THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 630.7 W75b no3l 1-325 ^SfllSytTUftAL i-iBrny Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/sorghumforsyrupi3113wrig Vf 1 Bulletin 3 1 I April, 1920 isconsin aokicultukaij experiment station UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON I ^ Sorghum has been grown and manufactured into syrup in Wisconsin for 60 years. The annual production of syrup for the last 50 years has ranged from 200,000 to a little •more than 300,000 gallons. In 1919 more than 225,000 gal- lons were produced. Sorghum is grown principally in the western, central, and southwestern counties; it is not adapted to the extreme northern, north central, or northeast counties. It will ma- ture in any section where dent corn will mature. It will grow on any reasonably fertile soil that is well drained. Soils that will produce corn will produce sorghum. It is particularly adapted to sandy lands, as it withstands drought better than any other inter-tilled crop. It does not exhaust the fertility of the soil any more rapidly than do other in- ter-tilled crops. Sorghum yields from 8 to 15 tons of green material to the acre, from which 70 to 150 gallons of syrup can be manufac- tured. There has been an active demand for the syrup and practically all of it has been consumed in the community where it is produced. ^ 5 b r^o-3 Sorghum for Syrup in Wisconsin A. H. Wright Climate, soil, and methods of farming in Wisconsin are all suited to the development of a commercial sorghum industry. As soon as factories are so equipped that hand labor and waste can be greatly reduced, wider opportunities in the sorghum business are open to both the grower and the manufacturer of the syrup. The demand for Wisconsin syrup is always good. Only enough is produced to meet the local demand in the community where it is made, and the syrup cannot be bought in the grocery store or any other general market. Waste in growing, hand- ling, and manufacturing, and the necessity for much hand labor, have kept the sorghum business operating on a small scale to supply local demands. At the same time, the small mill, which supplies these demands, fills a definite need in the community and will continue to operate after the industry is organized on a commercial scale. Hand Labor Required by Present Methods Present methods of handling sorghum require a great deal of hand labor because the mills established in this state are unable to handle the sorghum unless it is topped and stripped before it is delivered to the mill. The average farmer, con- sequently, grows only % to V2 acre, enough to supply the re- quirements of his family. Since each farmer grows only a small “patch,” little atten- tion has been given to labor-saving methods. Good, well- drained soil is selected, usually in the corner or at one side of a field of corn. Sorghum is usually planted by hand, the rows the same distance apart as corn rows. The crop is cultivated in the same manner as corn, with the exception that it is often 509863 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 311 necessary to go over the sorghum as least once with the hoe in order to keep the weeds under control. In harvesting sorghum the leaves are usually removed first. They are stripped off by hand and allowed to fall to the ground. After the plants are stripped and while the cane is still stand- ing, the heads or seed tops are cut off and are either thrown in piles or allowed to fall to the ground. In some cases the plants are cut first and headed afterwards, which results in leaving -the heads practically all in one place. In either case the work is done by hand. FIG. 1.— SORGHUM GROWS W^ELL IN WISCONSIN nie proper kind of pure amber sorghum can be depended upon to make a good crop in this state. After the stalks are stripped and headed they are tied in bundles and hauled to the syrup mill. The amount that can be hauled at one load depends upon the condition of the roads, but it Avill average 1% to 21/2 Ions. If 2 tons are hauled at a load, it will require from four to six loads to move one acre of sorghum from the farm to the mill. Sorghum Mills Necessary Where sorghum is grown for s^^rup there must be mills to manufacture the syrup. Hauling to the mill is one of the SORGHtJM FOR SyRUP IN WISCONSIN 5 largest items of expense. It is important, therefore, that sor- ghum be grown within five miles of the mill. Between 100 and 150 sorghum syrup mills operated in Wisconsin in 1919. The mills vary from small horse-power outfits with a capacity of 50 gallons of syrup a day to the large steam power plants with a capacity of 500 gallons or more a day. These local mills grind the sorghum stalks and boil the juice down to syrup for the grower. They charged in 1918 and 1919 from 40 cents to 60 cents a gallon for making, or, in case they manufactured on shares, they kept one-third the syrup as payment. An average acre of stripped stalks as handled at the mill will yield from 70 to mor5 than 100 gallons of syrup, 75 gal- lons being a fair average. The grower paid in 1919 an aver- age price of 45 cents for having the syrup made. Very little syrup was offered for sale, as practically all of it was kept on the farms that grew the crop. What was sold brought at retail from $1.25 to $1.75 a gallon. Considering the syrup to be worth $1.45 a gallon and the cost of manufacture to be 45 cents a gallon, the grower received $1 a gallon, an average of $75 an acre, for his crop delivered at the mill. Present Methods Wasteful As a means of furnishing a supply of syrup to people who live in the neighborhood, the present method of growing sor- ghum and making syrup is satisfactory. As a small community industry it is of considerable importance, but from a com- mercial standpoint it is a troublesome and wasteful business, requiring too much time and hand labor. Hand planting, hand hoeing, and hand stripping, heading, and binding are time-and lalior-wasting. In addition, the leaves are nsually wasted and the seed is not used to advantage. Even when the field is pastured off thei’e is a high percentage of loss in the leaves and heads. Of the harvested croy> the stripped stalks are practically the only product. When these stalks are ground in the average local mill, less than 50 per cent of the juice is extracted. The crushed stalks, called^ bagasse, are generally left to rot where they are piled. In other words, out of the whole crop of sor- ghum, practically everything is lost except 50 per cent of the juice. 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 311 Making Sorghum A Commercial Industry Since the sorghum business has been found profitable in spite of the waste in production, it would surely have great possibil- ities if the hand labor and waste could be avoided. Methods are now being used which accomplish these results. Equipment for manufacturing sorghum syrup can be obtained which not only rids the grower of most of the hand labor in the field, but which also makes use of 90 per cent of the total crop. Where such equipment is used, sorghum is grown in the same way as —Courtesy of the United States Department of Agrrieulture. FIG. 2.-S0RGHUM SYRUP OUTFITS MAY CONSIST OP SIMPLE EQUIPMENT Some small community mills use the open pan evaporator heated by direct furnace fire. Properly managed, such outfits produce an excellent quality of syrup, but the capacity is limited and much hand labor is required. corn, is harvested with a corn binder, and delivered to the syrup mill just as corn is delivered to a silage cutter. The mill re- moves the heads and separates the leaves from the stalks. The seed is dried and threshed and commands a ready market. The leaves may be run directly into silos and when so handled they make an excellent quality of silage. The stalks are crushed with high-power mills which extract 75 per cent or more of the juice. The stalks from which the juice has been pressed are used for fuel, silage, or manure. By using this new method of handling sorghum, practically nothing is lost. That this method of handling is a success was proved in the operation of a few factories in the United States in 1919. The Sorghum for Syrup in Wisconsin 7 Agronomy Department, after making careful investigation of the methods in these mills and the^ possibilities of sorghum in Wisconsin, consider that sorghum is a promising commer- cial industry. Is There a Market for Sorghum Syrup? Sorghum syrup produced in Wisconsin during the last sev- eral years has been in such demand that it is practically all con- sumed in the locality where it is produced and the public rarely FIG. 3.— SOME SMALL OUTFITS USE STEAM POWER In this type of syrup mill, power is furnished by a traction or a stationary engine. has an opportunity to buy it. During recent years practically all who grow sorghum do so in order to supply themselves and they do not have it made on the shares but pay for manufactur- ing instead, in order that they may keep it all for their own use. As a result, Wisconsin sorghum syrup is seldom obtainable on the market at any price. The sugar shortage has renewed the interest of the public in sorghum syrup, but there was a demand for good syrup long before there was any scarcity of sugar, and regardless of how abundant sug-ar may become in the future, a continued demand for sorghum syrup can be expected. There has been a stable demand for Wisconsin syrup in the past. Since very little public attention has been given to 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 311 sorghum during recent years, it has become the common belief that the industry has practically disappeared. The records of production, however, which are fairly complete since 1860, show that the annual production of sorghum syrup in Wiscon- sin has been comparatively constant, and that the production in 1919 compares favorably with the production of any preceding- year (Table I). Table I. — Production of Sorghum Syrup in Wisconsin Year 1859 1869 1879 1889 1899 1909 1917 1918 1919 Gallons produced. 19,854 74,478 314,150 219,070 160,414 139,667 117,000 180,000 225.000 I The fact that 225,000 gallons were produced in 1919 and yet Wisconsin sorghum syrup is not on the market indicates that there is a demand for the product and that there will be a market for any reasonable increase in production. The production of sorghum syrup for the entire United States also indiates considerable stability, having remained about the same for 50 years. The records which are given in Table II also show that the industry is of national importance. Table II. — Production of Sorghum Syrup in the United States Tear 1879 1889 1899 1909 1917 1918 1919 Gallons produced... 28,440,000 24,235,000 16,973,000 16,532,000 37,472,000 29,274,000 33,128,000 Of the 29,000,000 gallons of sorghum syrup produced in the United States in 1918, 80 per cent was produced in the following states, given in order of their importance : Alabama, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Arkansas, Georgia and Indiana. Of the sorghum syrup produced in these states, the bulk is consumed within the territory producing it, though considerable quantities go on the commercial market. South and North Do Not Compete in Sorghum Commercially there is no competition between sorghum syrup produced in the South and that produced in the North because northern syrup is so completely consumed locally that it does Sorghum for Syrup in Wisconsin 9 not go on the general market.. On the other hand, southern sorghum syrup is not very common in the markets of the northern states. The northern sorghum syrup evidently has the ad- vantage in quality and, when sold, commands a better price than the southern syrup. So far as Wisconsin is concerned, there- fore, competition with southern sorghum syrup is not to be feared in the markets of this state or other states. FIG. 4.— MANY WISCONSIN MILLS USE STEAM FOR EVAPORATING A large percentage of the LoO or more syrup mills in the state are equipped with large crushers run by gasoline or steam engine power and with boilers to furnish steam for boiling down the juice. Relation to Other Syrups In addition to sorghum syrup there are several other im- portant American syrups, the manufacture of which constitutes an important industry, totaling 100,000,000 to 150,000,000 gal- lons annually. The relative importance of these several kinds of syrups is shown in Table III. Sugar cane syrup is the most important syrup produced. It is made from southern sugar cane, a different kind of plant than sorghum. The process of manufacturing is practically the same as that for making sorghum syrup, that is, the juice of the sugar cane is extracted by means of crushing rolls and the juice boiled down to syrup. Corn .syrup is made from the grain of corn, by treating the starch of corn with mineral acids. 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 311 Molasses is a by-product from the manufacture of sugar. It is that part of sugar plant juices which will not crystallize out as sugar. It is not a syrup, strictly speaking, but it is often confused with both sorghum syrup and sugar cane syrup. Sorghum syrup is commonly termed ‘‘sorghum molasses” and in some cases spoken* of as “molasses,” but it is not molasses at all. Black strap. New Orleans molasses and Louisiana molasses are grade names for molasses and are not distinct products. Table III. — Comparative Importance of American Syrups (Estimates of annual production) Kind of syrup Annual production in gallons Sugar cane syrup 35-40 million Corn syrup 30-35 Sorghum syrup 25-30 “ Molasses 25-30 Maple syrup 3- 5 Maple syrup is made by concentrating the juice of the sugar maple. It is a product which is greatly in demand, but com- pared to other syrups it is of minor importance. Where Sorghum Can Be Grown So far as climate is concerned, sorghum can be grown in any section of Wisconsin where there is an average growing season of 120 days, or wherever dent corn will mature satisfactorily. The southwestern half of the state is most suitable, as practically all of the sorghum acreage is grown southwest of a line extending from Burnett County to Racine County. That section of Port- age and Waushara Counties lying northeast of this line and all of Waupaca County are also suitable for sorghum. The lake shore region north of Milwaukee, the red clay region around Lake Winnebago, and all of the extreme north and northeastern counties are not suitable. That the climate of the southwest half of the state is suitable for sorghum growing has been fully demonstrated by over 50 years of successful sorghum culture in that section of Wisconsin. While sorghum is fundamentally a warm weather plant and does not grow to advantage in cool, wet weather, yet by growing the early Wisconsin varieties which mature in 105 to 120 days. Sorghum for Syrup in Wisconsin 11 sufficient maturity of the crop will be obtained in a large majority of seasons. There are occasional seasons, however, when sorghum will be seriously injured by early fall frosts, but such seasons have occurred but rarely in the past. No special type of soil is necessary for sorghum, but it matures earlier on sandy soils. It is like rye in that it will make the best growth on good fertile land, but it also makes a satisfactory growth on soils too poor for ordinary crops. Sorghum does best on good corn soils, but any reasonably fertile FIG. 5.-COMPLETE EQUIPMENT SAVES LABOR AND AVOIDS WASTE In a modern sorghum syrup factory hand heading and stripping are unnecessary. The crop is harvested with a corn-binder and delivered to the mill for heading and strip- ping. The heavy-powered mills press out a high percentage of juice. With such equip- ment practically the entire crop is utilized. clay, silt, or sandy loam is suitable. Sorghum should not be grown on cold heavy clay soils, such as the red clays, on clay hills, sand plains, or any undrained soil. Good drainage is even more important with sorhgum than with corn. Soils that have been infested with weeds should not be used for sorghum. On such lands weeds will outgrow the sorghum unless kept in check by constant hand hoeing. Sorghum does not grow rapidly early in the spring, and consequently cannot compete with weeds. Clean land is, therefore, essential for sorghuHL 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 311 Effect on Soil Fertility Sorghum removes from the soil practically the same amount of plant food elements as does corn. In other words, a ton of dry sorghum stalks contains practically the same amount of mineral plant food elements as does a ton of corn. The more dry matter produced by any crop, the greater the amount of fertility removed. Soil conditions being equal, sorghum will FIG. 6.— impure seed PRODUCES A WORTHLESS MIXTURE Pure se€d is essential for producing good syrup. Seed of unknown origin should not be groAvn. Plant only northern-groAvn Early Amber. generally outyield corn, consequently it removes more fertility. This excess fertility, however, is not wasted — the sorghum makes good use of it by putting it in a form" that the farmer can use. The important matter is not how much fertility a crop re- moves, but how economically it uses that fertility, and whether or not the money returns for the crop are in proportion to the fertility which it draws from the soil. The ability which sorghum has to produce a profitable yield under such unfavorable conditions as poor soils and drouthy seasons fully offsets the fertility removed. - Where sorghum is grown, tlie fertility of the soil should be maintained by the usual Wisconsin farm practice of rotating crops, growing clover or alfalfa, and applying barnyard manure. Sorghum for Syrup in Wisconsin 13 On acid soils lime may also be applied. If this is done, the matter of soil fertility will be no greater problem than in the case of corn or other similar crops. FIG. 7.— FOUR COMMON TYPES OF SORGHUM USED FOR SYRUP In the upper row, roa^ Tons 3 Tons 4 Tons 5 Tons Poor soils include sands, light sandy loams, and raw peats. Good soils include heavy sandy loams, clay loams, clays, loams, mucks, and well-decomposed peats. The foregoing recommendations are for average present day economic conditions in the United States. Where agriculture is more highly devel- oped use more lime ; where less developed use less lime. '4 X I,, tv Sn,'-.' t •3 \ \ \ ■'% ; V I Testing Soils for Acidity 17 or poisonous substances in soils. By improving conditions for plant growth lime favors early maturity, hardiness, sturdiness and freedom from disease injury and_ helps to prevent lodging of grain. Lime is really the great regulator of soil fertility. Since lime has many beneficial effects on soil fertility, the state of soil fertility required by a plant is also a factor which de- termines the lime supply which should be maintained ; and when the general soil fertility factor is combined with the special lime requirement of a plant, there is obtained what may be called the general lime requirement, or simply lime requirement of the plant or crop. There are only a few cases where lime may be detrimental. Potato scab and possibly a root rot of tobacco are favored by a large excess of lime. When the potato scab and root rot of tobacco are properly controlled, lime increases the yield of both crops. Of the garden crops, the watermelon is the only im- portant one that usually grows better on an acid soil. This, like the potato scab, may again be due to a plant disease which can live in the soil and is favored by lime. An excess of lime sometimes causes chlorosis, a whitening of the leaves, of certain fruit plants especially the citrus fruits. How Much Lime Should the Farmer Use? The amount of lime * which should be used depends upon fou*r factors, — the degree of acidity of the soil, the kind of soil, the lime requirements of the crops to be grown, and the kind and quality of the lime. The amounts based on these four fac- tors are given on the chart. Aside from the factors stated, the agricultural use of lime must be considered as an investment on which the farmer is justified in expecting a profitable return, and hence, from an economic standpoint, the rate of application should be such that the highest return may he secured for the money available for investment. In its broadest consideration, the rate of ap- plication which will give the most desirable net return dejiends upon the degree of acidity of the soil, the crops to be grown, the quality and total cost of the lime to be applied, and the general fertility and value of the land. Where lime is cheap and land values are high, heavier applications can be profitably * The term lime is used in this hulleiiii as a general torm to include all roriiis of material used for correcting acid soils. 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 312 made than where the opposite conditions hold. Ten or twenty tons to the acre of ground limestone may be applied on most soils without harm and usually with good effect on crops, but it is generally not profitable to apply these amounts in order to push production beyond a certain point. Much smaller amounts practically always bring the desired results. Undoubtedly as agriculture becomes more highly developed a higher plane of available lime supply will need to be maintained, and hence the amounts now recommended will then be too low. In the discussion which follows and the recommendations that are made, it is assumed that average present day economic conditions prevail and that a good quality of lime is to be used. Use lime according to degree of soil acidity. The most im- portant factor affecting the rate of application of lime is the degree of soil acidity. Enough lime should be added to an acid soil to neutralize the strongest of the active acids present, in order that plants and desirable soil bacteria may not have to compete with these strong acids to get the supply of lime and such other bases as potassium and magnesium which they need for growth. Obviously the greater the degree of acidity, — that is, the greater the amount of strong acids present, — the more lime must there be added to raise the available supply to a certain de- sired level. Plants have certain powers of getting lime and other bases from the soil and are well able to compete with weak acids, hence, it is not necessary to neutralize all the active acids in a soil. Fortunately, when lime is applied, the stronger acids be- come neutralized first. Use lime according to kind of soil. The second factor men- tioned which affects the amount of lime that should be used is the kind of soil under consideration. On the chart, soils have been divided into two groups, — poor soils, and good soils. Under poor soils are included sands, light sandy loams, and raw peats. Under good soils are included heavy sandy loams, silt loams, clay loams, clays, loams, mucks, and well decomposed peats. A dis- tinction is made on the chart in the lime recommendations for these two groups of soils. Applications are made for a less degree of acidity in the case of poor soils than in the case of the good soils. This is done because the total amount of lime still remaining bound up in rather insoluble compounds in the slightly acid poor soils is lower in amount and availability than it is in the slightly acid but otherwise good soils. In this connection it is further to be noted that in acid, but Testing Soils for Acidity 19 otherwise good or fertile soils, plants make a more vigorous growth than in a poor soil, and hence exert a greater feeding power for the lime still remaining in the soil in the form of difficultly^ soluble compounds. The processes making lime avail- able are also more active in the fertile soils than in the poor soils. The manure which may have been applied, and other organic matter usually existing in fertile soils, contain lime which is liberated on decay, and may be used by growing plants. This explains why sometimes fair to good crops of alfalfa and very often good crops of red clover are grown on slight to medium acid soils if they are otherwise in a fertile condition, or are heavily manured. Many virgin or comparatively new upland soils are quite acid, but otherwise fertile, and produce luxuriant crops of red clover. However, after ten to twenty years of cropping, red clover usually responds markedly to liming on these soils. Poor sandy soils, when more than slightly acid, always respond most markedly to liming. However, when it becomes necessary to lime good soils, which usually means the different loams, mucks, and heavier soils, it is advisable to use at least two tons for even the lowest rate of application, as is indicated on the chart. There are several reasons for this practice. When these soils once show a degree of acidity which is high enough to require liming, their total ^ active acidity has become so high (much higher than in sandy soils) that at least two tons of lime are needed to neutralize the strongest of the large amounts of acids present and again raise the supply of available lime to the desired level. Furthermore, at least two tons of lime are needed to produce the desired im- provement in the physical condition of the heavier soils when they once become quite acid. It is also more difficult to get the lime thoroughly mixed with the heavier soils, and hence it is harder to get results with small applications on these than it is on the sands. Use lime according to nature of crops or cropping system. The third factor mentioned as affecting the amount of lime to be used is the lime requirements of the crops to be grown. Ob- viously, the higher the lime requirements of the crops, the more lime should there be added in order to bring the supply of available lime up to the needed level. Since crops are usually grown in some sort of a crop rotation, or more broadly speak- ing, cropping system, it is necessary for practical purposes to speak of the lime requirement of the whole cropping system 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 312 practiced on any field under consideration. Enough lime should • be added to meet the needs of the highest lime requiremenf crop in the rotation, and then all will be well supplied. On this basis three degrees of lime requirement for diffepnt crop- ping systems are conveniently made as follows: 1. High lime requirement rotations or cropping systems: This includes special farming in which are grown alfalfa, sugar beets, canning peas, tobacco, cabbage, onions, and most garden crops. 2. Medium lime requirement rotations or cropping systems: This includes average present day general farming in the northern states, in which are grown mainly clover, soybeans, timothy, barley, wheat, corn, oats, rye, and potatoes. 3. Low lime requirement rotations or cropping systems: This includes (a) the so-called acid agriculture of the northern states in which are grown lupines, vetch, serradella, cowpeas, redtop, millet, rye, oats, and buckwheat, and soybeans and alsike clover to a limited extent; and (b) general farming in the southern states in which are grown cowpeas, velvet bean, crim- son clover, cotton, corn, oats, and sugar cane. The so-called acid agriculture of the northern states, or some modification of it, may be practiced where land is cheap and lime is difficult to obtain. As agriculture develops it will un- doubtedly be more profitable in many cases to replace this sys- tem with the medium lime requirement system in which are grown larger or else more valuable crops. The same may be said of the general farming in the southern states. It is to be noted that although oats and rye have a low lime requirement and are placed in the low lime requirement crop- ping systems, they are also placed in the medium lime require- ment systems because they are standard crops grown in most general farming systems regardless of lime requirements. The same is true of many other crops. Liming acid soils is, however, beneficial to them as it is to almost all crops. Corn is placed in the medium lime requirement group for the northern states, and in the low lime requirement group for the southern states. This is because lime hastens growth and maturity of corn, which is much more important in the northern states than in the southern states. It should also be noted that weathering pro- cesses making lime available are more active in the south than in the north, and hence a lower plane of lime supply is ade- quate in the south. Testing Soils for Acidity 21 If the reader is especially interested in a particular plant not indicated on the chart or cropping systems just given, he is referred to the special list of lime requirements. In this list are given the lime requirements of a large number of plants. These data were compiled by the writer from all available sources of information. Nine degrees of lime requirements are recognized, and are designated as follows, going from lowest to highest requirement: ( 1 ) very low (2) very low plus (3) low (4) low plus (5) medium (6) medium plus (7) high (8) high plus (9) very high Plants with a high or greater than a high lime requirement should receive lime as indicated on the chart under high lime requirement cropping systems. Plants with a low plus, medium, or medium plus, lime requirement should receive lime as directed under medium lime requirement cropping systems. Plants with less than a low plus lime requirement should receive lime as directed under low lime requirement cropping systems. The Lime Requiremejs^t of Different Plants Kind of plant Alfalfa Bean, field Bean, garden . . . Bean, soy Bean, velvet Clover, sweet . . . Clover, red Clover, mammoth Clover, alsike . . . Clover, crimson . Clover, white ... Clover, Japanese Cowpea Impine, blue .... Peas, garden . . . . Peanuts Serradella Vetch, common . Vetch, hairy . . . . Lime requirement I. legumes Very high Low Medium Medium Very low plus High Medium plus Medium Low plus Low plus Low Low Low Very low plus High Medium Low Low Low 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 312 II. NON-LEGUMES (a) Cereals Kind of plant % Barley Buckwheat Corn Oats Rice ... V Rye Wheat (winter) Wheat (spring) Lime requirement Medium plus Low Low plus Very low Low Very low Low plus Medium Italian rye grass . . . . Johnson grass Meadow fescue Kentucky blue grass Millet Orchard grass Perennial rye grass. . Redtop Timothy (b) Hay and pasture grasses Low Low Low plus Low Low Low plus Low Very low Low plus (c) Fiber crops Cotton Flax Hemp Very low plus Very low Medium (d) Miscellaneous crops Hops Potato, common Potato, sweet Rape Sugar beet Sorghum Sugar cane Tobacco Turnip Medium plus Low plus Low Medium plus Very high Low Low High Medium Cabbage . . Carrot Cauliflower Cranberry Celery Grape Kohl-rabi . Lettuce . . . Onion Rhubarb . . Radish . . . . Spinach . . . Strawberry (e) Garden crops .1 High Medium plus High . Very low Very high Medium High . Very high Very high Low plus Medium Very high Low Sheep sorrel (f) Weeds (g) Trees Chestnut Mulberry Oak Pine Very low Medium High plus Low Very low Testing Soils for Acidity 23 Amount to be used varies with kind of lime. The amount of lime which should be applied depends also on the kind and quality of material used. There are two main kinds or classes of lime used in soil improvement, namely, the carbonate class and the quick lime class. The carbonate class includes pulver- ized limestone, marl, ground shells, and air-slaked waste or by- product lime from the quick lime industry, beet sugar manu- facturing, and other processes and industries. Waste lime is often not entirely in the carbonate form and contains some quick- lime. Quicklime is made by heating limestone, which drives out the carbonic acid. It is on the market in the form of lump lime and ground quick lime. By adding a limited amount of water to quick lime a fine powder called hydrated lime is produced. The quality (purity, fineness, and moisture content) of the dif- ferent kinds of lime varies a great deal. Limestone should be pulverized to about the fineness of ground feed. The coarser grades contain considerable material the size of kernels of wheat and corn. The finer the limestone the more quickly does it become available. Coarse material furnishes a reserve which becomes available slowly. As indicated on the chart, the amounts of pulverized limestone should be increased somewhat when it is coarse. The figures in the chart refer to a limestone equal, at least in purity or neutralizing power, to 90 per cent calcium carbonate. If a poorer grade is used, the amounts should be increased accordingly. Good grades of marl, waste lime, and others of the carbonate class should be used in about the same amounts as finely pulverized limestone. If they contain considerable moisture, or are of poor quality, the amounts should be increased accordingly. Fifty-six pounds of quick lime are equal to one hundred pounds of pulverized limestone. Quick lime is also more soluble and acts more quickly. Hence, only about one-half as much quick lime as pulverized limestone is needed. Most of the limestones in Wis- consin are dolomitic, that is, they are a mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonate. Fortunately, the experimental evidence so far indicates that the dolomitic limestones are as good as the pure calcium limestones for agricultural purposes. How Long Does Lime Last? The question is often asked, “How long will an application of lime last?” Crops and leaching, annually remove from each acre of upland in Wisconsin from 200 to 500 pounds of lime carbonate. A ton will thus last from four to ten years. 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 312 How Soon Does Lime Give Results? If the lime is well mixed with the soil it usually gives results the first year. It is very important to note, however, that one year is entirely inadequate to demonstrate the value of liming. The maximum benefit usually does not appear till the second or third year, or even later. An acid condition in an upland soil is usually the result of many years of leaching, and an acid soil may be said to be “chronically sick.” Lime is the specific which always effects a sure cure, but it may take several years. It is the only material within the farmer’s reach which will do this, and fortunately, there exists in most states an absolutely inexhaustible supply of this precious material. To apply lime to the soil is to return something which has been taken away, for the limestone deposits come from the leaching of the soil. These limestone deposits are like the farmer’s manure heap, — both came from the soil, and both must be returned if soil fertil- ity is to be maintained. ' o' How Should the Farmer Proceed in Liming? (1) Have the county agent, experiment station, or someone else familiar with the method, test for acidity the soil that is to be put into alfalfa, clover, soybeans, canning peas, sugar beets, or other medium to high lime requirement crop the coming year or year later and determine how much lime, if any, is needed. (See page 4 for directions in taking the soil sample). Always have the soil tested before buying lime, for liming may not be needed. (2) If the soil is acid find out from the county agent, ex- periment station, or some other source where lime may be se- cured most advantageously and apply it, preferably in the fall, to the plowed ground. Otherwise apply it early in the spring. Mix the lime thoroughly with the plowed soil. Only in case of emergency apply lime as a top-dressing after clover and alfalfa fields have been started. (3) Leave an unlimed strip and watch results continuously from year to year. (4) Use phosphatv. ‘ nd potash fertilizers with lime, where need (r lie permits have all the fields tested, and if they re ac. V" regularly to one or ore fields each year. (G) in the course of five to ten years retest the limed field to see if more lime is needed. June, 1920 c> .1 Bulletin 313 The Occurrence of Red Calves in Black Breeds of Cattle Has This Ever Happened In Your Herd? AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON DIGEST Inheritance of color is a practical breedino problem. For ex- ample, red or red-and-wliite calves occasionally appear in black or black-and-white breeds of cattle. The scientist's discoveries answer the breeder’s questions about off-color calves. Pages 3 to 4. In the mating: of black and red the offspring are black; that is, black is dominant and red is recessive. Red calves appear only when both parents are red; when one parent is red and the other is black, but carries red from some ancestor; or when both parents are black but carry red, as is the case when red calves appear in purebred black breeds. The chance is one in four that a red calf will be produced when two blacks carrying red are mated. Pages 5 to 8. All breeds are of mixed origin and include in . tbeir ancestry animals of various colors. Adoption of breed standards gradually produces uniformity, but the recessive characters, such as red color in black breeds, are carried as an undercurrent for many genera- tions. Pages 8 to 10. The Aberdeen-Angus breed is believed to be of black foundation stock with red crosses. Red Aberdeen-Angus calves are occasionally dropped, especially where there is considerable inbreeding, which tends to bring to the surface the undercurrent red. If bred together these red animals produce only red offspring. Pages 10 to 19. The Galloway breed has a history similar to that of the Angus. The off-color calves dropped are more yellowish than dark red. Pages 19 to 2 0. The cattle of the Holstein-Friesian breed were largely red up to 1750 . When black-and-white cattle from Jutland were introduced into Holland that color became the more popular. Red-and-white cattle are still common there and are, in Friesland, registered in a separate section in the official herdbook. Pages 20 to 25. A strong prejudice against red-and-Avhite calves exists among American Holstein breeders. Such calves cannot be entered in the American herdbook and their appearance is usually ignored in rec- ords of the herd. Their occurrence often raises suspicion as to the purity of breeding. Pages 25 to 28. An understanding of the simple facts of inheritance is of con- siderable economic importance. Lack of knowledge of these facts causes misunderstandings and unjust criticism. In the case of a bull of best breeding which sired two red-and-white calves in a pure- bred herd, the scientist’s explanation prevented a lawsuit. Pages 28 to 32. Hoth parents are ecjually to blame for the throwing of a red calf in a black breed. Investigation of the breeding is desirable, since the red character may be introduced by mixed breeding. Pages 32 to 34. Bulls may be so tested that they can be guaranteed to produce no red calves, but it is not certain that a sufficient increase in price could be obtained to make the practice advisable except in the case of valuable animals which are to be used in large, well-managed purebred herds. Page 3 4. Wider knowledge of the underlying principles of heredity would prevent much loss to breeders and would work more directly to final elimination of red or red-and-white animals. Dispersal of herds and vealing of heifers from high milk-producing strains cause an un- necessary loss. A more liberal-minded attitude should result from study of discoveries in heredity. Pages 3 4 to 35. The Occurrence of Red Calves in Black Breeds of Cattle* Leon J. Cole and Sarah V. H. Jones Color is an important factor in the livestock industry be- cause breeders have come to accept certain colors as standard for certain breeds. The Guernsey breeder avoids animals with dark muzzles; breeders of Duroc-Jersey swine dislike to see black spots on the belly and legs; a bay Perclieron stallion would not generally be chosen to head a Perclieron stud ; a red-and-white calf appearing in a herd of imrebred Ilolsteiii- Friesian cattle often brings a whole lierd under suspicion. Yet the offending animal may be equal to the best in other respects, and, in spite of popular opinion to the contrary, Ms breeding may be equally pure. It is only the agreement to accept certain colors as the right colors that makes the animal undesirable. The inheritance of black and red color in (‘attle, esjiecially the appearance of red calves in breeds whose standard color is black, is a troublesome matter to the breeder. The appear- ance of such a calf leads to questioning the purity of the breed- ing, and misunderstanding and lawsuits may result in conse- quence. From the standpoint of heredity, however, the matter of color is relatively simple, and the a]>plication of certain definite scientific laws solves the ])roblem for the breedei*. A half-century ago an Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel, worked out a definite rule by which he could ])redict what characters would ay)pear in the offs[)riug of ])lants on which lie was experimenting and in what relative numbei's the char- acters might be expected to apj)ear. Later investigators found his results correct and his rule came to be known as Mendel’s law. Upon this law is based the work of the student of heredity. The plant breeder has been able to make greater nse of the results of these experiments than has the animal breeder, largely because animals re(iuire longer time for i'ej)rodnction and experimental animals cost more than experimental ])lants. Other conditions than heredity* iuMuence the develo])inent of Paper No. 23 from the Department of Genetics. 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 313 many characters and make exact results difficult to obtain. For example, the development of milk production in a dairy cow of carefully bred, high milking strain is dependent on conditions of feeding, care, management and the like, and it is difficult to say how much of the final result in milk production is due to an inherited tendency and how much to other conditions. On the other hand, there are other characters which are very little, if at all, influenced by the conditions under which the animal grows and lives. Color is one of these ; it develops wholly according to the inheritance from the parents. This fact, coupled with the fact that laboratory results with smaller animals apply also to farm animals, allows the scientist to obtain very satisfactory and definite results in his study of the inheritance of color. For this reason he is able to offer the practical breeder an explanation and a practical solution of his difficulty. That red calves occasionally appear from purebred stock in probably all the black breeds of cattle is generally known. This is true of the Angus, Galloway and Kerry, which are com- monly regarded as solid black breeds. It is also true of the Holstein-Friesian, which is in this connection to be considered as a black breed, since white spotting is not taken into con- sideration. The occurrence of white on an animal is an entirely dif- ferent matter and is not related in inheritance to the color of the pigment, which in cattle may be brownish, black, red, dun, yellow or some shade of fawn. In conjunction with any of these colors there maj be no white, as in some Angus or Galloways, or a little on the under parts, as in others ; or there may be a considerable amount, as in most Hokstein-Friesians, the present fashion, in fact, being toward a predominance of white. The unexpected appearance of these ‘‘off color” calves is variously interpreted as being a reversion, or as indicating impurity of breeding, or the unwelcome calf is simply called a “sport,” no explanation of its occurrence being offered. A review of the history of the breeds, however, together with a slight knowledge of the laws of inheritance provides a simple explanation. The Occurrence of Red Calves in Black Breeds 5 Inheritance of Black and Red Color The inheritance of red and black, when other complications are not present, is very simple. If a purebred animal of a black breed, such as an Angus, is bred to another of some red breed, such, let us say, as a Red Polled, the calves obtained from the cross will be black. The same would be true if a Hereford were taken as the red breed, but in this case the calves, although black, would have white faces. Now these cahes inherit red from their red jiarent just as much as they do black from the lilack parent, but when the two come to- gether only the black shows. It is said, therefore, that black is dominant to red, since it dominates it in the appearance of the crossbred. The red, on the contrary, does not appear in tlie crossbred, and accordingly red is said to be recessive to black. The crossbred animals are really different from the parental blacks, in that they carry the inheritance of red though they do not show it. For if they, like their parents, are mated to reds, tlie resulting calves will no longer all be black, but there will appear red ones as well. In fact, the numbers of black and red calves produced by such a mating will, in the long run, be equal. Appearance Not a Guide The crossbi*eds in this case ^^mascjnerade in the guise of one of their parents,” and it is a very important point to get in mind that the appearance of an animal does not necessarily serve as an index as to how it will breed. It may be said that the purebred blacks are constant in their breeding, since whether bred among themselves or crossed the result is the same. The crossbreds, on the other hand, are inconstant in tlieir breeffing, for when bi-ed to reds, as already shown, or when bred together, both black and red calves are ])roduced. ('rossbrei)S Inconstant in Breedino There are cases of simple inheritance in which the cross- bred is different from either parent — in which it doiss not masquerade as either one — and in such cases it is always rec- ognizable. This, for example, is the case when a white Short- horn is crossed with a Galloway, the resulting calf being CSOHO M3Vg Q 2 UJ [U U Cl, Q UJ UJ DC DC rizes even at the shows of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. A century ago the horned and hornless grew up side by side not only on neighboring farms, but in the same fields, claiming freipiently to be children of the same ]>a rents. Tt is also said that colors and markings were found at that time which do not croj) out at all in the breed today. These- facts agree entirely with what would be exjiected The Occurrence of Ked Calves in Black Breeds 18 from the inheritance of red and black. Red being recessive to black it can be carried by black individuals without being- evident; in other words, there are likely to be many black ‘‘masqueraders’’ whose presence in a herd may be unsuspected until two of them happen to be bred together, when red off- spring may result; but even then the chances of a red calf being dropped are only one in four. Kenneth McGregor, formerly of the Iowa Agricultural College, says that red Aber- deen-Angus calves which occurred in the herd there were of a very dark shade, more the color of Red Polled than of Short- horn red. The consensus of opinion is that these red calves if bred together will breed true, that is, they will throw nothing but red offspring, and this also agrees with expectation. There have, indeed, been herds of entirely red Aberdeen- Angus cattle formed in this way. It is stated that there was formerly one such owned by the Honorable Mr. Cochrane of Quebec, Canada, which, however, has since passed out of existence. At last accounts there was at least one such herd in Scotland, owned by W. K. McDonald of Arbroath, stock from which has been sold to go to Argentine. There was no general importation of Aberdeen-Angus’ cattle into America prior to 1873. Within a few years after that date, however, the breed had attained great popularity and the American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders’ Association was or- ganized in 1883. Since that time 29 volumes of the American herd book liave been issued, including 274,500 entries. A study of these records affords material of considerable interest as bearing on tlie way in wliich a breed gradually becomes more uniform through the elimination of certain types in breeding. Color was not recorded in the first and second volumes of the American herdbook, and a large number of tlie animals reg- istered in those two volumes are indeed Scotch foundation stock which was never in this country. Beginning with Volume mention is made of all off-color individuals registered, “males red in color, or with a noticeable amount of i)ure white above the underline, or on h‘g or legs, or with scurs,” not being (eligible to enti'y for bre(‘ding j)nij)Oses. Such f(‘lnal(^s conbl, however, be used to bi*eed from until recently, a new rnle § « CCJ w ^ s .s S M S fj • <) cn "T P P ^ £ 2 '*-< ^ ^ O ill M fc) P a .-e 9 w P' o § .2 V-5 « iyo § .2 fa o O > o «M O oo a a Pr^ <*-i 'C ®'.H 6^ 9 S-o , bC o ^ €a gs o o u (NOOOOO-HiHOiHrHOOQOOOO a ■« s 2 ^ P fl •Q ^ 9 ci S-. 2 'O ^ ^ ^ a a a fla! ^ OX3;^'i3t>;2^,'CXb 2 ® ® !i '0X5X3 a a o o a a p p ,3a "" a rO ^ O S o P 2 CO i—< iH 1 (Oil o o o o 05 05 +J-I-XM o 0 (M a fl lO 01 GO i-H0101^Tt<(G0(G0O-^*(C0Cb-»r5l0lMC0C50i OOC 5 o o o ooooooo ooocoocoooo ooc ooo o c o oooooooooooooooooo ooc (M^cot- O O 0__ O »0»0^lp_»0 0 0^0 oo__ooo ooo 0^0 icTjror CO CO coco'T}^TfTl^r^(^^(^^c4'(^^ci0 lO lO >0 O lO O lO l.o lO >0 »0 lO LO KO iO iO 50 lO lO »o ooo coo 10 5010 coo'* OdCO Cl C l Cl CD ooo Cl CO 50 CDOOC:OiHCIC0 50CCl-OCC;Or-IClCO^LO OOGOO O O a OO'OOOOOOOOOOi-iiHiH— irHr-i 00 0000 00 00 00 O00000(0 00(000000000000 p a p? P 05 P (-5 fa( 1-5 • rj t-i a f'i+j e^^*-'!-lj^''bj[0,‘ oa-«C,^«o^rtcirt 0,0^ o 05 ' CD CD I- 0(T.(0 p a'p 05 a « 50 CD l-QOOOi-lClJOTt'lOCDI'QOOOr-l Jjco-fi T-l ,-H T-l 1-1 r-( T-l 1-1 i-( I-I -H Cl Cl - > Cl Cl Not including Vols. 1 and 2. The Occurrence of Red Calves in Black Breeds 15 having gone into effect with the beginning of Volume 28 that no off-color individuals as defined above, either male or female, shall be eligible to registry for breeding purposes, wliich prac- tically means tliat none are registered at all after that time. Table I shows the number of off-colored animals (not im eluding those involving distribution of white markings, witli which we are not concerned) registered in each of the first 27 volumes of the American herdbook, and the proportion of reds to other colors in each volume, this being indicated in the last column of the table as number of red individuals to each 1,000 animals registered. Of the 22 reds registered in Volume 3, 9 were males and 13 females. No red males are registered in later volumes. The graph shown in figure 2 is constructed from the figures in the last column of Table I and shows strikingly the fact that there was a rapid falling off in the number of red Aberdeen-An- gus cattle registered in Volumes 3 to 7. Following that the num- bers increased somewhat, but in general there has been a slow, steady decrease since the first rapid fall in the early years. Fig. 3. An Aberdeen-Angus pedigree chart, which shows how close breeding brings out the latent red. The Occurrence of Red Calves in Black Breeds 17 as evidenced by the curved line draAvn in to indicate the gen- eral trend of the broken line. The gradual decrease in number of red animals registered depends on several factors. In the first place, there is no donbt that tliey have become increas- ingly nnpopnlar, so tliat from being tolerated in the early days of the breed, they have come to be excluded fi'om registra- tion entirehL They are, moreover, looked on with suspicion by man}^, as indicating possible impurity of breeding, and there is no doubt that this feeling tends to sj)read as tlie oc- currence of red calves becomes less frequent. In the second ])lace it must be recalled that the number of red calves reg- istered by no means represents all of that color that are dropped by purebred dams. No red males are recorded after Volume 3, so that the actual number of red calves born would doubtless be at least double the numbers recorded. Furtlier- more, while some breeders made a practice of registering all their off-color calves (all the calves registered by one breeder in one volume were red), others doubtless did not register them at all. In spite of tliese complications and imperfections in the (lata, Jiowever, the curve in figure 2 ])robal)ly does re})resent to a considerable extent tlie actual facts as regards tlie occurrence of red calves in tlie Aberdeen-Aiigus breed in tliis country. •Ami althougli even the red cows can no longer be registered for breeding purposes, red calves may be exjiected to appear now and then for many years, but in slowly dejcreasiug num- bers, for there w'ill still be many ‘bnasqueraders” among the blacks, and when two of them are mated by chance, tlm proba- bilities are one in four that the calf will be red. This emphasizes again the fact that both parents of a red calf are eipmlly responsible for the departure from the desired color — they must both be “mas<]ueraders.” Further- more, from each parent there must be an unbroken line of in- dividuals red or ^‘carrying red,” that is, ^bnasipuiraders,” back to the remote red animals included in the ancestry of the breed. Some of these facts are illustrated strikingly in the sanqile pedigree chart in figure 3. In this chart the squares represent males and the circles females. Horizontal connecting lines in- dicate matings, while the vertical lines lead to the olfsj)ring of 18 Wisconsin I5ulletin 313 these matings. The black squares and circles represent animals known to be black; red squares and circles indicate red individ- uals; the plain unshaded figures indicate no record as to color. These are animals either from the Scotch herdbooks or the first two volumes of the American books, color not being recorded in either case. INIost of them, doubtless, were black, but there is no assurance that all were. The number below each individual is its number in the American herdbook. There are a number of points of interest in this pedigree. In the first place, there is a considerable amount of inbreed- ing. Note, for instance that 4,405 and 3,123 trace back to a brother and sister (820 and 3,124), the parents of these (824 and 821) being resjiectively great-grandparents of 4,405 and grandparents of 3,123. These two animals, 4,405 and 3,123, were both black ‘buasqneraders,” for they produced twins, one of which (7,014) Avas black and the other (10,583) red. The great amount of inbreeding beyond this point is obvious and the large number of red calves produced is correspondingly conspicuous. These same individuals doubtless produced many black calves from the same or other matings, but these are not indicated in the chart. The full red lines mark the descent of the recessive ^b’ed” trait where it can be indicated Avith certainty, and similarly the heavy outlines on the uncolored squares and circles indi- cate known ‘bnasqueraders.” There can be little doubt that at least one of hnimals 824 and 821, at the top of the chart, carried the ‘b^ed” inheritance, but the records are lacking to prove it. If that were the case the full red lines would con- tinue up from both 4,405 and 3,123 till they met at that point. This probability is indicated in the chart b^^ the broken red lines. In the same way 0,442 or 0,138 (or possibly both) must either liaA^e been red in color or have carried red as a recessive in order to account for the fact that 0,441 (at the right of the chart) AAms a “masijuerader.” This brings out the interesting point that it would only be necessary for tAvo of the original animals, 824 or 821 and 0,442 or 0,138, to Inne carried the red trait in order to account for all seven of the red individuals that ajijiear in the pedigree. It is worth while to observe more closely the matings The Occurrence of Red Calves in Black Breeds 19 which produced red calves. The three red individuals, 11,080, 11,079 and 11,078, were produced respectively by matings of the red cow 10,583, her black twin 7,011, and their mother 4,405, to the black ‘bnasquerader” bull 6,441. The black twin 7,014 to her black half-brother (5,297) produced red 10,584, while red 10,585 came from a mating of this same bull back to the mother, and mated to his own full sister (7,015) he produced red 10,588. But while the close breeding in this case has tended to bring out the red color, it must be kept clearly in mind that it had nothing to do with producing the tendency to it in the stock. This came in, doubtless, from red foundation stock in the infancy of the breed, as has already l)een pointed out. Inbreeding simply makes more i^robable matings of individuals both of which carry the trait, and it is only from such matings that it can appear. The probability of its appearance is equally as great if two entirely unrelated individuals carrying the inheritance of red chance to be paired. One more point should be emphasized, namel^q that the red individuals appearing in such stock as that indicated in tlie cl) art are just as truly “purebred” as are their black rela- tives, and there is no reason why, in all respects save color, they sliould not be fully as valuable. The fact that they are discarded wliile the blacks are retained is simply due to the turn of fortune that black ratlier tlian red became the estab- lished fashion for the Aberdeen-Angus breed. Had red been tlie cliosen color, tliere would never have been any trouble with tlie ajipearance of blacks as olf-color individuals, since red to red breeds true. The Galloway Tlie history of the (ialloway breed is very similar to that of the Aberdeen-Angus, the I'emote ancestry being in many i-espects doubtless the same. >Vhile the jirevailing breed coloi* is black, the result of early mixture has also been aiijiai'imt in Galloways, dark lirindle, brown, red, dun and drab being men- tioned in the literature. It is stated that “even toda}^ dun and drab are recognized colors of the bi'eed” — though not in Amer- ica. As in the Aberdeen-Angus, we ai*e at present interested only in the inheritance of the red,' which is said in Galloways to be of a yellowish, faded color, rather than the dark red of 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 313 the Aberdeen-Angus. We have no data on the occurrence of red in Galloways, but Lloyd- Jones and Evvard^ make the state- ment that, ‘^at the present time, by far the great majority of all Galloway cattle are pure for the factor which x>roduces black, but this is not always so; animals of this breed sliow that they still retain the red-producing ability because from time to time, when tlie occasional heterozygous* blacks are coujiled, a red calf may be produced.’’ The general situation as to the production of reds is probably essentially the same, therefore, in the Galloway that it is in the Aberileen -Angus. We are unable to state wliether or not reds occur more fre- quently in one breed than the other. The Holstein-Friesian Insofar as the inheritance of red is concerned the condition in the Holstein-Friesian is jDractically the same as in the Aberdeen-Angus. The only essential difference in the two breeds, in the matter of color, is that there isli greater amount of white spotting on the Holstein-Friesian, but since the in- heritance of white sjiotting is entirely indejiendent of that of black and red, it need not be taken into consideration. A red-and-white Holstein-Friesian calf, therefore, bears the same relation to the breed that a red calf does to the Aberdeen- Angus. The early history of the Holstein-Friesian cattle, like that of other breeds, is largely a matter of conjecture, and many of the statements in the literature cannot be accepted at their face value. For example, it has been assumed by some that the present black-and-white Color originated shortly before the beginning of the Christian era by the crossing of black cattle brought by the Batavians, who settled in the region between the Rhine and the Meuse, and ‘^pure white” cattle of the Friesians. Not only is it improbable in the first place that these early tribes possessed cattle which approximated definite breeds, uniform in color and markings, but it is exceedingly improbable from a genetical viewpoint that a pied pattern like that of the Dutch cattle should arise from the crossing * The technical scientific term for what are known as “inconstant breeders,” or “masqueraders.” The Occurrence op Red Calves in Black Breeds 21 of black and white stock. The statement of Hengeveld, so often quoted, to the effect that ^‘the genealogy of Netherland cattle is pure and unadulterated, and is at least 2,000 years old” can not be accepted at its face value. It is true tliat tlie region of the Netherlands has apparently jiossessed cattle of special value since early Christian times, or possibly before, but there is no evidence to show that there have not been intermixtures with it; in fact, there is positive evidence to the contrary. In the matter of color alone it seems fairly certain that perhai)s the most general color of the cattle in the Nether- lands and the surrounding provinces, until within a century oi* two, was red or fawn (or some shade of dun), and that black- and-white piebald as a predominating color is of comiiaratively recent introduction. Red-and-white Breeds still occur in Holland and the West German provinces, such as East Fries- land and Oldenburg. The fullest and most critical discussion of the color of the Netherland cattle is that of Bakker,® published in 1909. He remarks that recent authors assume Netherland cattle to have been black-and-white since earliest times, but says there is no basis whatever for such an opinion. On the contrary, he be- lieves that there were no black-and-white cattle in Holland l)revions to about the middle of the eighteenth century. This conclusion is based very largely on the evidence affoi'ded by early Dutch paintings in which cattle are depicted. Bakker examined nearly 4,000 paintings in the Tmjierial Museum at Amsterdam and found that while manj^ of them contained cattle, no black-and-white cattle appeared prior to the second half of the eighteenth centurjL* In the accompanying table (Table II) are given the per- centages of different colors in each century from 1500 until about 1775. After that period black-and-whites are numerous while recent artists use black-and-white cattle exclusively to adorn their meadow scenes. * The senior author of this bulletin, at that time unaware of Uakker’s work, came to a similar conclusion from a casual examination of the paintings in the Old Picture Oallery in the Manritshuis at the Hague in 1911. Storer also, in his work on “The Wild White Cattle of Ureat Britain” [1879], states that the famous paintings show the Dutch cow of 200 or 300 years ago to be quite different from the one of today ; black was then rare, different shades of red being most common, but mouse-colored and white with red ears being frequent. 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 313 Table II. — Colors of cattle in old Dutch pictures (From Bakker) l‘eriod Number of cattle Red Red-and-white Dun “Blaar- koppen”* “Wit- koppen”* 1500-1600 23 34.7% 4.3% 56.5% 56.5% 8.7% 1600-1700 154 50.0% 5.8% 35.7% 35.0% 1.3% Approx. 1700 1775 9 22.2% 1 55.5% 11.1% 66.6% 0 Several iuterestiiig points come out from a study of these pictures. We note, for examxile, that if tliej^ may be relied upon as giving a fair indication of the predominating colors of the cattle at the time they were painted, 39 per cent of the Holland cattle in the sixteenth century were red or red-and- white, while 56.5 per cent are represented as dim,t probably referring to some shade of grayish brown, perhaps somewhat like the color of many Jersey cattle. Bakker states that in some cases the color is somewhat uncertain in the paintings, so that there is considerable variation of color in animals classed in the table as dim. In the seventeenth century the proportions are not markedly different, but in the eighteenth century there is a noticeable increase in the proportion that are spotted with white. In all the pictures painted after the latter part of the eighteenth century in which cattle are in- cluded, at least one or more are black-and-white spotted. These facts have led Bakker to conclude that the Nether- land cattle are descended from the old red native breed which constituted the original cattle of all central Europe; that they were, therefore, not originally black-and-white, but that this color dates from the latter part of the eighteenth century ; and that it was introduced into Holland bj^ importations of Jutland cattle from Denmark. There is, furthermore, his- torical evidence of such importations to support this view. The white face marking has, however, been common in the Netherland cattle from earliest times, and is characteristic of one of the present breeds in Holland. Tlie black-and-white color must have found great favor in Holland, for after its aiipearance it seems to have become the * “Blaarkop” animals are white-faced, but with a spot of pigment encircling the eye; “witkop” is literally white iTeaded, the whole face, or practically the whole head, being white, as in Hereford cattle. For convenience we shall refer to the two classes together as “white-faced.” The pigment accompanying these conditions may be either black or red. t German Fahl, literally fallow, or faded. The Occurrence op Red Calves in Black Breeds 23 predominating one in a relatively short time. Furthermore, the fame of the Netlierland cattle, especially those of Fries- land, rapidly extended them to neighboring countries, and more recently to all parts of the world. Nevertheless, as late as 1865, John H. Klippart, who made a tour of Europe for the Ohio State Board of Agriculture, reported regarding tlie color of these cattle at the International Fair at S tell in, Germaii}’^, that “the most in popular favor are the wliite, witli red, grey, blue-grey, or black spots,”'’ sliowiug that even then the lireed was far from uniform. l‘rofessor Silliman, in his “Journal of Travels” in Hol- land, published in 1812, says : “Innumerable multitudes of very fine cattle were grazing ujion tlie meadows; many of them were of a pure milk-white color; otliei*?, nearly or quite black; but by far the greater number were marked by botli these colors, intermixed in a very beautiful manner; and we found this fact to be general ; for wherever we went in Hol- land, the cattle were black or white, or striped and spotted with these colors.”’ Professor George H. Cook is quoted® as writing in 1871 that cattle are to be seen everywhere at pasture in Holland and that “their decided colors of black and white make them conspicuous objects.” No mention is made of other colors. These statements confirm the conclusion that black-and-white came into predominance very rapidly after its introduction, a thing which could very naturally happen, since black is dominant to red. At the present time there are three distinct breeds of cattle in Holland: (1) the black-and-Avhite Friesian-Dutch, a strictly dairy breed; (2) the Avhite-faced black Groningen cattle, of a relatively heavy beef type; and (3) the Yssel breed, red-and-white in color and intermediate in t}q)e between the other two. Importation of other breeds is not allowed. It is in- teresting to note the way in wliich these three breeds have se- lected among the available coloi* and ])attern chai'acters. The Fi'iesian-Dutch has the black ])iebald ])attern siqiposed to have come in from the Jutland breed; the Groningen has the im- ported black coloi', but retains the old white-face character* * WMIe, as previously slated, llie liead may he eiitii-ely while or lliere may I)e a pigmented spot surrounding tlie eye, tlie latter is now mueh more commoii dlofmann, “Das Ilolliinder Rind,” ItiOo, p. r>0). 'I'liis breed also has white on the breast, belly, udder, the lower parts of the legs and tail switch. 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 313 of so many early Holland cattle; while the Yssel (sometimes called ‘‘OberijsseF’ or “Mass-Rhein-Yssel” breed) is red-and- white spotted, the red color presumably being directly de- scended from the old native stock. At the present day one sees practically nothing but black-and-white and red-and-white cattle in journeying through Holland; the other colors appear very largely to have been eliminated. • It is generally recognized in Holland that red-and-white calves are occasionally thrown in both the black-and-white breeds mentioned, namely, the Friesian-Dutch and the Gron- ingen. In the early herdbooks no distinction was made be- tween them, and they are still registered in the Friesian cattle herdbook. We have not had copies of the Friesian and Nether- land herdbooks available in order to make a study of the rela- tive proportions of red-and-white animals entered in succeed- ing years, as was done in the case of the Aberdeen-Angus, but it is the generally accepted opinion that their number is grow- ing continually smaller. Table III. — Black-and-white and red-and-white cattle in Friesian herdbooks Black- and-white Red- and-white Per cent Red- and-white Black- and-white Red- and-white Per cent Red- and-white 1S72 C HpngpvplfU ^ 10.0 1905, cows (Hofmann)i® 10,486 173 1.6 bulls (Hofmann) 2,889 40 1.4 total (Hofmann) 13,375 213 1.6 1908, herdbook, cows (Bakker)” 12,235 199 1.6 herdbook, bulls (Bakker) 3,703 61 1.6 supplementary book, cows (Bakker).... 16,035 694 4.1 total (Bakker) 31,973 954 2.9 1913, breeding animals (Friesian Soc. Agr.)^-. 55,677 1,520 2.65 1915, bulls (Hoxie)J3 ‘7',316 ’ "ioD ' 'l.5 1 In Table III are given statistics from various sources showing tlie number of black-and-white and red-and-wliite cattle registered in the Friesian herdbook at various dates. These figures show a great decrease in the proportion of red- and-wbite animals registered from 1872 to 1905. Since that time tlie relative nundiers have remained mucli tlie same. It is surprising that the ])ro|)ortion of red-and-white should be less in 1905 than in 1908 and 1913, unless tlie figures include The Occurrence op Red Calves in Black Breeds 25 somewhat different records and are not comparable. The figures are, it should be remarked, the final ones in each case, the later ones including all registries to that time. To the traveler through Holland in recent years it is noticeable that one or more red-and- white cows may be seen in nearly every herd grazing in the pastures. We estimated these to be in about the proportion of one in ten in 1911.* It must be recalled that the cattle seen in this way, however, are by no means all registered,! so that this number cannot be compared directly with those given above. Rough counts were also made of the colors of the animals at the cattle market in Been warden, in the province of Friesland, on June 9, 1911, with the results shown in Table IV. Here again it will be noted that, except for the bulls, the proportion of red-and- Table IV. — Colors of cattle at market in Leeuwarden, June 9, 1911 (Approximate counts) Black- and-white Red- and-white Per cent red- and-white Young calves 45 5 10.0 Older calves 59 6 9.2 Cows 65 5 7.1 Bulls 58 1 1.7 Total 227 17 7.0 whites is not much below 10 per cent. This shows that the course of the breeding in the registered herds has been affect- ing the cattle of tlie jirovince in general, so that the proportion of red-and-wliites in lierds at large is now scarcely as great as it was repoi-t(*d to be by Hengeveld among the registered animals in 1871. The very low proportion among the bulls is to be expected, for while heifer calves would be saved foi' their intrinsic value as milk ])i*oducers regardless of color, few breeders would save a red-and-wliite bull in the face of the greater po])ularity of black-Jind-white. While, therefore, as we have seen, there has been a strong and gi'owing po])iilarity of blaek-an(l-whil(* in Holland, th(‘ ])rejudice against red-and-whit(‘ has ik‘V(‘ 1 ' 1)(‘er cent red-and-white calves while in this breeder’s herd. He had produced 69 advanced registry daughters, and it may be of interest to call attention to the fact that half of these daughtei's may be exjiected to throw some red-and-white calves if they should chance to be bred to a bull of the composition of tlieir sire. Anothei* breeder of jmrebred Holstein-Friesians reports a case of twins in which one of the calves was black-and-white and the other red-and- white. While by individual inquiry many other cases could l)e ac- The Occurrence op Red Calves in Black Breeds 27 cumulated, this is sufficient to indicate that the appearance of red-and-white calves in Holstein-Friesians of American breed- ing is by no means infrequent, and they may be expected, though with diminishing frequency, for many years to come, in spite of the rigid selection imposed by the breed require- ments in this country. It is generally conceded that the red-and-white animals, if mated together, will breed true to their color. Bakker'^ says: ^‘As I have been informed by several Friesian breeders and by the secretary of the Friesian cattle herdbook, the red color is very constant; much more so than the black, since in mating black-and-whites reversion to this color not infrequent- ly occurs, often after a very long time.’’ Plumb^^ makes the statement: ^‘The color in America is almost always black and white in patches, white prevailing with some animals while black prevails more with others. In Holland red-and-white animals of the breed exist and sev- eral purebred herds of the color are maintained to the exclu- sion of black-and-white.” We did not hear of any red-and- white herds in Holland in 1911, except of the Yssel cattle, which are, of course, of a different breed. Hofmann^® remarks that the red-and-whites occur in the breeding of black-and-whites, and that when tliey are bred to the latter, ‘‘calves of mixed* colors” very seldom appear, but that the offspring are either red-and-white or black-and-white. He furtliermore states that red-and-wliite calves may appear even in stock bred true for black-and-white for many genera- tions, and vice versa. Van Damme^^ reports that in a study of the herdbook of the federation of breeders’ associations of East Flanders, he found that when both i)arents wei*e red-and-white the ()ff‘sj)ring were 90 per cent red-and-white, 2 i)er cent blue-gray, and 2 per cent black ])iebald. On the basis of genetic knowledge and ex- perience of (!’areful breeders of cattle and other livestock, the correctness of the statements of Hofmann and Van Damme that black-and-white ofispring may occasionally be produced from red-and-white parents must be (inestioned. It has been well established, for exanq)le, that chestnut (sorrel) horses do not produce blacks or bays, yet a certain percentage of such 28 Wisconsin Bulletin 313 records will be found in the stud books. There are many chances of error in recording, and a certain percentage of errors must probably be expected in the herdbooks. A statement is also made by Gross^® regarding the inheri- tance of red-and-white which we have not seen confirmed else- where and which we suspect is based on insufficient evidence. The East Friesian cattle are very similar to the Holland- Friesian breed, and undoubtedly have the same general origin. Among them, also, both black-and-white and red-and-white occur, the former predominating,* and the statement is made that red-and-white cows mated to black-and-white bulls will almost certainly produce red-and-white calves, in which the color is rather dark.^^ In matings of red-and-white bulls with black-and-wliite cows, on the other hand, the color of the offspring cannot be predicted; sometimes they are red-and- white, sometimes black-and-white. Unless some different shade of red is concerned, such, for example, as the mahogany red often seen in Ayrshire bulls, it is probable that complete data would show that practically equal numbers of the 'two colors would be produced whichever way the cross is made. Some Economic Aspects As has been said, only cattle black-and-white in color, no matter what their parentage or other characters, can receive recognition in this country as purebred Holstein-Friesians. The fact that there is an undercurrent dt red in the breed which may come to the surface at any time is not generally known, or, if known, is not understood. Animals which pro- duce red-and-white calves are looked on with suspicion as to their value, if not, indeed, as to their purity of breeding. Sometimes the dam is considered to be at fault; sometimes the blame is laid to the sire; and it is usually a great surprise to the breeder to learn that they both must be ecpially res])onsible. Failure to understand the simple facts of inheritance involved in tlie case occasionally leads to serious misunderstandings wliich may involve transactions of considerable financial im- ])ortance and charges of insincerity of dealing, or even dece])- tion and fraud. * Gross gives the proportion as 7G per cent black-and-white and 13 per cent red-and-white, the other 11 per cent presumably being of other colors. The Occurrence of Red Calves in Black Breeds 29 A more general knowledge of the facts will be of great value to the breeder of purebred cattle. The correspondence which follows relates to a case in which an understanding of the simple laws of genetics involved helped to the amicable settlement of a situation which might have produced very un- pleasant relations and perhaps even have gone into the courts for settlement. In November, 1914, the superintendent of a state ins'titution in a neighboring state wrote the letter,^ from which the fol- lowing extract is taken : A ! Herd I of ' Good ; Breeding j New ' Bull I Sires I Red Calf “ Second i Rews [ As Grood for Dairy Purposes I I • Two things are perfectly apparent, which may have a bearing in your present case. The first of these is, that there is no reason whatever why the red-and-white animals should not be in every way just as good dairy cows as the black-and-white. Further- more, they are in every sense just as truly “purebred.” The only trouble is that our standard calls-for black-and-white animals, and the breed has not yet reached the point where it has eliminated the sub-current of red-and-white germ plasm. In horses this difficulty is avoided by placing less importance on color, for, as you are aw’are, one may have the different colors within the same breed. Sire and Dam Equally to Blame Another point is that whenever a red-and-white calf is pro- duced from two black-and-white parents, there is equal “blame” on the part of both parents. For unless both carried the red recessive to the black, no red-and-white calves would appear. We have run out the pedigree of D and there certainly can be no doubt of his coming of good breeding. The only thing that surprised me was the distance that we had to go back to get any considerable number of imported ancestors. That our letter had helped to clear up the situation for the time was indicated by the reply to it, which was, in jiart, as follows : i Should Such a Bull Head a Purebred Herd? Has the Herd Been Injuretl? I think the whole proposition is now very thoroughly under- stood by the governing board of the institution, and whatever suspicions may have existed in their minds in regard to the matter have been removed by your very lucid explanation. A little difference of opinion seemed to prevail even at the end in regard to a couple of propositions that were of importance to us. I think our people are prepared to regard the matter now in an absolutely dispassionate way, but there was a difference of opinion as to whether D should be restored to the prestige of his former position as head of our herd. Some took the view that inasmuch as the i)urity of his breeding was unquestioned and that his ancestors are among the best milking strain to be found anywhere, that there was no reason why he should be deposed. Others, while admitting this, were of the opinion that it might detract from the commercial value of any animal that we might sell, being understood that they were sired by a black-and-white parent carrying the red character. Another query which some would like to have answered is whether the party from whom we purchased this animal is under any obligations whatever for any injury that might have come to our herd. Is the herd in any way injured except in a matter which in its last analysis is purely a sentimental oneV We wish to regard the interests of the breed of IIolstein-Friesian cattle as much as anything else in the \yhole matter, and do not wish to do anything that will be a detriment either to our herd or the breed in general. In response to tliese further (piestions, the following letter was sent: 32 Wisconsin Bulletin 313 Red Calves Objected to by Breeder, not Dairyman What course should be taken under the circumstances, it seems to me, depends in part upon local conditions, and very largely upon one’s estimate of the economic importance of the prejudice against red-and-white calves appearing in Holstein herds. Both views seem to me correct, and it is simply a matter of weighing their relative importance and deciding accordingly. If I were in the dairy business I should have no prejudice against the red-and-white animals from the dairy standpoint, but if I were also depending in part for my income upon the sale of purebred stock, I should feel it incumbent upon me to consider and give weight to any factor, which, whether justly or unjustly, would nevertheless influence the market value of such stock. There is no getting around the fact that, under present conditions, whether rightly so or not, the prejudice against red-and-white calves does have such influence. This much may be safely said; If I were very desirous of building up a strain of Holstein cattle which would not throw occasional red-and-white calves, T should not use a bull which produced any such calves. Please understand me, for I say that this would be the case if I put the matter of color above other things. If two animals were equal in other respects, I should certainly give way to the preference for color. The best proceed- ing in this particular case depends finally upon matters whfch are economic and outside the field of genetics. Regarding the matter of damage which may have been done your herd, I would simply recall to you the fact that when a red- and-white calf is produced, the fault is equal on the part of the sire and dam. Some new developments in the case were contained in a letter received the following Jannarv: Another Sire Produces Red Calf Just what course we will pursue in regard to the sire. D , has not yet been definitely decided, but there is another chapter opened since I wrote you last that possibly in a way alters the aspect of things. A short time ago we had another red Holstein calf born on the place. This time the sire is A — — — , who I think was generally regarded second to no Holstein sire in the state. He had been the head of our herd for four years and, previous to that time, for two or three years at the State Agricul- tural College at . This is the first red calf, however, that has been sired by him. Probably the highest price that was ever offered for a sire in tlie state was offered for one of his calves. F . Our whole herd, in which we take a good deal of pride, is liable to damage by tbe prejudice against red Holsteins. The facts in the foregoing correspon deuce are so clear that no extended discussion is necessary. The outstanding points are that no fraud was concerned, that both parties were acting in perfectly good faith, hut that in the herds both of the institution concerned and of tlie breeder from whom the new herd sire was purchased the undercurrent of red color was present without the knowledge of the owners. The fur- ther point of interest is that an understanding of the simple The Occurrence of Red Calves in Black Breeds 33 laws of genetics governing the inheritance of red and black removed all basis of contention. As has been fully demonstrated, the appearance of red-and- white Holstein-Friesian calves is not necessarily evidence of lack of pure breeding. On the other hand it must be borne in mind that crossbreeding or outbreeding with red cattle or with animals carrying red would introduce this character into the liereditar}^ makeup of the offspring and the red might appear wlienever two animals carrying it chanced to be mated. That is, its inheritance is the same whether it has been carried down from generation to generation from an original red-and- white ])arent in Holland, or whether it should be introduced by crossbreeding. There is, then, it would appear, some ground for sus})icion of the latter possibility when a red calf appears, and in such a case it is very j)roper that the pedigree and breeding of the animals concerned should be looked into very carefully. The integrity of the breeder is, of course, another factor in the situation. If the suspicion falls, however, on an animal that lias been bought or brought in from another source, it would be well for the breeder to recall that when a red calf is dropped, of its parents are equally to hlame. Since grade cows are more likely than purebreds to carry the inlieritance of red, this explains why they more often drop red calves tlian do purebreds. But again, it must be remem- bered that they will produce red calves only if the bull also carries tlie trait. If a black bull sires a red calf it proves tliat he is a ^bnasipierader” carrying red, no matter whether the cow to wliich he is bred is lierself red or black. Finally this question might be raised. Since it is natural for black Holstein-Friesian s occasionally to produce red calves, is it desirable that the standard should admit only the former as belonging to the breed, whereas it has been shown that the latter are in every way as purely bred, and undoubtedly stand fully as good a chance of inheriting the good economic quali- ties of the breed? This is a complicated question and cannot now be discussed fully. The great disadvantage of throwing out the red calves is that it limits to that extent the range of possible selection for other jioints. No matter how good an animal it may be in other resj>ects, the red calf must be dis- 34 Wisconsin Bulletin 313 carded on the basis of breed dictates. On the other hand, there are decided advantages in having a breed uniform in obvious characteristics. It not only seems to bespeak purer breeding and more rigid selection, but as the breed comes by rigid 'elimination of other characters to be more nearly ^^pure” for those which appertain to it, there is more reason to look on any non-conforming individual with suspicion. The present method of eliminating all red animals from the herd is rapidly decreasing the number of animals carrying red, and consequently the appearance of red-and- white Holstein - Friesian calves will become correspondingly more infrequent. This process could be greatly hastened by eliminating imme- diately from further breeding all animals, both dams and sires, which ever produce red-and-white calves, but the end to be attained would in no way justify the cost of such a procedure to the breeder and to the breed. On the other hand, it would be an easy matter, if it were worth while, to test bulls as to their purity for black, in which case they could be sold with a guarantee that they would produce only black calves. This \est could best be made b v b reeding the bulls to a sufficien t number of red cows, which would be used for that specific purpose. Whether such a guarantee would sufficiently en- hance the value of the animals to recompense for the trouble and cost of the testing is a question we are not in a position to answer. Furthermore, most bulls are disposed of at an age before such a test could be made. There is no question that the present attitude with respect to the occurrence of red-and-wliite Holstein-Friesian calves has proved of vital importance to many breeders. We could cite instances in which the prejudice against the animals of certain breeders, resulting from this cause, has made it neces- sary for these men virtually to close out their stock and to start anew, and this, too, in the case of men whose integrity could not be questioned. This is unfortunate, and it would seem that a more liberal-minded attitude would be of benefit to all concerned. At present it is considered almost a dis- grace, or at least a very disparaging admission, to have it known that a red-and-white calf has been dropped in a Hol- stein-Friesian herd. If the natural liability of such an occur- The Occurrence of Red Calves in Black Breeds oO reiice were more widely recognized and openly admitted by all breeders of these cattle, it would be possible by more direct means to select in such a way as to effect the final elimination of the color from the breed. The only fliiancial loss then would be the difference in price which the red-and- white calf would bring from not being eligible to registry. Such calves, when heifers, should not be vealed, but being from high milk-prodncing stock should be sold to dairymen who are producing milk but are not breeding, ^"ealing them, or what is jirobably more common, disposing of them secretly with no return whatever, is an unnecessary loss not only to the owner, but to the food-producing resources of the conntr^L It is fully recognized, however, that this course cannot well be followed without a distinct change in sentiment on the sub- ject, and it is hoped that wider knowledge of the matter may contribute somewhat to that end. lUBLIOGRAPHY AVilsoii, James. Tlie evolntioii of British cattle and the fashioning of the breeds. London. 1909. The principles of stock breeding, p. 29. London. 1912. ^ The evolution of British cattle and the fashion- ing of the breeds, p. 125. London. 1909. TJoyd-Jones and Evvard. Inheritance of color and horns in blue- gray cattle. Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 30. 1916. Tlakker, D. L. Studien iiber die Geschichte, den heutigen Zustand und die Zukunft des Rindes und seiner Zucht in den Niederlanden mit besonderer kritischer Beriicksichtigung der Arbeitsweise des Xiederland- ischen Rindviehstaminbuches. 6 :138 :Gpp. Mastricht, 1909. «Ohio State Board Agr. Ann. Rpt. 20: 38. 1886. Blolstein ITerdbook. 1 : 14. 1872. nbk\. p. 16. ^Sanders. Breeds of livestock, p. 354. 1887. ^‘’Hofmann. Das Hollander Rind. p. 31. 1905. ^^Bakker. loc. cit. p. 94. ^'T'riesian Soc. Agr. Friesland as an agricultural province, p. 5. 1913. ^^Iloxie. IIolstein-Friesian World. 12 :43. p. 2156. 1915. ^^Bakker. loc. cit. p. 23. ^“Pluinb. Types and breeds of farm animals, p. 267. 1906, ^Tlofmann, Die hollandische Rindviehschlage. p. 32. 1905. ^Ttev, Gen. Agron, n. ser. 3(1908) :9 pp. 363-365. See Exp. Sta. Record. 20 :568. 1909. ^Tlross, H. Das Ostfriesische Rind. p. 26. Leipzig, 1905. ^”Gross. loc. cit. p. 23. August, 1920 3o.n Bulletin 314 DIGEST The meat products of Wisconsin are steadily increasing. Until recently most of the livestock was shipped directly by the farmer or •through local buyers. Page 3. Cooperative shipping of livestock began in Wisconsin about 1908. The first associations were organized at Kiver Falls and East Ellsworth and were so successful that the number has steadily grown. The busi- ness in 1916 was over $11,000,000. Pages 4 to 6. Farmers save over $1,500,000 a year by cooperation in shipping. Much time and labor is saved in buying, collecting, and delivering stock. Pages 6 to 9. The cooperative livestock shipping association has probably the best opportunity for success of any cooperative business association of farmers. Page 9. The manager should be w^ell paid, the pay depending upon the amount of time and labor he must give to the work. Much depends upon his efficiency. Pages 9 to 11. Shipping associations have special business problems. Identifica- tion of stock, weighing at the home station, transportation and commis sion charges, and payment to farmers are largely handled by the man- ager. Pages 11 to 14,. The expense of cooperative shipping averages $93 a car. This includes expense at the terminal market, freight, manager’s salary, and incidental expense at the home market. Shrinkage is not included be- cause it depends on so many different conditions. Tuberculosis is also a factor. Pages 14 to- 17. A national federation of shipping associations has recently been formed. The number of large and successful associations in the United States forecasts the permanence of the organization. Pages 17 to 18. The adoption of a constitution and by-laws helps to solve many of the problems that arise in an association. Pages 18 to 2 2. Wisconsin Livestock Shipping Associations B. H. Hibbard L. G. Foster D. G. Davis Wisconsin is maintaining steady development in its con- tribution to the meat products of the nation. It is estimated that approximately 508,000 cattle, 362,000 calves, 1,332,000 hogs and 241,000 sheep and lambs were shipped from Wiscon- sin during 1918 to the central stock yards at Chicago, Cudahy, Milwaukee and South St. Paul. The approximate numbers shipped in 1917 were 498,000 cattle, 312,000 calves, 1,269,000 hogs and 213,000 sheep and lambs. The following table will furnish the reader with some idea of the, size and value of the annual meat production of Wisconsin : TABLE 1. ESTIMATED NUMBER AND VALUE OF LIVESTOCK SOLD FROM OR SLAUGHTERED ON FARMS IN 1918 AND 1917* Number Value in Dol- lars per head Total value in dol- lars 1918 1917 1918 1917 1Q18 1917 Cattle 077.000 603.000 309.000 1,903,000 660,000 520.000 272.000 1,813,000 77 16 12 30 64 14 11 24 52.129.000 9.648.000 3.708.000 57.090.000 42.240.000 7.280.000 2.990.000 44.512.000 Calves Sheep Swine Total value 122,575,000 97,024,000 ♦ Biennial report of the Wisconsin Department of Agriculture, 1918, The percentage of each kind of stock shipped in comparison with all of the same kind of stock sold or slaughtered is: cattle, 75 per cent; calves, 60 per cent; hogs, 70 per cent; sheep, 78 per cent. Until recently most of the livestock sold from Wisconsin farms was shipped either directly by the owners or sold to and shipped by local buyers. Occasionally, a few farmers get to- gether as a grouj), make up a carload of stock and ship it. At present by no means a small part of the livestock is shipped through the medium of what is known as a cooperative live- stock shipping association. It is reported that at least 75 per cent of the livestock shipped into the South St. Paul market is shipped by co- operative associations. At Chicago the estimate is placed at approximately 15 per cent, and that percentage is constantly growing, for even the western states have recently begun to organize such associations. 4 W isconsin Bulletin 314 History of Wisconsin ^Shipping Associations The hrst cooperative livestock shipping associations or- ganized in this state were, according to our records, those tormed at Kiver T ails and East Ellsworth in 1908. The one at Kiver Falls was made up ol a small number of farmers who combined their livestock to make a carload for shipment to market. This association succeeded from the first, despite great opposition. It is operating today as a department of the local equity society and last year did a volume of business amounting to 121 carloads. The shipping association located at East Ellsworth is undoubtedly one of the largest in the state. It handles at present practically all the livestock marketed from East Ellsworth by about 500 farmers, in 1918 it shipped 270 carloads of livestock. The immediate success of these first efi’orts inspired the or- ganization of other similar associations in ditt’erent parts of the state. By the early part of 1917, the total number of associations approximated 240. By August 1, 1919, the De- partment of Agricultural Economics had recorded 350 shipping associations. There are a considerable number more of which no record could easily be obtained. In addition, many co- operative associations organized primarily for other purposes carry on livestock shipping as an important sideline. It is quite safe to estimate the total number of shipping associa- tions in the state of Wisconsin on J anuary 1, 1920, as approxi- mately 500. A study of the business done by Wisconsin cooperative shipping associations in 1916 shows that there were shipped to the central markets and to small packing industries 11,120 cars at an estimated value of over |11,132,000. This makes an average of 47 carloads of livestock for each association. Since 1917 the volume of business handled by cooperative shipping associations has steadily increased. Many commis- sion firms, which at one time were unwilling to handle the co- operative business, with all the extra work of grading, sorting and bookkeeping it entailed, now find that it is paying them to build up and solicit such business. Some firms advertise the fact that they have men who will go out and help to Wisconsin Livestock Shipping Associations 5 It will be noticed that the associations are fairly evenly distributed over the state, with the exception of the northern and central parts. In these sections, livestock is not yet so plentiful. orj^aiiize sliipjiiiig associations ami put them on a firm, busi- ness-like foundation. Tlie general belief prevails at Soutli St. Paul and ('liicago that the coojierative shi])])ing has ('ome to stay and is bound to grow in volume. Returns i-eceived fi'om 47 shi])ping asotdations doing business prior to .January 1, llHb, show that these asso- ciations shipj)(‘d an average of (il cai'loads each lo the markets for Wisconsin livestock, or a total of .4,014 carloads a year. This would suggest, that the total imndKU' of carloads shi])])ed 0 Wisconsin Bulletin 314 cooperatively from Wisconsin farms to market in 1918 was in the neighborhood of 20,000, and in 1919 not less than 30,000. One cannot say what the average value of a carload is, but taking as representative the values reported by one of the largest companies, |1,874, the total would be 156,220,000. This is probably two-fifths of the total value of all shipments for the state. In a questionnaire sent to a large number of shipping asso- ciations, one question was asked as to the percentage of the stock of the respective communities handled by them. The average of 72 answers to this question was 65 per cent. Why cooperative associations of this type have been formed has been explained by a large number of correspondents. For the most part the reasons given reduce to two, and it might almost be said, to one. That local stock buyers do not pay what stock is worth is the emphatic one. This should be inter- preted in terms of the farmer’s point of view. The stock buyer may pay all he can afford to pay, yet not as much as the farmer by other means can get. The other reason is that farmers doing their own shipping are more independent as to the time and manner of the ship- ment. They have a better opportunity to group and grade; to get stock into condition; to choose the market to which it shall go, and the time when it shall go. Can it be said that shipping associations have accomplished that which they set out to accomplish? Decidedly yes, even allowing for the occasional failures and the many problems and difficulties with which some associations have to contend. Estimates from managers of 150 associations placed the sav- ing at from 20 cents to |2.50 a hundred-weight and from |15 to |250 a car. The great majority of estimates lie between |50 and |150 a car. Using the lowest figure the total saving would amount to |1,500,000 a year. Advantages op Cooperative Livestock Shipping Associations Many advantages result to the members of livestock ship- ping associations, to the community where such an association is doing business, and to the livestock industry in general. Wisconsin Livestock Shipping xIssociations 7 1. The producer of livestock receives a greater net return. He receives market price for his livestock less actual cost of marketing. This is particularly true of miscellaneous stock, such as canners or veals. It is not often that a uniform ship- ment of such stock is made. 2. Farmers become familiar with the market and market demands. In this way, they soon learn to know the market grades and classes and govern production accordingly. 3. Farmers learn not to overfeed stock, since overfeeding results in excessive loss from shrinkage and deaths or injuries to stock while in transit. 4. Much time and labor spent in buying, collecting and delivering stock for shipment by local buyers is saved by the cooperative shipping association, which handles much of the business in a single locality through one manager. In fact, there are entire counties in Wisconsin where one manager handles the bulk of the shipments. For example, the business of the Chippewa County Shipping Association is handled almost entirely by one manager. TABLE 2. BARRON COUNTY SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS Shipping ass’n place No. of members Cars shipped Total amount received for shipments 1917 1918 1 1917 1918 1. Almena 194 18 27 $ 26,240 $ 51,369 2. Barron 41 0 57,892 138,031 a. Barronett 55 * 4 * 7,161 4. Beaver Produce Assn., Turtle Lake 117 23 29 21,791 41,962 Cameron 115 * 11 * 18,738 fi. Canton 93 4 12 6,212 20,122 7. Cedar Lake 8. Mikana 12 * 3 * 5,283 9. Comstock 71 * 12 * 18,771 10. Chetek 80 G 14 11,860 26,470 11. Cumberland . 271 * 32 * 59,631 12. Dallas 118 17 31 27,738 61,500 13. Hillsdale 3G 56,2G2 74,563 14. Poskin Lake .... 20G 22 43 37,218 64,984 ir>. Rice Lake lOG ♦ 14 * 26,959 IG. Ridgeland 200 41 31 5G,799 56,565 17. Stanford 210 13 21,496 18. Campla Total .$302,012 $692,605 • Organized In 1918. 5. Tlie farmer can market his stock wlien it is ready for shipment without waiting for the buyer to see it. 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 314 6. During periods of car shortage, through the efforts of au association, farmers can get their share of the cars. 7. Any crippled cattle or hogs can be disposed of and made to bring very nearly the market price, whereas formerly such animals usually sold for half price. 8. The farmer is educated to high standards of livestock breeding, since he will see that when he ships a good animal it brings a correspondingly good price. Packing interests are favorably disposed toward shipping associations because they see that it eventually means choicer quality in the stock they handle. CATTLE HOGS MIXED □ SHEEP CALVES CAR LOAD SHIPMENTS OF WISCONSIN LIVE STOCK FIG. 2. COOPERATIVE SHIPPING REDUCED NUMBER OF MIXED CARLOADS Compared with other north central states, this state ships many mixed carloads. The cooperative action of 100 or more farmers around a given point makes it possible to ship a larger number of cars of a given kind of stock. Wisconsin Livestock Shipping Associations 9 9. The individual farmer receives genuine consideration at the central market due to the volume of business handled through his association. 