the 3 to 5 per cent of the ore which 
 the automatic grab buckets could not reach unaided; but the 
 number required for this work was but a fraction of the number 
 formerly required to fill the buckets under the old system of un- 
 loading the vessels. At the same time the men accustomed to 
 shovel the ore were not usually the kind of men required to oper- 
 ate machinery. 
 
 The loss of union strength was directly proportional to the 
 construction of automatic unloaders and was especially rapid in 
 1906 and 1907. Nevertheless the union expected a renewal of 
 the two year agreement signed in 1906 and early in 1908 asked 
 for a conference with the dock managers. Letters to that effect 
 were either ignored or were answered evasively until open shop 
 was declared by the Lake Carriers' Association on April 9, 
 1908. 15 "Within a few days the dock managers also declared open 
 shop and refused to discuss the subject with the union officials. 
 The declaration read as follows : 16 
 
 The experience of the dock managers and dock superintendents for the 
 past few years has demonstrated the necessity of operating the docks on the 
 open shop principle in order to give them the proper control of their docks, 
 
 i* The union waived a demand for an increase in wages in order to secure 
 the ten hour day. Marine Review, May 17, 1906, p. 22. 
 
 !5 Ms. records of International Longshoremen 's Association, passim. 
 is Marine Review, Apr. 23, 1908, pp. 20-21. 
 
108 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [258 
 
 which is required for the equal good of the owners, their employes, the ves- 
 sel interests and all concerned; therefore, be it 
 
 Eesolved, First that the dock managers of Lake Erie do now declare that 
 the open shop principle be adopted, and adhered to on our docks. 
 
 Second, that the dock managers stand for the open sliop principle. 
 
 Third, that it is the intent of the dock managers to pay a fair and just 
 rate of wages, to insist on such rules and regulations as shall conduce to the 
 well being of their employes and shall enforce a system of discipline requir- 
 ing faithful and diligent performance of duty. 
 
 Fourth, and at this meeting, representing all the docks on Lake Erie, it 
 is voted to adhere to and observe this action. 
 
 The relationship between the vessel owners and the dock man- 
 agers is a very intimate one so that the same motives actuated 
 both in their labor policies. For example, a prominent corpora- 
 tion in Cleveland styles itself a selling agency. It buys ore 
 from mines, manages boats and docks, and sells ore to furnaces. 
 Its members are stockholders in every process of iron and steel 
 production and in every transportation agency from the mining 
 of the ore to the selling of the finished product. Hence it was 
 natural that a man who believed in non-unionism as a vessel 
 owner would also believe in non-unionism as a dock manager. 
 
 The dock managers continued the same wages and conditions 
 of work as under the agreements. Upon a referendum vote the 
 union decided not to strike against the declaration of open shop, 
 but to await a more favorable opportunity to protest against this 
 action of the dock managers. In some cases at least the em- 
 ployers forced the union members to sign individual contracts 
 declaring their withdrawal from their organization. 17 Also by 
 refusing to receive boats at certain docks until the union mem- 
 bers had surrendered their charters, the employers succeeded in 
 driving all local unions from the docks. 18 The enrollment of 
 4,500 members on the ore and coal docks in 1907 was reduced to 
 the negligible number of less than 300 in 1908, while 25 of the 
 30 locals had surrendered their charters by the later date. The 
 others had a nominal existence for a short time longer. 
 
 Since the breakup of the agreements, the dock managers have 
 adopted the system followed by some of the vessel owners of 
 filling positions by promotion from their own employees when- 
 ever possible. In this manner they hope to encourage faithful- 
 
 " Proceedings International Longshoremen's Association, 1908, p. 17. 
 is The fencing of the docks aided materially also. Cf. supra, p. 76. 
 
259] LAKE ERIE DOCKS 109 
 
 ness in service and loyalty to employers. More rigid rules of 
 discipline have been introduced and efforts have been made to 
 secure a more desirable class of men. Since the agreements have 
 been discontinued the shovelers have been mostly southern Euro- 
 peans while young Americans were secured wherever possible to 
 operate the machines. 
 
