UNIVERS TY OF ILLINOIS BR-RV /^T URBANA CHAMPAIGN AGRICULTURE Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign http://www.archive.org/details/beekeepinginilli1000jayc 3sr iLLiiisrois WHEN WRIT/NG USE PRESSURE - THIS /S A NO CARBON REQUIRED LOT AND TICKET Ma FORM m HF&r LETTERING BIND IN I . iUiCHED^Upl EXTRA TIME "^^^^^^^^^^^^^^SSVr^^S^;;^ ■-— — isr iLLiisrois "itit*- ■ 1-^ COPV Urbana, Illinois April, 1969 Cooperative Extension Work, University of Illinois at Urbcna-Ctiampaign College of Agriculture and ttie U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating. John B. Claar, Director. Acts approved by Congress May 8 and June 30, 1914. (6M— 4-69— 99403) iisr iLLiisrois ELBERT R. J^YCOX: Associate Professor of Apiculture UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE CIRCULAR 1000 OOISTTEISTTS BEES: THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE COLONY 5 Honey Bee Castes 5 The Workers 5 The Drones 8 The Queen 11 Length of Development 13 The Races of Bees 13 Characteristics and Activities of the Colony 14 BEEKEEPING EQUIPMENT 17 Hive Parts and Selection of Equipment 18 Assembly of Equipment 23 Tools, Clothing, and Specialized Equipment 27 SPRING MANAGEMENT: STARTING WITH BEES 31 When and How to Start 31 Location and Arrangement of Colonies 35 Handling the Colony 37 What to Look for in the Colony. .40 The Need for Space in the Spring 44 Spring Management of Overwintered Colonies 44 Pollen Feeding 45 SUMMER MANAGEMENT: HONEY PRODUCTION 47 Nectar and Pollen Plants 47 Swarming and Swarm Prevention 50 Excluderr 53 Supering for Honey 53 Removing and Handling the Honey Crop Marketing the Honey. . . FALL AND WINTER MANAGEMENT .... MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUEE IN BEEKEEPING Confining Bees Dividing Colonies Feeding Bees Fumigating Stored Combs . . . Hiving Swarms Identifying Apiaries and Equipment Keeping Records Killing Bees Moving Bees Queen Bees Repelling Bees Transferring Bees Trapping Pollen Uniting Bees DISEASES, PESTS, AND PESTICIDES AFFECTING HONEY BEES Brood Diseases Adult Bee Diseases Pests of Honey Bees Pesticides and Honey Bees. . . POLLINATION BY HONEY BEES GLOSSARY SELECTED SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON BEEKEEPING AND EQUIPMENT.. INDEX © 1969 by the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois Manufactured in the United States of America loi ior C, foil ser anj TIk spci mei kill! I""7"0NEY BEES have a long association with man and are often re- garded as domesticated animals. But they are able to live either with or without man's help and specialized hives. Essentially, man must adapt to bees more than bees must adapt to man. No other animal species serves man in as many ways as do honey bees. They are kept for a hobby and for full-time business, they are used as research animals by scientists, and they are valued as pollinators of fruit, seed, and vegetable crops. Because of their social way of life and their adaptability, honey bees survive in most areas of the world. However, to manage them properly for the greatest return, you must understand their behavior and analyze their needs throughout the year. Beekeeping in Illinois began with the early settlers and farmers who kept bees as a source of honey for home use and for sale. Bees first thrived on the native flowers and trees, and later also on apple trees and large acreages of clover pastures that were planted as farm crops. By 1930 the acreage of sweetclover in Illinois had risen to 850,000 acres and provided large honey crops for an estimated 275,000 colonies (hives) of bees. If the estimates were correct, only California had more bees at that time. Since then the number of colonies has declined steadily to the present number of about 90,000. Illinois residents have made valuable contributions to beekeeping in the United States. Prominent among them are the members of the Dadant family of Hamilton, Illinois (Fig. 1). Charles Dadant emi- grated from France in 1863 and began keeping bees and making comb foundation. By 1867 he was contributing articles to American and foreign journals and soon thereafter began selling queen bees. His son, C. P. Dadant, continued the business and became editor of the Ameri- can Bee Journal in 1912. This magazine, published since 1866, has served as a sounding board for amateur and commercial beekeepers, and has given sound counsel and information for four generations. The present company, Dadant & Sons, Inc., publishes the Journal and specializes in beeswax and its products as well as in beekeeping equip- ment. Dadant's hybrid-queen breeding program is the only one of its kind in the world. The University of Illinois first offered beekeeping instruction about 1917. Professor Vern G. Milum taught two popular courses from 1925 until his retirement in 1962. The old Dadant home and apiary, north of Hamilton, Illinois, in the early 1900's. (Fig. 1) Illinois beekeeping has changed rapidly in the 20th century. Com- mercial honey production now requires more extensive operations than in the early days because nectar sources are more widely scattered. Increased urbanization has reduced the number of bees kept in and around cities. However, small numbers of colonies do well in cities and towns because of the diversity of flowering plants within the flight range of the bees. The increasing acreages of vegetable and fruit crops requiring pollination in Illinois are creating a demand for more polli- nation service. The commercial beekeeper who provides such a service by moving his hives to the vicinity of the crop to be pollinated helps to increase crop yields while reducing his dependence upon honey produc- tion as his only source of income. Learning to handle and manage bees is fun. It also offers simple rewards such as tasting the first crop of honey and watching a queen bee emerge from her cell. Consider joining the local and state bee- keeping organizations. Sharing your experiences can increase your pleasure from bees. Young beekeepers can gain by joining 4-H or FFA and participating in beekeeping projects sponsored by these organizations. early Fig.l) Com- ities polli- ervice :lps to ■odiic- simple queen ebee- your -Hor these BEES: TXJE llt •hen jeei tO! nini del I leeti ICP yd Jar tlidii Spring Management : Starting With Bees 41 seeing her by the pattern in which she lays her eggs in the comb. Large soHd areas of sealed brood, and concentric rings of eggs and larvae of different ages are the signs of a good queen. It takes practice to rec- ognize eggs and young larvae at the base of the cells; learn to identify them readily. (See Figure 30.) Shake the bees ofif a frame into the hive in order to see details in the comb more easily. You can make the bees move away from an area of comb by touching them lightly on their backs with yovir finger or the flat end of a hive tool. The brood pattern should be solid, with few open or unused cells (Fig. 31). A spotted pattern may indicate that the queen had a sex allele the same as one or more of the drones with which she mated. Such a queen should be replaced. The egg-laying behavior of the queen may produce a spotted brood pattern when she does not fill all the adjoining cells with eggs. She also should be replaced. Brood diseases kill larvae and pupae and create an uneven, spotted appearance of the brood combs. As explained in the section on diseases, you must learn to detect diseases or, at least, to recognize abnormal larvae and pupae. (See page 101.) By doing so, you will know when to ask for help in identifying the disease, or you may be able to diagnose it yourself by comparing the symptoms with the descriptions of brood diseases. Proper diagnosis and control of disease, especially American foulbrood, is extremely important in beekeeping. Otherwise you may lose all your bees and spread infection to other people's colonies that are within flight range of your apiary. The colony needs pollen and honey in the hive all year as food for the adults and for rearing young bees. It has been estimated that a full cell of each type of food is needed to produce one young bee. The pollen supplies proteins, vitamins, and other minor nutrients. Honey provides carbohydrates in the form of several sugars. The honey re- moved by man from his hives must be only the surplus produced by the colony. If more than that is taken, or if it is taken at the wrong time, the bees may starve. A beekeeper must learn to estimate the amount of food, particularly honey, in the hive at each observation and to decide whether the colony is "making a living" or needs some help until more nectar is available. Learn to do this each time you open your hives, especially package colonies or any small colony just getting started. In early spring the bees may be unable to fly for a week or more because of cool or wet weather. At this time, and any time before the major nectar flow period, a colony needs 10 to 20 pounds of reserve food or the equivalent of two or three well-filled combs. You can test for incoming nectar in the hive by holding a comb flat above the open hive and giving it a quick shake downward. Any thin nectar in the 42 Spring AIanagement : Starting With Bees Eggs in new worker comb are shown in the top illustration and mature worker larvae nearly ready to be sealed in their cells are shown in the cen- ter. The bottom illustration shows worker pupae with their eyes colored. The cell cappings in the bottom illustration have been removed to expose the developing bees. (Fig. 30) Spring Management : Starting With Bees 43 •*yK«rui r'.-'.-r:*' •m mm A comb from the brood nest showing a good pattern of sealed brood. Young bees have emerged from the center cells. The queen will lay eggs in the center cells as soon as they have been cleaned and polished. (Fig. 31) comb will splash down onto the tops of the frames where it will be reclaimed by the bees. When nectar is not available in the field, bees attempt to steal honey from other colonies. The guard bees of strong colonies attack and repel the robbers, but weaker colonies are sometimes overcome and killed by large numbers of robbing bees. The problem is most serious in the spring and the fall at any time hives are opened and combs ex- posed to bees. The natural defense system of the colony is disturbed by smoke and by the separation of the parts of the hive. Bees from other colonies are attracted and they fly around the exposed combs trying to get some of the colony's stored honey. Even after the hive is put back together, the robber bees may gather along the edges of the cover and other cracks in the hive. They will also try to get into the entrance of the colony as well as other nearby colonies. A beekeeper must learn to recognize the presence of robber bees and to take action to prevent the buildup of widespread robbing. This means keeping hives open only briefly and being careful not to expose combs, espe- cially ones not protected by bees. It is easier to prevent robbing than to stop it. Always pick up bits of comb in tlie apiary and try not to let nectar or honey drip outside any hive. Robber bees can be recognized by their darting flight around combs and open hives, often with their legs hanging down. They land on combs and move quickly to cells of honey to fill up. If you see robbing starting, it is a good idea to stop looking at the bees and close the hive. As a precautionary measure, you 44 Spring Management : Starting With Bees can stuff grass or weeds lightly into the entrances to reduce their size. . With smaller entrances to guard, the bees of a colony are better able to i repel robbers. The brood nest of the colony is an oval or circular area within the frames. The comb in the center of the brood nest has a large area of brood on each side. The combs toward the outer edges of the nest have smaller and smaller brood areas until the ones on the edge of the nest have only pollen and honey without brood. It is important to keep i these combs (frames) in order in a small colony, especially when the temperature may go below 57°, the clustering temperature of a colony. If you put a large frame of brood near the edge of the cluster, the bees ; may not be able to keep it covered and warm because the shape of the brood nest has been changed. Eggs and developing bees can be injured 1 or killed by being chilled. In large colonies, and during warm weather, the order of the combs is not as important. However, it is best to keep < brood combs together, with combs of pollen and honey on the edges > and above the brood nest. The Need for Space in the Spring The colony increases rapidly in size in April and May. It needs room for brood rearing, for storing honey and pollen, and for the in- creasing number of adult bees. Since one of the primary causes of swarming is crowding of adult bees, the colony should have two or more full-depth hive bodies or their equivalent to reduce the chance of early swarming. The package colony or nucleus needs a second hive body as soon as most of the foundation has been drawn into comb, and bees cover eight or nine frames in the hive. It has been estimated that a 10-frame hive body provides room for about 15,000 adult bees. If this is correct, the growing colony needs at least two hive bodies, and a full-sized colony containing about 60,000 bees needs four hive bodies just for housing the bees. Spring Management of Overwintered Colonies There are some additional items to consider in management of over- wintered colonies. Most important is the early spring check on stores. The first time the temperature reaches about 60° in January or Febru- ary, open each hive briefly to see if it has sealed honey near the cluster. In central Illinois this can usually be done by mid-February. If thcj cluster is surrounded by combs with sealed honey visible at the top,J leave it alone, replace the cover, and put a brick or rock on it. But the colony is against one side of the hive or lacking visible food, yoi itfi ei ova- Spring Management : Starting With Bees 45 should make some changes. Remove a comb with honey from the oppo- site side of the hive, pry the frames with the cluster away from the hive side, and insert the honey. Without this adjustment the cluster of bees may contract away from food during the next cold period. When the colony needs additional food, you can exchange combs with a well- provisioned hive or feed the colony with fondant or dry sugar. (See