10. The community in general will gain in importance and reputation by the existence of a live, enterprising shipping association. Conditions Required for Successful Operation* Compared with other forms of cooperative business associa- tions of farmers, the cooperative livestock shipping association has an equal, if not better, opportunity for success. Such an organization is fairly simple in operation, requires practically no capital, and accomplishes results which are definitely visible to those who will take the trouble to investigate carefully. Good will of the farmers in the community, and the willing- ness to cooperate and show the proper spirit of loyalty to the association to which they have pledged their support, are prime requisites at the outset. There must be, as in all similar or- ganizations, strong, capable and efficient leaders. Enough stock must be within reach of the association to make it possible to ship out full carloads regularly. When one association has not enough stock, it can sometimes accom- plish the desired result by cooperating with shipping associa- tions in neighboring towns. Thus the loading may be started at one point and completed at another. Number of members. On a study of the facts as to number of members required to make an association a success, it appears that the amount of stock involved is of more conse- quence than the number of men. The average number of patrons, members and non-members of 140 associations re- porting, is slightly over 100. It is fairly safe to say that, as a rule, under 50 will be too few. A good manager is necessary. His efficiency or inefficiency may result in the saving or loss to the association of an amount many times the salary he receives. Unless a man can be secured who has the necessary energy, ability, experience and time to devote himself to the job, and unless that man has the * See Wis. Exp. Sta., Bill. 238, “Agricultural Cooperation,” for a more extended discussion of this general subject. , 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 314 intelligence to read and understand market reports, to advise the members of the association as to the best time to ship, and to educate the members in business principles of marketing, the association will not last long. Livestock commission firms are almost of one accord in the belief that success or failure depends to the extent of 90 per cent on a competent man- ager. When such a man is found he should be paid enough to make it worth his while to devote his attention to the position he holds. Large associations will doubtless profit by paying enough to require the whole of the manager’s time. A competent manager will keep down the losses in transit due to deaths, cripples and heavy shrinkages, and will earn his salary many times over. There are advantages and disadvantages in hiring for man- ager a man who has been an independent shipper. No doubt he knows much about the business, but he will many times be distrusted by the members. Such men often have little faith in co-operation and may have a motive in seeing it fail. Paying the manager. As suggested in the sample by-laws found in the appendix there are several ways of paying the manager. He may be paid by the day, by the car or by the hundred-weight or he may be allowed a percentage of the receipts. The popular Avay of paying the manager is by the hundred- weight or by the car. Out of 79 companies reporting on the point 27 paid by the hundred and 32 by the car. Of those paying by the hundred the majority paid 3 to 5 cents on hogs and cattle, and 5 to 10 cents on calves and sheep. Those paying by the car allowed from |3 to |15 a car. The lower payment was probably for additional cars after paying from |5 to |10 for the first car in any given shipment. The |15 was for doing all local work and accompanying the car to market. The pay which the manager gets should vary with the size of the shipments made, the amount of time he has to spend on the work, and the excellence of the service he is able to give. While a manager should be well paid it often happens that he may do the work without interfering very greatly with other duties. For example, a considerable number of farmers arq acting as managers devoting a third to half of the time Wisconsin Livestock Shipping Associations 11 to shipping and the remainder to farming. Manifestly such managers should not be paid by the association for full time. Methods op Doing Business No attempt will be made here to go into the details of handling and shipping stock in general, but only to the extent in which cooperative associations find problems peculiar to themselves. Likewise the questions pertaining to sale of stock at the central markets will be dealt with only to the extent that cooperative associations are given special consideration. BUYING STOCK VS. RECEIVING STOCK The cooperative association seldom buys stocU at all. It receives it for shipment, the ownership still remaining with the farmer. However, it performs the service formerly per- formed by the stock buyer. One of the great economies of the cooperative company is that the stock comes to it without solicitation. The cost to the buyer of finding stock and getting it away from a competitor is one of the heaviest charges which the business has to bear. Right here is one of the main justi- fications of the cooperative movement. The cooperative com- pany gets its business without the expense of solicitation. STOCK BETTER FITTED FOR MARKET Another great advantage in cooperation is the control over the condition of the stock. It is well known among shippers that the overfeeding of stock at the time of sale results in less weight at the central market. Of course it may weigh more at the home station, and in case of sale to a local buyer there is a little advantage gained by the farmer who can outdo his neighbor in filling the stock. However, there can be no ad- vantage to the group, since the buyer has to make allowance for all shriidvage. Where each farmer’s stock is sold separately it is to his advantage to get the best weights in the central market and this is done by moderate feeding on relativ^ely dry feed. Co- operative associations can bring about this practice. Further- more, there is no tendency to ship stock which for any reason is not likely to stand the trip well. 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 314 FIG. 3. DISTINGUISHING MARKS AID COOPERATIVE MARKETING Marks made with shears make it easy to separate the different lots in a shipment. In cases where the hogs are fairly uniform in quality marking is not necessary, since separate sales need not be asked. The returns may then be prorated on the basis of home weights. MARKING AND WEIGHING HELP THE STOCKMAN Where stock is to be sold separately at the central market it is necessary to identify each owner’s shipment. It must be marked so as to be easily distinguished. Many systems have been tried, but the use of shears or clippers seems the most satisfactory except for sheep. In marking sheep, paint or other colored fluid is generally used. Weighing the stock at the home station is done mainly to give a reasonable check on the weight reported by the rail- road and the commission Arm. Payment to the owner is based on the weights at the central market unless there is reason to doubt the returns. In case of hogs, and sometimes sheep, instead of depending on marks and separate sales, the load is weighed, sold as a unit, and the receipts prorated. This is the better way where there is no appreciable difference in the quality of the stock. W iscoNSiN Livestock Shipping Associations 13 Scale sheets are used, showing the number and kind of stock, weights, marks, dockage and the like. TRANSPORTATION IS REGULATED BY CONTRACT A contract is entered into between the livestock shipper or shipping association and the transportation company, sup- posedly covering all details necessary for mutual protection. Regulations require the shipper to declare the money value of each head of stock shipped. The valuation at present al- lowed is : for steer, ox or bull, |75 ; for cow, |50 ; for calf, |20 ; for hog, |15 ; for sheep, |5. An additional 2 per cent is added to the regular freight rate for each 50 per cent, or fraction thereof, additional value on each head, up to and including 1800. Livestock contracts are made in duplicate or triplicate ac- cording to the road. The shipper receives the original and the freight agent retains the copy from which he makes out the freight bill. Reports from 53 shipping associations, located in various sections of the state, show that the average transportation expense, including freight charge, terminal charge, fire insur- ance and war tax for the year 1918, was |36.52. Allowing for some omissions in the reports received of war tax, insurance and terminal charge, the average would be about |38. For mixed shipments the freight expense is from 10 to 25 per cent liigher. Cooperation is the best means of eliminating this needless expense. One good-sized comjiany at a station can do wliat several competing buyers cannot do in making up car lots of one kind of stock. Since transportation charges rarely reqiresent more than 2 per cent of the value of the stock in the shipment, they should not be considered the biggest factor in determiiHng the market for cooperative slii])ments. COMMISSION FIRM VALUABLE TO SHIPPERS At all great livestock markets there are commission linns or companies which receive tlie stock, take care of it at the yai-ds, and act as a snles agency in disjxising of it to the buyers. 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 314 Many have felt that the commission charge might be dispensed with and the stock sold by the shipper directly to the buyer, but in this plan are many complications, so many that it is hardly likely to be put into practice. In the case of cooperative shipments the work of the com- mission men has been much more important than with ordi- nary’ shipments. This is true because of the separate identifi- cation and sale of each farmer’s stock, and the detailed report required in making the returns. In the spring of 1920, the charge for the extra labor in hand- ling cooperative shipments was increased from |2 to a maxi- mum of |7. While there may be some justification for this, the cooperative companies view it as a very adequate reason for the further development of their own cooperative commission establishments, and, moreover, are undertaking to stop the added charge by injunction. In several of the leading markets of the country, farmers’ organizations have established commission agencies of their own. The great advantage to be gained from this is the concentration of the business into more economical units, thus effecting a saving. FARMER is PAID THROUGH MANAGER After the stock has been sold the local manager receives a draft from the buyer and a full account from the commission firm. In some instances these returns show the amount due each farmer. In other cases the manager has a little figuring to do. Within a week at longest, and usually within four days from the time the stock is shipped, the individual checks to the farmer are ready. EXPENSE OP COOPERATIVE SHIPPING AVERAGES $93 A CAR Returns received from 70 shipping associations relative to the expenses at the terminal market shows that for selling, commission, yardage, feed and bedding charges, the average expense is |30 to the car. The range of expense is from $20 to |40 a car. Returns received from 70 shipping associations relative to the home expenses show that the average home expense, which includes manager’s salary, labor and incidental expenses, and Wisconsin Livestock Shipping Associations 15 the amount put into the sinking fund, amounts to |25 a car. The general average of expense for shipping associations will range from between |20 and |30, though there are associations whose expenses are greater than |30 and some with less than $ 20 . Therefore, if we take the total freight expense as $38, the average terminal market expense as $30, and the average home expense as $25, the total average expense of marketing a car- load of livestock, based on returns actually received from a large number of shipping associations, is found to be $93. This does not mean that there will not be a great variation from this amount. It is quite probable that the expense of marketing a carload of Wisconsin livestock will range all the way from $50 to $150, or from 2% per cent to 71/2 pei* cent of the value of the carload. Shrinkage has not been included as an ex- pense; nevertheless the greater the shrinkage incurred, the less will be the shipper’s return. These figures show how expensive it is : Carload of 70 hogs — Home weight, 17,500 pounds. Market weight, 17,200 pounds. Shrinkage, 300 pounds or 1.7 per cent. 3 hundred-weight at $15 equals $45. Some of the conditions influencing shrinkage of livestock up to the time it is sold are: 1. Season of year and weather, especially while in transit. 2. Condition of animals. 3. Kind of feed given before animals are loaded. 4. Length of time held off feed and water before loading. 5. Tlie kind of trip to the shipping point, whether animals were driven on foot or liauled in wagon or truck. 0. How the animals are loaded. 7. The length of time in transit. 8. Care animals get while in transit. 9. Time of arrival at public stockyards. (If the stock arrives just before being sold the “fill,” as a rule, is small and the shrinkage correspondingly heavy.) IG Wisconsin Bulletin 314 10. Weather conditions at the time stock arrives in mar- ket. 11. Condition of selling pens at the market. 12. The method of handling in feeding, watering and sort- ing before the animals are sold. Several of the conditions are within the control of the shipper, railroads, yards, company and commission firm, and there is no question but that the losses in shrinkage could be cut down by many shipping associations. TUBERCULOSIS INCREASES EXPENSE Tuberculosis is also an item in the expense of marketing livestock. In fact, investigation shows that if the losses were distributed over the total weight of hogs that arrived at the Chicago Stock Yards last year, the loss on each hun- dredweight would be 10 to 15 cents. Wisconsin is making important appropriations for the fight waged against tuberculosis of livestock, there being a total appropriation of almost |240,000. Based on the number of TUBERCULOSIS IN WISCONSIN HOGS RET PER CERT 40 3S 30 25 20 IS ftINED UAAC irii 1 rn FOR TUBER- CULOSIS \ 520.000 i tA./\ l#U«VVU 120.000 100.000 1 ) ■ ) 460.000 f' / >■ — ' 60.000 40.00^ J'' 420.000 400.000 KILLED - 0 - 0 - 0-0 RETAINED ♦ • ♦ • PERCENT 1912 1913 1914 1913 1916 19 IT FIG. 4. SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS SHOULD GUARD AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS The percentage of tuberculosis hogs is on the increase. The upper curve in the graph relates to the figures in the right-hand column ; the two lower curves relate to the figures of the left-hand column. Wisconsin Livestock Shipping Associations 17 Wisconsin hogs marketed in 1918 as 1,900,000 and considering the average weight to be that given for the year at South St. Paul as 248 pounds, the loss in meat value of the pork is close to |500,000. Then there is an indeterminate loss due to poorer quality of pork produced, and animals that die. This is in addition to the enormous loss to the dairy industry. Organiza- tions of farmers should help greatly in the fight against tuber- culosis. Federation op Shipping Associations Formed A national federation of the shipping associations of the United States has recently been organized. There are in the country 2,000 to 3,000 local associations. They have come to stay. The question naturally arises. What can they do as a group to the advantage of all. While it would seem that in the end each will handle its own stock up to the time of sale to the packers or order buyers, there are many preliminary matters demanding attention. In fact, there are now at the leading Missouri River points and at Denver, farmers’ co- operative commission firms, which are dealing with relations to the packers, to the railways, to sanitary laws and practices, to the general improvements on the part of farmers in regard to livestock, and to methods of organizing and managing co- operative shipments in general. The main plan of procedure is through the organization of state federations of locals, which in turn are to form the units of the national federation. The possibilities of the federation are very great. Under the leadership of the American Society of Equity the livestock shipping associations of Wisconsin have recently formed a state association. This is a step in the direction of progress and should lead to the solution, in some measure at least, of the stock-selling ])roblem. Livestock Shipping Associations Successful Few farmers’ cooperative associations have been more successful than these dealing with the shipi)ing of livestock. They are simple in character; tliei-e are savings to be effected. While a few shipi)ing associations have in a sense failed, the 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 314 failures have not been disastrous. It is merely that they have ceased to be active. Not much is at stake since there is little capital invested. It is hardly worth while to predict how far the cooperative •handling of livestock may finally go. That it will soon in- clude packing plants is improbable. That it will reach to the packing plants seems likely. Whatever other savings may be possible, those within reach of the cooperative shipping asso- ciation are important and relatively easy to make. Moreover, with a solidly organized federation embracing the shipping interests of a whole state, or of several states, it will be much easier to make headway against other obstacles, after the most immediate ones have been overcome, than it ever could be to .attack the more distant ones without first taking care of those near at hand. The mere fact of unity of action is im- portant beyong measure. The most inefficient part of the livestock business has been between the farmer and the packer. The packer is un- doubtedly efficient and makes money by his efficiency. The farmer may be an efficient breeder and feeder of livestock, but in the main he has been weak in the matter of marketing. The risk of a single shipment on his own account, the trouble of combining in an unorganized way with his neighbors, un- familiarity with the market — all these have tempted him to take the cash offered by the local buyers rather than venture into the central markets. But while he could not well take advantage of a more economical method of selling by himself it is not difficult to do so as a member of a group. Coopera- tive shipping associations first made progress outside the main livestock feeding centers. Of late they are increasing in great numbers throughout the corn belt. Constitution and By-Laws Suggested for Cooperative Livestock Shipping Association Though comparatively simple in form and manner of co- operation, there are, nevertheless, so many points of impor- tance governing the success of a shipping association that, in answer to the questions continually arising about such organi- zations, a form of constitution and by-laws is given. Wisconsin Livestock Shipping Associations 19 Constitution Article 1. Name: The name of this association shall be Article 2. Place: The place of operation shall be in or any other railroad station and vicinity where it is deemed feasible and practicable by this association to ship livestock. Article 3. Time: The time over which this association shall extend shall be indefinite. Article 4. Purpose: The purpose of this organization shall be to obtain reasonable prices and to secure the best possible results in the marketing of livestock. Article 5. Membership: Any person making use of the shipping (or other) facilities of this association shall be entitled to membership by paying the secretary a membership fee of for the calendar year and by signing the constitution and by-laws of this organization. Article 6. Management: This organization shall be managed by a Board of Directors who shall be elected at the annual meeting in the following manner: (1 or 2) for one year, (1 or 2) for two years, (1, 2 or 3) for three years at the time of commencement. At the expiration of said terms, the directors shall be elected for the term of three years. Vacancies caused by resignation or otherwise, shall be filed by the remaining members of the board. Members elected to vacancies shall hold office for the unexpired term or until new members are elected. The annual meeting of the board shall be held directly after the annual meeting of the association. The Board of Directors shall appoint a manager who shall be under their direct supervision. If such manager is on the Board of Directors, his place automatically becomes vacant. The Board of Directors shall decide on the system of keeping the accounts for the association and shall provide for suitable auditing of the manager’s accounts. Article 7. Officers: Immediately after the annual meeting, the Board of Directors shall elect by ballot from their own members a president, vice-president and a secretary-treasurer. These officers shall hold office for one year or until their successors have been elected and qualified. A majority of all votes cast shall be necessary for a choice. Article 8. Amendments: Amendments to this constitution may be made at any regular meeting by a two-thirds vote, provided 30 days’ notice of the same has been given in writing to the members. Article 9. Quorum: A majority of the members of the board shall constitute a quorum and may do any business that may properly come before said board. Article 10. Duties of officers: Section 1. It shall be the duty of the president to preside at all meetings of the directors and of the organization, to enforce a due observance of the constitution, by-laws and rules of order. Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of the vice-president to preside when the pre.sident is ab.sent and while he shall have temporarily vacated the chair. Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of the secretary to keep a record of the proceedings of the directors and of the organization, also the name and standing of each member, and he shall on the first regular meeting of each year give a written report of the affairs pertaining to his office. It is the secretary’s duty to notify the members of the Board of Directors or of the organization of any regular or special meetings. 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 314 Sec. 4. The secretary shall require from the manager, at the end of each month, a complete statement of all the business transactions for that month, keep same on file and report to the members of the association at the annual meeting of each year. Sec. 5. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to keep all money belonging to the organization, and disburse the same under the direction of the organization according to the laws. He shall keep a correct account of all moneys received and disbursed, and on the first regular meeting of the year he shall give a written report regarding the same. Article 11. By-laws, adoption and amendment of : By-laws, rules and regulations covering the operation of this association may be made from time to time in the manner prescribed for the amendments to this constitution. Article 12. (When it is desired to handle other farm produce.) This association is hereby authorized to buy, ship and sell all kinds of produce, such as hay, grain, straw, potatoes, fruit, etc., and ship all kinds of meat and carcasses of any slaughtered animal, also including poultry and stock. By-Laws (Suggested for livestock shipping associations whether incorporated or otherwise.) Article 1. Shipment of stock : Shipment of stock in this associa- tion shall be made regardless of membership, and the delivery of stock to the manager and acceptance thereof by him hinds the shipper to the rules and by-laws of the association. All who desire to ship stock with the association shall report to the manager the kind of stock, the number of each kind and the approximate weight of each. The com- mission to be charged members and that to be charged non-members shall be fixed by the Board of Directors. When a sufficient amount of stock has been reported to make a full carload, the manager shall order a car for making the shipment and shall notify each person having stock listed what time the stock is to be delivered for marking, weigh- ing and loading. The members agree to deliver stock listed for ship- ment at such time and place as the manager shall designate, unless the shipper procures a release from the manager for such delivery. When unable to get a full carload within a reasonable time, it is the manager’s duty to notify those who have listed stock with him that they may be released and sell elsewhere if they desire. Failure to deliver stock listed for shipment without having secured proper release from the manager, subjects the shipper to the liability of expulsion from membership. Or, if a non-member, further privileges of the association may be denied. Article 2. The manager: Section 1. Duties of manager. The manager shall be at the yard on the day the shipment is to be made, unless he shall have secured a competent substitute, and shall receive all the stock, and weigh, mark and load the same on the car. He shall have charge of and direct the sale of all shipments and receive all money therefor, and pay the shippers, less his commission or salary, and all other expenses incurred in shipping. He shall furnish a statement to every shipper showing the number of his animals, the home weights, shrinkage, net weights, prices received, expenses of shipment and the net amount due. He shall keep on file all statements received from commission firms selling live- stock for the association. In a hook kept for that purpose he shall record the number of cars and the amount and description of stock shipped in such cars during the year. He shall keep an account of all disbursements and receipts for the association. Wisconsin Livestock Shipping Associations 21 At the annual meeting he shall have ready a detailed statement of all business done during the year. Sec. 2. Compensation of manager. The manager shall receive as compensation for his services (a) the sum of 5 cents a 100 pounds for cattle; 7 cents a 100 pounds for hogs, and 10 cents a 100 pounds for sheep. Should there be two or more cars in said shipment, the rate on the additional cars shall be 3 cents a 100 pounds for cattle, 3% cents a 100 pounds for hogs, 5 cents a 100 pounds for sheep, or (b) a flat rate as 6 or 7 cents a 100 pounds on all classes of livestock; or (c) a certain amount on each car ($10 for the first car and $5 for each additional car is conceded to be fair), or (d) an amount for each day, as $6, for the time spent in taking in, loading or accompanying to market a shipment of livestock and an amount, as $4, for time spent in doing office work. Sec. 3. Help and material furnished manager. The associa- tion shall, on shipping days, furnish extra help that may be needed in loading and handling stock, and material needed in making partitions to separate stock in car, bedding, nails, etc., used and the expense of the same shall be deducted by the nianager from the amount received from such shipment for the operating or smking fund of the association. The association shall provide the manager with railroad fare when obliged to pay same in returning from market. Sec. 4. Manager’s bond. The manager shall give a bond which shall be approved by the -Board of Directors ($3,000 to $5,000 is usual). Said bond shall be for tbe favorable discharge of his duties. Article 3. Compen.sation of directors : The directors shall receive as compensation a salary of $3 a day and 4 cents a mile for distance exceeding 10 miles traveled in attending meetings, to be paid out of the operating and sinking fund. Article 4. Sec. 1. Operating and .sinking fund: From the proceeds of the association there shall be set aside a sufficient per cent (not to exceed 2 per cent usually) to pay all salaries, mileage and incidental ex- penses, and the balance which is left shall be set aside as an operating and sinking fund to pay losses on any stock from the time it comes into the hands of the manager until final disposition is made of it. Sec. 2. Losses, how paid. If, in .spite of all precautions, it should be found that the stock of any shipper has been killed or injured while in the hands of the manager or en route to its destination, and the accident is not the fault of, or chargeable against, tbe railroad company or other parties, then such loss shall be paid out of the operating or sinking fund of the associa- tion. Payment of the loss shall be based on a statement made by the commission firm having charge of the shipment, which state- ment shall show the amount received for the dead or injured animal, and the amount, in their opinion, it would have brought had it not been injured. This statement shall be the final basis for the settlement. No damage shall be paid for an animal which was not in healthy condition when received at the local yards by the manager. Article 5. Unhealthy stock: All stock which must be sold subject to inspection, except such as has been injured while in a healthy con- dition and in charge of the manager, or any diseased animal, shall be received at the owner’s risk, and he shall receive payment therefor according to the returns made by the commission firm, less the pro rata expense on the shipment. 22 ^yISCONSIN Bulletin 314 Article 6. Meetings: The regular annual meeting of the association shall be held on the day of at o’clock, at Special meetings may be called by the Board of Directors at any time by giving 10 days’ written notice to all members. On the written request of 25 per cent of the members to the Board of Directors a special meeting shall be called, and all the members given ten days’ written notice. Article 7. A Board of Audit, composed of three members, shall be elected by the members at the annual meeting of the organization. The board shall meet semi-annually and audit the books of the organization, a full report of which shall be made at- the next annual meeting. Article 8. Amendments to these by-laws may be made in the same manner as amendments to the constitution. Article 9. Appropriation of money: A vote of two-thirds of all the members present shall be required to pass on any appropriation of money by the association other than for its necessary contingent ex- penses. Article 10. Quorum: One-half of the members shall constitute a quorum. IJroxy voting shall not be permitted. Article 11. Any member who shall let his account with the or- ganization go unsettled for more than one year loses his membership in the organization. EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF [the President of the University iH. L. Russell, Dean and^Director jW. A. HenrYj Emeritus Agriculture |S. M. Babcock, Emeritus Agr. Chemistry I A. S. Alexander, Veterinary Science I Mary G. Arbogast, Home Economics !F. a. Aust, Horticulture 'B. A. Beach, Veterinary Science 'T. L. Bewick, Agr. Extension G. Bohstedt, Animal Husbandry T. Campion, Assistant State Leader of County Agents L. J. Cole, In charge of Genetics May Cowles, Home Economics E. J. Delwiche, Agronomy (Ashland) iT. G. Dickson, Plant Pathology Bernice Dodge, Home Economics J. S. Donald, Agr, Economics F. W. Ddffee, Agr. Engineering E. H. Farrington, In charge of Dairy Hus bandry E. B. Fred, Agr. Bacteriology W. F. Frost, Agr. Bacteriology .1. G. Fuller, Animal Husbandry W. .T. Geib, Soils E. M. Gilbert, Plant Pathology L. F. Graber, Agronomy F. B. Hadley, In charge of Veterinary Science J. G. Halpin, In charge of Poultry Husbandry P. N. Harmer, Soils E. B. Hart, In charge of Agr. Chemistry E. G. Hastings, In charge of Agr. Bacteriology K. L. Hatch, Agr. Education C. S. Hean, Agr. Library B. H. Hibbard, In charge of Agr. Economics Ellen Hillstrom, Home Economics A. W, Hopkins, Editor ; in charge of Agr. Journalism R. S. Hulce, Animal Husbandry G. C. Humphrey, In charge of Animal Hus- bandry J. A. .Tames, In charge of Agr. Education A. G. Johnson, Plant Pathology J. Johnson, Horticulture E. R. Jones, In charge of Agr. Engineering L. R. Jones, In charge of Plant Pathology Nellie Kedx.ie Jones, Home Economics G. W. Keitt, Plant Pathology F. Kleinheinz, Animal Husbandry E. J. Kraus, Plant Pathology Jean Krueger. Home Economics B. D. Leith, Agronomy E. W. Lindstrom, Genetics E. L. Luther, Field Supervisor of Extension Courses and Schools T. Macklin, Agr. Economics Hazel Manning, Home Economics Abby L. Marlatt, In charge of Home Eco nomics J, G. Milward, Horticulture J, G. Moore, In charge of Horticulture M. Moore, Assistant State Leader of County Agents R. A. Moore, In charge of Agronomy F. R. Morrison, Animal Husbandry K. L. Hatch, Asst. Dir. Agr. Extension Service F. B. Morrison, Asst. Dir. Exp. Station G. B. Mortimer, Agronomy F. L. Musbach, Soils (Marshfield) W. H. Peterson, Agr. Chemistry G. F. Potter, Horticulture M. C. Riley, Agr. Economics Dorothy Roberts, Home Economics R. H. Roberts, Horticulture J. L. Sammis, Dairy Husbandry H. H. Sommer, Dairy Husbandry H. Steenbock, Agr. Chemistry H. W. Stewart, Soils A. L. Stone, Agronomy W. A. Sumner, Agr. .Journalism J. SwENEHART, Agr. Engineering (Bayfield) E. M. Tiffany, Agr. Education W. E. Tottingham, Agr. Chemistry E. Truog, Soils H. W. Ullsperger, Soils (Sturgeon Bay) R. E. Vaughan, Plant Pathology A. R. Whitson, In charge of Soils H. F. Wilson, In charge of Economic En tomology J. F. WoJTA, State Leader of Agricultural Rep- resentatives A. H. Wright, Agronomy W. H. Wright, Agr. Bacteriology O. R. Zeasman, Agr. Engineering H. W. Albertz, Agronomy J. A. Anderson, Agr. Bacteriology, Agr. Chero istry Freda Bachmann, Agr. Bacteriology Gladys Baker, Agr. Journalism R. M. Bethke, Genetics J. W. Brann, Horticulture, Plant Pathology O. R. Brunkow, Agr. Chemistry A. J. Cramer, Dairy Husbandry ^Marguerite Davis, Home Economics G. R. B. Elliott, Agr. Engineering J. M. Fargo, Animal Husbandry C. L. Fluke, Economic Entomology W. C. Frazier, Agr. Bacteriology E. J. Graul, Soils R. T. Harris, Dairy Tests E. D. Holden, Agronomy C. A. IIoppERT, Agr. Chemistry O. N. .Johnson, Poultry Husbandry J. H. .Jones, Agr. Chemistry A. E. Koehler, Agr. Chemistry S. J..RPKOVSKY, Agr. Chemistry Marie Lottes, Agr. Bacteriology J. L. TjUSH, Genetics E. J. Malloy, Soils S. W. Mendum, Agr. Economics R. O. Nafziger, Agr. Journalism E. M. Nelson, Agr. Chemistry F. X. Ritger, Executive Secretary J. R. SCHLICHER, Agr. Chemistry Mariana T. Sell, Agr. Chemistry P. H. Se.nn, Genetics S. W. Shear, Agr. Economics V. A. Tied.tens, Agronomy W. B. Tisdale, Plant J’athology C. E. Walsh, Agr. Engineering ..T l^b Bulletin 315 June, 1920 ~ oiHI '* ermiiE tin Iff Cottage Clhi#^^'® I )KiEST Creameries should turn sl’immilk and hutter milJc into marJcetahie products. There is an increasina;' deiiiaiid for cottage cheese^ and biit- terinilk cheese. * Page 3.. Methods of manufacturing cottage cheese differ, depending on local conditions. In any method, however, it is advisable to use vats instead of cans for souring, and to pasteurize the skiinmilk. In ripening the milk and cutting the curd the aim should he to get a flaky product rather than a fine-grained or pulpy mass. Pages 3-0. Draining raclxS should he u-^ed to supplement the 'cat strainer for draining olf both the whey and the cold water used in washing. A draining rack and special strainers may he made without much trou- ble. Pages 6-11. Creameries should find a market for their product before beginning to manufacture large quantities of cottage cheese. The kind of con- tainer used depends somewhat upon the type of market. Page 11. Practical methods of making huttermilk cheese have been devised at the Wisconsin Experiment Station. ^Nlade from good, fresh, clean- flavored cream, it is equal in flavor to cottage cheese. Page 12. Cheese mag he made from ordinarg raic-cream huttermilk or from pasteurized milk. A steam-heated container is used and the huttermilk is heated rapidly up to 130° or 1K1°. Pages 12-14. Sufficient draining is importa'nt in making huttermilk cheese, other- wise the curd will separate in the package and the tub may leak. Cheese drained too dry may be moistened to the desired consistency. Pages 14-16. Buttermilk cheese find.^ a gcjod market when it is brought to the attention of the retailer or the consumer. • Page 16. Cottage Cheese and Buttermilk Cheese: Their Manufacture and Sale. J. L. Sam MIS Cottage cheese and buttermilk cheese are jirofitahle side lines for the creanierv. There is am increasing demand from the consumer for these appetizing dairy by-products. More efficient creamery management demands that skimniilk and buttermilk he turned into marketable products. THE MAKIXG OF COTTAGE CHEESE V'ariations in many of the details of manufacture are seen at different factories, depending on local conditions, the amount of help available, and the experience of the maker. Good quality and uniformity of product are always desirable. Speed is especi- ally necessary in some factories and it is always necessary to get the cheese out of the vat in time to receive the next lot of skimniilk from the separator. Some makers find it more convenient to finish the cheese late in the afternoon ; others prefer to finish it the next morning. At creameries where the available floor space is limited it is an advantage to drain the curd, salt, and finish the cheese in the vat (see method 3) without the use of a curd rack or cloth. Some- times an order for cottage cheese must be filled quickly, so that it may be shipped on the next train, and the most rapid methods of handling materials must be used. Chiefly for these reasons, methods of manufacture dilfer, and the maker should strive to understand the reason for the results of each method employed, so that he can be successful with any method. Fsi: Vats I xs'i ead of Caxs Instead of souring the milk in cans, it is better to use an ordinai-y cheese vat, which can be heated by running steam into the jacket. A tall, cylindrical strainer fitting inside the vat next to the gate should be ])urchased with the vat. In case of necessity, cottage cheese can be made in a container without a jacket, healing the curdled milk by adding hot water to it while stirring with a wooden rake. d'he older styles of cheese vats are made with level botioms and require to be tipped with the gate end down dui-ing the draining of 4 Wiscoxsi-V Bulletin 310 the curd. In the newer vats, the bottoms are made with consider- able fall toward the gate end, so that it is not necessary to tip the vat for draining. Pasteukizatiox Is Desirable Skimmilk for cheese-making may well be pasteurized, because it makes the product more sanitary and often improves its flavor and keeping quality. Where whole milk is pasteurized before separat- ing, both the cream and the skimmilk are benefited. Much cottage cheese is still made from raw milk at creameries not provided with means of pasteurization. With pasteurized skimmilk, a little more starter may be required for souring than with raw milk, but other- wise the process is the same. For making cottage cheese the pas- teurization should be at 145° to 165°, rather than at 185°, since the latter temperature may cause the curd to be fine-grained instead of flaky and coarse. IiiPEXixG THE Skimmilk The skimmilk is run from the separator or the pasteurizer into the cheese vat. If it is planned to make up and pack the cottage cheese on the same afternoon, it is necessary to add from 5 to 10 per cent, or more, of good creamery starter to the sweet milk. If it is desired to make and pack the cheese early the next morning, from 2 to 5 per cent of starter will be sufficient, or perhaps none at all may be necessary. Pour the starter into the vat through a metal strainer to break up the lumps, stirring the milk constantly. Heat the milk to about 90°* or 100°, or a little lower, cover the vat, and leave quiet until sour and thick. Over-ripe milk will, of course, need little or no starter. The amount of starter and the temperature used for ripening will be varied by the maker to suit the case. It is desirable to have the milk become sour and thick only a few houi-s before it is used for making cheese, for with very old, sour material, a disagreeable, rank flavor in the curd is likely to result. With very high acid, the curd breaks into slow-draining, fine powder more readily during the stirring or cutting, and tends to produce a cheese of toiigli, sandy, consistency. *A11 the temperatures given are in degrees Fahrenheit. Cottage Cheese axd Buttermilk CifEESE 5 The temperature at which the milk is left to ripen is ot import- ance, because if too cold, or if in a cold room, the milk cools down rapidly and the ripening will go on more slowly. Bacteria grow more rapidly at warmer temperatures up to 100°. if the milk is not thick by the time wanted, the next day it should be set at a warmer temperature to ripen, or the vat should be covered so that the milk will not cool so rapidly, or more starter should be added. The temperature of the thickened milk next morning is of im- portance because with curd at 65° to 70°, more heating and longer stirring are necessary to heat the curd to the final cheese-making temperature, than if it had been at 80° or 90° when cut. The extra stirring of the cold curd tends to break it up very fine, which is to be avoided if possible. At the Wisconsin Dairy School we prefer to set the milk at 90° to 100° in a warm room or with a vat well covered and protected, so that the curd when ready to cut is at 80° to 90°, thus requiring less heating and consequently less stirring during the heating process, leaving the curd in larger particles or flakes. CuTTixG THE Curd W'hen the milk is thick and the maker is ready to finish the cheese, the curd may be cut into cubes with cheesemaker’s curd knives. Some makers prefer to use a wooden rake, which is moved slowly back and forth through the curd to break it into rather large flakes, but not beat it into a smooth pulp or into fine grains. While the cheese is being stirred gently but continuously (after cutting with the knives, if used), the steam is turned into the jacket and the material heated to the temperature selected without delay. The stirring must be done gently to avoid breaking up the curd, l)ut continuously to avoid overheating part of the curd on the l)ottom of the vat, and to keep all ])arts of the curd at as uniform a tem- perature as possible, d'he length of time from cutting until the drawing of the whey may be about an hour, but the size of the curd particles and the tomperatui-e lo which the curd was heated will largely determine how fast the curd will become firm. The Choice of a Te.m FERA'i'niE axd iMETiioD of IfAXDLixo The choice of a temperature and method must be made by each cheese-maker to suit his requirements, so that this work will fit in convenientlv with his other duties. G Wiscoxsix Bulletix^ 315 • Method 1. If after cutting, the vat is heated only to 90° to 91°, the curd is likely to be quite soft after 2 hours’ time. If then put on the cloth, it may be left for several hours or half a day to drain and cool before salting, without danger of becoming too dry. This process is slower than method 2. Method 2. If the curd after cutting is heated to 100° to 105°, it will be firmer at the end of an hour than if a lower final tempera- ture had been used, and it may need to be cooled on the draining cloth by running on a little cold water from a hose. As soon as cooled and drained, the curd is salted and packed. Method 3. A curd heated to 115° to 120° after cutting will be- come firm sooner than if at a lower temperature, and in half an hour to one hour’s time it is likely to be so firm that immediately after drawing the whey, the curd must be cooled quickly with cold water to 70° or lower, to prevent its becoming too dry and tough. This method is the most rapid, and avoids the use of a curd rack and cloth, since the curd is cooled, drained and salted in the vat. But it requires a supply of cold water in cans, ready for use. A curd heated to still higher temperatures may become firm so rapidly and need such quick cooling with water that it is difficult to do the work fast enough in a large vat of curd. Details of the Draixixg Process Before starting to draw whey from the vat, it is always an ad- vantage to push the curd with the rake gently and slowly away from the gate end of the vat, stirring up the curd as little as possible in doing so. Insert the vat strainer above the gate, inside the vat. Let the whey become perfectly quiet, and then open the gate slowly, allowing the clear whey to run out, but not so rapidly as to wash down masses of curd around the strainer and clog ih In methods 1 and 2, as soon as all the whey is out of the vat that will run out readily, the curd and remaining whey are dipped with a scoop or fiat-sided curd pail from the vat to the draining cloth on the rack. A draining rack can readily be made by any handy man or carpenter. The curd is left on the cloth until the curd is judged to be firm enough for salting, with occasional stirring, if necessary, by lifting the cloth at the corners. By this time the curd should be cool, and if it has not cooled at the temperature of the room, cold water should be run over the curd, stirring it up by hand, so as to cool every part and keep the curd from becoming drier. fk;. 1. A i)R\ixiX(; RACK snrrABLE for a lar<;I': crkamkky The rack is shown with tiie front sitirring the curd around the cvlindrii al strainer bv hand. 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 315 FIG. 3. ADDITIONAL STRAINERS HASTEN DRAINAGE To increase the draining surface the flat strainer of board with holes bored in it may be fitted across the bottom of the vat near the gate. With the trough strainer in place, the curd at the back end of the vat drains as rapidly as that near the gate, and the curd on both sides of the trough may be stirred with the ‘rake. FIG 4. WIRE NETTING ON A FRA.ME MAKES A CONVENIENT STRAINER Either the strainer which fits across the bottom of the vat (A) or the trough strainer (B) may be used to supplement the cylindrical vat strainer in draining a large mass of curd. Any curd drains more rapidly aftt'r cooling with cold water than .while covered with hot wIkt, and the liiial draining off of the cold Cottage Cheese and BuTTEiniiLK Cheese 11 wash water (method 3) is usually accomplished much more quickly and completely than could be done in draining off the hot whey. Therefore, when difficulty is experienced in removing the last of the hot whe}q the cold water may be added while there is yet consider- able whey left on the curd, so as to cool tiie curd and save time in the final draining. A fine-grained curd is always more difficult to drain, and care sliould be used, in stirring curd after cutting, not to break it up into fine, sandy particles. Marketing the Product Cheese can be packed in 60-pound tubs with dry liners or in tin cans for shipment; in moisture-proof single service containers for the retail trade; or, more cheaply sold, in thin wooden plates or paper ice cream or oyster pails, if the retailer has time to weigh it out at the counter. Creameries are advised to find a suitable market for their products before beginning to manufacture large quantities of cottage cheese as it is sometimes hard to sell at a profitable figure. Cottage cheese in tubs may be cooled to 32° or below, and kept frozen for several months until needed. iMixing in a little fresh cheese when taking out the stored product may improve its flavor slightly for sale to the consumers. THE ilAKIXG OF BUTTEinilLK CHEESE ■For many years it was thought practically impossible to utilize })ure buttermilk in the manufacture of cheese because of the diffi- culty of collecting the curd and draining off' the whey. These difficulties were ovei-come by methods devised at the Wisconsin Experiment Station. Experience with buttermilk cheese has shown that when the buttermilk used is from good, fresh, clean-flavored cream, the flavor of the buttermilk cheese is attractive and eipial to that of good cottage cheese. Skimmilk is usually less than 24 hours fi-om the cow when turned into cottage cheese, while buttenuilk from hand separator cream is for the most part, at least 48 or 12 boui-s old when used for making butti'rmilk cb(‘cse. For this reason, any unclean flavors present are likely to be more highly developed in huttermilk cheese than in cottage cheese under ordinary creamery conditions, and this fact should not be overlooked by prospective manufacturers. 12 WiSCOXSIX B CL LET IX 315 Butteumilk Cheese axd Cottage Cheese Compared ButteriDilk cheese is always smooth and fine-grained, so that with the addition of a little water it can be rubbed instantly to a creamy consistency. Unlike over-dried cottage cheese, it can be moistened when drier than desirable by stirring in a little clean, cold water, which will be completely absorbed and retained. The smooth texture of the cheese and its buttermilk flavor give it a rich appear- ance and quality, and make unnecessary the addition of cream or milk to the finished product. FIG. 5. A COXYEXIENT HOME-MADE DEVICE A milk can may be used for heating the buttermilk and a home-made coil of steam pipes is a great convenience in this process. In its manufacture the buttermilk is regularly heated for an hour or more to 130'’ or 140*’, or, if preferred, to 150 or 160 . ithout producing any undesirable effects upon the texture or moisture con- tent of the cheese, the higher temperature insures thorough pasteur- ization and the absence of disease-producing bacteria. Cheese fuom Okdixauy Iiaw-Ckea:^! Betteiem ilk Xo difficulty will be found in making buttermilk cheese at creameries where the cream is either pasteurized while sweet or not pasteurized at all. The method em])loyed is practically the same as Cottage Cheese axd Butteumilk Cheese i;; tliat used on the farm. The buttermilk is run directly from the churn into any convenient container to which heat can be applied. The wash-water from the butter is not added. A steam-heated cheese vat, cream ripener, or starter can is suitable. A tin-lined cream vat or an old weigh-can may be used, but it will be necessary to provide a heating coil, which may be made of two or three turns of half-inch galvanized or black iron steam pipe. A coil used for lieating loO pounds of buttermilk in a milk can is shown in fig. 5. Any container too heavy to tip to pour out the whey and curd, should be provided with a gate for an outlet. ' Heat the Butteijmilk to 130° to 140° As soon as the buttermilk is in the vat, and usually before the butter is salted, it is convenient to heat the buttermilk as rapidly as possible, up to""-' 130° or 140°, stirring occasionally but no more than necessary to insure even heating. The more gently the ma- terial is stirred during the heating the coarser grained the product in appearance. If the room is very cold, or if preferred for sanitary reasons, the material may be heated to 150° or 160°, without injuring the product or making necessary any other change in the process. After heating, it is left undisturbed for about an hour. ^During this period, the vat should be covered in order that it may cool as little as possible, for when later put on the rack, the curd will drain faster if warm than if cold. Pet the Ceud ox the Dkaixixg Pack After the vat has stood for about an hour at 130° to 140° the draining cloth is placed on the I'ack so as to cover the sides and be located near the floor drain. Upon examination of the vat contents it will }je found that the curd has se])arated from the whey and has collected in a com}>act mass either at the lop of or bottom of the whey (fig. 6). Do not stir the vat cmitents at ibis p int. If the curd is floatitig with clear whey beneath (left, lig. 6), the whey can be drawn out through the paidly opened gate into the draining rack and will run through the cloth and the floor di'ain to the whey tank. As the whey runs out, the layer of curd in the vat settles slowly and, last of all, it runs out through the gate and is *If f5w<-et cream i.s ctinrned tlie sweet })ntteriiiilk should be treated with starter, heated to 100', and left several hours to sour and curdle. It is then heated (see directions giveji) to 130 to 140® for making the cheese 14 Wiscoxsix Bulletin 315 caught on the cloth. By this means it is easy to get rid of most of the clear whey first and the curd is put on the draining rack in the form of a thick mush. It is well to set a small pan under the gate on the draining cloth to prevent the curd beating through the cloth at the place where it falls. FIG. 6. CURD COLLECTS AT EITHER THE TOP OR THE BOTTOM OF THE VAT The curd usually floats on the whey (left) but it may settle to the bottom (rierht), in which case it requires different handling before draining. In case the curd, after standing at 140° for an hour, has settled to the bottom of the vat (right, fig. 6), it is best to open the gate on\v part way at first, so as to draw out as much as possible of the clear whey with only a little of the curd. Afterward the gate is opened wide and the bulk of the curd with the small amount of remaining whey is run on to the draining rack. In general, it may be said that curds made from raw cream buttermilk always float at the top of the whey after standing hot an hour. As soon as all of the curd is on the rack, it is covered and left to drain for a few hours or over night. How Ia>xg to Dkaix Cheese An important point in the making of buttermilk cheese is to see that the curd is drained uniformly, so as to be of uniform consist- ency from day to day. The lieginner will do well to examine the curd at intervals after it is placed on the draining rack. The por- tions of enrd nearest the cloth drain most rapidly and may some- times become quite dry while the top of the curd is still saturated with whey. To hasten the draining, the maker may lift up the cloth at one end of the rack. Slowly lowering the cloth into place again will allow any loose whey to run down over the clean cloth surface and drain through more rapidly. The cloth should be raised at the other end of the rack, also, and the curd rolled into a pile at Cottage Cheese axd Bettei^milk Cheese 15 the middle. As long as the c-iird flows like thick mush or mortar when the corner of the cloth is raised, it is too moist to suit the taste of most people. FIG. 7. three stages OF THE DRAINING PROCESS At 1 the curd is lying on the cheesecloth in the bottom of the draining rack ; at 2 the cloth is lifted on one side to pile the curd in the center of the rack; at 3 the operation is completed. This hastens the draining. Cheese should always be drained sufficiently before jmcking, to prevent whey from separating from the curd, in the package^ or the product leaking out when the container, such as a covered Initter tub, is inverted. When properly drained, the mass of curd can be taken out of the draining rack and molded with paddles into a tall form without losing its shape (fig. 8). If drained too dry, it falls apart like damp sand when piled up. It would be much better to drain the curd longer than necessary, rather than not long enough, FIO, 8. A MOLD OF lU’TTER .\I I E K CHEESE RET.AINS PI’S SHAPE l'rop«*rly drained buttermilk cheese has a faiily firm consistency so that, wlion turned out of a tub, if will retain its form for a time. IG Wiscoxsix Bulletix' 31.-) for if the cheese is too dry the maker or consumer may at any time restore the desired consistency by stirring in a little clear, cold water. However, the drier the curd after draining, the harder Avork it is to stir in the salt. On account of the smooth texture and fine buttermilk flavor of the product, it is not customary for the maker to add any cream to it before packing. ►'!?JALT1XG THE Cl'KD The curd should be salted and packed as soon as it is properly drained and before it gets drier than is desirable. Use from one and one-fourth to one and one-half pounds of salt for 100 pounds of curd obtained, or for 800 pounds of buttermilk used. Weigh the salt carefully. Break up any lumps. Stir it in Avell. Fixdix^g a Market for Butter:uilk Cheese City creameries Avhich have an ample local outlet for their butter find little difficulty in disposing of buttermilk cheese to their local trade. One firm reports the sale of 28,000 pounds of cheese during one 3’ear from their branch creameries in tAvo cities of medium size in the middle west. In every case it is necessary to bring the cheese to the attention of prospective customers, such as storekeepers, factory patrons and residents of the vicinity. Where a perishable product such as buttermilk cheese" is offered for sale, it is important that the retailer use attractive AvindoAv cards for advertising the produc-t to the public so that it may be sold Avhile fresh. CoLORixG Buttermilk Cheese Some kinds of butter coloring impart a faint color to the butter- milk and also to the cheese. If a deeper color is desired in the cheese It may be obtained by adding to the buttermilk before it is heated to 140° cheese color such as is used by makers of Cheddar cheese. One-half ounce or more of cheese color may be used for each 1,000 pounds of buttermilk. If a perfectly Avhite cheese is desired the, biittermaker should draAv off the buttermilk after the churning and then add butter color to the butter in the churn with the salt. Published and distributed under Act of Congress, May 8, 1914, by the Agricultural Extension Service, College of Agriculture of the University of AVisconsin, the United States Department of Agriculture co-operating. f£k / Bulletin 316 June, 1920 Farm Labor in Wisconsin GIVE THE HIRED MAN A HOME For the farm hand with a wife, a good house; for the single man, a place In the farmer’s family; for them both, a chance to own farms: these are long-time solutions of the farm labor problem. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN cooperating with OFFICE OF FARM MANAGEMENT UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DIGEST Only one-fiftli of the work on Wisconsin farms is done by hired labor working out. The supply of farm labor has been increasing, but the demand has been increasing still faster, principally because of live- stock farming. Farmers were using 40 per cent more hired labor in 1910 than in 1880. Pages 3 to 7 The proper amount of help to hire depends in general upon the farmer’s capacity to handle it, but varies with wages, prices and rents. Pages 7 to 10 The best farm hands to hire on modem farms are the native-born sons of neighboring farmers who are getting ready to farm for them- selves. Pages 10 to 14 Public employment ofiaces properly used will be of considerable service in times of emergency. The best place to find help, however, is near home. Pages 14 to 17 Prices of Wisconsin farm products rose 85 per cent between 1910 and 1918, while farm wages rose only 59 per cent. Wages usually lag behind in this way. In a period of rising pric-es, a wage reckon^ on the basis of new prices for farm products wull therefore be somewhat higher than the prevailing wage. Pages 17 to 20 Farm wages are over $10 higher in southwestern Wisconsin than in central and east-central Wisconsin. Pages 20 to 22 New methods of paying wages, such as profit-sharing, bonus-paying, and wage-scales are being used more and more. Pages 22 to 24 A clearer understanding of legal and moral obligations would save much of the friction between farmers and hired men. Pages 24 to 31 The average work-day on 260 farms in Wisconsin in 1916 was 11 hours and 48 minutes. This means about 450 more hours a year than factory workers have. Pages 31 to 34 Better homes, better living conditions and year-round work are more important than better wages and shorter hours. Pages 34 to 40 The final solution of the farm labor problem will probably come from keeping more sons on the farm and keeping farmers from retiring to the city, and by adjusting the size of the farm to the amount of labor that can thus be provided. Pages 40 to 48 Farm Labor in Wisconsin* H. C. Taylor xInd J. D. Black Farm labor, how much to hire, where to hire it, how to hire it, and how to manage it and keep it after it is hired, are questions that every farmer is asking. Labor has become so scarce that farmers need to do more think- ing about it than about crops and livestock. The farmers who will make the largest profits in the next ten years are the farmers who are able to keep hired help and to put it to the best use. Many will make small profits because they are unable to find and keep hired labor. More will lose money because they cannot handle it properly. There are important questions which a farmer has to answer in order to find and keep and successfully handle farm labor. How - much help does he need and can he profitably use at present prices ? \\Tiat price should he pay for it ? Where shall he find it, — through employment bureaus, by advertising, or at home? What is a Just and equitable" arrangement of wages and hours? Will all-the-year- round employment help out the situation ? What kind of home con- ditions and opportunity for recreation has the hired man a right to expect ? If a farmer cannot get labor or cannot keep it in any way, he must then adjust his work to fit the shortage of labor. These measures are all temporary. The final solution of the labor problem lies not with any one farmer, but with every one who is interested in agriculture. Stick to the small-sized farm, which the family can run without outside help. Educate the farm boys so that they will stay on the farm and do the work efficiently, with- out so much need of other labor. Let the farmer retire gradually, living on or near the farm, ready to help during rush seasons, in- stead of moving to the city and taking with him both his money and his labor. Improve the hired man’s chance in life, enabling him to become a farm owner by helping him learn the business and by making it easier to get credit and start on a farm of his own. If necessary, encourage a system of loans from the state or nation. ♦This bulletin was written on the basis of data gathered in 1918 and preceding. Since 1918 the changes respecting farm labor have been pro- nounced. Contrary to anticipations on the part of the farmers the return of soldiers to civil life failed to relieve the labor shortage. Wages were higher and men harder to And in 1919 than in 1918 and now (1920) the case is more acute than ever before. Not only are wages at an unprece- dented figure, $75, $80 and even $100 a month and board, but it is reported on good authority that some land is destined to lie idle for the season because of the inability of farmers to secure help at any price. 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 316 Any solution of the farm labor problem, whether for the whole business of farming or for the individual farm in any one season, must be met by an understanding of just where the difficulty lies. The usual impresssion is that the farm labor supply has been falling FIG. 1. MORE FARM LABORERS, BUT STILL NOT ENOUGH While the supply of hired men has actually increased since 1880 (see Table I) dairying- and intensive farming have so increased the demand that farm laborers are becoming relatively scarcer. off for many years, but from 1880 to 1910 not only did farm laborers increase in numbers, but they increased faster than the land in farms, than improved land, than the number of farms, and the number of farmers. Table I. — How the Number of Farm Laborers Increased from . 1880 TO 1910 Farm laborers Farmers 1910 101,600 172,000 1900 80,745 162,908 1890 73,600 146,400 . 1880 54,700 133,000 Total agricultural ‘ -workers 273,600 243,653 220,000 ' 187,700 Farmer laborers per farm 0.56 0.48 0.49 0.41 Agricultural workers per farm 1.51 1.44 1.45 1.40 Farm laborers per farmer 0.59 0.50 0.50 0.41 Farm laborers per 1,000 improved 6.1 acres 8.4 7.2 7.3 Agricultural workers per 1,000 im- proved acres 22.6 21.7 21.8 20.5 Farm Labor in Wisconsin 5 More labor was being applied to each acre of land in 1910 than ever before, and more of this was being done by hired laborers. For every 61 hired men in 1880, there were 84 in 1910. Similarly the amount of help employed by each farmer increased, as indicated in figure 1. It must be admitted, however, that although farm laborers were increasing in numbers, actually they were becoming scarcer because the demand for them was increasing even faster than the supply. The principal reason for this is to be found in the increase in dairy- ing. Each agricultural worker was taking care of 5% dairy cows in 11910 as compared with 3% in 1890. Farming has been becoming more intensive in Wisconsin, and hence demands more labor. States in the grain-farming region do not show these increases. 1,000 ACRES FARMERS 630 ACRES i ,,, SONS 165 ACRES % ;v;v;HiREp;;;;.y: 205 ACRES FIG. 2. WHO DOES THE WORK ON WISCONSIN FARMS? On each 1,000 acres of farm land In Wisconsin, the farmers themselves do nearly two-thirds of the work, the farmers’ sons do one-sixth, and the hired men do one-fifth. 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 316 Sources of Our Farm Labor Because Wisconsin farms are small, averaging only 119 acres, a large part of the work (fig. 2) is done by the farmer himself and his family. Of the 273,600 male agricultural workers 16 years old and over in Wisconsin in 1910, the farmers themselves numbered 172,000, the farmers’ sons 45,390 and ‘^hired men working out” only 56,300. The proportion of our farm laborers who are our own farmers’ sons is increasing. So is the proportion of city-born farm laborers. The class which is decreasing is the ‘^newcomer” or foreign-born class. Figure 3 shows only 13 per cent for this class in 1910, as compared with 30 per cent in 1890. When the war began, the new- comers almost quit coming. Our farmers’ sons, however, are more and more often sons of foreign-born parents. Only 20 per cent of all our farm laborers in 1910 were sons of American-born parents. FIG. 3. SOURCES OF OUR FARM LABOR In spite of the increase of the city element, farmers’ sons still make up the large part of our supply of farm labor. Farm Labor in Wisconsin 7 The class of farm hands called ‘^country-city” (fig. 3) work both in the city and in the country. Perhaps half of them are country- born. This class includes among others the “hobos” and part of the “floaters.” FAKM LABOR QUESTIONS How Much Help to Hire A farmer does not aid anybody, even in times of a great food shortage, when he hires more help than is profitable. All that he does is take this labor from somebody else who could put it to better use. The farmer who can put labor to best use is the one who can bid highest for it and still make a proflt on it. Any other farmer in order to get this labor must bid so high for it that he loses money by it. If a farmer has kept no careful account of his last year’s business, he cannot, in advance, tell for certain, whether he ought to use three hired men or two, or whether he can afford to pay the third man $40, $50 or more, a month. All he can do in such a ease is look all the facts squarely in the face and make the best guess he can. Following are some of the facts to be considered : 1. His own capacity for handling labor. Farmers differ so in this respect that one is often able to pay twice as much wages as another and still make a profit. If a farmer is not a good manager, then the right thing for him to do is to use less help instead of more. In many cases it may even pay him to let his sons work out for some of his neighbors who are better managers and can pay good wages. Indeed, many men now farming would profit more if they would rent their land and sell their own labor to their neighbors instead of trying to farm for themselves. A good manager, on the other hand, ought seriously to consider using more labor and in- creasing his business. 2. His success in finding help and keeping it. A farmer who lives a long way from town, or in some undesirable neighborhood, or ha^ a poor farm with a poor home and poor equipment, often has difficulty in finding men and getting them to hire out to him. Other farmers always have trouble with their hired men and lose them before the season is over. Such farmers ought to hire less help instead of more. On the other hand, tlie farmers who manage well, and keep their hired men interested and friendly, ought to be on larger farms. 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 316 3. Securing the right combination of labor and equipment. Only when labor and equipment are combined in the right propor- tion is the farmer able to make the largest profit. What these pro- portions are depends upon what each costs and upon what each can produce combined with the other. When costs change, then ordi- narily these proportions change. If wages rise relative to prices and cost of upkeep of machinery and horses, farmers generally, but not always, profit by using less labor and more machinery and horses. Sometimes under such circumstances, farm labor still pays a bigger return on its higher wage than machinery and horses on their new prices. Cost of management and supervision must always be counted in with money costs. Table II shows that there has been a general rise in farm wages since 1866. From 1894 to 1916, the rise was fairly regular. Since 1916, it has been rapid. TlA.ble II. — Average Wages by the Month, with Bo^rd, of Farm Laborers in Wisconsin Since 1866. (Help Hired by the Year.) Year Wages Year Wages 1866 $13.99 1899 $16.45 1869 13.56 1902 19.13 1874-75 14.28 1906 22.41 1879-80 14.76 1909 24.39 1881-82 17.90 1910 26.00 1884-85 16.78 1914 28.00 1889-90 16.75 1915 28.50 1891-92 14.34 1916 31.00 1894 14.22 1917 35.07 1898 14.98 1918 41.50 Table II shows that in spite of this doubling of farm wages be- tween 1880 and 1910, the amount of farm labor used in Wisconsin increased from 20.5 agricultural workers to 22.6 agricultural work- ers on each 1000 acres of improved land. When prices of farm products rise, most farmers try to produce larger crops, and to produce these crops by using more labor on the same land. This is good managing only in case rents have already risen more than wages. Otherwise renting more land will pay better. What Kind of Help? By the day, month, or year. IVhat a farmer likes best is season hands to do what year hands cannot, and day hands to help out the other two. But help is usually too scarce for this. The best farm help hires out by the year. Hence the farmer has to ask himself. Which way will I lose less, if I hire a good man longer than I need him, or if I hire a less capable man just as long as I want him ? He Farm Labor in Wisconsin 9 has to answer the same question as to day help and season help. Many times in deciding whether to use year instead of month hands, a farmer may profitably pay labor more than it earns for him just then, in order to have help in the future when there is much profit- able work to be done. Single or married. Married laborers are usually more depend- able than single men. War prices in cities drove many one-time hired men, now married, back to the farms. Events in the near future may do the same. Wherever farmers find the supply of married laborers increasing in their localities, they should consider seriously the building of a suitable cottage for farm laborers with a family. The old tenant house is probably in bad condition. Some farmers have had success in hiring “farm couples.” The husband works on the farm, and the wife helps with the housework. The couple have rooms in the farmhouse. If the plan works, it is economical ; but double care must be taken in making the selection. Qualities Desired in Hired Help on the Farm 1. Health and strength. Many jobs are left on the farm which take muscle and endurance. There is no profit in keeping horses and machinery working at less than capacity just because the men cannot keep up the pace. 2. Skill in a large variety of jobs. The unskilled farm hand who does only three-fourths of a day^s work with a team earns no more than half wages and besides robs the farmer of the profits on a fourth of his horse labor. 3. With skill must go knowledge. The hired man may be called upon to set the drill to sow the right amount of different seeds, or he may be asked to decide upon the right time to rake and pile alfalfa. 4. The work habit, interest in his work, ability to hold his mind on his work. A good workman is happy only when he is busy and absorbed in his work. A hired man should be able to enjoy life off the farm without letting it spoil his taste for his job the next day. 5. Ability to take directions, to listen carefully when direc- tions are being given, understand them, remember them, and apply them in actually doing the work. 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 316 6. Ability to plan his work, to lay out a schedule for the day and then stick to it. 7. Ability to make good suggestions. A hired man may assist in managing the farm. Oftentimes he is closer to a large part of the work than his employer, and, if he has good judgment, can make some very useful suggestions about it. 8. A proper sense of his relation to the farm business. He should be willing to carry out his employer's wishes even if they are not according to his judgment. Some hired men are unhappy and often useless because they want things done their own way. 9. A proper sense of his own ability and importance. 10. Courage and resoluteness in carrying out those things which he knows he can do, as distinguished from the conceit which makes some men attempt foolhardy things. 11. Patience and self-control. Things are bound to go wrong on the farm sometimes. The hired man, like the farmer himself, must control himself, keep cool, and let things quiet down. 12. Honesty. The farm hand who will lie about so small a thing as breaking a pitchfork is sure to lose the trust of his em- ployer. He then has to be watched, and no employer or employee likes watching. 13. Good morals, clean habits, decent language, and a pleas- ant manner. The hired man is usually part of the farm family. He should cooperate in all ways in making the farm home neat and cheerful. Tracking mud into the kitchen, for example, will not help much in this respect. Kinds of Farm Labor Available 1. The newcomer. More and more our newcomers are from Russia, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Poland and Bohemia, and fewer and fewer of them are from Germany, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, England and Ireland. The newer immigrants often know much more about gardening than about working with livestock and ma- chinery. Many of them seem very hard to teach. They are also much keener about their rights than the older immigrants. In a year’s time, they often become so independent that they deny the authority of their employers. They lack the sense of duty to their employers which our native sons learn on the home farm. Farm Labor in Wisconsin 11 2. The old-time newcomer’s sons. These make by far the largest class of farm labor in Wisconsin, and their numbers are still increasing. The immigrants may have stopped coming, but their families are still growing up. Eoughly speaking, there are three kinds of newcomers’ sons doing farm labor: a. Those still tied to the old-world family system, who have few ideas of farming or anything else except those their fathers gave them and wEose education stopped at the Third or Fourth Eeader. They usually take all or part of their wages home, at least until they are 21, and expect to marry and begin farming for themselves very shortly. They make good hired men, byt they have to be taught much about crops, livestock and machinery before they are very useful on an up-to-date farm. b. Those who have broken loose from the control of their fathers and have no self-control to take its place. c. Those who are wide-awake to new ideas in farming and ambi- tious to farm for themselves as soon as possible. Sometimes it is education that has awakened them; often it is nothing more than contact with good farming in their home neighborhoods. These make excellent hands. 3. Our native American farmers’ sons. Farmers’ sons of na- tive stock are likely to have farms of their own to start with, or else they do not want to farm. Those who do become hired men so frequently have poor, ignorant or spendthrift farmers for fathers that they are poorly prepared to do satisfactory work. When they come from good farms and good farm homes and are getting ready to farm for themselves, they are the best farm hands on the land. 4. The seasoned hired man is one who started ont intending to earn enough money to become a farmer, but has been so long about it that he has become a hardened veteran. He has had experience with so many employers that he has firm convictions about the whole lot of them. Such men are capable workers, but will work only reasonably hard, and they need to be handled with gloves. 5. The summer farm-hand works in ilie city or the woods in the winter and returns to the farm in the summer. Such men are apt to have ^^city notions” about hours of labor. (j. The back-to-the-land farm hand has been trying his for- tune in the city, and has made uj) his mind tbal the country is the best place after all and is back making a frcsli start before it is too late. Some of them find their work too strenuous about hay or silo-filling time and hie hack to the city. 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 316 7. The farm apprentice is usually a city boy trying to learn in a few months what farm boys have been all their lives learning. Some of these boys intend becoming farmers, or their parents have such intentions for them. Others of them are working on the farm just because it pays better, when board and everything are consid- ered, than most jobs for boys in the city. City-boy apprentices on farms are increasing in numbers. Employment offices and other agencies are putting thousands of them on farms each year. 8. The city failure has tried his fortune in the city and has come out of it a wreck. The city annually produces its thousands of these. Some of them it casts out, broken in mind and body, upon the country, where they eke out the best existence they can. They are probably more useful in the country than where they were, but they cannot expect big wages or large success. 9. The floater works a few months in a place, occasionally a whole season, then gets uneasy and moves on. He works at steady jobs, but does not stick to any one of them long, and this is what makes him a nuisance. He sometimes tries his hand at city work or lumbering in the winter time. Many floaters are excellent workers, and their experience often makes them very useful. 10. The hobo does casual labor, wandering from place to place where he can find it. Wisconsin has less of this casual farm work than some states, but there is enough of haying and harvesting, silo-filling, potato-digging and tobacco work, together with logging and pea-canning to attract a good many of the hobos to this work. The difference between a hobo and a tramp is that the tramp will not work at all if he can help it, while the hobo will work, and often will work very well, until he gets enough money ahead so that he can go off and ^ffilow it in,’^ usually in a few days or weeks of riotous living. 11. The derelict is a farm hand who works from farm to farm in what may be called his own community, often the community in which he was born, staying a month or hvo or a season in a place, always for low wages, because he is no longer of much use, if ever he was of much use. In the end he is glad to be taken in for his board. Almost every community has its derelict. 12. The farm hand with a wife is usually getting ready to run a farm of his own, but contrary to the usual custom, has married while still a hired man. He usually lives in a ^Tenant house’^ on the farm and works at so much a year, including house rent, fuel. Farm Labor in Wisconsin 13 garden, and so forth. Sometimes his family is large enough so that all his earnings are absorbed in keeping things going. Most of the ‘^tenant men’^ of this sort, however, have come from cities or from Europe with families already on their hands. Every year the high cost of living drives thousands of such families out into the country. 13. The day hand lives in a cottage in the country or in the village near by and works by the day whenever anybody wants him, or in some cases, when he feels just right for it. There are millions of his kind in Europe, but not many left in America. They had to leave for town when all the land was cleared and machinery came into general use. But since they left they have been greatly missed in haying and harvesting. They never were prosperous, and often were town charges in part. 14. The casual laborer works by the day at any odd job, farm- ing included. Such men do a great deal of our farm work in busy seasons in many places. They are married or single and live in the city or village near by. How, When and Where to Find Help Nowadays the farmer instead of the hired man usually has to stand the expense of bringing man and job together. Following is a method of going about it. 1. Begin early and hunt for help thoroughly close to home. A shrewd farmer has his eyes open for possible hired help a whole season ahead, and months before the time comes, he has two or three men sighted and probably the best one of them hired. The men to watch the closest are farmers’ sons about ready to hire out for the first time, and hired men expecting to change. Oftentimes an offer of good wages will tempt a farmer’s son to hire out when he was not intending to take such a step. Regular hired men are frequently able to earn more, after another year of experience, than their old employer can afford to pay; or sometimes they wish to change merely to widen their experience by working on a new farm. Men willing to do farm work may usually be found in the small cities and villages roundabout. Many more farmers’ sons now work- ing in the city would go back to the farm if farmers went to them with good jobs. Advertising in the local papers in cities and vil- lages near by produces better results than advertising in any other kind of newspaper. 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 316 2 . In some parts of the state, hunt for farm help in foreign settlements near by. Such settlements usually have more family labor than they can use profitably, and an offer of fair wages will draw some of it away. Advertising in the right newspapers will sometimes reach these people. 3. Advertise for it in other counties where wages are lower. The map in figure 5 shows which counties these were in 1916 and 1917. If the names of the local newspapers in the county are not known, a letter addressed ^W^eekly Newspaper^^ and sent to any city or village will usually get a response. An advertisement in a farm weekly that circulates all over the state will often attract the attention of men who want to change localities. The best time to get help from other counties is early, before the best men hire out near home. 4. Advertise in the newspapers of the larger cities, especially for temporary help. 5. If a state has a properly organized labor employment service, the second step (instead of 4) may well be to call upon the local labor agent or county labor agent or the nearest public employment office. These employment offices and labor agents ought to be able to save farm employers much of the trouble and expense of hunting for help and advertising. In April, 1919, Wisconsin had 22 em- ployment offices, Ashland, Beloit, Eau Claire, Grand Eapids, Green Bay, Hurley, Janesville, Kenosha, La Crosse, Madison, Manitowoc, Milwaukee, Neenah-Menasba, Oshkosh, Eacine, Ehinelander, She- boygan, Superior, Two Eivers, Waukesha, Wausau and West Allis. Each of these offices is the central labor station for the territory around it, which in some cases includes several counties. Most of the counties of the state have county labor agents. The county agricultural agent, where there is one, usually serves as county labor agent. All the local and count}^ agents and the 22 municipal em- ployment offices are federated into one system under the State Cen- tral Employment Office located at the Capitol in Madison. All sur- pluses and deficits of labor in the various cities and localities are reported to the State Central Office. The expenses of the various offices are shared by the United States Department of Labor, the State of Wisconsin, and the municipalities. The men^s division of the Milwaukee Public Employment Office is located at 214 Fourth Street. Offices in other cities can be reached simply by addressing letters “Public Employment Office.” Farm Labor in Wisconsin 15 Two other public employment offices which the farmers of Wis- consin occasionally use are : United States Employment Service, 240-2 Marquette Avenue, Minneapolis, Minnesota ; United States Employment Service, 116 North Dearborn Street, Chicago, Illinois. How TO Make Use of the Employment Service The first thing to do in case help is needed is to call upon the nearest local or county labor agent. If he cannot find the help needed near home, he should try to get it at the nearest district employment office. If the district employment agent cannot supply the labor needed, he should report the shortage to the State Central Office. There may be other offices which have more labor than they can place. It is always best to go direct to an employment office and pick out the kind of man wanted. The best time to go is early in the week, and early in the forenoon, as there are many more to select from at such times. Where two or more farmers want help at the same time, the labor agent should make the trip to the employment office for them. In case of emergency, help can be obtained from an em- ployment office by mail or by telephone. Whichever way he orders help, a farmer needs to give the fullest possible information about his job. Farm laborers are human and want to know the kind of job they are going to get. The employeFs order card (fig. 4) shows the kind of iuformation needed. A man who asks work fills out an application for employment which calls for his age, nationality, farm experience, the kinds of work he is willing to do, wages desired, and so forth. The wages offered should be for the kind of man asked for in the order. If a farmer is Tiot willing to state the wages he will pay, there is no use of his sending an order to an employment office. If a farmer is ordering help from a distant office, he should usually state in his order whether or not he is willing to advance railway fare. Farm hands will not go to the expense of traveling very far unless they have some guarantee that they will be hired when they arrive. Where the farmer advances the money to pay the fare, the workman’s baggage is checked to the farmer as a guarantee that the ticket will be used for the right purpose. 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 316 The farmer should report to the employment office or his labor agent within a day or two after the man arrives. He should be especially careful to report hired men who are ^ffio good” or who quit their jobs. This will keep the office from sending such men out to another farmer. 1^0 Date EMPLOYER’S ORDER TeleoUWle Central and TelenUone No _ _ > Kail road Station No. Boys Men Women When Wanted How long Kind of work to be done Wa ges offered Married or Single / //Zil 1 /^azyyyi/uriP (3fv 9// n ^ 30 // 7 V Will J^aaiMrleDoed nirsoqa do? . * DlstaottigR^towo 1 Size of farm Nykanallty preferred , \jCO/mAiAa/u-lDiD(M CD CO rH C5 O A U5 lO pq ti! ID ID ID ID ID a > ® . g g ooot-cseot-oio coooooco cq oq o re3 CD ID CD ID CO ID d d 02 O cq o cq t>* tr- 2 ^4pdd'^'0''i<'^Tji o d ^ O'” ID ID ID ID CD ID o pq tq, I CC C5 C5 “ . U g ^05 0500 00OOC0 'S ^ rH rH r4 th‘ d d cq d m ^ g Cot-iMlOMOi o^ m W Sgo 9 H ^ W 0 ) w c X — , 3 2^2 b C.b ^ ft® ^ ^-5 ‘-s > C .D^ >1 ^ 5 iiiil SSg-gs za.?fcS ^ m CO lO o o o o o ci o o liO esq CO o o o ci o o o CO tH 1-H o CO oq . Montana Ay:r. lOxp. Sta. P>ul. 91. 6 AYiscoxsin Bulletin 317 rather high temperatures. The other is the relation of climate to the production of available nitrates in the soil. A third might be added if enough were known about it, namely, the FIG. 1. SPUR GROWTH IS COMPLETED EARLY IN THE SEASON This has an important relation to soil fertilization. Quickly available fertilizers applied early are of value to increase spur growth. See figure 2. relation of the short growing period to spring root development, as affecting absorptive power. The growing period is usually very short in ^Visconsin. The vegetative spurs less than a half-inch long usuallj^ complete Off-Year Apple Bearing 7 their growth in length by the time the tree comes into full blos- som. This is frequently not more than 8 to 10 days after the buds are well broken although it was much longer in 1919 (fig. 1) . Tlie growth in 1919 was above average. The average annual growth of non-blossoming spurs for five years was as follows : 1915, 5.23 millimeters; 1916, 4.86 millimeters; 1917, 6.0 millimeters; 1918, 5.53 millimeters; 1919, 8.14 millimeters. The usual high temperatures of the earl}^ growing season are a possible cause of the short period of growth in Wisconsin. In FIG. 2. THE RATE OF GROWTH VARIES FROM SEASON TO SEASON A to D rcprpsent 12 daj’s’ development in 1917. It took 25 days in the cooler sea- son of 1!H9 to obtain a like development, E to H. Even this e of fai’iiiing foi’ upper 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 Wisconsin. Thus it is essential that the average farmer should have, if he can provide even the roughage, at least one good cow immediately after he gets on his land, in order to reduce living expenses and to make a start in the right type of agriculture. He should multiply his herd just as rapidly as he is able to pro- vide feed for the cows. It is generally understood that a man can clear enough land in time to plant it to oats, peas, and ruta- bagas^ which, supplemented with some marsh hay, will provide roughage for a cow or two. At the present price of cows, the settler can well be thankful if he gets a good grade cow for $150. A horse is of doubtful value during the first year or two since the cost of feed is so high, and especially since it is not likely that circumstances will permit the use of a horse any consider- able part of the time. Some of the colonization companies keep teams to rent to the settlers at moderate rates. This is much more economical than owning a team until there is plenty of work for it to do. A few pigs, chickens, and in some cases, a few sheep, make up the list of livestock. These may cost from $10 to $15 or more. Working Equipment Varies on Different Farms It is not expected that the account of the individual settler will correspond item for item with those named, but they repre- sent a safe estimate, for they are based on a large number of re- ports from different sources and sections. It is certainly safe to say that, including a quarter payment on 40 acres of land, the majority of settlers, if they pay out of their own pockets all these expenses, will need at least $1,100 in money, or in money, stock, and machinery, to get started on the land with reasonable working equipment. It is true that a great many settlers do not have this amount to begin with, and many of them get along, some of them sur- ])rising1y Avell. This is done by hard work, by establishing per- sonal and friendly relationships in the neighborhood, and even by good luck. No one can say how small may be the equipment of a man who is to succeed. It may, indeed, be almost nothing, yet it must not be understood that the great majority can suc- ceed without some material equipment. In answer to a questionnaire a majority of the land com- panies said that from 75 to 100 per cent of their settlers would Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 7 fail did they not render them financial and other assistance. Since there are a great many who buy with $1,000 or less, it would probably mean that practically all of these with much less means would fail without the aid of the land company. At present there are a few land and colonization companies in up- per Wisconsin that will furnish this equipment either by hire or purchase and simply add the price to the cost of the land. On the other hand, there are some advertisements of ready-made farms that are entirely misleading, and the settler is advised to be careful to know what is meant by ‘‘ready-made.^’ Land Clearing Costs Must Be Considered One of the main occasions for credit on the part of settlers in upper Wisconsin is the cost of clearing. On prairie land an income may be expected within a few years, perhaps within one year. In a cut-over country, although some income may be made almost at once, the task of subduing the tract is a serious one. To begin with, the brush must be cut and burned. Next comes the removal of slashings, windfalls, and merchantable second growth. The equipment for this work will be mainly hand tools until it comes to moving heavy wood, which requires the use of a team, and hauling to market, for which a wagon is needed. Stumps are expensive to move. Time and the weather are effective and inexpensive, but not all can be left to this process. Dynamite can be had in any quantity and the settler can learn to use it. Stump pullers and pilers are better owned by a corn- pan}" or a group than by the individual settler. In most in- stances credit is obtainable after the clearing is done rather than for the purpose of doing it, although a number of the local l)anks will advance credit for clearing purposes when a settler has established a reputation as a worker. The colonization com- pany is the natural and usual source of the credit for getting the work done. Cost of clearing. It would not be possible to give in any brief statement an adequate idea of the cost of clearing cut-over land. The variation is so wide as to be almost unbelievable. Some acres may be cleared at a cost of $10 ; others may cost $150. The average is more nearly the lower figure than the 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 higher one. Averages are, however, of little value in planning a farm. What is wanted is specific information about the land in question. Time needed in clearing. The facts in the case, as brought out by almost the unanimous opinion of the county agents, the fig. 2.— from brush to Fl.OWFD LAND better real estate dealers, old and new settlers, the bankers and others, are that it takes about three years for the majority of set- tlers to get enough land cleared and enough equipment combined with it to make a living from the land. The majority of settlers, then, must have when the}^ settle on cut-over land some outside income for about three years. If the settlers could realize this fact they would probably use their surplus cash to better ad van- 9 [ Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin Lage and would frequently not make the attempt until they were Detter equipped financially. Living and Operating Expense the First Year The store accounts of between 300 and 400 settlers plus the jpinions of a great many merchants and farmers show that the najority of settlers spend about $300 for groceries other than nilk and butter, and about $100 for clothing and other more )r les^ incidental expenses the first year. The cost for extra ;eed for the cow, chickens, and pigs, will certainly be not less ban $50 and most farmers estimate it at much more under pres- ent conditions. The settler ’s tax will be about $8. If he bought ^ his 40 acres of land on a one-fourth cash pajmient he will owe at i the end of the year an interest charge of $45, the rate being 6 I per cent and the land valued at $25 an acre. For a family of I four, the simplest living will cost at least $500 in addition to ( what is furnished by the new farm. With a few dollars to pay I in taxes and with interest on the unpaid portion of the pur- I chase price of the farm, together with incidentals, the smallest P family income should hardly fall below $600. Indeed, this is t less than a laborer’s wages for a year. The farm equipped with a fair number of cows, pigs, and chickens, however, together with a garden, will furnish a very large part of this amount. . Whether there will be this equipment during the first year is a question. I Financial Condition at the End of the First Year The settler who purchases 40 acres of land and has sufficient cash to meet the one-fourth down re(iuirement, and enough more to put on the usual improvements and equipment, will, by the time the year is over, have invested $1,000 to $1,500. His ex- penses for travel, freiglit, feed, seed, and living cannot have been less than $500 to $800. It will generally be the case that his inventory will amount to enough more than it cost, together with his income in money and pi'oduce to balance his unusual expenses due to moving. Where this is the case, a balance sheet will show little })i‘ogress, but at the same time the fact remains that the settlei' is established. Ii(‘ has })ut himself into a posi- tion to take advantage of the ()[)portiinit ies afforded by a de- 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 veloping region, and he should feel that this opportunity plus a living is a good showing for the first year. Nature of expenditures. The majority of settlers are tempted to feel, along toward the end of the first or second year, that farm development is one continuous round of expense in labor and money with practically no returns. In some respects they are right, but they must remember that their expenditures of labor, and most of their expenditure of capital, are in the form of an investment. The settler invests in a small seed and later reaps a rutabaga, he invests $100 in a cow, and with care finally has a valuable herd, or he invests his labor in clearing and gets as his return a productive farm. Indeed, the settler’s chances of success depend primarily on the proportion of such invest- ments he is able to make. If he is so badly cramped financially that he has to use his money and most of his time to provide living expenses he had, ordinarily, better stay off cut-over land until he is able to provide the investment capital or can borrow it, since his early money returns from farming are small, and a large part of that return depends on the growth of invested capital. Farming is a business that requires comparatively large investment, and to make a success at it the man must have the capital or be able to get it on credit, and on credit adapted to the amount of necessary investment and the nature of the re- turn. Dairy farms, particularly, require large investments in both fixed and working capital. Expenditures the Second and Third Years Living and operating expense. The merchants who sell their goods to settlers, and the experienced farmers of the neighbor- hood say that the majority of settlers will lack at least $150 of making living and operating expenses from their land the sec- ond year, especially where interest and taxes are included ; but that if they have no bad luck and make normal progress they will just about be able to cover these expenses the third year. The settlers talked with and those who answered a question- naire relative to the matter almost always said that it would take from three to five years where there were no buildings or clearing to start with, which bears out at least the conserva- tiveness of the foregoing estimate. If buildings could be pru- Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 11 vided at the outset, this period of time could be cut down con- siderably. Investment expense. The majority of settlers will be able to clear enough land the second year to provide most of the feed for at least a second cowl The third year the clearing should be enlarged sufficiently to provide the feed for one or two addi- tional cow^s and they should be obtained. The majority of set- tlers wdll need, then, at least $350 from the end of the first year to the end of the third year for operating and investment ex- pense. If the settler has less than this the chances are he will not make the progress he should. Before the settler makes much progress as a farmer, he must have command of not less than $2,000 wmrth of property. This includes $1,000 in the form of land. Whether he must possess the $2,000 is quite another question. A colonization company may carry him along on any amount, even down to nothing. It must be remembered that the interest charge on the $2,000 is .only $120 a year and with high wages and hard work a man may overcome the disadvantage of not possessing the capital. The advantage is with the man who has this amount of money. The one who undertakes to get along wdth much less should first make connections wdth those who are able to help him and then satisfy himself that the outlook is favorable. Other costs. It should be noted that the figures given allow nothing for losses due to misfortune of any kind. In order to get a fair estimate of their chances of success as farm-makers, a certain amount ought to be deducted for sickness of the man or his family, death of livestock, and partial crop failures. The importance of these items is showm by the replies from thirty- one land agents as to wffiaf reasons were offered by the settler for wmnting extension of contract payment. Eight of these wxre for sickness, six poor crops, four bad luck, and thirteen need of money to live on. Capital equipment of settlers. All available evidence goes to show that the great majority of settlers buying cut-over land in upper Wisconsin have much less than $2,000 to start with. An average wmuld certainly not be fai- from $500. There are some who liave much moi*e than that, but many have less. It is the condition of the settlers who are more or less dependent that needs most attention. Many instances might be pointed out in 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 which the settler purchased cut-over land with less than $500, and with liberal terms from the land company soon made him- self independent, a fact which is certainly encouraging to the average purchaser. It is frequently claimed that a man with proper ability and energy , can settle on cut-over land with $500, and if he shows that he means to make good can get the credit as he needs it for land development purposes. Certainly some are able to get a little credit for other improvement purposes but ordinarily it is insufficient, uncertain, and often at high rates. Even though it be granted that such a man is able to get all the credit he needs for such things as land clearing machinery and the purchase of livestock, that still does not provide living ex- pense or tell what the great mass of settlers are doing and get- ting. Indeed, as has been stated, the pioneer needs at least $2,000 in capital or in capital and credit to make normal prog- ress in developing a farm on cut-over land. In order to have as true a picture as possible, first-hand ob- servations were made in various sections. These were supple- mented by the testimony of the county agents, the bankers, the real estate dealers, successful farmers, settlers, mercliants selling to settlers, and editors. AVHAT THE COUNTY AGENTS SAY 1. A majority of settlers are unable to judge farm values, especially to soil fer- tility, cost of clearing and climatic . conditions. 