APPENDIX B 
 GRAIN HANDLERS' AGREEMENTS 
 
 As soon as the rich farm lands along the shores of Lake Erie 
 began to produce a surplus of grain, shipments by lake to Buf- 
 falo and thence to the eastern markets began. Somewhat later, 
 1831, the first grain shipments from Lake Michigan, consisting 
 of a few bags of wheat, were received at Buffalo. 19 By 1840 the 
 grain trade at Buffalo had become established. Upon arrival at 
 Buffalo the grain was carried up ladders on the backs of the 
 grain handlers or was hoisted to the deck in barrels and carried 
 in baskets to the warehouses, or to the floating warehouses used 
 to transport grain from the lake vessels to the canal boats. 20 A 
 horse power elevator had been tried without success and the 
 warehouse operators continued to believe "Irishmen's backs are 
 the cheapest elevators." In this manner about 2,000 bushels 
 could be taken from a boat in one day. The grain was weighed 
 in a fifteen bushel hopper suspended from a steel-yard beam 
 placed over the hatch. 21 
 
 The rapidly increasing receipts of grain gave greater impetus 
 to efforts to perfect a power elevator and in 1842 the first success- 
 ful elevator was constructed. It applied steam power to an end- 
 less belt set with two-quart buckets twenty-eight inches apart. 22 
 This elevator had* but one leg and had a capacity of 55,000 
 bushels daily. Three years later a second leg was added and the 
 capacity was doubled. The grain handlers were still needed to 
 place the grain within reach of the elevator legs. In the sixties 
 the steam shovel came into use. 23 This supplemented the work 
 of the elevator legs and took the place of a part of the shovelers. 
 "With the continually increasing shipments of grain, the receipts 
 
 is Marine Seview, Feb. 22, 1906, p. 15. 
 
 20 Ibid., June 20, 1907, p. 21. 
 
 21 Ibid., May 30, 1907, p. 25. 
 
 22 Ibid., May 30, 1907, p. 22. 
 
 23 Marine Record, July 27, 1899, p. 7. 
 
 110 
 
261] GRAIN HANDLERS 111 
 
 having exceeded 50,000,000 bushels in 1866, the number of grain 
 handlers remained about the same since they were needed to 
 clean up and to help the steam shovels. Since the introduction 
 of the steam shovels, but little change has been made in the 
 methods of handling grain at Buffalo. Suction elevators have 
 been tried without success. Relatively, but little change has 
 been made in the number of grain handlers required. 
 
 The amount paid by the vessel owner for unloading the grain 
 has always been a piece price. In 1865 it was $4.00 per thousand 
 bushels for sail-boats and $4.50 for steam-boats. 24 Of this amount 
 one-half was paid to the owners of the steam shovels and the 
 remainder was paid to the grain handlers. Shoveling grain is, 
 of course, one of the simplest of occupations and requires a 
 minimum of skill. Since the arrival of boats was irregular, 
 steady work was out of the question. On any particular day all 
 elevators might have vessels to unload and hence have a demand 
 for shovelers ; or none of them might need shovelers for days at a 
 time. 
 
 Wages were relatively high for the time worked. The men 
 who followed the work of grain shoveling were a shifting mix- 
 ture of old men, tramps, saloon loafers who were driven to a 
 day's work occasionally, and men who tried to make enough at 
 the work to keep themselves and their families. While waiting 
 for the arrival of expected boats or during an off day the meet- 
 ing places of these men were the numerous saloons which studded 
 the docks. An elevator operator who needed men soon acquired 
 the habit of sending to these saloons for them. 
 
 From this set of circumstances developed the saloon-boss sys- 
 tem of control over the grain handlers. 25 Each elevator operator 
 came to patronize one particular saloon because he could depend 
 upon its keeper to furnish needed men. The saloon keeper next 
 assumed the responsibility of supplying the men at a price agreed 
 upon by himself and the elevator operator. The saloon keeper then 
 paid the shovelers at his saloon. This gave him several sources 
 of profit: First he received a neat commission from the eleva- 
 tor operator for furnishing the men : second, a considerable por- 
 tion of the wages paid out by him were turned back in payment 
 for drink ; third, many of the men were floating laborers and were 
 
 24 Marine Eecord, July 27, 1899, p. 8. 
 as Hid., May 11, 1899, p. 7. 
 
112 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [262 
 
 forced to live in boarding-houses in which the saloon bosses had 
 an interest; finally, since each saloon keeper was a ward politi- 
 cian, the number of votes which he could thus control netted him 
 an additional annual profit. 28 
 
 From every point of view it was advantageous for the saloon 
 boss to have at his command the largest possible number of men, 
 regardless of the needs of the grain shoveling business. Having 
 such a surplus of men at all times it was very easy to exercise 
 discrimination in giving out work, paying particular attention 
 to the amount of money spent with the saloon for drink and to 
 the degree of subservience in politics. In many cases the men 
 were forced to spend a fixed minimum of their wages in the 
 saloon or were given beer checks as a part of their pay. While 
 the wages paid to the gang were supposed to be divided among 
 the members of the gang, dummies were often carried on the 
 payrolls and the saloon boss pocketed the wages. 
 
