A/ 4 s uoT Vuo. University ol the State oi New York Bulletin *^ 0 YD O ** I ' Entered as second-class matter August 2, 1913, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under the act of August 24, 1912 Published fortnightly No. 684 ALBANY, N. Y. April 15, 1919 fc \lTY OF ILUHv Visual Instruction Division OUTLINE OF VISUAL METHOD AS APPLIED TO THE TEACHING OF SOUTH AMERICA TO A FIFTH GRADE CLASS IN GEOGRAPHY ALBANY THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Regents of the University With years when terms expire (Revised to September i, 1919) 1926 Pliny T. Sexton LL.B. LL.D. Chancellor - - Palmyra 1927 Albert Vander Veer M.D. M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. Vice Chancellor Albany 1922 Chester S. Lord M.A. LL.D. - - - - - Brooklyn 1930 William Nottingham M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. - - Syracuse 1923 Abram I. Elkus LL.B. LL.D. D.C.L. - - - New York 1924 Adelbert Moot LL.D. - -- -- -- - Buffalo 1925 Charles B. Alexander M.A. LL.B. LL.D. Litt.D. - -- -- -- -- -- -- Tuxedo 1928 Walter Guest Kellogg B.A. LL.D. - - - Ogdensburg 1920 James Byrne B.A. LL.B. LL.D. ----- New York 1929 Herbert L. Bridgman M.A. ------ Brooklyn 1931 Thomas J. Mangan M.A. ------- Binghamton President of the University and Commissioner of Education John H. Finley M.A. LL.D. L.H.D. Deputy Commissioner and Counsel Frank B. Gilbert B.A. Assistant Commissioner and Director of Professional Education Augustus S. Downing M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education Charles F. Wheelock B.S. LL.D. Acting Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education George M. Wiley M.A. Director of State Library James I. Wyer, Jr, M.L.S. Pd.D. Director of Science and State Museum John M. Clarke D.Sc. LL.D. Chiefs and Directors of Divisions Administration, Hiram C. Case Agricultural and Industrial Education, Lewis A. Wilson Archives and History, James Sullivan M.A. Ph.D. Attendance, James D. Sullivan Educational Extension, William R. Watson B.S. Examinations and Inspections, George M. Wiley M.A. Library School, Frank K. Walter M.A. M.L.S. School Buildings and Grounds, Frank H. Wood M.A. School Libraries, Sherman Williams Pd.D. Visual Instruction, Alfred W. Abrams Ph.B. c u,T v«r, W , (L-0 p, 1 Introductory Note 3 5 10 w <2S j. Paul Goode, professor of geography in Chicago University, at a recent meeting of the Department of Superintendence pointed out clearly and forcefully that the great war has brought to our atten- tion the importance of the study of geography and the necessity of a new emphasis in the subject. There is a growing appreciation of the need of much more attention to the geography of industry and commerce, not a category of names of places and products but an understanding of the meaning of the position and resources of countries and cities, the means of transportation between them and the flow of trade. South America is a vast continent rich in natural resources, with rapidly increasing trade in which the United States is bound to acquire an: ever larger interest, it behooves the schools to teach the subject with this fact in mind. The continent is fairly easy to study because of its relatively simple coast line and relief and because its industries are as yet chiefly those associated with the primary resources of mines, forests, grazing lands and soil. Most of the geographic facts concerning South America to be presented in the elementary school can be successfully taught rather early in the course. The work here outlined has actually been done in a number of classrooms. The results obtained have demonstrated both the value and the practicability of such exercises. If the work seems to anyone to be more than a fifth grade class can do, let it be remem- bered that to insure his progress a pupil must be stimulated to reach what lies just beyond what he has yet done. Recall the observations a five year old child makes before entering school and consider the responsibility of the teacher to continue to awaken ideas. Professor Goode says, It is plain also that adequate teaching in geography calls for a generous equipment in globes, maps, atlases and other texts, and pictures, such as photographs, stereographs or lantern slides.” The Visual Instruction Division offers an exceptionally well selected collection of significant pictures and maps for an objective study of South America and invites the schools to make a thorough test of what can be accomplished by the visual method of presenta- tion. The following notes are not offered as an orderly, general [ 3 ] y 4 statement of the visual method, but chiefly as an aid to teachers in understanding some of the aims of this method and as a means of directing the use of slides for intensive classroom study of a par- ticular subject. The notes, therefore, will have their fullest value when read in connection with an examination of the pictures. A. W. Abrams Chief , Visual Instruction Division Equipment Room. Any arrangement by which the lantern can be used any day at the regular class period without taking more than a minute to darken room, attach lantern and begin work. If a special room is provided, then all or at least nearly all the class work should be done in this room. Let it be understood at the outset that the visual method as here outlined does not consist in doing the usual book work for several days and then “ showing pictures/’ The proposed work can not be done by occasionally taking the class to an assembly room for a lantern exercise. Take the lantern to the classroom. Use a small screen, one not larger than 6 feet square. The back of a wall map answers the purpose very well. Not all the light from the windows need be shut out. The necessary equipment is simple and inexpensive. Books. It is essential that the class be liberally supplied with books on South America. There should surely be sufficient copies of the following to supply each pupil with one book during each study period. Do not expect to succeed with the method unless such reading material is provided. Allen’s South America, Ginn & Co. Bowman’s South America, Rand McNally & Co. Carpenter’s South America, American Book Co. One copy each of the following books will be useful to pupils and teachers. Glances at Ports and Harbors around South America, a reprint (1919) from the Bulletin of the Pan American Union for July 1917, and August 1917. Washington. Free. Freeman and Chandler’s World's Commercial Products (vege- table), Ginn & Co. One or two up-to-date commercial geographies. A dictionary or gazetteer for pronunciation of names. Teachers should consult the bibliography given in List 28 for additional aids for their own use. Peck’s South American Tour will be found especially useful. Babson’s The Future of South America, Little, Brown and Co., deals specially with commercial interests. There are numerous notes in List 28 not repeated in this outline. Do not overlook them. [ 5 ] 6 Teacming pupils how to use books is in itself a most important function of the school. There is now too little of it. It is an essen- tial feature of the visual method. Maps. As many wall maps as practicable. Besides school maps try to procure such maps as Commercial Map of Ldtin America issued by the Irving National Bank, Wool- worth Bldg., New York, and the Trade Chart issued by the same bank. Write the 'Pan American Union, Washington, for maps and descriptive circulars. Special maps in textbooks, encyclopedias