2. Land is being sold for agricultural pur- poses that because of lack of soil fer- tility, location, and other reasons ought not be sold for such purposes, at least for the present. 3. Small dairy farming with perhaps some money crop like potatoes in the rota- tion is the surest type of farming in up- per Wisconsin. 4. The majority of settlers do not know what returns they may reasonably expect for the first five years. 5. The chief causes of failure of settlers in cut-over land are: (a) Lack of capital and credit. (b) Lack of knowledge of land clear- ing and of other problems of developing cut-over land. (c) Wife dissatisfied. Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 13 (d) Lack of knowledge as to the best type of farming for the new locality. (e) Failure to appreciate the longlh of time it takes to develop a farm on cut-over land. (f) Buying worthless land. (g) Buying too much land for their supply of capital. (h) Lack of ability on part of settler. (i) Settler meets with adversity such as sickness. 6. The number of failures in upper Wiscon- sin, as reported by the county agents, varies from about 2 per cent in one county to as high as 75 per cent in another. AVHAT THE BANKERS SAY 1. Will lend about 5 0 per cent of the value of the land. 2. The settlers usually want to borrow money to pay land contracts, to make improvements' in building or clearing, or to buy live stock. 3. The loan is usually made at 6 per cent though it may go as high as 8 per cent. 4. Loans are usually made on straight time and run from 3 to 5 years. 5. From 75 to 90 per cent of the farmers want renewal when their mortgages come due. It is usually granted. 6. About half the banks charge a commis- sion for handling mortgages. 7. Not over 4 0 per cent of the mortgages sold are sold locally. 8. The rate of interest on chattel mortgages is from 7 to 10 per cent. 9. Most of the banks in the cut-over regions have more applications for loans than they can supply. 10. Most of the banker's assert that the pres- ent system of financing the settler is inadequate. WHAT THE REAL ESTATE .MEN SAY 1. Reports from 57 large land companies out of a possible 100 show about 1800 sales for 1917. 2. About half the settlers were native and half foreign. 3. About 90 per cent had had experience as farmers. 4. The average capital possessed by each was very little above $500. 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 5. The usual price of land is $20 to $25 an acre. 6. The usual minimum payment demanded for 40 acres was from $100 to $200. 7. About four-fifths of the companies re- porting furnish no equipment with the land. 8. Most of the companies grant a deed when half the purchase price is paid, about a fourth demand all cash and the rest grant it on a payment of a third or fourth. 9. Payments on the contract or mortgage us- ually begin the first year and are sup- posed to be made in full within about five years. Some companies grant much more liberal terms, especially in exemptions the first year or two from any payment on principal and interest. 10. The interest rate is almost invariably 6 per cent. 11. Most of the replies state that from 75 to 90 per cent of the settlers want ex- tension of time, as their resources are needed for additional farm improve- ments. 12. Renewals are granted by letting the past due notes run over. 13. The usual excuses for wanting exten- sion are need of money for improve- ments, living expenses, sickness, or failure to produce a crop. 14. Most companies report rendering the settlers much moral, educational, and financial assistance without which their chances of success would be materially lessened. 15. Practically all felt a need of a better system of financing settlers. WHAT THE FARMERS AND SETTEERS SAY The chief causes of failure in their opinion are; land sharks, high-priced land, lack of credit, and difficulty of land clearing. Practically 100 per cent say it costs more to clear land than they were led to believe. About 75 per cent buy on contract with a small payment down. The better com- panies do not require the purchaser to make any further payment for two or three years. He needs his income for other purposes. About 80 per cent report being unable to meet their payments as they fall due. Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 15 They estimate that where a settler has no clearing to begin with that it takes from two to five years to get enough land cleared on which to make a living. This does not include increased value of land. Ninety per cent say they cannot get as much credit as they need. Markets are usually poor. A great m^any report, especially from cer- tain sections, that they did not get as good land as they anticipated. The information is based on about 100 sample letters, and on personal conversation with settlers in different sections. FINANCIAL NEEDS FOR FARM DEVELOPMENT Peculiar Credit Needs for Developing Cut-over Lands The settler developing cut-over land faces very different finan- cial problems from those developing prairie land or buying im- proved farms. On the prairie land there is not a very wide margin between the value of raw land and plowed land. This forces the man on the prairie to have a considerable sum to make his initial payments. But having once secured his land, the cost and time of getting it into cultivation are .small items. If weather conditions are favorable he can make a living on his land after the first year. He needs a type of credit that will give him exemption from any further land-debt payment until he has made his improvements, and then a system that will spread out his payments over a number of years. A man can obtain cut-over land with comparatively small in- vestment, and that with a very small payment down. But the settler developing a farm in the woods must reserve a much larger sum for living and developing expense, since it will take him from three to five ^Tars to make liis farm a self-sustaining unit. The type of credit this man needs is not alone land credit, important though that may be, but credit for living expense and farm development investments as well. There must be some arrangement made whereby these may be advanced to the settler in proportion to his rate of progress. Type of Farming and Land Debt Payment Mixed dairying best type of farming. The individual un- familiar with conditions of the settler on cut-over land in upper 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 Wisconsin might easily get the impression that the settlers the next year, after having improved their farms sufficiently to per- mit making a living on them, would begin to pay off land debts, provided they had made no others. The answers to question- naires sent to the real estate dealers and bankers show that this is not true, but on the other hand they are just reaching the point of wanting a larger loan than the original purchase price. This circumstance is explained by the county agents in their answers to a question relative to the best type of farming for upper Wisconsin. It is preeminently the opinion of the experi- enced farmers and others who have made a study of conditions in the northern part of the state, that small dairy farming with a money crop in the rotation is the surest method of agriculture in this section. The intelligent settler is soon convinced of this fact, for it furnishes him something to do that yields a steady income throughout the year, thereby enabling him to utilize more completely not only his own labor, but frequently that of members of his family. Also, there is considerable growth in the size of his investment through the natural increase in his herd. It also furnishes him a market for his hay, and supplies in abundance needed fertilizer of the best quality. Why Some Settlers Fail to Get Out of the Pioneering Stage A prominent land company in the state made a study of the farm policies and financial conditions of its settlers who were neither making their payments nor giving explanations of ^Yhy they were not. The study revealed rather accurately the finan- cial standing and farm policies of the men. The facts standing out most clearly were that the settlers with no cows, or few cowSj were almost always drifting to^rard the wall ; that in most cases they had made a small clearing and were farming it inten- sively with but very little capital ; that the soil they were cul- tivating was almost pure sand; and that they were cropping it in potatoes without rotation, a practice which would ordinarily consume the larger part of the fertility in three years. These men may clear enough new land each year on which to eke out a bare existence, but paying for the farm or making any sub- stantial improvements is out of the question. They are in a vi- cious circle. They have no basis of credit until they change Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 17 their policy, and they cannot change their policy nntil they get credit. The conditions certainly are worse on the light sandy soils described, bnt even on the better lands such a policy retards very materially the possible rate of progress. The land companies’ point of view. The land companies op- erating in upper Wisconsin are, as a rule, as liberal in their granting of terms to the settler as could reasonably be expected. In most cases they require payments on their contracts on a five- year basis with the ‘‘on or before” privilege. Some specifically exempt the settler from payment of any sort except tax, or tax and interest, for two or three years. However, from 80 to 90 per cent of the settlers ask for extension of time, which shows that five years is not sufficient for land debt payment. The land company feels, when the settler begins to make money above his living expenses, that since the company gave liberal terms in the first stages of development it ought not to be called upon to wait for the overdue payments while* the settler goes ahead investing capital that legally belongs to it. From their point of view there is no reason why the settler who happens to have a little ready cash should buy an extra cow rather than settle a past due note. It is natural for the land company to want its money as quickly as it can get it, since its capital is needed in connection with its business. The settlers’ point of view. Most settlers are properly afraid of debts that have, in case they fail to meet them, the power to take away their entire savings. The practices of some land agents and coiiijnercial bankers have made the settlers un- duly suspicious of these two classes. The settler, ever reminded that the land company is in need of its money, naturally feels worried over his debt and his agricultural policy is affected for the worse. Lack of Credit Results in Short-time Farm Policy The settlers make as few permanent inqirovoments as it is pos- sible to get along Mith. They go slowly into the stock business for they have not the barn room. They are inclined to go into that tj^pe of farming tiiat offers the quickest return with the least outlay of cash, cultivating rather intensively some money crop like iiotatoes, where a large part of the expense in planting, tillage, and harvesting is buman lalior c()inl)ined wi1b the sinij)- 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 lest and cheapest tools. This ''short time’’ policy, as it is called in this bulletin, is the worst kind. The settler is in a country where land is supposed to be comparatively cheap and labor high. For the most economical farming this would mean the use of a large amount ol land, and a substitution of machinery for labor as far as possible. The facts do not correspond to this principle. The settler buys 40 or 80 acres, puts a few acres into good tillage for his special crop, and leaves the other 80 or 90 per cent of his land untouched. He has, therefore, a very large proportion of his investment in land that, so far as immediate results are concerned, is yielding no return other than summer pasturage, and at the same time he is having to force a few" acres to pay the interest charge on the whole investment. Some settlers are in the peculiar position of having too much land and still not having enough, due to the fact that 80 or 90 per cent of their land is not cleared and is, therefore, not only not a basis of operation, but a dead weight on their hands. Labor conditions. The land conditions have a tendency to force a labor situation that is economically and socially very un- desirable. The removal of brush requires a great deal of hand labor, and a good brush ax or scythe is about all the capital re- quired. On the other hand, it is very uneconomical to substi- tute human labor for horse or mechanical power in the removal of logs and stumps. There are settlers in upper Wisconsin try- ing to clear land with less than $50 worth of capital. These men soon come to the conclusion that at best two or three acres will be all they can do, and that that amount of clearing will not justify the purchase of a team. The result is that about the only horse power used is in breaking the newly cleared land. The crop is planted and wmrked by hand, the wife and children doing a great part of it. Even so, the man must spend a large part of his time on two or three acres. The laborer is forced into this unprofitable task by a lack of capital, a situation that might be avoided by having a better system of credit. Equipment Needed at the End of the Pioneering Stage The farmer who adopts the best farm policy from the start has by the fourth year accumulated a herd of perhaps ten head of cattle. Most settlers begin on cut-over land with barns and other equipment of the most temporary sort. If they make nor- Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 19 mal progress they will complete their pioneering operations by the fourth year. Their farm machinery is then not in keeping with the nature and size of their farm units. Therefore, each one is all but compelled to buy a wagon, a mower, a rake, more plows^ and another horse, and there is considerable other equip- ment he ought to have, which at present prices will cost at leasl; $400. The temporary barn is too small to accommodate the in- creased stock and feed supply. This either means that the farmer has to sell his cows and proceed on the short-time policy of rais- ing crops for the market, or he must build larger barns. A barn large enough to accommodate the increasing herd for even a half dozen years will require from $1,200 to $1,500. The agriculturists say that with a herd of 10 cows it will be economical to build a silo where silage crops are fairly certain.^ A silo sufficient to accommodate 10 or 15 cows will cost $300. In addition to all this, there is a great amount of equipment needed to operate effectively a small dairy farm. The owner must have a cream separator, milk pails, cream cans, and other necessary utensils. All such necessary equipment cannot pos- sibly be bought for less than $150. Thus, to maintain the proper balance between land, labor, and capital, the farmer will need to invest, in addition to the price of his land, between $2,000 and $3,000. Cost of Equipping a 40-acre Diversified Dairy Farm Dairying, with a cash crop in the rotation, is recognized as the best method of farming in upper Wisconsin. For a diversi- fied dairy farm of this sort, 40 acres has been taken as a unit because the prevailing size of farm in the cut-over regions is, at the present time, small. The writers do not mean to say that 40 acres is the best size for a diversified dairy farm ; on the other hand, they are convinced that under normal conditions it is too small, and that there will be a strong tendency toward consoli- dating the smaller farms. It is assumed that this farm is so planned as to get the maxi- mum long-time net profit tlu'ough a daii’y herd and through a cash crop in the field rotation. With this in mind it is assumed that the farmer will keep at least ten cows, three horses, six * In many of the northern counties root ci'ops arc much more reliable, in which case a silo will not be needed. 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 sows, and one hundred fowls. The crop will consist largely of hay, corn silage (or where corn is inadvisable, oats and peas, or roots), some small grain, and potatoes. To summarize the expenses and investments of a typical 40-acre settler, it will be safe to say that a fairly good house, barn and other buildings would have cost before the recent sharp advances in prices not less than $3,000 ; fences not far from $300 ; horses and harness by the time three horses were needed, say $600; cows, pigs, and chickens, perhaps $1,200 to $1,500; implements and machinery in the neighborhood of $500. Thus, by the time the settler has reached the stage beyond what is called pioneering, he will need to have at his command some $4,000 or $5,000 in his investment, plus whatever is required over prices and costs of 1917 or 1918. The result of a lack of adequate capital to begin with aggra- vated by a system of credit unsuited to the development of cut- over land is that the farmer of small means is forced to stay too long in the pioneering stage. When such living is thus prolonged it may result in conditions which are socially and economically very undesirable, for the crop returns are extremely low until the farmer gets equipment. The one great inducement held out to the settler by land com- panies to compensate for the disadvantages mentioned is an in- crease in land values. The settler must realize, however, that his increased land value will be measured by his rate of progress in farm development, and not in any magic increase in land prices. If he does not have the capital to develop his land he may find his interest and taxes greater than the gains due to the general rise in the price of land. FARM CREDIT Financial Characteristics of a New Country The amount of credit obtainable by a settler at any given time in a given community depends upon many factors, which may be grouped under two main heads. It depends, in the first place, upon the available loan funds, and the operation of the financial machinery. It depends, in the second place, upon the resources of the borrower, which includes the character of the man and his Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 21 iamily, his accumulated financial reserve, and the response of the money lenders to his demands. Problems of the borrower. It is a well known fact that new countries, and more especially agricultural countries, are always more or less inadequately supplied with capital. This is true for several reasons. The great bulk of labor such as would produce goods for sale in an old country goes into permanent improvement values. In a cut-over region large amounts of labor and capital are used in clearing and other improvements of the land which appear simply as increased land values. Large amounts of labor and capital are necessarily put into farra buildings, which is another form of long-time investment where the returns are not immediate. Instead of a surplus of animals for sale there is still need for enlarging the herds, and new set- tlers are constantly starting new herds so that cattle have to be continually imported. On the other hand, those animals un- suited for breeding stock are frequently sold for less than such animals would sell for in the older communities where there is a real surplus. The settler may expect this, since the small num- ber for sale prevents the establishment of satisfactory market machinery. This is not only true for livestock but for all other products the settler usually has for sale. In other words, the settler may ordinarily expect to have to pay high prices for what he buys, and take comparatively low prices for what he sells. Getting together sufficient farm machinery and buildings, as Avell as enough cleared land, has to be done before the land will produce much. Hence, a large part of the capital for the de- velopment of a new country must come from the older communi- ties. Otherwise the rate of development is exceedingly slow, and the proportion of failures large. Such a condition is further aggravated by the fact that most of the settlers in a new country, especially in the cut-over sec- tions, have but little pro})erty and financial backing in the older section from which they came, and what little credit they may have had in their old homes is usually terminated when they move to a new section. In a pioneer country, then, each set- tler represents a demand for capital, and but few bring with them the means or connections to satisfy that demand. Problems of the lender. The financial institutions of a new country are new and comparatively small. The banks are few, 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 with small capital and small deposits. Most people are borrow- ers ; individuals with money to lend are few. The large sources of outside capital, like insurance companies and big mortgage banks, have not yet been attracted, since the amount of business available for them is small and not suited to their standards. Every dollar the farmer gets he needs to put back into his farm in one way or another, so that the capital of a new country cir- culates very slowly. The result is that almost all the bankers in the rapidly developing section of upper Wisconsin report a greater demand for loans than they are able to supply. In order properly to finance a new country all the foregoing facts must be taken into account. The one great function of the state with regard to the situation is to make possible at least the organization of adequate machinery for establishing and maintaining the closest possible financial connections between the new country and the old country. Types of Settlers Needing Credit. The settlers from the bankers’ standpoint are of two classes. The first is the class already able to meet obligations about as they become due. They are above the 50 per cent margin of land ownership and, consequently, able to take care of them- selves. They can borrow at a bank, can get money from the F’ederal Land Bank, or can deal with a local money lender. This class can take care of itself. The second class consists of those who have not reached the stage of independence in facing a money lender. They hold their land on a contract and re- quire help, and perhaps patience, from the colonization com- pany. The type of credit needed. As is generally understood, each type of settler is in need of at least two types of credit. In the first place, each is in need of long-time credit for the purpose of paying land debts and making permanent improvements. In the second place, each needs short time credit to finance crop operations. It might well be said, also, that a third type is needed, one more or less in between these two, for the purchase of livestock and machinery. Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 23 Present Agencies of Farm Credits The chief state provisions for better rural credit are the ex- emption of farm mortgages from taxation, the laws permitting state banks, trust companies and savings banks to lend on first farm mortgages, the provisions for the organization of land mortgage associations, co-operative credit associations, the county stump-bond law, and a tolerant attitude toward outside capital. The state banks. The state banks have been the greatest factor in furnishing farm credit in upper Wisconsin. They have been unable to meet the demand, however, of even those who had ample security, largely because of a banking system organization which renders it difficult to get all the desired aid from the older communities. Land mortgage associations. In order more effectively to meet the demand for farm loans coming especially from the northern counties, the state passed in 1913 an act creating land mortgage associations. There have been only two organized and their combined issue of bonds on real estate in November, 1917, amounted to $270,500. According to the commissioner of bank^ ing these bonds found a ready market, which indicates that in- vestors do not fear bonds based nn a 65 per cent margin of real estate value. At present these banks are too few and too small to affect materially the credit situation in upper Wisconsin. The possibilities of these associations was greatly enlarged, however, by an amendment of the act in 1919 whereby the asso- ciations are permitted to buy mortgages already in force as well as to make new mortgage loans. Quite as important as this, if not more important, the associations are required to form them- selves into a council, the council to act as a unit in determining the interest rates in mortgages, bonds, and other conditions of bond issue. By this means it is hoped that the business may be made large enough to pay, as well as to combine credits in the bonds issued so as to reach a wider market in their dispersal. Heretofore, the prospects have not been encouraging to single companies acting aloue. Mortgage companies and other farm mortgage investors. Two or three large mortgage and trust companies have been op- erating in the upper Wisconsin territory and have been a largo 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 factor in opening the financial channels bet^Yeen the old and the new country. The recently organized Joint Stock Land Bank of Milwaukee is a step in the right direction, for it represents a comparatively strong financial institution in an investing center Avith a large number of '‘corresponding banks” in the new coun- try. A plan someAvhat similar to that of the Joint Stock Land Bank, and in some respects CA^en more adaptable to the needs of tlie neAA^er parts of the state, is the purchase of mortgages from colonization companies by trust companies. The method is as f olloAvs : A colonization company makes the loans to its settlers, taking mortgages as security. These loans may, and do, run from small percentages of the value of the farms on which they are placed up to 70 per cent. The trust companies AAUshing to be safe require a 50 per cent margin. They receive from the colonization company, hoAVCA^er, a trust deed secured by a large number of indiAudual mortgages Avhich, on an average, must represent not to exceed 50 per cent of the Amine of the land cov- ered. Thus, should it become necessary to foreclose on all they Avould recover the entire amount. Against the trust deeds the trust companies issue and sell mortgage bonds, selling $100,000 in bonds against $110,000 in mortgages,. the margin of 10 per cent being a special item of security to the bond purchaser. This is an effecthm and economical means of getting mone^^ from centers of plenty to places of scarcity. Life insurance companies have not played an important part so far, but have made a start in buying the bonds of other lending institutions. Local investors in the newer territory are so few that they need not be considered here. The Wisconsin legislature of 1913 passed laAA’S making possible the organization of cooperative credit associations with the fol- loAving poAvers: "A cooperative credit association may recehm the savings of its members in payment for shares or a deposit; may lend it to members at reasonable rates or invest, as herein- after provided, the funds so accumulated ; and may conduct also such other actiAuties relating to purposes of the association, as its by-laAA^s may authorize.”^ Up to the present time not one of these associations has been formed in upper Wisconsin, due doubtless to the absence of administrative machinery. The * Banking Laws of Wisconsin, 1915. Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 25 County Stump-Bond Act has a splendid purpose, but has too many serious .defects to make it available to any extent until the defects have been remedied by amendment. Credit Available to the Settler With Money Credit of real estate companies. The first credit received by the new settler comes almost invariably from the land or colonization company. The majority of settlers pay about one- fourth down and get a term of from three to five years on the balance. Most of them are not in a position to meet the pay- ments as thej^ fall due, but if they are making average progress in improving their places, the land companies will almost in- variably carry the payments, though often without written ex- tension. the time the whole amount is due, the settler who has had money to pay his running expenses will usually be able to procure a mortgage loan from the bank sufficient to meet the land contract. This type of credit is rather negative, since the receiver gets nothing that will help him to produce more im- mediately. The settler gives his cash and promise to pay for something that in its present condition is comparatively unpro- ductive, and remains so until it is improved by labor and capi- tal. It is to the interest of the honest land company as well as the settler to put as much as possible of the settler’s capital into land clearing and operating capital rather than a large per- centage into a payment on the land contract. The settler had better beware of the agent who wishes to take a large part of his capital in a first payment on unimproved land. Bank credit. The long-time bank loan is, as shown by the reports of the Wisconsin Farm Mortgage Association of Eau Claire and by the investigations of the Department of Agri- cultural Economics,* almost exclusively for the payment of a land debt, presumably the contract to the land company. A large part of the first aid the settler receives from the bank in long-time credit is then the privilege of a transfer of his source of credit, and not additional working capital. Most banks in the northern part of the state are rather stiuct in holding to the 50 per cent basis, and according to the bankers’ own testimony the 50 per cent is not based on what the settler paid the land company for the land, but the j>rice for which the bank could * “Farm Creflit.s in Wisconsin,” Wis. Bill. 2i7. 26 WiscoNSiNT Bulletin 318 buy similar land. In illustrating the point one banker said, “For example, a settler pays $1,000 for a forty. We would es- timate credit on it at about $700.” In other' words, the settler would have to pay or make improvements in land clearing equal to $650 before he could expect a loan of $350. This is true be- cause the bank lending on a 50 per cent margin must not -only demand that half the $700 be paid, but that the difference be- tween what the settler pays and what the banker could buy such land for must be paid, which in this example, is $300. This may be exceptional as to the amount of margin between the price paid by the settler and the value estimated by the banker, but it is plain, nevertheless, that the amount paid, or to be paid, based on the service rendered by the company, can hardly be made the basis of a loan until values have risen, or at least have been recognized. On the other hand, the company cannot render these services for nothing, while from the settler’s standpoint the probability is that nothing he buys is worth more than what it costs than is the service furnished by the colonization com- pany. Frequently the settler’s improvements in the way of a house and barns are such that they are not insurable, and where insurable they are supposed not to be rated at more than 20 per cent. A great majority of the new settlers have buildings worth less than $500, so that at best $100 would be all that could pos- sibly be obtained on a mortgage loan on the basis of the build- ings. According to these figures the settler assumed to be mak- ing normal progress would at the end of the third or fourth year have a possibility of a mortgage loan very little more than enough to pay his land contract. The report of the Wisconsin Land Mortgage Association of Eau Claire shows that the average loan obtained at the bank upon real property was $160 above the canceled indebtedness. Most of the surplus was used for land clearing and living expenses. A few bought livestock, and the one who received the greatest amount ($442) built a barn. The average time from date of purchase to date of loan was a little over three and a half years. The figures on page 11 and the discussion on page 19 show that this type of settler should have at least $2,000. Chattel mortgage credit. The chattel mortgage is a source (.f farm credit that is frequently used in upper Wisconsin, and especially by the new settlers. The usual form is a personal Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 27 note guaranteed by certain specified chattels. These loans bear a rate of interest varying from 7 to 10 per cent, that is 1 to 2 per cent higher than the real estate loan in the same section, and are made payable rarely later than one year. A wide margin is demanded between the amount of the loan and the security, especially for new settlers. The wide margin, the high rate of interest, and the short time make these loans unsuited for the payments of land debts or for making permanent improvements. There are some cases, however, where the settlers have had to resort to such loans for those purposes. The chattel mortgage is best suited for obtaining money for supplies, and is most frequently so used. In most cases it is cheaper than store credit. It is used for the purchase of livestock, but is inadequate in that it does not give long enough time for repayment.* ** The Ashland dairy plan. There is a species of short-time credit used in some localities which is making splendid progress in supplying the need of money for purchase of dairy cows. Probably a large majority of the settlers coming into upper Wis- consin do not have available sufficient money or credit to buy the stock, especially cattle, to keep their farm operations well balanced. It is found that the credit based on real property is not available and is unsuited for such purposes. Furthermore, the ordinary short-time bank credit is insufficient in time and often the banker is unwilling to take the risk. It is, of course, entirely out of the province of the ordinary store credit. A few communities, at least, have partially bridged the gap by what is known as the Ashland Dairy Plan.’’ This scheme of modi- fied bank credit seems to have originated in upper Wisconsin among the bankers and other business men. The business men of the town sign an agreement to make good any losses the bank may sustain in providing money for the purchase of cows to re- sell to farmers. The main features of the repayment consist in the provision for a portion of the milk, cream, or butter re- ceipts to be applied monthly on the account. As a rule, about two or three years are allowed for the payment of the price of the cow. Experience shows this amount of ci-cdit to be ami)le.* * Short-time credit. 7’he settler has ihmmI of short time crc'dit. This need is strongest in tlie financing of crop operations, moi-e *Wi.s. nul. 2 47, “Farm Credits in Wi.^con.sin.” Money woidd buy mom when this report was issued (1945) than now. ** The plan is more fully described in Wis. P.ul, 247. 28 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 especially in the purchase of seed, implements, and, frequently, groceries and other supplies to be paid for at the time of harvest. In certain sections of upper Wisconsin this species of credit is furnished to a very large extent the local merchants and im - INTEREST RATES ON MORTGAGE LOANS FIG. 3. — SHORT-TIME AND MORTGAGE INTEREST RATES (1915) The reports of several bankers in each county fiunished the basis in estimating these interest rates on personal and on mortgage loans. plement dealers. This type of credit is exceedingly costly, as shown by a former study. ^ The man faiiW well established in a community has but little trouble :n getting this type of short- time credit, especially if he is willing to pay the cost. *'Wis. Bui. 247, pp. 44-52. The map is taken from the same bulletin, p. 34. Figures apply to 1915. Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 29 The lenders of money in the state of Wisconsin have been as liberal as :n any state in their provisions for farm credit. Wis- consin offers to farmers the lowest rate of interest of any state west of the Alleghany mountains, her average rate being 5.8 per cent. The average rate in upper Wisconsin is not more than 1 per cent higher than the state average. The average length of time of farm mortgage loans in Wisconsin, not includ- ing Federal Farm Bank loans, is 4.9 years. Only seven states in the union have a longer period. If Wisconsin expects to maintain her present standing among the states she must not hesitate, however, in changing her laws to meet changed condi- tions. In a progressive age to stand still is to fall behind. The present lending agencies cannot offer enough credit to the pioneer to pay his land contract or mortgage to the land company, and at the same time furnish the capital for the needed improvements. The farmer is thus not able to maintain a nor- mal rate of development since barns, silos, and the like have to be postponed to a future when money is available, and cannot be built economically in installments. Farmers meet, these prob- lems in various ways. A few are able to get all the credit de- sired, some change the type of farming because they are unable to build the necessary barns, others resort to a general sloAving down of effort, and still others follow a more or less wasteful method of piecemeal improvements. Credit for the Settler Practically Moneyless The inadequate supply of credit available to the man able to get a bank loan is a hindrance to proper farm development rather than a cause of failure. The lack of credit for the man unable to get a loan at any of the recognized institutions may result disastrously. Typical Settler with Little Money • A very usual sort of settler is the man who has $500 or less and is persuaded to purchase land by the agent of a land com- pany, the latter depending for his daily bread on the number and amount of his sales. The “prospect” is stimulated by the possibility held out of making a living from the start, and of making and paying for a farm home in short order. The settler 30 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 does not have enough money to pay for the erection of the neces- sary buildings after paying his moving expense and making the first payment on the land. The company will, in most cases, come to his rescue and lend him the money he has paid in, inso- far as he puts it into permanent improvements. Sometimes the company will sell him a cow or assist him in getting one. Still be has had to start his operations with the very minimum amount of working capital. He has a very meager supply of hand tools, and he uses no animal or machine power. His money for living expenses may be exhausted before the summer is well on, and he will be forced to seek employment elsewhere. The result is that at the end of the first year he has little more than a garden cleared and expenses are greater than his income. Where a settler of this sort is barely making a living at his outside work, the land company will often not even demand the interest payment. Especially is this the case where some effort at clear- ing is being made. The land companies frequently appear char- itable in this matter, but they are very much ahead so long as they can persuade the settler to pay the taxes for them. Chances of success. What are the chances of a man with but $500 ‘‘winning out” under present conditions? Most of the land companies are frank to testify that of those coming to the land with $500 or less, 90 per cent would fail without the assist- ance of the company. Even where the company is able and willing to extend all the support in keeping with good business, the percentage of failures in this class of settlers is extremely high. One of the leading companies estimated the failures of such settlers as at least 50 per cent. This statement was also verified by house-to-house canvass of what was taken to be a typical community of about 25 such settlers. Instead of con- sidering the 50 per cent mortality high it should be remembered that the buyer with no more than $500 is a serious risk. If any colonization company can get half of such settlers through the uncertain pioneer stage it has done society a service. The failure of such settlers is due in many cases to the per- sonal element. In the first place, the settlers do not make the progress they anticipate. In some instances the move doubtless had the halo of a sort of excursion, but two or three weeks of hard work with no pay and few visible results, and under condi- tions of extreme loneliness, soon convinces the would-be pioneers Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 31 that they are not on a summer outing. This type of settler does not usually stay through the first season. A great many get back what they can from the company, while some go leaving the company to discover that they are gone. One of the most frequent causes of discontent and failure of settlers is the un- willingness of the wife to stand the loneliness and hardship of life on the frontier. It is not a question of blame ; it is a ques- tion of adaptability and endurance. The woman undoubtedly has a relatively harder time to do her part of pioneering than has her husband. The great majority of settlers, on the other hand, are hungry for country life ; they are anxious to own a home and rear their children in a country environment. These families are willing to make every conceivable sacrifice to accomplish their aim. A great many of them come from other sections or states where nearly all available land has been improved and land values are high. Such people will seldom fail if they are on guard against a possible ‘ ‘ land shark ’ ’ and are where credit can be obtained in proportion to the rate of development. Failure on the part of such settlers does not come from a lack of desire for success. The county agents consulted would in- variably put the financial difficulties first in listing the causes of failure. They make the start with too little capital. For that reason they have to work out most of the time and their interest and other debts accumulate to such an extent that they become discouraged and quit. Many times the settler, because he has not enough capital, does all his clearing and cultivating by his own labor aided by the fewest and cheapest tools possible. This makes progress so slow that the settler finally loses confi- dence in himself. Those who try to start with a small amount of capital are unable to adopt the long-time policy of farming and so are frequently driven away by a poor crop. They do not know how to make progress in clearing; they do not know the best type of farming for the country; they try to farm as they did in their old homes. In their new environment they do not know how to use to the best advantage even what capital they have. The real estate dealers say 60 per cent of the settlers have less than $500 in total capital at the time of land purchase. It would be conservative, judging from the statements of the land 32 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 dealers, to say that not over 30 per cent of them have $1,500 or more, and are, therefore, able on their own account to adopt the long-time policy in their farm operations. The 50 real estate companies reporting exact numbers of sales in 1917 show a total of nearly 1,800, and, due to the war, it was an exceedingly bad year for obtaining settlers. There is a large number of companies from which no reports have been received. The evi- dence is sufficient to show, however, that there is a large num- ber of settlers unable to stand alone coming into the state each year, and that a majority of them will remain financially depend- ent for some years. The purchase of land and service. The charge is frequently made that settlers pay more to colonization companies for land than similar land would cost purchased from private individuals. This is no doubt true. It must be remembered, however, that in buying from the private party the buyer gets the land and nothing else. In buying from a colonization company he gets the land and the service of the company. The latter is no small consideration. It may mean credit at a time when no disinter- ested party is in a position to extend credit, and this may easily mean the difference between success and failure. The service means much more than credit. It means the development of so- cial centers, schools, roads, buying and selling companies, and all that goes to make life tolerable, and effort profitable in a pioneer community. The service should be furnished at as low a figure as possible, but it may easily be worth as much as the raw land. The sifting of settlers. With the foregoing facts in mind it will be readily seen that a great number of settlers is bound to fail. The failure is a less both to the settler and his famTy and to the parties selling the land. Thus the desirahility of selecting prospective settlers likely to succeed and rejecting those likely to fail cannot be too strongly emphasized. It is to the advantage of all concerned that only those with at least fair prospects of success attempt the difficult task of pioneer- ing. The better companies take great pains to decide whether or not it is worth while to undertake to start a given man on a tract of their land. The case is something like that of a life insurance company. By selection the mortality per thousand is each year less than it would be with indiscrimmate selection. Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 33 ♦ The general practice of careful selection cannot be brought about any too soon. The sifting of real estate companies. The state has started on a program of licensing real estate companies in order event- ually to bring the business up to a higher level, taking out the undesirable. The work of putting this law into effect is in the hands of the director of immigration of the state department of agriculture. Credit Needs of the Settler with Little Money Such a settler on cut-over land has to face about the same problems that the independent settler has to face, and he needs, therefore, about the same equipment. If he is going to farm in the most economical way he must have about as much land as the other man. The minimum cost for buildings is one that must be met by all. They need about the same clearing machin- ery. Simply because he is poor will not lower to any appre- ciable extent the cost of living for himself and his family. In fact, one who is familiar with the situation knows that the costs to the poor man are often higher because he is poor. He gets most of his credit at the store, and it comes about twice as higii as ordinary bank credit. In addition he is handicapped by a larger annual interest payment on his land contract. The' less well-to-do settler must have the minimum supply of livestock and other working capital. Bank credit for the settler of small means. The problem of financing such settlers is the biggest problem in the settlement of Upper Wisconsin. The Federal Land Banks cannot do it be- cause they are able to lend only 50 per cent, or less, of the farm value. The trust companies arc os conservative as the Federal Land Bank, so they render no direct assistance. The state banks vary somewhat in their practice, thei]‘ range being from 40 to 75 per cent of the value of the real estate, though 80 y)cr cent of them hold to the 50 pe?‘ cenit basis. The land mortgage associa- tions can lend 65 per cent of the value, but there arc now only two of these in the state. In fact, the ci-edit of none of these institutions is available for long-time loans on i*cal estate be- cause the great mass of these settlei-s do not have even a deed, and few are able to get one under five yeai's. Settlers’ interest 34 Wisconsin Bulletin 318 in real property, then, whatever it may be, is absolutely no basis for credit at any of the recognized credit institutions. Short-time credit. The settler of small means is able to get a little store credit, but it is ^usually granted only on the basis of a chattel mortgage or the recommendation of a reliable person. He is usually compelled to make all his purchases at one store. He has to take what is offered, and has to give the price asked. A wide margin of profit has to be made in order to compensate for the losses. Credit furmshed by the real estate company. About the only creditor in a position to protect himself from losses in dealing with this class of settlers is the land-owner. Nearly all the labor of the settler is put into land improvements. Hence, the land company can advance a certain amount of credit and still main- tain a safe margin between itself and loss. A few of the big land and colonization companies which make a practice of selling to settlers of small means agree to make them certain advances in the way of supplies and working capital. Bankers will usually lend to settlers as soon as they establish themselves and show that they are worthy of credit. It cannot be expected that they will lend to them ahead of these conditions. The most hopeful outlook for relief in the matter of personal credit is the releasing of local money from the duty of long time loans and its use for short time personal loans. The Federal Farm Loan Bank is making loans running into big figures out the country, but especially in the pioneer districts such as upper Wisconsin Avhere $17,000,000 has already been loaned. Every hundred dollars brought from money centers into these sections by this means enables local money to be used for pur- poses other than mortgage loans. It is altogether in accordance with good business principles for money at a distance to be put into long time loans and local money to go to the relief of the short-time borrower. The local money lender is in a posi- tion to pass judgment on the character and ability of the bor- rower and to decide whether the request for the loan is or is not reasonable. Farmers in a new section frequently need something more than ordinary assistance by way of credit. No better means has been devised than the Ashland Dairy Plan mentioned. It might be possible to enlarge the scope of this plan so as to provide for Credit Needs of Settlers in Upper Wisconsin 35 other equipment and irnprovements. Those who have confidence in the country and the settlers are the ones to assume the risk of advancing credit and the business men of the towns are in a strategic position for making the first move. When once the dairy business and other desirable farm operations are estab- lished the rapidity with which money makes its way to the com- munity is astonishing. The discussion of credit needs in a new country often takes the form of a controversy over rates of interest. While the rate is important, of much more importance is the availability of the principal, that is to say, where the rates are not out of reason. For example, it is of vital importance to a farmer in upper Wisconsin to be able to borrow a few hundred dollars for the purchase of seed, or a few cows. Suppose he wants $400. The difference between the interest at 6 per cent and at 8 per cent is only a matter of $8, hardly more than the price of a * day’s work for a man and team. The failure to get the use of the money may cost him several times that amount. Under an efficient system of regulation the reliable coloniza- tion companies might well be given additional privileges insofar as they are used for the benefit of the settler. Any land policy or system of credit that takes no account of the services of the land companies will be more or less defective. Many of these companies have spent much time and large sums of money developing their particular phase of the land business — the putting of settlers on the land. They have built up rela- tionships and avenues of approach that are very essential in any system of colonization. The more progressive companies and individuals have gone much farther than attractive advertising, and are making service their main feature, rather than ‘‘get- rich-quiek” schemes. These companies realize that most set- tlers going in to develop cut over land are seriously handicapped in various ways, so they have inaugurated a policy of service, probably more or less in self-defense, which is becoming quite effective. Some employ an expert adviser for their settlers, make special provision to take care of their credit need, their market organizations, and their social needs, and in other ways render valuable assistance. Such companies deserve the good will and encouragement of the state. THE SETTLER SHOULD REMEMBER That the amount of credit he needs will depend on; 1. The amount of money he has. 2. The way he spends his money. 3. The amount of land he buys. 4. The kind of land he buys. 5. His rate of clearing. 6. The size and nature of his family. That the amount of credit he can get will depend on: 1. The amount of money he has. 2. The type of land he gets. 3. His character. 4. His honesty and ability to manage. 5. His promptness in meeting obligations. 6. The number of children able and willing to work. 7. His type of farming. 8. His ability to spend money wisely. OL bulletin 319 September, 1920 Experiments in Farming .NNUAL REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION 1918—1919 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON CONTENTS Page Hemp Culture 3 Fiber Flax Grows Well in Uppper Wisconsin 8 Sorghum Growing is Resumed » 8 Breeding Corn for Upper Wisconsin 11 A Dent Corn for Upper Wisconsin 11 Cold-resistant Corn Distributed 13 Breeding Sweet Corn 15 Oats for Rich Land 16 Winter Ryes Compared 16 Winter Safer than Spring Wlieat 17 Improvement Work on Garden and Canning Peas 19 Soy Beans, a Staple Crop for Sandy Lands of Upper Wisconsin 20 Necessity of Scarifying Legume Seed .* 21 Sudan Grass for Forage 21 Mixing Timothy and Alfalfa 22 Comparative Drouth Resistance of Alfalfa and Clover 23 Drouth-resistant Qualities of Grimm Alfalfa 23 Sunflowers as a Silage Crop 24 Harvesting Soybeans 24 Vitality of Soybean Nodule Bacteria in Soils 26 Barley Stripe Investigations with Reference to Time of Planting- 23 Overcoming Cherry Leaf Spot 27 Apple Scab and Its Control 27 Wheat Scab Worse Than Rust 28 A New Bacterial Disease of Soybeans 30 Improved Types of “Yellows-resistant” Cabbage 31 Seed Disinfection for Black Leg and Black Rot 32 Influence of Soil Temperature on Potato Diseases 32 Tobacco Diseases Studied 33 Development of Root-rot Resistant Tobacco 34 Root-rot Investigations Increase Value of Land 35 Tobacco Root-rot in Relation to Crop Rotation 36 Tobacco Seed Improvement 36 Root Hardiness of Seedling Apple Roots 37 T N T as a Land Clearing Explosive 38 Machinery for Land Drainage 39 Tractor Information Gathered 39 ' Steel Forms for Septic Tank Construction 40 Making War Chemicals From Corn Cobs 40 Some New Factors in the Production of Silage 41 A Simpler Metljpd of Milk Examination 42 Flavor of Pasteurized Cheddar Cheese 43 Coagulation of Milk in Condensed Milk 43 The Necessity of Mineral Substances in Animal Nutrition 44 Effect of Lime Added to Grain-straw Rations on Reproduction of Cattle 44 The Relation of Sulphur to Plant Growth 45 Chlorine as Related to Plant Growth 45 Influence of Grain Diet on Production of Still-born Pigs 46 Effect of Organic Nutrients' on Growth and Reproduction 46 Home-Grown Rations for Milk Production 47 Leg Weakness in Cbickens 48 Lime Requirements for Chickens 49 Presence of Fat-Soluble Vitamine in Root Crops 49 Is Yellow Corn Better Feed Than White Corn? 50 The Effect of Heat on the “Anti-scurvy” Properties of Milk Products 51 The Stability of Water-soluble Vitamines 52 Soybean Oil Experiments Continued .7 53 Inheritance of Milk and Meat Production in Cattle 53 Studies of Inheritance in Pigeons 54 'T.’he Tenancy Problem 55 Leasing Systems in Wisconsin 55 Progress of the Soil Survey 56 Uses to Which Soil Maps Are Put 58 Availability of Rock Phosphate in Relation to Soil Leaching 60 The Function of Lime in Plants 60 Relation of Soil Acidity to Plant and Legume Bacteria 60 Improvements of Soil Acidity Tests 60 Fertilizer Needs of Peat Marshes 61 Pea Moth Menaces a Leading Wisconsin Industry 62 Potato Leafhopper Associated with' Tipburn 64 Green Clover Worm Affects Beans 65 Strawberry Crown Miner Pound 65 Studies of Johne's Disease 65 Immunization Against Contagious Abortion 66 Barley for Swine Feeding 67 Barley Versus Corn for Milk Cows 68 Barley Versus Oats for Work Horses 68 Importance of Barley for Stock Feeding 69 Skimmilk and Whey for Pigs 70 Fattening Steers Without Feeding Corn Grain 71 Publications 72 Experiments in Farming H. L. Russell and F. B. Morrison Foreword The growth of plant life is the foundation of all agricultural pros- perity. Consequently, the interest of the farmer in crops is always keen, but he is continually forced to struggle against climatic conditions that are often unfavorable, and also to adapt his crops to the character of the soil on which he lives. These conditions of nature limit the crops he can grow. He must therefore bow in submission and learn how he can ally himself with Nature so as to reap his reward. His problem is to adajDt his seed varieties to the soil and climate with which he is in contact and not attempt to grow the crops that are not adapted to his environment. Nature, left to herself, never reaches the pinnacle of ultimate success. It is just here that intelligent human effort is able to improve on natural conditions and reap a fuller reward for such ef- fort. The Agricultural Experiment Station is supported by public taxes for the purpose of making such experiments in agriculture as will test out the varying possibilities. It is cheaper for the state to make a mistake than it is for its several citizens, if thereby the individual farmer can be forewarned so he will not repeat the error. The prog- ress report of the station, therefore, gives the tentative finding’s of the year rather tlian await the finished results of experiments and their final publication. Tlie station regards it as its duty to mirror the mis- takes, the failui’es, and the negative results, as well as the successful effoi’ts and positive findings. Aiding an Infant Industry No better example of the influence of concerted action on the part of the Experiment Station in founding a new agricultural industry is af- forded than that which has been developed by A. II. Wright (Agronomy) in connection with hemj) culture in the state. During the season 1917-18, the growing of hemp, like most other agri- cnltiD’al industries, suffered considerably fi-oni the emergency of war. Fonsiderable capital ali’eady invested in heni]) mills would be of no value except for the )>ur})ose of handling the hemp ci’op. Din ing the war the demand for hemp fiber was very active, and at the signing of the ai’inis- tice all users of hemp fiber had large government oi’dei’s which wei’e then cancelled, with the result that the market for hemp fibe]- became very inactive. Last winter and spring the hemp business, therefore, underwent a period of great stress. Moreover, the necessity foi’ the 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 continuance of growing hemp to meet the national emergency no longer existed, and with the high prices for staple crops and the guaranteed price for wheat, the farmers’ interest in hemp-growing declined. Fur- thermore, the season of 1918 was relatively unfavorable for hemp cul- ture and the growers did not receive as satisfactory returns on their crop as in previous years. The results of these causes combined to decrease very materially the acreage of hemp planted in the spring of 1919. State Maintains Lead in Hemp Culture For the second year, Wisconsin continues to lead in hemp culture, having the largest acreage of hemp of any state in the union. While fig. 1.— one of the 11 hemp mills in WISCONSIN The fully equipped scutch mill has made possible the commercial production of hemp in Wisconsin. At these mills the retted stalks are dried and crushed, and the fiber is separated from the wood, cleaned, and baled. the total acreage in the United States has decreased from 28,800 acres in 1918 to 15,800 in 1919, Wisconsin gTew this year 4,750 acres, or near- ly one-third of the entire acreage in the United States. The crop this year has been one of the best that has ever been produced in the state. Sufifieient moisture during the growing season provided very satisfac- tory growth. The earlier maturity made it possible to harvest the crop which was retted sufficiently early in the fall to obtain the benefit of the fall rains. At this writing (November 1) 90 per cent of the hemp is well retted, and 75 per cent of it has already been shocked. The quality of the fiber produced has never been better than this year. Working With Grower and Miller Much aid has been given the grower in the matter of improving methods of handling. Hemp culture requires personal attention dur- w Experiments in Farming 5 ing certain stages. It needs a better seed bed than ordinary farm crops. The seed should be planted as early as the season will permit. It should be harvested as soon as mature; it should be taken from the swaths as soon as sufficiently retted; and it should be stacked as soon as dry. Inattention to any of these details impairs the quality of the fiber. Aid to the miller has been given in the matter of improving milling methods through the introduction of machinery which will handle more satisfactorily than heretofore the short, tangled fiber, known as tow. Practically one-third of the total fiber crop is in the form of tow, and heretofore this has been prepared in so unsatisfactory a manner as to make it unsalable. The tow market has been carefully investigated, not only in this country but in Europe. A study made of the machinery has resulted in the installation of improved tow-cleaning machinery in several of the mills, with the result that the quality of the product has been greatly improved. Considerable quantities of tow have been exported to the United Kingdom with success. Finding the Market It is one thing to grow a crop, but another problem to market it. It is useless to secure the cooperation of the farmer in raising a product unless he can be assured that an outlet can be found for his product. It has been necessary for Mr. Wright to study the entire fiber situ- ation throughout the world in order to be in a position to give proper suggestions to our Wisconsin growers and millers with reference to the disposal of their product. Just after the Civil War American hemp was used extensively by manufacturers in this country, but in recent years its use has gradually declined, until only a few manufacturers were using the American raw material in any considerable quantity. The primary reason for this lies in the fact that owing to careless and inefficient methods, the quality of the product was not only poor, l)ut very irregular in amount. No definite grades had been established and much of it was poorly cleaned. With the better preparation and grading of other fibers of less intrinsic value, spinners had gradually come to use the substitute products for hemp. Consequently, the supply of American hemp also became very erratic. The method of production encouraged wide varia- tions in acreage, and no organization of the industry existed which would permit of the use of a stable acreage each year. This condition was especially found in Kentucky, which was at one time the principal hemp-producing state in the union, where 18,000 acres were grown one year, and within two years’ time the acreage had fallen to 1,200. No manufacturer under these conditions can afford to invest the amount of capital in buildings, machinery, equipment, and advertising nec- essary for handling a product when he has no assurance of a stable supply of his raw material. 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 Much effort was spent this last year in trying to secure the co- operation of manufacturers in using hemp in a regular and steady manner and in establishing grades as to quality. Much assistance has been received from the Federal Department of Agriculture with whom this work has been cooperatively undertaken, the Na-\y Department at Washington, and the Boston Navy Yard. The chaotic condition of fig. 2— some important products made FROM HEMP Hemp is manufactured into such products as sewing threads, sacking twines, wrapping cords, binder twine, and oakum. affairs in Russia and other European countries which normally pro- duced much of the hemp used in the world, has resulted in a very great shortage of fiber in the United Kingdom and on the Continent. Special efforts have therefore been made to establish an active market for our Wisconsin product in these sections. During the last year over 100 tons of long fiber and tow have been exported to Great Britain. Cooperative work has been carried on with the United States Navy Department which uses annually from 300 to 500 tons of long fiber hemp. In past years this supply has come entirely from Kentucky. The Navy specifications for American hemp have been so prepared as Experiments in Farming 7 to preclude the possibility of our AVisconsin product being used. Investi- gations at Boston have resulted in trial tests being made by the Navy with our AA'isconsin hemp which have brought about a revision of the specifications in such a manner as to apply to the Wisconsin product. The result of this has been that three carloads have already been furnished the Navy Department for their use. The industry here in this state is now getting on a thoroughly well- established foundation. If we can avoid the imposition of get-rich- quick schemes on the part of unscrupulous promoters who have at- FIG. 3.— MANUFACTURING HEMP PRODUCTS 'J'hf! raw fiber from the Wisconsin scutch mills is sold to larfte American and European spinniiif,' comi)anies which manufacture the finisliod articles of commerce. temj)ted to entei' this business, it will be very much to the advantage of the industiy. A number of these have seemed a foothold in other states, in all cases resulting in disaster, not only to the stockholders but to the henij) business in genei'al. Efforts made to i)romote heni}) conii)anies based uf)on new and jiatented devices for separating the fiber from the straw have been made in this state, but so far they have not been able to obtain any material foothold. Hemp Seed Situation The (jiiestion of seed still continues to be a troublesome matter. Ilere- tofoie not much success has attended effoifs in lu-odncing hemp seed in this state under commercial conditions. Onr season is too short to matui’e seed of the variety which we now grow for fiber, ronse-quent ly we must depend ui)on other I'egions to supply the necessaiy seed. The 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 growing of hemp seed is quite a different business from the growing of the fiber crop, and with the high price of corn, Kentucky farmers heretofore in the business of hemp seed production have greatly reduced their acreage, with the result that hemp seed was phenomenally high this last season. To protect our Wisconsin mills a complete survey of the seed stocks in the country has been made and contracts have been closed with growers in Missouri which give assurance that suf- ficient seed will be forthcoming to meet the needs this coming year. Considerable experimental progress has been made in developing a strain of hemp that will mature seed in this climate and still produce fiber of a satisfactory quality. Tests made with this variety, known as the Ferramington, promise well, so it is possible that Wisconsin growers may in time be able to produce their own seed. General Outlook for Hemp Industry At present the market for long hemp fiber is very active. There is a world shortage of competing fibers. The Wisconsin fiber is now well and favorably known upon the world’s markets, and orders are being received in greater number than we can supply. Growers for this past season have received good returns. The average yield this year for the whole state, according to Mr. Wright, is about 1,100 pounds an acre of total fiber, which at the prevailing price of $8.75 a 100 pounds to the grower for fiber and tow combined gives him about $95 to $100 an acre for his crop. In general it costs about the same to grow an acre of hemp as it does to produce an acre of corn and harvest it in the form of silage. Fiber Flax Grows Well in Upper Wisconsin While it has been well established that seed flax can be sucessfully grown in Wisconsin, but little attention as yet has been given to the production of flax for fiber purposes. Mr. Wright has started ex- periments in this direction this last year in which trials with fiber flax have been conducted on practically all the leading soil types in the state. The tentative deductions made so far indicate that fiber flax can be gTown satisfactorily in various portions of the state but that it is especially promising in the northern counties. It is yet a question, however, whether this crop is of sufficient profit to warrant encourag- ing the grower in this direction. On this aspect of the problem further information must be accumulated before any conclusions are warrantable. Sorghum Growing is Resumed While sorghum growing used to be an industry of considerable im- portance in this state, of late years this crop has fallen into disfavor. The shortage in sugar for the last two or three years has, however, en- couraged a resumption of the business. The estimated acreage grown Experiments in Farming 9 this season is about 3,500 acres, an increase of 1,000 acres over that of the previous year. Nearly all of the existing sorghum mills are lo- cated south and west of a line drawn from Burnett County to Racine County. Efforts have been made by Mr. Wright to improve the seed and study improved methods of manufacturing the syrup. Two strains of seed have been selected and developed here at the station and wide- ly distributed. Over 100 growers this last year were furnished seed of two varieties, Dodgeville Amber and Mazo Amber. These were grown in competitive tests wuth practically every strain of any importance that had been grown in the state. The results confirm the conclusion of last year, namely, that varieties from states south and southwest are not well suited to Wisconsin conditions because of their late maturity. FIG. 4.— ONLY PURE EARLY AMBER SHOULD BE GROWN There is now an ample supply of carefully selected, pure amber sorghum seed available in Wisconsin. Possibilities of Sorghum Manufacture Sorghum is an especially promising crop for the sandy soils in the central counties of the state, as it witlistands drouth better than any other intertilled field crop which can be grown. These soils warm up quickly in the spring, thus permitting of earlier planting and con- sequently an earlier maturing of the crop. Necessity of Improving Manufacturing Methods It is possible to materially enlarge and improve the sorghum industry of the state, but to accomplish such a result the methods used in manu- facture should be radically changed in several parlicnlars. Much of the crop is handled, so far as manufacturing methods are concerned. 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 in such a crude and inefficient manner that less than a third of the total crop is utilized. The stalks are stripped of their leaves largely by hand, and the leaves wasted. The tops or heads are removed in the same manner. Where crushed in low-power mills, less than 50 per cent of the juice is extracted from the stalks. Hand labor, which has for so long a time been used, is necessarily high. The substitution of mod- ern equipment in the manufacture of sorghum syrup would eliminate much of the hand labor now used in the fields and would untilize 90 per cent of the entire crop. Where sorghum is grown it can be harvested with a corn-binder and delivered to the syrup mills just as corn is de- livered to the silage cutters. The mill removes the heads and separates EIG. 5.— MANY WISCONSIN SOEGHUM MILLS USE STEAM FOR EVAPORATING The better equipped mills handle a comparatively large acreage of sorghum and considerably reduce the labor involved. the leaves from the stalks.. The seed is run through a dryer and threshed and commands a ready market. Leaves and other material can be run directly into silos and when so handled make an excellent quality of silage. Stalks are crushed in high-powered machines, con- sisting of a battery of two or more grinders, which extract 75 per cent or more of the juice, leaving not to exceed 5 per cent of sugar, approx- imately in the crushed cane. The bagasse, which is then comparative!}^ dry, can be used for fuel and furnishes 80 per cent of the amount nec- essary for fuel purposes in the syrup factory. Modern methods of syrup-making, in which the juices are filtered through mechanical pressure filters and boiled down in vacuum pans, eliminate much of the loss which obtains where the syrup is skimmed and handled in the old-fashioned manner. Factories using these up-to- date methods are successfuly operated in other sections of the United States, and it is unquestionably true that these processes can be ap- Experiments in Farming 11 plied to the development of the industry in this state. There is a good field for the development of sorghum in Wisconsin, and efforts are now being directed toward the establishment in the state of a factory equipped with modern methods. Breeding Corn for Upper Wisconsin The expansion of the dairy business in the northern part of the state has necessitated continued efforts to find a type of corn that would be adapted to forage needs in this region. E. J. Delwiche (Agronomy) has now spent many years in experimental work at the northern branch stations with the aim of improving the type of corn. Efforts have been made to secure early maturity of a type that would have a suf- ficiently large-sized stalk to be suitable for silage, and also a variety that would ripen with a certainty each year, so as to produce crib corn where the seasons were short or very cold. While such standard varieties as Wisconsin No. 7, No. 8, and No. 12 are of particular value for silage purposes, and can be recommended highly for many localities in the state, they are not of sufficiently early maturity for wide-spread use in all sections of the northem part of the state. Wisconsin No. 8, while the earliest of the varieties above mentioned, has been maintained with considerable difficulty even at the Spooner station, where condi- tions are more favorable than the average for the northern half of the state. Because of low altitude and highly favoring soil conditions, it is possible to grow this variety of corn on the lighter and warmer soil type with greater success than upon the heavier types farther north. A Dent Corn for Upper Wisconsin Wisconsin No. 25. Special efforts have been directed for several years toward the perfection of what is known as Wisconsin No. 25, a selection from a cross between Wisconsin No. 8 and a small, but very early maturing yellow dent,* which possessed many of the requirements for the early, good-sized variety suited for silage and crib purposes. At the Spooner station this variety has been found to ripen within 100 days, and with a good stand produces 60 to 90 bushels of shelled corn to an acre. This variety this year was ripe enough to select seed on August 23, and was fully ripe on August 30. It yielded 85 bushels an acre. It has now been tried out for a sufficiently long period of time and disseminated under widely varying conditions to warrant its being generally used where dent corns are to be cmi)loyed. Mr. Delwiche estimates that fully 4,000 acres were grown in the north this season, and in tlie hands of the farmers the yields i-anged from 40 to 65 bushels and from 8 to 15 tons of silage an acre. Chippewa Flint. For still earlier maturing varieties suitable to all conditions of soil and climate found in the northei-n portion of the state, * Mr. Delwiche .secured the male parent .stock u.sed in thi.s cro.ss from A. J. Roprers, .Tr., of Beulah, Michi«an, in BMl. It had been .suc- ces.sfully srown in the cool summer climate on the Bake Michigan shore. 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 FIG. 6.— WISCONSIN NO. 25 MATURES IN THE NORTH This pedigreed variety can be depended npon to mature under northern Wisconsin conditions. The ears are of good size and type. FIG. 7.— CHIPPEWA FLINT IS A NEW VARIETY This northern flint corn is a very early type suited to cool climatic conditions. The stalk is lower and the number and size of ears less than Wisconsin No. 25, but it matures where dent corn does not. The yield is higher than that of most flint corns. Experiments in Farming 13 a small, but Avell-eared variety of Hint corn lias been developed tlirougii hybridizing and subsequent selection. The parent stocks used in tliis breeding work were two strains of pure white flint corn secured from the Bad River Indian Reservation (iVshland County) in northern Wis- consin and the White Earth Reservation in northern Minnesota, where they had each been grown for many years by the Indians on these reservations. This corn is somewhat low in height, ranging from 5 to 6 Y 2 feet, grows generally two ears to the stalk, the average weight of ears being about two-thirds of that of Wisconsin No. 25. Under good soil conditions the yield of this corn on the Ashland station (heavy red clay) this year was about 80 bushels an acre. While this variety is small for silage purposes, it is suitable for crib corn and is well adapted to be hogged off because of the low height of the ears. For the present we call this variety the Chippewa Flint. Cold-resistant Corn Distributed Mention was made in last year’s report of the work which B. D. Leith (Agronomy) has done in developing a corn which is more re- sistant to the influence of cold than the ordinary varieties. This corn has been bred from the Wisconsin No. 12 or Golden Glow as a base, and has been produced by selecting ears, the kernels of which have withstood light freezing. The experiments made at Madison, where plots of this grain were compared with ordinary types of corn, indi- cated that it was able to mature from a week to ten days earlier than the parent varieties, a condition brought about primarily by the fact that this grain will germinate at a somewhat lower temperature than that which is usually needed for corn. This enables the seed to be planted about a week to ten days earlier than the usual corn planting time. This season seed has been distributed among farmers along the Lake ^Michigan shore, in the north central and northwestern portions of the state, regions where growers have usually experienced considerable dif- ficulty in maturing the ordinary Golden Glow strain. Instructions given to cooperating farmers were to plant this corn about a week earlier than usual corn-planting time, and at the same time to plant some of the Golden Glow or other customary variety which tliey were in the habit of using on their farms. The results of these field trials have shown the superior merits of this cold-resistant strain. W. G. Streiber of Elkhart Lake, Sheboygan County, planted 14 rows of the cold-resistant type in the same field with his own stock of Golden Glow. Observations taken in July .showed a better development of this plot in comparison with the ordi- naiy field crop. Not only was it more luxuriant in growth, but it was more vigorous. The difference between these two ci’ops was also con- firmed again by examination of the field on August 2G, the cold- resi.stant corn being larger, a few days earlier, the stalks a deep green and somewhat heavier in growth. 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 < ~ ■ 1 - ■.- . ' 7 ; FIG. 8.— A' COLD-RESISTAXr CORN DEVELOPED FROM MTSCOXSIX XO. 12 The large, vigorous stalks and leaves, the early germination of the seed, the rapid growth in cool weather which keeps back ordinary Xo. 12, are characteristics of the new strain liked by the fanners who have grown it. Experiments in Farming 15 Jacobson Brothers of Green Bay grew the corn this year and their statement is that it was more vigorous and deeper green all smiimer than was the common No. 12 in the same field. During a wet, cold spell which seemed to check the growth of No. 12, this corn continued its growth, and it was mature on August 26 with large stalks and ears. In the field of Frank Muscovitch of Shawano, the ‘‘cold” strain had a larger and more vigorous appearance in the field than the common stock of No. 12 and showed a more advanced stage of maturity. W. G. Burkhart of Pembine, Marinette County, says, “I consider the corn of great merit and expect to plant no other next year. It was the best piece of corn that I saw this year, and I was over the county quite a little. Several of my neighbors want seed from it.” Norman J. Hanson, Sparta, states that he is very well satisfied with the corn. “In fact,” he says, “I do not think that I could ask for any better.” This season was, of course, particularly favorable for the maturity of all corn, but so far as results have been secured from field observers, no unsatisfactory report has been received, and the only cases where no differences could be noted were where the corn was planted too late to give it a fair chance to demonstrate what it would do if planted at an earlier date. Breeding Sweet Corn The rapid expansion of the canning industry in this state has led the Agronomy Department to undertake experiments to see if it is not possible to improve the type of seed used in sweet .corn cultivation. The canning industry in the state has thus far been built up mainly on the pea crop, but it is possible to utilize the canneries further by can- ning sweet corn, which matures soon after the pea crop is harvested. But little has been done heretofore on the improvement of seed used for this purpose. Varieties have been crossed to such an extent under field conditions that it is hard to secure definite strains of corn for canning purposes. E. D. Holden (Agronomy) has undertaken experiments in this direc- tion, working in conjunction with the Columbus Canning Factory. The problems of importance with reference to seed of this type are early maturity, high yields, and good quality of stock. Results have been accumulated on the number of ears to a stalk, a factor which heretofore lias not been given much attention. Field exjieriments were made where selections were secured fi’om 100 hills, lots in which each single stalk bore one and two ears of corn apiece. When these two lots of ears wei-e run through the cutter at the factory, to determine the percentage of com to cob, it was found that fully twice as much corn was ob- tained from the two-eared as from the single-eared stalk. This gives a valuable guide to mass field selection of seed. It was noted that stalks bearing two ears were larger and more vigorous than the average. Similar tests made with sevei-al varieties of sweet corn, including Coun- try Gentleman and Stowell Evergreen, indicated the desirability of 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 using as a base for future selection the two-eared type. Seed has there- fore been selected in sufficient quantities this fall (1919) to plant the seed fields for the following year so that selections thus obtained may be used to improve the varieties. Sweet corn culture is, generally speaking, a side line in the agricul- ture of the “cannery” districts, but inasmuch as the only portion of the crop which is sold to the cannery is the “snapped off” ears which are hauled to the factory, it is possible to secure from one-half to two-thirds as much silage an acre from the “harvested” sweet corn as is obtained from field silage corn. As no specialized methods are required in the cultivation of this crop, the fact that the roasting ears are capable of being sold at the spot cash market, makes sweet corn cultivation ad- vantageous in those sections where the product can be disposed of at the canneries. Oats for Rich Land Many of our soils that are now becoming richer through the develop- ment of livestock, or river-bottom lands which are very high in native fertility, present a problem with reference to the growth of oats. Wis- consin Pedigree No. 1 has always shown a most excellent performance with reference to yield. An average for eleven years on our Madison station farm shows a crop of 70.9 bushels. While this oat is more generally adapted to the average Wisconsin condition than any of the other pedigree varieties which the Station has developed. Pedigree No. 7 ( Kherson variety) has been tested out by Mr. Leith under the peculiarly adverse conditions above mentioned, and has proved its superiority even over Pedigree No. 1. An 8-year average of Pedigree No. 7 shows a yield of 74.4 bushels. The average yield of the Pedigree No. 1 for these same 8 years was 71.8 bushels. Special efforts have been made to develop an early oat, as such a type would have a decided advantage over late oats in this section of the state. While early maturity may frequently escape damage froiu rust and lodging, and where conditions require the late planting of oats, these types have been found to be especially valuable. At present the early varieties of oats are small-kemeled and some of the best of those are yellow in color. Attempts have been made this year to cross strains possessing the desirable quality of earliness with the larger-kerneled varieties of late oats. From over 100 crosses and se- lections, three promising strains have been selected and have been started with reference to their pedigree history. The two-year average yields of these which we have secured up to the present show a yield from 46 to 51 bushels an acre. Winter Ryes Compared Of late much attention has been given in the press to the value of Rosen rye, a Russian type which has been introduced especially in Michigan. This new variety of rye has been grown by Mr. Leith for Experiments in Farming 17 the last two years, and while the knowledge collected is of short dura- tion compared with that regarding our own pedigree varieties, it is im- portant that the farmers of the state have these results presented to them for their study. While Rosen rye made a favorable growth here at Madison in 1918, the yield was low and quality poor. When com- pared with Wisconsin Pedigree No. 2, the following results were se- cured : ROSEN RYE COMPARED Pedigree No. 2 Rosen WITH PEDIGREE NO. 2 Yield Wt. per Bushel 42.1 54.0 25.6 48.8 These results certainly do not indicate that it would be desirable on the silt loams in the southern part of the state to substitute the Rosen strain for the pedigree varieties that have so far proved successful in this state. Winter Safer than Spring Wheat In 1919 spring wheat was almost a total failure due to the effect of the black rust. In general the season was unfavorable for high yields of small grains. The hot, dry spell late in June hastened the early maturity of the kernels before they were fully formed. With the re- sumption of interest in the matter of wheat culture in the state, it is important to note the relative advantage of winter- and spring-sown grains. The following data prepared by Mr. Leith from our records show the average yields of both spring and winter wheat of the pedigree varieties that have been grown in test plots at Madison. WINTER WHEATS Yield (Bu. per acre) No. of Years PfifliVi'Pf* 2, Tnrkpv Rpfl 35.8 9 Ppdierrep 14, Tnrkev Rpcl 33.7 7 Wisconsin 66, Kharkov 609 30.5 6 Wisconsin 64, Kharkov 208 30.5 5 SPRING WHEATS Wisconsin 50, Marquis Wisconsin 48, Marquis 25.3 21.5 Wisconsin 49. Prelude 18.9 Wis'^'onsln 60. Bearded Red Fife 17.5 T’edigree ,35. B'ue Stem 15.8 Wisconsin 46, Red Fife 13.2 Of the spring wheat grown, in spite of two years of severe rust out- breaks, Marquis (Wisconsin No. 50) produced 25.3 busliels a year. But the general trend of the data shows conclusively, that the yield of winter wheat is, on the whole, much better than the spring varieties, and as it is less liable to a more or less complete crop failure, it is to be recoiiiMiended generally in place of spring wheat. 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 Winter Wheat for the North Continuation of the efforts at the branch experiment stations in the northern part of the state also reveals the fact, according to Mr. Delwiche, that winter wheat is a materially better crop, especially at Ashland, than spring wheat. Even in 1918, one of the worst seasons on record for winterkilling, the winter varieties nearly equalled the spring varieties in yield. The average yield for Marquis (spring type) for four years from 1916 to 1919, inclusive, is 14.9 bushels an acre, while pedigree No. 408, Bacska (winter variety), for the same period at Ashland has yielded an average of 32 bushels an acre. This period included a season of exceptional severity for the winterkilling of winter varieties, and the Marquis spring wheat rusted so completely this year that it produced practically no grain. By reason of the severe winterkilling which occurred in 1917 and a reduction of the experimental work to a minimum because of war con- ditions, only 17 winter varieties were planted in the fall of 1918. The larger number of varieties tested were practically immune from the black rust, a matter of no small importance in the growth of this crop. The impos'sibility of making definite and final recommendations that are applicable to large areas of the country, is indicated in the results which have been obtained upon the red clay at Superior Demonstration Station in comparison with those obtained at Ashland. It has been our experience that spring wheats have not been affected by the rust at Superior nearly to the degree that they are in the Ashland section. In fact, the comparative absence of the rust in this region makes it pos- sible to secure fully as large jdelds from spring as from winter varieties. Just why this is so has not as yet been ascertained. Time of Winter Wheat Seeding As winter wheat in an average Wisconsin rotation must usually follow silage corn, it is of utmost importance to know how late a per- son can safely plant this crop. Before silage can be removed and the ground prepared for wheat, it is often as late as the last Aveek in Sep- tember. Consequently, the farmer is likely to feel that this late period of planting makes impossible a successful crop. The following table by Mr. Leith giving the yields of Avinter wheat when sown at different periods indicates the relation the yield bears to the time of planting. DATES OF SEEDING WINTER WHEAT (Bushels to an acre) Seeded From 1915 1916 1917 1919 Average Aug. 20 to 26 37.4 37.4 A nor 21 to 2nd week in Sept 37.6 36.6 37.1 Sept. 13 to Sept. 26 43.0 31.0 45.8 33.6 38.4 Sept. 26 to Oct. 10.' 47.3 32.6 36.3 28.8 36.3 Oct. 11 to Oct. 20 28.7 28.2 28.5 Experiments in Farming 19 The data for 1918 are not included because of the very severe winter- killing which occurred that year. This table shows that the optimum time for seeding winter wheat is around September 20. However, seedings made as late as October 10 did not suffer very greatly in yield. Last fall (1919) a small acreage of winter wheat was planted in the state because the ground was too dry to plow until nearly the middle of September. Then many farmers gave up the idea of winter wheat planting because they felt that they could not get the seed in on time. However, planting could easily have been completed by September 25 and after that period of time the wheat would have made a sufficient growth before winter to have insured a good stand. Improvement Work on Garden and Canning Peas For a number of years experiments have been carried on in connec- tion with the northern stations in the matter of improving the varieties FIG. 9.— seed from THIS PLOT WENT TO FARMERS The rJi.ssemination of high-yielding-, pure strains of field and canning peas grown at the Ashland Experiment Station, has greatly advanced pea-growing in Upper Wis- con.«in. of field and garden jieas. In tlie main tliis work lias lieeu jierformed at Ashland upon tlie lieavy red clay, and also on the lighter soils at Spooner. Several pedigree varieties have been developed and dissem- inated that promise great improvement for the future develoimient of this industry. An examination of the field ]>ea industry in the state, shows that in many instances’ the fanners’ seed is badly mixed. This can only be imjiroved by throwijig out these mixed varieties and in- stalling in their stead, good, jiedigreed stock. Mi-. Delwiche at Ash- land has had notable success with pedigreed Scob-h and jiedigreed Green varieties. Several hundred bushels of selected stock ol‘ these types have been developed which will be put ujioii the mai’ket for seed jmrjioses next year. 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 Special efforts have also been made with reference to the improve- ment of canning varieties. In breeding these varieties it must be kept constantly in mind that the main essentials to be secured are yield and uniformity of ripening. Climatic conditions seem to be unusually de- sirable for the growth of these crops in northern Wisconsin. The seed grown has been disseminated from the experiment station at Ashland and now a large number of the farmers are more or less familiar with these types and doubtless considerable quantities of seed stock will soon be grown in this region. This last year a canning factory was built at Marengo. The cool climate which prevails in this section, the comparative immunity from FIG. 10.— THE NORTH I.IKES SOYBEANS Especially on light soils is the growing of soybeans in favor. This crop, produced at Ashland, yielded 3 tons of hay. Seed yields reported from the same place ranged from 32 to 45 bushels an acre. fungous diseases which atfect this crop, and the general favorable con- ditions for the cultivation of peas, make it more than probable that this section will soon be an important region for the cultivation, not only of the field but of the canning varieties as well. Soybeans, a Staple Crop for Sandy Lands of Upper Wisconsin Extensive tests and breeding work with soybeans have brought out veiy clearly that this plant, though one of comparatively new introduc- tion, is destined to be grown as a staple crop on our sandy land. By means of variety tests and selection of pure-line strains, varieties have been obtained which are adapted to northern Wisconsin conditions. Abundant crops of seed, hay, and silage can be secured each season. Yields reported by the Agronomy Department in 1919 ranged from 32 to 45 bushels of seed an acre. With linseed oilmeal selling at $72 a ton the possibility of growing soybeans as a concentrated feed for cattle looks very promising. The fact that soybeans can best be ma- Experiments in Farming 21 tured on sandy lands makes the crop of extreme value for this soil type. Thousands of acres of such soils in central and northern Wis- consin can be made to produce good crops of this valuable plant and thus add greatly to the agricultural wealth of the state. Of the varieties tested, the Pedigree No. 1 strain of the early black has given the best results as an average. Seed of this variety has been widely disseminated and is available in considerable quantities. It is estimated that from 3,000 to 5,000 bushels of this strain has been grown in 1919 by farmers in the northern and central sections of the state. Necessity op Scarifying Legume Seed With the very high prices prevailing for the last few years for red clover, sweet clover, and alfalfa seed, the matter of germination as- sumes greater importance than ever. These legumes, if hand-hulled, almost invariably contain a large percentage of so-called ‘‘hard” seed, which have such an impenetrable seed coat as to exclude moisture to a degree that prevents uniform and rapid germination. With hand-hull- ing, especially with sweet clover and the hardy varieties of alfalfa, as the Grimm, Baltic, and Cossack, the percentage of hard seed may run as high as 95 per cent. Where the seed is machine-hulled, there is usually sufficient scratching of the seed coat to reduce this difficulty, but not sufficient to insure satisfactory and immediate germination. L. F. Graber (Agronomy) has studied for several seasons the results on scarification where the seed has been treated with the Ames hulling and scarifying machine, which was perfected at the Iowa State College. The seeds are blown through a tube, bringing them forcibly in contact w’ith sand paper so that the seed coat is scratched or much of it actually removed. This permits of a ready absorption of moisture and prompt germination of the seed. In the case of sweet clover the effect of scarification was to increase the germinability from 5 to 95 per cent. Similar results were obtained with alfalfa seed, although to a much less degree. Grimm alfalfa, containing from 20 to 25 per cent of hard seed, was improved in germination from 15 to 17 per cent by scarifica- tion. With Grimm seed worth 60 cents a pound, the value of scarifica- tion in such cases amounts to from $9 to $10 a hundred weight. Where seed is recleaned after scarification, there is an average loss of about 6 per cent in seed particles, dust and seed coat hulls. All clovers and alfalfa seeds do not require scarification. Results obtained at this station confirm those of the Ames station as to the de- sirability of scarifying seed where the seed contains more than 10 per cent of so-called hard seed. Unquestionably this is a matter of con- siderable importance to the seed houses, and as a result of these studies, several large seed concerns in the state have secured scarifying ma- chines, and have tested their products in this manner. Sudan Grass for Forage As a result of four seasons’ work, G. B. Mortimer (Agronomy) has added to our knowledge with reference to the adaptability of Sudan 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 grass as a forage crop under Wisconsin conditions. It is apparent that this gTass can be safely added to onr list of forage plants, as it yields fairly well, averaging between three and four tons of cured liay an acre each year for the period tested. The best results have been ob- tained where the crop was seeded with a grain drill, especially where grown for hay, althoug'h seeding in cultivated rows gave good results. On account of the freedom with which the plant tillers, heavy seedings are unnecessary, especially on fertile soils. When broadcasted, from 20 to 25 pounds of seed an acre is sufficient. Sudan grass should never be planted before corn planting time. From that time until June 10 gives the best results. EIG. 11.