page 78.) The period of late winter and early spring is a crucial one for bees because brood is being reared and honey consumption is greatly increased to keep the brood nest warm and to feed the developing bees. Most losses from starvation take place during this period — not during the middle of winter. There is a natural winter loss of bees despite good management. If you find a dead colony, close the entrance and take it out of the apiary as soon as possible. This prevents robbing, damage to combs, and the spread of any disease that may be present. After being freed of dead bees, the hive and combs can be used to start another colony or for supers. Inspect them first for symptoms of disease before reusing them. The first thorough colony examination should be made on a day when the temperature reaches about 70°. Look first for the queen or for brood. The absence of brood in a small colony is normal but a colony covering six or eight combs should have young bees and brood. Look at the brood to see if it is normal, without disease, and with no drones in worker cells. Consider the honey reserves and plan to feed the colony if there are less than several full combs of honey. As the weather continues to warm up in April and May, you can complete your spring beekeeping chores. Most colonies wintered in two hive bodies move to the top one during the winter and most of the brood is there in the spring. Move this brood and part of the stores to the lower brood chamber or reverse the hive bodies. The frames must be moved in hives with the bottom boards nailed on. At this time you should clean off the bottom board and replace any empty combs that have large areas of drone cells. Place part of the combs containing honey above the brood nest with several nearly empty combs between them. Remove all winter packing materials at this time. Any preven- tive treatments for disease may be applied after careful inspection for disease. iijt :i * Pollen Feeding Pollen is essential for rearing young bees and developing strong colonies. Newly emerged adult bees also need pollen to eat. In late 46 Spring Management : Starting With Bees !k sum HON! winter the colony uses pollen that was stored the previous year. If there is little stored pollen, the colony will not die but its growth will I be hindered until fresh pollen is available in the field. Feeding pollen i or pollen substitutes in February and March stimulates the bees to i build strong colonies early in the season. If you want to make addi- tional colonies by dividing, or need strong bees for fruit pollination, , consider feeding a pollen mixture to the bees. However, unless you i can use the extra bees, you may only create a swarming problem and a i feeding problem for the extra bees that require food until nectar iss HectaranC available in quantity. Honey bees have such a strong urge to collect pollen in the spring that they create problems when they visit farm feedlots for bran and ground corn. A dry pollen mixture placed in the apiary in February and March will help to satisfy this need and may keep the bees at home. Once started, the feeding should continue without interruption until 1 natural pollen is available. I Increase willingness ai plant specie^ leiijtli of hon many differei their tongues enough to ra wild plants, o otlitr purpose plaiitin: ■'■ ■ flaiitii,,- iwrted iron ustiultobees conservation and berries i 'antsui ^ovide foraj Supplies I |specially sfj »e usually Jo lungbeesis r retari '*te surpl "'«, dand wgh field ^ from I plater in ti i«lldun 'kdoij i?-T«-o, car. ith wil h:o:n"ey FPLoiDuoTioisr ejs vo ectar :>priE ran an ':briiar 111 Nectar and Pollen Plants One reason for the success and adaptability of the honey bee is its wiUingness and abihty to use the nectar and pollen from thousands of plant species of all types. The intermediate body size and tongue length of honey bees as compared with other bees enable them to utilize many different types of flowers to obtain nectar and pollen. Although their tongues are shorter than those of most bumble bees, they are long enough to reach nectar in flower tubes several millimeters long. Honey bees also visit tiny, open flowers that are too small for larger bees. In general, honey bees must depend for their nectar and pollen on wild plants, or on cultivated plants grown for food crops, pasture, or other purposes. The yield of nectar is not sufliciently larger to justify ! planting crops only for bees. However, there are many ways in which plantings made for other purposes can beneht bees. Agricultural land diverted from production can be planted to clovers and other legumes useful to bees. Shrubs, trees, and annual plants used for recreation and conservation areas can provide beauty and pleasure for people, seeds and berries for wildlife, and nectar and pollen for honey bees. Road- side plants used to reduce maintenance and to control erosion can also provide forage for bees. Supplies of nectar and pollen are important to bees all year, but especially so in the spring. At this time the food reserves in the hive are usually low and the demand for food to feed the rapidly developing lyoung bees is high. Cool and wet spring weather often limits flight and "thereby retards the growth of the colony. It is unusual for colonies to Uproduce surplus honey from early-blooming plants such as tree fruits, berries, dandelion, mustard, and willow. However, if colonies have enough field bees, and the weather is good, they may store surplus ihoney from these early nectar sources. Such surplus should not be t! removed because it is used by the colony for food until the main nectar ■flow later in the year. Bees secrete wax and build combs from founda- I'tion well during a spring nectar flow. However, unless you also feed j the bees, do not try to put a full super of foundation on a colony in the ( spring. Two or three frames are usually enough. 47 48 Summer Management : Honey Production Honey bees visit large numbers of plant species at any one time and throughout the foraging season. The system of communication within the colony tends to concentrate the foragers' efforts on those plants that give the greatest quantity of nectar and pollen, and have the highest concentration of sugar in the nectar. A plant that is highly attractive to bees when nectar is scarce may not be visited when other more desirable plants are in bloom. When we speak of nectar and pollen plants, we include all plants visited by bees. Most of them are not of primary importance to bees and are classified as minor sources of pollen and nectar. The major, most important, nectar and pollen plants are the few that grow in abundance, usually within a mile and a half of the colony, and provide a fair return of pollen and nectar per flower head or individual floret. An English study of pollen collection by bees indicated that plants offering fair amounts of pollen must be growing within 14 rnile of the hive to be visited by bees. The greatest amount of pollen was collected from the main nectar sources and from those most abundant near the hive. In general, this is also true in Illinois. The primary or major nectar and pollen plants of Illinois, based on their yield and value to honey bees, are: True clovers, Trifolinni species White dutch — Trifoliiim repens Ladino — Trifolium repens Red clover — Trifolium pratense Alsike clover — Trifolium hy- bridmn Sweetclovers, Melilotus species White sweetclover — Melilotus alba Yellow sweetclover — Melilotus officinalis Soybean — Glycine max Dandelion — Taraxacum officinale Secondary nectar and pollen plants are: Alfalfa — Medicago sativa Aster — Aster species Berries, black and others — Rubus species Chicory — Cichorium intybus Corn — Zea mays Elm — Ulmus species Goldenrod — Solidago species Lima bean — Phaseolus lunatus Locust, black — Robinia pseudo- acacia Locust, common honey — Gleditsia triacanthos Maple — Acer species Milkweed • — Asclepias species Mustard — Brassica species Smartweed — Polygonum species Spanish needles — Bidens species Sumac — Rhus species Sunflower — Helianthus species Tree fruits • — apple, apricot, plum, cherry, pear Vine crops — cucumber, musk- melon, pumpkin, squash, water- melon Willow — Salix species Plants in extreme southern Illinois bloom as much as 3 or 4 weeks before those in extreme northern Illinois. The dates referred to here are those for central Illinois. In mid-March, the first sources of pollen i Summer Management : Honey Production 49 and nectar are the maples, elms, and willows. Early fruit bloom, such as apricot, begins in April, and apples are usually still blooming in May. Dandelion comes early in protected spots but reaches its peak bloom in May. Its nectar, and that from white Dutch clover and sweet- clover make up the primary nectar flow until about mid-July. At that time, red clover (Fig. 32) and soybeans (Fig. 33) are visited for nectar and pollen as the more attractive clovers go to seed and cease to yield food for bees. Late-blooming, full-season soybeans, such as Clark, Kent, and Wayne, are of most value to the bees. Soybeans are classed Forager collecting pollen and nectar from red clover blossoms. The bee's pollen load can be seen in the pollen basket on her rear leg. (Fig. 32) Honey bees visit soybeans for nectar and pollen as the clovers become less attractive in July and August. (Fig. 33) 50 Summer ^Management : Honey Production as a major nectar source partly because of the 5 to 6 million acres available to bees in Illinois. Red clover provides large quantities of pollen and worthwhile amounts of nectar from second crop bloom. In central Illinois, chicory is an important source of pollen and probably also gives some nectar. In other countries it is considered a good nectar source but in this country it has generally not been recognized as such. Smartweed, Spanish needles, and aster are the latest blooming of the more important plants. They may yield nectar in August and Septem- ber, depending upon the weather and the soil moisture. Honey bees also collect two other materials from plants. One of these is called honeydew. It is excess plant sap excreted by aphids and other insects that feed on plants. It is most common on trees such as willow, elm, pine, and oak, but may also occur on alfalfa and other crop plants. The other material is called propolis. It is a plant resin or gum collected from buds and other plant parts of trees such as poplar and ash. The bees pack it onto their hind legs but must have help to remove it in the hive. They also collect and reuse propolis from used beekeeping equipment stored in the open. When nectar is not available, usually in the fall, bees collect a wide variety of sweet substances. They suck the juices from apples, pears, grapes, and other fruits that have cracked or been opened by other insects or by birds. Bees create problems when they visit sugar syrup at canneries, root beer and other drinks at drive-in restaurants, and even baked goods with jam-like toppings displayed in open stores. Swarming and Swarm Prevention Swarming is the natural method of propagation for honey bee col- onies. Natural selection has favored the maintenance of the swarming trait because those colonies that did not swarm died without leaving new colonies to carry on. For centuries man has selected bees that produced the best swarms to increase his number of colonies. The use of movable frame hives now enables us to divide colonies at will, and we must try to prevent or control swarming because it weakens the colonies and reduces honey production. A swarm consists of the old queen, some drones, and 50 to 90 per- cent of the worker bees of a colony. They leave the colony suddenly as a group and cluster temporarily on some object such as a tree branch. Later they disperse and move to a new home selected for them by scout bees. Sometimes several swarms from one hive leave over a period of a week or more, and many of them are accompanied by young, un- mated queens. Queen cells are built in preparation for swarming, and i\ t Summer Management ; Honey Production 51 Unsealed queen cells built on the bottom edge of a comb in preparation for swarming. (Fig- 34) the first swarm often leaves about the time the cells are sealed (Fig. 34) . Swarming is most common in the late spring and early summer periods. Many factors contribute to swarming. The most readily apparent one is crowding and lack of room for adult worker bees. In experi- ments on swarming, a colony put into a small hive swarmed in as short a time as 24 hours. Swarming is also associated with the amount and distribution of the glandular secretions of the queen. When there is a shortage of the secretions, the bees make queen cells in preparation for swarming or supersedure. Colonies with queens over a year old are more likely to swarm than those with young queens. The seasonal cycle of colony growth, the weather, and the heredity of the queen are additional factors related to swarming. The colony that becomes big early in the season is more likely to swarm than one that reaches its peak later. Swarming can rarely be prevented entirely but it can be reduced to a reasonable level by good management. To reduce swarming you must plan ahead to provide your bees with young queens and sufficient hive space at all times. These measures will 52 Summer Management : Honey Production reduce but not solve the problem. You must also be able to recognize the signs that indicate a colony is making, or will soon make, prepara- tions to swarm. One evident sign is a mass of bees that entirely fills the hive. They may come out of the hive in large numbers when you open it. A badly crowded colony often has bees clustered on the land- ing board and on the front of the hive near the entrance. During ex- tremely hot weather such "hanging out" is an attempt to cool the hive and may not be related to crowding inside (Fig. 35). Any crowded colony should be given one or more additional hive bodies filled with combs or foundation. The combs will do them the most good; founda- tion is of little value unless there is a nectar flow or the hive is being fed so that the bees can complete the comb. It is not unusual for a colony to occupy three or more deep bodies before the main nectar flow begins. Another warning sign of impending swarming is the condition of the queen-cell cups on the combs. They are always present but are usually short