etc. News items. Columns in the New York and other daily papers, especially the Monday issue of the New York Sun, show the import- ance now attached to South American trade. Make some use of them. Early in the study show a picture of the Pan American building, Washington, and explain the purpose of the Union. Time Required By close planning South America can be covered by the visual method in five or six weeks, but it would be better to extend the period two weeks. Better results would be secured if this grand division were studied only once but thoroughly, rather than gone over two or three times in the usual way. Certainly the lantern should be used in only one grade; this should be the one in which the first full presentation of the subject is made, usually the fifth ; The Teacher The teacher must be willing thoroughly to familiarize herself with the subject and further be able to differentiate essential from unessential facts. Unless she is disposed to pursue her studies much beyond the limits of the textbook, she should not attempt this method. Those teachers who have taken a class over South America in accordance with this outline report that they studied more than usual but enjoyed the work and were themselves profited. The teacher is herself to visualize correctly and vividly the different regions and the grand division as a whole, and to have clearly in mind the organized knowledge with which she is to leave her pupils at the end of the period of study. The teacher must give the amount and sort of study to each picture necessary to enable her to know not merely the particular things shown in it but the significance of these things as represent- ing important aspects of the geography of the continent. 7 General Procedure Omit at the beginning all study of the grand division as a whole, such as position with reference to latitude, oceans etc., and also general shape and relief. Do not begin by teaching the name and boundaries of each country, the rivers, the mountains etc. When the several regions of the continent have been studied as outlined below so the pupil has really visualized the parts, he must see the whole. It is assumed that the pupils who are to do this work have already acquired some notions of the principal land and water areas of the earth. Every effort to visualize the form, size and position of a part of the continent necessarily has some reference to the whole. These elements of the mental picture should involve frequent comparisons of one place or region with those already studied. The result is a better understanding of the continent than can be had by reading at the beginning statements concerning the whole. A few brief exercises on the “ drill map ” toward the end of the course will show that time has been gained by omitting at the beginning the “ conti- nent as a whole.” At the outset have pupils compute the length of a degree of lati- tude and use the result (nearly 70 miles) regularly to measure dis- tances from the maps. Disregard meridian lines for estimating distances. Study the pictures (including maps) first; let reading follow. If the picture work is properly done, pupils will use their textbooks and other reading enough and to good advantage. Let it be clearly understood that the visual method does not mean giving up the text- book. It does call for a new use of this aid to study. The notes here given do not cover all the pictures of the collec- tion nor do they direct attention to all the features worth studying. They are only suggestions. Each teacher must carefully select the teaching points that fit her purposes and can be covered in the time at her disposal. Time to be Given to Pictures Classes that have already done this work have given fully 50 per cent of the time of the class period each week to study from the pictures. It is recommended that one day a week no pictures be used. Let the class period be devoted chiefly to teaching, not to hearing recitations on a portion of a text previously assigned. The use of pictures is not an extra exercise; it is a different method. If 8 larger results can not be secured within a given time through them, there is no warrant for the visual method. But remember it is ultimate, not immediate results that should be sought. The course of study does not call, merely for an extended body of verbal information of which the teacher of one grade is to give her pupils a proportionate share. The most important work of the teacher of geography is to teach pupils how to study geography. Information is soon forgotten; the results of training are felt throughout life. Have patience at the beginning and proceed slowly. If the class period is used largely for teaching, that is, for making ideas clear and vivid and bringing them into organized form, pupils will have time during the study period to read the fuller descriptions in the reference books. A definite mental picture can not be secured solely from the brief statements of a textbook. Number of Slides to be Used during One Exercise As many slides should be used during one exercise as bear directly upon the ground that can be covered in first presentation of new topics and usually some needed in making comparison with facts already presented. The number will vary somewhat but will rarely exceed ten or twelve. The rule to be followed absolutely is that slides are not to be shown for the first time, with some vague state- ments, after book study. The Study Period Plan for the study period as carefully as for the class period. In many schools the teacher is free for at least a part of the study period. Work with pupils. Direct their study. See that they are using the books, maps and other aids that have been provided. Let certain pupils have at the seat the slides on a given topic. (If requested to do so, the Division will send to the school suitable boxes for protecting slides thus used by the pupils.) Encourage them to pore over these slides and try to interpret them. Photographs cor- responding to the slides are available from the Visual Instruction Division and may be placed upon a bulletin board from day to day or used by pupils at a reading table. Use pictures in the class period in such a way as to challenge an attitude of inquiry on the part of the pupil. Let him find an answer in his reading and through the exercise of his own mental powers. 