— SOYBEANS AND SUDAN GRASS AT THE CUTTING STAGE To meet the objection that the Sudan crop is low in protein, soybeans are seeded with the grass. There is some shattering, but the hay is, on the whole, very good. The chief criticism with reference to this crop is its low protein con- tent. Mr. Mortimer has made experiments this last season on growing this crop in combination with soybeans and cowpeas. Hay made under these conditions was easy to produce, the loss of leaves from soybeans in handling being very small. The presence of Sudan grass helps ma- terially in this respect. Cowiieas, on the other hand, proved of little value in this combination, as the plants made but little growth. Mixing Timothy and Alfalfa One great disadvantage which alfalfa suffers in Wisconsin is the danger of winterkilling. Where the alfalfa is killed out, weeds and bluegrass are likely to develop to take the place of the dead alfalfa Experiments in Farming 23 plants. Mr. Graber has experimented upon the desirability of mixing timothy seed with alfalfa before seeding. In practice, 5 pounds of timothy are used with 15 pounds of alfalfa seed to an acre. Ex- perience has shown the desirability of this method of handling the crop. A four-year old plot of alfalfa and timothy in which over 50 per cent of the alfalfa killed out the second winter, has shown abso- lutely no blue grass or weed infestation, whereas crops of straight al- falfa that were winterkilled have been badly overrun with bluegrass. It has been noted that the hardier timothy plants stool out and thicken up quickly. Growing upon the decaying nitrogenous material offered by the decomposition of the alfalfa roots produces a very strong and luxuriant growth. If the alfalfa is thinned out by winterkilling, timothy thickens very markedly. If on the other hand the alfalfa remains a good stand, the timothy stand continues to be thin. Where timothy is sown with alfalfa, it is cut very early, just after heading out, at which stage it is much higher in protein and more digestible than later. The second and third cuttings will be a practically pure alfalfa growth, as the timothy under normal conditions makes no ap- preciable growth after it has once been cut. Lyon and Bizzell of Cornell have found that the growing of timothy with alfalfa and clover also increased the protein content of the crop to a considerable degree. Comparative Drouth Resistance of Alfalfa and Clover Cooperative experiments carried out by members of the Alfalfa Or- der with Mr. Graber on the drouth resistance of alfalfa compared with clover indicate that the alfalfa is decidedly more resistant toward drouth than either red or alsike clover. At Wauwatosa a plot of alsike clover and Grimm alfalfa showed an excellent stand, but following a severe summer drouth, the alsike presented a very thin stand while the adjacent Grimm made a perfect stand. These results were continued this year, showing a marked difference in stand and yield. On the Pabst Stock Farm the same result was obtained between red clover and alsike. This condition is undoubtedly explainable on the basis of the more widely and finely branched and comparatively shallower root sys- tem of the clovers, compared with the alfalfa plants. As the clovers are more dependent upon the surface soil moisture than alfalfa, they are more likely to suffer when placed under adverse conditions. Drouth-resistant Qualities of Grimm Alfalfa The general claim is made that llie types of liardy alfalfa, including Grimm, Baltic, and Cossack varieties, are more drouth-resistant than common alfalfa. Experiences reported by members of the Alfalfa Or- der of the Experiment Association, howevei’, do not, accoi'ding to Mr. Graber, agree with this view. Expei-iments made on the fai-m of Roy Dibble, Pewaukee, where Grimm and common alfalfa were seeded with a nurse crop, showed the quicker revival of the common alfalfa sti’ain 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 compared with the Grimm variety, where a diy spell had occuiTed which seriously affected the growth of the crop. H. M. Longiey of Dousman also compared Grimm and common vari- eties. With the advent of fall rains, the common revived much more quickly from a summer drouth, while the Grimm failed to develop. The possible explanation of this condition may be due to the fact that the hardy varieties have a tendency to produce a higher percentage of more widely branched roots, which by reason of their shallow position in the soil may make it more susceptible to drouth. Sunflowers as a Silage Crop In certain districts of the West where corn does not mature suffic- iently for silage, smiflowers have recently received considerable attention as a silage crop. Especially in arid or semi-arid districts, encouraging results have been obtained with the crop. Experiments -are being car- ried on by Mr. Holden and F. B. Morrison, G. C. Humphrey, and R. S. Hulce (Animal Husbandly) to determine whether this crop is suitable to Wisconsin conditions. A field of Mammoth Russian sunfiowers was grown at the Experiment Station Farm at Madison and smaller areas on the branch experiment stations. The seed was sown by means of a corn planter, the rows being spaced at various distances apart. The sunfiowers grew from 8 to 14 feet in height, with an averag’e of about 10 feet. Especially at Madison, the sunflowers after heading out were attacked by a serious epidemic of rust. This, together with a period of drouth, caused most of the leaves to dry up. The crop was cut for silage early in September when the seeds were in the dough, the yield of forage ranging from 6V2 to 26^2 tons, depending on the rate of seeding. Probably due to the fact that most of the leaves had been killed by rust and drouth, the silage was unsatisfactory^, and dairy cows could not be induced to eat it. Furiher trials will be carried on next year to determine whether better results can be secured if the crop is ensiled at an earlier stage of maturity. Until more satisfactory results are secured, sunflowers cannot be recommended as a substitute for com under our humid conditions. Harvesting Soybeans The rapid introduction of soybeans as a legume crop in this state requires further experience with reference to methods of harvesting. Comparisons have been made this last year by H. W. Albertz (Agron- omy) using various methods for the harvesting of the crop. The use of the mower with a bunching attachment proved successful, but the greatest objection was that the frequent handling of the vines caused more or less loss due to shattering. The grain-binder can be success- fully used if the beans are cut just before the last leaves drop off. Trials with a combined harvester and thresher that has been used for some years in the eastern states, indicated the successful application of this method to harvesting the crop. This machine threshes the beans Experiments in Farming 25 FIG. 12.— A I.UXURT.ANT GROWTH OF SUNFLOWERS Heavy yields of sunflowers can bo seeurofl for silage, but the silage made the past year on the station farm was unsatisfactory, probably duo to injury from rust and drouth. 26 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 from the vines as they stand in the field. The principal feature of the machine is a chain-driven beater which consists of a rapid revolving cylinder with steel or cast-iron teeth. One team and two men are re- quired to operate the machine. The second man stands behind the beater to throw out the vines which the beater removes from the stalks. To get the best results with this machine, the plants must be mature, the pods dry and ready to shatter. While there is a slight waste with this harvester, under favorable conditions it appears that the saving of time and labor will more than compensate for such loss. Vitality or Soybean Nodule Bacteria in Soils Fields once inoculated with nodule-fonning bacteria from soybeans do not require reinoculation under ordinary conditions. Experiments carried out this last year by Mr. Albertz indicate that soybean nodule bacteria are capable of living under field conditions for a period of 17 years. In 1902 a field on the Hill Farm was planted to soybeans (Early Black). This season Ito San variety was used, the seed be- ing planted upon a portion of the same field that had been earlier occupied with soybeans. An examination of roots made during the summer showed no nodules on that portion of the field which had never grown soybeans, while all of the plants examined on the other portion of the field had nodules. A Truog acidity test of the soil indicated a slight to a strong acidity. It is apparent that the bacteria capable of producing nodules on this legume tolerate soils which have a medium to a stroi^* acid reaction, and will not require reinoculation if they are once inoculated in the course of rotation. Barley Stripe Investigations with Reference to Time of Planting In order to study the infiuence of air and soil temperature as well as moisture condition on the development of the parasite of barley stripe, Mr. Holden carried out plot experiments where seed used for planting was taken from fields showing a hea^^ infection of barley stripe. The results of these experiments indicate that the earliest plantings were most highly infected and that the infection grew less as lateness of planting progressed. Plant Pathology Investigations During the past year a number of important pathological investiga- tions have been resumed that had been subjected to interruption by absence of staff members on war duties. The scope of the work of this department has further been materially expanded through the development of cooperative relations with the Bureau of Plant Indus- try of the United States Department of Agriculture, particularly with I’eference to cereal diseases, truck and forage crops. Experiments in Farming 27 The work which heretofore has been carried on in cooperation with the H. J. Heinz Pickle Company, relative to the investigation of pickle diseases, has been extended through the cooperation of the Na- tional Pickle Packers^ Association. Also, a cooperative relation has been established with the National Kraut Packers’ Association, which will have for its purpose the object of increasing the seed of the newly developed strains of kraut cabbage which are found resistant to the ‘‘yellows.” Eolations with the Iowa Experiment Station in regard to the development of “yellows” resistant strains of Copenhagen market cabbage, have also been started. Overcoming Cherry Leaf Spot The work of the last few years by Gr. W. Keitt (Plant Pathology) carried on at Sturgeon Bay on the cherry leaf spot, the most serious plant disease which infests the cherry, has resulted in the complete control of this serious trouble. Much of the disease can be eliminated by clean cultural practices before the blooming period. Plowing under the leaves greatly lessens the amount of primary infection. Experi- ments made this season were on the comparative merits of boideaux mixture and lime sulfur as to amount of dilution, most desirable time of application, and number of applications. In general both of these preparations control the disease satisfactorily and with approximately equal efficieney. But slight injury to the foliage was noted; however, in the ease of bordeaux mixture, where the strength of the solution was 3-3-50 (3 pounds copper sulfate, 3 pounds stone lime and water to make 50 gallons) and lime sulfur in 1-40 solution, satisfactory results were ob- tained. Two applications of spray, one when the petals fall and a second about two weeks later, control the disease. If, however, as was the case this last season, considerable late infection developed in badly infested orchards, a third application should be made soon after the fruit is harvested. Whether or not this treatment is necessary is a matter for expert judgment in the light of local conditions. It now seems practically certain that this serious disease which threatened one of our leading horticultural industries in the state can be thoroughly and effectively (Controlled. Apple Scab and Its Control Probably the most important disease of a fungus character affecting- apples is the apple scab. Mr. Keitt has resumed his experiments at Sturgeon Bay on the continuance of tlie life liistory studies and con- trol of this disease. He lias found that tlie dischai-ge of the spores capable of producing this disease, occurs almost exclusively during or shortly after rainy weather. Spraying experiments liave been carried on comparing bordeaux mixture and lime snlfur, in liquid and dry form. Bordeaux mixture seems to produce a considei-al)le amount of russeting of the fruit and a poo7-er finish. In no case did the standard schedule of four treatments control satisfactorily badly scabbing vari- 28 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 eties. Where an additional application was made as soon as the young blossom buds were exposed to infection, but before they separated in the clusters, it was possible to control the disease readily with each of the fungicides used/ Further experiments will necessarily have to be made before final conclusions can be drawn. FIG. 13.— SPRAYING REDUCES LOSS FROM APPLE SCAB This disease is so common that the value of the Wisconsin apple crop is greatly reduced thereby. Rot follows the scab, particularly in storage. Rye Ergot Treatment Urged Further experiments by the Plant Pathology Department upon the application of the salt brine method of treating seed rye for ergot show its entire effectiveness, but it has been difficult to secure the introduc- tion of this mode of control among farmers this last year because the loss of clover seeding for the last two years in certain sections of the state, particularly in Waupaca county, where rye is so largely grown, has made it almost necessary to return to old rye fields for further seeding. Manifestly the method will be of no value unless proper crop rotation is practiced, as many of the ergot bodies drop to the ground during harvest, giving a chance for reinfection if rye is again planted upon the same field, even though the seed itself is thoroughly disin- fected. Work has been started in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture to eradicate this disease from our best Wisconsin pedigree strains. Wheat Scab Worse Than Rust A. G. Johnson (Plant Pathology) finds the loss during the season of 1919 was greater from wheat scab than it was from the black stem Experiments in Farming 29 rust. Scab on wheat is produced by a number of different fungi and so far no satisfactory mode of control lias been worked out, on account of the fact that these fungi develop upon so many different kinds of grains and refuse, such as cornstalks, stubble, and straw. Experiments by Mr. Johnson and J. G. Dickson (Plant Pathology) indicate, however, that two lines of control must be followed: (1) the use of the best seed that has been cleaned and treated with formaldehyde; (2) the use of such seed on thoroughly plowed land where old cornstalks and grain and grass stubble have been entirely covered up. The edges of fields and adjacent waste places that cannot be reached with a plow should be burned off. Not only is there a definite destruction of the wheat plant FIG. 14.— WHEAT SCAB MAKES LIGHT GRAIN Wheat scab is shown on kernels of Wisconsin turkey red pedigree wheat (left); healthy kernels (right). Fungi causing scab on the seeds also attack seedlings, reduc- ing the stand. through the ravages of the blight fungus, but much indirect loss in grain is sustained by tlie scab on account of the fact that even a mod- erate infection leaves the grain so light in weight that it will grade as Xo. 3 or lower. Will Digging Barberry Entirely Eradicate Wheat PusTf For llie past two seasons especial efforts have been made to combat (lie black stem rust through the eradication of barberry. Under ordi- nary conditions undoubtedly the barberi’y is a very important means of di.sserninating tlie lilack stem rust, but in seasons wliere the winter is extraordinarily mild, as was the case in 1018-19, the indications are strong that the spores of black stem rust may winter over on winter gi’ains and grasses. Con.seipiently, the eiiidication of the barberry alone is regai’ded liy the Plant Pathology department as insufficient to eliminate entirely this important i)lant disease troulile. 30 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 A New Bacterial Disease of Soybeans Although the soybean is a comparatively new plant in the agricul- ture of Wisconsin, it is already developing serious plant maladies. The most important of these heretofore observed is a leaf blight, caused by a bacterium that has been studied by Miss Florence Coerper (Plant FIG. 15.— the leaves HAVE BEEN ATTACKED BY A BACTERIAL DISEASE The leaf blight caused by this new disease has, in many cases, proved serious. Efforts are being made to find a disease-resistant type of soybean. Pathology). Among its most serious characteristics is this, that it is a seed-borne disease, which means that under favorable moist conditions, it is spread rapidly from the point of original infection to adjacent plants. Efforts are being made to study this from the standpoint of seed selection, but more particularly, it is hojicd that it may be pos- Experiments in Farming 31 sible to secure freedom from disease tlirougii the development of dis- ease-resistant types, or dift'erent varieties may be found to possess a relative resistance to infection. Cooperative experiments on this sub- ject between the Plant Pathological and Genetics departments will be continued. Improved Types of “Yellows-resistant” Cabbage The earlier type of cabbage developed at this station by L. R. Jones (Plant Pathology) which was found to be resistant to the disease known as “yellows’^ possessed the commercial defect of departing ma- FIG. 1&-THE WISCONSIN “ALL-SEASONS” CABBAGE IS SUCCESSFUL Kraut packers like this tyi)c of head, and the strain is resistant to “yellows.” terially from the original type of Hollander cabbage. Recent efforts have been made to produce a new type that more nearly resembles the short-stemmed Hollander variety introduced from Denmark. Work of this character which has been cari-ied on in cooperation with W. J. Han.sche of Racine, has finally resulted in the production of a new type that matures about two weeks earlier than the original resistant strain. This new perfected strain meets all of the objections made to the old resistant strain. Jt is expected that the seed of the new strain will be i)roduced in sufficient (juantities by 1921 so that it can be com- mercially distributed. The station is also able to report that it has been possible to develop a “yellows” resistant kraut cabbage for which there has been a very marked demand in portions of the country where kraut is made in large 32 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 quantities. This work has been carried on in cooperation with the National Kraut Packers’ Association and the United States Department of Agriculture in the Puget Sound region. This section has the ad- vantage over Wisconsin of producing a larger quantity of seed, and the seed is free from black leg. Seed Disinfection for Black Leg and Black Rot Further experiments upon the use of dry heat to disinfect the spores of the black leg fungus indicate that this method does not wholly con- trol the disease. Where rainy weather prevails, plants in the seed bed are likely to be affected by this fungus. Experiments in pathological gardens showed that where hot bed sash was used over young plants, the dissemination of the disease could be practically checked. This method, however, is impractical under commercial conditions. Experi- ments made this last year were carried on in the Puget Sound section of the state of Washington where black leg has not normally occurred, and it appears that the most feasible mode of control will be to grow seed under conditions where this disease does not normally occur. Influence of Soil Temperature on Potato Diseases For several years the Plant Pathology Department has been carrying out investigations on the influence of soil temperature in promoting or retarding the development of various fungous or bacterial diseases of plants. This last year studies have been made on two serious potato diseases — the black scurf caused by the fungous organism, Rhizoctonia, and the common potato scab. Black scurf. B. L. Richards has studied the black scurf disease both in laboratory and fleld. He finds injury to the stem and root system of the potato much more important than tuber injury. Soil temperature is found to exert a marked influence on the production of this disease, which has been studied through a range of tempera- ture from 48° to 86° F. The disease was found to develop to the greatest extent at a temperature near 64° F., but was pronounced through a range from 68° to 70°. This fact has a strong bearing on the relative importance of this disease in the cooler, northern por- tions of the state, as contrasted with the southern portions of the state or in the potato sections of Iowa. The soil temperatures that obtain in June have more influence upon stem injury than those of any other month. More injury was found in the Plainfield experimental plot in 1918, when the soil had a temperature of 66° F. than in 1919, where the temperature for this same month averaged 71°. Potato scab. Similar experiments have been carried out by H. H. McKinney on the effects of temperature upon the development of potato scab. Experiments in Farming 33 Tobacco Diseases Studied James Johnson (Horticulture) working under a cooperative rela- tionship with the United States Department of Agriculture, has had under investigation the last year several diseases of tobacco that are of much importance. A new disease, the Fusarium wilt of tobacco, has been found which so far as is now known is confined to Maryland and Ohio. The organism causing this disease is apparently a new species of Fusarium. Marked differences in the varietal susceptibility FIG. 17.— A NEW BACTERIA!/ DISEASE AFFECTS WISCONSIN TOBACCO PRODUCING “RUST” Tobacco is attacked by numerous diseases in fiekl, curing shed, and storage. “Rust” in Wisconsin tobacco has been studied at tlie experiment station and found duo to bacteria. of the different strains of tobacco to this disease have been shown. A new bacterial spot disease, commonly known in this state as the “iTist,” has been studied. The characteristics of the organism produc- ing this trouble have been under investigation, and a preliminary de- scription of the disease will soon be announced by the department. Not only do tobacco troubles affect the growing plant while in the field, but in the fermentation process during curing, many troubles due to bactei’ial or fungous origin are likely to occur. The so-called “must” of tobacco lias been studied this season. The causal organism produc- ing this disease has been traced to a species of Oospora. The disease is of special importance to the packers of tobacco, but it is also important from the standpoint of the gi’owers as well. 34 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 Development of Root-rot Resistant Tobacco Efforts have been continued by Mr. Johnson to produce a type of tobacco resistant to root-rot that would be especially suitable to Wis- consin conditions. Crosses have been made between resistant and sus- ceptible varieties which have shown that the first generation is inter- mediate with reference to resistance. The second generation of seed produced split up into the resistant and susceptible types. It there- fore appears that resistance is a quality of the plant which is ap- FIG. 18 .— the cause OF TOBACCO “MUST” HAS BEEN FOUND The “hand” of leaf tobacco shows a typical case of “must,” developed during fer- mentation by the organism (Oospora nicotianae) shown at the right. The picture shows a colony of the bacteria greatly enlarged. parently dominant, while susceptibility to the inroads of certain fungus diseases, such as root-rot, appears to be a recessive characteristic. This important finding makes it possible to develop gradually a strain that will be resistant to the root-rot fungus, and thus insure the growth of this crop upon soils already infested with this disease organism. The practical field results obtained by Mr. Johnson this season have been excellent. Seed of these resistant sti-aiiis lias been on trial witli about 25 growers in tlie state. In one case the yield obtained was Experiments in Farming 35 double that of the ordinary, non-resistant strain where both were grown on infested soil. When it is realized that many of the tobacco soils in this state are already infested with the root-rot fungus, it is ap- parent that the substitution of a resistant type of seed which will be able to develop upon these tobacco-sick soils, will be the salvation of our tobacco industry, inasmuch as it will greatly diminish the losses which heretofore have occurred from the ravages of this commonly distributed parasite. The call for this resistant seed has been very heavy this season. Mr. Johnson estimates that fully 2,000 acres of this new type will be planted next spring. FIG. 19.— field experiments RESULT IN A ROOT-ROT RESISTANT TOBACCO The first generation (center row) of a cross between a susceptible variety (left) and a resistant variety (right) is intermediate in resistance to root rot. The second gen- eration splits up into types which have various degrees of resistance. Root-Rot Investigations Increase Value of Land One of the most common agricultural ideas existing is that tobacco culture is ‘‘hard on the soil” in the sense that such large amounts of plant food are removed that poor yields rapidly result in the con- tinuous culture of this crop. The tobacco growers themselves believed this, in spite of the fact that their best crops of corn were produced on their old “worn-out” tobacco-fields. The salable value of theii’ land was reduced by a poor crop of toliacco, since this was regarded as the liest indication of deci-eased soil feitilily. Since tlie Kxpei'iment Station has shown that a large part of the “worn-out” oi- “run-out” tobacco soils ai-e not i-ednced in value foi' the culture ol’ ci'ops othci- than tobacco, and that the I’eason tobacco has given ])ooi- yields is due to a root-i-ot disease, which can lie paiTly overcome by using resistant 36 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 strains, many Wisconsin farmers say the value of their land has gone up greatly in their own estimation as well as in the mind of prospective buyers. Tobacco crops are no longer to be regarded as a measure of land values unless all circumstances are known. The indirect value of the investigations on root-rots of tobacco and other crops is thus very greatly enhanced. ' I Tobacco Root-Rot in Relation to Crop Rotation It has now been thoroughly established that the root-rot fungus of tobacco (Thielavia) is capable of development not only upon the to- bacco plant, but on many of the leguminous crops that might be used in connection with crop rotation processes. It is, therefore, very im- portant to know what influence these various legumes may have with reference to the persistence of the root-rot fungus in the soil. The fundamental principle with reference to crop rotation is not only to choose plants that draw on different chemical constituents of the soil, but to prevent the development of plant diseases which may affect any particular host. Trials during the last year by Mr. Johnson have shown that to- bacco can be safely grown in conjunction with clover or alfalfa in crop rotations, so far as infection from root-rot is concerned, but preferably tobacco should not follow cow^peas. As to the length, of time the root-rot fungus will persist in a soil in the absence of host plants, experiments thus far tend to show that the amount of root-rot gradually decreases, although deflnite and flnal data as to the exact length of time has not as yet been obtained. Tobacco Seed Improvement The Horticultural Department has distributed during the last four or five years a considerable quantity of an improved strain of tobacco, known as Connecticut Havana No. 38. This strain has been received exceptionally well by the growers, and if is estimated that 12,000 to 15,000 acres of this type will be grown in the state during the 1920 season. The advantage of the Connecticut Havana No. 38 over the ordinary Havana seed lies especially in the fact that it possesses on the average about two more leaves to a plant, the yield being thus in- creased by 7 to 10 per cent. The quality, habit of gTOwth and shape of leaf are regarded by growers and packers alike as being excellent. One precaution is important, however. The Station has conclusively shown that a large part of the poor yields of tobacco in this state is due to the root-rot disease, and poor yield also means reduced value in quality. Connecticut Havana No. 38, in common with the other Havana seed types, will give poor yields on root-rot infested soils; therefore it should not be planted on old tobacco soils or so-called ^^Tobacco-sick” soils. The Experiment Station lias developed a root- rot resistant strain which will give better yield and quality than the Experiments in Farming 37 Connecticut Havana No. 38 for such soils, but which will not be su- perior to it on “healthy” soil. The Connecticut-Havana No. 38 strain is unique in the fact that it is the result of the experi- mental combination of the desir- able characters of two other strains neither of which in them- selves would have been success- ful commercially. Practically all commercial strains of tobacco grown are the result of acci- dental, not experimental, discov- ery followed by simple selection. Root Hardiness of Seedling Apple Roots FIG. 20.— CONNECTICUT-HAVANA NO. 38 OUTYIELDS STANDARD TYPES The most prolific cross cut yet developed at the Wisconsin Experiment Station is the Connecticut-Havana No. 38, It is suited only to non-diseased soils, as it will not withstand root-rot disease. This is a typi- cal plant of the new strain. Fruit growers have long held that an extended freeze was more injurious than a short one of even slightly greater severity. G. F. Potter (Horticulture) has continued his studies on the root hardiness of orchard trees this last year, giving especial atten- tion to the effect of the rapidity of freezing and the duration of the minimum temperature. His results bear out this supposition for in no case was there any in- dication that a rapid freeze was more injurious than a slow one. In the freezing of roots, the minimum temperature reached is apparently tlie most important factor. The moisture content of the soil and consecjuently that of the plant tissues is a factor of considerable importance in the injui-y resulting from low temperatures. Roots planted out-of-doors in jiots containing soil of vaiying degrees of moisture suffered mo.st injury in diy soil. Efforts this year have been made to locate the exact point of injury, and the influence of different types of injury on the growth of frozen seedlings. Over 2,000 apjile seedlings were subjected to freezing tests in the laboratory and then immediately ])lanted in the greenhouse. The results of this work indicate that the initial injury to the roots appears in the immature cells of the xylem just within the cambium or grow- ing layer. When the roots are somewhat moi-e seriously affected, brown- ing of this tissue and also ol the immature ])hloem cells is visible. The cambium or growing layer appears to be somewhat more hardy than either the inner or the outer tissues, as it is frequently found sur- rounded on both sides by injured tissue. On the other hand, injury to the cambium never occurs unless injury to these other tissues is 38 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 also present. It was noted that check or control roots not frozen, frequently made less growth than those which were frozen but not injured. This curious condition is undoubtedly explained by the fact that with the controls the roots were still under the influence of the cus- tomary rest period. Freezing, however, is a recognized method of breaking the rest period and thus stimulating growth. T N T AS A Land Clearing Explosive The armistice found the War Department of the United States in possession of large quantities of a high explosive known as T N T (tri-nitro toluol). This high ' explosive material was used in the war in depth bombs, hand grenades, and mines and other demolition Avork. John Swenehart (Agricultural Engineering) has studied the use of this explosive as a land clearing blasting powder. Material received through the courtesy of the United States Government, upon action by Congressman A. P. Nelson, was in an uncartridged, bulk condition. A cartridging plant was established near Bayfield where this material was put into a form similar to that in which dynamite is ordinarily used. A comparison with dynamite indicates that de- tonation requires the use of a No. 8 rather than a No. 6 cap. TNT is not detonated by bullet shock from a high-power rifle. Sensitive- ness tests applied to it indicates that detonation did not occur where portions of powder were within 6 inches of each other. The sub- stance was found to be resistant to such moisture as occurs under ordinary conditions found in land clearing. Cartridges of T N T immersed in water for 48 hours were found not to be affected. Where raw material was mixed with varying percentages of moisture, deto- nation occurred when 5 per cent of water was used, but incomplete or no detonation occurred with 10 and 15 per cent of moisture. One of the effects of dynamite is that at ordinary low temperatures such as those which obtain under fall or early winter conditions, dynamite freezes, and the thawing out of this material is a source of danger. Cartridges of T N T which had been placed in ice compartments having a temperature of 39 degrees F. were found to detonate with entire success. Field work in which this material was compared with 20 per cent ammonium dynamite, where stumps, rocks and ditch- work were employed for the test, was entirely successful. Under ordinary conditions about three-quarters as much T N T is needed as would be used if dynamite were employed. Where large charges are used, a higher shattering effect is obtained, but where small charges are employed such as would ordinarily be used in stump removal, T N T is found to be a good substitute for the ordinary dynamite hitherto employed. The physiological effect produced upon men working and handling T N T in the process of cartridging indicates that a small percentage, about one-sixth of the operatives, Avere affected to such an extent that it would be inadvisable to haA^'e them AAmrk in the raAv material. This condition was shoAvn by a rapid increase in the blood pressure. In the large majority of instances, hoAvever, persons so Experiments in Farming 39 aifected were only temporarily disturbed. Further studies are now in progress to determine the effect of chronic poisoning due to pro- longed exposure of the skin to the action of T NT. Generally speaking, the results were highly satisfactory with ref- erence to the use of this salvaged war explosive. This experimental work is of much value to the Government in assisting in the formula- tion of a policy as to what is to be done with the large quantity of T N T that is now in the hands of the government. Prior to the be- ginning of these experiments some of this material had been dumped in the ocean in order to get rid of it on account of the supposed high- ly toxic character of the material and its inapplicability to ordinary peace time use. Machinery for Land Drainage Ditch cleaning machine. When the drainage of marshes is perform- ed by means of open ditches, frost action and accumulation of debris causes more or less difficulty in the cutting of such ditches. E. R. Jones (Agricultural Engineering) has devised a machine consisting of buckets moving on a carrier and propelled by a one and one-half horse power gasoline engine. The machinery is mounted on a narrow flat-boat that floats. The man standing on the boat Alls the buckets with a hoe and the debris is elevated by means of the gasoline power and thrown out on the sides. Wisconsin has hundreds of miles of such ditches that need cleaning at intervals. This machine will be lent to drainage districts upon application to the Agricultural Engineering Department. The mole plow. During the war a mole plow that would make holes through tight clay sub-soils for cheap, quick under-draniage to aid in saving crops was developed by Mr. Jones. Further im- provements have been made in this machine so that it is now pulled by a capstan and has an efficient device for controlling depth. Holes can be made by this plow fully 18 inches deep in clay soil. Those made in 1917 are still found to be open and carrying water. Such a device is, of course, purely of an emergency character and should not take the place of the use of permanent and durable drain tile. This type of plow, however, is available for emergency use and will be lent to farmers on application. Plowing marsh lands. Comparisons have been made by F. W. Duf- ‘ fee (Agricultural Engineering) of plows of different styles and widths for breaking marsh sod. Thus far the 24 inch brush breaker with a long mold board, is found to turn the best furrow. Narrower plows are apt to turn the furrow slice merely on edge. Anything short of a complete inversion of the furrow slice permits the grass to grow be- tween the furrows to an extent which interferes very much with the proper development of cultivated crops. Tractor Information Gathered The rapid introduction of the tractor as a [)iece of farm machineiy has made it desirable to accumulate information as to the value which 40 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 these machines are to farmers farming under our Wisconsin condi- tions. From a questionaire sent out by E. C. Sauve (Agricultural En- gineering) and answered by 106 tractor owners it was found that all but 15 were well satisfied with their tractors. It is a matter of importance to know the smallest size farm a tractor will operate properly. Of the 90 farmers answering this question a large number of owners believed the tractor profitable on a farm as small as 80 acres. Efforts were also made to determine what infiuence the use of a tractor had had upon the number of horses on the farm. The use of 527 horses before the pur- chase of a tractor was reported by 78 owners with 388 on the farm after the purchase. The average for each tractor owner before purchase was about 7 horses per farm, after purchase, about 5. This represents, therefore, a displacement of about 2 horses to a farm. Of tlie 106 owners farming with tractors, 18.4 acres more on the average were cultivated after purchasing a tractor. Steel Forms for Septic Tank Construction The Agricultural Engineering Department has constructed a collap- sible steel form for use in concrete septic tanks. The use of this form will eliminate much of the waste of lumber heretofore used in the construction of wooden forms. This form is now available for lend- ing to farmers until contractors can provide it. Effects of Ultra-violet Light on the Tubercle Bacillus It is generally recognized that immunity against tuberculosis may be produced by the injection of livmg tubercle bacilli, but such a method put into general practice would be regarded as unsafe, on account of the fact that Ihing organisms are introduced. However, if it were possible to kill the bacteria without destroying the cell by-products, it would seem that an efficient yet safe vaccine might be made. W. D. Frost (Agricultural Bacteriology) during this last year has undertaken work upon this project by exposing the tubercle bacillus to the influence of ultra-violet light. The main difficulty to overcome in this connection was to break up the groups of bacteria which prevent the light from acting upon all of the germs. Miss Ode- gard, working under Mr. Frost, has been able to prepare a suspension which can be successfully used with ultra-violet light. It is found that these germs are destroyed without apparently influencing the enzymes or cellular by-products of the organisms. Making War Chemicals From Corn Cobs In the summer of 1918 the United States Aircraft Production Board requested this college to investigate the possibility of securing acetic acid by the fermentation of xylose. At that time the airplane service was urgently in need of acetone, a solvent used in the making of air- planes and it was thought that this might be made by the fermentation of a sugar known as xylose. At the time that this problem was sug- gested, the United States Bureau of Chemistiy had succeeded in pro- ducing xylose from an abundant waste product, namely, corn cobs. Experiments in Farming 41 The problem then was to hud organisms which would ferment this material with the production of acetic acid. A large number of or- ganisms W’ere isolated and studied by W. H. Peterson (Agricultural Chemistry) and E. B. Fred and Miss Audrey Davenport (Agricultural Bacteriology). Several strains were isolated in pure culture and a number of them found able to split xylose and arabinose into acetic and lactic acids. Fully 90 per cent of the xylose could be converted into these two products, in a relatively short period of time. In numerous trials under varying conditions of temperature and strength of acid, it was found that from 30 to 40 per cent of crude xylose sugar could be obtained from corn cobs treated with 2 per cent sulphuric acid, when heated under 15 pounds pressure for two hours. This acid solution, upon being neutralized and filtered, gave a syrup which was readily fermented by the pentose sngar-fermenting organisms, as was the purified crystaline xylose. A patent has been taken out on this process by Messrs. Fred and Peterson for the benefit of tlie public. At the war prices of acetic and lactic acids, the amount of these acids that can be secured from a ton of corn-cobs is worth about $150. The armistice brought this war investigation to a close, but out of it has come not only the practical fact that acetic and lactic acids can be made from this waste material, but a considerable number of exceedingly interesting scientific problems have developed. It has been found that these bacteria have a wide range of activity, that they are capable of fermenting not only such pentose sugars as xylose and arabinose but that other sugars (the hexose and di-sac- charides) are also readily fermented to a less degree and that the polysaccharides (complex bodies) like starches, cellulose, etc.) are but slowly attacked. Acting upon fructose in addition to the acid end products, previously described as being produced, mannitol has also been found, to an amount of about 35 per cent of the total fruc- tose used. These intermediate products are capable of being studied and estimated quite as well as the acid end products. The curious occurrence is noted that mannitol isolated from the fermented fructose can subsequently be fermented by the same organisms which originally produced the mannitol, and in time yield as end products, acetic and lactic acids. Tlie importance of this problem from a purely scientific point has led to the development of a project upon the pure science research fund of the University, as this problem was outside of the sphere of activity of the Agricultural Experiment Station. SoiiE New Factors in the Production of Silage A study of the factors concerned in the formation of silage has engaged the attention of the Agricultural Bacteriology Department during this last year. It has long been known as a result of the woi-k earlier done at this station that the oxygen iiresent in ensiled material is used up by the respiring plant tissues wliich make up the silage and the action of baclei-ial activity going on in tliis mass. The pi-esence 42 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 of lactic acid has readily been traced to the developuieut of lactic acid-forming organisms and has been noted by a considerable number of investigators. The production of alcohol and acetic acid which are naturally found in silage, has, however, not been heretofore sat- isfactorily acomited for. The work done this last year by E. G. Hast- ings (Agricultural Bacteriology) indicates that the first organism which appears in considerable numbers in silage is one of the colon group. This produces a very considerable amount of carbon dioxide, small amounts of acids, and from .6 to .7 per cent of alcohol. The growth of this organism is sufficient to explain the alcohol content of silage. Pre- vious investigators have ascribed the presence of acetic acid to the pro- duction of the ordinary acetic acid bacteria, but it is at once evident that these organisms cannot grow in silage if oxygen is not present. To trace the role of bacteria definitely, attempts were made to grow plants under entirely sterile conditions. Peas were grown in large test tubes and after maximum growth had been attained were trans- ferred to smaller containers which were immediately sealed. A considerable number of successful experiments were obtained in this way. In these none of them showed an}" signs of acid production. The tissue gradually disintegrated, due undoubtedly to the changes which take place in the character of the tissue itself, and the oxygen in the tubes was completely used up, but no acid was produced, as is true when the same sort of tissue grown under normal conditions is treated in a similar way. These experiments seem to indicate that the action of bacteria is essential in the changes that take place in silage. A Simpler Method of Milk Examination The customary laboratory method of examining milk by making bac- terial counts to determine the number of organisms involves an ex- penditure of so much time that any simplification of this process would be highly desirable. Some years ago the so-called methylene blue reduction test was proposed as a means of determining the amount of bacterial activity in milk. This test consists of adding to the milk a minute quantity of methylene blue. The rapidity with which the color disappears is dependent on the bacterial content of the milk. This makes it possible by a simple ocular test to ascertain the condi- tion of milk. Since the introduction of this test in this country it has not made much headway because laboratory workers have not been convinced of its accuracy. The Agricultural Bacteriology department has during the last summer made a considerable number of tests upon milk of known bacterial content, and the results of this work seem to indicate that the methylene blue test as a measure of the bacterial activity of the milk is a more accurate method than any of the others now in use. This work will be continued with the idea of correlating the results obtained with this test with the keeping quality of the milk, and with the num- ber of bacteria as determined by tb<». direct microscopic examination. Experiments in Farming 43 If further trials with this method prove conclusive, as now seems probable, it will greatly reduce the amount of time necessary to examine the hygienic or sanitaiy value of market milk supplies. Flavor of Pasteurized Cheddar Cheese For a number of years the Dairy Department has been engaged in experimenting upon the method of .pasteurization as applied to the manufacture of cheddar cheese. The use of this process enables a more uniform product to be made than where made from raw milk, but the cheese does not develop the same kind of flavor as does that made from raw milk. This lack of flavor development may be due to the fact that in the pasteurizing process certain groups of bacteria are destroyed, and since the starter which is added to the pasteurized milk contains only lactic acid organisms, the cheese may be deflcient in certain groups of bacteria which are essential to the development of the proper flavor. Under ordinary conditions milk receives its quota of contaminating organisms, so far as the natural infection of bac- teria is concerned from but two sources, namely, the digestive tract of the animal and the soil. Experiments this year have been made by E. G. Hastings (Agricul- tural Bacteriology) and J. L. Sammis (Dairy Husbandry) adding to pasteurized milk a lactic acid starter, and also a special starter made from digested milk which had been inoculated with material from one or the other of these natural foci of infection. Control cheeses con- sisted of those made from pasteurized milk by the regular process. In all instances where the special cultures of this character have been em- ployed, there is a marked difference in the extent of flavor development between the control and the experimental cheese. It is too early yet to say what the flnal quality of this cheese will be, but the results obtained up to the present, indicate that this method may afford a means of overcoming the low flavor of pasteurized cheese by the addition of spe- cial starters for this purpose. Coagulation of Milk in Condensed Milk In the manufacture of condensed milk, much trouble is experienced due to the coagulation of the milk when it is sterilized. During the war there were large losses of condensed milk from this cause, it being assumed that the cans upon opening contained sour milk when it was found to be in a curdled condition. At certain condenseries in this state the claim was made that 50 per cent of the milks delivered by farmers would not stand the condensing process without undergoing coagulation. The problem, then, became not merely a condensing problem, but of utmost impoifance to the milk producer. H. II. Som- mer (Agricultural Chemistry) has used a way of testing milk that tells whether it will withstand tlie condensing process. If milk so ‘treated coagulates, it will not stand the condensing ]>rocess. 44 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 His studies liave shown that the amount of acidity in fresh milk that is capable of being determined by the chemical process of titra- tion, has nothing to do with coagulation. This titration method is now generally followed at condenseries, but is to be regarded as an er- roneous method of determining the suitability of milk for condensing, because coagulation has no direct relation to acidity. It is true that an increased acidity of the milk will lower the point of coagulation, but the acidity in fresh milk does not control the coagulation point. This appears to be determined largely by the balance between tlie lime and the citrates and phosphates in inillk. It is well known that the point of coagulation of milk can be lowered by the additon of soluble lime salts. It appears that milk with too much soluble lime will have a low coagulation point, but this can be corrected by the addition of either citrates or phosphates, which render the calcium less soluble. While this work has not yet reached a final status, it is exceedingly suggestive as indicating a more definite solution of the problem which assumes much practical importance where milks are being refused on the basis of their apparent acidity, and are therefore regarded as unsuitable for condensing purposes. The Necessity of Mineral Substances in Animal Nutrition Although it is well known that certain mineral substances are abso- lutely indispensable to the nutrition of animal life, yet our specific knowledge regarding the nature or form in which these should be sup- plied is sadly lacking. Of the various mineral substances, calcium, or lime, occupies a superlative position in animal nutrition. Most of the animal feeds contain lime in some fornp but it is a matter of much importance as to the exact chemical form in which this substance appears. If it could be shown that calcium in the form of a silicate which is most insoluble would be as available as the more soluble lac- tate, then in all probability all forms of calcium occurring in our feeds and fodders would serve in animal nutrition. With herbivora, where straw has been used as the sole source of roughage, a very great im- provement has been noted in the character of the otfspring born to mothers whose rations included calcium in the form of carbonate, (as in wood ashes) acetate, and phosphate (as m rock phosphate). Effect of Lime Added to Grain-straav Rations on Reproduction of Cattle For example, a cow fed upon whole oats and oat straw produced a 53-pound dead calf, while an addition of 2 pounds of calcium acetate to each 100 pounds of grain resulted in the production of a normal calf weighing 73 pounds. The significance of this condition is ap- parent in certain of the northern counties of the state where farmers are frequently compelled to feed largely grain and cereal straws' with a minimum amount of silage. Reports of such trouble were received by E. B. Hart (Agricultural Chemistry) and G. C. Humphrey (Animal Experiments in Farming 45 Husbandry) this last year from farmers using such rations in Barron County. Unquestionably the time is not far distant when it will be possible to recommend with safety cheap sources of calcium for feeding animals under certain conditions. In the work carried out by H. Steenbock and P. W. Boutwell (Agri- cultural Chemistry) on mineral metabolism, sodium, chlorine, and cal- cium were studied as to their importance in maintaining life with ma- ture rats on cereal grains. First, it has been established with cereal grains that corn, for instance, needs to be fortified with the above- named chemical elements in order to insure growth. Such data have not been available because sodium and chlorine have always been added in the form of common salt, sodium chloride. It appears that the need for chlorine is less urgent than for other elements. The need for calcium, however, seems to be paramount, even as to maintenance of bodily weight and vigor, and this demand is apparently independent of the necessity of calcium as a base to neutralize any acids in the body. The cereal proteins, however, are so poor in their general nature that even the addition of lime to them alone, when given in the form of calcium carbonate or calcium lactate, is not able to prevent a failure in the maintenance of the nutrition of the animal. The rat has the ability to assimilate calcium from many of its combinations, as for instance, from calcium sulphate, or even calcium silicate, in spite of their low solubility. These compounds appear to be just as efficient in satisfying the requirements of the animal for calcium as when taken from more soluble substances, such as calcium lactate or calcium carbonate. The Relation of Sulfur to Plant Growth Composting sulfur in connection with rock phosphate for the produc- ■ tion of available phosphoric acid with farm manure has shown little efficiency in results secured by the Agricultural Chemistry Department. Fully 75 per cent as much acidity was secured where sulfur and rock phosphate were composted together as that obtained in an equivalent amount of acid phosphate fertilizer. The high cost of sulfuric acid is forcing investigators to look for a cheaper way of making rock phos- phate more available, and it is proposed that it be composted directly with elemental sulfur in the soil. Chlorine as Related to Plant Growth W. E. Tottingham (Agricultural Chemistry) has continued his studies on the effect and I'ole of chlorine in plant growth by the use of po- tatoes under field conditions. Previous experiments in which this ele- ment was used in Ihe form of a potassium salt or as common salt produced variable effects on yields, depending upon the variety of plant used, but did not disturb the composition and quality of the tubers unless applied in excessive amounts. The results of the last season where common salt was used as supple- menting farm maniu’e and commercial fertilizers as well, showed only 46 AVisconsin Bulletin 319 minor disturbances in yield and composition. The results in this test indicate so far that the texture of the soil is of more significance than fertilizer treatment in determining the quality of potatoes treated with sodium chloride. Influence of Grain Diet on Production of Still-born Pigs A¥here the ration fed to sows is made exclusively of seeds or seed by-products, normal growth is not maintained. Such food materials must be supplemented with additions of mineral matter, better protein, and in some instances with a fat-soluble, gTOwth-stimulating vitamine. Attempts have been made to answer the question whether normal maintenance and reproduction can be obtained where the entire food supply is derived from grains and their by-products alone. Demon- strations were first made by Mr. Steenbock with small animals, such as rats, in which it was found that the grains and distilled water would not support maintenance. These experiments have now been extended by Mr. Hart to the use of swine, in order to ascertain the action of such substances upon larger animals. Here it was found that grain rations led to v/eak and immature off-spring, although this was not always exhibited in the first litter, but increasing numbers of dead pigs at birth were found in succeeding litters. AVhere grains alone make up the sole diet, except as it is fortified with common salt and naturally hard water, it was found that mature sows could be maintained in fairly good con- ditions for many months, but ultimately failed to thrive. No one grain was distinctly inferior to others in respect to its capacity to maintain these animals. Although earlier ill effects were exhibited where barley was used alone as compared with the corn or oat grain, the main difficulty in these rations is the low amount of lime which is taken into the system, which in the presence of common salt is likely to alter the characteristics of the intestinal wall as to the permeability of the membrane. Increasing the permeability of these membranes apparently permits of the gnadual poisoning of the ani- mal due to absorption of by-products from the intestinal tract, wdiich ultimately leads to such a degree of interference with the normal physiological processes of the tissue as to result in poisoning of the young. It seems highly probable, therefore, that the large losses due to still-born pigs at time of farrowing may in part be ascribed to the diet of the mother. Effect of Organic Nutrients on Growth and Reproduction Efforts made by the Agricultural Chemistiy Department this last year have been to determine the influence of natural roughages on reproduction. It is now recognized that such roughages are important carriers of mineral materials, as well as the growth-stimulating vi- tamines. Studies have been undertaken with marsh hay and timothy. Already work has demonstrated that clover, alfalfa, and corn stover Experiments in Farming 47 are efficient roughages, while the cereal straws are not. The relatively large use made of timothy and marsh hay in this state makes it de- sirable to secure definite information. It is possible that the excessive use of timothy hay for breeding horses is the cause of many weak foals. The work has not yet progressed sufficiently far to answer the question positively, but experiments made with marsh hay grown locally on the University marsh, which is an alkaline soil, indicate that such hay carried over 1 per cent of lime, and animals fed upon such roughage appear well nourished as is indicated in figure 21. It will be nec- essaiy to secure hay from acid marsh soils such as those generally FIG. 21.— HEALTHY PROGENY WITH MARSH HAY AS ROUGHAGE Mar.sh hay grown on an alkaline marsh has been found to be a good roughage for breeding animals. I'he hay on which the cow Avas fed Avas groAvn on the University marsh, Avhich is alkaline. It contained nearly as much lime, an important factor in successful reproduction, as clover hay. Both coav and calf are in good condition. found in the northern part of the state in order to study this aspect of the problem. Home-grown Rations for Milk Production In modern dairy farming clover and alfalfa have become recognized as almost indispensable roughages. The high protein content of these roughages has led to the generally accepted view that tliey can supple- ment the moi'e starchy grains and low protein silage. It might naturally be assumed, tliei’etore, that a home-grown ration consisting oL' cereal gi-ains, silage, and clover or alfalfa hay, would fnrnisli snfticient ]U’o- tein for high milk |)rodnction. Tlie newci- vi(uv ]3oint of protein chem- istiy, however, tcaclies tliat the value of protein nii.xtnri's for growth or milk ])rodnctiori, depends not mei-ely upon the •finantity of protein ingested, Imt the (nudity of the food nnti-iment taken in. In co- 48 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 operation with Mr. Humplirej', Mr. Hart has studied the problem, and finds that it is not possible to furnish dairy cows of high milk-producing capacity with a protein content of sufficient amount or quality to main- tain maximum production from clover hay, corn silage, and a cereal grain mixture, whether the latter is made up of corn, barley, or oats, separately or a mixture of all three. On the other hand, a cow giving a much lower quantity of milk, but with large food consumption, can be kept on such a ration without losing protein from her own tissues. A poor cow, giving 22 pounds of milk daily for 16 weeks, will maintain her nitrogen balance on such a ration, but where lactation reaches as high an output as 35 pounds a day, the capacity of the animal to absorb food of this class was insufficient to meet the requirements of such a high milk flow. At a cost of 7 cents a day, two pounds of any of the ordinary plant protein concentrates such as oilmeal, could have been added to the basal ration and have saved the loss of 50 cents worth of milk a day through decreased milk flows. riG. 22.— THOUSANDS OF CHICKENS DIE FROM LEG-WEAKNESS These chickens are of the same age (three months) and they received the same diet, except that the one on the right was fed a ration containing 20 per cent of dirt. Leg weakness appears to be due to over-feeding, resulting in intestinal troubles. Leg Weakness in Chickens Thousands of chickens are lost eveiy spring from so-called ^fleg weakness.” J. G. Halpin (Poultry Husbandry) and E. B. Hart (Agri- cultural Chemistry) have attempted to study this problem by growing the baby chicks on a chemically made up or synthetic ration such as has been so successfully used in the development of the white rat. On a ration made of dextrin, casein, salt, 2 per cent of sugar, 5 per cent of butterfat, and 2 per cent of yeast as a source of the water- soluble vitamine' a baby chick passes into a serious condition of leg weakness in five to six weeks. Such a ration would permit of a nonnal development of tlie rat. Where the vitamine content has been in- Experiments in Farming 49 creased through the addition of more yeast and butter fat, no better success has been secured. Some success has been reached where the Jitter used was cut wheat straw, but in most of the experiments shav- ings have been employed. An examination of the intestinal contents of birds raised in the presence of wheat straw litter indicates that a considerable quantity of such material was found in the intestines, thus indicating that it has acted as a roughage. Birds grown on a litter of shavings were found not to contain this material. Further experiments are in progress to determine the influence of roughages made of inert material, such as paper, charcoal, dirt, agar, and so forth. It is quite possible that leg weakness may be due to over-feeding, resulting in the production of intestinal disturbances and that it can be corrected by the use of certain kinds of roughages. It is commonly believed that it is necessary for fowls to have access to earth in order to prevent trouble of this sort, but Mr. Halpin has been successful in raising chicks in cages that have never been in contact with the ground. Lime Requirements of Chickens Earlier experiments had indicated the superiority of oyster shells over all other forms of lime as influencing the egg-laying capacity of a hen. Close to these stood clam shells, while ground lime rock, ground bones, and such chemical compounds as precipitated calcium phosphate, or calcium carbonate, were not nearly so efficient. Mr. Halpin and Mr. Hart have repeated this work this year using, how- ever, exact calcium equivalent in order that each lot might secure just as much calcium from one source as from the other. This was ac- complished by mixing the calcium salt in the mash, which is always consumed. Special efforts have been made to secure a chemical uni- . formity as to the degree of fineness. At the present writing oyster shells are still in the lead in causing higher egg production. From January to July egg production where oyster shells were used aggre- gated 762 eggs, clam shells 618 eggs, while lime rock, bone, and cal- cium carbonate claimed from 587 in the case of bones down to 358 with lime rock, and with check lots receiving no lime, 375. Presence of Fat-soluble Vitamine in Root Crops A recognition of the importance of the fat-soluble vitamines in the development of growing young makes it important to know the general distribution of tliese substances in nature. Altliough they are concentrated in considerable quantities in such foods as eggs and milk, it is a matter of worth to know how widely they ai'e distributed in other kinds of food. Mr. Steenbock and Mr. Fmutwell have recently studied the various foods and food sul)stances witli reference to tliis matter. 50 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 Hoots, for example, are not invariably poor in this constituent. A diet containing 15 per cent of carrots or sweet potatoes as the sole source of the fat-soluble vitainine was found to be far richer in this constituent than a diet carrying it exclusively in 5 per cent of butter fat. Such root crops as Irish potatoes, mangels, sugar beets, ruta- bagas, dasheens, and parsnips are, however, poor in this stimulating substance. fig. 23.— yellow corn VERSUS WHITE CORN One rat (left) received white corn as thei sole source of the fat-soluble vitamine. It developed sore eyes and the characteristic symptoms of a lack of the vitamine. The other (right), of the same age and sex, received yellow corn as the source of the vitamine. It remained in good health and vigor, and weighed 138 grams on the same day that the other weighed 65 grams. Is Yellow Corn Better Feed Than White Corn? Many stockmen have long preferred yellow to white corn for their feeding operations. It has been customary to explain such a relation by mere whim or prejudice. Mr. Steenbock has recently made the discovery that white corn contains practically none of the soluble vitamine which stimulates the growth of animal life, and that yellow corn contains a sufficient amount of such substance to allow normal growth and reproduction in such animals as the rat. This discovery was the result of an accidental obsefv^ation in which it was noted that where a large number of rats were fed upon a diet consisting largely of white corn, it was not possible to secure normal growth and that young rats would not live longer than about three months. When, however, yellow corn was used, growth was continued in a normal manner. Red corn with white endosperm was found just as deficient as white corn, but when the endosperm was yellow, again consid- erable amounts of fat-soluble vitamines have been demonstrated. In the studies on roots above mentioned, it was also found that those roots possessing a yellow pigment, such as carrots and sweet potatoes. Experiments in Farming 51 contained tlie fat soluble substance while white root crops, as mangels or Irish potatoes, contained little or none. Are the Fat-soluble Vitamines Kelated to the Yellow Pigments'? These findings, it is needless to say, have opened up a most promising- field of vitamine study, especially when the foregoing statements are correlated with other well-known facts. Last year it was found that when butterfat was heated four hours at the boiling temperature, it lost its growth-promoting properties and simultaneously also lost its color. Mendel and Osborne have found that the liquid portion of beef fat, which is more or less colored, is active, while the solid portion, which is colorless, is inactive. Lard, which is always colorless, is also inactive. Such facts as these together with a knowledge of the oc- currence of yellow pigments in leaves — an excellent source of fat soluble vitamine — and the failure to find it associated with the red j)igments of red beets, suggested that a study of yellow pigments in their relation to nutrition might well be made. Such work is under progress with many extracts of roots, and leaves containing these color substances. The Effect of Heat on the “Anti-scurvy^^ Properties of Milk Products Recent work in animal nutrition has established thoroughly that scuiwy is the result of a lack of some nutritive element in the diet. McCollum and Pitz had previously considered that this was due to intestinal putrefaction and retention of feces. The result came from the fact that their experimental animals had constanly before them abundant supplies of milk. It has now been demonstrated that milk contains the growth-stimulating vitamine that prevents the production of scurvy. From data now accumulated it seems reasonably sure that there are three distinct types of vitamines present in food — the water- soluble, the fat-solul)le, and the so-called “anti-scorbutic” vitamine tliat is capable of overcoming the tendency to produce the disease known as scurvy. The fact that the anti-scorl>utic vitamine is very unstable and is easily destroyed by the mere drying of material, even when done at ordinai-y temperatures, has led to a study of its occurence in various products. It has been well established that in the process of canning and the dehydration of vegetables, most, if not all, of the anti-scorlnitic vitamine is destroyed. This would seem to indicate the necessity of not relying upon such materials for the prevention of scurvy where diets are restricted. The results of N. R, Ellis (Agricultural Chemistry) show that milk sterilized at 248® F. for 10 minutes, the commercial unsweetened condensed milk, and the commercial milk jiowders that have been examined, have lost their anti-scorbutic proiierties. Even pasteurization at 145 F. for 30 minutes materially reduces the amount of this type of vitamine in milk. In fact, temperature maintained 52 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 at 176° for 10 minutes is less destructive to this growth stimulant than a 30 minute treatment at the lower temperature of 145°. The fact that vitamines of this type are so readily affected by the drying of fodders, makes it important to determine whether milk pro- duced from cows fed on dried grains and feeds is less anti-scorbutic than those produced on a summer pasture. The evidence that has been ac- cumulated up to the present would seem to indicate that milk from a herd that has been kept closely confined in the barn is of less value for infant feeding from this particular standpoint than that produced by cows under summer conditions on pasture. These facts in no way con- denm such milk or any of the milk products, but simply teach the lesson that when such products are used for infant food, they must be supple- mented by those carriers of the anti-scorbutic vitamine that are known to be strongly impregnated with such growth-stimulating substances. For this purpose, orange juice or some other good fresh fruit juice is eminently suited. The Stability or Water-Soluble Vitamines The recent discovery made in animal nutrition at this station that growth-stimulating substances soluble in water are to be found in some foods and not in others, has led to the further study as to the elfect which heat used in the preparation of foods would exert on these chemical substances. Mr. Steenbock and Mr. Boutwell have studied the reaction of heat on the water-soluble vitamines, and find that the same are not readily destroyed unless the reaction of the medium is alkaline; that such substances are not destroyed by nitrous acid or by hydrogen ; and that they cannot be distilled. The fact that this substance is widely distributed in most food stulfs in fairly liberal amounts, and that it is a relatively stable substance, increases the probability that de- ficiencies in this type of growth-stimulant in the diet of man and animal are not veiy great. Miss Amy L. Daniels (Home Economics) has made similar investi- gations with beans, both navy and soy, where they were cooked with and without pressure, and in the presence of baking soda. Cabbage was used as a representative of the starch-free succulent vegetable. These differently treated vegetables were fed to white rats. The results with beans show that when cooked at a high temperature (248° F.) or boiled in water to which an alkali (baking soda) has been added, no appre- ciable loss in water-soluble vitamine occurred. Experiments with cabbage, raw, cooked in the pressure cooker, boiled with baking soda or in distilled water also showed no indication that there had been any considerable destruction of the vitamine from the various methods employed in commercial canning processes. It was furthermore noted that animals (rats) made normal growth on diets in which the liquor from cooked beans was the sole source of water-soluble vitamine. Experiments in Farming 53 Modification of Milk for Infant Feeding The need of lowering* the fat content of milk in infant feeding necessitates the use of a reliable method applicable to home conditions. Many methods have been devised for use in laboratories where chemical apparatus is available, but these generally are not suited to the average home with the ordinary kitchen equipment. Miss Daniels has wmrked out a method of lowering the fat content of milk which may be done accurately in the home with ordinary care. Milk is allowed to stand on ice until the cream line is distinct, usually from 10 to 12 hours. The cream is then removed with as little mixing as possible by using a dipper with a removable bottom. To the remain- ing skimmilk a part of the cream can then be added to bring the fat content up to the desired standard. In order to obtain milk with 2 per cent of butter fat, 54 cubic centimeters of the cream must be added to every 24 ounces of milk ; for 3 per cent milk, 108 cubic centimeters ; and for 4 per cent milk, 162. The use of a graduate in the home or some type of accurate measuring cup gives the best results. The so- called “Chapin” dipper for the removal of cream is very satisfactory, as it varies but slightly in the amount of cream it delivers from time to time. Soybean Oil Experiments Continued Continuance of the cooperative work of the Genetics and Agricul- tural Chemistry departments has been made on the influence of se- lection on the chemical constitution of soybean oil. Selections made of high-iodine seeds and low-iodine seeds have been studied with reference to the chemical character of these oils, and have yielded interesting and suggestive results. The lowest of the low strain grown in 1917, having an iodine index of 120, produced in 1919 a progeny averaging an iodine number of 125, Avhile the highest of the high strain of the 1917 crop, with an iodine index of 144, gave last year an iodine number averaging 137. Of the high strain, only six plants have fallen below the maximum of the low. This result was unexpected where selec- tion was being made in a pure strain consisting of descendants of a single original plant. E. M. Nelson (Agricultural Chemistry) has found it possible to devise a means whereby he can separate sufficient oil from a part of a single bean so that analytical results may be secured, and leave the rest of the bean for planting so as to determine exaclly what relation the .seed has to the oil content of its progeny. This method appears to give a better control of the relation of j)rogeny to parent than has heretofore been available. Inuerttance of Milk and 1\Teat Production in Cattle Experiments in animal breeding must, of necessity, progress very slowly and it would be unwise to give even tentative suggestions or conclusions relative to results until the number of generations of 54 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 animals and the number of individuals involved were sufficiently large so as to give some support to theories offered. In 1912, L. J. Cole (Genetics) began experiments upon the in- heritance of meat and milk production by crossing an Angus bull to Jersey cows and a Jersey bull to Angus cows. The result of these first crosses was that the first generation cross-breds were all black polled like the Angus, but in most other respects were to a degree intermediate between the two parent breeds, there being considerable individual variation. It would appear from the results so far ob- tained that there was some correlation between milk production and type as the best producers are those that show more of the dairy type. They are all only medium in meat production, showing their dairy parentage particularly in the hind quarters. The second generation offspring produced by breeding the cross- breds to one another show still greater variation in type, as might be expected. This variation is especially marked in the matter of color and horns. The result with respect to horns confirms previous con- clusions that they are inherited in definite Mendelian fashion, for approximately three-fourths of the second generation offspring are polled and one-fourth have well developed .horns, not differing essentially from those of pure bred Jerseys. Relative to the presence of horns it may be said that this refers to the bony core which must be present to produce a true horn. Horny scurs, loosely attached to the skin, may be present on some of the first generation crossbreds, particularly the males, as well as on polled individuals of the second generation. While it has been found profitable in certain instances to produce definite crosses between breeds for special purposes, the present experiment would seem to confirm the conclusion that this does not apply to attempts to crossbreed cattle differing widely in type in the hope of securing the good qualities of both. It further emphasizes the impracticability of carrying any such method beyond the first crossbred on account of the great diversity that is sure to follow in subsequent generations. Studies of Inheritance in Pigeons Mr. Cole has continued his work of many years in this direction, studying the principal colors of pigeons, so that they can be handled in breeding much as the chemist handles his chemicals in the labora- tory; that is, where known combinations are put together, they produce predictable results. Of especial interest are some of the results that have been secured on two characters which are linked with sex in their inheritance, and which furthermore are not inherited entirely inde- pendently of each other but show a tendency to hang together when they once become associated. Such correlation may prove to have much practical importance, as, for example, if some other character should be found to be closely linked with high egg production in fowls. Other studies on pigeons relate to the matter of sex determination and seem to Experiments in Farming 55 indicate that the sex of an individual is determined primarily by a rather definite mechanism in inheritance rather than by external influences, such as, for example, the over-production of eggs, as has been maintained. The Tenancy Problem Although Wisconsin has less tenancy than any neighboring states, in 1920 nearly one acre in five (19 per cent) was worked under lease. It is quite likely that tenancy will still further increase as the state becomes more fully settled and land becomes more valuable. Tenancy is most prevalent when land is high, farms large, and the population of native American stock. Although ownership is undoubtedly to be preferred to lenancy, nevertheless a limited amount of it is to be preferred to any sub- stitutes for it, such as more laborers, or more ownership under contract or heavier mortgages. Out of each 1000 agricultural workers in Wiscon- sin, there were 94 more laborers and only 25 more tenants in 1910 than in 1880. Other data collected by B. H. Hibbard and J. D. Black, (Ag- ricultural Economics Department) show that men who were tenants in southern Wisconsin in 1916 became tenants at an average of 29.2 years of age, but that the men who were owners in 1916 had become owners at 32.9 years of age. Thus it is the first step, the step from laborer to tenant, that is lengthening out most rapidly at present. On the other hand, mortgaging is becoming increasingly prevalent. Wisconsin was the only state in the Union which showed an increase between 1900 and 1910 in percentage of value of farms covered by mortgage. An analysis of the business records for 1913, 1914 and 1915 of 265 owned farms, 148 share-rented farms, and 45 cash-rented showed $400 higher net farm incomes for the rented farms than for the owned farms. This is largely because tenant farmers work harder than owners. In the owner class are always to be found a gi’eat many farmers who have quit working hard or have become out-of-date in their farming methods. Too many tenant farmers work so hard that they do not take time to live properly. Mortgaged owners work even harder than tenants. Leasing Systems in Wisconsin In 1910, slightly over half of the farms rented in Wisconsin were rented for cash. At cash rent, only in a few cases is livestock rented with the land. At share rent, in a majority of cases either part or all of the livestock is rented with the land. Leases covering both land and livestock are called ^‘land-and-stock leases’h Share leases without livestock are “grain leases.’' Leases partly share and partly cash are “share-cash leases.” Mr. Hibbard and Mr. Black of the Agriculinral Economics De- partment, which lias been investigating leasing systems in Wisconsin have found the following 1ypes of land-and-stock leases in Wisconsin : (1) the half-and-half dairy lease, under which the landlord furnishes 56 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 all the productive livestock and receives one-half the proceeds and increase of livestock; (2) the landlord’s cattle dairy lease, in which the landlord furnishes all the productive livestock; (3) the one-third stock lease, under which the landlord furnishes all the livestock and machinery; and (4) the one-half all stock lease, under which each party furnishes one-half of all working capital. There are two types of grain leases in use in Wisconisin, the two-thirds grain lease, under which the tenant furnishes all the working capital and gets two-thirds of the grain at the machine, and the one-half grain lease, under which the landlord pays half of many of the expenses, such as seed, twine and threshing. In some sections of Wisconsin leases are found which repre- sent mixtures of stock and grain leases. Cash renting predominates where farms are small, where farming is much diversified (especially near large cities), where tenants are scarce, and where the type of farming is now changing from gi’ain to beef cattle. South-western, eastern and northern Wisconsin show more cash than share tenants. Share renting predominates where rented land is still largely grain-farmed, wdiere special staple crops like tobacco and potatoes are grown, and in sections where land is high in price, farms fairly large, tenants numerous and dairying the usual type of farming. Share renting is most prevalent in western and central Wisconsin and in the Rock River Valley. The half-and-half dairy lease is found in the southern dairy sec- tions where land is high in price, and the landlord’s cattle lease further north, where land is cheaper. The other two stock leases are found only occasionally. The grain leases are found in western and central Wisconsin and wherever farmers are renting additional land on shares. An analysis of the division of income under these various types of share leases shows that in general the shares which landlord and tenant receive are proportional to the amount of capital, management and responsibility-taking which each contributes to the business. Cash rents of 1185 farms in 1917 were 3.9 per cent of real estate values. Taxes, maintenance and depreciation reduced this 3.9 per cent to 2.5 per cent. This represents the net income landlords Avere wulling to receive and still own land, reckoning as they did upon increase in land values, security of investment, and so forth. Under half-and-half dairy leases, the landlords received, in one county $201, and in another $348, more than 2.5 per cent net income on the value of their farms, as pay for the extra management and responsibility involved in such leases. The other share leases gave the landlords smaller surpluses. The general tendency in leasing arrangements is toAvard greater definiteness in agreements, toward more workable methods of dividing expenses and receipts, and toward the adoption of arrangements more conduciA-e to good agriculture. Progress of the Soil Sura^ey The most outstanding work of the soil survey this last year has been the publication of a consolidated map that covers the entire Experiments in Farming 57 northern half of the state. This work has been based upon the pre- vious reconnoissanee publications made by A. R. Whitson (Soils) in five separate reports, but owing to the exhaustion of these editions these separate maps have been combined into a single map, expressing the soil classifications in popular form, such as sands, silt loams, and so forth. Copies of this large map and accompanying report can be obtained from The general survey of northern Wisconsin by sections has recently been published as a single map and report. Detailed surveys have been made of 20 counties and four counties are partly surveyed. the Superintendent of Public Property, State Capitol, Madison, for 25 cents a copy. A separate edition of this map by individual counties has also been prepared together with an explanatory text, and is published in cooperation with the State Geological and Natural ITistory Sur\’ey as Experiment Station P>iilletin No. 300. This publication will be sent free of charge to applicants who are specifically interested in any particular, definite region in the state. 58 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 The detailed soil surveys now cover 20 counties on which 15 reports are at present available. Nineteen counties are yet to be surveyed. The field work of the detailed surveys of Rock, Jackson, Outagamie and Kenosha Counties has been completed during the past season, and these reports are in progress of preparation. The field work in Wal- worth, Racine, and Adams Counties is now in progi’ess. In cooperation with the State Geological Survey in connection with work which they have had in progi’ess in eastern Eau Claire and Chippewa Counties, ap- proximately 15 townships have been mapped in greater detail than fonn- eriy and at a gi’eatly reduced expense so far as the funds of the Soil Siu’vej" are concerned. Inasmuch as this region is one in which there is a large amount of undeveloped land, the information which it has been possible to get in this way will be of considerable assistance in land settlement. The United States Geological Survey, in cooperation with the State Geological and Natural Histoiy Survey, is now engaged in making topogi’aphical maps of various portions of the state which will supplement the work of the soil survey. Uses to Which Soil Maps Are Put The classification of soils made by the soil siu’vey is used extensively by persons interested in special lines of agiiculture. The industries of pea-canning, sugar beets, hemp, and other special croj^s, each of which req’uires a special soil condition, find the work of the sui’vey of utmost importance. Soils for pea-canning industry. The rapid increase of the canning industry of the state makes a stud}’ of the relation of the crop to the soil of much importance. A number of canneries have been started in sections of the state in which the soil is especially unsuited to the growth of this crop, and partial or complete failure has not in- frequently followed after a few years of experience. One of the most necessary conditions for successful pea-growing is a good sup- ply of lime in the soil. While most of the virgin soils have a fair supph’ of this element available when first brought under cultivation, it is used up in a comparatively short time, and the lack of larger supplies of lime carbonate in the sub-soil results in an unsatisfactory soil condition for the cultivation of peas and for other crops requir- ing considerable quantities of lime. Sugar beets. The sugar beet also makes a heavy demand upon the soil, especially with reference to lime, nitrogen, and potash. Un- less these elements are abundant naturally in the soil and in an available form, they must be supplied by the addition of fertilizers containing these necessary’ ingredients. Soils and drainage. Maps and reports of the soil survey are found to be of great advantage in the organization of drainage districts and in the operation of new farm drainage laws. Marsh lands vary greatly in character. While some are highly acid others are abundantly supplied with lime. Some are markedly deficient in available potash. Experiments in Farming 59 while others are not only deficient in potash but phosphoric acid. Some marshes improve much during a few years of cultivation while others do not show improvement owing to their chemical cliaracter- FIG. 25.— leaching RETARDS THE GROWTH OF CORN Drainage and leaching affect the availability of rock phosphate to corn and thereby retard the growth. Compare the plants to the right, from an unloached pot, with the plants to the left, from a leached pot. istics. It is of importance therefore that maps and rejiorts })c fur- nished which will give the necessary information regarding tlie ciuality of these soils and the j)Ossibilil ies of their lining reclaiined by drainage. 60 AVisconsin Bulletin 319 Availability of Rock Phosphate in Relation to Soil Leaching Experiments by F. C. Bauer and E. Truog (Soils) have shown that leaching or drainage aids materially in the availability of rock phosphate. If leaching removes the soluble calcium bi-carbonate, a plant which has heretofore been a weak feeder on rock phosphate will feed much more strongly on this material than when leaching is not carried on. F. W. Parker (Soils) has studied the effect of lime in preventing calcium phos- phate from going over into iron and aluminum phosphates. By imitat- ing in the laboratory the soil conditions, these experiments indicate that the presence of lime does prevent in a considerable measure the forma- tion of less desirable iron and aluminum phosphates, depending upon the amount of lime present. The benefit caused by the application, which has heretofore been merely assumed, in this respect, is now experi- mentally demonstrated. The Function of Lime in Plants Mr. Truog and Mr. Parker have continued their wmrk upon the function of lime in different types of plants. A review of all available data collected indicates that the lime content of jolants runs roughly parallel with the nitrogen and protein content. Plants may be divided into two groups, those high in lime and protein and those low in lime and protein. This relationship indicates that lime is con- nected with the protein formation, and since the lime content of pro- tein is itself normally low, it would show that the lime does not form a part of the protein itself, but helps in the building process or in the removal of the waste materials. Plants which are greatly favored by the liming of acid soils are high in protein. This throws further light on the relation of soil acidity and the liming problem. Relation of Soil Acidity to Plant and Legume Bacteria The use of improved technical methods to determine the amount of soil acidity in plants has been made this last year through work by A. C. Haas and C. B. Clevenger (Soils). With this method it has been possible to determine the acidity of leaves, stems, and roots of a number of plants at different stages of growth and at two-hour inteiwals during a long growing period. These results show that the leaves and stems are more acid during the night than during the day time. With the roots, the opposite is true. Additions of lime decrease the acidity of the roots, but not necessarily that of the stems and leaves, unless the soil is very strongly acid. The data secured along these lines are aiding greatly in explaining the relation of soil acidity to plant growth. Improvements of Soil Acidity Tests Truog’s soil acidity method which he devised several years ago has been materially improved this year. By replacing calcium chloride Experiments in Farming 61 with barium chloride, which does not take up moisture, much improve- ment has been made in that this chemical can be ground up with the soil. The chemicals are now intimately mixed and kept in a dry condi- tion. Several other improvements made in the mechanics of the ap- paratus make it easier of manipulation. A new combination standard acidity and lime chart has been devised which indicates approximately the amount of lime desirable to use with soils of a varying degree of acidity. fig. 26.-THE PEA MOTH IS THUS FAR LIMITED TO A SMALL AREA Field work in the pea-growing- section of Wisconsin indicates as high as 21 per cent infestation of the moth, although the area is still limited. Reports from other coun- ties suggest that the pest may be present there. Fertilizer Needs of Peat Marshes Carefully controlled experiments instituted by W. W. Weir (Soils) on the fertilizing needs of the University marsh have been carried on by laying out fields in three-year rotations, using corn, barley, or rye 62 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 and alsike clover and timothy. The fertilizer treatment applied this year was used with the corn. Control plots gave a crop of 38.5 bushels an acre, while those receiving fertilizer applications ranged from 71 to 91.9 bushels an acre. It is evident from the results of these experi- ments that potash is the element most markedly needed by corn growing on this type of soil, and that with a good application of fertilizer containing this element, heavy yields can be produced. Since it was impossible to secure muriate of potash for use this year, cob ash con- taining 25 per cent of potash has been used. fig. 27.— soil cocoons BETRAY THE PRESENCE OF THE PEA MOTH The larvae burrow into the ground at the end of the season and spin a cocoon from which they emerge as moths in June. Larvae hatched from the eggs of the moth feed on the ripening peas. No particular benefit seems to have developed from the addition of a phosphate fertilizer. It should be mentioned however, that this par- ticular marsh is not now in an acid condition, but it should be borne in mind that further cropping is quite likely to exhaust the available supply of phosphate, making the use of such fertilizer in addition to potash necessary later. Pea Moth Menaces a Leading Wisconsin Industry Years ago Door County occupied the unique position as the leading pea-producing county of the state, but the ravages of a new insect to Experiments in Farming 63 Wisconsin, the pea moth, have of late years made the cultivation of this crop so unprofitable as to reduce greatly the acreage grown. So serious has this trouble become that the County Board of Supervisors last year took action appealing to the Experiment Station to undertake studies of this trouble. L. G. Gentner and C. L. Fluke (Economic Entomology) established a field laboratory at Sturgeon Bay in the sum- mer of 1918 and also 1919. This trouble, which affects only the pea plant, so far seems to be confined to the Door Peninsula and adjoining counties. Undoubtedly it was introduced some 10 or 15 years ago through seed purchased from Canadian growers. Those engaged in growing peas have recog- nized the trouble as one of increasing importance for a number of years, but the spread of the disease has gradually extended until both shores of Green Bay are now involved. As the moth is incapable of flying long distances, it seems probable that infestation of Oconto County, which is yet comparatively slight, probably has occurred through transmission around the head of Green Bay. Summer before last (1918) the losses in Door county alone were estimated as high as 40 per cent. Some farmers were unable to dis- pose of their crops at all because the dried peas were rejected on account of their wormy condi- tion. The insect winters over in the soil, spinning a small cocoon of soil particles, and emerging about the middle of JuW as a dark brown moth about one- fourtli of an inch long. The worm after hatching penetrates the pea pod developing a pro- tective coating composed mostly excrement. From this it feeds on tlie nearest developing peas in the pod, rapidly chiseling its way into and around the pea kei-nel. It does not aj)pear praciical)]e to cope with tliis troul)le througli the use of insecticides in tlie field as tlie pi’esent system of cultiva- tion in fields would not permit of an afiplication of a spray. Peas that mature l)efoi’e July 20 will probably escape the at- FKi. 2S. WHKRK 'I'lllv J’KA MOTH LAliVAl': IIAVF FKD tack of the moth. This might be done with the early canning varieties, but the field pea that Croj) losses in tin; /lcle(‘n lar^o in eertain see- tions, since such injury as this Rreatly reduces tlie value of tlie crop. 64 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 is grown for the ripened product has not been developed to mature as early as this. The problem is one of such major importance that it is hoped it can be aggressively attacked when the new branch Experiment Station in Door County, authorized by the last legislature, is developed next year. Potato Leafhopper Associated with Tipburn Almost every year more or less difficulty occurs in potato crops due to what is generally known at “tipburn.” While much of this difficulty is undoubtedly caused by such climatic conditions as low rainfall and high temperature, recent investigations indicate that it is also accentuated materially by the presence of an insect known as the potato leafhopper. During the summer of 1918 the leafhopper was extremely abundant, not only in this state but throughout tlie east to New Jersey and southward to Kentucky. The loss was probably a third of the entire potato crop, and in southern and central Wis- consin the percentage of loss was even greater. Investigations made by the Economic Entomology Department in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry indicate that the leafhopper is in a large measure responsible for the loss. It has been clearly established that even one adult might be responsible for the diseased condition of the entire plant. The first outward indication of disease is a slight yellowing, usually at the tip of the leaf. This yellowing spreads rapidly down the margins and toward the midrib followed by a brown- ing or curling upward of the edge of the leaf. Efforts were made to control the disease through the use of bordeaux mix- ture. Eight potato varieties were used in the test, the solution being applied by a wheel-bari’ow sprayer with a pressure of 100 to 150 pounds and the spray pro- jected on the under side of the foliage. In all cases the treated lot showed an increase of from two to three-fold over the un- treated area. Bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50, alone or, better, in com- bination with nicotine sulfate 1 :1200, will protect potato plants from bad infestation by the hop- FIG. 20.