 In 1882 the patent on the steam shovels expired and a reduc- 
 tion of $.50 per thousand bushels was made in the price paid to 
 the owners of the shovels. 27 The amount paid to the saloon 
 bosses continued to be $2.00 per thousand bushels for grain un- 
 loaded from sail-boats and $2.25 for steam-boats until 1895. The 
 advantages accruing to the saloon bosses soon became so great 
 that the rivalry among the various gangs resulted in rebates to 
 the vessel owners in return for sending the vessel to the elevators 
 where such gangs worked. Rebates were as high as $.50 per 
 thousand bushels and were deducted from the wages of the 
 shovelers. 
 
 In 1894 a disagreement arose between the vessel owners and 
 the elevator operators and the rate paid to the owners of steam 
 shovels was cut $.25 per thousand bushels, the rate to the shovelers 
 to remain as before. The saloon boss system was expensive to 
 the vessel owners in spite of the occasional rebates. Delays were 
 sometimes suffered because of the lack of responsibility in hand- 
 ling the men. Furthermore, a higher charge was made for un- 
 loading wet grain and in the absence of responsible parties in 
 charge of the work the vessel owners were often made to pay 
 extortionate rates on mere claim of wet grain or have their boats 
 tied up. Hence in 1895 when one saloon boss conceived the idea 
 
 26 Marine Review, Apr. 11, 1895, p. 7 ; Marine Record, July 27, 1899, p. 7. 
 
 27 Ibid., July 27, 1899, p. 7. 
 
263] GRAIN HANDLERS 113 
 
 of driving out his competitors by taking the contract for all 
 grain shoveling at Buffalo, the vessel owners accepted the chance 
 to centre responsibility and the Lake Carriers' Association 
 granted a year's contract at $3.50 per thousand bushels regard- 
 less of the condition of the grain. 28 It was understood that of 
 this amount, $1.50 would be paid to the owners of the steam 
 shovels, $1.85 to the shovelers, and $.15 to the contractor. Since 
 this contract abolished the rebate system, the reduction in the 
 amount paid to the grain handlers was more apparent than real. 
 
 This contract was more satisfactory to the vessel owners than 
 the previous system of numerous saloon bosses. It was hoped 
 that it would also correct the abuses suffered by the men. The 
 contractor agreed to employ the same men who had been at work 
 in the various gangs ; to pay them weekly at his office or, if they 
 were at work when the pay was due, at the elevator where they 
 were at work and not in any saloon or other place where beer or 
 liquor was sold; and to pay the full amount earned by the men 
 without any deduction for any bill owed by them. 29 Neverthe- 
 less a large surplus of men was carried and polities and saloon 
 patronage still played a large part in the selection of men. 
 
 In 1896 the contract was renewed at the same price. The grain 
 scoopers' union had asked the Lake Carriers' Association to 
 grant the union the contract directly but the request was re- 
 fused. In 1897 the price was reduced to $3.35 per thousand 
 bushels, the reduction to fall upon the owners of the steam 
 shovels. In 1898 a further reduction to $3.10 per thousand 
 bushels was made to fall partly upon the owners of the steam 
 shovels, making their rate $1.20 pe* thousand bushels, while the 
 contractor was to receive but $.05 instead of the customary $.15. 
 This later reduction was accepted because of the efforts being 
 made by the other contractors to secure this contract. 
 
 In 1899 the grain unloading contract was granted to a new 
 man at the same price paid to the former contractor in 1898 in 
 order to show all contractors that there was no favoritism and 
 hence to encourage future competition on a more advantageous 
 basis to the vessel owners. 30 It was understood that of the $3.10 
 paid to the contractor, the steam shovel owners would receive 
 
 28 Annual Report Lake Carriers' Association, 1896, p. 5. 
 
 29 Marine Review, Apr. 11, 1895, p. 7. 
 so Marine Record, May 18, 1899, p. 7. 
 
114 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [264 
 
 $1.20, the shovelers $1.85, and the contractor $.05. Instead of 
 following out this program the contractor immediately reduced 
 the wages of his men to $.25 per hour while working. He con- 
 tinued to pay the steam shovel owners $1.20 per thousand bushels 
 and retained the remainder of the $3.10, amounting to about $.77 
 per thousand bushels, for himself. 
 