and small. The wax of the cups is the same color as the comb on which the cups are built. As soon as a colony begins prep- aration for swarming, the cell cups are enlarged, their edges are ex- tended and thinned, and new, white wax can be seen on the cups. The queen will lay an egg in the cup shortly after these preparations. When you find these conditions present, you must try to keep the colony from carrying out its plans. An additional super may solve the problem. If not, you can switch the location of the colony with a weaker one so that many of the stronger colony's returning field bees will be lost to it. You can also remove sealed and emerging brood to add to weaker colonies. If nectar is coming into the hive, add one or more frames of foundation in place of the combs removed. Worker bees "hanging out" and fanning on the front of their hives because of the heat. (Fig. 35) i\ Summer Management : Honey Production 53 Prompt action is needed when you find large numbers of queen cells in a crowded colony. Check first to see if the queen is present and, if so, find and destroy all queen cells. Additional hive space may prevent a swarm from leaving, but more drastic measures have a better chance of success. For example, you can divide the colony into two smaller colonies or make one or more nucleus colonies from it. These tech- niques are explained on page 75. There is little you can do for a colony after a swarm has left except to make sure that it has empty combs in which the new queen can lay. Excluders Excluders are used to confine queens to one part of the hive and to prevent them from laying eggs in honey supers. Unless they are kept from doing so by an excluder, many queens make a narrow brood nest up the center of the entire hive. Eventually they are forced down as honey is stored in the upper combs, but there may be brood in the supers when the honey crop is removed. Excluders can save time and effort in beekeeping in spite of persistent claims that they are '"honey excluders" that reduce yields. It is true that some strains of bees seem reluctant to pass through an excluder but they may need a period of time to adjust to its presence. Put the excluder and first super on the hive ahead of the nectar flow to allow the bees to become accus- tomed to passing through it. The benefits of excluders outweigh the disadvantages. Supering for Honey As the main nectar flow begins, the colony needs supers in which to store the nectar and the honey made from it. When brought into the hive, nectar is about 50 to 80 percent water. Until it is evaporated and processed into honey, nectar takes up extra comb space. The beekeeper must add supers as they are needed and before the queen's laying is restricted by excess honey in the brood nest. The best way to deter- mine when storage space is needed is to look at the combs and shake them to see how much nectar is being brought into the hive. The in- coming nectar stimulates wax production which is seen as new, white wax on the honey cells and along the top bars of the frames. Change in the weight of a hive is also a good indicator of the need for supers (Fig. 36). Gains of 1 to 10 pounds per day may be recorded during a nectar flow. The colony should be weighed each morning be- fore general flight begins. Otherwise the weight is affected by the num- ber of bees out in the field and by the unprocessed nectar in the hive. 54 Summer Management: Honey Production Checking the weight of a colony on a platform scale. (Fig. 36) On warm nights the bees process much of the nectar brought in during the day. You can hear the increased activity if you walk through an apiary at night. As soon as a nectar flow begins, the bees in the hive use nectar instead of water and very few continue to visit the regular watering place. There is no formula to use in deciding how many supers to add at one time. This depends on the strength of the colony and the amount of incoming nectar. It is always best to give too much room rather than too little, especially at the start of the nectar flow. However, if you have only foundation to add, do not put on more than two shallows or one deep super at a time and plan to check the colonies at weekly inter- vals. The supers of empty comb or foundation can be put on top of the I Summer Management : Honey Production 55 hive as long as the combs in the super below are not being capped. If they are, you should put the additional supers above the brood nest and beneath the partially filled ones. Top-supering saves time and heavy work while producing the largest possible crop of honey. It also allows you to keep a close check on the bee activity in the supers that were put on last. During the heat of the summer, extra supers may be of value to the colony by serving as insulation for the top of the hive. The insulation and the extra storage space can be as effective as shade for increasing honey production. Removing and Handling the Honey Crop Surplus honey can be removed from the hive as soon as the cells are completely capped. This timing is essential in producing any type of comb honey because bees will "travel-stain" the cappings as they walk over them. Until honey is sealed, it may contain more than 18 percent moisture and fermentation may occur. Even sealed honey may be high in moisture if the weather is unfavorable for evaporation. In most areas of Illinois the nectar collected by bees in June and July results in mild-flavored, light-colored honey. This honey is in greater demand when pure than when mixed with smartweed, aster, or goldenrod honey produced in August and September. The main crop should be removed before the middle of August. Leave the partially filled supers and some extra space in case a late nectar flow occurs. At the end of summer the moisture level is usually low enough so that you may remove all the surplus honey. Be sure that the colony has 40 to 60 pounds of honey remaining in the hive for winter. Bees must be removed from honey combs when the combs are taken out of the hive. This can be done by shaking and brushing, by blowing, or by using bee-escape boards or fume boards with repellent chemicals. For one or two colonies, shaking and brushing is suitable if done quickly to prevent robbing. After smoking the super, give each comb a sharp shake to dislodge the bees into the top of the hive or in front of the entrance. Those bees remaining on the comb can be brushed off with a bee brush (Fig. 37), and the comb placed in a covered empty super. A bee-escape board consists of an inner cover or similar board the size of the top of the hive, with one or more bee escapes mounted in the center or corners of the board. The bee escape is a small metal passage- way with spring closures that allow bees to move through it in one direction only — down into the hive. In use, the board is put beneath the super to be removed. After 24 hours all the bees will have moved 56 Summer Management : Honey Production 'I Brushing bees from a frame of sealed honey. (Fig. 37) down into the lower hive bodies. Before you put the board on, be sure that there are no holes or cracks to let bees in or out of the super. If there are, robber bees may steal the honey. Do not leave the board on during the day in hot weather or the combs may melt. This system of removing honey is most suitable for use with a few colonies in a home apiary. Several chemical repellents are effective in driving bees from their honey combs. Carbolic acid, or phenol, has been used for this purpose in the United States since about 1900. It is used on a fume board (acid board), 1 to 2 inches deep, with a black metal cover. The underside of the cover has several layers of cloth to absorb the acid solution. The cloth is sprinkled lightly with a 50-percent solution of pure carbolic i I Summer Management : Honey Production 57 acid before the board is set on the open hive. Smoke the bees just before putting any type of fume board or acid board on a hive. The smoke makes most of the bees begin to move downward into the hive (Fig. 38). The heat of the sun vaporizes the acid and the fumes repel the bees. Carbohc acid is not effective except on warm, sunny days. The acid must be used with caution because it can burn the skin and may contaminate honey if improperly used. Use only enough to lightly dampen the cloth and be careful to keep the pad from touching any comb or hive parts. Have water or a baking-soda solution available in case you get the acid on your skin. With several acid boards in use at one time, you can remove honey supers in a very short time. It is es- sential that you make sure that bees are driven off the honey but not out of the hive. Other chemical repellents can be used at lower temperatures and do not require sunshine to be effective. They are used on a slightly differ- ent fume board. The cover may be I/2- or 3/^-inch-thick pressed board such as Cellotex. The chemical is sprinkled on the underside of the absorbent cover, which is then placed on the open hive after smoking the hive thoroughly. Benzaldehyde, propionic anhydride, and butyric anhydride are used in this way. They are not always effective in re- pelling bees, apparently because of differences in the way they are applied and the varied reactions of the bees. An overdose may stupefy the bees and some colonies do not respond readily. If you try these chemicals, use a small quantity initially. Increase the dosage if the bees look normal and are not responding. All of the materials must be used with caution and according to the directions on the label. Butyric anhy- dride has a strong, unpleasant odor that is repellent to humans as well as to bees. Bee blowers (Fig. 39) are the newest equipment for removing bees from honey combs. They produce a large volume of rapidly moving air that quickly blows the bees out of the combs without injuring them or making them angry. The honey supers are removed from the hive and placed on a stand that is part of the blower. Most models have a chute that directs the bees toward the front of the hive as they leave the super. Blowers are effective regardless of the temperature and the experience of the operator. They may also be used for other routine jobs such as shaking package bees, requeening, and removing extra equipment for moving or wintering. The price of the blowers at present limits their use to commercial beekeeping. However, air com- pressors and home vacuum cleaners can be used successfully for small numbers of colonies. 58 Summer AIanagement : Honey Production Applying a carbolic acid solution to an acid board used to drive bees from honey combs is shown in the top illustration. Placing the acid board on a hive is shown in the bottom picture. The smoke helps to drive the bees from the frames of honey being removed from the hive. (Fig- 38) II Summer Management : Honey Production 59 A bee blower in use. The super of combs being freed of bees is placed on top of the metal framework. The bees are blown downward toward the front of the hive. (Fig. 39) Honey that is to be marketed in the comb must be fumigated after being removed from the hive to prevent wax moth larvae from devel- oping in it. Otherwise, these larvae or "wax worms" will tunnel into the comb and make it unsalable. The adult moth lays eggs in cracks and crevices in bee hives in the tield but the bees normally destroy the larvae before they do any damage. However, when combs, either empty or full, are stored, the moth larvae develop rapidly and soon ruin the comb by redvicing it to a mass of webs and waste material. For details on how to fumigate honey in the comb see page 83. Honey to be extracted need not be fumigated but should be extracted as soon as possible. The empty combs must then be fumigated or replaced on the hives. Honey is a fine food product and should be treated as such from the time it is taken from the hive until it is in the final container. Honey supers should be handled so that they are protected from dust and dirt as soon as they are freed of bees. One way is to place them on clean, washable wooden pallets or drip trays that can also be used to cover each super or stack of supers. Pallets catch dripping honey, keep dirt and bees away from the combs, and allow the use of a two-wheeled hand truck to move the honey in the apiary and honey house (Fig. 40). The honey house, or any room in which honey is handled, should be easily cleaned and not accessible to insects, animals, or other possible 60 Summer Management : Honey Production Supers of honey, with pallets on top and bot- tom, being taken into the honey house on a two- wheeled hand truck. (Fig. 40) contaminants such as dust. The beginning beekeeper usually uses the family kitchen and, except for getting honey on everything, has no real problems in sanitation. However, part-time and professional beekeep- ers producing honey for sale must conform to public health regulations relating to food-processing industries. Before building or remodelling any space to use for handling honey for sale, inquire about the require- ments you must meet. For convenience, the honey-extracting area should be on ground level so that you can move honey into it by hand truck either from the apiary or from a truck bed that is level w^ith an unloading area or ramp. Plan your extracting layout to provide a step- saving flow of equipment from the apiary, through the extraction pro- cess, and into the comb room. Look at several honey houses before building your own. The apiculture building on the Urbana-Champaign campus of the University of Illinois may provide ideas for your planning. The first step in removing honey from comb is uncapping — the re- moval of the wax seals over the cells. This job requires a sharp, heated knife to melt and slice off the cells on each side of the comb (Fig. 41). Summer Management: Honey Production 61 Uncapping knives. The one at top is heated electrically and the one at bottom is heated by steam. (Fig. 41) Commercial beekeepers often remove all the filled comb that projects beyond the edges of the frame. This procedure requires separation of large quantities of honey from the cappings and is not suitable for the beginner. He should remove only a thin layer of cappings and honey. After being uncapped, the comb is placed in an extractor that utilizes centrifugal force to throw the honey out of the cells and onto the side of the extractor. The honey runs to the