— leafhopper CAUSED THE INJURY The potato leaf shows the curled, browned, diseased margin which indicates the presence of the leafhopper. This dis- eased condition may spread until the entire leaf js dead. Experiments in Farming 65 per and the diseased condition of the potato foliage for which the leaf- hopper is responsible. Efforts made to determine the enemies of the leafhopper indicate a presence of a fungus disease attacking both adults and nymphs, and also a tiny wasp -like insect bred in the leaf- hopper egg. These parasites should receive further investigation. Green Clover Worm Affects Beans This year the green clover worm which is often a serious pest on alfalfa, has apparently jumped from its normal host and was found by Mr. Gentner to be a serious menace to certain truck crops, particu- larly garden beans. Many gardens and fields containing dwarf, pole, soy, and lima beans were found in the southern part of the stale to be injured by the ravages of the larvae of the dark brown or blackish moth, which is the adult form of the green clover worm. Fortunately, nature often holds such troubles as these in check, as a very large number of the larvae were found to be killed by parasites during the latter part of August and early September. Spraying the bean plants with arsenate of lead at the rate of 1 to IV 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water will control the pest. As the foliage of beans is rather tender, this poison should be applied carefully, and after fog has formed, other means of combating the pest must be resorted to. Strawberry Crown Miner Found Although the strawberry crown miner has not been reported in this state as injuring strawberries, observations made by Mr. Gentner seem to indicate that it is well established. The small, grayish moth causing this trouble deposits its eggs on the strawberry plant in the spring. , The larvae burrow into the plant either at the crown or along the root, making irregular tunnels in which they apparently prepare later for over-wintering. Infestation observed upon strawberry fields this year indicates a greater severity of attack upon older beds. Where infestation is considerable, it is apparent that the plowing up of the bed early enough in the fall so that the roots will dry out before the larvae reach maturity will be the most feasible means of holding the trouble in cheek. It is suggested that spraying the plants early in the spring with an arsenical at the time that the young larvae are hatching may possibly prevent their entrance into the crown, although experiments of this type have not yet been tried. Studies on Joiine’s Disease The Veterinai-y Science Department lias continued its work in co- operation with the Agricultural Bacteriology Department upon the subject of Johne’s disease, studying the incubation period of the disease, the relative mortality in the different herds, the manner in which the disease spreads under normal conditions. Johnin, which is the specific diagnostic material that is injected in the animal to determine 66 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 the presence of the disease, is introduced into the veins. In the ma- jority of eases, reaction has been found to occur between the third and sixth hour. With such an early reaction as this, it is necessary to take the temperatures after injection within an hour from the time that the Johnin is introduced. Further studies have been continued upon a herd in Dunn County, consisting of about 50 head, which has been under observation for over three years. This last year more reactors were found in the herd when tested in March, and also more again in June. These cattle were shipped to the University farm for further study. Six of them have been autopsied and in all cases lesions were found. Acid-fast organisms that are characteristic of the Jolme’s dis- ease were found in all cases that were critically examined. Progress upon the study of this disease is relatively slow, as it takes nearly six months before any growth in culture media is visible to the naked eye. Immunization Against Contagious Abortion Fighting fire with fire. The greatest menace to the successful prosecution of the dairy industry lies in the disease of contagious abortion — not that the actual losses from this disease by death are larger than those arising from tuberculosis, but on account of the comparative helplessness of the stock owner to control this disease. Dr. F. B. Hadley (Veterinary Science) has been experimenting for a number of years on the treatment of this disease by the application of various means of immunizing cows against the contagious abortion bacillus. . The work for this last year has been principally in connection with the application of the vaccine composed of live abortion bacilli. This vaccine is prepared by the use of a number of different strains of the bacillus aborted in place of a single culture of the causal organism. This germ loses its disease-producing power readily under artificial conditions of growth and hence the desirability of trying various strains in the manufacture of the vaccine. The necessity for continued efforts in this direction is indicated by the fact that in spite of the fact that the whole subject of immunizing dairy cattle against this disease is yet only in the experimental stage, large numbers of applications have been receded from stock owners who desire to use this type of vaccine in the treatment of their herds. Since January, 1919, 25,000 cubic centimeters or sufficient to inject 850 animals, has been made and distributed only through the veterinary profession. The fact that this vaccine is composed of living abortion bacilli that have been treated in a way so as to destroy in part, at least, their disease-producing powers, makes it imiDossible for such a method to be used in general jiractice. No specific result can yet be presented as to the success of this method, but the department is hopeful that the use of this method may be of much service to the livestock profession. Experiments in Farming 67 Barley for Swine Feeding Due to the large demand in the past for barley for malting purposes in this state, this grain has been for the most part grown as a cash crop instead of being fed to livestock on the farm. For this reason many Wisconsin farmers do not appreciate the high value of barley for stock feeding. Trials are therefore being carried on by F. B. Morrison and G. Bohstedt (Animal Husbandry) to determine the rela- tive value of barley and corn for swine feeding and to determine the best method of feeding barley and of preparing it for feeding. While several trials have previously been carried on at other ex- periment stations to compare the value of corn and barley when hand- fed to pigs, it has seemed important to determine the relative value of these grains when both are self-fed by modern methods. In each of two trials carried on last winter and spring one lot of pigs was self-fed shelled corn and tankage while another lot was self-fed ground barley and tankage. On the average the barley-fed pigs gained 1.66 pounds a head daily, while those fed corn made somewhat more rapid gams, 1.94 pounds. The corn-fed pigs ate 373 pounds of corn and 30 pounds of tankage for each 100 pounds gain, and the feed cost of 100 pounds gain was $11.45 with feeds at last year’s prices. The barley-fed pigs required 430 pounds barley and 24 pounds tank- age for 100 ]30unds gain and the feed cost of 100 pounds gain was $10.35, or $1.10 less than on corn. From this it is seen that barley- fed pigs required 15 jDer cent more grain but only about three-fourths as much tankage as the corn-fed pigs. As prices are constantly changing the most important question is the relative value of these grains a 100 pounds or a bushel. In these trials ground barley was actually worth 9.7 per cent less a 100 pounds than shelled corn. Considering the cost of grinding, whole barley was worth 13.7 per cent less a 100 pounds than shelled corn. For spring pigs on pasture last summer there was just a trilie more difference between the value of these grains, barley before grinding being worth 15 per cent less than shelled corn a 100 pounds. These results with sell-led pigs agi’ee closely with those previously obtained with these grains when they were hand-fed. Soaking whole barley has been recommended by some as a substi- tute for gi-inding the grain. However, in a trial last spring this p]-oved to be a decidedly ineflicierit method of preparation. Soaked whole barley was worth only 00 cents a bushel, conq)ared with diy ground barley at 89 cents a bushel, in this trial a comparison was also made to find whether it was more economical to self- feed ground barley and tankage free choice than to hand-feed the ground barley and tankage. The pigs which were self- fed made slightly larger gains. However, they tended to eat more tankage than was needed to balance their ration, and therefore the cost of 100 pounds gain was slightly higher than where the barley and tankage wei'e hand-fed and only enough tankage was sujiiilied to balance the i-ation. In a later trial 68 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 excellent results have been obtained where a mixture of barley and tankage has been self -fed, just enough tankage being included in the mixture to balance the ration properly. The comparisons made in these trials indicate that in feeding barley it is more economical to self-feed a mixture of barley and tankage than to self-feed the two feeds free choice and let the pigs balance their own ration, as is com- monly done in the case of shelled corn and tankage. Trials are being continued to determine the proportion of tankage needed to balance barley for pigs of various ages. Barley Versus Corn eor Milk Cows Barley is one of the grains most highly esteemed for milk cows in Europe and in the western states, but it has not been used widely in this section for this purpose. As there were no data available to show the value of barley for milk production compared with corn, two trials have been carried on by Mr. Morrison, Mr. Humphrey, and R. S. Hulce (Animal Husbandry) to study this question. Last winter two lots each of six cows were fed by the reversal method for two periods of six weeks each. Both lots were fed alfalfa hay and corn silage for roughage with a concentrate mixture con- sisting of 600 pounds of either ground corn or ground barley, and 400 pounds of protein-rich feeds, including wheat bran, linseed meal, cottonseed meal and dried brewers’ grains. When fed barley the average daily yield of milk was 25.1 pounds and of butter fat .92 pounds ; while the yield on corn was a trifle higher, 25.6 pounds of milk and .94 pounds of butterfat. However, the cows on the average lost 15.9 pounds in weight on the corn ration and gained 19 pounds each on the barley. This difference in live weight compensates fully for the slight- ly larger yield of milk on the corn ration. Another trial was carried on last summer to determine the value of barley compared with corn when used as the chief part of the con- centrate allowance for cows on pasture. Two lots each of 5 cows were fed by the reversal method for three periods of flve weeks each. When fed in addition to pasture 5.6 pounds of a mixture consisting of 60 pounds corn, 30 pounds wheat bran, and 10 pounds cottonseed meal, the average daily yield of milk was 26.3 pounds and of butterfat .94 pounds. When the same amount of ground barley was substituted for the ground corn, the average daily yield of milk was 26.9 pounds and of butterfat was .96 pounds. In this trial the cows gained on the average 1.1 pounds on the corn ration and lost 3.3 pounds each on the barley ration. From these two trials it may be concluded that pound for pound, ground barley and ground corn are equal in feeding value for milk production. Barley Versus Oats for Work Horses In the corn belt barley has been used to little extent for feeding work horses. In trials which have been carried on in France and Experiments in Farming 69 at two of the American experiment stations it was found that pound for pound, whole barley was less valuable for work horses than whole oats. However, in the western states barley is extensively used for horses with excellent results. As barley contains less of hulls than oats and furnishes more digestible nutrients to each hundred pounds it was thought that it would prove at least equal, or even superior, to oats for horses if prepared so the animals could utilize it fully. Pre- vious trials at this Station have shown that there is a saving of but 5 to 6 per cent in crushing oats for working horses. Undoubtedly, however, the saving in the case of barley is much greater, and it is accordingly advisable to crush or grind barley for horses, as it is also for cattle and swine. During the last summer Mr. Morrison, Mr. Bohstedt and Mr. Fuller (Animal Husbandry) carried on a trial with 10 teams of work horses to determine the relative value of crushed barley versus crushed oats. At the beginning of the trial one horse in each team was fed crushed oats and the other crushed barley, the two lots receiving equal weights of the two grains. Very shortly it became evident that the horses receiving the crushed barley were gaining in weight more rapidly than those fed on the same weight of crushed oats, which meant that the barley was worth more pound for pound than the oats. Accordingly, the amount of barley had to be reduced so as to keep the weights of the two lots approximately equal. After eight weeks the rations were reversed, the horses which had been fed oats then receiving barley. During the second period, for each 100 pounds of crushed oats fed one lot of horses, the other lot received 88.7 pounds of barley or a difference of 11.3 per cent. The barley-fed horses gained slightly less during this period than the oat-fed horses. From the results of the two periods, it is concluded that crushed barley is superior to crushed oats for horse feeding, being worth about 10 per cent more a 100 pounds when the two grains are of equal quality. Little difficulty was experienced in accustoming the horses to barley and this grain had no injurious effect on the endurance of the animals for work. Importance of Barley for Stock Feeding The fact that good quality barley so closely approaches corn in feeding value, pound for pound, not only for swine, but also for other classes of stock, is of tremendous importance to Wisconsin farmers. Not only is the feeding value higher than oats, especially for fatten- ing animals, but in Wisconsin barley also produces on the average 19 per cent more pounds of grain an acre than does oats. In sections of upper Wisconsin where corn does not usually mature for cribbing, the high-yielding, pedigree varieties of barley developed by the Ex- periment Station should furnish the main feed for livestock.' Even in southern Wisconsin many farmers would profit by growing more bar- ley in place of oats. 70 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 Skimmilk and Whey for Pigs Under present conditions, with all feeds high in price, it becomes especially important in such a dairy state as Wisconsin to find how to use onr dairy by-products so as to secure the greatest return from them and also to learn their actual feeding value compared with other available feeds. Several methods of estimatmg the actual feeding value of skim- milk have been used in years past, a common estimate being that skim- milk, when fed with grain, was worth one-half as much a 100 pounds as corn is worth a bushel. But this method of estimation was worked out by comparing the results from feeding pigs grain alone with the results from feeding grain and skimmilk. This is obviously not a fair comparison, for no progi’essive farmer now feeds his pigs such an in- efficient ration as grain alone when they are not on pasture. To find the actual feedmg value of skimmilk, Messrs. Morrison and Bohstedt have compared it with the best common commercial substi- tute, which is tankage. Last year in each of two trials one lot of pigs was self-fed ground barley and tankage, free-choice in separate com- partments of a self-feeder, and another lot was self-fed ground barley and hand-fed twice a day just enough skimmilk to balance their ration (not as much as they would have liked to drink). The pigs averaged 137 pounds in weight at the beginning of the trials. The gain of the tankage-fed pigs was satisfactoiy, 1.64 pounds a head daily, but the skimmilk pigs gained 1.89 pounds. The tankage pigs required 450 pounds of barley and 23 pounds of tankage for 100 pounds gain, costing $14.72 at present farm prices. The skimmilk pigs required only 406 pounds of barley and 340 pounds of skimmilk for 100 pounds gain. Even valuing skimmilk at the old estimate of half as much for 100 pounds as shelled corn is worth a bushel, or 69.5 cents, the feed- cost of 100 pounds gain was only $14.45, or 27 cents less than for the tankage pigs. From the results of these later trials it is evident that even com- paring skimmilk with tankage, 100 pounds of skimmilk is worth fully half as much as a bushel of corn, when only enough skimmilk is fed to balance the ration. If an abundance of skimmilk is available on the farm, a gTeater amount than this may be economically fed, but this excess amount over what the pigs really need to balance their ration will be worth only about half as much or less. This is due to the fact that the protein is the most valuable part of skimmilk. After the pig is fed enough protein to balance his ration, he uses the ex- cess merely to make fat instead of lean meat. Surprising results have been secured with whey in these trials when used as a supplement to barley. Hitherto, whey has not been thought to have any value as a supplement to the grains, as it is low in pro- tein, containing only .8 ]')ound protein a hundred pounds. However, when pigs were self-fed ground barley and hand-fed in addition all the whey they would drink, they made surprisingly good gains. In Experiments in Farming 71 fact, they gained more rapidly than pigs fed barley and tankage or barley and skimmilk. Averaging together the results for the two trials it was found that pigs self-fed barley and hand-fed in addition about all the whey they would drink gained 2.22 pounds a head daily, eating 7.8 pounds barley a day and drinking 18.4 pounds whey. They required only 353 pounds barley and 854 pounds whey for 100 pounds gain. Pigs self-fed barley and tankage gained on the average only 1.64 pounds daily in these trials, requiring 450 pounds barley and 23 pounds tankage for 100 pounds gain. These excellent results with barley and whey alone are apparently due to the fact that while whey is low in protein, the protein it does contain, which is chiefly milk albumin, is of excellent quality to serve as a supplement to the proteins of the barley grain. These results were secured with pigs which were well grown at the ‘beginning of the trial, weighing 125 to 150 pounds. Trials are being continued to de- termine whether merely barley and whey makes a balanced ration for younger pigs. Undoubtedly for animals which require more protein, the addition of some protein-rich feed to barley and whey will be ad- vantageous. Similarly, the value of whey when fed with corn is be- ing studied. Fattening Steers Without Feeding Corn Grain On account of the present high price of corn and other grains, it is becoming of much importance to determine whether good results can be obtained when fattening steers are fed only corn silage, hay, and enough protein-rich concentrates to balance the ration, without feed- ing any shelled corn or corn grain in other form. Two lots each of ten steers were fed last winter by Messrs. Fuller and Morrison to com- pare the results from this ration with the results from feeding the more or less standard corn belt ration of a full feed of shelled corn, enough protein-rich concentrates to balance the ration, and all the corn silage and hay the steers would eat. The steers in Lot I fed shelled corn, ate on the average 12.5 pounds shelled corn, 2.8 pounds cotton- seed meal, 32.6 pounds corn silage, and 2.2 pounds mixed hay a head daily; while the average ration of Lot II was 3.6 pounds cottonseed meal, 56.6 pounds corn silage, and 2.6 pounds mixed hay with no shelled corn. The steers fed slielled corn gained on the average 2.31 pounds a head daily but tliose receiving no shelled corn made just as large gains in tills trial. Ordinarily steers fed no shelled corn will make lower gains than where they ai’e fed shelled corn in addition to corn silage. The excellent gains without shelled corn were undoubtedly due to the fact that the corn silage used was of superior quality, cari-ying a large propoT’tion of (-oi’ii grain. The fe(*d cost of 100 pounds gain was only $15.88 for the steei's fed no shelled corn, and $23.23 for the steers in the other lot. Owing to better finish, the steers in Lot T sold for 50 cents more per 100 pounds than those fed no shelled coi’n. IVtore retiu*n was also 72 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 secured from the pigs following Lot I than from those following Lot II. However, these factors did not offset the cheaper gains made by- Lot II, fed no shelled corn. Therefore the average retum per steer over cost of feed was $17.28 for Lot II and $13.86 for Lot 1. Lot I shrank 4.1 per cent on shipment to Chicago and Lot II, 6.4 per cent. As might be expected, the dressing percentage of Lot 1 fed shelled corn was also slightly higher, bemg 59.73 per cent, while for Lot II it was 58.25 per cent. These results, together with results secured in trials at other sta- tions, show that when there is but little difference paid for highly fin- ished cattle over those carrying a moderate amount of fat, bigger prof- its can quite often be obtained when no corn is fed, except that in the silage. Publications About 92,000 letters were written by members of the staff in re- sponse to inquiries from all over the world. A large part of these went to fanners in the state who were seeking information on their farming problems. About 30,000 pages of manuscript and 4,000 sten- cils were prepared in addition to the letters. This past year ten bulletins, two research bulletins, and three poster bulletins, one of them reprinted, were published by the Experiment Station, in addition to nine new and four reprinted circulars which were sent out under the Extension Seiwice frank. The following is a digest of the bulletins which have been issued by the Experiment Station during the year: POPULAR BULLETINS Bulletin 294. — Serving VS'isconsin Farmers in War Time. Report of the Director of the Agricultural Extension Service. (H. L. Russell and K. L. Hatch). A report on the service rendered to Wisconsin farmers during 1916-17, the early war period. Bulletin 295. — Getting Rid of the Stumps (Agricultural Engineering Departmejit). The most modern devices and methods for the removal of stumps in the cut-over lands of Northern Wisconsin. Bulletin 296. — Contagious Abortion Questions Answered (F. B. Had- ley). Questions and answers on the cause and control of contagious abortion in cattle. Bulletin 297. — Hairless Pigs, Their Cause and Remedy (E. B. Hart and H. Steenbock). The use of iodine as a preventive of the hairless pig malady — a serious menace to our hog industry. Bulletin 298. — Prune the Cherry Trees (R. H. Roberts). A discus- sion of the right way of pruning in order to secure a maximum yield of fruit. Bulletin 299. — Sandy Soils and How to Farm Them (A. R. Whitson and H. W. Ullsperger). With right crops, proper fertilization, and proper management all but the poorest of the sandy soils of the state can be farm.ed. Bulletin 300. — War Prices and Farm Profits (H. C. Taylor and S. W. Mendum). A survey of farmers’ incomes and profits from sixty farms in a typical southern Wisconsin township for the years 1913 to 1917, inclusive. Experiments in Farming 73 Bulletin 301. — Wisconsin Wins — Annual Report of tlie Agricultural Extension Service for 1917-18 (H. L. Russell and K. L Platch). The excellent teamwork of all of the state and county agencies was respon- sible in a large measure for Wisconsin’s splendid record in increasing production during this eventful year. Bulletin 302. — Service to Wisconsin-Annual Report of the Director of the Experiment Station for 1916-17 and 1917-18 (H. L. Russell and F. B. Morrison). A two-year progress report on the various experi- ments on present-day problems being conducted by the Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 303. — Common Insecticides — Their Practical Value (H. F. Wilson). The results of laboratory tests to determine the killing effi- ciency of various insecticides as an aid to the purchase of the best in- secticide to use in preventing loss through insect damage. RESEARCH BULLETINS Research Bulletin 43. — The Milling and Baking Qualities of Wiscon- sin Grown Wheats (B. D. Leith). Results of tests to determine whether wheat of good quality can be grown in the state, and to select the best varieties for milling and baking quality. Research Bulletin 44. — Farm Tenancy, An Analysis of the Occupancy of 500 Farms (C. J. Galpin and Emily F. Hoag). A survey of the so- cial aspects, especially the shifting of farm tenants, in the Sun Prairie community. Technical Articles The following technical articles have been prepared by members of the station staff for scientific associations or technical journals. Aust, F. A. Rural planting in Wisconsin. Ann. Rpt. of the State Hort. Soc. 1919. Cole, L. J. A defect of hair and teeth in cattle — probably hereditary. Jour, of Hered., 10: 303-306. 1919. Cole, L. J. and Lippincott, W. A. The relation of plumage to ovarian condition in a Barred Plymouth Rock pullet. Biol. Bui. .36: 167-182. 1919. Cole, L. J. and Kelley, F. J. Studies on inheritance in pigeons III. Description and linkage relations of two sex-linked characters. Genetics 4: 173-203. 1919. Daniels, A. L. and J. K. Rich. The role of the inorganic sulfates in nutrition. Jour. Biol. Chem. 36: 27-32. 1918. Daniels, A. L. and McClurg, N. I. Influence of high temperature and dilute alkalis on the antieuritic properties of foods. Jour. Biol. Chem. 37: 201-13. 1919. Daniels, A. L. and English, H. A. A simple method of modifying the fat content of milk for infant feeding. Amer. Jour. Diseases of Chil- dren. 37: 212-17. 1919. Daniels, A. L. and Heisig, E. H. The acidity of various syrups used in cookery. Jour. Home Ec. 11:193-9. 1919. Dickson, J. G. The value of certain nutritive elements in the develop- ment of the oat plant. Am. Jour. Bot. .3: 301-324. 1918. Duffee, F. W. Ensilage cutters. Hoard’s Dairyman, March, 1919. Hous- ing farm machinery. Farm Mechanics, March, 1919. Fluke, Chas. L., .Tr. Does bordeaux mixture repel the potato leafhopper? Jour. Ec. Ent., Concord, N. H. 12: 256-257. 1919. 74 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 Fred, E. B. The effect of certain organic substances on seed germina- tion. Soil Science 6: 333-349. 1918. The growth of higher plants in soils free of micro-organisms. Jour. Gen. Physiol. 1 ; 623-629. 1919. Fred, E. B. and Haas, A. R. C. The etching of marble by roots in the presence and absence of bacteria. Jour. Gen. Physiol. 1: 631-638. 1919. Haas, A. R. C. and Fred, E. B. The effect of soybean germination upon the growth of its nodule-forming bacteria. Soil Science 7: 237-245. 1919. Haas, A. R. C. Colorimetric determination of the hydrogen ion concen- tration in small quantities of solution. Jour. Biol. Chem. 38: 49-'55. 1919. Hadley, F. B. A new vaccine against contagious abortion. Proc. Wis. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1919:57-61. Hart, E. B., Steenbock, H., and Smith, D. W. Studies of experimental scurvy. Effect of heat on the antiscorbutic properties of som.e milk products. Jour. Biol. Chem. 38: 305. 1919. Hart, E. B. and Steenbock, H., with the cooperation of F. Letcher. Maintenance and reproduction value of some protein mixtures. Jour. Biol. Chem. 38: 267. 1919. Hart, E. B. and Humphrey, G. C. The relation of the quality of proteins to milk production IV, Jour. Biol. Chem. 35: 367. 1918. Hart, E. B., Nelson, V. E., and Pitz, W. Synthetic capacity of the mam- mary gland. Can this gland synthesize lysine? Jour. Biol. Chem. 36: 429. 1918. , Hastings, E. G. Comparative value of quantitative and qualitative bac- teriological methods as applied to milk with especial consideration of the methylene blue reduction test. Jour. Dairy Sci. 2: 293-311. 1919. Hibbard, B. H. Effect of government control on marketing methods and costs. Am. Econ. Rev. (Sup.) March, 1919. Hoffer, G. N., Johnson, A. G., and Atanasoff, D. Corn-root rot and wheat scab. Jour. Agr. Research, 14 : 611-612. 1918. Johnson, J. Fusarium root-rot of tobacco (Abstract). Phytopath. 9:3. 1919. The influence of heated soils on seed germination and plant growth. Soil Science 7 : 1-103. 1919, The inheritance of branching habit in tobacco. Genetics 4: 307-340. 1919. An improved strain of Wisconsin tobacco, Connecticut Havana No. 38. Jour, of Heredity 10: 281-288. 1919. Johnson, J., and Milton, R. H. Strains of white hurley resistant to root- rot. U. S. Dept, of Agr. Bui. 765: 1-11. 1919. Johnson, J. and Hartman, R. E. Influence of soil environment on the root-rot of tobacco. Jour. Agr. Research 17 : 41-86. 1919. Jones, E. R. Availability of drained marsh land for soldier settlement. Proceedings of A. S. A. E. 1919. Jones, L. R. Our journal. Phytopathology. Phytopath. 9: 159-164. 1919. Krueger, J. Conservation and the food budget. Jour. Home Ec. 10:363-8. 1918. A study of the present cost of food. Jour. Home Econ. 11: 163-6. 1919. Livingston, B. E., and Tottingham, W. E. The new three salt nutrient solution for plant growth. Jour. Bot. 5: 337. 1918. Pitz, W. Studies of experimental scurvy. III. The influence of meat and various salts on the development of scurvy. Jour. Biol. Chem. 36: 429. 1918. Roberts, R. R. “Crinkle” on Northwestern Greening. Phytopath. 9:261. 1919. Experiments in Farming 75 Sammis, J. L. An improvement in casein making. Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 11: 764. 1919. Sauve, E. C. The Wisconsin farmer’s trouble with tractors. Farm Me- chanics, Mar, 1919. Schindler, L. S., and Swenehart, J. Buildings for the settler. Hoard’s Dairyman, December, 1918. Somm.er, H. H. and Hart, E. B. Effect of heat on the citric acid content of milk. Isolation of citric acid from milk. Jour. Biol. Chem. 35: 313. 1918. Sommer, H. H. Household foam test for butter and oleomargarine. Jour. Dairy Sci. 11: 105. 1919. Steenbock, H. Isolation and identification of stachydrin from alfalfa hay. Jour. Biol. Chem. 35: 1. 1918. Steenbock, H., Kent, H., and Gross, E. G. The dietary qualities of the barley. Jour. Biol. Chem. 35: 61. 1918. Steenbock, H. Vitam.ines and nutrition. Sci. Mo. Aug. 1918, p. 179. Steenbock, H., P. W. Boutwell, and Kent, H. Fat-soluble vitamine. Jour. Biol. Chem. 35: 517. 1918. Steenbock, H. and Gross, E. G. Creatinuria, I. exogenous origin of urinary creatine. Jour. Biol. Chem. 36: 265. 1918. Swenehart, John. Retail dynamite prices. Wis. Agr. Toole, E. H. and Tottingham, W. E. The influence of certain added salts on the composition and efficiency of Knop’s nutrient solution. Amer. Jour. Bot. 5: 452. 1918. Tottingham, W. E. Sulphur requirements of the red clover plant. Jour. Biol. Chem. 36: 429. 1918. A preliminary study of the influence of chlorine on the growth of certain agricultural plants. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 11: 1, 1919. Truog, Emil and Meacham, M. R. Soil Acidity (II) : Its relation to the acidity of the plant juice. Soil Science VIII. 1919. Whitson, A. R., Geib, W. J., Dunnewald, T. J., and Post, C. B. Recon- noissance soil survey of south part of North Central Wisconsin. Bui. 52A of Wis. Geo. and Nat. Hist. Survey. 1918. Wilson, H. F. Three new lachnids with comparative notes on three others. Ent. News. 30: 1—7. Some new lachnids of the genus Lachniella. Canadian Entomologist. 51: 18-22, 41-47. Wilson, H. F. and Davis, J. J. A new genus and species of aphid (Hemiptera Homoptera). Ent. News. 30: 39-40. 76 Wisconsin Bulletin 319 THE WISCONSIN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, IN ACCOUNT WITH THE UNITED STATES APPROPRIATION 1918-19 Dr. Cr. To receipt from treasurer of the United States as per appro- priation for the year ending- June 30, 1919, under the acts of $30,000.00 $19,730.50 3,667.76 150.15 106.97 10.92 65.61 1,153 69 888.17 233.89 1,769.34 186.07 1,288.65 12.00 736.28 By labor By publications By postage and stationery By freight and express By heat, light, water, and power By chemicals and laboratory supplies By seeds, plants, and sundry supplies By fertilizers By feeding stuffs By tools, machinery, and appliances By scientific apparatus and specimens By live stock By traveling expenses Tol aL $30,000.00 $30,000.00 : •Av;";vi^ ■;^^ ;■ ■*' \vi • •-'^ ! -■ f. '-’u ' ?•' * • • H * 1-roper plac- i ing and tamping of the charge. If handled with reasonable care, ex- ] plosives are safe. Pages 14-17 j Stump pullers are powerful. Take-ups and other modern attach- ^ ments make them more convenient, safe and efficient. Grease and ] care save man, horse and machine. A full crew pays. Large stumps \ cracked by dynamite are pulled easily with a puller, and the earth is » left in the hole. Pages 17-21 j Piling stumps properly for burning is as important as their remov- 1 al from the ground. Upright piles burn best. Small stumps and ■ those well split with explosives may be heaped in small piles by hand. ^ The larger stumps that are not split require a power piler like the ^ home-made Conrath piler. Any blacksmith can make the irons from the specifications given in this bulletin. Pages 2 2-27 | Clear More Land John Swenehart Farm land can be cleared now with comparatively less ex- pense than ever before yet farm products and developed land bring high prices. The cut-over lands of northern Wisconsin, therefore, offer a good opportunity for the new farmer. The products of the farm in every case, whether they are the com- mon farm crops such as butter, eggs, and potatoes, or whether they are the wood products of the new farm, will all buy more land-clearing material now than formerly. This is because none of the materials and equipment needed for land clearing has risen in price to correspond with farm products. It is also due to the better selection and use of these materials and to the organization of communities to purchase without waste. The man who has to hire his labor will not be able to do any better than formerly, but in northern Wisconsin most of the clearing is done by the man who owns the land. His own day’s work will do just as much now as it did five or more years ago; and he can buy his dynamite and other land clearing materials for fewer days of labor and for less farm products then formerly. Waste Between Stumps Costly The waste of land between the stumps is strikingly shown by the data in Table 1. In this case the area of land around the stump which cannot be used was actually measured and the area computed on an area of ten acres. The number of stumps on each acre was large in this case because they were hardwood, but white pine stumps would make up in size for what they might lack in number. On a white pine field, the ground actually measured around stumps reduced the 1920 po- tato crop by more than one bushel of potatoes per stump. That is, the hills were actually missing in the potato field even 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 320 TIG. 1.— HARD CLEARING Straggling' trees, down logs, tree tops, and brush make a bad combination. The land in the foreground was stumped at a hligh cost because the hardwood stumps were green. PIG. 2.— MAKE HASTE SLOWLY WITH GREEN STUMPS Deep holes are left when green stumps are' pulled because the fine roots hold consid- erable soil. It is better to wait several years after brushing before pulling stumps. Clear More Land 5 though the planting and cultivating had been carefully done. Under present conditions such a waste of land in our culti- vated fields is poor practice. Table 1. — Area Occupied by Stumps Plot No. Number of Stumps Sq. Ft. Wasted 9 250 12,629 3 * 269 10,553 4 242 11.132 8 266 10,013 12 A 281 10,968 Total 1308 55,275 Note: In a 10-acre field, 1.27 acres (55,275 sq. ft.) was actu- ally occupied by stumps. That is, 12.7 per cent of the land and crop was wasted in addition to the labor of dodging stumps. Brushing Comes First Brushing is the first step in the clearing of land. This usually includes picking up old logs which have been left by the logger or which remain as wind falls in the timber. The labor necessary to brush land varies considerably. Observa- tion of several hundred farms in connection with land clearing contests indicates that it takes from one to ten days to brush and log an acre. This varies with the skill of the man at that particular work. Where piling heavy logs is necessary the time needed also varies with the equipment. No average figure can be given as there may be much variation even on any one forty. A man may be able to brush three acres in a week on one side of his farm but it may take him as long to brush one acre on another part. Use Good Tools The land clearing equipment needed at first on the new farm is not extensive. The tools should be well chosen, however, and of best quality. A good double-bit axe, bush scythe and cross- 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 320 FIG. s.-nDRiviNG BAR AND TEN POUND needud. Often much nnnec- SLEDGE - . T These make holes rapidly and easily for GSSRry WOrk IS done USmg 8. the charges under stumps. Economical results with the brushing demand consideration of the kinds of brush to be met. Basswood sprouts out from the roots almost continuously, and it is very difficult to keep these sprouts down. Brush of this type can be subdued only by cutting in the late summer, usually during August. Poplar, maple and some other sprouts may be cut effectively at any season, if cut close and the land seeded to grass. Pasturing for one or two years is a good plan but is ineffective unless the cut saw are the most important. To these may be added a brush axe, or so-called brush hook. In some cases a hook-shaped knife fitted on a scythe snath is used. A team of horses is seldom needed the first season on the new farm, unless the man has enough money to get considerable land into crop at once. The cost of feed and the little work the team will have to do usually make it cheaper and better to hire this work the first year at least. With the team, a well made set of double trees is needed. It is best to have this set made by a good black- smith who knows how to strengthen the evener pro- perly and how to attach the necessary hook which is handy in skidding together the logs and down stuff. A good skidding chain not over % inch in size (preferably 5/16 inch), 13-15 feet in length, with a grab hook on one end and a so-called round hook on the other end will be Clear More Land 7 land is seeded down to grass or else plowed and used for other crops directly after pasturing. Many mistakes have been made in thinking that sheep will kill brush. This is true if some other plant is put on the land in place of the brush. , If this is not done the pastur- ing will cause several sprouts to grow where one grew be- fore. Stump Eemoval ‘‘What is the cost of re- moving stumps?’’ is the question most frequently asked men familiar with cut- over land. An answer is al- most impossible to give be- cause of the many important variations which occur. For any given set of conditions it is possible to recommend a method and to estimate with reasonable accuracy the prob- able cost, providing the con- ditions remain constant. The practical man studies first the conditions which may cause change in either cost or method. Then he decides upon the method and esti- mates the cost. Important variations affecting the methods to be used in economical stump removal must be clearly under- stood if the best method is to be found. FTG. 4.— DRIVING THE BAR WITH THE SLEDGE A good method of loosening the bar by battering on the side. hours ZO 30 ^0 50 60 70 dO 90 WO HO 120 HO ISO 160 170 Farms Each Cinue-fffPfl£3£rrr3 a FA/?/yr FIG. 5.— TIME IS MONET IN LAND CLEARING On 21 farms where records were kept an acre of cleared land cost from 30 to 70 hours’ labor. Eight settlers spent more than 70 hours; three less than 30 hours. 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 320 Common Varieties of Stumps White pine stumps have in the roots and other parts of the stump a large quantity of resinous material which preserves the wood and prevents the decay which occurs rapidly with most hardwood varieties. The same is true to some extent with Norway and Jack pine. White pine has a so-called lateral root system in that the roots spread out and do not go deep into the ground. Norway FIG. 6.— EXPLOSIVE IS NEEDED HEBE WHETHER PULLER IS USED OR NOT A white pine stump 26 years old and still solid. It will still be solid at 50 years. It is better not to wait any longer before pulling. pine and Jack pine, on the other hand, have a long, central, so- called tap root growing straight down into the ground with only a few roots going out near the surface. Obviously the method of handling depends on the type of root system the stump has. Oak and basswood, commonly found in northern Wisconsin, sprout out readily after the tree is cut and there- fore remain alive a long time even though the roots do not con- tain resinous materials to prevent decay. The growing of sprouts keeps the stump more or less green and it will die only when these sprouts are constantly kept down, or when cut at just the right time in the late summer. Both basswood and oak stumps have a deeper root system than most of the other Clear More Land 9 hardwoods. Hemlock is classified among hardwoods with a lateral root system and with no resinous material to prevent de- cay. Years Since Tree Was Cut Green stumps, or stumps where the timber has been cut only one or two or three years, are usually not removed economically because of the extensive fibrous root systems which hold the soil and make the stump difficult to handle after it is taken from the FIG. 7.— THE STUMP FENCE IS BOTH IMPRACTICAL AND UNSIGHTLY It harbors injurious insects, plant diseases, and weeds. If stumps are needed for fuel, heap them in high, straight piles. ground. Unless these stumps are small or few to the acre and very much in the way, it is better to postpone the removal un- til the fine roots have had a chance to decay. Most of the area now being cleared in Wisconsin, however, has been cut for several years and the regular hardwood stumps left by the lumbermen are ready to clear as soon as the brush and down logs can be removed. White pine do not decay much after 10 or 12 years so that delay in stumping will not be of any particular use. Burning tops is a bad practice as it tends to destroy the top of the stump, thus leaviug so-called ‘‘blinds.” The roots still solid are in the way and the stump takes up as much room as ever. With green stumps it is best to brush and log first, 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 320 seeding down the grass. Then cnt hay between the stumps for a few years, keep down the sprouts and do the stumping work . when the stump is in proper condition. On hardwoods this will vary from five to eight years. Usually in the case of small second growth trees, one to three years will be time enough for them to rot so that removal will be fairly easy. This is par- ticularly true with poplar trees. FIG. 8.— EASY TO HANDLE AFTER PULLING If a light load of dynamite is used, the large stumps are split so that they can be pulled easily with a puller and then piled. Variations With Soil Types A variation in the type of soil has much to do with the diffi- culty of removing stumps. Clay soil sticks firmly to the stump and makes it hard to handle and almost impossible to bum if the stump is pulled by a slow-moving pulling outfit. This is particularly tme of the Superior red clay and the heavy silt loams, with the white pine stumps or hardwood stumps which have not decayed enough. The soil modifies the nature of root growth. For instance, a white pine on a flat heavy soil grows Clear More Land 11 with a very shallow lateral root system. The same kind of tree on a light sandy soil has a more extensive root system and the roots grow much deeper in order to get moisture which is not so plentiful in the sandy soil. This makes the stump harder to remove. The type of soil may seriously affect the efficiency of explosives and machinery. For instance, the heavier soils pre- vent the easy escape of gases from an explosive and therefore FIG. 9.— EFFEOT OF A LARGE AMOUNT OP DYNAMITE The stumps are blasted into small pieces which may be heaped in small piles quickly and easily. permit the explosive to do good work on the stump. A light soil permits easy escape of the explosive gases and therefore the maximum action on the stump is not obtained. The nature of soil also may have much to do with the ease with which charges may be loaded for blasting. A man may be able to make 100 holes in a loam easier than he could make one-half the number in clay. Count the Stumps The number of stumps per acre is an important factor in that there is more work where there are 50 stumps per acre than 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 320 where there are but 30. In addition, the number per acre may determine the equipment which is most usable. If there are only a few stumps per acre it may be best not to await further decay of the stumps. It will probably be cheaper to get them out at once and have a clear field. It is seldom desirable to use a capstan type of stump puller in clearing land where there are only a few stumps per acre because it has to be set up too often and the cable must be carried long distances from stump to stump. There should be 30 to 40 stumps or more per acre if a stump puller is to show the best results. Where the num- ber is less than this it usually pays better to use dynamite only and save the cost of the puller. The size of stump is very important as the larger the stump the more explosive will be needed and the longer should be the delay in the case of hard- wood to permit rotting. Moisture Moisture affects the efficiency of equipment and materials. Under light soil conditions when plenty of moisture is present, dynamite may be used effectively. When the same soil is dry, dynamite may be ineffective. On medium and heavy soils, when much moisture is present, the stump puller usually can- not be used with advantage. The stump puller may be used efficiently on these soils, particularly the medium soil, when dry. Previous Treatment The previous treatment of land may have much to do with the cost of land clearing work or the method which is to be used. One field under observation was heavily pastured. The stumps were white pine cut between 20 and 30 years ago. The tops were solid but the roots were well decayed. Stumps were pulled and blasted easily. On another field in the same vicin- ity the white pine stumps, cut at the same time and in the same kind of soil, were left in the brush. The growing brush had retarded the decay of stump roots so that they were harder to remove. The pasturing or cultivation of land between the stumps hastens the decay of both roots and tops. On stump lands which have been pastured, especially when they are some- Clear More Land 13 what wet, the tendency is for frost action to heave the stump more or less so that in time the superficial lateral roots are brought nearer the surface. This shows the desirability of seeding down the ground as soon as it has been brushed so that it can be either pastured or a hay crop taken off. FIG. 10.— YOUR LABOR BUYS TWICE THE DYNAMITE IT DID IN 1910 Two days’ labor in 1910-14 bought only 22 pounds of dynamite; in 1920 the same labor buys 51 pounds. Use Low Grade Dynamite One of the first important things that the Wisconsin investi- gations showed was that so-called low-grade dynamites had many advantages. This has been further verified by field ex- perience. More than half of the dynamite now used in north- ern Wisconsin for stump removal is of the 20 per cent grade. These low-grade dynamites furnish a greater ‘‘lift” on the stump than does the high-grade dynamite per dollar invested. This means that a dollar’s worth of 20 per cent ammonia dyna- 14 Wisconsin Bullehn 320 mite will give much more “lift’^ than a dollar’s worth of higher grades. It was really not the grade of dynamite but the improper way it was used that kept the belief that quicker djTiamites were necessary. It has now been proven that on al- most any soil which is suitable for farming use, the lower grades of dynamite will give the more economical results. Table II Comparative Cost op Stump Removal by Dynamite IN Dry and Wet Soils No. of stumps Lbs. of dyna- mite No. of caps Hours labor Cost per stump— cents Dyn. Caps Labor j Total Dryt 1 A.ug. 6-7 75 133.75 123 39 28.53 13.12 13 54.65 Wet 1 Oct.26 102 99.5 112 46.5 15.6 8.78 11.4 i 1 35.78 t8.03 inches of rain fell between dates. Moisture Helps Explosives A study of the conditions under which explosives give best results indicates that moisture is an important factor. From the data indicated in Table II the work of blasting stumps should not be done in the summer or in the fall unless much rain falls before this work is done in the fall. There is sel- dom enough moisture in the soil for effective work in the sum- mer months. One pound of dynamite in spring will do the work of 1Y2 to 2 pounds used in the summer. It is best that the work be planned so that the explosive is used at the time when it is most effective. Table III. — Mechanical Advantage of Puller Sweep Length Pounds of power in the cable for each pound of pull on the sweep Feet 8" Drum 9" Drum 10" Drum 12" Drum 9 27 24 22 18 10 30 27 24 20 11 33 30 27 22 12 36 32 30 24 Clear More Land 15 Tools Without proper tools, an effective use of explosive is impos- sible. A driving iron 4 or 4% feet long is made of IV 2 iiieh octagonal (eight sided) tool steel with a six inch pencil point on the end. This can be driven into the soil under the stump with a 10 pound double faced hammer and then pulled out af- ter battering on side with hammer. Except in heaviest clays FIG. 11.— ROOT PLOW GETS STUBBORN STUMPS This is a good tool to use for stumps when the tops are gone. The plow should not be too heavy. these tools make holes for charges most quickly and easily. A two inch auger will be useful in these heavy clays and for deep holes. A tamp stick long enough to reach the bottom of the deepest hole is essential. Tamping earth in the hole after the charge is placed is the biggest factor in stump blasting. Improper and careless tamp- ing wastes dynamite and time. Damp clay is the best material for tamping, but any soil used should be made as firm as the surrounding soil. All pressure from the explosive escaping through an improperly tamped hole is wasted. About four 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 320 inches of earth should be firmly pressed on top of the charge. Crumbled soil (not lumps) should then be rammed tightly with a wooden tamping stick all the way to the top of the hole. A good cap crimper — the best is cheapest — should be tied to every dynamite-carrying box. Proper placing of the cap in the charge means better work and less waste explosive. FIG. 12.— PLACING THE CHARGE Upper left; cap. and fuse method of loading under a solid, firm, evenly rooted stump. Upper right: top-rooted or hollow stump with roots rotted away on one side. Lower; separated roots of a top-rotted stump. Dotted lines show the direction of the explosive force. Electric cap could he used in each case. Safety Since Wisconsin has passed the 3 million pound annual mark in the use of explosives for farming and the quantity is still steadily increasing, the matter of safety is important. Low- grade dynamites are now about as near “fool-proof’’ as ex- plosives can be. Almost all danger can be avoided by the use of electric blasting. The charge is fired when the lever is oper- ated and not until then. Furthermore, the blind, where the Clear More Land 17 top is rotted or burned away, can be removed by charges placed under each holding part and all fired at once. The re- sult is effective because no dynamite is wasted and the hole is shallow. The caps cost a little more, but safety, convenience and efficiency more than pay for the extra cost, just as the self binder justifies a greater cost than the old reaping machine. Stump Pullers Are Powerful Much has been said for and against the use of stump pul- lers, but it is still true that a stump puller will give good results when used under the conditions for which it is made. On pine stumps in medium and light soils, a stump puller used with the necessary dynamite to crack the stump for handling, is most desirable. On heavy clay soil, particularly when wet, it is doubtful whether a stump puller of any kind is desirable. It is only when the operator uses the best of judgment that he gets any results at all. The capstan type of horse-power stump puller is usually best. Tripod pullers and one-man outfits of various kinds may be desirable for special conditions. The one-man outfits have ad- vantages where the stumps are not too large or where the stumps are on low ground where teams cannot work conven- iently. The tripod puller is of greatest use where the stumps are few to the acre. With any of these pulling devices, the pull is slow because the comparatively small strength of a man or horse has to be applied to a mechanical device to get the added strength for pulling. The increased power is got by a reduced speed. On the heavier lands much soil is often pulled up with the stump. This requires the use of more or less explosive with the stump puller to . split the stump either before or after pulling if it is large. Generally, better results follow the use of dynamite before pulling, as loading is easier and the strain on horses is avoided. Get the Latest Puller Equipment Stump puller equipment is now fairly well standardized and the complete outfits are commonly sold. Special conditions may require some variation from these standards. 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 320 The puller is usually sold with about 100 feet of main-line cable with what is known as a closed socket on the outer end for attaching additional lengths of cable. Wisconsin conditions seem to require equipment of a size to go with % inch main pulling cable. Where heavier cable than this would be needed, use more dynamite. This cable is lower in price and more easily handled than larger sizes. FIG. 13.— A CLOSED SOCKET Such a socket on the end of the main line permits easy extension of the working distance of the machine. By using an additional cable fitted with an open socket. 50 feet or more may be added. Two general plans are used in attaching the sweeps. The sweep braced with a truss is usually not adjustable in length, because securely fastened on the machine. The trussed sweep usually runs more freely and without a counter-balance. The other type of sweep can be moved in its socket and extended for use with one horse or with a team. Read directions carefully where the adjustable type is used to be sure that the sweep is not too long for the strength of the cable. Table III shows the approximate advantage gained using a given length of sweep and size of drum. A team weighing 3000 pounds can pull about 50 per cent, or 1500 pounds, on the end of the sweep by strain- ing. At a slow walk the team pulls only 15 to 20 per cent of its weight. The % inch cable will stand only 18 to 20 tons in actual practice, although it has a breaking strength when new of from 23 to 26 tons, depending on the quality. An anchor line long enough to permit driving the team be- tween the anchor stump and the machine in operation is help- ful. Clear More Land 19 One or two automatic take-ups (cam or sliding disc types) are essential. The take-up permits the hooking of a stump to the main line at any point without filling the drum with cable. Otherwise it would be necessary to reel in the entire 100 feet of cable on the drum in order to pull the stump close to the ma- chine. These take-ups are usually fitted with a short piece of cable and a hook to act as a choker to go around the stump. Two of these take-ups are desired if the machine it to be run to full capacity. Old style take-ups are a nuisance. The new types MG. 14.— A MODERN TAKE-UP TTils permits the pull to start on the stump without winding up all the slack cable in the drum. may often more than double puller efficiency. Only one or two types of pullers are so made that a take-up is not necessary. One or two power pulleys fitted with short choker cable and hooks will often get the stump which is just a little too heavy for straight pull. They also will permit pulling stumps close to the machine or in other inaccessible places where the pull must be reversed. A root plow weighing from 60 to 70 pounds is strong enough to get out snags and roots where the tops have been pulled, rotted, or burned off. One or more 50 foot lengths of extension cable of the same size as that attached to the drum of the puller — fitted with an open socket to permit attachment to the main line — will increase the area which can be cleared from a given set-up and 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 320 should be a part of a complete equipment. A crowbar and a mattock (commonly called a grub hoe in Wisconsin) are handy about the machine and are needed in the land clearing busi- ness and on the farm. When many small stumps are to be FIG. 15. -GREASE ON THE PULLER WILL SAVE MAN. HORSE AND MACHINE pulled with this outfit, a so-called cluster cable may be made by attaching three pieces of cable to a ring, thus permitting the pull on three stumps at the same time. With this equipment and a crew of three men, a team, and some explosive, excellent work can be done on pine stumps in medium and in light soils. A good piler completes the equip- ment. Clear More Land 21 Oil and grease will save labor of both man and horse on the stump puller as well as on any other piece of machinery. They also prolong the life of the machine. It is unwise to leave valu- able cable out in the weather where it rusts quickly and loses FIG. 16.— HOW THE RATCHET DOG WORKS This dog, or paul, drops into notches in the rim of the drum and hohis the pull as the team winds in the cable. If this is not working, the stump puller is danger- ous. strength. The steel cable used on the stump puller is made with a hemp center. This hemp center helps lubricate the cable. Whenever the cable is put away it should be carefully greased with any heavy axle grease or similar oil. 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 320 Clean Stumps As They Come Out In using the stump puller it is frequently desirable to knock off the soil from the roots of the stump with a grub hoe just as the stump is coming out. This keeps the soil in the hole where it belongs and makes the stump more easily handled. A Full Crew Pays Cooperation among neighbors is also important where a stump puller is used. The* most effective work can be done with a crew of about three men and a team, so that it is desirable for a farmer to exchange labor with his neighbor if he has not a large enough crew otherwise. Three men working together under good conditions on a stump puller will do much more work than the same three men working separately on their own farms. It is better to have the three work a few days for each one. Even the stump puller may be owned jointly by the three, thus affording better equipment at lower cost. Horse Power Piler One of the first difficulties met in clearing the new fairni is that of getting rid of the down logs, “rampikes,” and stumps that have been pulled or blasted. Disposing of the stumps often costs much more than removing them from the ground. This emphasized the need for some kind of a piling outfit which the average farmer can afford and which can l?e run with a minimum of outside labor and power. The Conrath piler, a home-made device worked out by Charles and Frank Conrath near Ladysmith, Wisconsin, is the best of its kind thus far. The drawing will enable any handy man to make one for himself. Sketches will be furnished upon application to the Agricultural Engineering Department of the University of Wisconsin. The trip for releasing the stump or log on the pile is an essential part of the equipment. This was developed by Mr. Frost, a neighbor of the Conraths, and is known as the Frost trip, although improved by various men interested in the develop- Clear More Land 23 6 This device saves backaches and piles up the big stumps efficiently. 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 320 ment of the cut-over territory. These devices can be made easily in any community so that a few neighbors can get out the necessary timbers and own one of these “backache savers themselves. This is another place where the cooperation of three or four good men will make the work of clearing land Make this device yourself or get your blacksmith to do it. There are no patents to prevent you. much easier. With this piler is needed good log chains for skid- ding. Crowbars and the usual tools are handy about the piler. The piling outfit will often be particularly useful in getting rid of the down logs, wind falls, etc. Logs and stumps should not be piled together. Logs should be put on “skids’^ or cross poles. Piles should be high and compact. Clear More Land 25 Table H . — Methods and Equipment for Pulling Different Kinds of Stumps Kind of stump Roots Years since cutting' tree I Soil Mois- ture Eauipment Methods suggested iVhite pine Lateral 1 to 10 years Heavy or light Wet or dry Pasture and hay till fine j'oots deca.v unless only few to acre. 10 years 1 Heavy 1 Wet or d ry 1 Explosive, teams. Blast completely. Make small hand piles. Light Wet Puller, teams, piler, explosive. Blast large stumps. Pull and pile. Light Dry Puller, teams, piler, explosive. Explosives less effective. Puller and piler work well. Norway and Jack pines Tap 1 to 5 years Light Wet or dry Pasture and hay till fine roots decay. 5 years Light Wet Puller, teams. I piler, explosive, j Blast as needed. Pull and pile. 5 years Light Dry Puller, teams, piler, explosive. Explosives less effective in light.dry .soil. Hemlock Lateral 1 to 4 years Heavy or medium Wet or dry ' Delay stumping till fine roots decay. 5 years Heavy or medium Wet Team, explosive. Blast completely. Make small piles by hand. Dry Team, explosive puller, piler Puller sometimes pays when explosives are used for cracking. Maple Birch Lateral 1 to 5 years Heavy or medium Wet or dry i 1 1 Pasture and hay till fine roots decay, unless only few stumps to acre. 5 years Heavy or medium Wet j Teams, explosive. Blast completely. Make small hand piles. Heavy Dry Teams, explosve. Blast completely. Make small hand piles. Medium Dry 'reams, explosive, piler, puller. Puller sometimes pays in combination with ex- plosives. Poplar Lateral 1 year 2 years Heavy 1 or ! light ; Wet or dry Wait for fine roots to de- cay. 1 to 2 years. Cut small trees even with the ground Heavy or 1 light 1 Wet or dry Team, explosives. Explosives needed on large ones only. Oak or lass wood Deep lateral semi-tap Various soils Wet or dry Team, explosives. Blast in the fall, pull fol- lowing spring with team Keep sprouts down. Idler may helj) for large st ump.s. 26 Wisconsin Bulletin 320 Hand Piling When a puller is not used and enough dynamite is taken to remove the stump completely, the pieces are usually small. In that case the piler is not necessary and the most economical re- sults are had by hand piling. The stumps are placed in MG. 19.— RESULT OF USING BOTH DYNAMITE: AND PULLER When the combination method is used, the soil remains in the hole and not on the roots of the stump. small, high piles and three or four larger pieces are used as a tripod to hold the rest of the pile. The smaller pieces can then be piled between and on the top making a narrow, high, compact pile. These piles dry out quickly and burn completely without much “chunking up.’^ It is best not to make these piles large as that requires carrying the small pieces too great a distance. The piler is not economical for this work as the small pieces have to be handled too many times before they are finally placed. Clear More Land 27 Stumps are occasionally used as fences. Fig. 7 shows one of these partly grown up to brush and weeds. This is surely a breeding place for insects, rabbits and other animal pests as well as of plant diseases. If stumps are needed as fuel they can be piled until used but the new farmer will do well to plan at the beginning for a wood lot where he can provide his fuel. Care at the start will pay later. Where men apply intelligent effort and cooperate with their neighbors, with their banker, and with all the forces of develop- ment, land clearing is easier, quicker and less costly. flXl I'L. .. P.rr /. ..f/ .. ^r 5 iBulletin 321 ^ • X— November, 1920 CHEESEMAKERS SAVE BY FIGURING COSTS ,5 c> I " yko/fc*' UAI ..i \»/C« tguA*'**' Vl c<>. vAO A M V/iS TH i9l0 .o S 1 \o^ lut at 3 > 13 b V,. . »»’*’' .., , '''"'' f/L VA" £^'-«ir^^ k AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 0 . . m S it. DIGEST Accurate cost records are essential at either a large or a small cheese factory. Such records give both the farmer and the maker the best possible basis for agreeing upon the price of making cheese. Page 3 Carelessness in figuring costs is expensive. When important items of expense are guessed at or overlooked, the result is either a loss or a serious reduction of the annual profits. Page 4 Small savings count in a large cheese factorj% It is important that farmers and makers understand why large factories may be able to operate at a lower cost per pound of cheese than small factories. Page 5 Figures from 18 cheese factories show wide variations in their costs and profits. Differences are apparent even among factories of the same size and equipment. Page 6 The maker’s income averaged 1.01 cent a pound at the larger fac- tories in Group A. At the smaller factories in Group B, it was only 0.22 cents. Page 6 Real estate charges for interest and depreciation averaged twice as high per pomid of cheese at the smaller factories than at the larger ones. This type of charge never ceases whether the factory is in operation or not. Page 7 Equipment costs for interest and depreciation averaged higher at the smaller factories than at the larger ones. Page 8 Supplies, help, taxes and insitrance cost about 1/10 of a cent more at the smaller factories per pound of cheese than at the larger ones. Page 9 The total costs of making a pound of cheese, when figured cor- rectly, averaged 2.686 cents at the Group A factories in 1918. The cost was 3.879 cents at the smaller factories in Group B. Page 10 When figuring yeai'ly depreciation and interest on the present value of factory and equipment, the maker should consider four im- portant points. Page 11 Supplies and other expenses should be itemized carefully. An inventory is useful in calculating the quantity and cost of supplies. This may also he estimated from the amount and kind of cheese made. Page 14 To figure a price for making cheese to yield a fair annual labor income to the maker requires a summary of all costs of making. Once begun, this system can be followed easily from year to year. Page 15 Five sample blanks to aid the cheesemaker in figuring his costs accurately are shown in detail. Pages 17-20 Cheesemakers Save By Figuring Costs r J. L. Sammis and 0. A. Juve 5 . V The cost of making cheese, when correctly figured, is often found to be larger than the farmer or cheesemaker had sup- ^ posed. In consequence, the maker’s income for this year, after r paying the factory expenses, may be smaller than he had anti- f cipated. Too low an estimate of the cost of making cheese may occur either: (1) because the costs were guessed at and not accurately r calculated, or f! (2) because of certain common errors in factory methods of figuring. Why Factory Costs Differ ^ In the absence of exact cost figures, the maker at a small, ^ one-man factory is likely to assume that he can make a pound I of cheese as cheaply as it can be done at a neighboring factory, L where several men are employed to handle a larger milk sup- I f Experience in different lines of manufacture shows, on the V contrary, that from nearly every standpoint the large factory £ may have advantages over the small one, whether the cost of 5 building and equipment be considered, or the cost of supplies, I labor, materials, or other factors in the business. That this I must be generally true is evident from the fact that doubling I the floor space in a building does not necessarily double its t cost. Building materials, equipment and supplies can be pur- E chased more cheaply in large quantities. For the labor that i is needed in the factory the first man must be experienced and i licensed, but the larger factory can also utilize additional help, t less experienced, and at lower wages, thus reducing the average 6 cost of labor at large factories. For all these reasons, the J larger factory may be able to operate at a lower cost per pound X of cheese than the smaller one. 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 321 Yet the small cheese factory may have a real place in the community. A few dairy farmers often wish to start such a factory at the nearest crossroads, because of the shorter haul for them. They suppose that the small plant with half a vat of milk daily can operate at the same cost per pound of cheese as the other factory having a larger milk supply, located several miles away. These farmers hope to combine the greatest econ- omy in manufacture with the convenience of having a small factory near by. It is evident, however, that often this con- venience can be had only at some loss of economy, and that the price to be paid per pound for making cheese at the small fac- tory may be larger than at the more distant, large factory. In many cases, however, the advantage of the shorter haul will more than offset the increased cost of manufacture, and the farmer will be entirely willing to pay the slightly higher price asked by the maker at the small factory. Farmers are learning better every year how to keep farm records and accounts, so that costs can be accurately figured, and in coming years every cheesemaker will be expected to show his patrons accurate cost records, since these afford the best possible basis for both to agree on the price to be paid for making cheese at that factory. Errors and Omissions in Figuring Costs A common oversight is to omit from the list of costs the prop- er charges for depreciation and interest on the investment in buildings, equipment and land, the maker supposing these sums to be insignificant. Although running expenses for material, supplies and labor are closely proportionate to the amoaut of the product manufactured, yet the depreciation of the buiidiug and equipment never ceases. The investment should earn in- terest every day in the year, although the factory may be closed part of the time. It is shown (page 12) by practical illustra- tions that interest and depreciation charges on the investment are an important factor in figuring costs. A second item often overlooked is the cost of annual repairs ; and unless all records and bills of the year’s business are care- fully saved throughout the year, several important items are likely to be forgotten and omitted. That this often occurs at cheese factories, is shown by the fact that a number of ques- Cheesemakers Save by Figuring Costs 5 tionaires sent to cheesemakers from the Wisconsin Experiment Station were returned with some of the questions unanswered or with the notation ‘‘Do not know/^ Examples of Variations in Makers’ Labor Income From a group of about 60 returned questionaires, 18 of the most complete reports have been chosen to serve as an illus- tration of the necessity for a method of accurately figuring costs. At nine of these factories (Group A), the average labor income of the maker was $2,069 in 1918, but at the other nine (Group B) it averaged $237. At the Group A factories this averaged 1.01 cent per pound of cheese, but only .22 cent at the Group B factories. (Table I). Not any of the Group B factorymen had figured correctly their total expenses. Having omitted several important items, they had then charged too little for making cheese, and when the total expense charges were subtracted from their incomes, they were greatly surprised to find out how little money was left, as the “labor income” for the year. Careful Figuring Necessary at Both Large and Small Factories By charging an average of 1 cent less per pound for making at the Group A factories, the maker’s entire labor income would have been wiped out, and a difference of only cent in the making price at the Group B factories would have done the same for them. The terms “large” and “small” factories are used here in their ordinary sense, without any attempt at exact definition. It is both interesting and important to note that the average daily cheese output throughout 1918 for the 9 Group A fac- tories was 562 pounds, but only 298 pounds in Group B. Also, that Group A contains every factory but one (No. 6) which made 375 pounds or more of cheese daily, while Group B contains every factory but one (No 17) which made an average daily output less than 375 pounds. The general fact is here illustrated that in larger cheese factories more careful attention is given to figuring costs, so as certainly to obtain a fair labor income. At the smaller factories the tendency to 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 321 neglect records and figures is more evident, and the returns to the maker are unreasonably low or sometimes a serious loss. The detailed figures for these factories are shown in Table 1. Table I. — Labor Income and Cheese Output at 18 Large and Small Factories in 1918 Group A Group B Factory number Annual labor income Average daily output (pounds) Factory number Annual labor income Average daily output (pounds) 51 $1621 827 6 $ 82 427 9 1813 740 1 331 365 28 2089 564 7 444 324 54 1383 561 11 531 301 34 1748 543 15 I 652 284 53 3246 541 31 1 494 274 50 3472 541 23 1 704 271 17 1621 361 26 ' Loss 864 248 18 1631 375 45 , Loss 243 195 Average $2069 562 Average 1 $237 m Average l.Olf per pound of Average 0.22^ per pound of cheese cheese A cheesemaker’s labor income is the amount of money he has left for himself out of his total receipts at the end of the year after paying all expenses and charges including supplies, repairs, help, depreciation and interest on his investment in factory, equipment, etc. Labor income is the maker’s pay for his own services. The table shows that the makers in Group A received about one cent a pound for their labor, but the makers in Group B received only about one-fifth of a cent a pound. In order to pay the Group B makers 1 cent a pound for their labor, the an- nual expense to the farmers at the average Group B factory must be increased by about $850. It is evident that about half of the 18 factories should have charged higher prices for making, but just how much more can be told only by careful figuring of costs at each factorjL The relative importance of the different items of cost can be illustrated by figures from the same list of 18 factories. Cheesemakers Save by Figuring Costs 7 Income On Real Estate Investments In many cases, the amount of money invested in a small fac- . tory building and land, and the annual charges for interest, re- pairs and depreciation are much larger in proportion to the amount of cheese made than at other factories having a larger milk supply. This fact is illustrated by the 18 factories in these two groups. Table II. — Real Estate Investments at Large and Small Cheese Factories Group A Group B Factory number Investment in building and land Interest, depreciation, and repairs for 1918 Factory number Investment in building and land Interest, depreciation, and repairs for 1918 51 $4900 i $644 6 $5400 $582 9 3000 i 467 1 6100 970 28 2575 270 7 3100 405 54 3630 365 11 2600 350 34 5000 607 15 3075 380 53 31 4575 545 50 4400 'iii 2S 2700 408 17 26 3800 ; 385 18 1 5050 ',590 45 Average k094 $480 Average $3920 $503 Cost per pound of cheese $0.00221 1 Cost per pound of cheese $0 . 00442 The annual charges at the Group B factories averaged a little higher than at the Group A factories, where the daily output of cheese was the larger. On this account the real estate charge for making a pound of cheese at the Group B factories is about double that at the Group A factories. The method of figuring the annual charges on real estate for interest, deprecia- tion and repairs will be explained later. Small Plants Fail to Get Full Value of Equipment It is obvious that a factory must have a vat and press and other equipment whether the vat is full or only half full of milk every day. Therefore, the charges on equipment for each pound of cheese made are likely to be larger at the factories with the smaller milk supplies. 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 321 The investment in equipment and the annual charges for in- terest, depreciation and repairs on equipment at the factories in Groups A and B, for 1918, are shown in Table III. Table III. —Equipment Investments at Large and Small Cheese Factories Group A Group B 1 Interest, i Interest, Factory j Eauipment depreciation. F actory Equipment depreciation. number 1 investment and repairs number investment and repairs for 1918 for 1918 51 83275 $950 6 $3u80 $559 9 2084 487 1 2u52 425 28 1400 7 1600 424 54 1 2766 'sif i 1906 461 34 2450 494 ! 15 2217 493 53 2170 475 31 2102 430 50 2140 356 23 670 1 165 17 1659 ; 477 26 1443 354 18 1395 363 45 1400 368 Average S2150 j $515 Average S1830 S409 Cost per pound of cheese $0.00205 Cost per pound of cheese $0.00347 These figures show that the equipment cost on each pound of cheese is nearly twice as great at the Group B factories. Add- ing together the figures in the last lines of Tables II and III, the annual factory and equipment cost for each pound of cheese in Group A is on the average, $0.00426 and in Group B, $0.00789. It appears, therefore, (1) that the cost for building and equipment was about 35/100 of a cent a pound greater at the smaller factories. No factory man can afford to omit fig- uring annual charges for interest, depreciation and repairs on factory and equipment, since these may amount to % of a cent per pound or more. Larger Factories Buy Supplies on Better Terms The expense per pound of cheese for supplies, taxes and in- surance, is likely to be smaller at a large factory than at a small one. The larger factory is able to buy supplies, such as boxes, in larger lots, at lower prices and on better terms, and to get credit from the bank in order to discount bills. Every time a boiler is fired and afterward allowed to cool, certain amounts of heat and fuel are wasted. Where a boiler Cheesemakers Save by Figuring Costs 9 must be heated up to handle a small amount of milk, this loss of fuel is relatively more important than at a factory vrith a larger milk supply. The costs of taxes, insurance on the building, telephone, etc. are important items, which are the same whether much or little cheese is made, and are therefore more expensive for each pound of cheese made at the small factory. The cost of certain supplies, such as bandages, boxes, and rennet, is exactly proportional to the amount of cheese made, except as they may be bought cheaper in larger lots. The cost of a helper’s labor varies according to conditions. Table IV — Supplies, Help, Taxes, Insurance, Office Supplies Group A Group B Factory number Cost in 1918 Factory number Cost in 1918 51 $4575.89 6 $2500.66 9 4208.68 1 2571.20 28 2220.34 7 1522.95 54 2988.69 11 1157.70 34 2446.75 15 1675.74 53 2798.50 31 1109.50 50 1479.50 23 903.67 17 1283.98 26 1218.30 18 1326.00 45 1238.80 A vera^^e $2592.00 Averagre $1544,00 Cost per pound of cheese 1.26c Cost per pound of cheese 1.34c The cost of these items (Table IV.) averages about one- tenth of a cent higher for a pound of cheese at the smaller fac- tories. Figuring a Fair Labor Income for the Maker Every factory manager should estimate for himself, each year, the cost of making cheese at his factory, in order to be sure of charging a price which will be fair to himself as well as to the patrons. He should consider his pay for handling the business a part of the cheesemaking costs and this item should be added to other costs in determining the price. A fair way to estimate the cheesemaker’s labor income is on the basis of other wages paid. If a helper can earn $500 a year, and if a skilled maker earns $1,200 to $1,800 a year, the 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 321 owner-maker who makes cheese, owns the factory, manages the business, figures the payments, and handles the money may expect to earn $2,000 a year (as in Group A) for his services when the work is sufficient to keep him busy throughout the year. Dividing the sum $2,000 by the average weight of cheese made annually at the factories in each group, gives about 1 cent as the maker’s calculated pay in Group A, and 1 % cents in Group B factories. If the Group B maker were paid only 1 cent for making, he might have made as much money working by the month with less responsibility. Adding these costs listed in Tables II, III, and lY, gives an idea of the possible differences in cost of making cheese in large and small factories. Table V. — Summary of Cheesemaking Costs at 18 Factories in 1918 Group A Group B Cost per pound of cheese Cost per pound of cheese Buildings and land charges .221 cents .205 1.26 1.00 .442 cents .347 1.34 1.75 Equipment charge Supplies, help, taxes, etc Makers* pay at $2000 Total s 2.686 cents 3.879 Each item of cost may be figured under the system explained below. It is interesting to note that the cost of supplies, help, taxes, etc., per pound of cheese, varies between large and small fac- tories less than does either the labor charge, or the interest and depreciation on factory and equipment. Yet the cost of sup- plies is the item given most attention by many makers who do not realize the importance of the other items. How TO Figure Annual Expenses on Factory Building AND Land Any cheesemaker owning his factory should reckon for him- self a reasonable return on this investment and include this sum as a part of the factory’s expenses. Suppose that a maker had paid $7,000 for a factor}^ and $500 for an acre or two of land early in 1918. At the beginning of Cheesemakers Save by Figuring Costs 11 1919, he should figure (1) the annual interest, at a fair local rate, usually 5 per cent or more. At 5 per cent on this $7,500 investment, the interest would be $375. (2) On the factory, if built of wood, he should add a charge of 5 per cent, or $350, for depreciation, as the building is likely to be worth little or nothing after 20 years. (3) Any such repairs, as painting, ?re-, placing window glass, fly screens, re-laying a floor, should be added and may amount to $25. In case of abnormal repair bills during any one year their cost should be distributed over several years. There might be no repair charge during the first year. (4) A cheese factory and residence for the maker if built in the country may lose most of their value, if the patrons for any reason stop bringing their milk. The risk of losing most of the money invested will be small if the patrons own the factory, but is large if the maker owns it. It is hard to set a money value on this item. The risk can be carried easily by the patrons, and this is an important reason why they should own the factory. The maker has no way to insure him- self against loss from this source if he owns the factory. By adding up the items listed in (1), (2), and (3), the total necessary charge on the factory investment is obtained whieh may be $725 or more in this case. Buildings Depreciate Each Year If $350, or 5 per cent of the wooden building cost is charged to depreciation the first year, then the investment remaining in the factory during 1?he second year is $7,000 less $350, or $6,650. For the third year it is $6,300 and for each succeeding year is $350 less. Some owners neglect this annual decrease in factory investment. The interest at 5 per cent each year is figured on the invest- ment figure for that year, and is $332 for the second year, $315 for the third year, and so forth. The depreeiation charge of $350 on the building remains the same each year. This plan fully repays the original cost of the wooden building in 20 years, after which no more depreciation need be charged un- less a new investment is made, as in rebuilding the factory or part of it. In case of an additional investment, as in enlarging the factory, the annual charge on this addition may be figured as shown in table VI for the year 1921. 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 321 The 5 per cent interest charge on the $500 invested in land, in 1918, amounting to $25 is made each year until the land is sold. Adding these amounts together, the owner’s expense for interest and depreciation on building and land may be as follows : Table VI. — Annual Charges on Account of Depreciation Vary Present value of building, Interest 5 per cent of present value Depreciation 5 per cent of orig- inal cost Interest on original cost of Ian a . Jan. 1, 1919 Jan, 1, 1920 Jan. 1, 1921 Jan. 1, 1922 $7000 $350 350 25 S725 $6650 SS32 350 25 ®6300 $315 350 25 $5950 $297 350 25 $^ Addition to factory built early in 1920 $500 25 25 ~50 $740 $475 24 25 ~49 $721 Annual Interest Depreciation Total annual charges $725 1707 To this should be added taxes and insurance, (if not in- cluded in the table of running expenses), as shown below. In case the maker pays an annual rental for use of the fac- tory, the amount so paid is his “total charge” on factory building. Interest and depreciation should be figured only by the owner. The Annual Chaege on Investment in Equipment The machinery at this factory was all bought early in 1918. Any additional pieces of equipment purchased in the following years may be added to the list, as shown in Table VII. It is important to notice the method of figuring the charge each year on each item of equipment. The boiler bought early in 1918 at $330 is listed in the column for Jan. 1, 1919, as being worth the cost price, $330, and estimated to last 15 years. Dividing by 15 gives the annual depreciation which is $22. The interest for the first year is calculated on $330. The next year, the value is $22 less, or $308, and the interest for the second year is calculated on that sum. Thus the Cheesemakers Save by Figuring Costs 13 Table VII. — Figuring Annual Charges on Equipment Jan. 1, 1919 Eduipment Boiler Steam eng-ine. . Gas engine Electric motor Vat Press Hoops Mill Knives Tinware Other items Total. Value $330 100 iOO 160 100 27 15 $957 Life 15 years 10 years 5 years 20 years 10 years 9 years 5 years 5 years Annual depre- ciation $22 10 $101 Equipment bought early in 1919: Whey separator 20 years. . ] . . . Whey vat 10 years. . 1 .. . Whey tank 10 years. . f . .. Pumps and pipes 15 years. .J ... Other items Jan. 1, 1920 Value 160 152 90 24 12 20 Annual depre- ciation $22 10 Jan. 1, 1921 Value $286 80 120 144 80 21 9 15 Annual depre- ciation $22 10 Totals. Equipment value $957 Interest, 5 per cent on value. Depreciation Repairs Total annual charge. $1691 1601 $152 $1539 1519 $152 48 101 None ”$ 149 ~ 85 152 5 77 152 $242 $237 fifteenth year, the value of the boiler would be listed as worth only $22, as the remaining $308 have been charged off to de- preciation during the preceding years. After 15 years, this boiler would require no further charge for interest or deprecia- tion. If any piece of equipment were bought and expected to wear out in a year, its entire cost should be charged to depreci- ation the first year, and the interest on that sum for one year added in. Each article is thus handled separately so that once begun, the system is very easy to follow in making the annual estimate of costs. This method of finding the annual charge on the equipment investment may be varied to suit any particular case. 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 321 Supplies, Labor, and Other Expenses In order to calculate the quantity and cost of supplies used during the year, the maker should have an inventory of each kind of supplies on hand at the beginning of the season, for example, January 1. He should then add the cost of supplies bought during the year, and subtract from the total the value of supplies left on hand at the close of the year. In the absence of an inventory the quantity of supplies used can be estimated from the amount and kind of cheese made. A cheese factory operator should save all his bills and records until the end of the year, so that he can figure costs exactly. By this or sim- ilar means, he will then be able to fill out the blanks in the table below, showing the cost of boxes, bandages, coal, and other supplies used during the season. All other factory ex- penses should be added, including labor, postage, insurance, telephone, printing, railroad fare, telegrams, etc., as listed in the table, taking great care not to omit any items. Tablk Vlir. — S upplies and Other Expenses Should be Listed 1919 1920 1921 Supplies used in, Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Boxes, style . Boxes, style . Boxes, style . Bandages Bandages Bandages Circles Press cloths Extract Color Salt Washing powder Brushes Paint Other items Power Coal Wood Gasoline Oil and grease Electricity OLher items Office Telephone Printing Postage ; Blank books I Other items. t Lah or I Helper Totals Cheesemakers Save by Figuring Costs 15 Keeping record of the expenses for supplies, as in Table VIII, has another advantage in that it helps the cheese maker to prepare his annual income tax return. The maker’s “in- come from personal services” (in the tax blank) covers not only his labor income but many incidental expenses, such as supplies. The “net amount” (labor income) on which income tax should be paid is found by deducting these expenses from the maker’s income. By adding the charges listed in Tables VI to VII the total of all charges for each year is obtained (Table IX). Table IX.— Summarizing Costs. 1919 1920 1921 Charge on factory (Table VI) $ * % Charge on equipment (Table VII) $ $ $ Charge on supplies (Table VIII) 1 •’C $ Total (tharges i $ Subtracting this total charge for any one year from the maker’s total income leaves the sum which he has left for his own services, after paying for factory supplies and equipment. If the maker’s pay, figured in this manner, appears to be too small, the method shown in Table X may be used to figure how much he should have charged per pound for making cheese during the last year, to yield the labor income which he desires. Table X. — Figuring the Necessary Price for Making Cheese Jan., 1919 Jan., 1920 Jan., 1921 Charge on factory (Table VI) S. Charge on equipment (Table VI 1) Charge on supplies (Table VIII) Add desired labor income Total necessary charges % Pounds cheese made during year (Dividing) Necessary price per pound pounds : pounds c pounds This price is for a factory where the maker receives no money from the whey cream. In case tlic maker receives one- 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 321 half or any part of the whey cream money, his income from this source is first subtracted (Table XI). Table XL — Figuring the Maker’s Price per Pound Where Whey IS Skimmed 1919 1920 1921 Npp,p,ssa,ry f'.ha.rg'ftS! fTa,hlp, ~X) 5 $ s Maker’s; whfty r*rpa,m inprirnpi for yp.ai’ (Subtracting^) pounds Pounds of ctieese made eacli vear (Dividing) Necessary price per pound c c c The final figures in Table XI, show what price the factory- man should charge for making cheese, in order to have the desired labor income for the year, from both cheese and whey cream. In deciding on a price for making cheese for the next year, it is necessary to consider probable changes in prices of sup- plies, labor, as well as the cost of any necessary repairs or in- creased investments to be made, and any increase or decrease in the milk supply. The patrons should be made to under- stand that with a larger milk supply the cost per pound for making may be lower. The following notes are intended to answer additional ques- tions which may arise. Further inquiries may be sent to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Madison, Wis. Notes on Blanks A to E (a) First cost means cost to present owner, whether built or purchased by him. (b) To get “annual depreciation” divide first cost by life in years. (c) The “total annual * charge” is to be included in the list (Table D) of expenses for running the factory for the year to repay to the owner the money invested with interest at the local rate by the time the factory building is worn out, which is considered as 20 vears for a wooden building, or 80 years for a stone, concrete, or other fireproof building. As the land retains its value, no annual depreciation charge on the land is included. Although a factory and land may actually increase in market value over its original cost, no account is taken of such increase here, as the purpose is to repay the original cost of building with interest during the life of the building together with interest on the money invested in land. (d) If the form for Table A above is copied on the left hand Cheesemakers Save by Figuring Costs 17 page of a blank book, with 30 or more lines to the page, the right hand page can conveniently be used for extending the record for the following years, and the record as a whole can be kept in perma- nent form, not so likely to be lost as if made out on single sheets of paper. (e) For the sake of simplicity, the costs of taxes, insurance and repairs are listed under running expenses (Blank C). (f) To figure “depreciation” for any year, add together the last year’s “present value,” and the cost of new equipment purchased this year, and subtract this year’s ‘‘present value.” (g) The method of figuring here shown may be modified when desired to suit any particular case, but in most cases, will be found suitable for use in its present form. To figure annual costs cor- rectly, it is absolutely necessary that all bills, statements, receipts, and expenditure records be preserved until the end of the year. FIVE BLANKS FOR FACTORY USE Blank A. — Value Each Year, and Annual Charges on Factory and Land (For explanation, see Table VI). Description Year built or bought Fii-st cost (a) Life: years Annual depre- ciation Year Year Year Present value Present value Pr sent value Enr*tn»‘y $ $ $ 8 $ Addition to factory, or improvement — $ . i 8 $ Addition to factory, or improvement . . . $ 1 $ $ S » Present value of fac- tory and improve- ments $ $ .... $ 8 j 1 Land 8 None 8 8 $ Total value of land and buildinirs each yea ,r 8 $ $ Annual charjtes on factory and land; Interest at per cent on total present value Anniinl flpnreeiatir>n on far.t.nrv value $ ’ $ Repairs each year (t 0 ■ Total annual charere (c) (d) $ * $ 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 321 Blank B.— Value Each Year, and Annual Charges on Equipment OP Factory Description Year bought First cost Life in years Annual deprecia- tion 1 Year 1 Year Year Present value Present value Present value $ $ $ S $ Gas engine Vat. No. 1 Vat No. 2 Vat No. 3 Press No 1 Pres> N<^ ^ Hoop>, Daisy . Hoops, FlaU Hoops, Y. A 1 Hoops, L. H.. . Hoops Prints .... Mill ’ Curd knives Tinwfl.i'fi Tin wa rp 1 T] n wp 1 ‘p Separator . ....... W hpy va t, .... Wl)py t k . Whpy pnmps. . . . Wkpy pipps Other items Totals $ s $ Annual charges on equipment: Tntorocf Qt. n^r ppnt, rm nrftspnt, va.liiA . $ 1 S .... Depreciation for Repairs during : current year(f i7Aar . ) S $ $ $ $ $ Total charges on equipment for ye jar $ i s Cheesemakers Save by Figuring Costs 19 Blank C. — Cost op Cheesemaking Supplies, and Incidental Expenses, for Each Year Supplies Year Year Year Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Boxes, style Boxes, style Boxes, style Bandages Bandages Bandages Circles Press cloths Extract Color Salt Washing powder Brushes Paint Other items Power Coal Wool Gasoline Oil and grease Electricity Other items... OMce Telephone . . I^rinting Postage Blank books Taxes Insurance.. . Other items. Labor Helper Other items, Total $ $ %. 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 321 Blank D. — Summary of Costs of Making Cheese at Factory 1 Year Year 1 1 Year Chargre on factory (Table A) S $ $ . Charg-e on equipment (Tafcfte B) 1 1 Charge for supplies (Table C) i Total of all charges (a) $ Jh 1 $ “Gross Income” for year (b) $ ® 1 s ! $ (Subtracting (a) from (b). “Labor Income” for year $ $ s ... Pounds of cheese made $ g $ Labor income, per lb. of cheese g « $ 1 Note. “Gross Income” means all money received by factory op- erator as pay for making cheese and skimming whey cream, pur- chase of supplies, etc. “Labor Income” means the money which the operator has left to pay himself for his year’s work, after meeting all expenses and charges. This is sometimes called the operator’s profit for the year, but a better name for it is’ “labor income”, since this is less likely to be misunderstood. If the “labor income” is too small, and should be larger, the necessary price for making cheese may be figured as shown below. Blank E. — Figuring a Price to Yield a Larger Labor Income Year Year Year Charge on facto I'y ( Table A) s $ $ Charge on equipment (Table B) Charge for supplies (Table C) Add labor income desired $ $ s Total necessary income $ Pounds cheese made in year . . . pounds . . . pounds . . . [)Ounds Dividing gives necessary price per pound, in case the maker receives no whey cream money c c c Year Year Year Total necessary income, (as above) s S S — Sub ract whey cream income 1 S S Leaves necessary income for making cheese $ $ Pounds cheese made in year . . . pounds . . . pounds ... pounds Dividing gives necessary price for making c ; c 1 c Note: In deciding on a price for making for the coming year, it is necessary to consider probable prices of labor and supplies, the cost of necessary repairs and improvements, and any probable increase or decrease in the milk supply, and cheese output. Accounting systems vary but the plan here suggested may easily be modified to suit conditions at any fac- tory or to meet the ideas of any maker. The essential fact worth emphasis in this subject is: SELLING PRICE — COST = PROFITS but without accurate knowledge of costs there can be no certainty as to profits so that they may degenerate even into a loss. Only with definite knowledge as to costs is a maker able to substantiate his demand for higher wages. With the growth of the cheese-making industry, bet- ter trained men are required for the more important positions and a knowledge of methods for accurately figuring costs is one important item which no maker can afford to neglect. J „-:FihstNat«onai>1'.v>'v 79-249 c^feVw. >.. c 1 / 7 ^^ , if ^ xo wr.J^ . 7 ^ PAY TO THE ORDER or ^ Pc £^A^_»i-^*' sss^^. ' ■■ ' -;.7~^'-Jt-a ' / /# I "'" '^®^.V,s.,' £M<2' ‘ pay fO the OPOCR o*® I^P^X5IAB«S llo._.C 1 pa^J 53 ?«“^ iT/ l.<*^-^ x< " 4^ toU C(U^ c^ ^ . - > - ^ i fi k -T- -. .TT rr\A • » rt"tS-— ^ \ , AP N» .-Oo-c K €r of factories Pounds of cheese sent to federation Per cent Warehouse at which cheese was received Sheboygan 37 5,. 533, 906 39.7 Plymouth Outagamie 12 1,366,733 9.8 Plymouth Calumet 9 1,340,158 9.0 Plymouth Brown 9 1,096,286 7.8 Plymouth Manitowoc 9 825,270 6.0 Plymouth Washington 4 729,020 5.2 Plymouth Winnebago 6 706,189 5.1 Plymouth Waupaca 2 205,054 1.5 Plymouth Fond du Lac 2 123,386 .9 Plymouth Kewaunee 1 05,494 .5 Plymouth SauE 15 1,202,271 8.7 Spring Green Iowa 7 631,111 4.5 Spring Green Dane 2 87,332 .6 Spring Green Crawford 1 10,790 .1 Spring Green Grand total 115 13,923,000 Received at Plymouth 90 11,991,496 86.1 Received at Spring Green.. 2T> 13L9 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 322 Problems of Distribution As the Federation established enough of its own customers to take all its cheese and thereby become independent in selling, it faced increasingly severe and unfair competition on the supply or membership end. A cooperative marketing concern rapidly growing both in assembling products and in distributing them spelled eventual ruin to the many private concerns which had marketed the cheese for the local factories before. Much un- fair competition apparently developed in the struggle for sur- vival between the federation and its private competitors. * Growth op Federation In spite of obstacles, the Cheese Federation has made sub- stantial growth. During 1919, it handled 6 per cent or 14,098,- 021 pounds of the total of 235,740,173 pounds of American cheese produced in Wisconsin. Far more important than vol- ume of business, it has shown that Wisconsin farmers can unite their local associations. It has proved that such federations can hire experts who will efficiently sell products in consuming markets. Furthermore, it has made Wisconsin farmers think in terms of comprehensive marketing systems. While this under- taking has not done all that farmers want to accomplish, yet it has gone as far as its volume of business permits. Storage of Cheese Surplus As yet the Federation has not tried to hold over until winter the surplus cheese of spring and summer. First, it markets too small a fraction of the cheese of the state, to be able to feed the market and thereby stabilize prices. In answer to the farmers’ question, “Why doesn’t the Federation prevent low prices in summer?” there is but one answer. Before it can hope to do this, the federation must be large enough to keep the surplus cheese of the flush season off the speculator’s market and hold it for the effective consumers’ market during the following win- ter. That is, if farmers hope to do away with the drop in cheese prices that usually comes in summer, they must have a federa- * See evidence obtained by the Wisconsin Division of Markets and rulings in Division’s subsequent orders. Marketing by Federations 13 tion so large that it can prevent the temporary glutting of any market by holding the surplus cheese until winter before selling. A large part, or even all, of this surplus is being stored at pres- ent by private agencies. The farmers contend that there is man- ipulation to get this cheese at low prices. As a matter of fact, if prices were not relatively low these speculators would not buy cheese to be held over for winter sale. It is the great surplus TABLE IV.— PRIMARY SHIPMENTS BY WISCONSIN CHEESE PRODUCERS’ FED- ERATION TO VARIOUS STATES— 1919 States to which 100,000 pounds or more of cheese were shipped Pounds of cheese Per cent Illinois 3,178,912 1,381,285 1,287,235 783,591 626,862 557,124 536,830 510,679 487,381 468,189 456,855 452,050 395,435 363,781 321,725 198,736 176,388 165,975 163,423 130,750 « 124,594 108,691 22.64 New York 9.84 "PprinsylvaTii . 9.17 5.58 TnfHanf^ Maryland 4.46 Virginia 3.97 Wisconsin 3.82 Michigan 3.64 Missouri 3.47 3.33 Ma^saphnspt.ts 3.25 West Virginia 3.22 Tennessee 2.82 Louisiana 2.59 Georgia 2.29 0?^rnlinfl 1.42 California 1.26 Florida 1.18 Texas 1.16 Alabama .93 North Carolina .89 Ohio .77 To above 22 states 12,875,491 1,160,800 91.70 To other 15 states, Dist. of Columbia and miscel- laneous 8.30 (rrand total 14,036,291 100.00 during the flush producing season, out of all proportion to cur- rent use, which gives the speculator his chance. The only remedy worth considering by farmers is for them to retain ownership of the surplus until consumers need it. This in turn can be done only through a large, powerful federation which really feeds the market. At present the very lack of this organ- ization makes it unavoidable for farmers to glut and starve the cheese markets periodically. For the same reason, the markets for other farm products are periodically either oversupplied or undersupplied. 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 322 Although the Cheese Federation, during its six and one half, years of operation, has not solved all the problems of cheese marketing, it has built a firm foundation for future growth. Similar early stages of growth must be passed through by any new federation designed to market other products. A brief sur- vey of its progress toward successively lower operating costs will surprise those who have been too hasty in criticism. It will em- phasize that the growth of successful cooperative marketing federations is gradual and that too much should not be ex- pected of cooperation in a day. TABLE V.— POUNI>S OF OHEESE SOLD TO THE FIVE LAEGER PACKERS BY THE WISCONSIN CHEESE PRODUCERS’ FEDERATION-1919 Packer company Pounds of cheese Per cent of Feder- ation cheese sales A 50,932 .36 57,758 .41 n 117,469 .84 D 211,341 1.50 340,501 2.43 Total to packers 778,001 5.54 Steady Growth of Federation's Business When the Federation started business on April 1st, 1914, cheese began coming in from 45 local cheese factories in and about Sheboygan County. During the first nine months of op- eration 6,125,480 pounds of cheese were received. The cheese producers marketed $855,328 worth of their product. During the following two years the Federation held its own in spite of many difficulties ; and in 1917 a period of substantial growth be- gan. By 1919, as Table I indicates, the quantity of cheese handled had more than doubled while the value of the business had increased almost four times. The number of factories send- ing cheese had increased from 45 to 120. As the Federation enlarged not only in the quantity and value of its products but in the number of counties from which cheese came, a warehouse at Spring Green was necessary. The map shows the location of each of the 115 factories sending cheese to the Federation dur- ing 1919. The sizes of the black dots represent the relative quantities of cheese sent by the various factories. The largest Marketing by Federations 15 contributed 313,383 pounds, while the smallest sent only 4,514 pounds. As Table III shows, 115 factories averaging 121,070 pounds marketed 13,923,000 pounds through the Federation. FIG. 4.