9 Use of the Textbook Every pupil should have a textbook at hand for daily reference. Let him see for himself how the printed names of places look and learn to spell them. Of course there is to be repeated use of the maps. Reference tables, usually ignored, should be brought into use. The textbook presents a very condensed summary of facts that is worth more to the pupil after he has done the inductive work recommended than before. Does a fifth grade pupil know how to use a book for reference? Possibly not, but is it not the function of the school to teach him this and to do so early in the course? Relation to English What better basis for oral and written composition can pupils have than the full, clear and vivid ideas they may acquire from geography studied both objectively and through extensive reading, particularly when the teacher has formed in them the habit of orderly procedure in making observation, has accustomed them to note similarities and differences and has led them to draw conclusions from the knowledge acquired? Geography makes its appeal to imagination. The mental picture is no less suitable for English composition because it corresponds to a reality. Surely not all composition by pupils should be story. The practical need is for ability to state in a straightforward but orderly way what one person wants to tell another about some topic of interest. Why should we so often cast about for a topic when some study the pupils are pursuing offers so many suitable ones on which their minds have been well filled with ideas? One principal writes, “We found that we could lengthen the geography period and shorten the English period from the fact that during the discussion on geography the pupils secured much valuable practice in English.” Testing Pupils Use a few minutes each period in testing pupils ; specific oral questions to individual pupils; one written question for the class as often as practicable, some of the answers read to the class immediately with comments. This is chiefly to give a standard of measure of results for guidance of pupils. The first thing is to get pupils to perceive the facts, then judg- ments or inferences can be made. Do not allow pupils to learn verbal statements when they have not visualized the facts back of them. 10 Procedure Illustrated The visual aspects of any “ thing ” are position, size and form (always), color and motion (sometimes) — nothing else. For example, Rio de Janeiro harbor: where is it, in what country, in what part of the continent, what resources lie back of it, what latitude, into what ocean does it open, where is it with reference to the ports of the United States, to those of Europe; size, large enough to accommodate many vessels (15 to 17 miles), deep enough for largest ships; shape, regular, somewhat circular, nearly land locked, backed by high ground, hence well protected, very picturesque. Use slides Fc RA, Fc RA2, Fc RA4, Fc R2, Fc R4, F 1, F 4, Ez 3. In Fc RA and Fc RA2 orient the views with maps Fc R2 and Fc R4, that is, find on the maps the viewpoint and the direction in which the observer in each case is looking. This is essential How is Fc RA2 related in position to Fc RA? Note how the city runs back between the mountains in Fc RA2. This view is made from the Corcovado. Find this peak in Fc RA4. Corcovado and Sugar Loaf may seem like unimportant details. You can not, how- ever, observe a picture or actual scene just by looking at it as a whole. These peaks are notable features of the scenery of Rio. Use the names of them freely. What do the wooded areas on the steep slopes of the mountains in Fc RA4 tell about the heat and rainfall of the district? Why are no ships seen in the pictures? The views of the city represent the residence portions. From map Fc R4 note where the decks are. What is the meaning of “ pro- posed docks”? Many millions of dollars are being expended in developing this an,d other harbors of South America. The work is going on rapidly, often with the aid of foreign capital. See Glances at Ports and Harbors. Use F 1 for location of Rio with reference to Brazil, to the tropic of Capricorn and the Atlantic ocean. With Ez 3 teach the position of Rio with reference to important harbors of the United States and Europe. Have pupil point out on the screen where the word Rio would appear on this map. After the country lying accessible to Rio has been studied, pupils can infer and will see, not memorize, what the exports are. Learn- ing of the absence of coal and iron, essential in manufacturing, they can appreciate what classes of goods are brought into Rio. Recur to this topic as the study progresses. II Do not begrudge the time spent here. If a pupil once visualizes Rio as a good harbor, he will thereafter refer to it in comparing other harbors. This is real study. The study of harbors like Valparaiso and Iquique will go fast. Rio is one of the world’s great harbors. Do not reduce it to a par with all others, and dis- miss it with a sentence. Teach pupils the spelling of names as they are met. Observe quickly the spelling. The teacher pronounces distinctly, by syllables, and spells. The class repeats. Do not be afraid of concert recitations. Nothing kills a recitation more certainly than the everlasting applica- tion of the formula, “ State your question, then call upon some indi- vidual to answer.” The work must move forward rapidly. Do not be afraid of repetition. As soon as you proceed to another harbor, for example Buenos Aires, review Rio by comparisons. How far from Rio? In what direction? Is it land locked? What does Buenos Aires export? What Rio? Compare size of cities.. Do not tell pupils the distance in miles between Rio and Buenos Aires. From the map have them see the latitude of each and use “ nearly 70 miles ” as the unit of measure of the distance between them. Having learned the position of Buenos Aires, pupils know the latitude of Valparaiso as soon as, inspecting the map, they visualize its relative position. We are all the time building in a mental picture of South America as a whole — inductively. This is the way we get our most usable knowledge in practical life. Study the comparative size of the United States and Brazil, F 1. Come back to this often until the comparison is a working tool in the pupil’s mind. The coffee industry may be taken up next. In using the pictures, first observe them. Differentiate information that can be secured from the picture from that which is supplementary and expressed in words only. Teaching pupils how to observe and how to express precisely what they see is the chief aim. You are training pupils how to study geography. There is a vast difference between an educated mind and one filled with a hodge-podge of unrelated information. It will not be enough merely to study what is in the pictures. From the books learn the extent of the industry. Remem- ber there is a commercial problem connected with every product not consumed locally. To what place is it sent and how? As the study progresses pupils will realize that other countries of South America also produce coffee. Fi LeY, Drying Coffee, will 12 be used in studying 'Peru. This will call to mind the coffee raising in Brazil and the more extended range of the industry will be appreciated. Highlands of Brazil. From a map like F 2, on which elevations are expressed by color, pupils acquire a partial notion of the areas of highland and lowland, but do not visualize slope. Try them. Teach them to read the relief of a country by interpreting the streams that flow through it. Have them trace as exactly as possible the main watershed of the highlands of Brazil, directing the pointer between the sources of the several rivers. Lead them to visualize small tributaries between the rivers actually shown on map F 4. Have pupils keep in mind that water runs down hill. Have several rivers, including those flowing south from the highlands of Brazil, traced from mouth to source or source to mouth. What does the Sao Francisco river tell about the relief of eastern Brazil? Account for the arid region of Brazil shown on map F 3. Continue this work with other regions until a habit is established. A proper study of South America will give a pupil initiative in studying other parts of the earth. Since this collection does not contain illustrations of cattle rais- ing in Brazil it might be better to leave the topic until this industry in Argentina has been studied through pictures and then return to Brazil. (Only in a very general way is a political division to be the