bottom of the tank where it can be drained. Extractors vary in capacity from two frames to 72 frames. A two- frame extractor is suitable for a beekeeper with less than 15 or 20 colonies. With more colonies — up to 100 — he needs a four-frame extractor, either hand or power driven. The simplest extractors have a gear-driven basket within a tank. Combs are extracted on one side, and then lifted and reversed to complete the job. Reversible extractors have baskets that pivot to extract either side of a comb without lifting it. Extractors that remove honey from one side of the comb at a time, called tangential extractors, operate very rapidly. However, if turned too rapidly, they may break combs because of the weight of the honey. Extraction of honey in a motor-driven reversible extractor is done in three steps. First, about half the honey is removed from one side of the combs before turning or reversing them. Then the second side is completely extracted. Finally, the comb is turned again and the remain- ing honey is removed. The large extractors, holding 20 to 72 frames, are called radial extractors (Fig. 42). Combs are arranged in them like spokes in a wheel with the top bar at the rim. The honey flows from both sides of 62 Summer Management : Honey Production Placing an uncapped comb of honey in a 30-frame radial extractor. (Fig. 42) the comb to the walls of the extractor. The natural upward slant of each cell and the centrifugal force make the movement of the honey possible. No reversing is necessary but the extractor must be started slowly and operated for at least 20 minutes to prevent comb damage and remove the honey completely. After the honey is extracted, it contains air bubbles and bits of wax. Most of these can be removed by a system of bafifles and screens in a honey sump into which the honey flows from the extractor. They will also rise to the top of warm honey in a can or tank. The resulting foam can be skimmed off after one or more days depending on the tempera- ture of the lioney and the tank size. It is important to remove the wax before final heating and straining. Otherwise it may change the flavor and appearance of the final product. Honey packers generally prefer honey that has been only warmed and coarsely strained or settled. For final packing, honey is heated to 145° for 30 minutes and strained through 90-mesh strainer cloth. The heat liquefies any granules present and thereby retards granulation. It also kills yeasts that can ferment honey, usually after it has granulated. After the jars and cans are filled they should be allowed to cool before being stacked. Commercial honey processors use flash heating and rapid cooling to further prevent i nsnii II toi Summer Management : Honey Production 63 damage to honey by excess heat. Overheated honey is darkened and may even taste burned. Storage temperatures and the length of storage also afifect honey quality. Changes in the honey are kept at a reasonable level if it is stored at temperatures of 70° to 75° after processing. Un- processed honey is best stored below 50°. Comb honey must be handled carefully to prevent damage to the cappings. After being fumigated, full combs can be readied for sale by scraping the frames to remove propolis, and packaging them in cellophane and cardboard containers. Cut comb honey is cut out of the frames with a thin, sharp knife or with a special heated cutter. The pieces should be allowed to drain in a warm room to remove honey from the open cells on the edges. The pieces can be packaged in foil trays, in cellophane or plastic bags, or in plastic boxes (Fig. 43). Containers, labels, and special equipment of all types are available from beekeeping supply companies. The composition of honey is variable and complex. Honeys from different plant sources are different in composition. The main com- pounds of honey are sugars that make up 95 percent or more of the solids. The simple sugars ( levulose and dextrose) are present in the greatest amount, nearly 70 percent, and levulose is usually predominant. As many as 12 complex sugars including maltose are present in small quantities. Although sucrose (common table sugar) is found in high Cut comb honey in plastic boxes ready for labeling. (Fig. 43) 64 Summer Management : Honey Production concentrations in nectar, it makes up only 1 to 2 percent of honey on the average. In processing nectar, bees add invertase, an enzyme that sphts the sucrose into the simple sugars. Other enzymes in honey are diastase, catalase, and glucose oxidase. There are many acids in honey that contribute to its noticeably acid reaction (pH about 4). The pri- mary acid in honey is gluconic acid, with small quantities of at least 10 other acids present. Granulation of honey is a natural process of crystallization of some of the sugar from the solution. After granulation, honey can be re- turned to a liquid form by careful heating of the container with hot water or air. Some honeys granulate very coarsely and may ferment more easily at that time. Finely granulated honey, often called creamed honey or honey spread, can be made easily for home use or for sale. From 5 to 10 percent finely granulated honey is thoroughly mixed at room temperature with liquid honey of 17 to 18 percent moisture. The mixture will granulate smoothly in about a week of storage at 55° to 60°. The acids of honey react with many metals including steel and zinc used for galvanizing, and may cause damage to processing and storage equipment. For this reason, stainless steel is the most suitable material for such equipment. Piping of stainless steel, glass, or plastic approved for use in food-processing equipment is highly desirable. Galvanized extractors and tanks should be lined with a protective material approved for such use, similar to that used to line honey drums. Many products are available that are used regularly by the beverage and food indus- tries. ]\Iost types of paint are not suitable for coating honey' equipment and are worse than nothing at all. Some epoxy coatings are also unsuit- able because their solvents and other ingredients are not suitable for use in contact with honey. Marketing the Honey The beginning beekeeper with a few colonies has no problem in disposing of his honey. He often gives much of it away or, perhaps, sells some to neighbors. As he increases his number of colonies and improves his management, he must decide on how to market the honey. His choices include packing it in jars and cans and selling it to con- sumers, packing it for sale to stores or to wholesalers, or selling it unprocessed, in 60-pound cans or 55-gallon drums, to individuals or companies who pack it for resale. When the beekeeper sells his honey, he must conform to the requirements of the Illinois food, drug, and cosmetic act that is administered by the Illinois Department of Public I ney oe lev are Summer Management : Honey Production 65 Health. This act corresponds closely to the federal food, drug, and cosmetic act that governs all aspects of food production and labelling in interstate commerce. Copies of the law and general information may be obtained from the Division of Foods and Dairies, Department of Public Health, 130 North Franklin Street, Chicago, Illinois 60606. The labelling requirements for retail honey containers were revised in 1967. The following summary contains the principal requirements for labelling honey for sale in Illinois and in interstate commerce: 1. The word "honey" must appear in bold type, generally parallel to the base of the container. 2. Honey sold by the producer must bear his name and address, including his postal zip code. Individuals or tirms packing or distribut- ing purchased honey must include their name, address (including zip code), and words such as "Distributed by" or "Packed by." 3. Containers holding 1 pound or more but less than 4 pounds must show the weight in both pounds and ounces. For example: Net wt. 16 oz. (lib.) ; Net wt. 32 oz. (2 lb.) ; or Net wt. 48 oz. (3 lb.). 4. Containers holding less than 1 pound may show weight only in ounces; those holding 4 pounds or more may show weight in pounds only. For example: Net wt. 8 oz.; Net wt. 4 lb.; Net wt. 5 lb.; or Net wt. 10 lb. 5. The net weight must be printed in letters whose size is governed lornvei by the area of the principal display side of the container. The area is computed as follows: Rectangular packages: height X width of the principal display side. Cylindrical packages: Y^q X height X circumference of the package. Irregularly shaped packages: %o X total surface area or the entire area of the obvious display panel such as the top of the package. The minimum type sizes that must be used to show the weight are as follows: Area of display panel in square inches Minimum type size F^'^Pf 5 or less i/ie inch Between 5 and 25 i/8 inch Between 25 and 100 % 6 inch Between 100 and 400 i/^ inch 6. Each type size must have an equal clear space above and below it and a clear space to the left and right of the net-weight declaration ^m twice as wide as the letter "N" in the word "Net." nepn- ml itlikt eraieo! reaineii ■e. The at j5 ndib: storage nateria! )provd vanizM iorusf 66 Summer Management : Honey Production 7. The net-weight statement must be on the bottom 30 percent of panels with an area greater than 5 square inches as computed by the methods given above. The above information is an interpretation of the labeUing law. Copies of the entire law (PL 89-755), the provisions for its enforce- ment, and additional information may be obtained from the Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20201. Containers for honey should be new and clean. Drums for bulk honey can be reused and should be recoated as needed, but new gaskets are necessary each time the drums are filled. Five-gallon cans should not be reused. Both comb and extracted honey are sold and purchased by grades established by the United States Department of Agriculture. The standards for grading are not required, but they allow producers and packers to buy and sell a quality product based upon grades established jointly by the honey industry and the Department of Agriculture. The quality of extracted honey is measured by its flavor, its freedom from particles or sediment, its clarity, and its moisture content. Comb honey 1 1 is graded for many characteristics including the number of uncapped cells, attachment to the section or frame, uniform honey and cappings, and freedom from damage. Copies of Standards for Grades of Comb Honey and Extracted Honey are available from the Processed Prod- ucts Standardization and Inspection Branch, Fruit and Vegetable Divi- sion, Consumer and Marketing Service, U.S. Department of Agricul- ture, Washington, D.C. 20250. Color is not a factor of quality in the grading system but it is im- portant in the sale and purchase of honey, especially in large lots. Honey colors range from water white to dark amber as measured by two systems. In one, the USDA Permanent Glass Color Standards for Extracted Honey, the color of 2-ounce samples of honey is com- pared with the color of squares of tinted glass (Fig. 44). In the other, U.S. Department of Agriculture Permanent Glass Color Standards for Ex- tracted Honey. (Fig. 44) Summer Management : Honey Production 67 called the Pfund Color Grader, a wedge-shaped glass trough is filled with honey and matched in color with a colored glass wedge. The matching area on the wedge, measured in millimeters, gives a color rating for the honey sample. The moisture content, or soluble-solids content, of honey can be measured with a refractometer or a honey hydrometer. Refractom- eters cost $100 or more but are essential items of equipment for any- one dealing in large quantities of honey. Only a drop of honey is needed to obtain a direct reading of the moisture content. An attached thermometer indicates any needed temperature correction (Fig. 45). The honey hydrometer is a simple and inexpensive instrument capable of giving an accurate reading when carefully used. It is a weighted glass float that indicates the moisture content of honey by the depth to which it sinks in a warm sample of honey. The readings are corrected for the temperature and converted to percent moisture by using a table that comes with the instrument. Beekeepers who have a considerable quantity of honey for sale each year should routinely sample each lot of honey as it is extracted or put in containers (Fig. 46). Several samples should be taken from a day's output to get a reasonably accurate representation of the honey. All samples and the cans or drums must be clearly marked to relate them, and a record kept of the number of containers in each lot. A 1- or 2- pound sample will provide enough honey to send small samples to several buyers. If the beekeeper sends samples and knows the color and the moisture content of his honey, he is prepared to bargain for the best possible price for his honey. The U.S. Department of Agriculture provides valuable information about current prices and production in its Honey Market Nezvs. This publication is available without charge from the Fruit and Vegetable Division, Consumer and Marketing Ser- Hand refractom- eter in use for de- termining the mois- ture content of extracted honey. (Fig. 45) 68 Summer Management : Honey Production Filling a 60-pound can of honey. The small numbered sample jars can be filled with repre- sentative samples of each batch of honey. (Fig. 46) vice, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. The Federal government also operates a price support program for honey that allows beekeepers to borrow money on their crop until they can sell it at the best possible price. If they are unable to sell it above the support price, they may cancel the loan and deliver honey equal to the value of the loan. This program to stabilize honey marketing is carried out through county offices of the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- servation Service (ASCS). Local offices in Illinois can provide infor- mation about the farm storage loans and purchase agreements for honey. Beeswax. Beeswax is an important byproduct of beekeeping and a valuable ingredient of cosmetics, candles, polishes, and many spe- cialty items. It is also used in the pure form to make comb foundation. The beekeeper has several sources of beeswax including cappings from honey combs, damaged combs, and the bits and