 The enormous cut in wages caused the grain shovelers to 
 strike. There had been a union in the trade for a number of 
 years, but it had had but little influence upon wages. The of- 
 ficials of the union and of the parent union, the International 
 Longshoremen's Asociation, held a conference with the grain 
 committe of the Lake Carriers' Association and again asked that 
 the contract be granted to the union. The union offered to fur- 
 nish bond to the Lake Carriers' Association to insure faithful 
 performance of their contract, in return for a closed union shop 
 agreement. All differences were to be submitted to a board of 
 arbitration to consist of one employer, one representative of the 
 union, and a third member to be selected by these two. The 
 paymaster was to be ' ' absolutely disassociated from either saloon 
 or political influence. " 31 In view of the growing strength of 
 the other unions on the Lakes at this time, and the unprepared- 
 ness of the Lake Carriers' Association to deal with these by con- 
 tract, it was thought best not to set a precedent by signing an 
 agreement with the grain shovelers. The new contractor was up- 
 held and was given enough more than the contract price to per- 
 mit him to make a satisfactory agreement with the shovelers. 
 
 On May 22, 1899, the contractor made his agreement with the 
 union, granting closed union shop and fixing the scale for the 
 season. In 1900 the Lake Carriers' Association abolished the 
 contract system and hired a superintendent instead. Through 
 this superintendent the association made an agreement with the 
 scoopers union for the season of 1900. 32 Again the agreement 
 called for closed union shop conditions and fixed the wages at 
 $2.00 per thousand bushels unloaded on regular time, $3.00 per 
 thousand bushels unloaded after 10 p. M. on Saturday night and 
 on Sunday, and $.20 per hour for handling wet grain. 33 No 
 
 si Proceedings International Longshoremen's Association, 1899, p. 10. 
 
 32 Ibid., 1900, p. 13. 
 
 33 Under these rates the highest amount received by one scooper during 
 the year was $479. Marine "Record,, Jan. 17, 1901, p. 19. 
 
265] GRAIN HANDLERS 115 
 
 saloon or political influence was to-be used either in the selection 
 or the payment of the men. 
 
 The boss scooper at each elevator was to be appointed by the 
 president of the union and the Lake Carriers' Association super- 
 intendent, or in the event of their disagreement, by the president 
 of the International Longshoremen's Association. Men could be 
 discharged only for cause, the existence of such cause to be de- 
 termined by the president of the international union. 34 Trouble 
 soon arose over the selection of boss scoopers since the president 
 of the local union contended that the superintendent must make 
 his selection from a list submitted by the president of the union. 
 Upon appeal to the president of the international union, it was 
 decided that the boss scoopers must also be known to the super- 
 intendent. Other matters referred to the international presi- 
 dent recived prompt and satisfactory attention. 
 
 Yearly agreements were signed until 1906 when a two-year 
 agreement was granted at the request of the Lake Carriers' As- 
 sociation. 35 No changes were made meantime in the principles 
 of the 1900 agreement. Small adjustments were made in wages 
 in 1903 and the changes were continued until the close of the 
 season of 1907. Grievances were generally settled with little de- 
 lay by the Lake Carriers' superintendent and the president of 
 the international union. 
 
 Although having no grievances against the grain scoopers' 
 union in 1908, the year of the declaration of open shop on the 
 boats, the Lake Carriers' Association refused to renew the 1906 
 agreement. This refusal was made for the sake of consistency. 
 The grain superintendent was retained and he continued the 
 same wages and conditions as during the period of the agree- 
 ment. In 1911, at the request of the union, an agreement was 
 signed by the grain superintendent, granting a small increase in 
 wages. The union was given a preferential union shop agree- 
 ment which is not different in its operation from the former 
 closed union shop agreement. Such agreements have been con- 
 tinued since 1911 and although the Lake Carriers' Association 
 superintendent signs them as an individual, the association as- 
 sumes the responsibility for the faithful observance of their 
 terms. 
 
 34 From copy of agreement. 
 
 ss Marine Eeview, June 7, 1906, p. 38. 
 
APPENDIX C 
 
 WAGE BARGAINING IN THE LUMBER CARRYING 
 INDUSTRY 
 
 In the early days of lumber-carrying sailing vessels on the 
 Lakes, the sailors loaded and unloaded their boats, assisted at 
 times by workmen on shore. Gradually this work became a 
 separate occupation and a class of longshoremen or lumber 
 shovers followed it as a trade. The first union of these men was 
 formed in Chicago in 1877. 36 A little later other locals were 
 formed at the other important lumber shipping and receiving 
 ports. These unions continued an independent existence until 
 1892, though following 1885 they assisted each other through 
 sympathetic strikes. In fact an understanding which amounted 
 almost to a national organization existed for the six years 
 previous to the formation of the national union. 37 
 