unit of study. Let the unit be rather a region, distinctive because of its physical features, its resources or its peculiar life, or an industry, or some other topic.) But now or later point out the cattle region on the map and discuss it. Have in mind three topics in this connection: the type of country adapted to cattle raising;, physical features of Brazil; transportation facilities. You do not need pictures for everything. Pupils should have picked up some ideas on the topic before reaching this point. To a fifth grade pupil some words have already begun to have content. In the end words are the medium for expressing ideas. But see to it that the pupil actually has a clear, vivid mental picture. The teacher, of course, must have such a picture herself. This involves seeing details in the whole. Visualizing requires a constructive attitude of mind. Your teaching is effective to the degree to which you produce it. Build in further the picture of Brazil. The situation of Bahia, its negro population, Fc Bx. What nationality is represented by Fc SsY? As the work progresses gradually develop the topic “ races and nationalities ” ; negroes, Indians, whites ; Portuguese, Germans, Italians. Locate areas of each on map. 13 Study the Amazon water system, chiefly from map but have pupils find in books and elsewhere as many pictures as possible in addition to those of the slides. Have these pictures analyzed, read, interpreted, not looked at vaguely. Study the rubber industry. The pupil should be able to construct a full and orderly report on the industry. Where in Brazil rubber is found, by whom work is done, trees, sap, smoking into balls, transportation by Indians to small stream, by succession of different type of boats to the sea, Manaos as the center of rubber-gathering industry. Do not permit yourself to bring out all such facts by separate questions. Get pupils to use the mind constructively and recite on a topic following a suggested order. They will do it readily enough if accustomed to by practice. In using Fc Y6 be sure pupils do not call the men negroes. Note distinguishing characteristics in detail. Discourage superficial glances at pictures. This picture shows a means of transportation. Begin to “ build in ” this general topic. Several other means are shown in the Brazil pictures. Most pictures illustrate more than one topic, for example, Fc Y8 shows a product, Brazil nuts, and a means of transportation. The value of an observation depends largely upon its being properly classified. Pictures need not always be presented again. It may be enough to have them recalled. There are three significant pictures of Manaos. Study width of the Amazon here, the meaning of the floating pier, navigation on the Amazon, the excellent theater shown in Fc McE. Arouse a spirit of inquiry and provide sufficient reading matter. Refer to table in textbook for size of Manaos. The single picture of cotton at Ceara, Fc Y5, may introduce the fact that certain crops of Brazil such as cotton, grains and fruits are like those of the United States. Do not lose sight of the great size of Brazil. How far is it from Ceara to Santos? Enough by way of illustration. When you have covered Brazil so far as a course for elementary pupils goes, check up results, group facts, test results, be sure pupils have read the textbook carefully. Brazil will take at least three or four days. You will not have completed the study yet, but this country, half of South America, will come up again and again through com- parison before South America is finished. The basis of study will be at least partly established. Much depends upon the teacher. The class period is for teaching. Do not assign one day a page of the textbook as a lesson and merely ask questions on it the next. 14 Argentina We began Brazil with Rio because it is an exceptionally good harbor to present as a type, some of the main features of which can be shown by pictures, and because so much can be associated with it. Find a different point of attack in Argentina. Let it be the vast stretches of productive plains. After presenting size and position through map F 45, use physical map F 2 and the pictures showing plains, Fa Pa2, Fa Pay, Fa Y14, Fa Y17, and Fa Y21. Make clear that these plains are steppes of three main levels: under 500 feet, 500 to 1000, 1000 to 2000 feet. The word pampas in its more restricted use applies only to the lowest of these levels lying between the Salado and the Rio Negro. Consult F 2 and other physical maps. Study Fa Pa2. Locate Mendosa. In what direction is the observer looking? Note the arid appearance of the region. The vegetation is bunch grass. Such a region furnishes some pasturage for sheep. It would be as indefinite to say that the prairies of the United States are in the Mississippi valley as that the pampas of South America are in Argentina. The pampas proper bear somewhat the same relation to the higher plains bordering on the Andes that the prairies bear to the Great Plains of the United States. Use rainfall map F 3 and note grain lands along the Parana (abundant moisture), cattle lands (less rain), sheep ranches (least rain). Recall Fa Pa2. Be sure pupil knows the mean rainfall of New York State as a standard for comparison. Otherwise the figures for the different districts of Argentina mean little. The pictures serve to attract attention. With them can be asso- ciated the significant facts. But do not fail to note where the pic- ture was taken and to locate the place on the map. It is not memory of verbal statements we want but mental pictures. The word Argentina should call up a clear mental image of the country. Study the same series as to remoteness from market. Australia and other countries illustrate the same general rules. Show why cattle and sheep raising can be carried on in regions remote from trade centers. Agriculture follows ranching as population increases. Reserve a full study of sheep for Australia, the principal producer. Slides are available. Study maps F 43 and F 45 for railroads. Note how they center in Buenos Aires. Consider ease of building — country level and free from forests. Compare mileage with that of Brazil. Later compare railroad building in Andes countries. Give special atten- tion to trans-Andine railroad. Note its east-west direction; so get i5 position of Valparaiso. Compare number of transcontinental rail- roads in North America. What part of Argentina has no railroads? Why? Memorize latitude of Buenos Aires. Use railroad map, F 43, again and again. South America is as yet an undeveloped country inviting capital. A review of the map F 45 may be used as an introduction to a full study of Buenos Aires — the great size of the city, its imposing public buildings, hotels, parks etc. The capitol suggests form of government. See if pupil recognizes the superior design of the capitol at Washington, De Hi 3. The custom house introduces the question of exports and imports. Do not have pupils memorize a book statement of exports. Let them recall pictures of sheep and cattle. If pupils visualize, the word cattle carries with it hides, meat, horns, tallow, beef extract, etc. Fa BS and Fa BR further establish the railroad facilities of Argentina. Recall different means of transportation in Brazil. South America is yet a new continent awaiting development. Emphasize immigration, Fa BX. Every lesson through comparisons is a review; it is a meams of building up ideas. The slides