pieces of comb scraped from hive bodies and frames. From 10 to 12 pounds of wax from cappings is obtained for each 1,000 pounds of honey, depending on the comb spacing and yield per colony. An additional Y2 io }i pound per year can be saved from each colony by collecting all the burr combs and scrapings. It is good business to routinely melt very old combs and those with large areas of drone cells, wax-moth damage, and mold. These should be replaced by new frames with foundation to maintain good combs throughout the entire beekeeping operation. A deep super of old combs will yield about 2i/2 pounds of wax. Summer Management : Honey Production 69 ifUPlacing a comb in a solar wax melter. The wax pan is removed through the door in the front. A screen across the front of the pan for the combs holds back the slumgum while allowing melted wax to run into the lower con- tainer. (Fig. 47) Wax from cappings is light colored and of a high quality, and should not be mixed with darker wax. Cappings should be melted with an excess of water in an aluminum, stainless steel, enameled, tinned, or 70 Summer Management : Honey Production galvanized container. Do not use copper or uncoated steel containers because they discolor the wax. Allow the wax to cool slowly, scrape any impurities from the bottom of the cake, and store it until you have enough to sell. Large numbers of combs can be rendered in a steam chest or a hot water wax press. The combs can also be taken to a beekeeping supply company for rendering. There is a charge for the service based on the amount of wax recovered. The material called slumgum, which is the residue left when combs are melted in a solar melter or steam chest, is valuable because it contains up to 30 percent wax. It can be commer- cially rendered for a fee based on the amount of wax secured from the slumgum. The solar wax extractor is a handy piece of equipment for melting comb, cappings, and other sources of wax. It is a sloping pan within ai black, insulated box with a glass top, often of double glass (Fig. 47).. The heat of the sun melts wax quickly and it runs into a pan where itt can be removed in a cake the next morning. The extractor can be made any size to fit the needs of the beekeeper. However, it should be rela- tively shallow and large enough to expose several frames or excluders at a time. ft: The care you give the colony, or colonies, in the fall can be crucial to your success the following year. Because of this, fall management is often considered the starting point in providing strong colonies to pro- duce the next year's honey crop. Each colony should have enough honey and pollen to last until spring. In Illinois, this means 40 to 60 pounds of honey and as many combs with areas of stored pollen as possible. A well-filled deep hive body with some empty space in the center combs provides enough stores for a strong colony wintered in two hive bodies. It is more difficult to rate the pollen supply, but colonies with a shortage can be given combs from other colonies, or stored combs that contain pollen. Combs can be filled wnth trapped pollen as explained on page 81. Colonies without sufficient honey should be given full combs saved for the purpose, or fed enough sugar syrup or diluted honey to make at least 40 pounds of stored food. Bees winter best on combs that have been used for brood rearing. If possible, do not winter bees on all new honey combs, and be sure that any frames of foundation are replaced with drawn comb. Remove the excluder and all empty supers. If you have no other place to store empty combs, you can leave them on the hive above an inner cover with the center hole open. However, it is better to store combs where they cannot be damaged or blown over by the wind. See page 83 for infor- mation on fumigating stored combs. Weak or queenless colonies should be united with stronger colonies that have queens. See page 97 for details on how to unite colonies. Colonies in a single brood chamber do not winter well in Illinois. If you want to keep the individual small colonies rather than unite them, consider putting the small colony above a double division screen on a large colony. A double screen is a wooden frame holding two layers of wire screen, usually 8-mesh. The screens are sufficiently far apart that bees on either side cannot touch. A rim with an entrance cut in one end lets the division screen serve as a bottom for the top colony while the heat from the colony below helps to keep the smaller colony warm. To 71 72 Fall and Winter IManagement use the screen, remove the cover of the larger colony and put the divi- sion screen in place with the entrance toward the back of the hive (Fig. 48). Then put the small colony above the screen after making; certain that it has a good supply of stored honey of at least five or six. full frames. Good management includes a careful inspection for disease in the fall. If you follow a program of disease prevention with drugs and! antibiotics, each colony should be treated after the honey crop has been removed and while the bees are still active. For details see page 104. As the weather becomes cooler at the end of summer, field mice look for warm places to spend the winter. A nest in the lower corner of ai; bee hive is just such a place. For this reason it is necessary either to use the ^^-inch entrance or to restrict any deeper entrance used during: the summer. An entrance block, a piece of lath with an entrance slot, or a metal entrance reducer can be used. Do not make the entrance less- than 4 inches wide or cover it with hardware cloth because the bees thati die during the winter may block the entrance. Many beekeepers believe that a small top entrance is essential in winter to provide an outlet fori moisture produced by the colony. In experiments at the University oft Illinois, Dr. Milum found that colonies without top entrances survived the winter better than those with an upper opening, especially if thei bottom entrance was open the full width of the hive. Cellar wintering of bees and wrapping or packing of hives left outi of doors were once common in Illinois. Most bees are now wintered 1 A double division screen in place on top of a hive. The small entrance is suitable for winter but should be enlarged for use at other times of the year. (Fig. 48) Fall and Winter Management Ti without any special protection. However, in central and northern Illi- nois some form of winter packing may still be advantageous to the bees and the beekeeper. Those beekeepers who pack their hives report iis that these colonies are invariably stronger and in better condition than colonies that are left unprotected. During extended cold periods, a tit simple wrapping of lightweight black roofing paper may help warm the 111 ;olony enough to prevent starvation of bees that would otherwise be a unable to move to reach additional food. The paper can be stapled, IH ;leated, or tied around the hive and beneath the lid. If you use such kjI 1 wrap, be sure that the entrance to the hive will not be covered if the t( 3aper moves. t! Wind protection is important to good wintering. Shrubs, fences, or iii| jther artificial windbreaks help the colonies survive by slowing the loss loi 3f heat from the hives (Fig. 49). Snow may completely cover the e.N lives without damaging the bees but the hives should not be located ha ;vhere water may collect. The winter apiary site should also be on a e\i slope or in an area where cold air will flow away from the hives and ,ot collect around them. If your winter apiary location does not permit he sun to shine on the hives or is undesirable in other ways for winter- vfjng, plan to move the bees to a better location. Losses of bees during winter are often high in spite of increasing nowledge about the biology and management of honey bees. Many ees of all ages die in the hive. Losses appear to be greater in very ^n apiary in winter. The snow fence provides wind protection until the tvergreens grow taller. The hives face south and the slight slope allows air Irainage. (Fig. 49) 74 Fall and Winter Management large and very small colonies as compared with those of moderate size. It is not uncommon for more than half of the bees in a colony to die, and for 10 percent or more of the colonies to die. Starvation, either from lack of honey or from inability to reach the honey in extremely cold weather (cold starvation), is the most common cause of winter death of colonies. nyCISOELL^KTEOUS TEOHIKTIQUES IKT BEEKIEEP^msrO Confining Bees Bees can be confined to their hives for short periods to move them, to protect them from pesticides, or to keep them from bothering people or animals nearby. Whatever the method or material used to keep them from leaving the hive, it must be put in place at a time when the bees are not flying, either during the night or in cool or wet weather. The simplest closure is a V-shaped piece of window screen or hardware cloth pushed into the hive entrance (Fig. 50). Any other openings must also be screened or closed at the same time. This method of closing hives is suitable only for very short periods when the weather is not hot. With stronger colonies, or during hot weather, or for longer periods, the colony needs extra space in which to cluster. This can be provided by using an entrance screen and a top screen. These screens have wooden frames that give the bees space in which to cluster out- side the hive (Fig. 51). A shallow super with one screened surface makes a good top screen that can be stapled or cleated to the hive. Bees can also be confined by covering the hives with plastic sheet- ing, burlap, or other materials. The coverings are draped loosely over the hives and held down by soil around the edges. Black plastic sheeting is suitable for only a short period because it heats up rapidly in the sun. Burlap can be used to keep bees confined for a day or more. In hot weather it can be kept wet to cool the bees beneath it. Dividing Colonies Splitting a strong colony of bees into two or more separate units is an important technique in beekeeping. It provides new colonies to replace losses or to increase numbers of colonies. It is also a method of swarm control, and can be used to make up small colonies (nuclei) for rearing or holding queens. To divide a colony you must first find the queen as explained on page 40. If you are unable to find her in a large colony, put a queen excluder between the brood chambers and 75 76 Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping Closing a hive with a V-shaped piece of 8-mesh hardware cloth. (Fig. 50) A hive with top and ' entrance screens in place for moving. Bees can move into both screens to cluster and to ven- tilate the hive. (Fig. 51) Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping V close the hive. Three or more days later examine the colony again. The queen will be in the brood chamber that has combs with eggs. She is easier to find in a single hive body. Colonies may be divided initially within the same hive by using a double division screen as described on page 71. Place the old queen with about half the combs of brood, mostly unsealed if possible, in the bottom brood chamber. Add an extra hive body with empty combs or combs with some honey if it is needed. Put the double division screen on top of the second body with the entrance facing the rear of the hive. Above it put the second brood chamber containing five or six frames of brood, mostly sealed, and two combs of pollen and honey on each side. This hive body initially should contain about two-thirds of the bees. You may have to shake some extra bees into it from the combs of the bottom chamber (Fig. 52). The older field bees will return to the bottom story leaving the younger bees in the new colony on top. A caged queen should be introduced into the top colony within 2 hours for best results but no later than 24 hours after making the division. After the queen is accepted and laying well, the new colony can be put on a bottom board within the same apiary. Fewer bees will be lost, however, if it is moved at night to a new location 2 or more miles away. Divisions can be made in the same manner directly into a complete second hive. In this case, give the new colony more than half the bees and four to six frames of sealed brood. The hive may be placed near the parent colony. However, it is better to screen the entrance of the new iShaking bees from a comb into the hive. One or two sharp shakes remove most of the bees with Uttle antagonism if the bees are smoked first. (Fig. 52) 78 Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping ^ hive while making up the colony and then to move it to another loca- tion at least 2 miles away. Put the screened colony in the shade after you finish the division so that it will not be damaged by overheating. ' As soon as it is moved to the new location, smoke the entrance and take out the entrance screen. The same general system of dividing can be used to make small nucleus colonies. For a three-frame nucleus, take one or two frames of brood and bees and a frame of honey from a strong colony. Pick mostly sealed or emerging brood that fills only a third or one-half the frame if possible. Before you put all the combs into the hive, shake one or two additional frames of bees into it. Introduce a queen or a queen cell as soon as possible but not later than 24 hours after making the nucleus. Although the nucleus can be left in the home apiary, it will do better if it is moved to another location. New colonies of all sizes may be made from brood, bees, and combs from several colonies. Use the same general techniques as explained above and assemble the colony with sufficient bees and stored honey and pollen to get it started. In making divides and nuclei, use small- to medium-sized brood patterns in preference to very large areas of brood. The new colony may not be able to care for a large amount of brood. By using sealed brood, you reduce the number of bees in the parent colony and rapidly increase the number in the new colony. | •I Feeding Bees Honey and sugar. More honey bee colonies die from lack of honey than from any other cause. To prevent such losses the beekeeper must know when his colonies need additional food and the best way to give it to them. There are two main periods of the year when feeding is most often needed. The early spring period, after brood rearing