 At this time the lumber dealers owned no boats and there was 
 direct antagonism of interest between the men who owned the 
 lumber and those who carried it. This resulted in the formation 
 of two associations of employers in each port; one of lumber 
 dealers and the other of lumber carriers. Neither wished to 
 deal with the lumber loaders and unloaders. The lumber car- 
 riers' associations were formed to regulate freight rates and the 
 dealers' associations to regulate both freight rates and prices. 
 The carriers always tried to induce the dealers to load and un- 
 load the cargoes and sometimes succeeded, but more often 
 failed. 38 In case the dealers loaded and unloaded the cargoes, 
 yard men were used. This involved the dealers in jurisdictional 
 troubles with the lumber shovers who claimed the right to do 
 
 36 From original seal of the union. Its name was Chicago Lumber Vessel 
 Unloaders' Union. 
 
 37 Ms. minutes of Lake Seamen 's Union, passim. 
 ss Marine Review, Feb. 12, 1891, p. 6. 
 
 116 
 
267] LUMBER INDUSTRY 117 
 
 such work. Except when more advantageous rates could not be 
 obtained by agreeing to handle the cargoes, the dealers con- 
 sidered this work a part of lumber carrying. 
 
 From 1885 to 1892 the local associations of lumber carriers 
 made agreements with local unions of lumber shovers and after 
 1892, with the International Longshoremen's Association. 39 Dur- 
 ing this time the relations of the Lake Seamen's Union to the 
 lumber carriers were but little different from the relations ex- 
 isting between the seamen and the Cleveland Vessel Owners' As- 
 sociation 40 except that the lumber carriers never waged a war 
 of extermination upon the seamen's union. United resistance 
 was made to union demands but the lumber carrying business 
 was relatively small and owners of lumber boats reaped the 
 benefits from the union war conducted by the owners of the ore 
 carrying boats. In 1891, before the Cleveland Vessel Owners' 
 Association began its third campaign against the Lake Seamen's 
 Union, and while the union was gaining strength very rapidly, 
 the Lake Michigan Vessel Owners' Association, which at that 
 time contained a representative membership of lumber vessel 
 cwncrs, proposed an agreement to the Lake Seamen's Union, 
 with a sliding scale to be based upon the changes in freight 
 rates. The essoeiation offered a closed union shop agreement 
 and suggested a permanent grievance committee to hear and de- 
 cide upon grievances submitted to it. 41 
 
 The union members were suspicious of all friendly offers from 
 employers and refused to grant the agreement. In 1894, how- 
 ever, the union did make an agreement with the Vessel Owners 
 and Masters' Association, composed of nearly the same men as 
 the Lake Michigan Vessel Owners' Association. 42 At this time 
 the lumber carriers were fighting the lumber dealers for an ad- 
 vance in freight rates and needed the assistance of the union. 
 The wages agreed upon were based upon a sliding scale of freight 
 rates so that every increase of rates amounting to $.25 per 
 thousand feet of lumber called for an increase of $.25 per day 
 in the wages of seamen. At one time during the season the 
 
 3 Proceedings International Longshoremen 's Association, passim. 
 * Cf. supra, p. 16. 
 
 * l Marine Review, Feb. 19, 1891, p. 6. Also ms. minutes and correspond- 
 ence of Lake Seamen's Union. 
 
 42 Ms. minutes of Lake Seamen 'a Union. 
 
118 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [268 
 
 owners failed to receive an anticipated increase in rates and 
 asked the union to tie up all boats until the advance was granted. 
 This the union assented to and the advance was granted. Hence 
 the agreement served the purpose of the vessel owners during 
 that season but they refused to renew it for the following season. 
 The following season was dull and in addition the union was too 
 weak to offer much resistance to the owners. 
 
 No other attempts at agreement with the seamen were made un- 
 til 1898. When the Cleveland Vessel Owners' Association and 
 the Lake Carriers' Association amalgamated in 1892 some of the 
 lumber carriers joined the new Lake Carriers' Association and 
 an increasing number gradually came in thereafter. The lum- 
 ber vessel owners never received much attention in the Lake Car- 
 riers' Association, however. In the first place they were never 
 numerous enough to have a large vote and in the second place 
 the lumber vessels were always smaller than the ore carriers and 
 hence their owners were not greatly interested in deepening 
 channels and widening locks. They rather depended upon en- 
 joying the benefits secured by the ore carriers and increased the 
 size of their own vessels only as they secured larger cast-offs 
 from the ore carriers. Finally, the lumber carriers were always 
 most interested in trying to regulate freights, an activity in 
 which the ore carriers were never successful. Occasionally a 
 committee of the Lake Carriers' Association was appointed to 
 consider the troubles of the lumber carriers but never gave them 
 much relief. 
 