do not show all the facts to be pre- sented. Visualization, not looking at pictures, is the end sought. ’Present with due emphasis the size of the Parana river, and also the fertile country through which it runs. Show possibilities of future development. Emphasize the position of Argentina in the (south) temperate zone. Have in mind that the great nations of the earth have a temperate climate. Argentina, an agricultural country ; note especially the absence of coal and iron, essentials in manufacturing. Is water power abun- dant? Compare with many swift streams of New York. Argentina, southern Brazil and Uruguay constitute a vast region of great latent wealth. Teaching Points of Certain Slides — Illustrations Fa Y15 Significance of windmill. Are windmills common in your locality? Why? Fa Y16 Fences and barn. Where is the scene? Why do you not expect a cattle ranch here? Fa PoY Oranges. Compare place with Florida as to latitude and climate. Why are oranges cheap? Supply and demand. Perishability. Transportation facilities. i6 Uruguay and Paraguay Present Uruguay and Paraguay in connection with Argentina as a part of the study of the Plata river system. Let the aim be to have pupils think of this region as a whole. Treat state boundaries incidentally. The number of pictures available is very limited, but the main features of these two states are similar to those illustrated pic- torially elsewhere and can be visualized from verbal descriptions. Always keep pictures subordinate to the end of your teaching. The ever present question is, Has the pupil visualized the thing itself? If the pupil is making progress in his habits of study, he is beginnng to ask himself certain kinds of questions when a new object of study is presented. What does it look like? Just where is it situated or placed? How large is it? What is its form or shape? Of what does it consist? In case of a country, how would one get to it? What sort of people live there? What do they do for a living? What language do they speak? What kind of a government do they have? What are their means of transporta- tion ? What trade do they have with their neighbor, etc. ? A school that graduates pupils without developing in them an initiative in asking themselves such questions has signally failed in its mission and at best has given but meager returns for a very large expenditure of time and money. The mechanic is certain to have his work checked by a rigid standard. Is it accurate? Is it what he was expected to do ? Let the teacher look over the work of any class period and ask herself, What is this period worth in real educational units? Verbal information in itself is of very little consequence, especially when expressed in isolated statements. Check up by the vital questions: Is the pupil mentally aggressive? Is he learning to observe? Is he putting his observations together and drawing significant conclusions? Is he developing the ability to think? Is he gaining power to express his ideas orderly, clearly, vividly? Do not be impatient for immediate evidence of results. In case of the South American countries Paraguay, Uruguay and Colombia, test the value of the visual method as already used by noting the ability of pupils to visualize without the aid of actual pictures. Pictures have not been used educationally if, by their use, pupils have not gained in ability to visualize from verbal descriptions similar scenes without the aid of them. But even with these countries make full use of the maps. Inter- pret them. The three pictures for Uruguay, however, are signifi- cant and introduce factors not already presented. i7 Fj MA2 A breakwater — what it is, when needed ; the general question of harbor improvements. Fj MAi Note name of vessel. What nationality ? Competition of Europe and the United States for South American trade. Fj X2 Rural versus urban population ; an agricultural country. Note the natural advantages of Paraguay, its undeveloped resources, its favorable conditions of soil and climate, its possibilities of river transportation. Compare the Plata drainage area with that of the Mississippi. Southern End of the Continent Observe the boundary line (F 4) between Argentina and Chile, but otherwise disregard political divisions. Observe map F 5 closely especially for the Strait of Magellan and Tierra del Fuego. From what ocean does the strait begin on the east? the west? The strait may be represented by three straight lines. What is the relative length of each? What the direction? Make this exercise a test in observation. Have some pupil draw lines on board. Note whether he has observed the relative position (latitude) of the eastern and the western ends. From an inspection of the map the class can see that the north-and-south section is about a degree long. Convert into miles. Teaching points of Fd PuA2, Punta Arenas. In which direction is the observer looking in the picture? If there is any hesitation, project F 5 again and note location of city. Lead pupils to see snow. In what month was the picture made? What season? Where is the sun with reference to the observer? Determine by noting shadows made by the houses. The aim is to teach concretely that the position of the sun in the southern hemisphere is the oppo- site of that in the northern. Fd PuA. Kinds of ships ; number. A port of call — why needed ? A coaling station — where is the coal obtained? Strait of Magellan belongs entirely to Chile, but it is free to all commerce — freedom of waterways. Name other ship passages that are free. The most southern city in the world. Use map Ez 3. Compare latitude of Punta Arenas with that of London. Size of city. Encourage pupils to consult tables in textbook. Fd Mb2. Tops of partly submerged mountains. Examine map of west coast of Chile. Note latitude of Strait of Magellan; mean- ing of snowcapped peaks (effect of altitude). Forests also tell of abundant moisture. Use rainfall map. i8 There is time for all this, but the teacher must know for what each picture is to be used and see that the exercise moves along rapidly. She is chiefly concerned with awakening ideas, not in “ hearing a recitation.” Which part of Argentina is sparsely populated? Inspect map F 45. Have pupils note where the railroads are. Let a pupil point out on the screen each city indicated on the map for the northern part, numbering in order as he does so; in the southern part. Train in map reading. Do not be content merely to give information about South America. There are some people in this southern end of the continent. Use pictures of Ona Indians. Their size ; dress ; houses. How do these Indians get a living? What does the method of living tell about the stage of civilization? Compare Fa X3 and Fa X4. How did the Indian of Fa X3 get the material for his house? Have pupils recognize the primary needs of food, clothing and shelter. In the study of Indians of southern Argentina, have in mind the topic “ people ” and that there are very many Indian tribes in different stages of civilization in South America. Regions of Chile Note the length of Chile compared with width. The approximate latitude of the southern end has been fixed in mind. Also the lati- of Rio de Janeiro. Use map F 1 to get latitude of northern end compared with that of Rio de Janeiro. Get more exact latitude from some large scale map. Convert length of Chile in degrees into miles. Inspecting F 1, compare with the east and west distance across the United