— DISTRIBUTION OF FACTORIES CONTRIBUTING CHEESE TO FEDERA- TION These factories marketed quantities of cheese through the Federation varying accord- ing to the size of black dots. The quantity per factory ranged from less than 5,000 pounds to more than 300,000 pounds. Distribution of Sales When most of the business of the Federation came from farmers in Shelioygan County, all of the cheese was assembled at the Plymouth warehouse. During 1919 less than two-fifths 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 322 of the business, or 39.7 per cent, went to Plymouth from She- boygan County farmers, while 46.4 per cent of the cheese went there from farmers in nine counties surrounding Sheboygan County. In the southwestern part of Wisconsin the farmers in four counties supplied 13.9 per cent of the cheese received by the Federation. This was assembled at the Spring Green ware- house. As the expansion spreads to other parts of the state more warehouses will be operated to facilitate efficient paraffining and shipping of cheese. Both of the warehouses at present are managed by the Federation. Cheese is shipped from them to various parts of the United States on orders given by the man- ager of cheese sales. During 1919 over 14 million pounds of cheese were sold in 37 states. Table IV shows that, more than 100,000 pounds were shipped to each of 22 states. Those who think that Illinois received more than one-fifth of the shipments of Federation cheese because of sale to the five large packers will find (Table V), that a total of less than 6 per cent went to these companies. Furthermore, cheese sales to packers were usually billed to other points than Chicago. It must be gratifying to these cheese producers to know that they are actually selling cheese through their own company, direct to distributing wholesalers and to retailers. In doing this they have built up a sound and independent mechanism. They have founded an organization which will bring fundamental improve- ments in the system of cheese marketing as soon as cheese pro- ducers expand it to state-wide importance. TABLE VI.— PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OP MONET RECEIVED BY THE FED- ERATION FOR CHEESE— 1914 TO 1919 Year Payments direct to member factories Cost of freight factory to Federation Actual expenses of Federation Savings or profits 1914 97.6 .4 1.6 .4 1915 97.5 .3 1.5 .7 1916 97.5 .3 1.4 .8 1917 97.7 .2 1.2 .9 1918 97.0 .3 1.4 1.3 1919 97.7 .4 1.4 .5 Note: In each year shown the number of cents indicated was paid out of every dollar taken in by the Federation for cheese sold. ' Marketing by Federations IT Operating Costs Steadily Decrea^d Wisconsin farmers, planning to establish other federations, will find their greatest encouragement in the efficiency of this one. Being owned by farmers, the Federation pays all its re- ceipts, less expenses, to the account of the local cheese factories. The deduction for expenses has amounted to the very small item of 1.2 cents to 1.6 cents out of every dollar received for cheese marketed. Table VI shows that actual expenses were highest during 1914, the first year of operation. This was before the world war began and therefore before prices of labor, materials and supplies had increased. Each of the years, 1915, 1916, and 1917, shows a successive decline in the relative expenses of oper- ating the Federation per dollar of sales. For the years 1918 and 1919, considering the great increases in prices of supplies of all kinds, it is remarkable that the relative expenses of the Federation per dollar of sales were kept down to the 1916 level. The relative expense of maintaining the Federation’s general office and sales-management has grown less and less each year. During six years, largely on account of increasing business, the cost of salaries per dollar’s worth of sales feU from one-half cent to little more than one-fourth cent. The rising prices of materials and supplies on the other hand caused the increased expense of one-fifth cent per dollar of sales, which brought the 1919 total of expense back to the 1916 figure of 1.4 cents per dollar of sales. Few, if any, marketing concerns can duplicate this record of low operating costs during the world war. It is a tribute of the highest order to this cooperative management. A popular error about the salaries paid for management may be corrected here. The Federation handled 14,098,021 pounds of cheese in 1919 which brought a net return of $4,243,986 to the 120 factories with their membership of 3,000 patrons. The factories contributed an averaige of 117,483 pounds of cheese each which brought a return of $35,366. Each patron in turn averaged 4,700 pounds of cheese for which $1,414 was received. To have this 4,700 pounds of cheese made out of the milk he supplied, the farmer actually paid $117.50 to the local cheese factory organization. Not less than $50 of this sum was paid to meet the cheesemaker ’s net salary. To have this same 4,700 pounds of cheese sold the farmer actually paid the Federation 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 322 $19.80 of which only 60 cents went to pay the manager’s salary. These figures mean that it costs the farmer six times as much to have his cheese made at his local factory as it does to sell it through the Federation. They also mean that the local cheese- maker ’s net salary costs the farmer 83 times as much as does the salary of the manager of the Federation. FIG. 5.— FEDERATION MARKETED CHEESE THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES Each of 22 states received more than 100,000 pounds of cheese from Wisconsin factories through their selling organization— the Federation. About 3,200,000 pounds went to Illinois ; 780,000 pounds to Indiana; and 108,000 pounds to Ohio. See Table IV. In other words, the manager of the Federation during 1919 received a salary which required the payment of only 60 cents from each farmer patron, or exactly five cents a month, where- as, the local cheese-maker received $50 a year from each farmer patron or more than four dollars a' month. The Federation manager’s salary amounts to 13/1000 of a cent a pound of cheese as compared with the local cheese-maker’s net salary of more than 1 cent a pound. Cost of Cooperative Management Besides keeping costs down the Federation management mar- keted cheese at prices averaging somewhat above the Plymouth Board prices. This was possible because the Federation has built up its own cheese customers in 37 states and provided Marketing by Federations 19 them regularly with cheese of high quality. Many satisfied cus- tomers have stated that they will always be willing to pay con- siderably above Board prices for high quality cheese such as the TABLE VII.— DOWNWARD TREND OP FEDERATION MANAGEMENT COSTS— 1914 TO 1919 Tear Salaries other ofiBce and general expenses Total manage- ment expense 1914 .50 .20 .70 1915 .40 .20 .60 1916 .30 .30 .60 1917 .30 .20 .50 1918 .30 .20 .50 1919 .27 .17 .44 Note: In each year shown the number of cents indicated was paid out of every dollar taken in by the Federation for cheese sold. Federation sends. In these two fundamentals, keeping operat- ing costs low and maintaining standards of high quality, this and other federations have the basis for indefinite expansion and for giving substantial benefits to their members.* Cheese Producers Profit by Federation That the Federation has been profitable to cheese producers during its six years of operation is shown by its substantial TABLE VIII.— DISTRIBUTION OP WAREHOUSE EXPENSES— 1914 TO 1919 Tear Wages Supplies and other expenses Total warehouse expense 1914 .40 .50 .90 1915 .40 .60 .90 1916 .40 .40 .80 1917 .30 .40 .70 1918 .30 .60 .90 1919 .36 .60 .96 Note: In each year shown the number of cents indicated was paid out of every dollar taken in by the Federation for cheese sold. growth both in members and in quantity of cheese handled. Moreover, substantial savings or profits were earned. Dividends amounting to $42,000 have been paid. The treasury holds •In establishing federations to market such products as butter, fruit, and livestock, farmers of Wisconsin will get direct help by studying the Cheese Federation. The leaders of the organization will gladly give suggestions about organizing, financing, and managing a federation. 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 322 $38,000 of undivided savings which are being used to help finance the business. Besides this, the general office and warehouse at Plymouth, worth not less than $75,000, is the property of the Federation and has been earned by the organization. To have accumulated and paid out aggregate savings or profits amount- ing to more than $150,000 during its difficult, beginning stages is sufficient success to inspire confidence. This saving amounts to more than one quarter of a cent on every pound of cheese handled by the Federation since it began business; and it had handled, by the end of 1919, 52,776,134 pounds of cheese. FIG. 0.— THE FIRST ADDITIONAL DISTRICT WAREHOUSE OF THE FEDERATION When the farmer members of 25 local cheese factories in and about Spring Green, Wisconsin, Tvanted to have their cheese marketed by the Federation this warehouse was built to accommodate them. The following copy of the revised articles of Cooperative As- sociation drawn up for adoption by the Cheese Federation con- stituency will give interested persons the latest information about the organization of federations.* *For further information consult or write to any of the follow'ing: W'is- consin Cheese Producers' Federation, Plymuth, Wisconsin ; Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agricuiture, Madison, Wisconsin ; Wiscon- sin Division of Markets, State Capital, Madison, Wisconsin. Marketing by Federations 21 ARTICLES OP COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION Know All Men lyy These Pres- ents, That the undersigned have associated and do hereby associate themselves together for the purpose of forming a Cooperative Associa- tion under sections 1786e — 1 to 1786e — 17, inclusive, of the Wiscon- sin statutes, and do hereby make, sign, and agree to. the following: Articles of Incorporation Article I The name of this Association shall be Wisconsin Cheese Pro- ducers’ Federation, and its prin- cipal place of business shall be in the city of Plymouth, County of Sheboygan, State of Wisconsin, P. O. address, Plymouth, Wiscon- sin. Article II The business and purposes or this association shall be to buy and sell, or act as agent to buy or sell, cheese and by-products; ro manufacture cheese and by-pro- ducts; to buy and sell, or act as agent to buy or sell, cheese factory and creamery equipment and sup- plies, to manufacture cheese fac- tory and creamery equipment and supplies; to own and oper- ate warehouses and cold stor- ages; to own and hold stock in any corporation or cooperative association within the limits pre- scribed by law; to buy, lease, own, sell, exchange, and deal in all forms of property neces- sary or incident to the tran- saction of the business of this as- sociation; and to do all other things necesary or incident to the transaction of the business of this association. Article III The capital stock of this asso- ciation shall be dollars, which shall be di- vided into shares of the par value of dollars each. Article IV The shares of capital stock of this association are non-assessable. Article V The affairs of this association shall be managed by a board of seven directors. The directors shall be elected by the stockhold- ers of the association at such time and for such term of office as the by-laws may prescribe. Article VI The names and residences or the persons forming this associa- tion are: BY-LAWS OP THE WISCONSIN CHEESE PRODUCERS’ FEDERATION Article I The regular annual meeting of the stockholders shall be held on the second Thursday of February of each year. The president of the board of directors may call special meetings of the stockholders up- on ten days’ previous notice i thereof to each stockholder by I publication or by personal serv- ice. The president of this associa- tion shall call a district meeting at each warehouse point not more than thirty days prior to any an- nual or special meeting of this association. At each district meet- 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 322 ing the stockholders shipping to such warehouse point may elect one delegate for each ten stocK- holders or for any lesser number and one delegate for the remain- ing fraction of the whole number of stockholders. Each delegate at the stockholders’ meeting (or his appointee in his absence) shall be entitled to cast one vote for every stockholder represented by him; provided, that no delegate shall represent more than ten stockholders. Voting by proxy in this associa- tion shall not be permittea, ex- cept as provided herein. Article II The directors shall be elected annually at the regular annual meeting of the stockholders and shall hold their offices for one year or until their successors are elected and qualified. Every ware- house point shall be represented by at least one director. No per- son shall be a director unless he is or has been a milk producer and a member of a cooperative cheese producers’ association. The regular meeting of the board of directors shall be held within ten days after the regular annual meeting of the stockhold- ers. The secretary of the board shall call special meetings thereof upon order of the president or of any three directors, but notice of any special meeting shall be given to all directors not joining in the i call therefor. Every meeting of j the board of directors shall be ! open to the Director of the Divi- 1 sion of Markets and notice of I every such meeting shall be given i by the board of directors to said | Director of the Division of Mar- kets. The directors shall elect from their number a president, vice- president, secretary and a trea- surer, and shall employ such salesmen, inspectors and other I employes as may be necessary and ; shall fix the compensation of all i officers and employes. The directors shall require any officer or employe to whom funds of the association are entrusted to furnish bond. A majority of the board of directors shall constitute a quo- rum for the transaction of busi- ness; but a less number may ad- journ from day to day upon giv- ing notice to absent members of said board of such adjournment. Any vacancy occurring in the board of directors shall be filled by the remaining members there- of. Article III The officers of this association shall be a president, vice-presi- dent, secretary and treasurer. The duties of secretary and of trea- surer may be performed by one and the same person, who, in such case, shall be known as secretary- treasurer. The principal duties of the pres- ident shall be to preside at all meetings of the stockholders and of the board of directors and with said board to have general super- vision of the affairs of the asso- ciation. He shall sign all certifi- cates of stock and all contracts and other instruments; provided that the board of directors may authorize any officer or agent of the association to perform this duty unless prohibited by law. The principal duties of the vice presdent shall be to discharge the duties of the president in the event of the absence or disability of the latter. The principal duties of the sec- retary shall be to keep a true and correct record of the proceedings of the board of directors, and to safely and systematically keep all books, papers, records and docu- ments belonging to the association or pertaining to the business thereof. He shall countersign and affix the seal of the corporation to such papers and documents as shall be required to be counter- signed or sealed; provided that the board of directors may au- thorize any officer or agent of the Marketing by Federations 23 association to perform this duty, unless prohibited by law. The principal duties of the treasurer shall be to safely Keep and account for all moneys and other property of the association which shall come into his hands, and to keep an accurate account of all moneys received and dis- bursed by him and to retain proper vouchers for all moneys disbursed, and to render such ac- counts, statements, and invento- ries as may be required by the board of directors. The officers of the association shall perform such additional du- ties as may from time to time be imposed by the board of directors or as may from time to time be prescribed by the by-laws. Article IV The term of office of all officers of this association shall be one year (unless the office be declared vacant before the expiration of the year) or until a successor has been elected or appointed. The board of directors snai; have authority to remove any of- ficer for cause, or any employe at any time, and shall fill any va- cancy caused by any such removal. Article V The directors shall apportion the earnings by first paying divi- dends on the paid-up capital stocK at a rate not to exceed six per cent annually and then setting aside ten per cent of the net prof- its for a reserve fund until an amount has accumulated in the reserve fund equal to one liunared per cent of the paid-up capital stock. The remainder of the net profits shall be distributed as re- quired by law. Article VI The board of directors shall have authority to issue shares of stock or the promissory notes of this association, in payment of patronage dividends to stockhold- ers, and to provide for a method of rotating capital based upon the tonnage of cheese marketed by the stockholders through this as- sociation. Article VII Every stockholder of this asso- ciation shall enter into a contract to sell to this association all of the cheese produced by or for such stockholder, or such part thereof as this association may re- quire, which contract shall be of two years’ duration, continuing thereafter from year to year sub- ject to the right of the stockholder to terminate liability under such contract at the end of any year after giving notice to the board of directors of this association at least thirty days before the expi- ration of such year and affording to the board of directors of this association a hearing before the stockholder in this matter. The requirements of the contract con- tained herein shall not affect the right of a stockholder to dispose of cheese to its members for their individual use. Any stockholder violating the agreement to sell its cheese, as provided herein, shall pay to this association — as liquidated dam- ages — a sum equal to one cent per pound for each pound of cheese produced but not delivered by it according to tlie provisions con- tained herein; and said sum may be deducted from any money due from this association to the stock- holder. Article VIII Each cooperative association or corporation, which owns stock in this association shall furnish this association any in,formation which the board of directors of this as- sociation may direct concerning the amount of cheese produced by or for such cooperative associa- tion or corporation and any In- formation regarding any otner ; matter pertaining to the business 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 322 of such corporation or cooperative association. Each cooperative association or corporation which owns stock in this association, shall conform to all lawful rules and regulations adopted by this association for the manufacture and preparation for shipment of cheese and by- products. Article IX Stock in this association shall be transferred by the owner or its agent only on the books of this association. Article X No stockholder shall sell or otherwise alienate his stock in this association except after deposit- ing it with the secretary thereof who shall have the authority, if exercised within thirty days, to sell or otherwise dispose of the stock as the board of directors may approve, paying to the owner of the stock the par value thereof, after deducting any amount due from the stockholder to this asso- ciation. In the event that the sec- retary does not exercise the option to sell the shareholder’s stock within thirty days after the share- holder has deposited said stock with the secretary, the secretary shall return the stock to the shareholder who may then sell or otherwise ajienate it in any man- ner not prohibited by law. Article XI The board of directors shall have authority, upon giving ten days’ notice in writing, to call in the stock of any stockholder upon payment of its par value, after de- duction of any amount due from the stockholder to this associa- tion; provided, that not more than ten per cent of the paid-up capital stock shall be thus called in during the period intervening between any two annual stock- holders’ meetings, unless author- ized by a vote of the stockholders in the same manner as is pre- scribed for amendment of these by-laws. Article XII These by-laws may be amended by a vote of the majority of the stock outstanding at any regular or special meeting; provided that notice proposing to amend the by- laws at a special meeting shall be given in the call therefor. V, . •' •AiWUAL REPORT^OF THE DIRECTOR - n /' 1919—1920 ^ AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON n 323 December, 1920 New Farin Facts "■*4^ 'f ^ t CONTENTS Pag-e Forward, Wisconsin 3 Corn Stover SiFage for Milk Production 5 Hydrolized Sawdust as a Stock Food 5 Comparison of Feeding Standards for Dairy Cows 7 Feeds for Pigs 8-11 Barley Versus Corn for Fattening Steers 12 Shelter and Feed for Fattening Lambs 13 Lime Required for Animal Nutrition 15 Alfalfa and Red Clover Hay Compared 18 ^ Do Acid Soils Change Food Value of Hay? 18 Milk Vitamine Influenced by Green Pasture 20 Leg Weakness in Chickens Due to Lack of Roughage 23 Higher Egg Production in the Flock 25-26 Milk-Feeding Baby Chicks 27 Studies on Sex Control 28 Study of Twins in Live Stock 29 Breeding for Soybean Oil 29 New Method in Detection of Johne’s Disease 31 Bull Nose of Pigs 32 Sterility of Cows Often Preventable i 33 Vaccination Against Contagious Abortion 33 “Little Plate’’ Method of Counting Bacteria 34 Are Legume Bacteria Killed by Freezing? 36 Concrete Tile and Drainage for Peat Marshes 39 Testing War-Salvaged Explosives for Land Clearing 40 Bee Culture Acquiring New Importance 42-43 Pea Moth and Other Insect Pests in 1920 44-46 ■^ost of Producing Milk 47 Are Peas Canned at a Profit? . . . 49 How Federating Helps Cooperation 49 Retailing Pood Supplies 51 Green Manure for Soil Improvement 53 Acidity Influences Inoculation and Growth 55 Marsh Soils Adapted to Dairying 56 Do Cherries Need Cross-Pollination? 56 New Northern Grown Strain of Triumph Potatoes 58 A New Wilt Disease of Tobacco 69 Can We Prophesy Plant Disease Outbreaks? 62 Different Cabbage Diseases 63-64 Cherry Deaf Spot and Apple Scab 65-66 Home-Grown Bean Seed Best 67 Bacterial Black Leg of Fotato 68 One Fungus Causes Three Diseases 69-72 A New Noxious Alien Weed 73 Does Alfalfa Improve With Age? 77 Better Crops for the State 81-83 Sunflowers Used for Silage 85 Hastening Maturity With Cold Resistant Corn 86 New Pea Varieties Developed 86-88 Markets and Machinery Give Wisconsin Lead in Hemp Production 88 Sorghum Crop Increases 91 Technical Articles and Publications 94 New Farm Facts H. L. Russell and F. B. Morrison FORWARD, WISCONSIN A state advances with the development of its natural re- sources. To use only part of the resources limits the prosperity, opportunity, and progress of the state. Timber, minerals, waterpower, coal, oil, gas — ^have always been considered as valuable capital, yet there is no greater re- source than the soil. Wisconsin counts her wealth in herds, flocks, and grain fields. Particularly suited to the oldest occupation of man, Wiscon- sin has recognized the value of the soil and has applied her genius and her science to the promotion of better agriculture. The clearing of cut-over lands, the drainage of marsh soils, the development of high yielding grains, the improvement of live stock, the establishment of canning factories, hemp and sorghum mills, creameries, cheese factories and condenseries, have all made up a part of Wisconsin’s program for advancement. Wisconsin farm products find a ready market close at hand. This fact means much to the men who work the farms of the state. Nearness to good markets has been responsible for the wonderful development of many of the products for which the state is noted. Wisconsin is looking ahead. Through the application of science to the everyday efforts of country life, new opportunities for progress are constantly open to the Wisconsin farmer. Going forward, Wisconsin will prosper. 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY CONTRIBUTES GENEROUSLY TO MAN Useful farm animals which produce milk, meat, wool and labor, are very important links in the chain connecting agri- culture and mankind. The history, of live stock development shows that nations which have supported the animal industry and which have had the benefits of its products, have attained the highest de- gree of civilization. These nations have also reached a high state of development economically and financially and further- more have been the leading and dominating forces in direct- ing and controlling the affairs of the world. Without meat, milk, and wool, the human race would be seriously handicapped in securing the necessary food supply for its maintenance. Livestock, furthermore, aids greatly, and is highly import- ant in making agriculture permanent. The conversion of farm crops into food products by the various classes and types of farm animals enables a high percentage of plant ingredients to be returned to the soil in the form of farm manure. There- fore, better live stock and better farming bear an important relationship to one another. Animal husbandry has to do with the selection, feeding, care, and improvement of the farm animals. In practice it be- comes a fascinating art where one learns to understand the fundamental laws, practices, and methods that combine to produce successful results. It appeals to men ambitious to engage in productive enterprises and provides fair profits under successful conditions of management. It also furnishes recrea- tion and keen enjoyment to men who become live stock fan- ciers and who engage in the production of live stock as an outside interest from other lines of occupation. Animals are plastic and susceptible of being bred into forms that suit the needs and fancies of mankind. As a result, types and breeds of farm animals have been produced that serve a variety of purposes in a highly satisfactory manner. mitiiim New Farm Facts 5 Corn Stover Silage for Milk Production Corn stover silage has attracted much attention in recent years, since it has been found that when plenty of water is added at the, time of ensiling, dry corn stover makes quite palatable silage. Recently, widely diverse statements have been made concerning the feeding value of such silage. In certain advertisements of husking and silo filling ma- chinery the surprising and obviously unwarranted claim has been made that corn stover silage is equal in feeding value, ton for ton, to normal corn silage, from which the ears have not been removed. To find the actual value for milk production of such silage compared with normal corn silage, F. B. Morrison, G-. C. Humphrey, and R. S. Hulce (Animal Husbandry) carried on a feeding trial the past winter by the double reversal method with two lots each of four cows, fed for two periods each of four weeks. The cows were fed either corn silage or corn stover silage, along with alfalfa hay and a well-balanced con- centrate mixture consisting of ground corn, wheat bran, linseed meal, and cottonseed meal. While on each ration the cows were fed all the silage, either corn silage or corn stover silage, they would clean up; the amount of the other feeds being kept the same for the two lots. The cows took to the corn stover silage quite readily hut consumed five pounds less a head daily, showing that it was somewhat less palatable than normal corn silage. The corn stover silage contained 73 per cent of water, which is about the same amount as average normal corn silage. When fed corn stover silage the cows gave an average yield of 24.5 pounds milk and 0.98 pounds butter fat dally. On normal corn silage they yielded 27.4 pounds milk and 1.05 pounds butter fat, or 11.8 per cent more milk and 7.1 per cent more fat than on corn stover silage. Taking into consideration the reduced yield on corn stover silage, it was worth 61 per cent as much per ton as the normal corn silage in this trial. Another test on the same question will be carried on this year to gain further information on this important problem. Hydroltzed Sawdust as a Stock Food For many years there has been frequent discussion as to whether sawdust could not be utilized in some manner as a stock food. Since untreated sawdust is valueless for this purpose, various methods of hydrolizing sawdust — or treating it chemically to increase its digesti- bility and feeding value — have been suggested. No definite, scientific feeding trials, however, appear to have been carried on with such materials. In the work of the Forest Products Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture, located at the University of Wisconsin on the utilization of timber wastes, an improved process of hydrolizing sawdust with dilute acid under pressure has been developed. In this 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 process about 25 per cent of the dry weight of the wood is converted into sugar and the rest of the wood fiber or cellulose is changed con- siderably in physical character and solubility. This process is now being used on a commercial scale in the manufacture of industrial alcohol. To determine whether this hydrolized sawdust could be used as stock food, an experiment was carried on with dairy cows by Messrs. Mor- rison, Humphrey, and Hulce, using hydrolized sawdust prepared by PIG. 1.— BAKING OUT HYDBOLIZED SAWUUST Cooking' sawdust under pressure for fifteen minutes in this digester converts a part of the wood into sugar and makes the rest more digestible. E. C. Sherrard of the Forest Products Laboratory. Because only a limited amount of hydrolized sawdust was available, but three cows could be used in the trial. These were fed for three periods of four weeks each. In the first and third periods the cows were given an ex- cellent ration consisting of alfalfa hay, corn silage and a concentrate mixture consisting of 55 parts of ground barley, 30 parts wheat bran, and 15 parts of linseed meal. In the second feeding period the hydro- lized or treated sawdust was substituted for a part of the barley in the mixture. Two pounds of sawdust were used in place of one of barley. The grain, mixture then consisted of 30 parts of sawdust, 40 parts of ground barley, 30 parts of wheat bran and 15 parts of linseed meal. The cows kept up their production through this period and maintained New Farm Facts 7 their weight even better than on the ration fed during the first and third periods. While it is unsafe to draw definite conclusions from such a short test, it would seem that cattle may be fed a limited amount of hydro- lized sawdust. As a feed it contains only a negligible amount of protein and for that reason cannot entirely take the place of barley. In both of the rations used in the trials the protein was furnished by the other feeds. Before drawing any definite conclusions about the feeding value of hydrolized sawdust and its commercial possibilities as a stock food, more extended trials will be carried on. COMPARISOX OF FeKDIXG STANDARDS FOR DaIRY CoWS The various feeding standards for dairy cows differ considerably in the amounts of total nutrients advised, expressed either in total di- gestible nutrients or in net energy, and also in the amount of protein recommended. It is a matter of great importance, both practically and theoretically, to ascertain which standards most accurately present the needs of cows of various productive capacities. However, but little experimental work has been carried on to determine the relative amount of product yielded and the relative economy of production when cows are fed rations balanced according to different standards. A trial was therefore carried on by Messrs. Morrison and Humphrey and the late F. L. Putney, to compare the results from feeding rations balanced according to the recent Savage and Armsby standards which are widely used. To balance rations according to the Savage standards for cows of good production, requires considerably more concentrates than to bal- ance rations for the same cows according to the Armsby standards. This trial was planned to study the effect of this difference in total digestible nutrients or net energy between the two standards. No attempt was made to compare the protein requirements of the two standards, but the amounts of digestible crude protein were kept the same in both' rations. Two lots each of eight cows were fed by the double reversal method for three periods of five weeks each, with transition periods of a week before each experimental period. Averaging the results for the two lots, on the Armsby ration the cows consumed on the average 7.21 pounds concentrates, 10.8 pounds alfalfa hay, and 31.6 pounds corn silage per head daily. On the Savage ration the cows consumed 10.33 pounds concentrates, 10.8 pounds alfalfa hay, and 32.3 pounds corn silage a head daily. Thus, over 3 pounds more concentrates a head daily were required in the ration balanced according to the Savage standards. On the Savage ration the average daily yield of milk was 27.94 pounds, while on the Armsby ration it was only 25.72 pounds, a difference of 2.22 pounds. Likewise, on the Savage ration, the daily yield of butter fat was 1.04 pounds and on the Armsby ration only .97 pound, a differ- 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 ence of .07 pound. Moreover, the cows gained slightly more in live weight on the Savage ration. The results were clear cut in each lot, showing plainly that with most of the animals the Armsby ration did not furnish sufficient nutrients for maximum production. While the amount of product yielded is of primary importance to the breeder who is feeding cows on official tests for records which will enhance their value, the economy of production is of greater importance to the average dairyman. With feeds at 1917-1918 prices, it was found that the feed cost of 100 pounds milk was $1.78 on the Savage ration MG. 2.-^DAIRY BARN EQUIPFEB POR FEEDING EXPERIMENTS In feeding experiments, a special framework is necessary over the manger to prevent cows from wasting any feed or stealing from their neighbors. The sacks containing hay and grain weighed out for each cow may be seen in front of the mangers. and only $1.60 on the Armsby ration. Correspondingly, the feed cost of 1 pound butter fat was $.48 on the Savage ration and only $.42 on the Armsby ration. These results indicate that rations balanced according to the Savage standards for dairy cows will cause greater production than rations balanced according to the Armsby standards. However, when feeds are high in price, it is preferable to feed somewhat less concentrates than advised in the Savage standards where economy of production is the chief object sought. Protein-Rich Supplements for Pigs Continuing their investigations of the value of various protein-rich supplements for growing, fattening pigs Mr. Morrison, G-. Bohstedt, New Farm Facts 9 anc' J. M. Fargo (Animal Husbandry) have carried on four trials the past year with a total of 250 pigs. Last year it was announced that well-grown pigs weighing 125 to 150 pounds made exceptionally good gains on merely barley and whey, a ration furnishing much less protein than has been recommended by any feeding standard. A trial was carried on the past winter to find whether barley and whey makes a well-balanced ration for younger pigs which, owing to their rapid growth, require a greater proportion of protein. Just as had been predicted, with younger pigs more rapid and economical gains were secured where a small amount of tankage or linseed meal was added to the ration of barley and whey. Similar results were se- cured with corn and whey. On corn and whey alone pigs gained 1.18 pounds a head daily, considerably more than was expected on this ration which was quite low in protein. Adding .38 pound of tankage a head daily to the ration increased the daily gain to 1.49 pounds. These trials, together with those carried on previously, show that while whey and barley or probably even whey and corn, make an excellent ration for finishing well-grown shotes, for younger pigs it pays to balance the ration better by adding a little protein-rich feed for pigs not on pasture. Wheat middlings and linseed meal are perhaps the protein-rich pur- chased feeds most commonly used in Wisconsin for swine. Several trials have, therefore, been carried on to find out how effectively they actually were compared to skimmilk or tankage in balancing corn and barley. Good results have not been secured where either middlings or linseed meal was fed to pigs in dry lot as the only supplement to corn or barley. For example, in two trials the pigs on middlings and barley averaged only 1.21 pounds gain per head daily, while the same kind of pigs gained 1.89 pounds with skimmilk as the supplement and 1.64 pounds with tankage. Compared with tankage at $115 a ton middlings was actually worth only $17.98 per ton when fed in this way. Similar results were secured with linseed meal. However, both these feeds are satisfactory when fed right. During the past two summers pigs fed linseed meal or middlings with corn on good pasture gained nearly as rapidly as those fed corn and tank- age. On pasture, middlings was worth $74.00 per ton, compared with tankage. These trials show that linseed meal and middlings should be fed on pasture, or for dry lot feeding they should be used along with tankage, skimmilk, buttermilk, or whey. The value of linseed meal when fed in proper combinations is further shown by the fact that in trials during the past two summers, pigs on pasture which were self-fed a mixture of half linseed meal and half tankage as a supplement to corn gained more rapidly than when self- fed only tankage as the supplement. When thus replacing part of the tankage, linseed meal was worth as much per ton as tankage. Also last winter pigs self-fed this same mixture made more rapid and economical gains than when self-fed only shelled corn and tankage. 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Further trials carried on during the past year have substantiatec. the previous work showing the high value of skimmilk as a supplement to corn or barley. Where there is sufficient skimmilk available to balance the ration properly, there is no advantage in purchasing tank- age, linseed meal, or other protein-rich feeds. fig. 3.— pigs fed yellow corn gain more rapidly The pig on the left, a representative from the lot fed yellow corn and tankage, gained 143 pounds, Avhile the other one, from the lot fed white corn and tankage, gained only 118 pounds. Yellow vs. White Corn for Pigs When it was reported last year by H. Steenbock (Agricultural Chem- istry) that in his trials with rats yellow corn had been found to be much richer in fat-soluble vitamine than white corn, the question im- mediately arose concerning the practical bearing of this fact on stock feeding. It was not expected that any difference would be apparent with farm animals consuming a considerable quantity of good rough- age, such as legume hay, for green leaved plants are, in general, rich in this fat-soluble vitamine. While white corn is accordingly probably equal to yellow corn for beef cattle, dairy cows, and sheep, it was thought there might be a difference in their value for pigs fed in a dry lot without access to pasture. Trials have, therefore, been carried on iby Messrs. Morrison and Bohstedt in consultation with Mr. Steenbock to determine the relative value of yellow and white corn for pigs. Last winter pigs self-fed a balanced mixture of yellow corn and tank- age gained 1.59 pounds a head daily, requiring 42i3 pounds of feed for 100' pounds gain, while pigs self-fed a mixture of white corn and tank- age gained only 1.13 pounds and required 16 per cent more feed for 100 pounds gain. With yellow and white corn at the same price per New Farm Facts 11 bushel, the feed cost of 100 pounds gain was $12.00 on yellow corn and $13.97 on white corn with feeds at last winter’s prices. Yellow and white corn were also compared when fed with linseed meal as the supplement. However, as was expected from the experi- ment^ mentioned previously, satisfactory gains were not produced by either lot, even though ground rock phosphate was added to supply ad- ditional lime, which is deficient in the corn-linseed meal ration. These low gains on corn and linseed meal are apparently due to the fact that the protein of linseed meal does not effectively supplement the protein of corn. Orange colored carrots, which are rich in fat-soluble vitamine, in- creased the gains when added to the ration of white corn, linseed meal, and ground rock phosphate. On the other hand, the addition of sugar mangels, which are low in this vitamine, resulted in no improvement. When 5 per cent of finely chopped alfalfa hay was added to the mix- ture of white corn, linseed meal, and ground rock phosphate, decided improvement resulted. This was doubtless due to the fact that the alfalfa hay not only furnished fat-soluble vitamine but also protein and mineral matter. In another trial carried on during the past summer, pigs self-fed a mixture of yellow corn and tankage gained 1.28 pounds a head daily, while those fed white corn and tankage gained 1.06 pounds. Just as in the previous trials, unsatisfactory gains were produced by pigs in dry lots on either yellow or white corn with linseed meal and ground rock phosphate. When fed to pigs on rape pasture white corn and lin- seed meal produced gains which were satisfactory and as rapid as with yellow corn and linseed meal, as long as plenty of forage was available. After* the close of the pasture season, the pigs on yellow corn forged ahead. The addition of 5 per cent of chopped alfalfa or clover hay considerably improved the ration of yellow corn, linseed meal, and ground rock phosphate when fed in a dry lot. Trials are being con- tinued to gain further data on the relative value of yellow and white corn and the effect of various supplements. Pasture Crops for Pigs The comparisons of various pasture crops for pigs which have been carried on by Messrs. Morrison and Bohstedt during the past five years at the Hill Farm at Madison have shown that in locations where alfalfa can be grown successfully, it is slightly superior to the other pasture crops which have been tested. In order to prevent killing out the alfalfa, care must be taken not to pasture it too closely, or to let the pigs stay on it so late in the fall that no growth will be left for winter protection. A mixture of oats, peas, and rape has proven the best annual crop, with rape alone a close second. Bed clover is an excellent long season crop and is one of thosd most easily grown on Wisconsin farms. In 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 two years’ trial, biennial sweet clover has been inferior to alfalfa or red clover. Oats and peas furnish pasture for but a short season. There- fore, rape should be added if another crop is not to be grown after the oats and peas are removed. Soybeans are a good fall pasture crop. Native pasture, consisting of blue grass with some white clover, fur- nishes early spring pasture, but is much inferior to the crops previ- ously mentioned for spring pigs after weaning. PIG. 4.— PASTURE CROPS NEEDED POR ECONOMICAL PORK PRODUCTION Pigs on good pasture crops have returned twice the profit of those fed an excellent ration without pasture, in trials during the past five years. Barley versus Corn for Fattening Steers The report for the previous year reviewed feeding trials carried on tq determine the value of barley versus corn for dairy cows, work horses, and growing, fattening pigs. The past winter a trial was car- ried on by J. G. Fuller (Animal Husbandry) and Messrs. Morrison and Fargo to determine the relative value of these grains for fattening steers. Two lots each of ten steers were fed for 126 days. The first lot received crushed barley, corn silage, and mixed hay, with sufficient cottonseed meal to balance the ration. The other lot was fed shelled corn in place of the barley and one-half pound more cottonseed meal a head daily, inasmuch as corn is lower in protein than is barley. The steers fed barley gained 2.45 pounds a head daily, while those fed shelled corn gained only 2.03 pounds. The barley-fed steers sold on the Milwaukee market at $13.50 per hundredweight, while the sell* New Farm Facts 13 ing price of those fed corn was 15 cents less. Due to the low price for finished cattle last spring, there was a heavy loss per steer in each lot. With shelled corn at $1.40 a bushel and crushed barley at $1.44 a bushel, the average loss per head, without crediting the returns from the pigs following the steers, was $40.46 for the lot fed shelled corn and $35.84 for the lot fed crushed barley. The pork return per steer was much larger with the lot fed shelled corn, amounting to $10.67 per steer for this lot and only $2.52 per steer for those fed crushed barley. This made the net loss, after crediting returns from pork, $29.79 a head for the corn-fed steers and $33.32 for the barley- fed steers. The steers fed barley shrank 5.'5 per cent in shipment to Milwaukee, while the other lot shrank 4.7 per cent. The yield of dressed carcass was .51 per cent higher for the steers fed barley. Considering all the factors, crushed barley in this trial was worth fully as much per ton as shelled corn for beef production. Shelter for Fattening Lambs In trials which have been carried on in the central part of the corn belt, fattening lambs fed in an open shed have made larger gains and returned a greater profit than others fed in a well-ventilated bam. To find whether warmer shelter would be preferable in our colder winter climate, Mr. Morrison and P. Kleinheinz (Animal Husbandry) have carried on feeding trials during three winters. In each trial one lot of 40 lambs was fed in a well-ventilated sheep barn and another lot in an open shed, partly boarded up to provide better protection from the wind and snow. Each lot was turned out for exercise a short time daily, except in stormy weather. In two out of the three trials the lambs in the barn made slightly larger gains and each year the cost of feed for 100 pounds gain was less and the profit slightly larger than for those in the open shed. On the average, the lambs in the barn gained 0.39-5 pound a head daily and required 324 pounds concentrates, 268 pounds legume hay, and 62i3 pounds corn silage for 100 pounds gain The lambs fed in the shed gained an average of' 0.386 pound a head daily and required 2.5 per cent more concentrates, 10.8 per cent more hay, and 1.9' per cent more silage for 100 pounds gain. There was no difference in the finish or selling price of the two lots. These results show that under Wisconsin conditions there is a slight advantage in providing warmer shelter than an open shed for fattening lambs in winter unless the building is so, located that it Is unusually well protected from the prevailing winds. Protein-Rtcit Supplements for Fattening Lambs Comparisons of the value of protein-rich supplements for fattening lambs have been continued by Messrs. Morrison and Kleinheinz. Lin- 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 I I Ilium IIIIIIIIII mi CHEMIST IS CLOSE ALLY OF FARMER ^Why is this or that field lagging behind in crop production? What causes a pig to be born hairless? With what doos ani- mal life have to be supplied to insure healthy growth? The agricultural chemist has an answer for these and hun- dreds of other questions that farmers are asking every day. Chemistry touches agriculture in many of its numerous phases and has been, and will continue to be, one of the most fundamental sciences upon which the farmer must rely to be most successful. Chemistry deals with the composition of soils, the atmos- phere and the water; the values and natures of stable and commercial fertilizers; with the composition of plants and their relation to the development of animal life. It deals with insecticides and fungicides and their chemical nature; and it was through the study of poisons and insect pests that the modern treatments employed by horticulturists became available. Great faith has long beon placed on the balanced ration, but in some cases these rations were not successful. The chemists attacked the problem and before long announced that these failures were due to the lack of substances which have since been called vLtamines. Balanced rations composed entirely of the parts of the wheat or oat plant did not pro- duce good results but it was shown that alfalfa or clover hay, containing a rich store of vitamines and lime, would remedy the condition. Discoveries of this sort are making the science of agricul- ture more and more exact. Farmers have sworn vengeance on crickets or grasshoppers because they ate the twine with which the bundles of grain were tied. The chemists studied the reactions of the grass- hopper to different chemicals and soon produced a method of treating the twine that took all the relish out of that par- ticular part of this insect’s meal. To the chemist is due much credit for the past wonderful progress of agriculture, and many of the guide posts to future development must be furnished by him if we are to advance in our knowledge of things agricultural. iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiiiiiiniiitiiiiMtiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiinMiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiMtiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiMiiiiritiiiMiiiiNitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiihiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii New Farm Facts 15 seed and cottonseed meal, which are the supplements most commonly fed to fattening lambs to balance rations low in protein, have been compared in two trials, each with lots of 40 western lambs. These supplements were added to a ration of shelled corn, legume hay, and all the corn silage the lambs would eat, which made a ration relatively low in protein. As cottonseed meal is slightly richer in protein than linseed meal, a little less was needed to balance the ration. Each year there was practically no difference in the gains of the two lots, in the amount of feed required for 100 pounds gain, or in the finish of the lambs. Due to the fact that it was necessary to use slightly less cottonseed meal than linseed meal to balance the ration, the feed cost of 100 pounds gain was 13 cents less where this supple- ment was fed. These trials, therefore, show cottonseed meal to be fully equal to linseed meal for fattening lambs. Last winter gluten feed was compared with linseed meal. As gluten feed is lower in protein than linseed meal, it was necessary to use a larger proportion to balance the ration. The lambs fed gluten feed made practically as large gains as those fed linseed meal, but were not as well finished and shrank more on shipment. With linseed meal at $80 per ton and gluten fe.ed at $72.50 per ton, last winter’s prices, the profit per lamb was $.44 greater on linseed meal. Lime Required for Animal Nutrition In the reproduction of cattle, hogs, and fowls certain forages fail because they lack calcium. According to E. B. Hart (Agricultural Chemistry) premature, weak, or dead calves have been born with oat grain and oat straw. However, when salts of calcium or a calcium rich roughage was introduced, reproduction was successful. The matter of providing a satisfactory roughage of high calcium content deserves more attention than a mere provision for calcium from a mineral supply. Calves born on a ration fortified with calcium have been born alive, and of higher weight than those without the cal- cium addition, but they did not seem to possess the same vigor obtained when alfalfa or corn stover was used as roughage. An attempt to im- prove the oat plant ration with a better protein mixture, or by adding butter fat to introduce more fat-soluble vitamine did not give better results than when the only supplement to the oat plant was a calcium salt. The conclusions now drawn are that a successful ration for re- production in dry breeding cattle must carry at least 0.45 per cent of calcium oxide (lime) as the percentage of total air dried material of the ration. This figure may be larger than necessary where green ma- terials are used. Not only did the lack of calcium .show itself as injurious to reproduc- tion in cattle rations, but similar results were obtained with swine and chickens. Previous work showed in the case of brood sows that these 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 animals when restricted to a grain ration, common salt, and natural water would finally reach a condition where there would be increasing numbers of dead pigs at birth. Sows which have previously produced normal litters, when changed to a ration low in mineral supplements except common salt, have produced dead but haired litters; and again these sows have been brought back to normal reproduction by use of a calcium-rich roughage in the ration. With the introduction of from 15 to 25 per cent of alfalfa in the ration, and the use of either barley, ground oats, or yellow corn for the grain, normal living litters were produced. FIG. 5*— A NORMAL CALF FROM CORN AND TIMOTHY HAT Timothy or marsh hay grown on alkaline soils is an eflBeient calcium-rich roughage. The needs of chickens are apparently no different from those of mam- mals. Taken as chicks, or at one-quarter of a pound in weight, they failed to grow on any of the grains or grain supplements with protein concentrates, unless these concentrates were of such types as to carry abundant mineral supplies — especially calcium salts. J. G. Halpin (Poultry Husbandry) and Mr. Hart have made observa- tions upon chickens taken at one to two pounds weight. When corn grain was fed with gluten feed only and 1 per cent of common salt the chickens died early, but when corn, common salt, calcium carbonate, and casein were fed they reached weights of 3 to 4 pounds. They did best, however, when butter fat was added also. In the latter case, weights of 4% to 5 pounds were reached with normal egg production. Wheat and barley were also used but greater mortality occurred with New Farm Facts 17 wheat. Barley needs the supplement of common salt, calcium in some form, and butter fat for successful growth and egg production. The butter fat acts merely as a carrier of the fat-soluble vitamine and in growth of chickens its source will be drawn from other materials than butter fat itself. Does a Vitamine Control Use of Lime by Animals? All experiments with farm animals show the need for abundant sup- plies of calcium in a ration for successful growth and reproduction. Work done by Forbes of Ohio and Meigs of the Dairy Division of the United States Department of Agriculture indicates that milking cows fed rations apparently rich in calcium will give out more calcium than they receive. This station made similar observations on a milking cow a number of years ago, and later with a milking goat. Both animals were found to be in negative calcium balance; that is, they were giving out more calcium than they were taking in, when fed grains and straw. After a short period in which they received green materials, the condi- tion was reversed. This condition raises the question as to whether there is an accessory food factor having something to do with the as- similation of calcium within the animal body. This factor, as well as the total calcium, is too low in cereal straws and grains, but when cal- cium salts are introduced their mass may become an effective means of assisting in calcium assimilation. If this theory is correct, it would seem that green forage was better suited for milking and pregnant ani- mals. This theory further involves the assumption that green plant tissue is more abundantly supplied with a vitamine which controls cal- cium assimilation (i. e., antirachitic) than is dry material. Actual facts and definite conclusions, however, have not yet determined the re- lation of this theory to the calcium requirement of animals. Sugar Formation in Beet Influenced by Climate During the past summer W. E. Tottingham and S. Lepkovsky (Agri- cultural Chemistry) investigated the changes of nitrogen compounds in the leaves of the sugar beet during the day and night. Their results indicate that the greatest manufacture of protein in the leaves closely follows the largest production of carbohydrates. With the coming of moderately cool nights (50° F.) the increase of soluble protein in the leaves was particularly striking. While it is known that high tempera- tures are unfavorable to the development of a high sugar content, if the results are confirmed, it will offer an explanation of the favorable in- fiuence of temperate climate on the percentage of sugar in the beet. A moderately low temperature such as occurs in late summer or early fall, checks the use of the carbohydrates for protein building, and leaves them free to migrate and be stored as sugar in the sugar beet root. 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Ai^falfa and Red Clover Hay Compared Alfalfa has been accepted generally as a valuable feeding stuff but Mr. Hart and G. C. Humphrey (Animal Husbandry) have now com- pared it with red clover hay. Their results show that it is impossible to maintain nitrogen in posi- tive balance in dairy cows of high daily milk production fed a ration of cereal grain, red clover hay, and corn silage. Not only did a cow with clover hay as a roughage show a decided falling off in milk secre- tion but the nitrogen balance of her body was decidedly negative. In an attempt to discover a ration which could be grown on the farm, alfalfa hay was substituted in the feed for red clover hay. It was here shown that when the nitrogen content of the hay is the same as the nitrogen content of the other feeds used, the nitrogen balance of the cow’s body and the milk flow of comparatively high producing cows can be maintained over a period of at least 16 weeks. This “home grown ration’’ has a nutritive ratio of 1: 7.9. It pro- vided less digestible true protein than the requirements of the Armsby standard, but provided little less digestible protein than required by the modifled standards suggested by Henry and Morrison. Corn, oats, barley, or a mixture of the three gave similar results. The greater efficiency of the alfalfa ration over the clover ration is probably due to the greater protein intake made possible by the higher nitrogen content of the alfalfa ration. These results promise to be of exceptional value to farmers where alfalfa can be grown. Do Acid Soils Change Food Value of Hay? Our experiments have previously shown that some forages are so low in calcium as not to be suitable for successful nutrition. Mr. Hart has found that hays grown on marsh lands vary materially in lime content whether the soil is acid or alkaline. Blue grass grown on acid soil may have a calcium content as low as 0.3 per cent while it may be twice as much if grown on alkaline soil. Marsh hays grown on the University marsh and carrying 1 per cent of calcium oxide were found to be very efficient roughages for repro- ducing cows. Normal offspring of good weight and vigor were ob- tained in the first gestation. Timothy hay grown on this marsh gave similarly good results. The general conclusions point to the fact that such roughages when grown on alkaline soils and used in their dry state will be efficient for reproduction. If animals were called upon to milk heavily, however, these roughages would not be so efficient as dried alfalfa or dried clover hay. Reports from the acid Buena Vista marsh in Portage County regard- ing trouble with reproducing animals have led to an investigation of acid soil hays but definite results have not as yet been obtained. Analyses of samples of these acid marsh hays show, however, that they have not sufficient calcium to carry on successful reproduction. New Farm Facts 19 Influence of Feed on Reaction of Milk Contrary to advice commonly given to farmers that certain feeds cause coagulation of condensed milk, results of feeding sulphuric acid have proved this a fallacy. Cows have been given sulphuric acid in addition to their regular ration by H. H. Sommer (Agricultural Chemistry) to determine the in- fluence upon the milk reaction. On a ration of silage, corn stover, mixed clover hay, and a grain mixture the milk showed practically a neutral (neither acid nor alkaline) reaction. Strong sulphuric acid was then added to the ration in amounts up to 120 c. c. a day. While the ammonia production in the urine rose, there was absolutely no change in the milk reaction. Further work on the problem of coagulated milk, which has been SO baffling to condenseries, has been carried into a study of the influence of the lactation period by J. H. Jones (Agricultural Chemistry) i It has been thought that toward the end of the period cow’s milk would coagulate more readily by heat. Observations extended over a period 10 months gave no indication that the lactation period influences in any way the readiness of coagulation. The so-called “alcohol test,” as well as the acid test used by con- denseries for judging the acceptability of milk, appears to be unreliable. Milks which readily coagulate with heat may or may not coagulate with alcohol. Chemistry of Fat-Soluble Vitamines Additional information has been gathered this year by Mr. Steenbock showing that the fat-soluble vitamine cannot generally be extracted from plants by water, ether, or fats and ether, but that alcohol and ben- zene dissolve it. Making the vitamine into the form of soap in the cold does not destroy it. It can then be extracted readily from the “soaps” by ether and accumulated in ether with dilute alcohol. This behavior is similar to that or carotin (yellow pigment) extraction and suggests a kinship between the two. Preparations have been made in crystal form and fed to rats who were declining in weight. Immediate recovery occurred and growth followed after a short period, indicating that the actual vitamine itself was being dealt with and used. Vitamines Related to Plant and Animal Colors Reference has been made in previous reports to the work of Mr. Steenbock and his colleagues on the presence of much larger quantities of the fat-soluble vitamine in such colored plant products as yellow corn and yellow sweet potatoes in comparison with white varieties of these crops. The work has been extended this year in studying the distribution of water-soluble vitamine. Sugar beets were found to be low in content, while no great difference could be seen between red 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 and white carrots. In cabbage the same content was found in both the green and the white leaves where no chlorophyll (green coloring) had developed. Future studies are planned to determine the vitamine content of the leaves of yellow compared with white carrots to prove wTiether the failure of the yellow pigment to occur in the roots is due to entire absence of vitamine in the plant or whether it is a matter of distribu- tion failing to reach the roots. As indicated by Palmer and reaffirmed by the department of agri- cultural chemistry, pig’s liver is rich in fat-soluble vitamine but con- tains no pigment of the carotin or yellow pigment type. March and April creamery butter fats have been found to contain only 1/20 as much pigment as June butter fats, but are equal in their ability to furnish the fat-soluble vitamine. Yet another element enters into consideration through the discovery made by Mr. Steenbock that Jersey animal fat, which is intensely yellow, contains an abundance of the vitamine, while the Durham fat, which is almost pigment-free, contains none of it. Unless the pigment can exist in both colored and colorless forms the indications from( the pig’s liver and butter fat are that the color need not exist at the same time with the fat-soluble vitamine. Milk Vitamine Influenced by Green Pasture Is milk produced on green pastures different in constitution and value from that made from dry feeds? Mr. Hart, Mr. Steenbock, and N. R. Ellis (Agricultural Chemistry) have found that summer-pasture milk acts differently from dry-feed milk in preventing scurvy. The udder has no power of forming the vitamines that are now recognized as so potent in proper nutrition, but in the milk these substances are concentrated from the diet of the animal. These observations have shown that 50 parts of summer pasture milk exerted fully as much effect as 75 parts of dry feed milk in prevention of scurvy. Milk pro- duced from dry hays was, however, not wholly lacking in these essentials. Silage from corn, well matured and partly dried before put into the silo, did not increase the amount of the anti-scurvy factor in milk, nor did sugar mangels prove any different. Silage or sugar mangel milk was in a class with the dry feed milk and unlike the summer pas- ture milk in its content of the vitamine that prevents scurvy. Does Dried Milk Protect Against Scltrvy? Either the partial or the complete destruction of anti-scorbutic vita- mine occurs upon the drying of natural materials. This may be due to heat or to heat and oxygen. It has been shown by Mr. Ellis that milk powder made according to the process involving a spray in heated air has been found to have lost its anti-scorbutic property, while milk powder dried by the drum process has not completely lost the vita- New Farm Facts 21 ■liitiiiiimtiitiiiinniititiiiiiiiiMtiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiimniiiiitiiiiiiiiiiniiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiitiitiiiitiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiMiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiitiiiiiiniuiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiimiii MAKING SCIENCE SERVE THE HOME Children — ^the builders of the future — and the home, most potent force of the present, are both dependent upon women. While it is true that many women with no professional train- ing for either of these duties have succeeded, yet the ap- plication of science to the problems of the home must cause far-reaching improvements. Home economics is teaching mothers how to save the lives of babies by feeding and caring for them properly. In Wis- consin alone over half the deaths among infants are due to neglect or lack of information among mothers. Such measures as feeding the right food at the proper time and giving simple treatments for the common diseases of child- hood will result in the saving of thousands of lives. Reducing the routine work of the average home is another task of home economics. At present, American homes are 100 to 300 per cent inefficient contrasted with what they might be if modem business methods were applied. Better plan- ning of houses, re-arrangement of furniture, use of labor-saving devices and short-cuts of all kinds to reduce this waste have been demonstrated. Home economics teaches the housewife how the food re- quirements of the members of her family vary and how she may meet these needs both scientifically and cheaply. From the standpoint of marketing, home economics has analyzed quantity buying and the problems of ready-to-eat and home cooked foods. For the home dressmaker, home economics has devised prac- tical aids, ranging from hints on the better use of the sewing machine to the selection of colors and fabrics for garments. It has also analyzed textiles and devised tests to help the house- wife in choosing pure fabrics. It has studied the relative econ- omy of the ready-to-wear compared with the home-made gar- ments and offered definite suggestions as a result. In addition to analyzing the home from the practical stand- point, the artistic has been considered as well. Home eco- nomics has revived picturesque arts and crafts and has shown how to make the most modest home beautiful by the taste- ful selection of furniture and the use of home-made decora- tions. 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 mine. Oxidation (action of oxygen, as in the air) by various agents greatly increases the rate at which this vitamine is destroyed by heat. This would indicate that the vitamine is 'destroyed primarily through oxidation and that if drying processes could be conducted in the ab- sence of oxygen, chances for preservation of this vitamine would be greatly increased. Food Values as Affected by Home and Commercial Methods of Preparation Tests by Marguerite Davis (Home Economics) aimed to discover the effect of methods of applying heat and the effect of long keeping on the food qualities which protect against diseases in children. These tests show that while fresh milk, fruit and vegetables are the best pro- tection against scurvy and rickets, yet because of the greater ease of storing and transportation it is possible to retain the protective quali- ties, providing the boiling temperature is applied through a short period and the water in which the food is cooked is also used. There is a difference in results from the use of the same kind of canned vegetables put out by different manufacturers. For example, in feeding to protect guinea pigs from scurvy three brands of spinach gave excellent results, whereas the fourth brand had no protective power. The canned string beans used failed to protect the animals fed. Dried cabbage and dried carrot used as protective foods delayed the onset of scurvy, but did not prevent it. Dried string beans had no protective value. Dried apples furnished by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture gave full protection to male guinea pigs on an otherwise scurvy producing diet, but failed to protect the females through their reproduction period. Pasteurized cider delayed the on- set of scurvy but commercial grape juice did not protect the animal from scurvy. Dried milk prepared by heating for a few seconds at 240° F. — a method used by the Commission for Feeding Children in Europe — was studied. In an experiment continued through three generations on the milk diet, this preparation protected guinea pigs from scurvy. This again illustrates the importance of the method of preparation in pre- paring food in commercial processes. While the antiscorbutic vitamine (anti-scurvy) is known to be de- stroyed in most of the processes used in commercial and home cookery, it is not so well known that the vitamine (antineuretic) , which aids in keeping the nervous system normal, passes into the water in which foods are cooked. The experimental diet upon which pigeons develop polyneuritis within 40 to 80 days was modified by the addition of baked potato, boiled potato and raw onion respectively, with the result that baked potato was more effective than boiled potato; raw potato more effective than raw onion, but canned string beans were valueless as a source of the vitamine. New Farm Facts 23 The general conclusions are that fresh food and quickly cooked foods are best; that raw foods as fruits and green salad plants should be prominent in the diet; that in canning or preserving the processes used should be those which do not demand excessive temperatures for a long time, but that even with this precaution raw fruits or raw juices should also appear in the diet of children. Animals vary as to their susceptibility to the deficiencies in the diet. The experimental rats were able to reproduce on a ration of grain and skimmed milk, showing feebleness and poor blood condition (anemia) only in the third generation; whereas, on the same diet puppies (one month old at the beginning of the experiment) developed a condition that resembled infantile rickets. This study is being continued with the prospect of gaining added knowledge as to the cause and possible prevention of rickets. At present it emphasizes the need for the feed- ing of whole milk to young children and also the necessity of feeding a higher ration than will just protect the child from inal-nutrition. Leg Weakness in Chickens due to Lack of Roughage Raising chickens in confinement or out of season has always been impossible due to leg weakness. The symptoms are an unsteady gait, developing into difiiculty of movement, with a tendency to remain squatted a good deal of the time; a ruffled condition of the feathers; an anemic color of the wattles and comb; and a swelling of leg joints which is sometimes permanent. Poultrymen have explained leg weak- ness as due to lack of exercise, over-feeding, or absence of green feed, and their remedy has been to “feed light,” provide a suitable scratch, and if possible, feed some green feed. Farmers who start their incu- bators early and before weather conditions are favorable for placing the chicks out of doors experience the trouble. Messrs. Halpin and Hart after several seasons’ work on this subject have concluded that the source of trouble lies in the lack of suitable roughage in the ration. Paper, charcoal, agar agar, dirt, and Fuller’s earth were used. Paper in the concentration of 10 per cent of the ration was the most effective roughage used;, agar agar was much less effective; and Fuller’s earth was almost worse than nothing. That the disease is not scurvy is shown by the use of green rough- age, green clover, and orange juice. None of these materials in the absence of suitable roughage prevented the progress of the malady. Provision for green feed and plenty of exercise will not prevent leg weakness if the bird at the same time is overfed a concentrated ration. With paper as 10 per cent of the ration, with charcoal or dirt 10 to 20 per cent, success was obtained in rearing baby chicks of 40 to 1000 grams weight upon a diet of casein, dextrin, butter fat, salts, and yeast. Without roughage, leg weakness always developed. Plowing of the poultry yard in the spring so that the fowls may be on upturned dirt is no doubt beneficial because the chickens eat a considerable amount of dirt. It would appear that roughage is as 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiuiiiiiiuiiuiiiiiiuiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiinmiimiiimmmiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiitiiiMiiiiii I mill SCIENCE TURNS SIDE LINE TO PROFITABLE IN- COME SOURCE Althougli poultry raising on ths average farm has often been considered merely a side line — a concession to the house- wife’s need for emergency meat or fresh eggs for cooking, or a source of “pin money,’’ poultry and eggs rank high in value among the leading farm products of Wisconsin. Fortunately, Wisconsin farmers are recognizing more fully the importance of this by-product of the farm. They know now that waste material — otherwise a total loss — is used by the flocks to aid in producing eggs and meat which will bring good prices. They know that additional grain, used for poultry feeding, is “sold’’ to the flocks at first cost. They know that not only is the “upkeep’’ of the poultry business inexpensive but that the “original cost’’ of getting started in it is correspondingly low — a small piece of land, a poultry house, and a flock. The poultry husbandman has demonstrated that the profit- able flock should not be housed in filthy quarters, given poor food and water, and forced to fight mites and lice. He has proven to the satisfaction of their owners that one-third of the average flocks may be culled and sent to market without affecting the egg production. He has demonstrated the im- portance of breeding from good males. He has shown that lime in the form of oyster or clam shells is needed by the hen if she is to lay eggs; that proper food must be supplied her in winter if she is to accumulate enough energy to produce eggs; and that sunshine, warm quarters, and pure water are necessary for a good farm flock. Poultry husbandry is still a young, but proven art. iiiiitiiiiiiiininitiiiiiiiniiiiiiiuiiiiniiiiMiiiiiiniitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiniiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiMniiniiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMniiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiMiii New Farm Facts 25 essential a factor in successful rearing of poultry as protein, carbo- hydrates, fats or any vitamine. The fiber of plant tissue seems to have some real value and apparently the liberal use of wheat bran in chick feeds finds justification. Oyster Shells for Egg Production The results obtained last year by Mr. Halpin on the lime carriers for egg production showed that oyster shells led, with clam shells a FIG. 6.— EFFECT OF WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINE Chick on right received 2 per cent of yeast; on left 15 per cent. A rat grows normally upon the water-soluble vitamine content of yeast when it constitutes 2 per cent of the ration, but a baby chick requires six to seven times that quantity. close second. Studies made this year have dealt with the fineness of material. Pulverized oyster shells which would pass through a 40 mesh sieve have lowered the egg production. This result is not due neces- sarily to the greater retention in the tract of the crushed oyster shells over the powdered, because cracked bone gives a considerably lower egg production than oyster shells yet it is just as coarse. No reason can be given at present to show why oyster or clam shells are better than other forms of lime. Prevention of Roup and Chicken Pox Several flocks of poultry, were treated during the winter of 1919 and 1920 with roup and chicken pox vaccine by B. A. Beach (Veter 26 ' Wisconsin Bulletin 323 inary Science) and Mr. Halpin. In a flock of 2,000 single-comb, white leghorns, roup and chicken pox broke out early in December and 500 birds had died before December 27. A vaccine was made and used on approximately 1,300 birds between that date and January 15. In order to determine the efficiency of the vaccine one pen was left un- vaccinated. Only two or three birds in the flock died subsequent to the vaccination, but in the pen which was not immunized the death rate continued the same. The chickens in this pen were then vac- cinated and deaths ceased in about a week. On January 25 the trouble had been stopped and only a few rare cases occurred afterwards. EIG. 7.— chickens MAKE RAPID GROWTH ON MILK At the end of eight weeks Lot 1— water fed— averaged 5.6 ounces; Lot 2— fresh buttermilk— 12.4 ounces; Lot 3— fresh skimmilk— 13.9 ounces; and Lot 4 — fresh whole milk— weighed 18.9 ounces; showing the advantage of the skimmilk ami whole milk in a ration for baby chicks. Work on two smaller flocks did not appear so successful, but the fault may be due to the method of preparing the vaccine. While the outbreak of roup and chicken pox during last year was exceptionally heavy it is expected that there will be much less of the disease in 1920-21. High Production in the Poultry Flock Beginning six years ago with only two hens whose yearly egg laying records were more than 200, Mr. Halpin has shown what may be ac- complished in building up a high producing flock. K, 227, a single comb White Leghorn, has just completed a record of 284 eggs in one year breaking all previous records in this state. She is one of a flock of 100 hens 40 of which have laid more than 200 eggs in a year. No artificial heat, stimulants, electric lights or other forcers were used ; and the poultry house is one of construction similar to that found on many farms. New Farm Facts 27 The feed consisted of a scratch ration composed of two parts cracked corn, one part whole barley, and one part whole wheat, fed “light” in the morning and “heavy” in the evening. A mash mixed from 100 pounds corn meal, 100 pounds bran, 100 pounds middlings, 100 pounds gluten, 100 pounds beef scraps, and 2 pounds of salt was placed before the hens at all times. Generally two pounds of grain were fed for every pound of mash. Hoppers also contained oyster shells, char- coal, and limestone grit. During cold weather the mash was mixed wet with 5 pounds of fresh meat for 100 hens three times a week, usually with water but occasionally with buttermilk to introduce variety into the ration. Green feeds, such as mangels and cabbage were in- troduced into the ration alter- nately to give more variety, but at no time was any particular attention given No. 277 either in care or special feeding. Milk-Feeding Baby Chicks Milk is generally recognized as a valuable feed for young chicks, and sour milk or butter- milk have usually been consid- ered better feed than sweet milk. Results obtained by Mr. Halpin during the past year show no advantage in souring the milk nor were any evil effects observed when the chicks drank first sweet and then sour milk. Four lots of chicks fed the same grain and mash ration in- creased in weight during the first two weeks as follows: meat scrap, 74 per cent; dried buttermilk, 78 per cent; fresh buttermilk, 86 per cent; sweet, whole milk, 107 per cent. The greatest mortality occurred among the chicks fed meat scrap and dried buttermilk. Other trials warrant the conclusions that while the greatest gain comes from the use of whole milk, skimmilk ranks next and buttermilk is apparently the least desirable. The increase in weight costs less with skimmilk and buttermilk than with skimmilk, but if the advisability of purchasing a milk substitute is being considered, better results are obtained from feeding whole milk during the first two or three weeks, changing later to the sub- stitute. FIG. 8.-NOT GOOD LOOKING BUT A BANNER EGG PRODUCER "I’lie premier record hen of the University flock, that laid 284 eggs in one year. 28 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 NEW SCIENCE SAVES BREEDER MANY LOSSES Genetics, the science which deals with breeding and repro- duction of plants and animals, is being pressed into greater service. It is one of the aims of the geneticist to tell the breeder how he can conduct his breeding operations more efficiently, how more directly to produce desired results, and how to avoid bad effects. One of the most important things is for the breeder to be able to know what results are caused by heredity and what are due to the conditions under which the plant or animal has been raised, such as feeding, care, and exercise. It is extremely important that the breeder know the effects of " inbreeding. For it is well known that practically every improved bread of animals has been established by close in- breeding, yet it is equally certain that this procedure is com- monly followed by bad results. As a consequence most breed- ers avoid it as much as possible. What is the meaning of this contradictory evidence? Why is inbreeding highly suc- cessful in some instances and equally disastrous in others? Genetics may soon supply breeding directions. It should be borne in mind that genetics is a young science, scarcely twenty years old, and consequently has not yet reached the point where it can offer so many examples of practical application as can, for example, tho science of chem- istry. It is, however, gradually changing profoundly our whole conception of heredity, and it is upon heredity that all improvement by breeding is ultimately based. nil Studies on Sex Control Sex control has always interested geneticists and breeders. Riddle has recently maintained that by forcing over-production of eggs in pigeons, the proportion of sexes of the offspring may be changed. L. J. Cole (Genetics) fails to find in our data on pigeons any confirma- tion of this view. M. A. Jull (Genetics) has, however, incubated all the eggs laid by a number of hens throughout the entire season and finds that there is a somewhat definite rise in the proportion of females to males as the season progresses. New Farm Facts 29 J. L. Lush (Genetics), starting on the assumption that the sperma- tozoa are of two kinds in sex-determining influences, and that the process is perhaps mechanical, is attempting to centrifuge the sperm and see if it is possible to secure two groups. While some modifica- tion of the normal sex ratio has been obtained, it does not yet corre- spond to what would be expected from the theory. Study of Twins in Live Stock To determine the probable rate of twin production with increasing age. Miss S. V. Jones (Genetics) with the assistance of students has compiled records of American Aberdeen Angus and Hereford herdbooks. The* number of twins produced increases rapidly in dams up to 6 to 8 years of age, remaining about constant after that period. With sheep the number of multiple births increases up to 6 years, after which there is a decline. Mr. Cole has collected a large number of records on double calves (monsters). A study of color markings shows a great similarity on the duplicated parts, even more than in the case of twin calves. Free martins (imperfect female twin born with a male) and their bull twins show no more similarity than normal twins, showing they are not from a single egg. Breeding for Soybean Oil Hoping to secure a drying oil that might be used for paint purposes, the genetics department in cooperation with the agricultural chemistry department, has been studying for seven years the possibility of in- creasing the quality of oil from soy beans. Each year the plants yield- ing the highest and lowest quality have been selected and used for further propagation. The drying quality of the oil is measured by the average iodine num- ber. The chemical analysis of the selections of the seventh year showed a high line strain with an iodine index of 132, while the low line strain was 124. A difference of 8 is significant and shows the effect of selec- tion. Where these plants are carefully examined, the low line strain was found to be entirely of a dwarf type, while the high line has con- sistently produced both tall and dwarf types. This seems to show a definite relation between plant height and quality of oil. The taller plants inherit this quality and are not tall because of better nutrition. There does not appear to be any evidence that the quality of oil in the tall type has been increased by selection. The breeding process so far has isolated a high producing strain as well as a low-producing strain. 30 AYisconsin Bulletin 323 Impro\t;mext of Sweet Corn The canning industry in Wisconsin is an important asset to the state. The position of first importance which has already been reached with peas may be duplicated with other canning crops if sufficient attention is given to improving the quality of the product. In 1919, thirty-two factories reported to the agronomy department their acreage, yield and output of sweet corn for canning purposes. That year Wisconsin ranked eighth among the states in sweet corn acreage; third in yield per acre, with an average yield of 2.6 tons snapped corn to the acre. The total tonnage of nearly 20,000 tons — packed 635,000 cases — makes Wisconsin rank seventh in the amount canned. Starting with the varieties which are now in use among the various canning companies, the genetics and agronomy departments are en- deavoring to improve the seed strains. More than 200 crosses have been made between commercial varieties. Self-pollination has also been used to study the effect of inbreeding. Comparative variety tests were made in cooperation with the Purdue Experiment Station and the U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry in Ohio, where a number of different strains were employed. Tho Wisconsin grown seed gave a larger yield than any other variety tested there. jiiniitiiniiMiiiiMMiiiiMtiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiniiiiMiiiiiifiiniiiiimiitmtiniitiiiiitinmtiiiMiMiiiiiiiiiiiijaiiiitiiitiiiuitiiiiifiiiiniiiiiiiniiiiiittiir.iiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiitiHiMnttitfttittiiiiiiiiiMiiiiitniiii SAVING ANIMAL LIFE Disease levies a heavy tax. To the livestock farmer ani- mal disorders are the greatest single source of loss. Thou- sands of animals, worth millions of dollars, die each year, in many cases from preventable ills. Veterinary science is often able to prevent disease before it occurs. Serums, vaccines, disinfectants, and sanitation — each plays an important part in the veterinarian’s campaign against disease. Disease may be cured. Medicine, surgery, care, and treatment do their part in saving the aflOicted ani- mal. Animal suffering is eased. The public health is constantly being safeguarded by the trained veterinarian who carefully inspects animal products which are used for human food. The food inspection service guards our table. The veterinarian is a searcher for causes, effects, and rem- edies. From his efforts, together with those of the bacter- iologist, have come, tuberculin, hog cholera serum, virus, and many other remedies which save, prevent or cure. New Farm Facts 31 New Method in Detection of Johne’s Disease This peculiarly baffling disease, which resembles bovine tuberculosis, in many respects, seems to be getting a foot-hold in the state. During the last year B. A. Beach (Veterinary Science) has continued the in- vestigation of the disease and has tested 7 herds of dairy cattle with johnin (an agent that permits of detecting the disease similarly to the way tuberculosis is detected by tuberculin). Seven per cent or 24 of the 325 animals comprising these herds reacted to this test. Post mortem examinations were made upon 15 of the reacting animals and tissues from them were studied under the microscope. Acid-fast bac- teria resembling Johne’s bacillus were found in 14 out of the 15 cases. Efforts were made to develop an easier method of finding the or- ganisms microscopically. The result of this work was a modification in the method previously used. A small piece of the suspected tissue is treated with full strength commercial formaldehyde for one hour, then placed in an incubator or drying oven until perfectly dry. The tissue is then powdered in a mortar and treated with 25 per cent antiformin solution for two hours. The antiformin is diluted by adding an equal volume of distilled water and the acid-fast organisms are searched for in the sediment. In studying the distribution of Johne’s bacilli in the infected tissues, it has been impossible to find them deeper than the submucous coat of the intestines. This is evidence that these germs gain entrance to the body from the intestinal canal and emphasizes the need for keeping the feed of cattle from becoming contaminated with excreta. Accuracy of Tuberculin Tests In addition to the ordinary method of injecting tuberculin under the skin, a number of special methods have been devised within recent years. All of these have been used with varying success, the only difficulty in their use being that occasionally a diseased animal fails to react. The veterinary science department, in cooperation with the State Veterinarian, has experimented on a single large herd of cattle in an attempt to determine the comparative value of several different meth- ods of tuberculin testing. In addition to the subcutaneous method, in which the tuberculin is introduced under the skin, the intradermal, or injection directly into the skin; and the sensitized ophthalmic, or in- troduction into the eye; the intravenous, or introduction directly into the blood veins have been used. The best restults seemed to have been ob- tained from the combined sensitized ophthalmic and intradermal tests. Particular attention was given to the intravenous test since it permits the very rapid distribution of the tuberculin throughout the body. While it proved very satisfactory in some ways, in the experimental work it was found that too large a percentage of animals which showed tuberculous lesions at the time of slaughter had failed to react. 32 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Bull Nose of Pigs Considerable attention has been given this last year by F. B. Hadley (Veterinary Science) to a study of the disease known as sore mouth or “bull nose” of pigs. This infection shows itself in several different forms, depending upon the organs affected. When confined to the mouth the disease is known as sore mouth, or necrotic stomatitis; where the nasal passages are involved, it is called “bull nose;” where the lining membrane of the stomach and bowels is affected, necrotic gastritis; and where the lungs are affected, necrotic pneumonia. FIG. 9.— SUCKLING PIG AFFECTED WITH BULL NOSE The large .swelling on the right side of the pig’s- nose interfered with breathing and finally caused death. This bacterial disease affects the nasal pasages and causes an enlargement of the tissues. It may be controlled by a mouth wash and careful sanitation. Filth-borne infection, responsible for the development of this disease, causes inflammation and an enormous increase in the connective tissue cells, which accounts for the external swellings always seen in the cases of “bull nose.” The treatment of sore mouth is performed by cutting out the necrotic tissue from the ulcers and applying tincture of iodine. The mouth of the diseased pig, and every pig in the herd as well, should be flushed with a 3 per cent solution of permanganate of potash. Owing to the possibility of transfer of infection from the udder of the sow it also should be washed with the same solution. The experience of the department is that the disease may be checked by turning all pigs out on pasture. New quarters should be provided, or the old ones cleaned thoroughly and disinfected. New Farm Facts 33 Sterility of Cows Often Preventable Sterility of dairy cattle seriously affects the profits of the herd. In a study of this problem by Mr. Hadley and O. Stader (Veterinary Science) sterility was found to be due mainly to secondary genital infections. A number of different kinds of micro-organisms were found in the cases studied. While ordinarily unimportant, the lowering of the animal’s resistance by abortion infection, encourages the growth of these bac- teria. Preparations have been made from cultures of the various or- ganisms isolated, producing what are known as “autogenous bac- terins’’, with which the affected animals have been treated. Although the number of tests made so far has not been sufficient to permit of definite conclusions, a very marked improvement has resulted in sev- eral cases after the injection of cultures. Excellent results have also been secured by irrigating the affected or- gans with a 1 per cent solution of common salt. This method, first advocated at Wisconsin, has now been adopted with good results by farmers and veterinarians generally. An Anthrax Outbreak Examination of diseased organs sent from a farm in the southern part of the state confirmed the presence of anthrax after Mr. Hadley had inoculated a guinea pig and a rabbit with blood from the tissues of the cow. Both animals died and the anthrax bacillus was demonstrated to be the cause of death. Four cows, a calf, and three pigs died on the farm where the outbreak occurred, the pigs having been fed the car- cass of the calf. Two sheep died later. Very unusual and unexpected outbreaks of anthrax occur at times and in this particular case it developed that the owner pastured this animal in a field on which two years before animals were lost from anthrax. Valuable lessons may be learned from this outbreak. A laboratory examination is essential in establishing a diagnosis and should be made early to be of most value; carcasses of animals dead from an infectious disease should never be fed as they may be the source of further in- fection; and fields once infected cannot be regarded as safe for pas- turage for years afterward. Vaccination Against Contagious Abortion Contagious abortion annually levies a heavy toll on the dairy indus- try; and the stock-grower is comparatively helpless against the at- tacks of the disease. Vaccine sufficient to immunize 850 head of cattle was prepared and distributed under the supervision of Mr. Hadley. Theoretically a vac- cine of this sort should stimulate the growth of enough protective 34 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 bodies to prevent any abortion germs, that may subsequently infect the body, from producing the disease. Reports gathered from stock breeders and dairymen throughout the state, who have used this, vaccine, indicate in a large percentage of cases that very beneficial results have followed its use, but until complete reports on all cattle vaccinated have been received, it has been thought best not to distribute any more vaccine. Efforts toward the production of a highly superior vaccine will be continued, as it is evident that contagious abortion must be fought steadily and continuously. Mistaken Medicine Mr. Hadley and E. Truog (Soils) have given valuable service in find- ing the source of material thought to have poisoned animals. A veterinarian in upper Wisconsin prescribed a dose of glaubers salts; the owner of the cows ordered the medicine from the home store, and gave the dose as instructed. The cows died and an analysis of the salt given them showed it to be saltpetre, which is an irritant poison. A diagnosis of poisoning with the “wrong medicine” was made. An, examination of the stomachs of several cows that had pastured along the railroad revealed large amounts of arsenic. Investigation showed that the weeds had been sprayed with a weed-killer a short time before the cattle fed on them. Wattle Test for Tuberculosis of Poultry The wattle test for tuberculosis in poultry has been used with rea- sonable success in eliminating tuberculosis from a flock of 500 chickens at Lone Rock by Mr. Beach. In the wattle test, 0.25 c. c. of avian tuberculin is injected with a very fine hypodermic needle just beneath the> outer skin of the wattle. If the bird is tuberculous, one or both of the wattles will swell in 12 to 48 hours from two- to twenty times the normal size. The entire flock has been tested twice each year for the past three years, and all reacting birds removed, but it has been found impossible to eradicate the disease in this way. The mortality, however, as a result of this method, has been reduced from 15 per cent to less than 1 per cent annually. “Little Plate” Method of Counting Bacteria Some simpler, easier method of determining the numbers of bacteria and of Identification has long been needed not only in the field of medicine but in the dairy industry as well. Milk supply companies and dairy inspectors are in constant need of some simple, rapid method New Farm Facts 35 ujiuniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiMiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiimiMiiiMiiiiintiniiiiiiitiiiimii BACTERIA EITHER FRIENDS OR FOES Growing green plants of economic value is the chief work of the farmer — in a sense all other phases of his work are in- cidental and not essential to the life of man. The green plants must be grown in order that the other forms of life may have food. Nature has not supplied the soil with an unending quantity of plant food which can be mined as in coaL What the plant takes from the soil must be returned to it in the form of organic matter if the fer- tility of the soil is to be maintained. From the soil to the plant the food travels and then when it is returned to the soil, multitudes of living things change the organic matter to plant food. Chief among these living minute bodies are the bacteria that are responsible for the process of decay, and for nitrogen gathering. Without the work of these strange friends no crops could be grown. But bacteria would also spoil the food that it is necessary to preserve for man and animals during the winter. To prevent such spoilage man has canning, drying, smoking, salting, and cold storage methods which exert such a great influence on present marketing and agriculture. While some bacteria spoil food, others like those in sauer kraut, silage and pickles help preserve it. Another group of bacteria are capable of growing in the bodies of living plants and ani- mals and their products injure the host — ^they cause diseases, but through vaccination the bacteriologist often prevents their attack from becoming mortal. Each day every farmer must consider the bacteria in many ways in growing a crop, in preserving and preparing foods and fodders and in fighting disease. He must reckon with bac- teria either as friends or foes. Man can live without cows, without horses, without sheep, without hogs or hens but the green plant and the bacteria he must have, if he is to continue to exist. The growing of the green plants and of bacteria are the foundation of all that we include in farming. The more that is known about the bacteria and their work, and the more widely such knowledge is disseminated, the better shall we live. The finding of facts about bacteria and the giving of those facts to the farmer is one part of the legitimate work of the Experiment Station bacteriologists. IIMIIIIimillUIIIMNIIIIIIMlI 36 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 of making a bacterial count in milk. To provide some means for do- ing this, W. D. Frost and Misses A. M. Charlton and M. F. Little (Agricultural Bacteriology) have devised the “little plate” method. This method has proved exceptionally adaptable for it makes a re- liable diagnosis in 5 rather than in 48 hours, the time required by the older way. A field outfit provided with materials for the analysis of 48 samples with incubator and all necessary equipment for making the tests makes the method one that can be particularly useful because PIG. m— “LITTLE PLATE” ilETHOD SIMPLIFIES COUNTING OF BACTERIA Although this field outfit Aveighs only 20 pounds, it contains incubator and all neces- sary material for counting the bacteria in 48 samples of milk. of its portability. A Madison dairy company has used the method for over a year to control its pasteurized milk and has found it practical and efficient. Are Legume Bacteria Killed by Freezing? The question is often asked as to whether winter freezing kills the legume bacteria in the soil or those planted with the seed in early spring, making it necessary to reinoculate. Experience has often shown that it is unnecessary to inoculate even though no legume has been grown on the land for a number of years. During March and April in 1920 sweet clover seeds were inoculated with nodule-forming bacteria by E. B. Fred (Agricultural Bacteriology) and exposed to temperatures near freezing for from 1 to 30 days. In all cases the growth of the plants which followed the trial was accom- panied with nodule formation. This evidently warrants the conclusion that legume bacteria are able to live through the winter and will with- stand “Winter temperatures, and also that bacteria planted with the seed in early spring will be able to induce nodule formation. New Farm Facts 37 jiiiiiiiiiiiiitMiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiinitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiinMiiiiiiinitiiiiiiiiitiniiiniiiniiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiitiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiitiiiitiiii SCIENCE CONTRIBUTES TO ADVANCES IN DAIRYING Milk products have come down through all the ages as the essential food of the human family, yet dairying remained a hazardous undertaking until Wisconsin inventions transfonned it into a scientific and business-like industry. Wisconsin itself is the foremost state in the Union in the production of milk products. It has more dairy cows, makes more cheese, has more cow-testing associations, and so on through an endless list of accomplishments in dairying. But this progress has all hinged on a few essential dairy tests without which milk production could not be an important in- dustry, for within Wisconsin originated the six most import- ant tests kno-^ to dairying. Agricultural scientists have helped to make Wisconsin a dairy state by their contributions to the methods of manufacturing dairy products. We might have large herds of cows even if Babcock had not given us his great test for butter fat, but we could not know which were the good ones; we might make thousands of pounds of cheese every year without the Wis- consin curd tests and the casein test, but the manufacture would be wasteful and perhaps unprofitable; we might market thousands of pounds of cheese and butter without the mois- ture and acidity tests, but it would not be standardized. Succeeding contributions to dairy practices by agricultural scientists have helped to advance and develop the business of producing, manufacturing and distributing one of nature’s greatest foods and all of its products and by-products. Ill mum mmmiimi mmmmm mmmmmmmmmmm iiiiiiiMiMiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMMiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiMiiiMiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiitiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiniiiiMmmimiimiimmiimiimiiMmiiii Pasteurized Cheese-Making Experiments J. L. Sammis (Dairy Husbandry) has continued his experiments on the production of Cheddar cheese from pasteurized milk, using a re- generative type of machine, in comparison with the “drum” type of pasteurizer. His results indicate little or no difference in flavor when the cheese was 30 days old, but the product is being held for further comparison. 