 This inattention to their interests resulted in a temporary 
 withdrawal of many of the lumber carriers from the Lake Car- 
 riers' Association and in February, 1898, they formed the Lum- 
 ber Carriers' Association at Detroit and established a scale of 
 freight rates for the season. 43 This association was opposed by 
 the Lumber Dealers ' Association and by other dealers who as in- 
 dividuals had by this time acquired considerable lumber carry- 
 ing tonnage. In order to secure support in enforcing its freight 
 scale, overtures were made by the Lumber Carriers' Association 
 to the International Longshoremen's Association. An offer was 
 made to the union to grant a closed union shop agreement on 
 condition that the union would discriminate against non-members 
 
 43 Marine Record, Feb. 17, 1898, p. 9. 
 
269] LUMBER INDUSTRY 119 
 
 of the association and thus force outsiders to join it. 44 For the 
 two years previous to this time the union had fined boats loaded 
 by non-union men but unloaded by union men, so that the pro- 
 posal of the Lumber Carriers Association was looked upon with 
 favor. 
 
 The opposition of the lumber dealers, a general practice of 
 rebating, and a slump in shipments in July, 1898, caused by 
 the temporary cessation in building at the outbreak of the 
 Spanish- American War, broke up the Lumber Carriers' Asso- 
 ciation and its members returned to the Lake Carriers' Associa- 
 tion. 45 The severe lake storms of 1898 destroyed approximately 
 one-eighth of all lumber carrying tonnage. The recovery from 
 the slump in shipments aided by a tariff of $2.00 per thousand 
 feet on Canadian lumber 46 made the following year one of great 
 prosperity for lumber carriers. Without a freight rate combina- 
 tion rates increased more than 100 per cent in some cases during 
 the season of 1899. 47 
 
 In the meantime the unions had forced large increases in wages 
 from the local associations of lumber carriers and from individ- 
 ual vessel owners. In spite of falling freights in 1900 the unions 
 were able to maintain their wages at the level of the previous 
 year. The lumber carriers were in much the same position as 
 the ore carriers were in two years later. The owners were un- 
 organized and were besieged on the one hand by rate-cutting 
 shippers and on the other by the unions. Beginning in the early 
 fall of 1900 organization was again talked and a preliminary 
 meeting was arranged for January 17, 1901, to meet in Detroit. 48 
 Although meeting as a committee of the Lake Carriers' Associa- 
 tion, the conference resulted in the organization of an indepen- 
 dent association for the purpose of dealing with labor and of 
 fixing freight rates. As in the Lake Carriers' Association, dues 
 are paid and voting power is determined upon a per tonnage 
 basis. The control of the association is vested in a board of 
 managers of twelve members selected with reference to their in- 
 
 ** Marine Record, Mar. 3, 1898, p. 5. 
 Ibid., June 9, 1898, p. 11. 
 we lUd., Nov. 10, 1898, p. 8. 
 4T Ibid., Sept. 21, 1899, p. 10. 
 48 Ibid., Jan. 3, 1901, p. 7. 
 
120 WAGE BARGAINING ON LAKES [270 
 
 fluence in the association and to geographical distribution so as 
 to have the principal ports represented. 
 
 Again an attempt was made to deal with shippers on a from- 
 dock-to-dock basis, leaving loading and unloading troubles to the 
 shippers. Failing in this atempt, agreements were entered into 
 with the lumber handling unions. Closed union shop agree- 
 ments were granted to cover the following questions : prohibition 
 of restriction upon amount of work to be done by each man; 
 settlement of disputes by reference to a grievance committee; 
 and establishing a scale of wages at $.50 per hour for the season. 
 In order that the unions might know who were members of the 
 association, a list was furnished each local and in addition each 
 vessel carried a certificate of membership. 
 
 In 1902 the agreements with the lumber shovers were con- 
 tinued and in the following year agreements were made with the 
 seamen, cooks, and firemen. These were the same as the agree- 
 ments made between these unions and the Lake Carriers' Asso- 
 ciation. A classified wage scale was also granted to the masters 
 and pilots. 49 In dealing with the unions of unlicensed men on 
 the boats the Lumber Carriers' Association followed the lead of 
 the Lake Carriers' Association from 1903 to 1907 inclusive. In 
 fact the union conference with the former usually followed that 
 with the latter and was merely an acceptance of its results. 
 