States, which should already be known or now ascertained. The mean breadth is about 70 miles. Visualize by recalling some place 70 miles from the pupil’s home. Think of Chile as divided into three sections — southern, central, northern. The southern section has already been studied in part. Little more need be done except to observe more carefully that it is made up of islands, peninsulas and channels, to note the absence of towns and to learn something about the Araucanian Indians, Fd X3. Both the northern and the southern sections are very sparsely settled. After studying the northern sections and by way of recurring to the study of the southern section, bring out strongly the differing causes of small population. The northern section hot and arid, the southern cold and wet. 19 In general, do not try to finish the study of one section before taking up another. Your unit of study is not a whole country but rather a topic like climate, people, production or transportation. Comparison is one of the most effective means of developing clear- ness of ideas. It also involves a review, a form of review prefer- able to a going over ground a second time in the same manner as at first. In studying Fd SA2 note not only the progressive appearance of Santiago, but especially the mountains back of it. In which direction are you looking? Fd SZi gives a still better idea of the valley. Emphasize agricultural interests. Have pupils read about products. The plantation residence Fd SZ tells of the large estates that are characteristic of the region. How far are large estates the rule in the rural sections of South America? Why? Compare with New York State farms. What are the teaching points of the chamlber of deputies, Fd SG, and of other fine buildings like Fd SN and Fd SR? Compare Valparaiso, Fd VA, with Rio as to harbor conditions. Where are the ships? Number? What do they carry? To what countries do they go? Note from Fd VA2 the absence of a coastal plain. England and Germany have had a much larger trade with Chile than has the United States. Why? How should the Panama canal affect this trade? Chife Copper mining, an important industry in Brazil is not illustrated by the slides in this collection. In using these slides and the notes accompanying them, the school course of study is not to be over- looked. They emphasize certain features. The teacher must exercise her own judgment in planning her work. Four views of the trans-Andine railroad are cataloged under Argentina, two under Chil Q In teaching the topic they may be thus separated or all used here. In any case emphasize its function in commerce and in uniting the people of two countries. So use the slides as to leave the pupils with a vivid mental picture of the character of the road and the engineering problems involved. Com- pare the eastern and western ends of the road, thus making ideas clearer and providing for review. Early in the course in geography pupils should come to recognize through such specific illustration the significance of an important transportation route. Slide Fd Am 8 , The Christ of the Andes, offers an excellent means * of illustrating how nations are coming to settle their disputes. No mere verbal statement about arbitration can leave upon pupils the lasting impression that this picture may be made to give. 20 Northern section — great aridity, see it in the pictures ; absence of trees, shrubs and grass. Use map F 3. Observe the character of the seaport Iquique. Compare with Rio. Emphasize nitrate industry. Pupils can be interested in the fact that Chile took the nitrate fields from Peru and Bolivia through war and that the district is a great source of wealth for her. Use map and slide Fd VE. What does the method of loading mules on steamer in Fd CsY tell about the harbor of Coquimbo? Continue to compare the harbors of the east coast with those of the west coast. The West Coast Desert Extent 100 by 1600 miles. Give considerable attention to developing a correct notion of the characteristic features of a desert (see Bowman, pages 84-87). Here as elsewhere have in mind that you are teaching a geographic type that will be met in later studies. We need have little interest in mere place geography ; nor need anyone doubt the ability of pupils ten or eleven years of age to understand the main features of a desert if they are presented vividly and objectively. Some features of the west coast desert have already been studied under Chile. Now make the entire region the unit of study. Some of the slides show conditions and there are numerous significant pictures in the books recommended. Continue to examine maps. Subtopics — amount of rainfall (map F3), vegetation, drinking water, irrigation, difficulties of travel, resources, people, causes of the desert. The reclaiming of this desert is illustrated by Ti SV25, planting sugar cane. Reserve full study of details of planting for time when sugar is the main topic. Here emphasize the favorable conditions for sugar production in Peru. Note especially the fact that a level plain between the mountains is irrigated. The place is a few miles northeast of Lima. The Western Coast Line The lack of bays, islands and promontories. Seaports are open roadsteads. Study the method of landing passengers at Salaverry, Fi SX, as an example. Recall Fd CsY. Is the coast stormy, like that of North Carolina, or calm? Give special attention to Callao, the principal seaport, and Lima, the capital of Peru. Also to Molendo and Arequipo. Review the ports of northern Chile. 21 Compare the length of the coast of Peru with that of the Atlantic coast of the United States. The size of each of the South American states must be recurred to often to establish a correct conception of it — to have it actually visualized. Highlands of Bolivia and Peru There are ample descriptions in the books and the visual method of presentation is illustrated elsewhere. This whole highland dis- trict is exceedingly interesting and commercially important. A num- ber of the pictures are striking. It is largely left to the instructor to determine the teaching points of each picture. Special note is made of the following. Mt Misti, Fi ArZ 2 , may be the first volcano the pupils have ever studied. Observe and account for its form. Reserve discussion of causes for a later grade. Observatory, Fi ArZ. Why located here — clearness of the air. The engineering feat of the Oroya railroads of this region should have attention. Keep before pupils what it is that leads to the expenditure of vast sums for the construction of such transportation facilities and the need of more capital for the full development of the mineral resources of these highlands. Do not fail to interpret the meaning of all pictures used. Study also the llama and its use in this region for transportation. Mining operations are not fully shown by the pictures of this collection. The location of the mines and certain surface views are all that can be presented advantageously to the pupils for whom this outline is prepared. Make the most of these. Compare the highlands of Peru and Bolivia with the plains of the Orinoco and the La Plata river system. While the highlands as a whole are not well adapted to agriculture, several views show that there are areas of fertile land, Fi Hu 2 , Fi Hu5, Fi LeY. What does Fi Hu 3 tell about the state of agriculture ? The population of the region consists largely of Indians and mixed blood. The range of pictures is large. Use in a way to make the topic stand out in the pupil’s mind. The Incas The stories of the Incas are too fascinating not to have more than passing attention. 