1 38 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 ENGINEERING THE FARMSTEAD The American farmer is just naturally an engineer. In conquering the wilderness he has been forced to solve many engineering problems and often without instruments or tech- nical knowledge of any sort. This has helped him to develop a keen sense of proportion and a self-reliance that is one of the greatest a^ets of an engineer or farmer. Nevertheless, the farmer needs the technical engineer in tight places. American farmers produce more crops than do farmers of any other nation. An abundance of rich soil and other nat- ural resources do not alone account for it. Nor is intensive farming the answer. The real reason is that in America the “Age of Machinery” has been made to serve the farmer as well as the manufacturer. Power machinery enables the American farmer to do the work of many men without extra effort on his part; and the engineer designed the machinery. But to get the most good out of farm machinery it must be selected, used, and cared for intelligently. Here the ag- cultural engineer has been able to help the farmer by sug- gesting ways and means for getting the highest possible re- turns in efficiency from all the various kinds of machines used on the modem farm in bam, in field, and in the home. Clearing cut-over land and draining fields are other Im- portant steps in farm development. In these also the agri- cultural engineer has been useful. He found a way to re- move stumps more easily and cheaply by combining dynamite with machinery; and he devised a method to use tile for drainage instead of large, wasteful ditches. Not only this, but when it was found that cess pools often polluted the farm water supply, the engineer straightway pro- duced a septic tank to remedy the dangerous evil. And when the farmer complained that ordinary plows refused to scour in marsh soils, the engineer built him a new plow that worked. Because the farm engineer has taken a hand mral life is better, homes are brighter, crops are larger, work in the field, in the bam and in the home has been lightened, and a lot of the dmdgery of farm life has been removed. New Farm Facts 39 Are Concrete Tile Durable? Six counties have been covered by G. R. B. Elliott (Agricultural Engineering) in investigating the efficiency of concrete tile as com- pared with other types now in use. In soils free from acid, well-made concrete tile show little or no disintegration, but where the tile is laid in peat soils quite marked disintegration occurred. The action appears to be one between the soil acids and the cement so that the tile gradually dissolves and crumbles. Inasmuch as the farmers of the state are directly interested in pur- chasing tile which will render efficient service, the following specifica- tions have been prepared and accepted for use* by concrete tile manu- facturers: 1. Mixture 2Y2 to 1 or richer (by weight). 2. Controlled vapor for curing. 3. Washed sharp aggregate (ground stone and sand). 4. Dense enough to prevent the absorption from exceeding 7 per cent. 5. If the tile walls are of standard thickness, sell them only when they are to be laid in soils free from organic acids. 6. In acid soils (especially peat) make tile walls of extra thickness and density. 7. Specialize in the larger sizes. While these specifications handicap the concrete tile manufacturer where tile are laid in acid soils which require tile walls of such thick- ness that the cost can not compete with the clay tile, no handicap is placed upoil the large tile 12 or more inches in diameter. Large tile need the required thickness for support, whether the material is clay or concrete. The large tile in addition is not so susceptible to damage because of the amount of surface water low in acid content which regu- larly flows through it. Drainage Settles Peat Marshes In the practical work on draining the University marsh, valuable information has been acquired concerning the settling of the peat de- posits. Where tiling has been done, E. R. Jones (Agricultural Engi- neering) and Mr. Elliott have found that this compacting is limited in nearly all cases to the peat above the tile. Only where the water table falls below the tile was settling found in the grade line of the tile. These facts seem to indicate that the decomposition of the peat — which requires oxygen — goes on fastest in that portion of the soil which is well drained. Records also indicate that while the marsh has settled 9^ inches in six years, half of that settling occurred during the first two years of drainage. The matter of depth in laying tile must, therefore, be carefully con- sidered in marsh drainage. Allowance must also be made for a certain 40 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 amount of settling in the peat after the water has been drained and the processes of decomposition are hastened. Sharpen the Sickle to Save the Horse Draft tests were made on a used mower by Mr. Duffee with the cutter bar both in good condition and in poor condition. When the knife was dull and the bar in poor adjustment the draft was increased from 30 per cent to 35 per cent. Very, little was gained by sharpening the knife and leaving the bar in poor adjustment. This experiment shows the advantage of a sharp knife and a properly adjusted cutting bar if the mowing season is to be completed with the least possible draft on the horses. Testing War-Salvaged Explosives for Land Clearing Through the use of T N T, land clearing has been cheapened for the farmers of upper Wisconsin at an average rate of about seven cents for each pound of explosive used. Investigations begun by John Swenehart (Agricultural Engineering) in 1919 have been con- tinued. In addition to the work of cartridging the TNT, the prob- lems of cheap, efficient distribution have been solved and the way paved for more extensive use of all land clearing explosives. The study of Grade II T N T has been continued. Winter tests made under cold temperatures with dry TNT and with moist mate- rials proved that freezing temperatures have no effect on either detona- tion or strength. T T containing from 5 to 10 per cent of water when frozen showed no different detonation than when the material exploded was at ordinary temperatures. Grade III T N T was further tested to determine the field methods necessary to its use. Experiments showed that it is less sensitive than either Grade I or Grade II so that more careful priming is required if best results are to be obtained. Even with No. 8 caps the priming needs to be well done to insure success. It is better to detonate the TNT with a primed dynamite cartridge. While Grade III is more easily packed in shells and much less free running it has the disad- vantage of being more readily absorbed through the skin than either of the other grades. Tests were made with other salvaged war explosives such as grenade powder, black army blasting powder, and nitro starch. With grenade powder a small percentage of moisture was found to interfere with detonation. As the material from both the Sparta and Charleston maga- zines was found to contain too much moisture, its use for land clear- ing purposes in its present condition does not seem warranted. Black blasting powder was also found to be too insensitive and affected by moisture. New Farm Facts 41 iiMiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiMitniiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiuiiniiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiMiiiiiiiinMiiiMiMiiiiiMiiiiiiiiMiiniuiiiiiiiimiiniiitini 'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiMinituiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiii SUCCESSFUL FARMER MUST CONTROL INSECT PESTS Only when we appreciate that possibly four-fifths of the whole animal kingdom consists of insects, and realize that almost everything that man uses and needs is the natural food of one or more species of insects, do we begin to see the continual struggle for supremacy that is going on between man and insects. If insects were uncontrolled their depre- dations would soon drive the human race from existence just as in history they have driven man from certain regions by gaining the “upper hand.” What does it profit the farmer when he tills the soil well, plants the best of seed and tends the plots with the greatest of care, if the cutworms come at night and the grasshoppers by day to cut down and to eat up the crop before the har- vest? The entomologist must then assure the grower that the use of poison baits or some other measure will spare him to a large extent from further losses from the pest. As every farmer knows, many insect pests are ready to attack the seed as soon as it is sowed. Others feed on the tiny plants as soon as they sprout, and myriads of chewing and sucking insects take their food from the growing plants and often seriously injure or destroy them before they are fully matured. Other insects injure farm animals, and carry such cattle dis- eases as cattle fever, and such human ailments as typhoid fever and malaria. Likewise the distribution of bacterial and fungus diseases is caused to a large extent by insects. Millions of dollars are saved each year through safeguards recommended by the entomologist. Occasionally he is able to devote his time to the study of beneficial insects, for the honey bee, the silk worm and other insects of great benefit to man are within the scope of economic entomology. As time goes on and the plants of different continents are distributed, together with their insect enemies, throughout the world, necessity for further studies and more knowledge of insect friends and enemies increases the demand for the serv- ices of the economic entomologist. As wild plants are culti- vated and developed larger and more succulen*-, inset ts which feed on them find it easier to develop and to increase. The result is a broadened field of service for tho insect specialist. I mil I I mil 42 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Bee Culture AcgtriRiNG New Iliportaxce About 8,000 persons in Wisconsin keep bees. Through the efforts of the economic entomology department, working in cooperation with the state and local organizations, more interest has been aroused in the matter of apiculture within the last two or three years than ever before. The most serious drawback to the development of this industry is the widespread distribution of the various brood diseases that have now gained a strong foot- hold in the state. Bee diseases on the one hand and winter losses on the other, have actually caused a decrease of from 30 per cent to 50 per cent of all colonies in the state between the years 1900 and 1918. Shortly prior to 1918 in- terest in apiculture had fallen to the lowest ebb in the state, and it was no uncommon sight to see hundreds of empty hives stand- ing where prosperous and pro- ductive apiaries had once been. Through better inspection laws and educational work this situa- tion is being slowly remedied. American foul brood is the most destructive disease; European foul brood and sac brood do not occur in a virulent form over all sections of the state, and there is apparently a direct relation of climate and nectar secretion in connection with both of these diseases. Sac brood was more widespread during last year than for several years previous. The first two of these diseases are caused by bacteria; the third by a filterable virus. Since these diseases are highly communicable, any mode of control demands the complete re- moval of all diseased material, and thorough disinfection of hives and equipment. The disease is readily spread by exposure of diseased combs or honey to robber bees. FIG. 11.— BRUSHING FOR FOUL BROOD The bees are brushed from one hive to another to provide clean quarters and fu- ture freedom from foul brood. Cause of Winter Losses With Bees The annual winter loss of bees in Wisconsin ranges from 10 to 20 per cent, some years running much higher. The main cause is poor stores New Farm Facts 43 that contain foreign substances such as gums or dextrins which can- not be digested by the bees. The honey bee can digest only certain foods, such as invert sugars, dextrose, and levulose. In order to rid itself of fecal matter, the bee must fly. If the winter stores of hone 3 »’ are of purest quality there is little indigestible material, and the bees can remain confined for six months without difficulty. If the indigest- ible material is abundant however the intestines become filled to the point where the bees suffer from so-called dysentery, fly out in the cellar, and are lost. In one man’s cellar last year, where 160 colonies were wintered, between seven and eight bushels of dead bees were removed in the spring. These losses can be prevented in large measure by making sure that the quality of stores is of high grade. Temperature is also a most important factor. Bees do not hibernate but feed and remain active during the winter months. If the tempera- ture falls below 57° F. in the hive, the bees cluster in a loose mass or shell. In the cluster there is a continuous interchange or movement of the bees from the outer to the inner part of the cluster. When the bees on the outside of the cluster get cold, they make their way to the inside and warm bees take their places. A temperature of 57° F. Is maintained on the outside of the shell by the muscular movements of the bees. If the bees are obliged to exert themselves to maintain the temperature at 57°, more honey must be used and the accumulation of feces is greatly increased. To winter bees successfully, they must be protected, either packed out-of-doors or wintered in the cellar, so that the temperature can be maintained at the proper point without excessive exertion on the part of the bees to keep the temperature even. The best results secured in our experiments indicate a temperature of 50° F. as most satisfactory. A slight variation above or below this for a brief period of time has no material effect if the bees are on a good quality of stores. The humidity in the cellar should never be greater than 72° F. Under these conditions no moisture collects in the hives, and little or no mildew forms on the combs. When it is recog- nized that bees give off about a gallon of moisture for every gallon of honey consumed, it is important that conditions should not favor con- densation of moisture. Establishing or Restocking Apiaries by Means of Package Bees The rapid extension of the bee industry in many portions of the country in the last few years has led to a great demand for package bees. The increased certainty of freedom from disease and the more rapid progress in establishing or building up an apiary through this medium have led to a rapid expansion of this Industry. Owing to a considerable number of complaints received from bee keepers, studies have been made upon the use of this method. Package bees were 44 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 shipped by parcel post or express from southern Texas, the farthest point from Madison where it was possible to secure package bees. Parcel post shipments arrived in good condition, six days in transit, and were put in hives on full sheets of foundation. Express ship- ments arrived in much poorer condition, due in the main to insufficient stores for the journey. Both shipments were fed sugar syrup until sufficient nectar could be secured from spring bloom. Twenty-four colonies averaged 51 pounds of surplus honey during the season, and some colonies produced 150 pounds. CLcomparahve sMdy of f/ie ///sfot'y 0/ f-fe Pea Afof/? /9/^-/f^^Sfv'yeen3aj:Ms. FIG. 12.— PEA MOTH HISTORY THE .SAME FOR TWO TEAiaS For two years the pea moths appeared in greatest numbers about July 18-20; they laid their eggs between July 19 and 20; the eggs hatched about July 27 and 28; and the full grown larvae had fed on the pea crop and began coming from the pods in greatest numbers between August 13 and 16. F^a Moth Iawt;stigations Damage from the pea moth to the pea crop which is one of increasing importance in Wisconsin has been more marked in the northeastern section during 1920. C. L. Fluke (Economic Entomology) has con- tinued the study upon the life history and habits of the pea moth, as well as investigation of control measures that were suggested from the studies of the previous year. This season’s work checks that of a • year ago in showing that the pea moth does not begin its activity until New Farm Facts 45 the middle of July. If it were possible to secure a variety of peas that would mature before that date, it would be the simplest way of overcoming the ravages of the moth. The first appearance of the moths in the field occurred on July 12, the first eggs hatching on July 23, with a maximum number appearing between July 27 and August 2. Larvae began to emerge from the pea pods on August 6 and continued until August 29. No plants other than the field and garden peas have been positively identified as food for the pea moth. On a species of wild vetch found along the shores of Lake Michigan, pods were found infested with a worm similar to the pea moth, but until the adult is reared from such larvae, it is impossible to ascertain absolutely whether it is the same species that affects the pea plant. The methods of control which were tried this last year were; early planting, planting of early maturing varieties, resistance and suscepti- bility of certain varieties, and crop rotation. The results last year indicated that peas planted late were infested at an increasing rate of about 1 per cent more for every day delayed in planting. With this in mind a number of farmers cooperated with Mr. Fluke this year in planting peas at designated dates. The results were not consistent, however, in that some of the plots planted the earliest were more heavily infested than those sown at a later date. Trials of the early maturing varieties are dependent so much upon the course of the seasons that little benefit can probably be derived from the selection of any early maturing variety, especially when grown for the dried product. A rotation of crops seems to offer more hope in checking the ravages of the moth than any other method yet suggested. The results of this season’s work indicate that plots planted to peas this year which were on, or quite near 1919 plots, were more highly infested than where planted on entirely new ground at a distance of several hundred feet from old fields. The prevailing direction of the wind and the location of these fields with respect to it seems to play a part in the presence of moths in the field. A plot of ground at least one acre in extent, which can be cared for by some station member, is necessary before further progress can be made. Inskc’t Pkst.s Abound in 1920 Insect pests levy a heavy annual tax on farm crops and the season of 1920 was no exception to the general rule. Grasshoppers. This insect, which causes more or less damage each year, was unusually harmful in several counties in the state in 1920. Slight damage was reported in twelve counties, but in four — Door, Florence, Shawano and Taylor — the infestation seriously threatened crop production. Mr. Fluke (Economic Entomology) reports that the 46 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 damage in Door county would easily reach $100,000. In many in- stances, farmers who were accustomed to harvest 40 loads of hay or mor.e, cut only three or four on their infested fields. After the grass- hoppers had destroyed thei pasture and hay fields, they often invaded rye, wheat, and oat fields. One field of peas was completely stripped of foliage. One great diflBculty involved in combating this pest is the fact that in Door County particularly, much land is owned by non-residents, who of course are unable to make any attempt to keep down these pests. Grasshoppers produced upon such lands eat off the crops and then move on to adjoining farm lands. The use of the poisoned bait mash is an effective means of controlling this pest, but re- quires concerted action on the part of the infested community. Army Worms. Heavy infesta- tions of the army worm were re- ported from Barron, Columbia, Dodge, Douglas, Ashland, Buf- falo, Winnebago, Green, and the southern part of Door County. Wherever poisoned bait was ap- plied for this pest, the damage was greatly lessened, but here again, as with grasshoppers, con- certed action and organization among the farmers will be neces- sary before adequate protection can be secured. Hessian Fly. After an absence of many years, the Hessian fly again made an appearance in the state. This last season it was found in Walworth and Kenosha Coun- ties, due in all probability to the rapid increase in acreage of wheat which has come about within the last few years. Pea Aphis. This insect is almost as serious a pest as the moth. It is more widespread in its activities and while it does not occur in abundance every year, occasionally it causes losses of thousands of dollars. Pea-growers in practically every section of the state experi- enced considerable damage during the past season; some fields suf- fered a loss of from 5 per cent to 50 per cent of the crop. No system of aphis control suitable for Wisconsin conditions has been found. FIG. 13.— EFFECT OF PEA APHIS UPON THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRUIT The aphis sucks the vitality from the growing pod, leaving it undersized, mal- formed and containing small peas. Com- pare with normal pod at right. (Slightly enlargedl) New Farm Facts 47 iiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiitiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiumii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiimimiimiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiimiiiiiiiiMiiiiiimiiiiiniiiiiiMiiiimi> MODERN AGRICrULTXTRE IS MUCH COMPLICATED Country life must be kept wholesome and pure and country living profitable and enjoyable if we are to “feed and clothe the hungry nations and to supply the city with fresh blood, clean bodies and clear brains that can endure the terrific strain of modem life.” We need, now as much as ever, men reared in the open country, who, as in the past, will be “the strength of the nation in time of war and its guiding and controlling spirit in time of peace.” No longer is the farmer a man apart from the outside world. Originally the sale of farm products depended upon the local demand, but today the farmer’s market is swayed by economic conditions of the entire world. Scarcity of food in Europe, and dearth of raw materials may be evident but un- less the European has the ability to purchase and pay, American products will glut an already overburdened market. It is this necessity for an understanding of world conditions which demands the application of economics to farm life. Whether marketing his product, managing his farm, hiring labor, treating with a tenant or with his banker, or promoting a community club, the country man has need of the economics of agriculture. The forming of cheese or butter factories, elevator companies, live stock marketing associations, and other farm organizations call for a working knowledge of economic principles. Failure of cooperation is often due to a lack of understanding of fundamental economic principles. Cost of Producing Milk In order to determine the cost of producing milk, how common farm practices affect the cost of production, and the relation between costs and prices, farmers in selected, typical areas have been reporting monthly observations on their feeding and labor costs to B. H. Hib- bard and S. W. Mendum (Agricultural Economics). Feed and labor are the main items in the cost of producing milk. Together they amount to more than 75 per cent of the total cost, as reported by several studies completed in other states. It is apparent, however, that only the most skillful dairymen with high producing dairy cows can get market prices for their feeds, and as modest a wage as 40 cents an hour for their labor, in producing milk at prices received during 1919-1920. This is assuming that sales of’surplus stock and the value of the manure offset the other items of cost. 48 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 One of the chief factors influencing the cost is the rate of production of the cows. Although the cost, of keeping a ten thousand pound cow is over 50 per cent mor^ than the cost of keeping a four thousand pound cow, milk from the high producer costs less than half as much a hun- dred pounds as that from the low producer. The time of year when milk is produced affects its cost and par- ticularly the price received. Many farmers failed to get as much as $2.00 a hundred for milk during the summer in the months of pasture and full flush production, though in the winter time the price was above $3.00. One dairyman producing market milk averaged $3.01 for 3.57 per cent test milk, though only in four months of the twelve was the price above $3.00, while in one month it fell to $2.37. Six farmers in Sheboygan County have complete scores for twelve consecutive months. On these six farms, 89 cows averaged 9,900 pounds each for the year; one herd averaged 7,700 pounds, while two made 12,000 pounds for each cow kept. Only one-third of the number of cows were pure bred. These six farmers fed their 89 cows the esti- mated equivalent of three hundred tons of grain, or about 73 pounds of grain for each 100 pounds of milk. Pasture was estimated at 22 per cent of the feed consumed, with a range from 3.3 per cent to 42 per cent. While the total outlay for pasture is very much less than for the amount of feed which it replaces, farmers who rely on the low cost of pasture to make ends meet in milk production get low prices for milk partly as cause and partly as effect. The amount of labor employed in producing milk on these six farms varied from 1.2 hours to 2.93 hours for each 100 pounds. At $60 a ton for grain or its equivalent, and 40 cents an hour for labor, the average cost of milk on these farms was $2.93 a hundred pounds, the range being from $2.40 to $3.27. It must be borne in mind that these six farms are far above the average in rate of production. Other things being equal, the cost of milk in- creases as the rate of production decreases and all facts point toward the advantage of high producing cows. Farm Tenancy Leads to Ownership Thus far farm tenancy in the state has been a stepping stone to own- ership, although during recent years ownership is delayed to a later period in a man’s life, according to survey of farm tenancy by Mr. Hibbard and J. D. Black (Agricultural Economics). The survey has brought out the interesting fact concerning credit that in the first pur- chase of land by the men interviewed it was found that five-sixths of the money required was furnished by relatives or by retired farmers of the neighborhood. While this relieves the strain on the local banks and other credit institutions, if the local money in a community can take care of the young farmers to such an extent without organization, far more effective re.sults could be accomplished through organization of effort. New Farm Facts 49 Are Peas Canned at a Profit? Wisconsin farmers grow more than half of the peas canned each year in the United States. Naturally they are much interested in securing the best possible returns for their crop. Facts gathered from more than a quarter of the pea canning factories of the state in 1919 by T. Macklin (Agricultural Economics) indicate that while canning is an expensive process; nevertheless, consumers are so eager for peas that good profits are made in spite of high costs. In one cooperative fac- tory which was in operation during 1919, profits show a considerable increase over the price of raw peas. The selling prices of 30,138,336 cans of No. 2 size averaged 11.53 cents, an equivalent of $2.77 a case of 24 cans. A complete analysis of the various elements of cost involved in canning this immense vol- ume of canned peas indicates that the factories paid for making each can of peas an average price of 3.04 cents for green peas, 3.22 cents for the can and boxing, 3.95 cents for all other necessary expenses, and had left out of their selling price 1.32 cents for profit. This profit represents the total before federal and state income taxes are deducted. In other words, the cost of raw peas amounted to 26.4 per cent; cans represented 22.7 per cent, boxes 5.2 per cent, all other expenses 34.2 per cent, and profit, before deduction of income taxes, 11.5 per cent, of the factory selling price of the finished product. It should be dis- tinctly understood that 11.5 per cent is not the return on capital in- vested in the factory, but it is the net profit as based on the sales price of the canned peas. How Federating Helps Cooperation Wisconsin farmers who want to cooperate may take a lesson from their own state in the organization and efficiency of operation of the Wisconsin Cheese Producers’ Federation. About 120 local cheese fac- tories contribute to the storage warehouses at Plymouth and Spring Green, and the organization handles 14,000,000 pounds of cheese an- nually at a cost of 1.4 cents for every dollar’s worth of cheese. Mr. Macklin who has completed an extensive survey of the organiza- tion as one which represents Wisconsin cheese marketing possibilities, has shown that the economy of operation of the federation ranks it well forward among the large cooperative concerns of the United States. The experience of the federation in cheese selling seems to indicate clearly that it is the first successful, large effort at cooperative market- ing in Wisconsin. It may become a nucleus for further cooperative marketing of cheese; and if Wisconsin farmers provide the business, the federation can undoubtedly maintain its rank among the first iu the country. Efforts are now under way to establish a similar relation among the Swiss cheese producers of the state. The fact that the 50 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 manufacture of this foreign cheese is so centered makes the problem of establishing cooperative relations much easier than if the business were less concentrated. FIG. 14.— DISTRIBUTION OF FACTORIES CONTRIBUTING CHEESE TO FEDERATION These factories marketed 14,000,000 pounds of cheese through the Federation in 1919. The factory output ranged from less than 5,000 poimds to more than 300,000 pounds. Farm Accounts in Demand The business of farming is rapidly moving to a stage where accurate information based on a record of observed facts is practically a neces- sity in the control of farm operations . The demands of the income tax directed the attention of farmers to the desirability of farm ac- counts. According to Mr. Mendum farmers find the widest use for farm accounting in their efforts to place and maintain the prices of New Farm Facts 51 farm products on levels which, will pay the expenses of production and fair wages for labor; to make ends meet on the farm; and to establish a basis for adequate credit The Wisconsin Farm Record Book has been prepared and distributed to farmers in 68 counties. Two small editions have been exhausted, but an improved edition is now available to farmers at 50 cents a copy. One farmer who kept his records in the manner suggested by the Department of Agricultural Economics as suitable for his purposes, submitted his records at a public hearing of the Division of Markets investigating the cost of growing potatoes. The excellent character of the accounts kept for his own information, and put to public use com- manded the respect of dealers and consumers. Live Stock Farming Needs More Labor Due to the increase in live stock farming, 40 per cent more labor was needed on the farms in 1910 than was the case in 1880. This in- crease in demand has been more rapid than the increase in supply. Only one-third of the work on Wisconsin farms is done by hired labor working out, and by far the best farm hands on modern farms are the native born sons of neighboring farmers — men who are working in anticipation of future ownership of a farm. According to H. C. Taylor (Agricultural Economics) and Mr. Black, farm wages are $10.00 a month higher in southwestern than in central and eastern Wisconsin. New methods of paying wages have been de- vised and are promising better relationships between the farmer and his laborer. While a wage scale for winter and summer work is used in some cases, this sort of pay does not compete with a uniform wage scale applied to every month in the year. Occasionally farmers offer straight bonuses of from $10i to $50 if men stay until the completion of the year’s work. Where good judgment is used, this has proved to be a satisfactory method of keeping men. While there have been many reports to the effect that labor is scarce, facts indicate that few farmers are without the labor necessary to do ordinary farming. It is no doubt true that they would hire more labor at a lower wage and that wages were high in proportion to the prices of farm produce was perhaps true in 1920. Retailing Food Supplies The producer naturally wants to know how much of the consumer's dollar is needed to meet retail expenses. A survey of the meat and grocery retailers in a typical Wisconsin city made by Mr. Macklin shows that over half of the stores are so small that their costs of doing business are high. Moreover, these small storekeepers cannot serve either producers or consumers efficiently. On an average, these retailers took from 15 to 16 cents of the con- sumer’s dollar to meet expenses and provide profits during 1919. Oper- 52 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 ating expenses required from 11.7 to 12.3 cents, leaving from 2.5 to 4.5 cents on the dollar for retailers’ salaries and profits. The bulk of these stores were unable to make profits because of their small size. To reduce the expenses of retailers and to provide a fair profit for them necessitates that meats and groceries be handled by efficient stores only. Since present inefficiency is due largely to small volume of business, the hope for less costly service lies in the consolidation of small stores. Competition between efficieijt stores only, rather tha.u among inefficient and efficient stores, would mean a system of retailing requiring a smaller share of the consumer’s dollar. Not until this is done can producers expect to get a larger share of the consumer’s dollar nor can consumers hope to buy food supplies at more nearly producer’s prices. I I , ^ BEST FARMING PRACTICES KEEP RESOURCES INTACT ' ' ^ j The soil is our greatU?', resource. It supports plant and animal life which in tuxT with food and clothing. I While the processes of soil formation ar J on, the processes of depletion, erosion, leachi^^^’ waste are at the same time lessening the value of this ^"|sset. As with nearly all of our natural resources, man ha'® wasted more than he has used. To conserve this bank accou^^’ to transmit it unimpaired to future generations is a < duty which the human race owes to posterity. In earlier y when less was known about our soils, wanton practices to rapid depletion or exhaustion. Practically every virgJ^^ area that has been opened up for settlement by man ha.® had its pioneer generation of soil-miners. Then have fol- lowed those who have appreciated that if future human life is to receive adequate support from the soil, the tiller must not only quit robbing the land but must feed the soil as he feeds his flock. To the “soils men’’ we owe much of our appreciation of: the value of legumes and inoculation in the improvement of soils; of the seriousness of wasting nature’s stores of such elements as phosphorus, potash, and nitrogen; and of the im- portance of removing, restoring or retaining water to the land. Declining crop yields warn of decreasing prosperity and impairment of capital but the soils chemist and specialist point the way back to rich soil resources. mm New Farm Facts 53 Green Manure for Soil Improvement That the growth of green manuring crops has been very beneficial to all kinds of soils, particularly the sandy types, has long been known. The question as to whether or not it is profitable to grow a legume one year in three or four to plow under, has confronted the user of green manure crops. In the recent trials made at the Marshfield Branch Station by A. R. Whitson and F. L. Musbach (Soils), the land was laid out for a four FIG. l.").-GREEN MANURE HELPS SANDY SOILS Corn yn«l saybeans allemated in rows 2 feet apart reduced the yield of silage only one-third, and increased other crop yields from 30 to 75 per cent. year rotation of corn, potatoes, oats, and clover, one field of each being grown each year. The chief difference between this rotation and any other is that the corn is planted in rows 4 feet apart with a green manuring crop grown between the rows. The corn is cut off for silage and the green manuring crop plowed under, the plow lands being laid out across the rows of corn and legumes. This method permits the complete turning under of the crop and by the use of a chain on the nlow insures a uniform distribution in the soil. No other fertilizers ave been used, and although corn has been reduced only one-third n yield all other crops have been increased. The increase in oats on a our year average was 15 bushels an acre following serradella, 18 oushels following soybeans, and 8. .3 bushels following sand vetch. The 54 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 increase in clover averaged nearly 15 per cent, and that of potatoes 5.7 bushels an acre. The influence of the green manuring crop is greater during years following seasons favorable to its growth. Such a season occurred two years ago when an unusually good growth of soybeans and serradella FIG. 16.— CORN withstands ACIDITY Corn planted in an acid solution grows quite well, while soybeans and cowpeas (right) barely manage to live. was produced. The oats of the 1920 season yielded 62 and 64.2 bushels an acre respectively from the green-manured land. A yield of 36.2 bushels was secured in a rotation of corn, oats, and clover, without the green manure crop. The good effect of green manure will generally increase when the rotation has been in progress until two or three green manuring crops have been added to the soil. This method of green manuring offers New Farm Facts 55 good possibilities for better use of land when only a limited amount of manure is available and when it is desirable to increase the water- holding capacity of the soil. Acidity Influences Inoculation and Growth Cowpeas and soybeans dropped off markedly in both growth and nodule formation, according to O. C. Bryan (Soils) and E. B. Fred (Agricultural Bacteriology), as soon as an excess of either acid or alkali appeared. Corn, on the other hand, made a reasonably satis- factory growth even under acid conditions which were sufficient to stunt and prevent the inoculation of the roots of both soybeans and cowpeas. Field experiments at the Marshfield Branch Station by F. L. Mus- bach (Soils) have not only shown benefits in increased clover stands, but in every crop included in the rotation, and lime has proved to be the most profitable investment in soil building. Sweet Clover Uses Insoluble Phosphates and Potash Sweet clover abounds in many sections of the state; and recent work by the soils department shows that it has especially strong feeding powers for the phosphorus and potassium of glauconite. This knowl- edge may prove valuable in the use of the inexhaustible supply of in- soluble potash and phosphate minerals. During the period of its growth, sweet clover can assimilate large quantities of potassium and phosphorus from insoluble sources. Whether it is grown for hay. pasture, or green manure, these elements are returned to the soil in a condition which makes them readily available to all crops. While further study is required it seems possible that sweet clover may become of direct advantage in the use of hitherto unavailable potassium and phosphate minerals. Lime Maintains Availability of Phosphates Since the use of commercial fertilizers is often necessary, definite information about the best methods of application and the relations and reactions of these fertilizers in the soil is essential. The value of having a good supply of lime in the soil to help keep the phosphates In available form has been further established by E. Truog and F. W. Parker (Soils). This is directly related to the soil acidity problem for as the amount of lime in the soil decreases, conditions permit the formation of the less available phosphates of iron. The plant then is gradually deprived of the phosphates needed for growth. Laboratory trials conducted with rape and com showed that with a lime phosphate combination the two plants produced 12 grams and 10.5 grams (air dry weights) respectively. Under acid conditions in the 56 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 soil, which permitted the formation of the insoluble phosphates, the yield was 7.0 grams and 2.0 grams, showing that in both cases the addition of lime to the soil greatly increased the availability of phos- phate to the plants. Marsh Soils Adapted to Dairying Hundreds of thousands of acres of the marshes of Wisconsin can be farmed successfully, but proper drainage is. necessary. In solving the problem, tile has proved more successful than widely separated outlet ditches. Trials made by the Soils department at the Coddington Branch Station in 1919 with soybeans returned from 2 to 3 tons of hay an acre, showing that soybeans on raw peat land are an excellent hay or forage crop. Early varieties of corn — including Nos. 7, 12, and 25 — matured and yielded about 40’ bushels an acre. Buckwheat yielded 10 bushels, and potatoes 125 bushels an acre; oats and peas made an ex- cellent growth of hay. Experience has shown that marsh lands are subject to summer frosts to such an extent that crops liable to frost injury are uncertain. Silage or hardy root crops grown with small grains, however, make it pos- sible to carry on successful dairying or other live stock farming since marsh lands are best suited to heavy forage crops. Do Cherries Need Cross-Pollination? Pollination experiments to determine whether the sour cherry in Wisconsin is self, or inter-fertile, or sterile were made in Door County orchards by R. H. Roberts (Horticulture). It was observed that Richmond and Montmorency, the two varieties studied, were very strongly self-fertile in 1920. There were comparatively few insects visiting the cherry orchards at any time and yet the orchards bore a normal crop. From 85 per cent to 90 per cent of the blossoms were so situated that pollen could fall readily upon the pistil so that appar- ently the jarring of the branches by the wind produced pollination. This and other observations seem to warrant the statement that the set of the cherries was more dependent upon other conditions than upon lack of pollinizing agents. Tests with Burbank plums, on the other hand, showed that this fruit is self-sterile, but sets from the pollen of other varieties. Interplanting is necessary for this variety and insects as pollinizing agents are needed to secure a set of fruit. Both Wealthy and McIntosh apples proved to be self-sterile, but rather highly inter-fertile. This may account for the low yields in orchards which are composed of large blocks of one or the other variety. New Farm Facts 57 HORTICULTURE HELPS IN ORCHARD, GARDEN AND HOME Fruit growing is almost as old as civilization in America. Within fifty years after Cortez conquered the Aztecs, the In- dians were cultivating peaches, a fruit brought to America by the Spaniards. Since that time horticulture has ever, been of increasing interest to the inhabitants of the New World. Horticulture in one or more of its. numerous phases attracts the home-maker whether man or woman, city dweller or country resident. The farmer, as well as the city man, now considers the im- provement of the grounds surrounding his home and is con- cerned in establishing rural parks and in preserving places of historic interest. Both, therefore, turn to the landscape gardener when perplexing problems arise concerning public or home grounds improvement. If the city fruit gardener desires information about varieties of strawberries or grapes, or how to prune his raspberries or spray his apple tree, the horticulturist is prepared to assist him. The farmer — whether growing fruit for home use or market — frequently wants advice about such things as the best location for his orchard, proper cultural practices, and fertilization or spraying. The horticulturist is ready to help him solve his problem. Moreover, nearly every farm home now has a garden; and the' value of the back yard and vacant lot gardens in cities is no longer in doubt. Here again the horticulturist, with his first-hand knowledge about the best methods for making both land and labor yield the highest returns, is of service. Nor does the horticulturist’s interest stop at the so called more practical things. The housewife particularly likes to grow flowers but is often disappointed in the results she gets because of failure to observe some cultural detail or because of plant pests. She may look to the horticulturist for help, since flowers and their culture are one of his four major in- terests. Propagation of plants, the improvement and culture of po- tatoes and tobacco, decorative planting and the growing of vegetables in-doors are other specialized phases of horticul- ture of interest to many. As the number interested in them increases, the problems also increase and keep the horticul- turist busy trying to find their solution. illlllllllllMIIIIMIIMlilMlillllMlllilllinilllllMIIIIMIIIIIItllllllllllllMlllllllllllilllltllllllMinilllllilllllllllllltlMItlltllllllMllllUillllinilMlIliHilMllllllltlllilMIIIMIMMimnilllllllMMIMIMMIIMMIIIIMIll 58 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 New Northern Grown Strain of Triumph Potatoes The southern potato industry is dependent upon the North for its seed. Due to the wide variations in conditions under which the potatoes are grown, northern-grown seed, which usually shows superior quality in the North, often fails in the South. One of the reasons for this is the presence of mosaic disease in seed stock, particularly in Triumph, the most important variety in Wisconsin grown for seed in the South. To determine some of the factors influencing freedom from disease, vigor, and productiveness in potatoes, trials have been made by J. G FIG. 17.— SET OF FRUIT MADE LARGELY BY SELF-POLLINATION 1. Blossoias bagged to prevent action of -wind or insects. The bag prevented the jarring of the branch and only a few fruits set. 2. Left open to insects and wind the set of fruits was normal. 3. Pollen bearers of blossoms removed and pollen used from the same variety for pollination gave a satisfactory set of fruit. 4. Treated as No. 3 but not pollinated, no fruits set. 5. Pollen bearers of blossoms removed, leaving the wind or insects to carry the pollen. The few fruits set indicate that the wind is not an efl3cienb carrier for cherry pollen. Mil ward (Horticulture) cooperating with the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture at the Spooner Branch Station and in the South. With Rural New Yorker, Green Mountain, Triumph, Irish Cobbler, and Early Ohio the most marked differences existed in Triumph. Dif- ferences varying from 5 per cent to 90 per cent of infection were found in the 17 strains studied. A strain obtained from J. W. Smith of Kent, Wisconsin, has shown the least infection, percentage counts in some cases running as low as 2 per cent with the maximum about 10 per cent. The value of this seed is evident when it is considered that normally good grades of Triumph seed show an infection of from 30 per cent to 40 per cent and seed showing 15 per cent infection is considered satisfactory in the North. New Farm Facts 59 While the same strain may show wide differences in growth it is worthy of note that the Smith strain has proved uniformly superior in all comparative trials both in the North and South. Yields at the Spooner Station in 1919 gave the new strain an advantage of 56 bushels an acre over the best other strain and 100 bushels over the poorest strain in spite of the fact that especially superior seed was used in all cases. About twenty growers of certified Triumph seed used the Smith strain in 1920 with success. We shall be able to supply about 50 growers for the 1921 crop. If this apparent resistance to mosaic is maintained, the strain will doubtless be universally grown over the entire state. Should it continue to remain relatively free from infec- tion, its discovery will be of great value not only to growers of Triumph seed stock in Wisconsin, but to the southern producers of early potatoes for the northern market. Salome is Promising Winter Apple The Salome, little known among state orchardists, has proved itself a good commercial, winter apple for the southern, eastern, and western bluff section of the state. The tree comes into profitable bearing rea- sonably early and has produced heavy crops at the station, with a tendency to miss the “off year.” According to the department of horti- culture, the fruit is of higher quality and keeps better than the North- western. Its color varies from low to highly colored, bright red specimens. i ' A Concrete Soil Sterilizer for Greenhouses The increased use of sterilized soils in vegetable forcing houses and in laboratories where soils or plant diseases are being studied has in- vited suggestions for new and simple large sterilizers for this purpose. A sterilizer constructed of reinforced concrete with a heavy sheet-iron door hung on barn door hangers inside the sterilizer was built in 1916 in the horticultural greenhouse and has given satisfaction for five years. The iron door is forced by the steam pressure against 1% inch cylinder packing laid in the concrete wall in such a way as to make the seams practically steam tight. The inside dimensions of the sterilizer illustrated are 34 x 67 x 72 inches. It is capable of sterilizing about one ton of soil at a time. A New Wilt Disease of Tobacco That a new wilt will not injure Wisconsin tobacco is shown through the cooperative work with the United States Department of Agriculture in tobacco investigations. The wilt is a new disease of tobacco first reported from Maryland in 60 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 1916 and since found in Ohio and Kentucky. The cause of this disease was found to be a Fusarium closely related to the Fusarium which causes potato wilt. It was found that varieties of tobacco differ mark- edly in their resistance to the disease — the Wisconsin types being about 99 per cent resistant as compared with the 32 per cent resistance for White Burley. This fact, together with the lower soil temperatures in the Wisconsin districts, indicates that it will not become a pest of any consequence to the Wisconsin tobacco grower. Brown Root Rot of Tobacco A tobacco disease causing serious losses to eastern tobacco growers has been found recently in Wisconsin. James Johnson (Horticulture), FIG. 18.— WISCONSIN TOBACCO RESISTS FUSARIUM WILT The most common Wisconsin variety Connecticut Havana (A) is 90 per cent resist- ant while the out-of-state varieties Little Dutch (B) Maryland Broadleaf (C) and White Burley (D) are often only 30 per cent resistant. who has been studying the disease, has been unable to discover the causal organism although his studies have shown that the disease is doubtless due to a parasite. The disease has been called the brown root rot of tobacco to dis- tinguish it from the “black root rot” caused by the fungus, Thielavia hasicola. The name, ‘brown root rot, is suggested by the fact that young lesions on the roots and the decayed roots are distinctly brown as contrasted with the jet black color of roots infected with black root rot. The studies made by Mr. Johnson have shown that this disease is often found in conjunction with the black root rot. As it produces similar above-ground symptoms, it is difficult to determine which dis- ease is responsible for the stunting and wilting of the plants. More * The work on the brown root rot of tobacco was done in cooperation with the office of Tobacco Investigations, United States Department of Agriculture. New Farm Facts 61 «tn mKiMiiiiUMiHi THE DOCTOR OF SICK CROPS Pla-ut diseases take their annual toll of millions of dollars — apples are scabby, potatoes are rotten, cherries shrivel on the trees, wheat and corn are blighted by rusts and smuts. Plant pathology deals with the causes and remedies of plant troubles like these, just as medical pathology deals with human ills. The plant pathologist knows why a remedy must be applied as well as how and when to do it; he fights not a single disease of a single plant but a veritable medley of troubles that continue to eat into the farmer’s income. Some plant diseases are caused by bacteria; others by fungi; many are helped in their development either by heat or cold, by damp or dry weather or a combination of conditions, similar again to human disease. Sometimes the pathologist can only tell the nature of the trouble by examination of hundreds of specimens; at other times the story is told by a single plant. Control and prevention of plant diseases is the object of plant pathology and it may be done by: preventing intro- duction of disease through federal or state quarantine acts, as with pine blister rust or potato wart; destroying the host plant of the disease, as with fire blight of apple trees; hold-^ ing the fungus in check by change in farming methods as in the root rot of com or seedling blight of wheat; protecting the susceptible tissues as the leaves and fmit by a spray, such as a bordeaux mixture applied to prevent apple scab; and developing strains of plants which will resist disease, as in the yellows-resistant cabbage. Without the plant pathologist the farmer is as helpless as the man without a doctor, for the pathologist is constantly at work through both state and national departments of agricul- ture studying the habitat and control of new diseases wher- ever they may occur. The correct solution of plant disease problems is at the very foundation of agriculture, for with the frequent introduction of new pests from foreign coun- tries and the multiplication of old ones through longer and more intensive cropping, the disease problems tend each year to become more acute. The continued success or failure with many of the staple crops depends upon the helpful coopera- tion of the trained plant pathologist. llllinilllllllllllllllllllllllMIIIMIIMMIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIllllllllllllllllllMIIMHIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIMIIimillllMllllllllllllllimmillllllMIIIIIII'llllllimiirilllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 62 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 injury is observed when soil temperatures are relatively high as compared with those at which black root rot develops most rapidly. Under field conditions it appears that high soil temperature may be such as to reduce to a minimum the influence of black root rot, which thrives at low temperatures, while the brown root rot may continue doing serious injury. Various other agricultural plants are also attacked by the disease. Members of the legume family, the potato, and the tomato are subject to attack, but are less susceptible than tobacco. This may even be affected when grown on land for the first time, due perhaps to the presence of the disease on certain susceptible plants preceding the tobacco. The heavy application of fertilizers to infected soil does not lesson crop production during seasons favorable to the development of brown root rot. No varieties resistant to the disease have been found, although there are some indications of resistant plants. Suggested methods of control at present are: Avoid infected soils; select soils not having recently produced crops susceptible to the disease; and establish a crop rota- tion in which host plants of the brown root rot are not included. Can We Prophesy Plant Disease Outbreaks? A large part of the work of the Plant Pathology department in the last few years has been a study of the relation of environment to plant disease. This has been largely a study of the influence of soil tempera- ture upon the development of various plant diseases. Where prac- ticable, however, further studies have been made to show the influences of air temperature and soil temperature, as well as soil temperature. The more exact phases of this experimental work must be conducted under glass, but the correlated field data which is being gathered from year to year shows a striking similarity between the soil temperatures and certain diseases of truck and cereal crops. These findings give confidence in the value of this type of work not only from the point of view of plant physiology and plant pathology, but also in application to farm practice. It is entirely possible, therefore, that from the diag- nosis of certain soil diseases and the relation of such diseases to soil temperature, a forecast as to whether they are likely to affect crops or not, may be made season by season. This has been strikingly shown with cabbage yellows which thrives more luxuriantly under higher soil temperature than otherwise, and in tobacco root rot, which does most damage under lower temperature conditions. A thorough knowledge of the relation between environment and dis- ease distribution may also lead to a better understanding of the rea- sons why some plant diseases occur in some localities and not in others. It may lead to the possibility of predicting whether parasites may prove serious or not if introduced into new crop producing sections. For instance, if certain threatening potato parasites happen to be in- troduced they may be a serious menace or not depending upon their New Farm Facts 63 ability to thrive under the ordinary soil temperature conditions in dif- ferent sections of the potato belt. Similarly, onion smut occurs in certain sections depending u|)on the temperature of the soil during seed germination. The practical result is that this disease is widespread in the northern states, but although frequently introduced is unable to establish itself in the southern states. Temperatube Influences Cabbage Yellows During the season of 1920 cabbage yellows was less serious than in some previous years, due to the cooler temperature. Data collected last year indicate that the yellows fungus does not develop in the cab- bage when the soil temperatures are below 61® F. or above 93° F. The best temperature for the development of the fungus was found to range from 77° F. to 84° F., which is somewhat above the optimum tempera- ture for the growth of the plant. Studies made by L. R. Jones and staff (Plant Pathology) upon the comparative resistance of Wisconsin Hollander cabbage, indicate that even the resistant strain in the early seedling stages is relatively sus- ceptible to the attacks of the fungus (Fusarium) causing the yellows. With increasing age, however, the resistant character is intensified, as was shown by comparisons of young seedlings in “cabbage sick” soil with those planted in clean soil for 30 days and then transplanted into “cabbage sick” soil. This discovery strengthens the growing convic- tion that planting the cabbage seedlings in soil known to be entirely free from this Fusarium organism is highly important. The relation of the development of yellows in cabbage seedlings to variations in soil moisture has also been studied. Where the soil tem- perature was held constant, susceptible varieties of seed were planted in “cabbage sick” soil in which a variation in the soil moisture was secured through the use of Livingston’s porous clay cups. This vari- able moisture content was held at a constant percentage. With a soil having a moisture-holding capacity of 31 per cent based on wet weight, it was found that the yellows developed most rapidly and destructively at 19 per cent of moisture but least at 23 per cent. Plants grown in sterile soil produced the best growth with 19 per cent of moisture. It thus appears that the degree of moisture most favorable to the de- velopment of the host plant itself is also the best for the growth of the disease organism. One standard winter variety, the Wisconsin Hollander, and two standard kraut varieties, the Wisconsin All Seasons and Wisconsin Brunswick, are now in commercial use. Efforts are now being made to get resistant strains for the best early kraut variety as well as a standard early market variety. It is hoped that these types may be perfected in their resistant qualities the same way that the later varieties have been improved. Such a development will meet the major needs of at least the northern Mississippi valley; and the cabbage Industry will be placed upon a sound foundation. 64 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Different Cabbage Diseases Considerable confusion yet exists in the minds of cabbage growers about the different kinds of cabbage diseases. The plant pathology de- partment has now shown the difference between these diseases, and methods of control have been tried out with most of them. So far, the larger part of the experiments have been with cahhage yellows, which is often mistaken for bZacTc rot. Black rot was widespread this last season, especially in Outagamie County. The yellows is not a rot but more of a wilt in which the leaves dry up and become yellow. They are finally shed, leaving a rosette of withered and twisted small leaves at the top of the stem. The disease is produced by the fungus, Fusarium conglutinans , and is transmitted through the soil, rarely if ever with the seed. It is a hot weather disease, developing most de- structively in midsummer, and becoming noticeable soon after the plants are set in the field. Cabbage yellows can be controlled, so far as we now know, only by the use of a resistant strain of the variety. Black rot shows as a pronounced blackening of the veins of the leaves or cabbage head and the upper part of the stem. The disease is commonly carried by means of the seed and first shows as blackened threads on the seed leaves in the seed bed. Hot weather, however, holds it in check so that the disease does not develop in midsummer, but shows its most destructive appearance in the early fall. The dis- ease is caused by the introduction of bacteria into the growing tissues from the affected seed, or less commonly from infected cabbage refuse. It is spread from plant to plant by insects and enters the edges of the leaves through the water pores. The organisms work their way down into the head of the cabbage through the veins. It is possible to control black rot by putting the seed in a corrosive sublimate solution of 1 to 1000 strength. The seed should be soaked from 20 to 30 minutes, then dried upon newspapers or cheese cloth, and planted at once. Rotation of the crop offers a further means of control. It ha.s not been possible to develop types of cabbage that show a resistance to black rot in a manner comparable to that which has been done in the case of yellows. Strains resistant to yellows show no resistance toward black rot. Another disease sometimes confused with black rot is l)lack leg. This disease shows as a corky, hard, dead condition of the base of the stem and upper portion of the root. It is seed-borne, the same as black rot. However, the fungus producing the disease may penetrate the seed coat and thus get beyond the reach of disinfectants. Where infection is on the surface, the corrosive sublimate treatment will be effective. It is highly important to have the seed bed for cabbage seedlings on soil which is not contaminated with any cabbage refuse, and to practice a thorough rotation of crops in the field, so as to minimize the possibility of transfer of infection through cabbage sick soil. New Farm Facts 65 Club root is another cabbage disease, which so far is not widely dis- tributed over the state, although it has been found particularly this year in the fields of a number of farmers near Stevens Point. In this disease the cabbage root is much malformed and consequently the grovvth of the plant itself is affected. Spraying and Clean Cultivation Control Cherry Leaf Spot Spraying and clean cultivation have proved the most successful reme- dies in the control of cherry leaf spot. Previous conclusions concern- FIG. 19-CHFRRY Al^^l’ACKED BY LEAFSPOT Compare this Avith Fig-. 20. "J'liis tree received no early clean cultivation, nor plowing under of all litter on the ground. Fruit fails to mature because there is no plant food produc*ed which supports normal ripening process. ing the disease in the Sturgeon Bay cherry district have been further verified! by G. W. Keitt (Plant Pathology). The important questions in connection with the spraying experiments were: (1) the comparative merits of bordeaux mixture and lime- sulphur for the control of the disease; (2) the most desirable dilutions of these sprays; and (3) the most desirable time and number of ap- plications. Bordeaux mixture, 3-3-50, and lime-sulphur, 1-40, controlled the dis- ease satisfactorily when applied: (1) just after the petals fell, and (2) about two weeks later. Bordeaux mixture gave a slightly better control of the disease than did lime-sulphur, hut caused much foliage 66 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 injury and defoliation in the latter part of the season. Lirae-sulphur caused no appreciable injury and gave a very good commercial con- trol. Further trials are necessary to determine whether the bordeaux injury will be sufficient to justify discontinuing it and substituting lime- sulphur. No essential difference could be determined in the application of the bordeaux mixture in the two different strengths mentioned above, so far as disease control and foliage injury were concerned. In addition to spraying, Mr. Keitt has found that very beneficial re- sults ensue from clean cultural practices before blooming time. Or- riG. 20.— GOOD SANITATION CHECKED LEAPSfPOT By early spring cultivation all infected dead leaves were completelj buried, thus greatly reducing infection. Tliis sanitary measure aids in checking the disease, but will not take the place of spraying. Both trees were photographed in July. chards in which all refuse and litter were well plowed under showed decidedly less leaf spot than those in which old leaves and trash were left on the ground. Control of Apple Scab Much progress has been made during this past season in the life his- tory and infection studies with the organism causing apple scab. These have been carried on by Mr. Keitt under controlled conditions in the green house, which promises to be the most satisfactory method of attack on various problems relating to disease resistance and con- New Farm Facts 67 trol measures. These experiments show that the leaves vary greatly in their susceptibility to the attack of the fungus at different stages in their development: the younger leaves being more subject to in- fection. Even the upper and lower surfaces of the individual leaves may differ strikingly in this regard, the lower surface of older leaves being relatively more susceptible. Furthermore, changes of environ- ment induce marked changes in infection and the development of the disease. The foliage of different varieties shows also a difference La response to the attacks of the fungus. The success of this last season’s work in studying this problem under the controlled conditions in the greenhouse in comparison with the observations made under field con- ditions, indicates the great desirability of extending materially the more accurately controlled experimental work. It is then possible to try out the results of such experimental work in the field and to de- termine whether the natural conditions can be explained in the light of the experimental results. Spraying experiments were continued along the same lines as last year. In general, lime sulphur has continued to give satisfactory results while bordeaux mixture continues to show heavy russeting of varieties that are most susceptible to this type of injury. Home-Grown Bean Seed Best Ten factories in Wisconsin can green or string beans. Although it is a sideline with some, to fill in the time between pea and corn seasons, with others it is a main canning crop. The factories generally grow a small fraction of their bean acreage on farms controlled by them and contract with the neighboring farmers for the major part. The farmer cares for the crop and is furnished seed at cost price, but the picking is done by children of grade schools who are carried back and forth from the fields by the factory trucks. A large amount of hand work is associated with bean canning at present, not only in the field but in the factory process as well. The result has been to curtail the rapid growth of the industry. A disease outbreak in Shawano County noted by Mr. Holden (Agron- omy) was analyzed by F. R. Jones and W. B. Tisdale (Plant Pathology) as bacterial blight. Corrosive sublimate has been used in treating the seed with a fair degree of success by the Louisiana station. Until more information can be collected and its value demonstrated, it seems that the most practicable solution for the bean canners of Wisconsin lies in growing their own seed for planting. This will prevent bringing diseases into the state from the infected areas of the bean-growing regions. Bacterial Spot of Lima Bean In the summer of 1917, lima beans growing in the vicinity of Racine were found by W. B. Tisdale (Plant Pathology) to be infected with a 68 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 disease that hitherto had not been described. Later, the same disease was found upon a similar plant at Madison. The disease continued to spread to the upper leaves throughout the season, and by the latter part of August the plants were so badly affected that many of the blossoms and young pods were shed. The older pods showed reddish colored lesions which extended through the hull of the bean, attacking the seed coat. During the summers of 1919 and 1920, the disease has reappeared. A study of the factors causing it indicate that it is due to a bac- terial organism. This can be taken from the diseased spots, and will produce the disease both under greenhouse and field conditions. Bacteeial Black Leg of Potato The bacterial disease of potato known as black leg originally de- scribed by Dr. Appel of Germany, has been found in several plants in the vicinity of Racine. Various fields of Early Ohio potatoes, which were planted with seed from three different shipments from the Red River valley in Minnesota, have shown infection. Mr. J. Monteith (Plant Pathology) found in the case of one field, as high as 26 per cent of the plants showing black leg. In tracing back the seed to the point of original purchase, it was found that a carload of this seed had been distributed among growers in the vicinity of Racine. Infection ranging from 2 per cent to 26 per cent was observed on all of the fields planted from this carload. In the case of the highest percentage of infection, the growers said they noticed little or no evidence of diseased tubers at the time of cutting the seed. The growers whose fields had the smallest amount of infection fully discarded all tubers that had shown signs of decay or discoloration when the seed was cut. It is highly probable that this relatively new disease may be spread through infected seed. The disease can doubtless be most readily controlled by giving careful attention to the history of potato seed stock, discarding seed showing rot, and by applying the usual formaldehyde or corrosive sublimate treatments for the disinfection of the seed. Variation in Disease Resistance of Onions to Onion Smudge The varying susceptibility of different strains of onions to the smudge disease of that crop w’as noted several years ago by J. C. Walker (Plant Pathology). He found that red and yellow onions are highly resistant while white varieties are very susceptible to the dis- ease. The importance of this observation in relation to the disease resistance in plants has led to further studies. Extracts from colored onions are found to* be very toxic to the spores of the parasite while those from white onions are not. Moreover, the absence of pigment in certain parts of the scales from the colored strains usually renders that portion susceptible. It appears, therefore, that the resistance of New Farm Facts 69 the plant to the infection from the smudge fungus is closely bound up with the coloring matter in the bulbs. Efforts are now being made to isolate the compound which is re- sponsible for this resistance. Dry Heat Treatment for Control of Cereal Seed Borne Diseases The effect of dry heat upon seed germination, disease control, and yield of wheat and barley has been tested by J. G. Dickson (Plant Pathology). Barley is found to withstand heating for longer periods FIG. 21.— SEEI>LING BLIGHT DOES NOT DEVELOP IN A COOL SOIL A good stand of wheat was obtained from scab infected seed when the soil was cool. The yields of all the plots planted before April 22 showed the wheat scab parasite incapable of producing the seedling blight in a cool soil, while in warmer soil the fungus throve luxuriantly (See Fig. 22). without injury to germination or reduction of vigor. Wheat germinates after long periods of heating, but yields are greatly reduced. It was found that a three-hour treatment of 100° C. controlled wheat scab, and seedling blight, and greatly reduced the smuts of these crops, some of them being fully controlled. This period of exposure is, however, to 3 short to kill the hibernating fungus of the organism of barley stripe (Helminthosporium) within the seed. Soaking the seed in formaldehyde followed by the dry heat treat- ment, promises good results in controlling the stripe disease. One Fungus Causes Three Diseases The fungus which causes the wheat scab disease has been found to cause a blight of wheat seedlings and a root rot of corn as well, by 70 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Mr. Dickson (cooperating with Office of Cereal Investigations, United States Department of Agriculture). The fact that two crops which so frequently follow one another in a rotation are affected by the same disease organism makes this a much more dangerous proposition than otherwise. This disease, already well established in the corn belt re- gion, has made its appearance in Wisconsin. The scab generally oc- curs on the heads of wheat, but also affects rye, oats, barley, and sev- eral common weed grasses. The diseased portions, varying from a single spikelet to the entire head, turn yellow and shrivel much sooner than the remainder of the head. The kernels in the diseased portion FIG. 22.— SEEDLING BLIGHT DEVELOPS IN A WARM SOIL Wheat planted late, April 22 or later, was killed by the wheat scab fungus. Clean seed produces a good stand (left) where diseased seed is a total failure (right). of the head are badly shriveled and are easily recognized by the light grey color. The fungus remains in the kernel and when planted with the healthy seed the next season grows into the young seedling and the adjacent seedlings from healthy kernels to produce the seedling blight. Often the seedlings are killed before they reach the surface of the ground. The only symptoms then are poor germination and a light stand. Other diseased seedlings grow for a short time but finally turn yellow and wilt as the parasite rots them off just below the sur- face of the soil. The organism grows through the remainder of the summer on the crop refuse on the surface of the field. It is evident later in the fall on old straw and stubble, corn' stalks, and grass by the large number of small, black, round winter spore cases on the surface of the mate- New Farm Facts 71 rial. The following season, the spores within these winter cases (asco- spores) grow and produce masses of summer spores (conidia) which cause the scab on the wheat heads. Of still greater significance to the farmer is the fact that this same parasite causes a seedling blight of corn similar to that of wheat and in addition a serious root rot of corn. This parasite is only ‘one of several that may cause the root, stalk, and ear rots of corn. The fungus lives from one season to the next in the corn seed or in decayed vegetable matter in the soil and attacks the germinating corn, killing PIG. 23.— CORN ROOT ROT CAUSED' BY WHEAT SCAB ORGANISM Normally a parasite does not pass readily from one kind of plant to another. This disease, however, causes a root rot in corn, and scab and seedling blight in wheat. It weakens or destroys growth in wheat and in com the affected plants are easily uprooted and the ears break at the shank. the seedlings either before they reach the surface of the soil, or during the early development of the seedlings. The symptoms of this root and stalk rot vary from dwarfed, barren stalks to production of nubbins, or broken, rotted stalks with immature, light ears. The stalks break over at the shank and are uprooted by a light wind and the ears break at the shank and hang down. When wheat is planted after corn, or when wheat follows wheat — as is done throughout most of the corn belt — the fungus grows on the wheat straw and stubble on the surface of the soil and attacks the corn crop causing a seedling blight and root and stalk rot. The winter spores are formed on the corn stalks left on the field; these are carried to the wheat crop the next season. The methods of farming are such that an epidemic of wheat scab is inevitable if the weather is favorable. 72 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Control measures to prevent loss. Control measures for such a series of diseases are not simple. The first thing to do, however, is to clean FIG. 24.— WHEAT SCAB BLIGHTS THE: HEAD AND SHEIVELS THE KERNELS Scab infections vary from a single spikelet to the entire head (extreme left). The infected spikelets bleach out and shrivel as soon as dry weather sets in. The scab organism often appears as a pink, sticky mass on the outside of the glumes. The kernels are shriveled, almost white and of very light weight. all stubble and crop material, for the fungus does not develop on these materials below the soil surface. As it is almost impossible to plow up the fields, it is best to cut the corn and remove it. Then plow New Farm Facts 73 under all of this material, follow corn with oats or other crop than wheat, and finally, plant a legume crop every few years. The ordinary seed treatments for wheat do not entirely destroy the parasite in the diseased seed because it is well inside the kernel. Therefore, select clean seed wheat where possible. All seed should be cleaned with a fanning mill and given the formaldehyde treatment. Field plantings have shown that planting wheat when the soil is cool, as early as possible in the spring, and the last safe date in the fall, helps in controlling the seedling blight. Early planting also as- sures a crop maturing before the rust and scab ravage the crop late in the summer. On the other hand, experiments have shown that dis- eased corn or healthy corn planted in a diseased soil of low tempera- ture is killed by the parasite, whereas the same corn in a warm soil develops a fair crop. This seems to indicate that corn should not be planted until the last safe date, or until the soil is warmed. Aphis and Beetle Carry Cucumber Mosaic Further studies on the mosaic disease affecting cucumbers havel been carried out cooperatively by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the Pickle Packers’ Association, and the university. S. P. Doolittle (Plant Pathology) has demonstrated that in addition to the wild cu- cumber previously reported, the wild milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), is also a host for this disease. In a field under observation near Madi- son, cucumber mosaic was first found near milkweed which had the mosaic disease. This disease is transferred from one plant to another by the aphis as well as by the striped beetle. Other wild hosts also may be located which will have a decided economic bearing on the natural distribution of this disease in cucumber fields. A New Noxious Alien Weed Several years ago a new weed of the mustard family appeared on the University Farm. Its leaf characters closely resembled yellow marsh cress (Radicula palustris), which is an annual not difficult to control. Therefore, little attention was paid to the visitant. The weed first appeared In a field of alfalfa; and it is probable that it was intro- duced through imported alfalfa seed. Its dangerous activities were noted in 1917 by A. L. Stone (Agronomy), after it had established itself in a field of alfalfa which was growing luxuriantly. In spite of the fact that alfalfa enables even as troublesome a weed as Canada thistle to be readily controlled, the new weed was so aggressive that it estab- lished itself thoroughly in several patches. In one of these it had multiplied so rapidly that almost an acre of ground was infested 74 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 iiiiiiiiiitniiiiiiii-iMiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiniiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiini 4iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiii;iiMiiiiiiiuiiiuiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniimiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii SEARCH FAR AND NEAR TO LENGTHEN FARM CROP LIST When one recalls that our long list of valuable plants orig- inated from wild life, the improvement that has been made seems nothing short of miraculous. Man has remolded nature so completely that in many cases the links between the first forms and the present types can be scarcely traced. Occasionally, men have worked wonders by making this or that combination, the successes remaining while the failures have been lost. Gradually outstanding points of excellence have been noted and with this foundation still further improvement has been effected. In the field of farm crops the agronomist has un- locked a few of the secrets of nature and applied them in pro- ducing better grain, com, and hay. The American Indian grew com for food, but if he could see the thousands of acres of Golden Glow com which orig- inated from the work’ of one man, he would hardly recognize in the well-filled ears, any resemblance to his own dwarfed stalk and nubbins. Agriculture today is producing better barley, oats, wheat, rye, and com than ever before; an industry has been built around a fiber -crop brought into the state by agronomy; alfalfa is being bred to resist the ravages of winterkilling; Sudan grass and soybeans are overcoming the handicaps of sandy soils; and practically every crop in Wisconsin’s long list is being standardized and improved. The agronomist, then, has been a faithful servant, of agri- culture. For the benefit of his feUow-farmers he has brought alfalfa, the wonder forage plant, from Asia; he has intro- duced Sudan grass from Africa to serve in a definite place in America’s crop rotation; he has brought in soybeans from China to build our soils and to improve our rations; he has adapted the hemp plant of China and Italy to our conditions; he has found in far away Turkey a wheat which because of its hardiness would thrive in our climate; in fact he has visited practically every comer of the earth for the sake of gar- nering plants of economic value to the farmers of this and other states. His contribution to modem agriculture has been generous. iiiuiiMiiiiiniinnniiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiitirtiiiiiiiniiiMiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiHMiitiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiimHtiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiuimiiiiiituiiii iiiiiriiiiiiPiriniMiiff New Farm Facts 75 Cultivation of the field assisted in the further spread of the pest, and during that season four acres were infested to a greater or less extent. In the spring of 1918 this four-acre tract was planted to corn in check rows; and clean and persistent cultivation was given as long as pos- sible. By the first of October of that year, however, a heavy mat of • leaves covered the ground on the most thickly infested portion of the field. The weather made it impossible to remove the corn in time for fall plowing of the field, but it was plowed as early as possible in the spring of 1919 and cultivatd with a tractor cultivator as much as the FIG. 28.— AN UNDESIRABLE EUROPEAN IMMIGRANT The Australian field cress with fieshy, running root system and close-set rosettes of leaves, is a new, exceedingly noxious weed pest. Inset in the foreground shows characteristic growth of cress. Covering the weed with straw was only partly effective in destroying it. weather permitted. It was plowed the first week in July, and again the latter part of September. It was continuously cultivated up to the first week of October. Apparently no signs of growth were to be noted late in that fall, but early in the spring a number of plants ap- peared in various portions of the field. These were carefully dug out by hand, and the field was plowed and harrowed throughout the entire summer. In spite of careful and persistent work, an occasional plant still appears, particularly in the vicinity of stones where the plow fails to reach every root. In the spring of 1919, small patches in the alfalfa plots were covered to the depth of three feet or more with straw in an attempt to smother the plants. This proved useless for the pest soon grew through the covering. Other patches covered to the depth of six 76 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 feet or more held the weed more thoroughly in check. Covering the isolated areas with different grades of heavy paper was the more effi- cient treatment, however. One area was covered with building tar paper at a cost of $1.66 per square rod, and proved very satisfactory, although occasional breaks in this paper permitted plants to grow through. Another area was covered with heavy tar paper at a cost of $2.16 per square rod, and this also was very satisfactory, completely destroying the plants. A third area was covered with red rosin build- ing paper, which is a medium heavy paper not tarred. This cost $.83 per square rod, but disintegrated too rapidly and the plants came through in many places. FIG. 26.— KILLING AUSTRIAN FIELD CRESS Building paper not readily torn is useful in shutting out light and thus smothering this troublesome weed. Even the heavy growth of alfalfa had no effect in checking this pest. It has taken two years of intensive work to completely eradicate this weed, so that its persistent, noxious qualities may be regarded as materially greater than those of quack grass or Canada thistles. The roots of the plant resemble somewhat those of horseradish, but do not have the pungent quality. If undisturbed, the roots grow to a length of 5 feet or more. Any small portion of the root will start a young plant if conditions are favorable. When the roots are turned to the earth’s surface by cultivation, leaves grow freely. In the second year, stems arise from the points where the rosettes of leaves were borne the first year. They branch freely and are very leafy. Roots develop on stems covered by plowing or other cultivation. The leaves at the base are obovate in outline, often deeply cut or divided. They are coarsely toothed, while the stem leaves are more finely toothed. The color is bright green above and light green be- New Farm Facts 77 neath. The flowers are small and yellow, borne on slender pedecels, from which spherical pods appear, but no seeds develop. While this pest has been found only at Madison, care must be taken to prevent its gaining a foothold in the state. Does Alfalfa Impeove ^vith Age? The acreage of alfalfa in this state has increased from 38,000 to 97,000 acres during the last two years. The winter of 1918 was ex- riG. 27.— AGE MAKES A LARGER PLANT AND A DEEPER AND MORE WIDE- SPREAD ROOT DEVELOPMENT IN ALEALPA Showing roots and plant of 3-year old alfalfa (1) which yielded 5.7 tons of hay an acre, while the i-year old alfalfa (2) yielded only 4.2 tons. cessively hard on our alfalfa acreage, reducing it from 72,000 the year before to ,38,000 acres that year. The last two winters on account of their mildness have not resulted in the destruction of much of the crop. In view of the enormous practical importance of a full knowl- edge of the conditions under which this most excellent forage crop can be grown in this state, L. F. Graber (Agronomy) has given special attention to the introduction of the hardy varieties. In our experimental plots on the Hill Farm the records for the period 1915-1920 show in the six years a total yield of Grimm variety from 20.S to 22.5 tons an acre, while three plots of Montana Common seed ranged from 13.1 tons to 18.7 tons per acre. Further results by E. J. Delwiche (Agronomy) at Ashland bear out these statements. This plant requires an unusual period of development in order to 78 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 become thoroughly established. Under our Wisconsin conditions the first season’s yields of alfalfa are practically always smaller than at any subsequent time. With the more thorough establishment of the root system and the feeding power of the plants more widely devel- oped, larger amounts of forage are secured. Alfalfa can, however, re- cover partially from winter injury, which results in frost injury to the crowns and roots, causing a partial decay of those tissues and weaken- ing of the feeding power. VEAJmR Mild Sivf/i£ Mild Year 20,000 AO, 000 60,000 80,000 100,000 Mild 1920 97,000 PIG. 28.— HOW WINTERKILLING APEEiCTS OUR ALPALPA ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION Alfalfa is better adapted to long rotation periods than to short ones, unless winter- killing interferes. Comparisons this last year between a three-year old plot and a one- year old plot showed in a two-cutting crop 5.7 tons in the older plot compared with 4.2 tons in the one-year-old plot. At time of blossoming the older alfalfa for both cuttings was fully 9 inches taller. The root system was much larger, deeper, and more widely developed. It is apparent under these conditions that alfalfa is more ideally adapted for long rather than short rotation periods, unless hard winters counteract the influence by destroying large numbers of the plants. Results secured by Mr. Delwiche at the Spooner Station on sandy loam show that the crop can be grown on such soils successfully, and while outyielding clover in dry seasons, when the rainfall is sufficient the yields are practically the same. In the winter killing test plots, 100 strains planted in 1916 have not shown a sign of winter killing. These were grown from the seed of plants which grew on a very sandy hill near Ellis Junction where they had stood for 8 years without killing. New Farm Facts 79 Detecting Non-Genuine Grimm Alfalfa The great importance of securing dependable sources of hardy seed has led Mr. Graber to test out, in 1280 trial demonstration plots, over 600 samples of seed which have been collected from various sources since 1917. These tests include common Native Western Alfalfa, Lis- comb, Peruvian, Grimm, Baltic, Cossack, Turkestan, and Imported Italian varieties. About 360 plots were sown in 1920, and at the present time these demonstration trial plots are in progress in eight different localities in the southern part of the state. Studies upon FIG. 29.— FALL DORMANCY SHOWS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HARDY AND NON-HARDY ALFALFA The genuine Grimm alfalfa (center) had not made sufiBcient growth by Octobe?- 25 to cover the dead stubble, bitt the non-genuine (right and left) was 2 inches higher so that flts green growth entirely covered the dead stubble. these different varieties have resulted in the discovery of a method of distinguishing genuine from non-genuine Grimm, Baltic, and Cossack varieties the first season the alfalfa is grown. This method is based upon the action of the various strains of alfalfa after the lasf cutting period in the fall. Genuine hardy varieties show a fall dormancy of growth which is strikingly different from the appearance of Montana or Kansas strains of common alfalfa. The hardy varieties undergo a period of fall dormancy which sets in at a comparatively early date, whereas the common varieties continue to grow in tlie fall of the year, especially if there is a reasonable amount of rainfall. It Is thus pos- sible during the first season of growth to differentiate between the hardy and non-hardy varieties, and in this way determine the genuine- ness of seed which has previously been purchased. 80 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Close Clipping Best on Alfalfa Seedings Where alfalfa has been planted without a nurse crop it may become necessary to clip the field in order to check weed growth; otherwise the young, not-yet-established alfalfa plant is crowded out. Close clipping has always been regarded as dangerous on the grounds that it “cuts the lungs out of the new born alfalfa.” Special studies made upon this problem for the last two years at Oconomowoc have shown that close cutting gives better results in con- trolling weed growth, without seriously injuring the alfalfa, than FIG. 30.— WISCONSIN CAN GROW SUDAN GRASS FOR SEED While the quality Is good, growers do better to buy their seed. where 5 inches was left in order not to destroy so much of the alfalfa growth. Where close cutting was practiced practically all weed, growth was held in check. With the customary amount of moisture, a new, healthy, vigorous alfalfa growth came on, while in those plots where the alfalfa was clipped long, foxtail grew rapidly and headed out so that the field had to be cut again in August to save the alfalfa. Sudan Grass and Soybeans for Emergency Hay Winter killing of alfalfa has heretofore given considerable difficulty. To a large extent this can be overcome by introducing hardier varieties, but until these are widely spread throughout the state, farmers are likely to suffer shortage in hay crops through the winter killing of alfalfa and occasionally of clover. The importance, therefore, of an emergency forage (hay) crop to replace this loss is considerable. G. B. Mortimer (Agronomy) has been working for five years to deter- New Farm Facts 81 mine the adaptability of Sudan grass for this purpose and its use on sandy soil, where it is more difficult to secure good stands of alfalfa and clover on account of drouth killing, and where the fertility of the soil is somewhat reduced. The experiments this year indicate that an average of about 20 pounds of seed of Sudan grass gives the best results, yielding 3.2 tons per acre. With this seeding on the more fertile types of soil the grass tillers abundantly. The experience for the last five years indicates an average hay yield of 2.5 to 3 tons per acre for this period. This is quite in excess of either common or German millet yields grown under similar conditions on our station farm. Last year, for the first time, an attempt was made to produce a better hay by growing Sudan grass in combination with soybeans. These re- sults were so encouraging that the work has been repeated this year with almost the same results. Although the drouth interfered to some extent this season by cutting down the growth of the crop, the combination mentioned merits much praise for' emergency purposes. Sudan grass did well with all varieties of beans used when drilled at the rate of 10 lbs. of Sudan and 60 lbs. of soybeans. Yields of cured hay obtained with Wisconsin varieties of soybeans ran from 2.8 tons to 3.25 tons an acre. On sandier soils where soybeans do well, there is a larger percentage of the hay in beans. A comparison of peas and oats for hay shows in the experiments of the last two years that better results were secured from Sudan grass alone and also Sudan with soybeans than from peas and oats. Where peas were used with a medium late oat, 2.72 tonS) of cured hay were grown as against 2.13 tons with an early variety of oat. For peas and oats, an early seeding is required to secure the best crop. Where planting is delayed until relatively late in the season, better results apparently will be secured with either Sudan or a mixture of Sudan and soybeans than with peas and oats. Better Small Grains for the State Comparisons between the standard pedigree varieties which have been developed at this station and various other strains of small grains are continually In progress by B. D. Leith (Agronomy). Some of these are tests of varieties offered for sale by the seed men; others are new selections made by crossing old strains. The general plan is to test a variety for five consecutive years in small test plots run In duplicate in comparison with a standard pedigreed variety before it is sent out for further testing among the members of the Wisconsin Experiment Association. Winter Wheat. The season was very favorable for the growth of winter wheat. The yield was high and the quality good. Two intro- ductions from the Ashland Branch Station tested here at Madison in 1920 yielded 53.9 and 50.7 bushels an acre respectively, while the 82 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 standard Turkey Red, Wis. Pedigree No. 2, yielded 46.7 bushels. In five years, however, Wisconsin Pedigree No. 2 has given an average yield of 33.9 bushels an acre, which establishes it as a high yielding strain. Further consideration, however, will be given the two new introductions. -Spring Wheat. Spring wheats rusted badly this year. The three highest yielding varieties were crosses with durum and a durum strain. The durum, however, softened much this season and was of poor qual- ity. The two severe rust epidemics which have occurred here within MG. 31.— WINTER WHEAT SUPERIOR IN YIELD In the last 5 ^ears winter wheat has averaged 33.9 bushels an acre while spring wheat has yielded an average of only 18.2 bushels. the last five years have almost destroyed the spring wheat, but did no appreciable damage to the winter wheat. Five-year 'average yields showed that the spring vrheat yield was about one-half that of winter wheat for the same period, confirming the conclusion in last year’s report that winter wheat is preferable in this state. Winter Rye. This year Rosen rye oiityielded Wisconsin Pedigree No. 2 by 4.3 bushels an acre in test plots, Rosen produced 53.5 bushels weighing 54.5 lbs. a bushel, while Pedigree No. 2 produced 49.2 bushels weighing 58.8 lbs. a bushel, but in a comparative acre test No. 2 outyielded Rosen rye by 2.6 bushels an acre. In the three-year test so far carried out, Pedigree No. 2 has yielded an average of 44.5 bushels an acre while Rosen yielded 34.9 bushels. A three-year test made bet^veen winter and spring rye shows spring New Farm Pacts 83 rye to be regularly lower in yield than pedigreed winter rye, ranging from 11.8 to 26.1 bushels an acre less, and on the three-year average practically only one-half of the crop produced by winter rye. Oats. More varieties of oats than any other kind of grain seem to be placed upon the market. Many of these are duplicated under dif- ferent names, a fact that can only be brought out by comparative crop production tests in which the habits of growth are closely wmtched for comparisons. FIG. 32.