 In 1904 contracts were made with the American Association 
 of Masters and Pilots and the Marine Engineers' Benevolent As- 
 sociation. The former then broke up during the same year and 
 the latter discontinued making agreements with the Lumber 
 Carriers' Association. In each case no change was made in the 
 wage classification. In 1908 the Lumber Carriers' Association 
 met the unions of unlicensed men as usual, after the declaration 
 of open shop by the Lake Carriers' Association, but asked of 
 them conditions which the unions were unwilling to grant so that 
 no agreements were reached. No conferences have been held 
 since but the Lumber Carriers' Association have continued to 
 carry union men on their boats. They still follow the lead of the 
 Lake Carriers' Association in the payment of wages. Other 
 conditions are left to the discretion of the captain of the boat and 
 are generally satisfactory to the men. 
 
 49 Marine Eeview, Jan. 29, 1903, p. 23. 
 
271] LUMBER INDUSTRY 121 
 
 Agreements with the lumber shoviers have continued without 
 interruption since the Lumber Carriers' Association was formed 
 in 1901. There have been practically no changes in the agree- 
 ments except an occasional adjustment in wages. The lumber 
 carrying business has been a declining industry for many years 
 so that there is no need for an increasing number of men to 
 handle the cargoes. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Accident insurance, 44, 88 
 American Federation of Labor, 32, 
 
 45, 46, 49, 69 
 Arbitration, 57, 58, 64, 77, 83, 106, 
 
 114 
 
 Aristocracy of labor, 47 
 Assembly rooms, 87, 94 
 Barges, 11, 24, 58 
 Beer checks, 112 
 
 Bessemer fleet: see Rockefeller fleet 
 Blacklist, 72, 89: see also Discrim- 
 ination 
 
 Boarding houses, 112 
 Bonus, 42, 55 n, 62, 105 
 Brown hoists, 104 
 Captains' committees, 93 
 Carnegie interests, 24, 37, 38 
 Character of workers, 10, 26, 31, 52, 
 
 79, 81, 96, 105, 109, 111 
 Clam shell, 104 
 
 Cleveland Civic Federation, 64, 67 
 Cleveland Vessel Owners' Associa- 
 tion, 15, 16, 19, 20, 51, 54, 76, 
 117, 118 
 
 Closed non-union shop, 51, 68 n, 69 
 Closed union shop, 57, 58, 74, 82, 
 
 105, 114, 117, 118, 120 
 Coal passers, 81, 92 
 Conferences, 54-56, 62, 64, 72, 74, 
 
 85, 105, 107 
 
 Cooks' union, 32, 58, 63, 70, 73, 120 
 Coulby, Harry, 56, 60, 65 n, 69, 74, 
 
 84, 85, 87, 88 n, 89 
 Deckhands, 18, 26, 30, 57, 81 
 Deserters, 52, 57, 58, 80, 81 
 Discharge, 26, 63, 72, 79, 115 
 Discharge books, 88, 89, 95 
 Discipline, 43, 78, 80, 94, 108, 109 
 Discrimination, 86, 108, 112, 118: 
 see also Blacklist 
 
 Dock fences, 76, 84, 108 n. 
 Dock managers, 73, 105, 107 
 Drunkenness, 52, 80, 105 
 Dummies on payroll, 112 
 Efficiency, 25, 40, 55 n 
 Employment by trip, 14, 26, 52, 79 
 Engineers' committees, 93 
 Engineers' unions, 32, 39, 41, 55, 63, 
 
 69, 70, 73, 75, 77, 84, 88, 90, 120 
 Farmer youth, 96 
 Firemen's unions, 31, 43, 54, 58, 61, 
 
 71, 73, 120 
 
 Fleet engineers' association, 75 
 Food, 26, 52, 79 
 Freight rates, 10, 14, 27, 28, 38, 39, 
 
 51, 76, 79, 116, 118, 119 
 Furnace interests, 23, 65, 75: see 
 
 also Carnegie interests and U. S. 
 
 Steel Corporation 
 Government licenses, 33, 41, 94 
 Grain handling methods, 110 
 Grain superintendent, 114 
 Grievances against firemen, 71, 73, 
 
 80, 82 
 Hours of labor, 52, 57, 81, 92, 105, 
 
 106: see also Overtime. 
 Idle days in port, 52 
 Impersonal management, 59 n, 67 n 
 Independent boat owners, 23, 39, 45, 
 
 49, 53, 58, 59, 76 
 Individualism of captains, 66 
 Individual contracts, 41, 55 n, 58, 
 
 62, 64, 66, 70, 75, 84, 86 n, 87, 
 
 88, 108 
 
 Initiation fee, 74 
 Industrial union, 18, 21, 46, 48, 72 
 Jurisdictional disputes, 47, 49, 55, 
 