22 The Plains of Peru and Bolivia Since the plains of Peru and Bolivia are now commercially of little importance and but sparsely settled, one is apt to lose sight of their great extent. Study the maps. Visualize the situation when transportation is more fully developed along the line of the two great river systems that begin in this region. To the north there are vast forests of valuable timber, in the southeastern part of Bolivia grazing and agricultural lands. The picture of the Indian with the blow pipe, Fi X5, illustrates the primitive condition of the present inhabitants of the region. Ecuador Three pictures of this country have special teaching points. Ff Xg tells of pack animals as a means of transportation and points to the lack of railroads. The covering for the legs of the donkey introduces the idea of the hard life of such beasts of burden and of the insect pests that infest the hot region around Guayaquil. In connection with Ff X4 take up some discussion of educational opportunities in South America. What other pictures of the collec- tion are related to this topic? Of what are the houses in Ff CcA made? Would this material be used if forests were abundant? Note absence of trees over the landscape. How do the streets seem to be laid out? Why are so many of the houses along the Andes built of one story only. The cacao pictures made in Trinidad might be used here where the industry is so important. In any case have pupils understand by referring to the cacao-producing countries in what heat belt the tree thrives. Compare the size of Ecuador with that of New York State. Northern Countries Nearest to the United States, but undeveloped, hence little com- merce with us. Keep this idea before the class. What are the possibilities of development? Begin with Fk X15, Coast Range Mountains. A certain teacher in using this picture considered only details relative to the two men in it and the flowers in the foreground, not even emphasizing the char- acter of roads and transportation facilities. The significance of the mountain range is the main point. Locate the range on a map. Have pupils see that it is a barrier to trade between the coast and the interior. ^3 Note this range in Fk LcA and while having pupils understand that La Guayra is the seaport of Caracas, note the absence of a good harbor. With Fk LcZ and Fk X16 further develop the problem of transportation. Study the situation of Caracas through Fk CA and a map. The part played by Gen. Simon* Bolivar in freeing states of South America from Spanish rule will interest pupils and some attention might be given here to his work. See Fk CE. With what other .countries is his name associated? Venezuela means “ little Venice.” What is the application? Let pupils learn about dwellings on piles in Lake Maracaibo, Fk Mcc). What does the picture tell of present civilization? Aim to give a clear impression of the Orinoco drainage area. Get extent not by reciting figures, but through an interpretation of the map, F 67. With the map discuss the delta. What kind of vessels are used on the river? See Fk X24. For how many miles is the river navigable? Lise Fk X2, showing San Fernando, and locate on map. How wide does the river appear here ? Compare with some stream known to pupils. Fk Xi, Fk X35 and Fk X3 present some characteristics of the llanos. Give ideas presented a significant tropical grouping. What evidences do these pictures present of lack of transportation facilities ? What is the usual relation of population and easy means of travel and transportation? The picture of loading hides, Fk CuY, illustrates not only a poor harbor, but represents a cattle product. What is the life of the more wealthy inhabitants of Venezuela? Base the topic on Fk X7, Fk X75 and Fk X77. How far do these conditions prevail through the continent? Compare life among the ldwer classes, using Fk CuB and Fk X85. The backward state of agriculture is illustrated in Fk X4. First analyze the picture — the kind of plow, the oxen, the bare-footed plowman. From their reading let pupils learn how far the scene is typical. What a row of soldiers is seen in Fk CrX ! This is a good picture with which to associate some facts about the government of Venezuela. If the views of salt gathering on the small Isle of Coche are used, have pupils class the product as a mineral resource and ascertain the method of procuring it, namely by solar evaporation. Who are doing the labor? 24 Trinidad belongs properly with the Lesser Antilles but may be considered here. Get as clear an idea of the asphalt industry as possible, distinguishing what is learned from the pictures from what is acquired through reading and from observation of the uses of asphalt. Locate a district in Venezuela that produces asphalt. Note that this is a mineral resource. The picture of rubber trees serves to review the rubber industry and introduces the idea of a plantation. The two views of cacao should be observed here, but pupils need to go to their books to learn which of the countries are the chief producers of cacao. Note that cacao pods, like apples, vary in color according to variety. Why do the pods grow on the trunk of the tree? How large are they? The Guianas are of little commercial importance and do not require much attention. The five pictures offered are, however, significant. What is the meaning of the white clothes worn in Fgc AX? Do not begrudge the time required to locate the scene on a map. Associate those white clothes with latitude. The pictures of Indians and of the negro are good studies of races in the Guianas and of their food, clothing, shelter etc. Reorganization of Ideas Now is the time to group under appropriate headings the facts that have been studied inductively. Consider such topics as sea- ports, harbors, resources, exports, imports, transportation (land and water), governments, countries (their relative size and boundaries), races, nationalities, drainage, mountain ranges, mountain peaks, plains, zones, climate, rainfall, plant life, and animal life. This is the study of the “ continent as a whole ” that was omitted at the beginning. This grouping of the facts learned involves a review and is a much more valuable exercise than going over the study of the continent in the same manner as at first. Selected slides may be used for the several topics, pupils explaining the significance of each in relation to the topic under consideration. The exercise should move rapidly and in a way to serve as a test of each pupil’s comprehension of the subject. There is to be no development of specific facts. The whole aim should be to organize the knowledge already acquired. Use of Drill Map Begin the use of the drill map, F 42, about a week before the course is completed. The map is without names. It should be 25 covered ddily. But little time is required. Let pupils recite in rotation, the second one rising as the first is taking his seat. If a pupil can not answer immediately, he fails. Do not wait for an answer. In this way cover countries, mountains, plains, rivers, cities, the products of a district, etc. Point to each and have pupil name ; name and have pupil point to each. Results Do not expect all pupils to do equally well under this method of instruction. The dull pupil’s interest will be aroused