— AVERAGE PLulNTS OP DIPPEREiNT VARIETIES OF SOYBEAJsS 1. Medium Green from Scott Co. 7. Haberlandt 2. Medium Green from University farm 8. Ohio 9035 3. Manchu 9. Black Beauty 4. Mongol 10. Mammoth Yellow 5. Southern Hollybrook 11. Ito San t). A. K. from Illinois Station 12. Wilson Barley. The number of varieties of barley tested is not as large, because the pedigreed barleys have now become so thoroughly estab- lished. A new Manchurian barley introduced from Canada (No. 90) is comparing well with the Wisconsin pedigrees. The two-rowed bar- leys, Gold of the chevalier type, and the Swan neck, fall below the Wisconsin pedigree grains, both in yield and weight per bushel. Far- ther testing of the two-rowed barleys will be discontinued, as our present experience shows conclusively that neither of the types can compete with the pedigree barleys. SoYMKAXS Foil SiLAGK, HaY, OR FOKAOE The varieties of soybeans heretofore recommended for seed have been the Early Black, Ito San, Manchu, and Black Eyebrow, because they have proven to be the surest yielders. Tests at the University Farm by G. M. Briggs (Agronomy) show that there are other varieties that 84 Wisconsin' Bulletin 323 can be matured here, but they do not possess merits over the varieties previously raised. For southern Wisconsin the Elton could possibly be selected and would be a good yielder, but it has no superior qualities over the other varieties. Early Green ripened very well this year, and due to its manner of growing makes a highly desirable variety — one which does not shatter more than other varieties and makes a spendid upright growth. For hay or silage, the early seed varieties grow much larger and make greater yields in the northern part of the state than on the light soils in southern Wisconsin. Mongol in this year's tests was more preferable in this state than the Mammoth variety. It podded well, grew upright, and held its leaves well, while the Mammoth was weak vined in many cases and did not reach the podding stage. The ques- tion of seed supply at the present time is a limiting factor in the recommendation of this variety. Planting soybeans in com for hogging and sheeping off is rapidly growing in popularity — Ito San, Manchu, and Black Eyebrow are all particularly good varieties for this purpose. Trials conducted, planting the soybeans in com, have thus far failed to show any increase in yield over that when com is planted alone, due perhaps to the interference' with cultivation, thereby permitting the growth of weeds. StrvFLOWEBS Used fob Silage Sunflowers were unsatisfactory at the University Farm in 1919. In the middle of August the field was stricken with an epidemic of sunflower rust (Puccinia helianthi), which caused a rapid and almost total destruction of the leaves. The silage which was made out of this material was poor in quality and unpalatable. This year observations upon sunflower culture were continued by E. D. Holden (Agronomy), several varieties being utilized for this purpose. The seed was planted with a com planter, using the same plates which were used for corn. In spite of the relatively dry weather this season, considerable rust was found, especially on the Giant Russian variety. The mst appeared much worse upon the thickly planted plots. Considerable aphis injury was also observed in the various plots. The sunflowers were cut with a corn binder and ensiled on August 29 the crop yielding 8% tons per acre for the Argentine variety and 20 and 25% tons for the Giant Russian. Inspection was also made of a number of fields in Lincoln and Lang- lade Counties. These northern fields showed the effect of drouth, which had retarded the growth and cut down the yields greatly, but corn in the same region suffered even worse. Where com and sunflowers were grown in the same field, the sunflower crop was larger and heavier. The effect of frost upon sunflowers and corn was noted in the field of August Goeman at Antigo, where a frost in the early part of Sep- tember had killed the corn. The stalks were white, dry, and brittle. New Farm Facts 85 while the sunflowers were one-third taller than the corn, of normal green color, and showed no effects of frost. Where sunflowers are grown for silage, it is obvious that they should be cut earlier than has previously been recommended in order to save the leaves, which have a tendency to dry up late in the season, and to preserve the succulence of the stems, thus avoiding a rough, unpalatable silage. Mr. Holden believes that the most favorable time for cutting is when 10 to. 30 per cent of the plants are in bloom. The time of cut- ting should be based upon the condition of the leaves and the crop left FIG. S3.— SUNFLOWERS RESIST FROST BETTER THAN CORN A field at Antigo, September 1, showing corn killed by frost, while sunfiowers were not affected. to mature as long as the leaves are fresh and green. Sunflowers are not injured by light frosts or even such as will kill corn. Hastening Maturity with Cold Resistant Corn Further experimental work has been carried on by Mr. Leith on a comparison of No. 12 Golden Glow corn and the particular strain which was developed two years ago, then referred to as “cold re- sistant.” These two types planted on the Station Farm at Madison on May 1 germinated as follows: May 19 — 69.8 per cent of Common No. 12 had emerged from the ground in comparison with the Cold Resistant as 100 per cent. May 20 — 89.8 per cent. May 21—95.2 per cent. May 22 — 98.5 per cent. 86 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Comparison was also made on earliness of maturity, counts being made on August 31, on which date it was found that 68 per cent as much common Golden Glow had matured on that date as the cold resistant. From these data it appears that a few days have been added at the beginning of the growing season, and a few subtracted from the close of the season. A considerable number of field experiments (52) were tried out in Marinette County in cooperation with Mr. Sibole, Agricultural Field Agent of the Marinette County Training School. Where planted simul- FIG. 34.— COLD-RE.SISrrAyT CORN This com, which is a heavy yielding- variety for the upper edge of the corn belt, was grown in Marinette County. taneously, in comparison with Common No. 12, Cold Resistant wa'3 several days later in maturing. Some farmers, however, who planted the Cold Resistant a week earlier than the usual planting date, had corn with many mature ears fully as far ahead as the average No. 12 or No. 8 grown in that section. In size of stalk and leaf this new type is slightly heavier than Common No. 12, and is apparently in favor with the farmers in this section as a silage corn. Neav Pea Varieties Developed From meager beginnings in the nineties Wisconsin’s pea industry has developed until this state now cans more than half the nation’s peas. As an industry built right at the door of the farmer, pea canning has New Farm Facts 87 come to assume a; position of particular importance in the agriculture of the state. Problems met with in the promotion and development of the industry have come under the supervision of the Agronomy de- partment through the work of Mr. Delwiche. About 250 new strains, the majority of which have been produced at the Ashland Branch Station are now under trial. From this number only a very few superior I strains will be selected for j further breeding and atten- ! tion, but it is from such ex- I periments that the most phe- ' nomenal results obtain in the production of new vari- eties. Two new, sweet, wrinkled canning varieties show ex- ceptional promise, the Bad- ger and the Horal. Their peculiar advantages over other peas are the small size of seed, uniform, early maturity, and rapid strong growth. A cross between the Hors- ford and the Alaska shows a resistance to disease, es- pecially root rot, a malady which has only recently come under observation. Grown beside the Horsford which was small and only partially developed, this new cross produced large vines, practically free from disease, and very well pod- FJG. 35.— NKW PKA S'i’RAIN RESISTS ROOT RO'J' Hybrid 57 (Horsford and Alaska) luxu- riantly and podded well on infected soil (left). Compare with weak, stunted errowth of Alaska .5tj (right). ded. A development of this variety promises much if the disease re- sisting characters can be retained. Ii\OCUI>ATION OF VlUOI.N SoihS Inoculation experiments with virgin land carried on at Ashland by Mr. Delwiche with the cooperation of the Marengo Canning Company showed decisively better results than where no legume cultures were used. Culture inoculated peas yielded 1333 lbs.; soil inoculated, 1125 88 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Lbs.; and uninoculated, 1016 lbs. of seed to the acre, showing an in- creased yield of 317 lbs. an acre for the culture inoculated peas. While some of the wild peas or vetches may have left legume culture in the soil, a safe insurance on new land is to use the legume cultures •with the seed peas. Peas foe Lighter Soils Tests on the Spooner Branch Station by Mr. Delwiche indicate the possibility of growing peas on the lighter types of soils. While exces- sive drouth interfered with the growth in 1920, in normal years the yield compared favorably with that on lighter types of soils. Lighter soils have the advantage of freedom from excessive moisture, thereby lessening the danger from blight and rot. Markets and Machinery Give Wisconsin Lead in Hemp Production An uncertain market has been one of the principal factors influenc- ing the growth of the hemp fiber industry. However, through the efforts of A. H. Wright (Agronomy) large quantities of short fiber were shipped to European markets, 150 tons of long fiber were dis- posed of to the Na-vy, and before June 1, the entire supply had been sold at a very encouraging price. Hemp acreage has increased in 1920 to 6500 acres, or more than 2000 acres more than that planted in 1919. This acreage places Wisconsin far in the lead in hemp growing, for the state now produces more hemp than all other states combined. With Wisconsin the only state in 1920 which has an increase in hemp acreage, we may attribute this fact to the establishment of permanent mills with specialized machinery, and to a careful extension of the market which has placed the industry upon a firm commercial basis. In many of the states hand labor is still being used, and in Kentucky where the need for labor on the tobacco crop is very great, hemp acreage has been cut accordingly. In this state, however, machinery has come into common use not only in the scutching mill but in the field work as well, until the crop requires a minimum expenditure of hand labor. Hemp Seed Difficulty Buying seed cooperatively through the Wisconsin Hemp Order of the Experiment Association has been carried out but more difficulty was experienced in obtaining good seed last year than in any other since the founding of the industry. Unscrupulous activities tending toward a monopoly of the hemp seed created a serious condition, par- ticularly as much old seed was left from previous years. While the old seed would have been perfectly satisfactory under ordinary condi- tions when the seed could have been tested, in the approach of planting New Farm Facts 89 time, one carload was bought which was not tested and hurried for- ward to the mills. No germination test was run because the seed arrived late in the season, and as a result over 300 bushels failed to grow. About half the carload was absolutely worthless. The mills at Brandon and Waupun were supplied with the same type of seed and several hundred acres were either lost or the yield reduced as a result. The same dealers supplied their own mill with seed at Roberts and report that out of 1600 acres planted they have 800 acres of good hemp. While farmers have thus far been having great success in raising the crop, the poor seed, together with a slightly unfavorable season, and economic conditions tending toward a lower price level will un- doubtedly all have their effect and we may anticipate a reduced acreage in 1921. riG. 36.— HEMP rS INDISPENSABLE IN THE NAVY A section of a 25-inch diameter hemp cable, over 700 feet long and weighing 15,000 pounds, as it is used on a “ship of the line.” Hemp May Aid Marsh Reclamation Growing hemp on marshy lands has not been encouraged because of the large amount of upland which is still available for the production of the crop, but hemp may prove very useful in the reclamation of marsh soils. From several years of hemp growing on marsh lands, Mr. Wright has found that on such lands hemp makes an exceptionally good growth. The height obtained is usually good; frosts very rarely if ever do any damage; the season in this state is ample for the production of a very good crop; and the yield of straw and total fiber is heavy. While the quality of fiber obtained from newly broken marsh soils is practically worthless for spinning, observations show that where hemp has been grown two or three years in succession on the marsh lands, decided improvement has followed. When the crop is grown on soils that have Been cultivated for a period of five to ten years with such intertilled crops as cabbage and sugar beets, a very good quality of fiber is produced. 90 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Hemp Seed Growing We are still trying to obtain through selection a strain of fiber hemp which will mature seed in this state so that hemp growers will event- ually be independent of external conditions in procuring their seed. It seems evident from the past ten years’ wmrk along this line that in order to obtain a strain that will mature here, it will be necessary to sacrifice other desirable characters to some extent. The Chinese and Japanese strains of hemp, which the the progenitors of American fiber hemp, are a great deal better from the standpoint of yield than any FIG. 37.— THE PARENTS AND THE NEW HEMP STRAIN Tlie male parent, Chinese hemp (extreme left) crossed with the female, Italian strain (left center) produced the new cross (the two plants at the right) called Ferramington, which, differing from botRits parents, matures seed under Wisconsin conditions. other kinds of hemp which we have been able to find. Such strains, however, require too long a growing season to mature seed in this climate. After testing several hundred selections Mr. Wright is now concen- trating his efforts on a strain known as the Ferramington. This variety was originated by crossing the Ferrara (an Italian strain) on the Minnesota No. 8 (originally Chinese). It matures sufficiently early to produce a very satisfactory yield of seed and attains a better height than the Italian or other early maturing kinds. It is, however, from six inches to a foot shorter than the commercial strains of Ken- tucky hemp which have been grown. It has been possible by selection to increase slightly the height and this year we have grown two large plots from which sufficient seed will be available to supply several growers for 1921. New Farm Facts 91 On account of the difficulties experienced in obtaining seed, investiga- tion of the possibilities of using seed from Japan has been made. Con- sequently, varieties of Japanese strains have been tested to determine which ones are suitable for Wisconsin conditions and to definitely locate the sections of Japan in which such strains are produced com- mercially, A number of Japanese strains are exceptionally good, hut before obtaining such seed in commercial quantities, it is necessary to determine whether it will be possible to be supplied from Japan with the kind of seed ordered. Tests of strains supplied from commission merchants and other seed dealers in Japan have shown that such sources of seed invariably produce plants that are not usable for fiber. The seed. obtained through these channels would in all probability he the so-called Mrd seed types which are grown in Chosen and Man- churia, and which are worthless for fiber-producing purposes. Efforts are, therefore, being made through official agencies in Japan to secure a sufficient amount of genuine fiber seed to start on a commercial basis. Eiber Flax Possibilities Natural conditions of soil and climate in many sections of Wisconsin are admirably suited to the cultivation of fiber flax according to trials by Mr. Wright. But while conditions for growing are very favorable, economic aspects are very much against a promotion of the industry, and attempts to establish mills have been unsuccessful. Flax growing has continued in a few sections of the United States probably as much from habit on the part of the farmers as from any encouragement financially, or from manufacturers and various public officials. It seems that originally, the low returns obtained for fiber flax from the producer’s point of view ($45 to $60 an acre) have been due to the competition with the cheap fiber of Russia. While prices are now favorable until some adjustment in the Russian situation occurs any extensive investment in the flax fiber industry in this country is ex- tremely hazardous. SoKGHUM Crop Increases An industry which was practically forgotten a few years ago has been revived and keen interest is at present being displayed in the production of sorghum syrup. The acreage in 1920 was increased 25 per cent over that in 1919. The Wisconsin Sorghum Order of the Experiment Association was formed in 1919 to improve the varieties of sorghum; to collect information relative to manufacturing sorghum syrup, and to introduce time and labor saving equipment and better methods of manufacture. Two prominent varieties which have been given special attention, Dodgeville and Mazo Amber, have shown very encouraging results. While emphasis in the selection of seed has thus far been laid upon 92 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 early maturity, purity, freedom from branching, and the like, Mr. Wright is now working on a strain which will be high in syrup pro- duction. The total solids rather than the sugar content determines the amount of syrup, and plants selected this fall showed a variation in solids content of the two varieties ranging between 17 and 22 per cent. The greatest limitation to the further development of the industry is the poor, inefficient mills which fail to extract a high percentage of the juice and in the “boiling down” process give a poor quality product. While present fluctuating prices of syrup would make it inadvisable to encourage the growth of small mills, the high powered crushers and efficient mills will be able to grow and secure profitable returns on their investments. ITG. 38.— WISCONSIN NEEDS BETTER SOROHUM MILLS While a good quality of syrup may be made in this type of mill, the more modem steam mill is much more economical and eflQcient, Germination Influenced by Stage of Maturity During adverse seasons it is often necessary to select seed corn be- fore the crop has actually reached the proper stage of maturity and extreme difficulty may be experienced in obtaining good seed. Trials conducted by H. W. Albertz (Agronomy) showed that corn gathered two weeks before the regular harvesting time; i. e., when the kernels were just beginning to dent, germinated just as well or better than that gathered at the regular harvest providing it was properly cured with artificial heat. Corn at that time contains about 50 per cent of moisture and unless proper care is taken it will fail to germinate and the seed corn will be lost. After-Ripening of Cereals Several years ago it was found that winter wheat sent out imme- diately after ripening in many cases would not give a germinating New Farm Facts 93 test of more than 20 or 30 per cent. Conseauently, the seed would lie dormant in the ground several weeks before it sprouted, evidently requiring a short period of hibernation before growth of the seed actually began. A. L. Stone (Agronomy) began an investigation of tlie difficulty and was later assisted by G. T. Harrington (U. S. Dept, of Agriculture). Artificial dry heat applications resulted in an average germination at the end of five days on wheat, oats, and barley of 95, 98, and 99 per cent, respectively, while the samples which had not been artificially dried gave germination tests of only 78, 85, and 29 per cent for the same grains. In the drying process the percentage of water was reduced from approximately 12i per cent to 6 per cent, indicating that part of the curing process is concerned with the loss of water from the seed. Removal of the distal (square) end of the seed leaving only that portion containing the embryo (germ) resulted in a shortening of the germination period remarkably. The treated wheat gave a test of 100 per cent germination (although the embryo moulded badly) in 3 days and, the untreated wheat gave a test of 56 per cent. Scratching the seed coats close to the embryo and dipping them in a bath of concentrated sulphuric acid from three to five minutes were also very successful, but as tedious as the others. Germination of the seeds at temperatures of from 48° F.,to 69° P. gave good results, while an increase in temperature was marked by a lowering of the germina- tion power of the seeds. The problem presents peculiar difficulty in the case of winter wheat and winter rye. While barley and oats require the same ripening, they are not sown until spring, at which time they have completed the process. The use of low temperatures is undoubtedly the most useful as well as the best method of securing results, but it still requires prac- tical application. 94 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Technical Articles Much of the technical scientific output of the experiment staff is first presented to the scientific public through the medium of the science periodicals and publications of scientific societies. The publication of such matter enables our workers to have their results scrutinized by their scientific colleagues. The following articles have been published during the past year, ending June 30, 1920. Bachinann, Freda M. Vitamine requirements of certain yeasts. Jour. Biol. Chem. 39 : 235-257. 1919. Beach, B. A. Necrophorus infection of swine. Proc. Wis. Vet. Med. Assn. 1920 : 61-64. Buell, Mary V. Studies in blood regeneration; 1. Effect of hemorrhage on alkaline reserve. 2. Effect of hemorrhage on nitrogen metabolism. Jour. Biol. Chem. 40 : 29-77. 1919. Clevenger, C. B. Hydrogen-ion concentration of plant juices. Soil Sci- ence S: 217-226. 1919. Davis, Marguerite. Value of feeding experiments. Jour. Home Econ. 12 : 206-208. 1920. Davis, Marguerite and collaborators. Observations on vitamine content of foods. Journ. Home Econ. 12: 209-216. 1920. Dickson,, J. G. and Bennett, J. P. The Bouidillon water still. Science 50:397-98. 1919. Fred, E. B., Peterson, W. H., and 'Davenport, Audrey. Acid fermentation of xylose. Jour. Biol. Chem. 39 : 347-384. 1919. Fred, E. B. and Graul, E. J. Effect of inoculation and lime on the yield and on the amount of nitrogen in soybeans on acid soil. Soil Science 7 : 455-467. 1919. Fred, E. B., Feterson, W. H., and Davenport, Audrey. Fermentation characteristics of certain pentose-destroying bacteria. Jour. Biol. Chem. 42 : 175-189. 1920. Gibbs, W. M. The isolation and study of nitrifying bacteria. Soil Sci- ence 8: 427-481. 1919. Haas, A. R. C. Studies on the reaction of plant juices. Soils Science 9:341-369. 1920. Haas, A. R. C. The electrometric titration of plant juices. Soils Science 9 : 4871491. 1919. Hadley, F. B. Bacterial therapy in genital infections of cattle. North Am. Vet. 1 : 62-66. 1920. Hadley, F. B. Collecting and shipping veterinary specimens for labora- tory examination. Proc. Wis. Vet. Med. Assn. 1920 : 64-76. Hart, E. B. and Humphrey, G. C. Gan “home grown rations’’ supply proteins of adequate quality and quantity for high milk production. Jour. Biol. Chem. 38: 515. 1919. Hart, E. B. and Steenbock, H. Maintenance and reproduction with grains and grain products as the sole dietary. Jour. Biol. Chem. 39: 209. 1919. Hart, E. B. and Steenbock, H. At what level do the proteins of milk become effective supplements to the protein of a cereal grain. Jour, Biol. Chem. 42 : 167. 1920. Hastings, E. G. Moldy butter and its prevention. Ann. Rpt. Wis, But- termakers’ Assn. 1920 : 99-105. Hastings, E. G. The methylene blue reduction test, A simple way of determining the number of bacteria in milk. Hoard’s Dairyman. 40 : 280. 1920. Hibbard, B. H. Marketing as a problem for farm demonstrators. Jour. Farm Econ. 2 : 194-199. 1920. * New Farm Facts 95 Ibsen, H, L. Tricolor inheritance, IV: The triple allelomorphic series in guinea-pig-s. Genetics 4: 597-606. 1919. Ibsen, H, L. Linkage in rats. Amer. Nat. 54: 61-67. 1920. Johnson, A. G., Byars, L. P,, and Leukel, R. W. The wheat nematode tylenchus tritici attacking rye, oats, spelt, and emmer. Phytopath. 9: 283-284. 1919. Johnson, A. G., and Humphrey, H. B. Take-all and flag smut — two wheat diseases new to the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bui. 1063. 1919. Johnson, A. G, and Atanasoff, D. Treatment of cereal seeds by dry heat. Jour. Agr. Research 18: 379-390. 1920. Johnson, A. G. and Mackie, W. W. Evidence of disease resistance in barley to attacks of rhyncosporium. Phytopath. 10: 54. 1920. Johnson, A. G., Dickson, J. G., and Johann, Helen. An epidemic of fusarium blight (scab) of wheat and other cereals. Phytopath. 10: 51. 1920. Johnson, A. G. and Haskell, R. J. Diseases of cereal and forage crops in the United States in 1919. Plant Disease Bui. Supp. 8. May, 1920. Jones, E. R. An Extension Project in Land Drainage. Rept. Am. Soc. Agr. Eng. 1920. Jones, L. R. and McKinney, H. H. The infection of soil temperature on the development of potato scab. Phytopath. 10: 63. 1920. Jones, L. R., Walker, J. C., and Tisdale, W. B. Fifth progress report on fusarium resistant cabbage. Phytopath, 10: 64. 1920, Jones, L. R. and Miller, Maude. Frost necrosis of tulip leaves. Phyto- path. 9:^475-476. 1919. Jones, Sarah V. H. and Rouse, J. E. The relation of age of dam to ob- served fecundity in domesticated animals, I: Multiple births in cattle and sheep. Jour. Dairy Science 3: 260-290. 1920. Keitt, G, W. A preliminary report on apple scab and its control in Wisconsin. Phytopath. 10: 58. 1920, Koehler, A. E. A new N/1 calomel electrode design. Jour. Biol. Chem. 41: 619. 1920. Koehler, A. E. Modification of the Van Slyke method for determining arginine. Jour. Biol. Chem. 42: 267. 1920. Krueger, Jean. A comparative study of home economics courses in col- leges. Jour. Home Econ. 12: 249-252. 1920, Marlatt, Abby L. Unification of subject matter in teacher training courses, vocational home economics, extension work, and research. Proc. Assn. Am. Agj. Col. and Expt. Sta. 1919: 189-201. Morrison, F. B. A comparison of feeding standards for dairy cattle. Proc. Am, Soc. Animal Production 1917 to 1919. Morrison, F. B. and Bohstedt, G. Barley and dairy by-products for swine feeding. Proc. Am. Soc. Animal Production 1917 to 1919. I’eterson, W. H. and Fred, E. B. The role of pentose fermenting bacteria in the production of corn silage. Jour. Biol, Chem. 41:181-186. 1920. T’eterson, W. H. and Fied, E. B. Fermentation of fructose by lacto- bajcillus pentoaceticuH, N. Sp. Jour, Biol. Chem. 41: 431-450. 1920. Peterson, W. H. and Fred, E. B. The fermentation of glucose galactose and mannose by lactobacillus pentoaceticus, N. Sp. Jour. Biol. Chem. 42:273-287. 1920. • Steenbock, H. and Gross, E. G. Fat soluble vitamino, H: The fat sol- uble vitamine content of roots, together with somo observations of their water soluble vitamine content. Jour. Biol. Chem. 40: 501, 1919. Steenbock. H. and Bout well. P. W. Fat soluble vitajuine, HI: The com- parative nutritive value of white and yellow maizes. Jour. Biol. Chem, 41 ; 81. 1920. 96 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 Steenbock, H. and Gross, E. G. Fat soluble vitamine, IV: The fat soluble vitamine content of green plant tissues together with some observations of their water soluble vitamine content. Jour. Biol. Chem. 41; 149. 1920. Steenbock, H. and Boutwell, P. W. Fat soluble vitamine, V: Thermo- stability of the fat soluble vitamine in plant materials. Jour. Biol. Chem. 41: 163. 1920. Steenbock, H. and Boutwell, P. W. Fat soluble vitamine: The ex- tractability of the fat soluble vitamine from carrots, alfalfa, and yellow corn by fat solvents. Jour. Biol. Chem. 42; 131. 1920. Swenehart, John. TNT a war salvaged explosive for peace-time pur- poses. Congressional Record Document 720. 1920. Tisdale, W. B. Iris leaf spot caused by Didymellina iridis. Phytopath. 10; 1^48-163. 1920. Tisdale, W. B. The relation of soil temperature and soil moisture to the occurrence of cabbage yellows. Phytopath. lO; 63. 1920. Walker, J. C. and Tisdale, W. B. Observations on seed transmission of the cabbage black rot organism. Phytopath. 10; 175-177. 1920. Walker, J. C. Onion diseases and their control. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farm- ers’ Bui. 1060. 1919. Walker, J. C. Occurrence and control of black leg of cabbage. Phyto- path. 10; 6^4. 1920. Walker, J. C. Experiments upon formaldehyde-drip control of onion smut. Phytopath. 10: 323-327. 1920. Wengel, Edith, Denton, Minna, and Pritchett, Louise. Fat absorption in frying. Jour. Home Econ. 12: 111-127. 1920. Whitson, A. R., Geib, W. J., Geib, H. V., and Thompson, Carl. Soil sur- vey of Door county. Bui. 52-D Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey. 1920. Whitson, A. R., Geib, W. J., and Dunnewald, T. J. Soil survey of Mil- waukee county. Bui. 56-A Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey. 1920. Wright, A. H. Hemp industry of America. Am. Seedsman 2; 25. 1920. Publications Thirteen new bulletins and two reprints as well as three research bulletins and one new and one reprinted, poster bulletin, were published by the ‘ Experiment Station. The Extension Service issued 12 new circulars of information and three reprints. The following is a brief digest of the bulletins printed during the year: POPULAR BULLETINS Bulletin 304. — Stem Rust of Grains and the Barberry in Wisconsin. (A. G. Johnson and James G. Dickson). An explanation of the relation of the tall or common barberry to stem rust of grains. Bulletin 305. — Wheat Growing in Wisconsin. (E. J. Delwiche and B. D. Leith). A discussion on the varieties of wheat best adapted to Wisconsin and care and management of the crop. Bulletin 306. — The Soils of Northern Wisconsin. (A. R. Whitson, T. J. Dunnewald, and Carl Thompson). One chapter is devoted to each of the ten principal soils in Wisconsin, and a short treatise is given on climate. Bulletin 307. — The Rural Community Fair. (C. J. Galpin and Emily F. Hoag). If organized and managed efficiently, a community fair is a community asset. New Farm Facts 97 Bulletin 308. — Alfalfa in Wisconsin, (R. A. Moore and L. F. Graber). A discussion on planting- and cutting of alfalfa for hay. It resists drouth, eradicates weeds, and improves the soil. Bulletin 309. — Marsh Soils (A. R. Whitson and H. W. Ullsperger). How to manage marsh soils successfully, including the subject of adaptation of crops. Bulletin 310. — The Pea Moth; How to Control it. (C. L. Fluke, Jr.). Methods of control of the pea moth, which is seriously threatening the pea industry in the Door County peninsula and adjoining parts of the state. Bulletin 311. — Sorghum for Syrup in Wisconsin. (A. H. Wright), There is an active demand for sorghum which is not satisfied. Produc- tion could well be increased to meet this demand. Bulletin 312. — Testing Soils for Acidity. (Emil Truog). Acidity in soils is the most important soil problem in the state. A description of the Truog test for soil acidity and how it is used. Bulletin 313. — The Occurrence of Red Calves in Black Breeds of Cattle. (Leon J, Cole and Sarah V. H. Jones). An explanation of in- heritance of color in cattle — a practical breeding problem. Bulletin 314. — Wisconsin Livestock Shipping Associations (B. H. Hib- bard, L. G. Foster, and D. G. Davis). Methods of organizing shipping associations in order to increase profits, together with a history of Wisconsin shipping associations. Bulletin 315. — Buttermilk Cheese and Cottage Cheese: Their Manufac- ture and Sale. (J. L. Sammis). Ways of making cottage cheese and buttermilk cheese. Bulletin 316. — Farm Labor in Wisconsin (H. C. Taylor and J, D. Black). A thorough discussion of the problem of securing and retaining labor on the farm. RESEARCH BULLETINS Research Bulletin 45. — The Common Cabbage Worm in Wisconsin (H. F. Wilson). Life history of the cabbage worm and results of experiments with remedies for its control. Research Bulletin 46. — Frost Necrosis of Potato Tubers. (L. R, Jones, M. Miller, and E. Bailey), The effect of freezing on potatoes by pro- ducing frost necrosis. This means that only a part of the tuber may be frozen and the rest will appear normal externally. Research Bulletin 47. — Farm Leasing Systems in' Wisconsin. (B. H. Hibbard and J. D. Black). A description of the various types of leases used in Wisconsin with a few facts bearing on the question of tenancy. 98 Wisconsin Bulletin 323 The Wisconsin Agricijltura.l Experiment Station, in Account With the United States Appropriation 1919-20 Dr. Cr. To receipt from treasurer of the United States, as per ap- propriation for the year ending June 30. 1920, under the acts of Congress approved March 2, 1887, and March 16, 1906 $30,000.00 $20,838.73 4,864.77 126.07 21.12 6.97 279.15 345.07 573.02 101.61 1,777.72 4.15 292.47 59.76 537.84 188.85 2.70 $30,000.00 Ry labor By publications By postage and stationery By freight and express By heat, light, water and power By chemicals and laboratory supplies By seeds, plants, and sundry suppliess By fertilizers By feeding stuffs • By library By tools, machinery and appliances By furniture and fixtures By scientific apparatus and specimens R\7 travplinor pvnp.nsps ! By buildings and land I Total 1 $30,000.00 1 EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF 'he President of the University J. A. James, Asst. Dean. [. L. 'Russell, Dean and Director K. L. Hatch, Asst. Dir. Agr. Extension Service ’. B. Morrison, Asst. Dir. Exp. Station v". A. Henry, Emeritus Agriculture . M. Babcock, Emeritus Agr. Chemistry '. A. AusT, Horticulture . A. Beach, Veterinary Science -. Bohstedt, Animal Husbandry I. J. Cole, In charge of Genetics . J. Delwiche, Agronomy (Ashland) . G. Dickson, Plant Pathology '. W. Duffee, Agr. Engineering . H. Farrington, In charge of Dairy Husbandry . B. Fred, Agr. Bacteriology D. Frost, Agr. Bacteriology G. Fuller, Animal Husbandry A J. Geib, Soils . M. Gilbert, Plant Pathology . F. Graber, Agronomy . B. Hadley, In charge of Veterinary Science G. Halpin, In charge of Poultry Husbandry . N. Harmer, Soils . B. Hart, In charge of Agr. Chemistry . G. Hastings, In charge of Agr. Bacteriology . S. Hban, Librarian . H. Hibbard, In charge of Agr. Economics . W. Hopkins, Editor, in charge of Agr. Jour- nalism . S. Hulce, Animal Husbandry . C. Humphrey, In charge of Animal Husbandry A. James, In charge of Agr. Education . G. Johnson, Plant Pathology Johnson, Horticulture . R. Jones, In charge of Agr. Engineering . R. Jones, In charge of Plant Pathology . W. Keitt, Plant Pathology . Kleinheinz, Animal Husbandry . J. Kraus, Plant Pathology * D. Leith, Agronomy W. Lindstrom, Genetics . Macklin, Agr. Economics 3BY L. Marlatt, In charge of Home Economics G. Milward, Horticulture G. Moore, In charge of Horticulture . A. Moore, In charge of Agronomy . B. Morrison, Animal Husbandry . B. Mortimer, Agronomy L. Musbach, Soils (Marshfield) H. Peterson, Agr. Chemistry HFFiTH Richards, Soils . H. Roberts, Horticulture J. L. Sammis, Dairy Husbandry H. H. Sommer, Dairy Husbandry H. Steenbock, Agr. Chemistry H. W. Stewart, Soils A. L. Stone, Agronomy W. A. Sumner, Agr. Journalism J. Swenehart, Agr. Engineering (Bayfield) W. E. Tottingham, Agr. Chemistry E. Truog, Soils R. E. Vaughn, Plant Pathology H. F. Wilson, In charge of Economic Entomol- ogy A. R. Whitson, In charge of Soils A. H. Wright, Agronomy W. H. Wright, Agr. Bacteriology O. R. Zeasman, Agr. Engineering H. W. Albertz, Agronomy Freda M. Bachmann, Agr. Bacteriology Marguerite Davis, Home Economics J. M. Fargo, Animal Husbandry C. L. Fluke, Economic Entomology W. C. Frazier, Agr. Bacteriology J. I. Hambleton, Economic Entomology E. D. Holden, Agronomy J. H. Kolb, Agr. Economics Grace Langdon, Agr. Journalism E. J. Malloy, Soils S. W. Mendum, Agr. Economics E. M. Nelson, Agr. Chemistry L. C. Thomsen, Dairy Husbandry W. B. Tisdale, Plant Pathology J. A. Anderson, Agr. Chemistry and Bacteriology R. M. Bethke, Genetics I Ruth Bitterman, Plant Pathology O. R. 'Brunkow, Agr. Chemistry S. Epstein, Agr. Chemistry C. A. Hoppert, Agr. Chemistry 0. N. Johnson, Poultry Husbandry J. H. Jones, Agr. Chemistry L. K. Jones, Plant Pathology A. E. Koehler, Agr. Chemistry S. Lepkovsky, Agr. Chemistry 1. L. Lush, Genetics R. O. Nafziger, Agr. Journalism Mariana T. Sell, Agr. Chemistry P. W. Senn, Genetics W. S. Smith, Assistant to the Dean J. H. VerHulst, Agr. Chemistry AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON COOPERATING WITH WISCONSIN DIVISION OF MARKETS DIGEST Retail stores are essential because consumers desire and demand the services they render. Pages 5-7 Consumers do not all desire the same kind of retail serAuces and resent the necessity of paying for certain services when they are not utilized. Page 7 Margins receiAed by retailers differ greatly on various goods be- cause buying and selling prices fluctuate. These fluctuations are un- avoidable under present conditions. Furthermore, different margins are justifled by the character of goods handled and by the serAuces rendered for consumers. Pages 7—9 Retail stores Aary extremely in size. Pages 9 and 12-13 Retailers of food received margins of 15 to 16 cents out of each dollar’s worth of goods sold during 1919. Operating expenses took from 11.7 cents to 12.3 cents on an average, while balances average 2.5 cents to 4'.5 cents. Pages 10-11 The larger stores operated at loAAcr costs than small stores. Pages 11 and 14 The important opei*atmg expenses of retail food stores in order of importance were for labor, delivery service, and rent. Pages 14-16 Madison food retailei*s did not profiteer in 1919. They were strictly competitive and even the best did not receive exorbitant salaries or profits. The majority of stores were so small that storekeepers fre- quently did not make even day wages. Pages 16-17 The present food retail system is inefficient because the majority of stores are too small to be efficient either in operation or as com- petitors of large stores. Pages 19-20 Food must be handled by efficient stores only if retailing is to be imprOA-ed. Pages 20-21 and 12-13 What the Retailer Does With the Consumer’s Dollar^ Theodore Macklin and P. E. McNael ’ Just so long as small, inefficient stores remain in business consumers need not expect to obtain foods and retail services at lower costs. This is true because small stores can neither buy goods to advantage nor reduce operating expenses. While present margins barely cover the expenses of small stores, they do provide profits for stores large enough to buy efficiently and to reduce expenses. Contrary to public belief, it is the ex- cessive costs of small, inefficient stores that make present mar- gins necessary. Those stores that make profits do so not by increasing their margins but by reducing their costs. Volume of business is the first step necessary to bring increased ef- ficiency. Among small stores, increased volume of business can be accomplished only by consolidation. If they are not con- solidated, improvement of retailing requires their elimination. Seven Million Dollar Food Bill The city of Madison, Wisconsin, numbering 45,000 residents and students combined, requires a food supply for the equivalent of about 9,000 families each year. The average American family spends fully 38 per cent of its income for food^. Assuming that Madison families average an income of $2,000 per year, approximately $6,840,000 worth of groceries and meats including milk are consumed in the city annually. That this figure is not far from correct is shown by the fact that 79 retail food stores, or virtually one-half of those in the city, sold $3,326,896 worth of food during 1919. At this rate \ To obtain complete facts covering: both sides of the consumer-retailer situation, the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, cooperating with the Wisconsin Division of Markets, and hacked hy the Madison Association of Commerce, conducted a careful Investigation. ITie re.‘«ults are presented in this bulletin. ® U. S. Dept, of Labor— Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly Labor Review, Vol. X, No. 1, p. 98. '4 Wisconsin Bulletin 324 it is estimated that a total of $6,738,000 worth of foods were sold by the full number of 160 stores. In collecting information from the various storekeepers it was found that the majority keep no adequate set of books. Consequently, less than one-half of the stores were able to furnish definite facts as to the costs of operation and the size of gross margins. To promote brevity in the discussion of the facts obtained certain terms require definition. ]\Ieanings of Technical Terms Buying Price. This is the price retailers pay to farmers, wholesalers, or others for the products handled in retail stores. Since retailers buy mostly from wholesalers this term indi- cates primarily prices paid to wholesalers by retailers. Selling Price. This is the price retailers charge consumers for goods. It covei’s all articles sold, whether they are car- ried home by the consumer or delivered by the retailer. Furthermore, it is immaterial whether the goods are paid for in cash or charged. Operating Margin. This refers to the number of cents out of each dollar paid by the consumer which the retailer does not pay out in buying goods. Operating margin, in other words, is the difference between the money taken in for all goods sold and the money paid as buying prices for these same goods. The percentage margin, usually means something different to re- tailers than to consumers. Consumers think of the margin as a percentage added to the wholesale price, retailers think of their margin as a certain percentage of the selling price. The con- sumer, for example, would say that an article, costing the re- tailers 75 cents and selling to the consumers for one dollar rep- resents a margin of 33 1/3 per cent. This conclusion is reached by saying that 25 cents added to 75 cents is an addition of one-third to the wholesale price. The retailer on the contrary, sells at a competitive price regardless of what his buying price may have been. He figures cost in terms of what he gets in- stead of in terms of what he pays. He calculates that 25 cents represents only one-fourth of his selling price. The operat- ing margin, as used in this discussion, will always refer to a proportion of the selling price and not to a figure which is added to a wholesale price. It will refer to the 25 cents re- ■\Yhat the Retailer Does With the Consumer’s Dollar 5 ceived by the retailer paying 75 cents and selling for one dollar as a margin of 25 cents and in this case also a 25 per cent margin. Operating expense. This refers to every conceivable kind of expense or cost which a retailer must meet in his business, Avith the following exceptions only: (1) salary, wages, or other compensation to the storekeeper or manager, who runs the business; (2) vrages or other compensation to members of the OAvner’s family, avIio Avork Avithout receiAung pay; (3) in- terest on the iiwestment in fixtures, stock of goods, or other essentials to the grocery business. It AAms necessary to make this dmsion of expense and to ex- clude from operating expense the three exceptions named above, because of the Amriety of Avays in' AARich these items Avere paid, and the fact that in many cases they were not paid at all. Balance. This means the portion of the retailer’s income left after paying for all goods bought and meeting operating expenses. It is a fund from Avhich the following expenditures must be made, if made at all: (1) compensation for the serv- ices of the storekeeper or manager; (2) coirnensation for other- AAuse unpaid family labor of storekeepers; (3) interest on money invested in the retail business; (4) profits, and (5) total balance must also include the value of goods taken for the storekeeper’s family use, but not paid or otherAvise ac- counted for. That eight stores out of 36 AA^hich gave reliable and sufficient information, AA^ere unable to make any balance at all and, in fact, had to meet deficits ranging from $200 to $1,921 em])hasizcs the need for enough efficiency to make money Avith Avhich to meet these remaining items, defined as ‘^Balance.” Retail Services Essential to Consumers • Retail stores are operated because consumers Avant certain goods and services Avhich cannot be obtained in other Avays or Avhich consumers prefer not to secure by different means. Consumers not only have an immense A'ariety of AA^ants but they live under Avidely varying conditions. The retailer’s op- portunity is to specialize efficiently in supplying consumers Avith goods that meet their needs. He must also make these 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 324 goods available to eonsinners in a manner adjusted to tbeir various living and working conditions. It is not unfair to say that retailers in Madison have not completely met the re- tail service needs of all consumers. Neither have consumers tried constructively to help the stores in solving certain dif- ficult problems. While the retail system is open to charges of inefficiency and perhaps delinquency in this regard, yet re- tail distribution is essential. Eetail services are essential for three principal reasons. (1) Consumers demand a large variety of food products. These come from widely scattered sections. A consumer de- voting ten hours a day to his omi work cannot obtain oranges directly from California, fiour from Minnesota, beef from Iowa, pecans from Texas, tea from China, spices from the tropics, and numerous other products from all over this country and from foreign lands. He has neither the time nor the inclina- tion to do this. Bringing together the kind, quantity and quality of foods which meet the consumer’s needs on a par- ticular day, and on all days, is one of the services which the retailer performs. He does this well when he brings to the public the benefits of efficient buying. (2) Consumers in reality are producers in various kinds of work in wffiich successful specialization leaves little or no time to be spent in regularly going to market and bringing home products purchased. The working hours of laborers in gen- eral, whether in factory or in retail establishment, commence in the morning and close at night at so nearly the same time that no large proportion of consumers could possibly go to market regularly for food purchases. (3) Consumers live or work so far from retail stores that it is impossible for them either to reach the store or to bring home the products bought. Consider the difficulty of going to the store a half mile from the factory and returning a mile home for supper after a ten-hour day of work. This is typical of the conditions which confront most consumers. Such things make consumers appreciate retail services in practice if not in thought. Every woman with a family, who has broken into her regular morning work to go shopping, knows only too well how much time and energj^ it takes and how little of her house- hold duties she accomplishes on such days. Women have What the Ketailer Does With the Consumer’s Dollar 7 found by experience that the services of the retailer save both time and effort which they can devote more economically and happily to other things than shopping for food. Some Retail Services Undeveloped In catering to the needs of consumers in response to popular demand, retailers have done well in some things but have overlooked others. Products have* been admirably assembled from producing regions everywhere, but not all retailers by any means have been able to give the consumer the benefits of efficient buying power. In delivering products ordered by telephone to the consumer’s kitchen and in extending credit on these purchases, the retailer has been exceedingly help- ful. On the contrary, the consumer who has called at the store, selected his order, paid cash and carried the goods away has not been generally favored as has the ^‘charge and de- livery” customer. He has had to pay for delivery and credit service not received. In fact, it has been the failure to meet all of the reasonable needs of consumers which induced de- velopment of specialized stores doing a ^‘cash and carry” busi- ness. While a majority of consumers cannot regularly pur- chase on the “cash and carry” basis there always will be a large number who can and will. Furthermore, numerous cus- tomers who regularly buy goods under the “charge and de- livery” system frequently give their orders in person, pay cash, and carry the articles home. Price Variations and Retail Margins The retailer is in business to make a profit. In striving for it the storekeeper is legally competing for a reward which goes to the relatively efficient dealer only. The truth of this state- ment lies in the fact that many storekeepers fail to make wages, not to speak of profit. To make a profit requires the retailer not only to buy at as low prices as competitive conditions per- mit, but to sell for as high prices as other retailers are able to secure from consumers. In addition he must keep operat- ing costs at a minimum. Because market prices change from day to day the buffing prices for retailers arc not identical for all. Similarly, consumers’ demands fluctuate so that like 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 324 margins on the same kind of products cannot be obtained by all retailers. Neither can one retailer necessarily secure the same margins from day to day or month to month. Because prices fluctuate, there are periods of loss and periods of gain in every business. When apparent shortage causes a higher price level, as was recently the case in the sugar market, the retailer Avho had previously purchased stocks of sugar at low prices received a high margin merely because he asked and received the current competitive sugar price. Regardless of how much or how little he may have paid for his supply, his procedure was economically justifiable. Competition, if it works at all, is bound to make prices seek the same level, but not necessarily a lower level, all political and popular condem- nation of the principle to the contrary. Table I Margins^ Received By Retailers on Various Commodities IN 1919 Article Usual margin Highest margin 1 Lowest margin Cream Per cent 8 Per cent 20 Per cent ! 8 Butter 7 to 10 10 ! 8 Flour 7 to 10 15 3 Eggs 8 to 13 i 18 4 Soap 10 to 15 1 20 3 Oleo 11 to 15 38 9 Fruit io to 20 ‘ 35 8 Bread 15 to 20 ! .4 7 Lard 15 to 20 i 25 Cereals 15 to 23 i 25 5 Cheese 20 25 5 Coffee 20 30 9 Meats canned 20 33 12 Meats— fresh 20 25 17 Bottled goods 20 to 25 1 35 10 Canned goods 20 to 25 33 12 Cookies 20 to 25 30 5 Tea 20 to 25 40 15 Candy 25 40 20 ^ Marg’in expressed in percentage of retailer’s selling price to consumer. "What the Retailer Does With the Consumer’s Dollar 9 Besides price fluctuation, the number and character of serv- ices rendered and the costs of these services are likely to ad- just margins through competition to a level justifled by the character of services rendered. The perishability of products and many other factors also influence the width of margins. Slackening of demand resulting in the accumulation of perish- able vegetables forces a fall in price because greater loss would result from spoilage than from selling at a price enough lower to dispose of the supply. With these observations in mind it is of interest to note that retailers in Madison sold foods at prices which left them the margins shown in Table I. The usual margins received ranged from 7 to 25 per cent depending upon various conditions or characteristics some of which have been noted. Extreme Variation in Size of Retail Stores A very high proportion of the retail food stores are small. In fact, almost four-fifths of the stores sell less than $50,000 worth of pixiducts annually. It is significant that almost one half of the seven million dollar food supply of the city is handled by these small, individual concerns. It is impressive on the other hand to find in Table II that five stores, repre- senting only 6.3 per cent of the stores studied, handled one- third of the aggregate sales; Avhile one-fifth of the stores made more than one-half of the total sales. The size of stores in a very important way affects the efficiency of retailing as will be shoAvn later. Table II. — Sales Made by 79 Stores in 1919 Size srroup Number stores Aggregate sales Average sales per store Per cent of Stores Per cent of aggregate sales Under $10, 000 8 833,563.28 84,195 10.1 1.0 810,000, under 820,000 19 250,864.19 13,203 24.0 7.5 $20,000, under 830,000 11 262,402.97 23,855 14.0 7.9 830,000, under 840. 000 11 383,991.61 34,908 14.0 11.5 840,000, under $.A0, 000 14 618,840.05 44,203 17.7 18.6 ST)0,000, under $60,000 6 316,651.85 52,775 7.6 9,5 860,000, under $100,000 .7 3.59, 312. .58 1 71,862 6.3 10.8 8100,000 and over T) 1,101,270.37 220,2.54 6.3 1 33.2 Total 79 j 3,. 326, 896. 90 42,113 10 0.0 1 100.0 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 324 How Retailers Divide the Consumer's Dollar More than four-fifths of the consumer’s dollar was paid by- Madison food retailers for the goods which consumers bought. In fact, from 84 to 85 cents was expended for food products by the average retailer out of each dollar paid by consumers. The average margin received by retailers, therefore, was about 15 or 16 cents on each dollar of sales. The costs of operating the different stores varied considerably as is indicated by figures in Tables III and IV. It is surprising no doubt to find that the large stores take no larger margins than do the small retailers and that, while expenses vary considerably, the balance obtained is practically the same per dollar of sales for large as for smaller stores. The average operating ex- penses were from 11.7 cents to 12.3 cents for each dollar paid by consumers, while the average balances made were from 2.5 to 4.5 cents. Comparisons of the items of expense in the different sizes of stores may be made by reference to figures in Tables III and IV. Table III, — Distribution of Consumer’s Dollar by Sizes of Retail Stores Making Delivery Item of Expenditure Average for all 17 stores Average for 12 stores under $50, 000 sales Average for 3 stores $50,000 under $100,000 sales Average for 2 stores $100, 000 sales or more Cents Cents Cents Cents Purchase of products 85.2 87.8 85.7 83.0 Labor inside store 5.3 3.0 4.5 7.2 Rent of building 1.9 1.8 1.3 2.3 Merchandizing supplies.. .6 .5 ,7 .6 Bad accounts .06 .3 .08 .01 Delivery expenses 2.3 2.2 2.5 2.2 Other operating expenses 2.14 2.2 1.22 1.69 Balance 2.5 2.2 4.0 3.0 Total income to re- tailer or the amount paid by consumer, . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 AVhat the Retailer Does With the Consumer's Dollar 11 Table IV Distribution of Consumer’s Dollar by Sizes of Retail Stores Not Making Delivery Item of expenditure Average for all 20 stores Average for 9 stores under $20,000 sales Average for 7 stores $20,000 under $.50,000 sales Average for 2 stores $50,000 under $100,000 sales Average for 2 stores $100,000 sales or more Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents Purchase of products. 83.8 81.8 82.0 86.5 83.7 Labor inside store 5.5 3.9 4.0 5.7 5.9 Rent of building 1.9 3.9 1.6 1.4 1.9 Other operating ex- penses '■ 4.3 6.7 6.2 1.7 2.9 Balance 4.5 3.7 6.2 4.7 3.6 Total income to retailer or the amount paid by consumer 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 * Includes expenses con-esponding to merchandizing- supplies and bad accounts in Table III. Large Stores Have Lower Costs It is customary among small stores for members of the store- keeper’s family to give their help at various times without pay. In the largest stores virtually all help is paid for in cash. In spite of this hiding of part of the real expenses of the smaller stores their costs were not found to be any lower than in large stores. In fact, there is a rather decided tendency Table V. — Average Sales, Margins, Expenses and Balances of 37 Stores — 1919 Size of store Number stores 1 Average sales Average margin Average operat- ing ex- pense Aver age balance Addi- tional income'*’ Total balance Under $20,000 9 $11,686 $2,133 $1,703 $430 ?257 $687 $20,000. under $50,000 19 37,765 5, 3.56 4,011 1,345 305 1,650 $50,000, under $100,000 . 5 64,008 8,974 6,238 2,736 190 2,926 $100,000 and over . , 4 247,317 40,216 32,. 594 7,622 none 7,622 All stores 37 i 57,785 8,930 6,481 1,989 245 2,234 * Additional Income refers to the estimated value of {foods taken by the store keeper for family use, without having: an account to cover these values. It, there- fore, represents an addition to the storekeeper’s calculated balance. It is a part of his actual income or total balance. 12 AViscoxsin Bulletin 324 FIG. 1.— EFFECT OF COMPETITION ON SIZES OF STORES Food retail stores varied from pigmies to giants in their annual sales. The range in size and eflBeiency is altogether too gi'eat. Each black bar in Figure I represents the value of sales dur- ing 1919 for one store. The shortest bar indicates a store selling less than $2,000 worth of food. The five longest bars show that five stores, each selling more than $100,000 worth of food, averaged more than $200,000 sales. Four-fifths of these 79 stores (63) each sold less than $50,000 worth of food in 1919. Most of them are too small and inefficient to render the public the service which is desired at margins that would both please the public and give a profit to these storekeepers. Improvement in retailing requires that they either be consolidated or elimin- ated. This illustration emphasizes what free competition does in the middleman business. The weaknesses of competition appar- ently are not being overcome either by the initiative of middle- men or by the so-called solutions of legislative action. The prob- ability is that these wasteful conditions will not cease until the public is better informed and buys with economic judgment. The number of stores and their sales volume shown in Figure 2 is even more striking. AVhile the eight pigmy stores had to have wide margins to meet their excessive expenses, and even then did not make profits, the giant stores receiving the same prices or lower ones made profits. It is futile to expect improve- ment in retailing so long as conditions remain which keep these inefficient stores in business. What the Retailer Does With the Consumer’s Dollar 13 NUMBER OF STORES DOLLARS 225,000 200,000 150.000 100,000 50,000 30,000 10,000 FIG. 2.— RELATION OF NUMJiKR OF STORKS TO VOLUME OF SALES One-.si.\teenth of ths stones (Ji definitions on page 5. received in meat and -grocery I'elail stores of different sizes. Only the larger stoi-cs were aide to make sufficient earnings to cover wages and make a pi-ofit. 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 324 Profit is Reward to Efficient Retailer Only The size of the retailer’s balance is in reality a reward for his efficiency. Competition is keen indeed. Among 30 stores studied, eight lost amounts ranging from $200 to $1,921 while some made balances around $3,000. Those who lost monej^ and those who made the highest profits sold goods of the same quality for practically the same prices. The losses were directly the result of either small size of business causing excessive costs due to inefficiency, or to inability to purchase supplies or prod- ucts in accordance with the needs of the business. It is the economic duty of private middlemen to buy as cheaply as they can and to sell at the highest prices obtainable under fair competition. This is true regardless of the price which retailers may have to pay for the products. The man who can buy cheaply is just as much entitled to sell at the current consumer price as are those who w^ere obliged to pay excessive prices for their goods. That the prices which con- sumers pay retailers rise relatively high at times is proof of a shortage of supply so far as either the retailer or the con- sumer is concerned. The middleman who pays more for supplies than competitive conditions require, or sells to consumers for less than the market situation justifies, is manipulating economic conditions to the detriment of both producers and consumers. On the con- sumer side, when prices are lower than can be obtained, the low prices artificially register a sufficient supply when in reality there is not. The result is that producers are paid lower prices. In turn lower prices reduce supply to the detriment of both consumers and producers. On the contrary, when more is paid for products than is necessary, the high prices artificially register a shortage in supply while in reality there is no shortage. Moreover, high prices encourage production when it IS not needed. This leads to oversupply, with falling prices to producers as a r^ult. To avoid such manipulation it is necessary that all retailers buy at as low prices as competition permits and sell for as high prices as other competitors receive. What the Retailer Does With the Consumer’s Dollar 19 Monopolists Are the Only Profiteers The most effective way of regulating prices, or of overcoming shortage and of preventing oversupply, is for all competitive middlemen to practice this economic principle. According to this pr*inciple — buying at lowest, prices and selling at highest prices consistent with volume of sales and efficient services — no ^ competitive business can profiteer. Profiteering exists only when a monopoly artificially controls and limits supply to regulate price and exact wide margins. This study of Madi- son food retailers finds them strictly competitive. The evils which the public has imagined in regard to Madison retailers of food is not due to any form of profiteering. On the con- trary some of the evils, attributed to profiteering, are directly due to weaknesses of competition, rather than to supposed manipulations of monopoly. Causes of Inefficiency in Retail System The distribution of Madison’s food supply is now accomplished by 'so many retailers that the average ones do too small a busi- ness. Altogether too large a number are inexcusably small. The small retailer cannot buy efficiently. Because more than two-fifths of the food supply of Madison is purchased by ex- ceedingly small concerns, competition is regulated by retail- ers who are inefficient buyers. The two chief weaknesses of the present retail system are that the costs of operating small stores are greater than those of large stores and that small size prevents efficient buying. The public tends to assume that price cutting is the secret of doing business successfully. This is a practice, however, of small and inefficient storekeepers only. Yet in spite of fre- quently selling special articles at cut prices, numerous stores Avhich do this obtain no smaller annual margins than do large stores. The reductions of margin on some articles are usually balanced by higher margins on goods that are not advertised or sold as specialties. To buy at the lowest possible prices and to sell at the highest prices obtainable, consistent with efficient performance of retail services, leads every efficient store manager to solicit business, not by price cutting, but by prov- 20 "Wisconsin Bulletin 324 ing to customers that they secure more for their money at one place than at another. Public welfare demands larger volume of products per store. There are two current ideals of business. One is based on maximum sales at lowest margins to secure similar aggregate profits; the other is based on minimum sales at maximum margins. The former is more in keeping with public interest. The large store can buy cheaply enough to make a profit when the small store is losing money. Moreover, the large store cail*^ study and find means of reducing costs which the small con- cern cannot do. This is so because small stores make insufficient money to pay even proper wages, without hiring experts. To assume, therefore, that large stores will voluntarily reduce prices in order to drive smaller stores from the field is not generally in keeping vfith retail store customs and practice. Under present conditions, therefore, margins received by re- tailers are regulated generally by the width of margin required to ke?p the small, inefficient store in business. This is un- fortunate because the small store,* as such, has not the funds with which to pay for management which will take the initiative in improving retail conditions. It is powerless actively to stim- ulate conditions among the retailers of the city which will generally result in (1) creating greater efficiency in buying; (2) reducing operating expenses; and (3) reducing margins. Neither can these small stores bring about needed improve- ments of a strictly trade character, as for example standardized accounting, systematizerl and unified deliveries, uniform credit systems and other desirable features. ]\lusT Have Food Handled by Efficient Stores Only Improvement in the retail system requires above all else that the handling of food be done entirely by efficient stores. To have all stores in operation large enough to render retail services efficients requires that their number be reduced either by consolidation or by elimination. This cannot be done easily or without opposition. That it should be done is certain. Consolidation or elimination might be brought about in a number of ways. The retailers might face the problem squarely and initiate a plan of consolidation, but that is not likely. Competition is such that retailers seem to be unable to take What the Retailer Does With the Consumer’s Dollar 21 action upon most of the solutions which would require mutual agreement and enforcement. It is exceedingly doubtful whether the causes of present retail inefficiency will ever be eliminated by retailers themselves. Methods op Promoting Efficiency A more dependable means of promoting efficiency in ail re- tail stores is to stimulate’ keener competition among efficient concerns. It may be done in two ways. A number of con- sumers might be organized into a cooperative society which, because of a steady large volume of business, could employ the highest grade of management. First-rate management could either force all of the small stores out of business or compel them to consolidate in order to survive. Consolidated stores would mean enlarged sales, more efficient buying of supplies, lower operating expenses, and reduced margins. If cooperation does not seem feasible as a means of affecting consolidation, consumers might be led to concentrate their patronage on a number of suitably situated, efficient stores. The enlarged volume of business would justify lower expenses and margins. Whether these stores were in competition or not could be ascertained when the problem became of practical importance. Suitable regulations could be imposed then to promote efficient service for the public. As a last resort, some form of municipal commission work- ing with state marketing officials might be developed to in- vestigate and place before the public facts which indicate the conditions of retailing in respective localities. New enter- prises could be required to show reasons why they should be licensed for entrance into retailing business. All concerns which were in business and failed to furnish efficient retail services to the public could be closed by revocation of licenses. This, however, represents a step which progressive retailers should attempt to avoid by seeing to it that other less radical measures are effectively applied to improve or remove present inefficiency in the retailing of food. 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 324 Retailers should recognize that as middlemen they are re- sponsible for rendering services efficiently. They should, therefore, tm^ to regulate the conditions of retailing to bring about betterment to themselves and to the public and not per- mit present weaknesses to continue. Facts Before Acts The public conception of the marketing system is largely founded on lack of reliable facts. Without correct information, conclusions and the actions arising from them are just as likely to be destructive as constructive. Nothing is more needed at the present time than constructive action in the field of marketing. Especially is this true of retailing because the largest part of the present marketing margin — meaning the difference between what farmers receive and what consumers pay for products — is required to cover expenses of the present retail system. Constructive action is not likely to be achieved until farm- ers, middlemen and consumers all gain a common understand- ing of the underlying economic forces and principles governing marketing. Improvement hinges upon the cooperation of these three groups. Improved marketing, therefore, necessitates first that all classes of people acquire a greater knowledge of eco- nomic principles and second that these principles be practiced in buying and selling goods and services. nsir 0-A Bulletin 325 ^ January, 1921 - ■' 't* - -- .'^AGIi«>(JLTURAl/Exi4.KiME STA'l'TON,' jaNC^EUSITY OF WrS 90 NSIN ‘ y..,.:;V'' MAmsoN ■ •■> DIGEST Build from a plan. The best results from building can be had only by planning the structure before laying the foundation. Pages 3-6 ' Direct sunlight is a good disinfectant, and should be used to the utmost. Square projections of walls at the sides and bottom of a window cut off much direct sunlight. Windows should be as near the outside of the wall as practicable. Pages 6-7 A ventilation system is necessary if animals are to be kept in good condition. The King system (after Prof. F. H. King) is satisfactory for Wisconsin conditions. Good ventilation depends on having air flues of the proper size, arrangement, and construction. Pages 7-14 A well drained site for the barn is essential. A barn with its long- er dimension north and south receives the most sunlight in the fore- noon and late afternoon. An east and west position allows the ab- sorption of the most sunlight during the middle of the day when di- rect sunlight is most effective. Pages 14-16 The size of barn to build does not depend upon the size of the farm, but upon local conditions. Page 16 The rectangular barn ^vith a gambrel roof is the most popular in Wisconsin. An outside width of 36 feet accommodates two rows of stanchions. Cows may be arranged either “heads together” or “tails together.” Gambrel roofs of the plank frame or braced raft- er type or the Gothic roofs are self supporting and will allow more mow capacity than do the gable roofs. Pages 17-23 The settler’s barn must be of a different type from the structure planned for an improved farm. Hewn timber and other materials at hand can be used with advantage. The barn plan should allow' for future additions. Pages 27-30 Remodeling the old barn is often necessary on many farms. In some cases only the inside needs changing and new equipment. In others, additions may be built with advantage. Pages 27-30 The milk house belongs outside the barn. The equipment de- pends on the form in which the produce is marketed. Page 30 Plans for farm buildings and equipment may be had from the Ag- ricultural Experiment Station, Madison. Page 34 Dairy Barns 0. R. Zeasman, G. C. Humphrey and L. M,. Schindler A barn for Wisconsin’s climate must be warm, well lighted, and properly ventilated. Cows quartered in a warm barn require less feed and produce more milk. Money spent for inside sheathing, building paper, and other insulating material is well invested. Abundant sunlight and proper ventilation are needed to keep the livestock healthy. Heat is wasted and poor circulation results when windows and hay chutes are used for ventilation in the winter time. Wisconsin’s reputation for good dairy cattle brings many buyers for such stock from outside the state. These buyers, in selecting healthy cattle, place much stress upon the kind and condition of buildings in which the stock was raised. Good barns always add more value than their cost to the market price of the farm. Build From A Plan A conveniently arranged barn saves labor in doing chores, A careful study of a proposed barn plan often shows how minor changes in the placing of the stalls or the position of the feed room or silo will effect a big saving in labor. Changes are often difficult and always more costly to make after the barn is built. A plan gives the owner a picture of his barn before building starts and allows him to make changes. Work- men make fewer mistakes and put up a better bam if they are required to follow a good plan rather than to work out the construction and arrangement haphazardly. The Right Barn For the Right Farm The size, arrangement, and storage capacity of a dairy barn depend upon local conditions and the methods of the manager. 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 325 Five braces are spiked to each set of Trusses spaced 12 or 14 feet apart sup- rafters. Short stock lengths of lumber port the roof. Rafters between trusses are used for the entire frame. are not braced but are spiked to a purlin plate. The right barn for one farm may not be the right barn for another farm of the same size. Sometimes not more than eight or ten cows are kept on a 200 acre farm, while twice as many dairy cows are often found on a 40 acre farm. The fertility of the soil, local market prices, cost of conunercial feeds, and the interest of the owner will all affect the type of farming PIG 2.— HOMEMADE BUT PRACTICAL This stall can be built by farm labor. Stall floor and manner are easily cleaned. Dairy Barns 5 followed. This will determine the size and arrangement of the barn. Attempts to develop model standard barn plans for farms of a given size, therefore, meet with little success. The owner can best make a suitable choice after studying local conditions. Certain features of building, however, have become stand- ardized. The construction used for two of the most common types of framing — ^the plank truss and braced rafter types (Fig. 1) — has been quite commonly adopted. The Gothic roof barn (Fig. 16) is a re- cent feature that is gaining favor. Stand- a r d dimensions for stalls, mangers and gut- ters are also desirable. Labor-saving devices such as litter carriers, feed carriers, or feed trucks are worth hav- ing. Home-made devices may often be used ad- vantageously. Figure 2 suggests a home-made cow stall and manger, with an adjustable metal stanchion. The manger is built in sections, three or four stalls wide, and is hinged at the top to permit raising it for cleaning. FIG. 3.— MANGER CONSTRUCTION A movable manger has some advantages. Provide Box Stalls A bull pen and one or more calving stalls are needed on a dairy or stock farm. Proper care of dairy cows requires at least one maternity stall for every 12 to 14 cows. These stalls should be about 8 x 12 feet. The size of the calf pen depends on the number of calves to be raised. Its smallest dimension, however, should be not less than 7 feet. A row of stanchions on one side, along an aisle, is handy for feeding. A box stall, about 12x12 feet is often provided for the bull, or a single stall may be used. A convenient arrangement for the bull 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 325 This Den is so arrang:ed that the at- tendant can care for the bull without entering the stall. stall is shown in figure 4. It provides for two outside doors, one for the bull to enter, the other to go out. Such an arrangement makes it unnecessary for the attend- ant to enter the stall. The exit door can be opened from the outside, the bull untied from the front and ak lowed to go out and exer- cise. This plan prevents the bull from turning around ; and there is no necessity for getting into the stall either to turn him out or to tie him. Sunlight a Good Disinfect- ant Direct sunlight should be used to the utmost. A well-lighted barn is more easily kept sanitary. Bank barns are dark and damp and have only one good feature — a direct drive to the second floor. This may be had without sacrificing light on one side of the barn by MG. 5.— DRIVEWAY TO THE MOW This arrangement has all the advantages of a bank barn and allows light and fresh air to enter the barn from all sides. Dairy Barns 7 the use of an incline drive (Fig. 5). A bridge, as suggested, permits placing windows and intakes for ventilation on the four sides of the stable. An allowance of one square foot of window area (glass area) to 20 square feet of floor area is advisable. Wide windows, well placed near the outside wall and without projections at the sides and bottom of the opening, are necessary for good lighting of the barn. Which Way Shall the Barn Face? Barns are usually placed with their length either east and west or north and south. Since each way has certain ad- vantages, dairymen disagree as to which is the better. During the early forenoon and late afternoon when the sunlight enters a barn in the north and south position, the rays of sunlight are so indirect that it is not very effective as a disinfectant. A barn placed east and west can receive direct sunlight through about 12 windows during the noon period when the sunlight is most intense. The north and south arrangement allows only a few windows to receive direct sunlight at the noon hour, but it does permit more windows to receive direct sunlight during the day, and the sunlight reaches more of the interior of the barn. The east and west barn protects the feed lot better fixim the north wind; while the north and south barn affords better protection from the west wind. Considering the ad- vantages from the viewpoint of lighting, it is best to place the barn with the long axis east and west. Other factors such ns exposure, location of yards, etc., occasionally make it de- sirable to place the barn with the long axis north and south. Fresh Air Saves Feed Dairy cows i)roducc more milk and make more economical use of feed when given an abundance of fresh air. Cows housed* in a well ventilated barn are better able to resist infection because the number of genns in the air is greatly reduced. A good ventilation system helps to keep the temperature more nearly uniform. In Wisconsin, where it is necessary to keep livestfKik under sln'ller for sevenil months each yeai*, a system of ventilation 1o provide f I’osh air without cooling Hn* barn 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 325 below a desirable stable temperature is essential. The King system of ventilation was deyised by the late F. H. King of the Wisconsin Experiment Station. This system is very satis- factory for Wisconsin conditions and is recommended by nearly all architects and manufacturers of barn equipment in Wis- consin and adjoining states. No individual nor corporation has any patent rights to limit or prevent the general use of the King system of ventilation. The efficiency of the King system depends upon the loca- tion, size, and construction of the intake flues and outlet flues. Non-conducting walls and ceiling, and good tight doors and windows are essential. As in any natural or automatic sys- tem of ventilation, no provision can be made to warm the incoming fresh air except by the heat supplied from the bodies of the animals. The 'fresh air is warmed ’by mixing it with the warm air of the barn at the ceiling. Arrangement and Construction of Flues The fresh air intakes are located from 10 to |15 feet apart along the barn wall. The air enters the stable at the ceil- ing (See B. Fig 6) where it mixes with the warm air before fig. 6.— KING intake IN FRAME WALL 1. The amount of air enterinff the barn is con- trolled by an adjustable damper. 2. Modified King intake in frame wall. This arrangement brings the fresh air to the center of the barn. reaching the stock. The outside opening of the flue at A is placed at least 4 feet below B in order to prevent back draft. Where back drafts are likely to occur it is necessary to have this upright portion of the flue 6 feet long to trap the warm air effect- ively. Back draft is most likely to occur in flues near corners of a barn when a strong wind blows around the corners of the barn in a direction which causes an eddy or suction at the open- ing of an intake. The in- side wall of the flue is in- Dairy Barns 9 sulated with two thicknesses of boards, one thickness of building paper and a %-inch air space. This prevents the moisture from gathering on the stable wall at this point. A l^-inch mesh or coarser screen at A protects the flue without materially reducing the flow of air. Where the cows face the center of the barn, many dairymen favor the construction of the intake flue illustrated by figure 6 because the fresh air is lur^TION Slctiok FIG. 7.-KING INTAKE IN A STONE WALE A !(/' sewer tile forms the flue. A metal flue may be substituted for the tile. brought to the heads of the animals. Figure 7 shows the con- struction of an intake flue in a 24- inch stone wall. For a 12-inch concrete wall three 6-inch tile, side by side, may be built in the wall, or a wooden form (Fig. 8) used. Chimney flue lining of the right size can often be used with advantage. A strip of woven wire fencing several inches Avider than the intake, placed in the thin wall outside the intake, prevents cracking of the wall at this point. The inside wall of the flue form may be built after the wall is poured. 10 • Wisconsin Bulletin 325 Intake flues can be added after the barn is built (Fig. 9). A hole is cut through the wall near the ceiling and a flue, closed at the sides and top, is built on the outside of the wall. This method is useful in remodeling barns but not for new ones because it is cheaper and better to build the flue in the wall when the barn is being raised. The success of a ven- tilation system depends much on the outlet flues. Leaky, poorly in- sulated outlet flues re- move little foul air from the barn and also allow moisture to con- dense in the flue. Water drips back into the stable from the flue and the walls remain damp. A flue built of matched lumber and building paper (Fig. 10) is practically air tij'ght, well insulated, and gives good service. A door in the flue near the ceiling permits cooling the stable in the summer. Galvan- ized iron, properly in- sulated, may also be The wooden form is set in place beUveen the wall uScd ill making ail OUt- forms before the concrete is poured. Dairy Barns 11 let flue. A galvanized iron or tin flue without insulation is inefficient. Abrupt bends in the outlet flue reduce the air velocity. A smooth inside wall retards the flow of air ’less than a rough wall. The outlet flue which reaches above the highest point of the building and other nearby obstruc- tions uses the full force of the wind and pre- vents down draft. Great care must be taken in locating the outlet flues. If they are placed close to the heads of the cattle, all of the foul air will pass directly by the ani- mals and much of it will be breathed in by them. If placed too near the entrance, the opening of the door breaks the drawing action of the flue. It is desirable to have the outlet flues out of the way and yet they should be so placed as to draw out the foul air most readily. Fresh air inlet flues can be added to any barn with but little expense. Build the Flues the Right Size It is common practice to provide the same amount of out- let area as intake area if the liarn is well built and has tight fitting doors and windows. Professor King’s recommendation is; ‘‘Outlets and intakes for horses and cows should provide not less than 30 square inches a head when the outlet has a height of 30 feet; if the outlet is shorter, the area should be greater; if higher, it may be less. A 20 foot outlet flue would require about 36 square inches per head instead of 30 inches.” 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 325 The flue will require less space in the stable if built partially in the wall. A 2-inch air space is required between the outside sheathing- and the flue. ^ The most practical size of intake flue is one having a cross- sectional area of 50 to 100 square inches with the outlet having 300 to 500 square inches. If a barn houses 14 cows, four horses and six calves, the number of intakes may be determined as follows. Make an allowance as for three mature head for the six calves. The stock housed would then be equivalent to 21 mature head. Assuming the outlet flue to be of the average height, the cross-sectional area of the intake flue will be 30 X 21 = 630 square inches. A 6" x 12" intake has an area of Dairy Barns 13 72 square inches. The number of 6" x 12" intakes required would be 630 or about nine. If we select an outlet 14^" x 22" 72 the number of outlets required will be 630 or about two. 141/2" X 22 " Nine intakes 6" x 12" and two outlets I 4 I/ 2 " x 22" are required to ventilate this barn. Windows and Hay Chutes Give Poor Ventilation Open windows do not allow the definite circulation of air through the stable so neces- s a r.y for good ventilation Cross drafts are developed be- tween windows, and much warm air from the stable es- capes through the windows. Parts of the stable are poorly ventilated while the remainder is cold and drafty. If all the windows are opened the entire barn becomes too cold. Win- dows should be hinged (Fig. 11) so that they can be opened to cool the stable in late spring, summer, or autumn, but they are poor ventilators in winter. Hay Chutes Are Poor Outlet Flues A hay chiite 3 feet square is large enough to serve as an outlet fiue for 45 head of stock, but to insure the removal of foul air from all parts of the stable there should be four or five smaller fiues well distributed. The usual hay chute takes all of the air from one place and is neither air tight nor well The galvanized iron shields fastened to the window frames allow the air to enter only over the top of the hinged windows. This makes possible addi- tional ventilation without drafts. 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 325 insulated. The moist air is discharged into the haymow where the moisture condenses and freezes on the hay and walls. Supplying Fresh Water If a water supply system is available, running water should be piped to the barn. A number of barn equipment companies manufacture automatic water systems with individual drink- ing cups for use in dairy barns. The advantages in the use of drinking cups are: (1) cows do not need to go into the cold for water; (2) time required for turning out cows to water is saved; (3) water is supplied to the animals at more nearly the proper temperature; and (4) water is available to each animal at all times. These factors tend to increase milk pro- duction and should be considered when buying barn equipment. Locating the Barn Select, if possible, a site with good natural drainage. Oc- casionally, other factors will make it desirable to locate the barn in a position where the site or yards have poor drainage. If the wetness is due to springs or seepage water from under- ground, drain tile laid in the usual way is a remedy. If, on the other hand, the barnyard is on very flat ground or in a depression, surface water will not soak through the soil — which is ‘‘puddled” and packed by the tramping of stock— but will collect in the yard and keep it wet and insanitary. Such yards should be graded and provided with surface drainage or even covered with slabs of concrete. The drainage of such a yard means the removal of the sur- face water as quickly as possible after a rain. A line of tile can be laid underground through the low part of the barn- yard to an outlet into some stream, lake, or ravine. In the lowest point, or in several places, a surface inlet (Fig. 12) should be installed to allow the water to drain into the tile quickly. The cone grate prevents the entrance of straw, hay and other bulky material that might clog the drain. The down spouts from the eave troughs, overflows from watering troughs, etc., should lead underground to this drain. To get especially clean milk extra care must be taken to make the yards sanitary. Sometimes yards are entirely covered with Dairy Barns 15 concrete slabs. This expense is not always justified, but under most conditions the cost of concrete approaches at the doors and gates, and slabs at watering troughs and similar places, is a small item compared with the benefits resulting. A side hill location allowing a driveway to the second floor is a minor detail. If the barn is located on level ground, an incline can be built to the second floor by the use of an earth fill and a concrete bridge (Fig. 5). Drives are built now because farmers got the habit when lumber was cheaper, but the fact re- mains that drives do not make economical use of space. Such a drive is useful when one has a load of hay on the wagon during a rain storm, but several tarpaulins would do as well at a small annual cost. The large mow space, wasted by a second floor driveway, scarcely justifies the convenience. PIG. 12.— AN EFPOIENT SURFACE INTAKE. The arrangement of the yards and fields, and the location of the well, machinery shed and granaries are factoi’s to be considered in locating the barn. It should be at least 200 feet from the house and so placed that the prevailing winds do not carry its odors towards the house. Under the best sani- tary conditions possible there will be some odor from the barn ; and the time saved i^n going to and from the barn by having it clos(‘ 1o Ihe house, will not justify (uidui’ing the uUpleasant odors. The bani should not be made Ihe most conspicuous farm building. It is secondaiy to the house and should be so lo- IG Wisconsin Bulletin 325 cated as not to obstruct views from the house. Usually, a location at one side and somewhat to the rear of the house will be found the most suitable. If it is impossible to have drives leading both to the barn and to the house, the barn should be so located that either the service drive or a branch of it may be made to serve the house. This does not mean that a drive must come within a few feet of the house, as is so many times the case, but it should be convenient. It is undesirable to have the service drive for the barn, over which heavy hauling and delivery of hay and straw is to take place, close to the house. The drive may be screened by the proper planting of the lawn surrounding the house. One- Story Barn A one-story barn with hay shed attached provides shelter for stock and storage of feed at the lowest building cost per ani- mal. This type of barn, however, is not so warm as the two- story barn with feed stored overhead and although satisfac- tory as a cattle barn, it is not so popular as a dairy barn in this climate. The Round Barn The round barn, although introduced years ago, has never gained much in favor. It has, however, these advantages : 1. The labor of feeding is reduced to a minimum. 2. More floor space can be enclosed by the same amount of wall than in any other type of barn. 3. The walls and roof of the structure are both self-bracing. The advantages of the round barn, however, are more than off- set by these disadvantages: 1. It is difficult to All the silo because it is located in the middle of the barn. 2. The driveway takes up more space than in a rectangular barn. 3. The barn once built is a unit in itself and cannot be en- larged like the rectangular barn. Dairy Barns 17 Rectangular Barns Are Most Popular The majority of dairy barns in Wisconsin are rectangular. The best inside arrangement is one or two rows of stanchions and box stalls parallel to the long dimension of the barn. The one row arrangement requires a barn 18 to 20 feet wide while a 34 or 36 foot width accommodates two rows. For the larger herds the two row arrangement is cheaper to build and more convenient. Arranging several short rows of stanchions across the width of the barn requires more labor in doing chores. This plan requires a wi^th of 40 feet or more to house the same number of cows for a given length of floor as the two row arrangement with a width of 36 feet. A barn 40 or more feet wide requires heavy roof framing and is there- fore more costly. The labor of mowing away the hay is also much greater in a wide barn. Most dairymen favor the two row arrangement. Shall Cows Face in or Out? Whether it is better to face cows from or toward a center aisle is an open question. Good arguments can be made in favor of either arrangement. One of the chief reasons for having the herd face the center aisle is that this arrangement provides a central feeding alley. It is more convenient, of course, to feed from one alley, especially if feeding ensilage. Careful feeding is necessary to successful dairying and as cattle are fed two or three times a day this point deserves attention. When the cows arc faced in there is no danger of the direct sunlight affecting the cow’s eyes. This plan places the milkers nearest the light so they can sec that the cow’s udders are clean. Cleaning out the manure is as easy, if a litter carrier is provided, as driving through the barn between the two rows of cows. A feed carrier, running between the two rows of cattle, can be used to carry feed to vai-ious parts of the barn. The advantages of having the cattle face out are: (1) cattle do not spatter tlie outside wall with manure as they do when facing the center aisle; (2) a manure spreader can be loaded in the barn and hauled directly to the field, thereby saving handling the manure twice; (3) sale cattle can be shown to better advantage when facing out from the center; (4) it is 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 325 easier to get cows in and out of the barn with less danger of crowding; (5) it is more convenient for the use of the milking machine; and (6) it is more sanitary because cows facing each other in a central feeding alley can transmit diseases readily by coughing and sneezing. Stall Floors Should Be Sanitary Wood and earth lloors are insanitary. A good concrete floor, insulated by a layer of cinders underneath and well bedded or provided with an overlay, is best. Concrete floors Wood overlays on concrete floor can be kept sanitary and may be replaced with little difficulty. finished with a wooden float are not slippery. If wooden over- lays are used treat all 2x4 to be bedded in the concrete lioor with creosote, or leave grooves in the floor with bolts em- bedded, in order to replace the 2 x 4 as they rot. Cork brick and creosote wood blocks are excellent materials for overlays on stall floors. Such floors are sanitary, less slippery, last longer, and are easier to keep clean than a wooden overlay. A stall floor 4' 6" to 5' 0" long not including manger or gutter is required. Large Holsteins require 4' 10" to 5' 0", Dairy Barns 19 FIG. 14— THE COW STALL FLOOR SHOULD BE CAREFULLY PLANNED, important to have the feeding alley, the manger, the stall platform, the gutter, and the litter alley or driveway of proper dimensions. 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 325 while for a Jersey or Guernsey a length of 4' 6" to 4' 9" may be ample. If the cows are not of nearly uniform size, the stalls may be built 4' 6" long at one end of a row of stanchions and increased to 5' 0" at the other end. The cows may then be arranged in the barn according to size. A width of 3' 4" is sufficient for small cows but large cows require 3' 8". Figure 14 suggests dimensions for gutter, manger, feed and litter aisles. Stable Walls Should Be Warm and Dry Satisfactory stable walls have been built from a variety of materials. The walls should be smooth in order to be easily kept clean. Warmth is important in the economy of feeding. The walls should be so insulated that there will be no gathering of frost on them. Lumber walls built with several thicknesses of sheathing and tar paper and provided with an air space, are good. Certain kinds of hollow building tile make a good wall. Stone masonry walls when built thick are warm, but they are not easy to keep clean because of roughness. Concrete has been widely used and will, undoubtedly, be used in the future. A solid concrete wall, however, is cold and becomes covered with frost on the inside during cold weather. This may be remedied to a large extent by a double wall with an air space between. Headers of concrete or metal, however, should not be used to bind the two walls together because they are conductors for the cold and -reduce the value of the air space. A solid concrete wall may be made warm and dry by fastening furring strips an inch or more in thickness on the inside and covering them with tar paper and sheathing or with insulating board. The furring strips are nailed to 2" x 2" bedded in the concrete. Storm windows and double doors make barns extra warm. The extra doors are usually hung on the inside of the building. When inconvenient to hinge them at the sides, the hinges can be placed at the upper end. The doors are then opened by swinging them toward the ceiling where they can be held by hooks. Weights and pulleys and other ingenious devices can be used to reduce the work of opening the door. Gambrel and Gothic Roofs Provide More Mow Space Gambrel or Gothic roofs provide more mow space, are self- supporting, and require no interior posts or beams if built ac- Dairy Barns 21 cording to the Gothic type, (Fig. 16) the plank frame, or the braced rafter (Fig. 1) method. The heavy timber type of framing is seldom used now except in pioneer communities, be- cause it requires a large quantity of expensive timber. The construction suggested by figure 1 takes much less lumber and labor and is strong and rigid enough if built according to stand- ard designs. The mow should provide space to store more than one year’s requirement of roughage, as many farmers desire to carry over considerable feed. The capacity may be computed by making an allowance of 12 pounds of hay a cow a day for the feeding season. A ton occupies about 512 cubic feet. A common rule to determine the rise and run of rafters for a gambrel roof is shown in Figure 15. The run of the lower rafter is to equal to one sixth the total span of the roof measured from the outside of each wall. The rise of the lower rafter should be twice its run. The rise of the upper rafter should equal the run of the lower rafter, and the run of the upper rafter is equal to the rise of the lower rafter. Barn builders have re- cently developed the Gothic roof barn in an effort to secure even more storage room than is possible in the gambrel roof. These barns have been built in large numbers in sec- tions of Minnesota and the Dakotas, and a few have been built in Michigan, Iowa and Wisconsin. Two methods of building the circular rafters are advocated. In one, all of the rafters are built of four thicknesses of 1 inch by 4 inch material bent to shape and nailed or bolted together. These rafters are spaced about two feet apart and the roof boards nailed to them in the usual way. The other method is shown in the detail in Figure 16. Heavy rafters spaced 8 or 10 feet apart are built of four thicknesses of 2" plank or 6 thick- nekses of 1" boards cut to shape and nailed and bolted together. FIG. 15.— PROPORTIONS COMMONLY USED IN RAFTERS OF GAMBREL ROOFS. Run 1=V6 Span; Rise 1=2 times Run 1; Run 2=Rise 1; Rise 2=Run 1. 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 325 2" X 4" similar to the nailing girts are fas- tened between these rafters. Two thick- nesses of 1" x 4" lum- ber spaced 2 feet apart are nailed to these girts parallel to the big rafters, and the roof boards are nailed to both the light and the heavy rafters. The rafters have the shape of an arc of a circle, with the center on a straight line between the plates and the radius between three- fifths and two-thirds of the total width of the barn. If a shorter radius is used the roof will not hold its shape well near the ridge, as long as three-fourths of the width would be desir- able because a roof with a steeper slope could main- tain its shape better. In the Gothic barn there is no interior bracing, ex- cept that at points where the heavy rafters are lo- cated a 2" X 12" plank is placed just inside the studs and plate, and bolted both to the rafters and fioor joists. This bracing is per- haps enough if the plate is not much over 6 feet above tlie floor joists. If the height It appears, in fact, that a radius FlCi. 17. GAMBBKL AA’U GABLE ROOFS. 'I'he liay mow is increased in size in a «::nnl>r<‘l roof barn without increasine: tlie l)eiirht of the roof at the plate or ridee. FIG. 16.— GOTHIC TYPE BARN These roofs are gaining in popularity Dairy Barns 23 is much greater, diago- nal braces from the rafter at the plate to the floor joists at the girders should be put at the points where the heavy rafters are placed. The end brace (Fig. 18) adds rigidity and strength to the barn frame. This brace re- quires little material and is easily put into place. Every barn of considerable size with either plank frame, or braced rafter, or Gothic roof construction should be built with two such braces at each end. The Settler Is Barn The pioneer farmer in upper Wisconsin itg. is.— end braces add strength. needs a different type End braces prevent the end walls from bulging and add the rigidity necessary to withstand severe wind of barn than does the storms. owner of an improved farm. The fire hazard is often great and the amount of feed raised the first few years is limited. It would, therefore, be unwise to advise having large or expensive farm buildings at the start. Where capital is limited it can be put to better use in the clearing of more land. A barn large enough for two cows, a sow, some sheep and possibly a team will be adequate for the first few years. A one-story building with the rough- age stacked outside is the usual arrangement. On new farms where enough feed can be raised to keep a team and four or more cows, and more capital is available, the settler might 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 325 well build a larger and more permanent barn. This barn should be planned to permit enlargement when it becomes possible to increase the herd. The settler should use the ma- terials at hand for his building. Timber is usually available and hewn lumber, or that sawed in a small local saw mill, can be used largely for the frame of the buildings. This re- duces the cash requirement. In Figures 20 and 21 are shown the plan and perspective of a Dairy Barns 25 FIG. 20.— PLAN I/F PIONEER BARN. Plan 1 is built Avhen tlie farm is cupablc of supporting only a very limited amount of stock. 'J’iiis is addfvi to in Plan 2 and finally completed as .‘