 72 
 
 Knights of Labor, 16-18, 21, 31, 45 
 Labor turnover, 99 
 
 122 
 
INDEX 
 
 123 
 
 Lake Carriers' Association, 19-21, 
 28, 30, 37, 39-41, 43-45, 47, 49, 51, 
 53-56, 59-65, 67-78, 82, 83, 85-90, 
 92-96, 99-101, 106, 107, 113-115, 
 118 
 
 Lake Carriers' Beneficial Federa- 
 tion, 44, 47, 54 
 
 Lake Michigan Vessel Owners' As- 
 sociation, 117 
 
 Lake trades' council, 45, 47, 48 
 
 Legislation, 16, 20, 92, 101 
 
 Living conditions, 26, 52, 79, 92, 93, 
 101 
 
 Longshoremen, 32, 45, 46, 48, 55, 58, 
 72, 73, 81, 104, 114-116, 118 
 
 Loyalty, 44, 95, 109 
 
 Lumber Carriers' Association, 54, 
 118-121 
 
 Lumber Dealers' Association, 118 
 
 Masters, 25, 40, 44 
 
 Masters' unions, 34, 35, 42, 43, 54, 
 58, 59, 62, 64, 66, 67, 120 
 
 Mates, 58, 66, 68, 71, 72, 75, 77, 106 
 
 Mesabi range, 24 
 
 National Civic Federation, 89 
 
 Night schools, 94 
 
 Open non-union shops, 51 
 
 "Open shop," 62, 70, 72, 76, 85, 
 
 87, 89, 107, 115 
 
 Ore handling methods, 103, 107 
 Ore reserves, 62, 66, 70, 75, 84 
 Ore shipments, 11, 21, 23, 70, 75, 89 
 Overtime, 57, 58, 63, 73, 81, 106 
 Payment by check, 93 
 Pittsburg Steamship Company, 38, 
 39, 41-43, 50, 58-60, 62, 67, 70, 84, 
 
 88, 89, 92, 93, 96 
 
 Police protection, 21, 57, 64, 76 
 Politics, 112, 113, 115 
 Porters, 64, 71 
 Preferential union shop, 117 
 Promotion, 26, 66, 96, 108 
 Rebates, 112, 113 
 Eeferendum, 55, 71, 108 
 Rockefeller fleet, 24, 27, 37-40 
 Safety, 53, 90 
 Sailboats, 11 
 Saloon boss, 111, 113, 115 
 
 Savings' plan, 93 
 
 Seamen's unions, 10, 13, 21, 30, 32, 
 
 34, 43, 46, 54, 55, 63, 70, 72, 73, 
 
 81, 117, 120 
 Season charters, 51, 53 
 Service record, 88 
 
 Shipping Federation of Great Brit- 
 ain, 87 
 
 Shipping offices, 16, 18, 20, 50 
 Ship Masters' Association, 35, 87: 
 
 see also Masters' unions 
 Size of boats, 12, 53 
 Southern Europeans, 96, 109 
 Spanish-American War, 27, 119 
 Specialized skill, 66 
 Stability of tenure, 78-80, 92, 97, 
 
 99, 106 
 
 State arbitration boards, 89 
 Steamboats, 11, 12 
 Steam shovel, 110 
 Strike breakers, 41, 46, 65, 71, 84, 90 
 Strikes, 41, 44, 57-59, 64, 73, 78, 83, 
 
 85, 88, 90, 100, 104, 106, 114: see 
 
 also Sympathetic strikes 
 Surplus of men, 94, 95, 100, 112 
 Sympathetic strike, 65, 77 n, 116 
 Technical schools, 96 
 Time studies, 25, 27 
 Trade agreements, 14, 17, 22, 50, 53, 
 
 54, 61, 63, 70, 71, 73-77, 105, 106, 
 
 114, 115, 120, 121 
 Treatment of men, 26, 52, 79-81 
 Union officials, 80, 81 
 U. S. Steel Corporation, 24, 38-40, 
 
 45, 49, 53, 59, 60, 62, 65, 76 
 Vessel Owners' and Masters' Asso- 
 ciation, 117 
 Wages, 13, 14, 17, 28, 30, 33, 40, 41, 
 
 43, 49, 52, 55-58, 63, 70, 75, 77, 78, 
 
 91, 105, 106, 111, 114, 117, 120: 
 
 see also Bonus 
 
 Watch and watch, 57, 58, 92 
 Welfare certificate, 87 
 Welfare committee, 92, 101 
 Welfare plan, 68, 87, 90 n, 94, 100: 
 
 see also Lake Carriers' Beneficial 
 
 Federation 
 Women, 64