and he will actually get much benefit from this method. But the results will be most noticeable in the bright pupil. The nearest approach to uniformity of results can be secured by having pupils memorize the words of a book. List of slides This list of slides, with brief titles, is given for reference. It is expected to aid teachers in planning and checking work. It contains 179 titles, of which 39 do not appear in the 1918 edition of List 28; that list in turn contains 52 titles not given here. This special collection of slides is furnished unbroken to schools wishing to teach South America by the method here illustrated. Call no. De P15 The Pan American Union Building. Washington Maps Ez 3 Trade Routes Shortened by Panama Canal F 1 South America — Relative Size of Brazil and United States F 2 Physical Map of South America F 3 Annual Rainfall and Winds in South America F 4 Political Map of South America F 43 Railroad Map of South America F 45 Argentina, Chile and Uruguay F 5 Southern Extremity, Magellan’s Route F 55 Peru and Bolivia F 6 Colombia, Ecuador and Panama F 65 Venezuela and Guiana F 67 Relief Map of Venezuela F 7 Portion of La Plata Drainage Area F 42 Drill Map of South America Argentina Fa BH Government House. Buenos Aires Fa BG Capitol. Buenos Aires De H13 Capitol. Washington Fa BC Plaza del Congreso. Buenos Aires 26 Call no. Fa BG6 Fa BB Fa BS Fa BR Fa BP Fa BDi Fa BEs Fa BDp Fa BX Fa PoA Fa P0B4 Fa PoY Fa Pc2 Fh Pc2 Fa Pn2 Fa Ig Fa Ig2 Fa Pa2 Fa Pa7 Fa X 3 Fa X 4 Fa Yl2 Fa Yl 4 Fa YI 5 Fa YI6 Fa YI 7 Fa Y2I Fa Y3 Fa Am5 Fa Am3 Fb 11 Fb II2 Fb Ti2 Fb Ti6 Fb LA Fb LC Fb LX3 Fb LY Fb X2 Fb x 3 Fb X24 Fc RA Fc R2 Fc ra 2 Custom House. Buenos Aires River Boats at Dock. Buenos Aires Retiro Station. Buenos Aires Railroad Clearing House Building. Buenos Aires Plaza Hotel. Buenos Aires Avenue of Royal Palms. Buenos Aires National Monument. Buenos Aires Recoleta Cemetery. Buenos Aires Emigrants from Northern Europe. Buenos Aires Posadas View across the River. Posadas Piles of Oranges on Ground. Posadas Steamer near shore; Travelers. Upper Parana River Boats Coming to Meet Steamer. Paraguay View down Iguazu River, Junction of Three Countries Map of Iguazu Iguazu Falls Pampas and Foothills of the Andes Supplies Hauled across the Pampas An Ona Archer and Family. Tierra del Fuego An Ona Woman and Huts. Tierra del Fuego Huge Piles of Wheat. Near Buenos Aires Herd of Cattle Grazing. Province of Buenos Aires Barn and Windmill on Large Estate Viewing Prize Bulls Beef Cattle on Pampas Plain Hauling Wool over the Plain Loading Lighter with Bales of Wool Train at Station. Trans-Andine Railroad Beginning of Cog Road. Trans-Andine Railroad Bolivia Mt Illimani Yungas Pass Lake Titicaca, Southern End Huts and Balsas. Lake Titicaca Panorama of La Paz Long Narrow Street and Natives. La Paz Native Boys in Ponchos. La Paz Llamas in Street. La Paz Cholas in Bright Dresses and Shawls An Indian Man Chola in Gala Attire Brazil Panorama over City: Harbor Entrance. Rio de Janeiro Map of Harbor. Rio de Janeiro Panorama of City and Harbor. Rio de Janeiro *7 Call no. Fc R4 Fc RA4 Fc RC3 Fc BA Fc BX Fc Ys Fc McB Fc McB2 Fc McE Fc Y15 Cd Y2 Fc Y2 Fc Y4 Fc Y44 Fc SeB Fc SsY Fc Y6 Fc Y7 Fc Y8 Fc X2 Fga Xi Fga X2 Fd CsY Fd VA Fd VA2 Fd VE Fd SA2 Fd SG Fd SN Fd SR Fd SZi Fd SZ Fd Am6 Fd Am8 Fd L0Y2 Fd Mb2 Fd Sm2 Fd PuA 2 Fd PuA Fd X 3 Fd AoA Fd TqA Fd Y2 Map of City. Rio de Janeiro View from near Base of Sugar Loaf. Rio de Janeiro First of March Street. Rio de Janeiro Upper and Lower Levels of City. Bahia Negro Women in Street. Bahia Negroes Piling Bales of Cotton. Ceara State Public Square. Manaos Floating Pier. Manaos Monument Commemorating Opening of Amazon. Manaos Coffee Blossoms. Santos Two Year Old Coffee Tree. Africa Large, Young Coffee Plantation. Santos Hauling Bags of Coffee Berries. Santos Coffee Drying Floor. Santos Steamers Being Loaded with Coffee. Santos Cheese Market. Sao Paulo Natives Carrying Balls of Crude Rubber Sacks of Yerba Mate Boat with Brazil Nuts. On the Amazon Transportation Facilities in Interior of Bahia State British Guiana Carib Indian Village Carib Indian Shooting Fish Chile Loading Mules onto Steamer Harbor. Valparaiso Panorama of Valparaiso Naval Monument. Valparaiso Panorama of Santiago Congressional Building. Santiago National Museum. Santiago Private Residence. Santiago The Central Valley between Santiago and the Andes Planatation Residence. Near Santiago Train Leaving Tunnel. Trans- Andine R. R. “The Christ of the Andes.” Trans-Andine R. R. Coal Mine. Lota Mountains along Straits of Magellan Guia Narrows, Smyth’s Channel Panorama of Punta Arenas Roadstead of Punta Arenas Hut of Araucanian Indians Panorama of Antofagasta Panorama of Iquique Blast in Nitrate Fields 28 Call no. Fd Yi Fd Y 3 Fd Y34 Fd Y36 Fd Y4 Diagram of Nitrate Bed Man Working in Nitrate Field Hauling Carts Filled with Nitrate Portable R. R. in Nitrate Fields Settling Pans of Nitrate Factory Fgc AX Fgc X2 1 Fgc X6 Dutch Guiana Dutch Commandant and Family. Albina Bush Negro Making a Canoe Carib Indian Village Ff CcA Ff X9 Ff InG Ff X2 Ff X4 Ecuador Panorama of Canar Donkey with Pack Saddle Ruins of Inca Fortress Boy and Little Sister on Way to Market School Girls. Quito Fi ArZ2 Fi ArZ Fi CcB Fi CfZ Fi H112 Fi HuA Fi Hu3 Fi Hu4 Fi Hu5 Fi LC 3 Fi LX Fi LX2 Fi LeY Ti SV25 Fi MoA Fi PcY Fi Pv6 Fi SX Fi TrC Fi 0r2 Fi Or4 Fi Or6 Fi Or8 Fi X5 Fi Z2 Fi In2 Fi Ins Fi In6 Fi In6 3 Peru Mt Misti from Arequipa Harvard Observatory. Near Arequipa Passenger Landing Pier. Callao Rio Blanco Smelter. Near Cerro del Pasco Farming District. Huancayo Valley Street and Market Place. Huancayo Plowing with Oxen. Huancayo Valley Wheat Field and R. R. Train. Huancayo Valley Swing Bridge. 'Huancayo Valley Plaza Bolognesi. Lima Woman Vegetable Vendor. Lima Bull Ring. Lima Drying Coffee. La Merced Planting Sugar Cane. Peru Mining Town. Morococha Ginning Cotton. Palpa Thatched Houses in Apurimac River Valley Landing Passengers from Steamer. Salaverry Unpaved Sandy Street. Trujillo Tunnels. Oroya R. R. Switchback. Oroya R. R. Lake and Mountain View. Oroya R. R. Mountain Scenery. Near Morococha Blow-pipe Indian. Amazon Valley Working Guano. Pur.ta Lobos Walls of Inca Fortress. Cuzco Chief Temple. Machu Picchu Citadel of Ollantaytambo Street in Inca City. Ollantaytambo 29 Uruguay Call no. Fj MAi Fj MA2 Fj X2 Panorama of Montevideo New FI arbor. Montevideo Countryman in Bombachas Fk CuB Fk CuY Fk CA Fk CE Fk X77 Fk X75 Fk X7 Fk X4 Fk LcA Fk X16 Fk X15 Fk LcZ Fk Mc9 Fk X24 Fk X2 Fk Xi Fk X35 Fk X85 Fk Z2 Fk Z22 Fk Z24 Fk CrX Nu Cmi Venezuela Unpaved Street. Cumana Loading Fiides onto Government Steamer. Cumana Panorama of Caracas Bolivar Statue. Caracas Men in Club FFouse. Caracas Typical Patio A Building of a Ffacienda'. Near Caracas Man Plowing with One-handled Plow Shipping in Open Roadstead. La Guayra Pack Train Bringing Cacao to La Guayra Trail through Coast Range Mountains. Near La Guayra Railroad Along Mountainside. Near La Guayra Pile Dwellings in Lake Maracaibo River Boat on the Orinoco Boat Taking on Cargo. :San Fernando de Apure Transporting Supplies over the Llanos Llanero Crossing Flooded Country. Central Venezuela Carib Indians. On Bank of the Orinoco. Salt Gatherers. Isle of Coche Native Women Carrying Bags of Salt Loading Bags of Salt onto Steamer Soldiers. Cristobel Colon Condor. Eu TY Eu TY2 Nn Ca64 Nn Ca7 Nn Ru7 Trinidad Pitch Lake Digging Asphalt Cacao Tree Trunk Husking Cacao Rubber Plantation