begins, is the most critical one. Feeding may also be needed in the fall' if the summer nectar Row was a failure or if too much honey was taken from the hive for home use or for sale. A comb of honey put into the hive beside the brood nest is the simplest feeder. Combs of honey from hives with a surplus can be added to hives short of food, so long as American foulbrood disease is not present. Brush or shake bees from the combs before exchanging them. Extracted honey can be fed to colonies as syrup by diluting it one-fourth to one-half with warm water. Add 14 teaspoonful of sodium sulfathiazole per gallon for disease prevention. For directions and pre- cautions in using drugs see page 104. Honey syrup stimulates robbing in the apiary and should be given to the colonies late in the afternoon MiSCELXANEOUS TECHNIQUES IN BeEKEEPING 79 after most flight activity has ceased. Reduce the size of entrances of an}' weak colonies to minimize the chance of robbing getting started. Table sugar, either beet or cane, can be used in place of honey to feed bees. For spring feeding, mix it with an equal volume of water to make a light syrup. A heavier syrup of two volumes of sugar to one of hot water is more suitable for fall feeding to provide winter stores. Dry granulated sugar can also be used for feeding. It is put on the bottom board, in an open container in the hive, or on top of an inner cover around the open center hole. The bees must liquefy the sugar to use it and it is not always eaten as readily as sugar syrup. Do not use it for colonies that must have food immediately to survive. Sugar candy or fondant is a convenient form of food for bees if you have the equip- ment to make it. After being cooked to the proper temperature, it is beaten and then poured into shallow trays that fit the top of a hive. The candy solidifies and is fed to bees by inverting the tray over a hive beneath the cover. Brown sugar, molasses, and other similar materials containing sugar should not be used for feeding bees. There are several types of equipment and methods used to feed syrup to honey bee colonies. The beginner often uses an entrance feeder that holds a quart jar. It is easy to use but has some disadvan- tages. For package colonies and other small colonies the syrup in the feeder gets too cold and is too far from the cluster during cool weather. If you use one, put it on the side of the entrance nearest the brood nest and close part of the entrance beside the feeder to reduce the chance of robbing. The division-board feeder hangs inside the hive in place of a frame (Fig. 53). It holds about 2 quarts and can be refilled without removing ^^i mm o A division-board feeder within a hive body. A wooden float is needed inside the feeder for the bees to stand on when taking syrup. (Fig. 53) 80 Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping it from the hive. It provides food quickly to strong colonies but is not a good choice for slow, stimulative feeding. The best all-purpose feeder is the friction top can or similar large containers. Five- and ten-pound honey cans, unused paint cans, and gallon glass or plastic jars can be filled vv^ith syrup and inverted above the cluster. The feeder can be set w^ithin an empty hive body, either on the frames or over the hole of an inner cover (Fig. 54). Leave part of the inner cover hole exposed so that bees can get out. If the feeder leaks, the bees will collect the syrup and keep it from running outside the hive where it will attract robber bees. For slow feeding and stimu- lation, punch five to 10 holes in the feeder lid with a threepenny nail. For winter feeding or emergency feeding, use 20 to 30 holes. There are two emergency methods of feeding to give food quickly to a single colony or to a group of colonies. One method makes use of open tubs or troughs filled with sugar syrup. Corks, wooden racks, or corncobs are added to give the bees a place to land. The tubs are placed in the apiary beneath a temporary cover to protect them from rain. This is a poor method of feeding because the weaker colonies may not A plastic jar in use as a feeder over an inner cover. An empty hive body and the cover enclose the feeder. (Fig. 54) I I Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping 81 get the food they need to survive. Neighboring colonies can also gather the syrup and robbing may become a problem. A better emergency method makes use of combs filled w^ith heavy sugar syrup. To fill them, use a sprinkling can, a coffee can with the bottom full of nail holes, or a garden sprayer free of insecticide residues. Hold the empty combs over a tub or large pan and sprinkle or spray the syrup into the cells of the comb. With both sides filled, a comb will hold several pounds of syrup. Place two or more filled combs next to the cluster of any colony that needs food. Pollen, pollen supplements, and substitutes. Pollen for feeding bees is obtained by the use of pollen traps that remove fresh pollen pellets from the legs of incoming field bees. (See page 97.) For only a few colonies, combs can be filled with the pellets and used immediately or stored for later use. For larger numbers of colonies this method is impractical. To fill a comb, pour fresh pellets from a pollen trap into the cells on one side of an empty comb, tap the comb several times to settle the pellets, and put it into a strong colony overnight. The bees will pack the pollen into place and the process can be repeated the next day for the other side of the comb. The pellets from the trap also may be dried or frozen for later use. Pollen substitutes are protein materials, used alone or in mixtures, that bees can use temporarily for rearing brood. Among them are expeller-processed soy flour, brewers' yeast, casein, and dried milk. When the materials are mixed with natural pollen, they are called pollen supplements. They are available from beekeeping supply com- panies and from feed companies. The food can be given to bees as a dry mix in open feeders in the apiary or as a moist cake or patty on top of the frames in the hive (Fig. 55). For open feeding, a pan or dish of the mixture can be placed in any open-front box with an overhanging cover to keep out rain and dew (Fig. 56). Large-mesh chicken wire over the opening lets bees in but keeps out other animals. There are many different formulas for pollen mixtures; they may be purchased ready to use or mixed as follows: Dry mix: 2 lb. brewers' yeast 6 lb. soy flour 2 lb. dry, ground pollen pellets, if available Pollen cake: 15 lb. soy flour, or soy flour-brewers' yeast mixture 5 lb. dried pollen pellets, if available 13 lb. water 1 271b.sugarh"S^^^y^^P 82 Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping Pollen cake in the hive above the brood nest. (Fig. 55) Bees visiting a box containing dry pollen mix. The lid is hinged for ease of refilling the pan containing the mixture. (Fig. 56) Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping 83 Add enough warm water to the pollen pellets to make a paste. Stir the pollen paste into the sugar syrup and add the soy flour. Knead the mixture into a smooth dough. Add extra water or soy flour if needed. Put 1/2 to 1 pound of the dough between sheets of waxed paper and flatten to i4- to ^-inch thickness. If pollen pellets are not available, use 20 pounds of plain soy flour or a pollen substitute mixture. Begin feeding the dry mix or pollen cake in February or early March and make it available to the bees continually until natural pollen is available. Fumigating Stored Combs Honey combs not protected by a strong colony of bees must be fumigated to prevent damage from the greater wax moth and other moth pests. A beekeeper must assume that any equipment removed from the hives during the active season may be infested. Moth eggs and young larvae are difficult to see. The equipment must be fumi- gated to kill all stages of the moth (egg, larva, pupa, and adult) and guarded against later infestation as long as it is in storage. There are many fumigants that kill wax moths including cyanide, methyl bromide, carbon disulphide, sulfur dioxide, paradichlorobenzene (PDB), and ethylene dibromide (EDB). However, all the materials are toxic to humans, some of them extremely so, and they must be used carefully according to the directions on the label and with all necessary precautions. Only paradichlorobenzene (PDB) and ethylene dibromide (EDB) are suitable for the beginning beekeeper. The others should be used only by the commercial beekeeper who has the facilities and experience to use them properly. Ethylene dibromide is a heavy, clear liquid that is nonflammable and nonexplosive. It forms a heavier-than-air gas that kills all stages of the wax moth including the egg. Equipment to be fumigated should be tightly stacked out of doors or in a well-ventilated room not being used by people during the 24 to 48 hours needed for fumigation. Place 1 to 2 tablespoon fuls of EDB on an absorbent pad beneath the cover of each stack of up to eight full-depth supers of comb. The larger quantity is needed for temperatures below 60°. This material is suit- able for combs containing honey as well as empty combs. After fumi- gation, ventilate the equipment for at least 24 hours before using it. Paradichlorobenzene is a white crystalline material that vaporizes slowly in air. The gas is heavier than air, nonflammable, and nonex- plosive. Place approximately 6 tablespoonfuls (3 ounces) of the crystals on a paper beneath the cover of a stack of not more than five full- depth supers. The supers should be tightly stacked, with any holes and 84 MiSCELXANEOUS TECHNIQUES IN BEEKEEPING large cracks covered with tape. PDB kills adult moths and larvae but not the eggs. It also repels moths and should be kept in the stacks at all times for best results. Do not use PDB on combs containing honey because it makes it toxic and inedible. After being treated v^ith PDB, empty combs should be well aired before being used. If you have only a few supers of stored combs, you should check them regularly during the warm season for any sign of wax moth. For larger amounts of comb, it is better to fumigate routinely at about monthly intervals unless each stack is protected by PDB. Without such precautions you may find one or more stacks of valuable combs reduced to worthless webs and debris. Hiving Swarms Swarms are a problem to the beekeeper and to the person who is confronted with them in his yard or some other location. The beginning beekeeper can use them to gain additional colonies or to strengthen established ones. However, the time and expense of obtaining them is often more than the small value of the bees themselves. An experi- enced beekeeper should consider swarm catching a service and charge accordingly for his time and expenses. Swarms are not always gentle and you should wear a veil and use a smoker while working with them. Prepare a single-story hive with nine combs, either empty or partially filled with honey. Foundation is less suitable but can be used if you have no empty combs available. If the swarm is close to the ground, or clustered on a branch that can be cut off, smoke the bees and shake them into the open hive or in front of it. In some cases you may have to shake the bees into a pan, burlap bag, or other container in order to carry them to a hive. If you are successful in getting the queen with the rest of the swarm, the bees will enter the hive and make themselves at home. They should be moved that night to a permanent location. The swarm colony can be allowed to develop, or can be used to strengthen another colony. If you know from which colony a swarm came, you may put it back after correcting the condi- tions that caused swarming to develop. Swarms sometimes come from colonies infected with American foulbrood disease. The honey carried by the bees can infect the brood of the new colony. This minor danger can be eliminated by hiving all swarms on foundation and immediately feeding them one gallon of sugar syrup containing 14 teaspoon of sodium sulfathiazole. Swarms hived on comb can also be fed in the same way. Whether or not you feed the medicated syrup, carefully inspect the colony for disease at least twice before adding another hive body with combs or foundation. Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping 85 Identifying Apiaries and Equipment Hives and apiaries located away from the beekeeper's home should be marked to show ownership. Such identification helps to prevent vandalism and theft because it indicates that someone owns the bees. Otherwise people frequently believe that bees have been abandoned because they do not see anyone visit the apiary. Identification is also essential if beekeepers are to be notified of pesticide applications or other farm operations afl:ecting their colonies. One form of identification is the owner's name and address stencilled in large letters on the hives or on a prominent sign beside the apiary. The letters should be at least one inch high so that a person who is afraid of the bees can read the sign at a distance. Frames and other wooden hive parts can be identified by names or symbols stencilled, stamped, or branded on the wood (Fig. 57). A branding iron and propane torch used to identify frames and other wooden equipment. (Fig. 57) Keeping Records Beekeeping records are of two general types — management and financial. Management records include all the details of the work and observations related to keeping bees. If the information is recorded regularly, it will soon be valuable for planning work, for increasing your knowledge of the biology of honey bees, and for relating manage- 86 Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping ment to expenses and income. Even a simple diary kept up to date can be a worthwhile and enjoyable part of keeping bees. Some of the things to record are local weather data, dates on which nectar and pollen plants bloom, colony losses, colony weight records, and the dates of doing such jobs as spring inspection, supering, removing honey, and extracting. Financial records are essential for anyone who keeps enough col- onies to sell honey. They should be detailed enough to make a financial summary each year for your own information and for computing in- come taxes and other reports required for business. The Farm Record Book available for $1 from the Office of Publications, 123 Mumford Hall, Urbana, Illinois 61801, can be modified for keeping detailed records of a beekeeping business. An apiary record booklet (ID 29) is available for 42 cents from the Mailing Room, AES Building, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47906. It includes space for labor records, cash expenses and receipts, inventory, and summaries of the year's records. Bank-operated record-keeping services can be adapted for beekeep- ing enterprises as well as for farm businesses. They simplify record keeping for tax purposes and may prove helpful in making short- or long-term loans. Lending institutions need net worth statements and cash flow records in support of loan applications. Killing Bees Honey bee colonies should be killed when they become infected with American foulbrood disease, when they are living in the walls of a building or some other unsuitable location, or when bee equipment must be freed quickly of all bees. Any material used to kill a colony in a hive must have no residual effect that would prevent reuse of the combs or wooden parts. Insecticides cannot be used for this reason. Although it is highly toxic, the best material to use is powdered calcium cyanide, sold as Cyanogas A-Dust. In contact with water or moisture from the air it releases cyanide gas. The material is extremely dangerous and must be used only outdoors and with proper precautions to avoid breathing the gas or dust. When not in use, it should be kept in a locked, dry place. Kill the bees in a hive when they are not flying, either in the evening or early morning. Sprinkle a tablespoonful of the dust on a piece of paper or cardboard several inches square and slip it into the hive entrance. If you are dealing with a strong colony, be sure to spread the dust over a rather large area. The dying bees will sometimes cover Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping 87 a small pile of dust and prevent it from vaporizing properly. Close the entrance and leave the hive alone for at least 30 minutes to allow the gas to dissipate. Colonies in buildings should be killed only with insecticides such as carbaryl (Sevin), malathion, or chlordane. Fumigants, such as cyanide gas, are too dangerous for this purpose. It is important to first locate the brood nest in the wall to learn whether it can be reached by insecticide sprayed or dusted into the flight hole. Sometimes the brood nest is a long distance from the entrance. By tapping and listen- ing you can locate the main group of bees on a cold day or at night when the bees are not flying. Apply the dust or spray at the entrance or through a hole drilled close to the brood nest. Use the material at the concentration recommended on the label for control of garden insects, wasps, and ants. After the bees have been killed, the dead bees and comb should be removed from the wall and burned or buried. The location will be attractive to other swarms unless all the holes and cracks are sealed shut. Moving Bees Illinois beekeeping is gradually becoming more migratory as more colonies are moved to sources of nectar and are used for pollination. Even those beekeepers who don't regularly move their hives must sometimes move them short or long distances. The field bees from hives moved short distances — a few feet to as much as a mile or more — tend to return to the original hive location. As they fly out into familiar territory they use the landmarks and flight paths that bring them back to the old hive location. If one hive of a group is moved a short distance, its returning field bees will join hives beside the old location. It is better, if possible, to move all the hives together, a few yards at a time, when relocating them a short distance. Move the bees in the evening or early morning after thor- oughly smoking the entrance and any other openings. You may leave the entrance open or screen it closed with a folded piece of window screen or 8-mesh hardware cloth. (See Figure 50.) Careful handling usually makes it unnecessary to fasten the hive parts together to move colonies within an apiary or close to it. However, if you want to fasten them together, do so at least 4 hours before moving the bees. Most bee moving involves distances great enough to put the field bees into territory unfamiliar to them. No exact minimum distance can be given because it varies with each area and with the foraging distances of the field bees. In some areas a 1-mile move is sufficient, 88 Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping but a good average distance is 2 miles. Naturally, the farther you move the bees the less likely is the chance that some foragers will return to the old location. The best time to move colonies is about dusk when most of the bees are no longer flying. Early morning is less suitable because the increasing light intensity and rising temperature make the bees eager to leave the hive. If you have difficulties, it is better to have the extra time available at night. A cool, rainy day is also a good time to move bees at any hour so long as the bees are not flying. The beginning beekeeper who moves bees by truck or trailer should make preparations to complete the job without accidents. Prepare the colonies a day or more ahead of the move by fastening the hive parts together. Use hive staples, lath, or steel or plastic strapping. If you use staples don't put more than four between any two hive parts. Drive them in so they make an angle of about 45 degrees with the Hive staples in place to hold hive parts together for moving. (Fig. 58) Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping 89 crack where the hive parts meet (Fig. 58). Lath cleats are placed on opposite sides of the colony and nailed in place with two or more three- penny or fourpenny nails in each hive part. Be sure to smoke the hive well before you hit it with the hammer. Steel strapping is easy to use and holds the hives tightly but it requires special, fairly expensive equip- ment. Plastic tapes are equally good and are easier to fasten with sim- ple equipment. In hot weather, especially with strong colonies, moving screens should be used in place of the regular hive cover. Cover an empty shallow super or similar wooden frame with window screen or 8-mesh hardware cloth and place it, screen side up, over the hive. (See Figure 51.) The bees can cluster in the space and ventilate the colony through the screen. Fasten the hive together with the screen in place. Cut an entrance screen for each hive the exact length of the entrance and about 4 inches wide. Fold it into a loose V that will slip into the entrance and stay in place. Seal or plug all other holes in the hive. When you are ready to load the hives, put on a veil and light a smoker. Smoke the hive entrance well and wait a minute or two before slipping in the entrance screens. If bees are clustered on the front of the hive you may have to smoke them more than once and wait several minutes before they all go into the hive. Place the hives in a truck or trailer with the entrances facing forward. Arrange the hives as close together as possible in order to reduce bouncing and shifting while enroute and tie them in place if possible. At the new location put all the hives in place, smoke the entrances well, and remove the entrance screens immediately. You may remove the top screens at this time or leave them in place with a cover over them until you have time to remove them. The advanced amateur or the commercial beekeeper usually moves bees without entrance or top screens except on occasions when special precautions are needed. Hives moved regularly should have the bottom boards nailed in place and should be equipped with covers that are the same width as the hive bodies. Proper hive equipment and a flat-bed truck with hooks on which to tie the ropes reduce problems in moving bees (Fig. 59). A typical move by a commerical beekeeper may take place as follows. At dusk he drives into the bee yard and prepares to load the hives onto the truck with its headlights off but with the running lights on and engine running. The running lights give him some light to see by without attracting bees, and the vibration of the engine helps to calm the bees after they are loaded onto the truck. With the help of another man, or with a hive loader, he quickly places 90 AIlSCELXANEOUS TECHNIQUES IN BEEKEEPING Moving bees with an electric hive loader. (Fig. 59) %mi' ■"^T'T Cradle of hive loader with control buttons. Spring-loaded clamps fit into the hive handholds to support the hive. (Fig. 60) Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping 91 the hives, one to three tiers deep, in rows of five across the truck. He smokes each colony before loading it and periodically smokes the bees on the truck if they show signs of unrest. As soon as the load is in place, he ties each row using a trucker's hitch and a good quality ^-inch hemp or polypropylene rope. At the new location he turns off his headlights, leaves the engine running, and lights a smoker. x\fter smoking the entire load, he unties the ropes and unloads the hives. He is ready to leave the apiary as soon as his smoker is out and the ropes coiled. Hive loaders make bee moving a one-man task. They are also useful for handling honey supers and other equipment. (See Figures 59 and 60.) Heavy-duty loaders can handle two hives on a pallet or one above the other for loading two tiers at a time. A tractor with a fork lift can be used for loading pallets with six or more hives. Such pal- letized hives are preferred by apple growers in Illinois for use in hilly orchards where a tractor must move the bees to their locations among the trees. The hives are strapped to the pallets and tied with ropes to the truck. A permit is required to move colonies of honey bees or used equip- ment between counties in Illinois. Before issuing the permit, an apiary inspector must have inspected the bees within 60 days of the date the bees are to be moved. For inspection and permits contact the xA.piary Division, Illinois Department of Agriculture, Springfield, Illinois 62705. Queen Bees The queen is all-important to the colony, and the techniques of handling and introducing queens are important to success in beekeeping. After learning to find the queen and to evaluate her quality, you must learn to handle her and replace her if necessary. The best way to pick up a queen is to grasp both pairs of wings between your thumb and forefinger without pressing her body, espe- cially her abdomen. After getting her up ofif the comb, hold her against the forefinger of the other hand and trap at least two of her legs with your thumb. Release her wings and you are ready to mark the queen or clip her wings (Fig. 61). Before handling a queen, you can practice the technique on drones. Virgin queens may sting occasionally but a laying queen will almost never do so. Queens are clipped by cutting across one pair of wings to remove about one third of the longer wing. A fine pair of scissors such as manicure scissors can be used. Clipping once was considered to be a method of swarm control because the first swarm came back when 92 Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping Holding a queen bee in preparation for marking her. Her legs are held gently but firmly between the thumb and forefinger. (Fig. 61) the queen was unable to fly. Now the only reason to clip a queen's wings is to indicate her age. If you wish to do this, clip the left wing in odd years, right wing in even years. Clipping, however, may lead to supersedure of the queen. Queens are marked to make them easier to find in the hive and to indicate their age. Queens of the dark-colored races (Caucasian and Carniolan) should always be marked because they are more difficult to find than Italian queens. Hot- fuel-proof model airplane dope is a satisfactory marking material that comes in a wide range of inex- pensive, bright colors. Apply a dot of the dope to the queen's thorax, being careful not to get it on her antennae, wings, or membranes. You can practice on drones before attempting to mark a queen. Use a fine brush or, better, a round-headed pin stuck in a cork. Hold the queen briefly after marking her to let the mark dry, and then release her on a comb. In Europe an international marking system of five colors is used to relate the queen's age to her marking. The colors and years represented are as follows: 1968 — red; 1969 — green; 1970 — blue; 1971- — white; 1972 — yellow; 1973 on — repeat sequence of colors. A German bee-supply company, listed in the section on equipment dealers, sells queen-marking sets with numbered plastic disks in the five different colors. They are of value if you wish to identify each queen individually. The company also sells marking tubes that can be used to hold worker bees for marking. (See Figure 62 for examples.) I Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping 93 Bee-marking equipment. Marking disks, in five colors, are used on queens or workers. Worker bees held in the tube are marked through the netting. Model airplane dope in the vials is applied with the head of a pin stuck in the cork. (Fig. 62) Queen introduction is an important part of bee management. A new queen introduced into a mean colony can change its temper in a few weeks and a young queen can more than pay for herself by the increased honey production of her colony. Poor queens should be replaced whenever they are found, and most colonies should be re- queened every 2 years. The first step in replacing a queen is to obtain a young, mated queen from a bee breeder. The queen, together with six to 12 attendant bees and a supply of queen-cage candy for food, will arrive in a small wooden cage with a screen top (Fig. 63). Give the bees a few drops of water on the screen as soon as the cage arrives. If you cannot introduce the queen that day, give the bees water twice a day and keep them in a warm place out of the sun. There are holes in each end of the cage that are covered with cork, cardboard, or a piece of metal. In preparation for introducing the queen, remove the cover from the hole on the candy end to expose the candy. The next step in introduction is to make certain that the colony that is to receive the queen is queenless and without queen cells. Remove and kill the old queen, if there is one, and crush all queen cells with a hive tool to kill the larvae in them. Within 2 hours, place the new, caged queen in the hive. Before that, however, the attendant bees (workers) in the queen cage should be removed. Many queens are 94 ^Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping Queens and attendants in two types of queen cages. One compartment is filled with candy that serves as food for the bees when they are shipped by mail. (Fig. 63) introduced with the attendants present but, because the colony may be antagonistic towards them, the queen will have a better chance of intro- duction by herself. Remove the cork and let the bees and queen out on a window of a room in which the lights have been turned off. They will buzz and fan their wings but will rarely sting. As soon as they are all out, pick up the queen and put her, head first, into the hole in the cage. If you don't want to pick her up, hold the cage close to the queen and "herd" her into it with your fingers. She is then ready to be introduced to the colony just prepared. Wedge the cage, candy end up, between the top bars of two frames in the center of the brood nest (Fig. 64). Close the hive and do not disturb it for at least a week. There are several other types of queen-introducing cages (Fig. 65). One of the most useful is the push-in cage, made of either metal or cardboard. Both kinds work on the same principle, but the metal cage requires the addition of queen-cage candy. Shake the bees off a comb of emerging brood from a colony ready for a new queen. Place the queen beneath the cage on an area with a few cells of honey and emerging bees. Press the cage at least i g inch into the comb. Replace the comb in the brood nest and leave the hive alone for at least a week. Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping 95 Introducing a caged queen be- tween the combs of a queenless col- ony. (Fig. 64) Old and new types of queen-introducing cages. Included are a wooden mail- ing cage shown at top center, a metal push-in cage at right center, and paper push-in cages at bottom left and right. (Fig. 65) 96 JkllSCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES IN BEEKEEPING The queen will be released when the bees eat the queen-cage candy in the tube or tear the cardboard cage to pieces. Queens are most readily accepted by colonies during a nectar flow. At other times you can improve your chances of success in introduction by feeding the colony a light syrup for several days before and after putting the new queen in the hive. Queen rearing is one of the most fascinating parts of beekeeping but is beyond the scope of this circular. When you have mastered keeping bees for honey production, try queen rearing. Books on the subject are available at libraries and from beekeeping supply companies. Repelling Bees When robbing gets started in an apiary, it may be necessary to repel robber bees from weak colonies, open hives, and any equipment stacked in the apiary. The first thing to do is reduce the size of entrances of all weak colonies or nuclei. Stuff grass, leaves, or similar materials into the entrance so that only a small open area is left to be defended by the bees. To make it easier for the bees to remove the material later, do not push it in too tightly. If you must continue to work, expose as little of the hive as possible. Use the cover, excluder, and wet cloths if necessary to keep bees from entering the supers. A very weak solu- tion of carbolic acid (phenol), just strong enough to smell, can be used to wet the cloths or to sprinkle on the outside of hives or empty equipment that bees are attempting to enter. Tliere are no effective repellents available for use on crop plants to reduce insecticide damage to bees. It is also difficult to repel bees from their accustomed watering places such as bird baths and other places where they are not wanted. The mandibular gland secretion of honey bees acts as a repellent to other bees. Research on this secretion may lead to discovery of materials that will keep bees out of places where they are not wanted. Transferring Bees Many publications have been written about transferring bees from primitive hives, buildings, and trees to modern hives. They usually suggest tearing open the colony and fitting the combs into new frames. Another method uses a screen cone or bee escape over the flight hole so that bees can come out but not reenter the hole. The displaced bees are supposed to enter a hive located beside the entrance. Transferring bees is no job for the beginning beekeeper, and it is not worthwhile for the experienced one who can obtain all the bees Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping 97 he needs by dividing his colonies. Rather than risk the possibility of being seriously stung for little reward, you should resist the temptation to transfer a colony and, instead, should kill the bees or leave them alone. If you want to try removing bees from a building, do the job for a fee, not just for the bees and any honey in the colony. You might consider transferring bees as a sport or a form of recreation, but it is not a good way to begin beekeeping or to increase your number of colonies. Trapping Pollen Trapped pollen is of value for feeding bees. It will become in- creasingly important in Illinois as our natural sources of pollen become scarcer and as we use more colonies for spring pollination, such as for apples. A market may develop for pollen for use by commercial bee- keepers to feed their colonies. Pollen traps vary in some features of design but all of the available models have a double screen of 5-mesh hardware cloth that scrapes some of the pollen pellets from the legs of incoming pollen-collecting bees (Fig. 66). The pollen falls through another screen into a box or tray where it is inaccessible to the colony and can be removed without disturbing the bees. The traps remove only part of the incoming pollen and they stimulate colonies to collect more. They probably reduce honey production if used on the same colony for more than a week or two at a time. However, the value of the pollen for supplemental feeding can easily offset the loss of part of the honey crop from a few colonies. The pollen should be collected from the traps at least three times per week and dried or frozen for storage. If you wish to dry the pollen, use shallow layers exposed to the air or heated at moderate tem- peratures (not over 140°) in an oven. Ants, wax-moth larvae, and small beetles are often found in the pollen. The ants can be discouraged by use of sticky barriers or pans of oil surrounding the supports for the hive (Fig. 66). Rain ruins pollen quickly and all traps seem to be vul- nerable to it. In selecting a pollen trap, choose the design that will best keep rain out and provide the maximum area of ventilation for the hive. Uniting Bees Weak colonies are often liabilities instead of assets. This is espe- cially true when they have poor queens or have been queenless so long that laying workers are present. Such colonies will not make any honey and are not good risks for wintering. They should be united with a 98 Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping Pollen trap and stand that fit beneath the hive. Bees enter through the wide entrance and crawl upward into the hive through the double screen. The pollen falls through the bottom screen and is removed on a tray from the rear of the hive. (Modified from an original design by the Ontario Agricul- tural College in Canada.) (Fig. 66) moderately strong colony with a good queen. Uniting two weak col- onies will not produce one strong colony. Kill any queen present in the weak colony and place the hive, with- out a bottom board, above a single sheet of newspaper over the open top of the stronger colony (Fig. 67). Punch a few small slits in the paper to make it easier for the bees to remove it. In hot weather wait AIlSCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES IN BeEKEEPIXG 99 rf Uniting a small colony with a larger one by the paper method. (Fig. 67) until late afternoon so the heat and lack of ventilation will not damage the upper colony. The bees will remove the paper with little fighting and the colonies will be united. Any colonies united in the fall should be checked again before winter to be sure that the clusters are together ^nd that the hive has sufificient stores for winter. Although the newspaper method is the safest way to unite bees and causes few losses of bees, colonies may be united without the precau- 100 Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping tions mentioned above. You can unite bees from several hives in the same way as you can make divides and nuclei from frames of brood and bees from several colonies. If none of the queens are of special value, put all the bees together without finding or killing any queens. n-i The youngest queen is most likely to survive and only rarely will all of ' the queens be killed. The united colony should be checked after a week *^' or two for the presence of the queen and its general condition and arrangement. When colonies are united, the returning field bees from the relocated hives are disoriented for a few days. They soon join other colonies in the vicinity of their original hive and settle down with only minor fighting. insei tfjint Bro^ tavi rm ir Ifiltl itilti DISEASES, FESTS, J^ISTID FESTIOIDES .^.FinEOTIIISrGl- XiOlsTElT BEES The honey bee is subject to many diseases and pests as are other insects and hvestock. The diseases differ in their severity but all of them can be prevented or controlled by proper management. Such man- agement includes knowing and recognizing the symptoms of diseases, inspecting colonies regularly, and applying control measures promptly when disease is found. Drugs and antibiotics are effective in preventing disease but cannot substitute for good management. They must be used at the proper time and dosage to avoid contamination of honey. The diseases of bees are usually divided into two classes — those that attack the developing stages (the brood), and those that attack adult bees. In general, the brood diseases are more serious and their symptoms are more definite and distinctive than those of the adult diseases. It takes experience and close observation to distinguish a dis- eased larva or pupa from a healthy one, or one dead from other causes. This experience can be gained only by frequent examination of the combs of a colony. This is one of the reasons why the beginning bee- keeper must open his colonies regularly. Brood Diseases American foulbrood. This disease, usually called AFB, has al- ways been a problem in beekeeping. It is caused by a bacterium, or germ, called Bacillus larvae, which has a long-lived, resistant spore that can remain dormant for more than 50 years in combs and honey. When food containing spores is fed to a young larva, the spores germinate and multiply until they kill the developing bee just after its cell is sealed. Until that time no symptoms of the infection are visible except perhaps a slight graying or dullness of the usually glistening white immature insect. The infected bee dies as a larva stretched lengthwise in the cell, or as a new pupa with the body features of an adult bee. The capping of an infected cell may be slightly sunken and darker than healthy ones around it. x\dult bees often puncture the cappings of in- fected cells and may remove them entirely. Since there are also holes 101 102 Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees II in cells containing healthy larvae being capped, you must learn to dis- tinguish them from abnormal ones. Worker, drone, and queen larvae and pupae are all susceptible to American foulbrood. The larva or pupa that dies of AFB always lies perfectly straight on the lower side of the cell (Fig. 68). It loses its pearly white color and rapidly turns light brown similar to the color of coffee with cream. As it continues to decay and become dried, it turns dark brown and, finally, it turns into a black dried scale on the lower side of the cell. Other characteristic symptoms of American foulbrood are the some- what glossy, uniform color of the dead larva or pupa, and the melted look as the body and the body wall rot. Sometimes the bacteria make the pupal tongue stick to the top of the cell. When this happens, the tongue looks like a smooth, fine thread extending vertically across the cell. However, many advanced cases of American foulbrood do not show this symptom. The bacteria rot the skin of the developing bee and turn the body into a slimy mass that becomes stickier as it dries. This condition is the basis for the "ropiness" test that can be used to aid in diagnosing the disease. When making a diagnosis, do not touch the suspected cell, other than to remove the capping, until you have carefully examined its color, position, and other features. Only then should you touch the dead remains with a straw, toothpick, or match stick. Do not use a hive ^i^ ilv ^ '^ \ ^'"^^^"'***^k 4 ^ t- ^^ ^ ' ' .#,- *p^ 'C^ \^' ^/^^^ ▼ .. ; *:• A dead larva in- fected with Amer- ican foulbrood shown head on. It shows the typical melted appearance, even color, and straight position in the cell. The cell walls and cappings were broken to ex- pose the larva. (Fig. 68) Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees 103 tool for this purpose. Watch to see what happens when you poke the remains. The larva or pupa with AFB will often collapse into a rubbery mass. Stir it with the stick and withdraw it slowly. If it strings or "ropes" out, see how far it will pull out. More important however, is what happens when the string breaks. If the cell is infected with American foulbrood, the mass on the stick should look like a drop with no sign of the drawn-out string. The remains left in the cell should be smooth with no sign of the drawn-out piece. In contrast, a cell infected with European foulbrood usually strings out and breaks off like a piece of dough or taffy. The odor of American foulbrood is distinctive but is not a reliable indicator because people's sensitivities to odors vary so widely, and the odor may be strong or weak. The odor is similar to that of old- fashioned animal glues that are now rarely used. However, it is better to rely on your eyes to diagnose the disease. The black scales of cells infected with American foulljrood, blend in color with dark combs and are difficult to recognize. To see them, hold the comb so that sunlight strikes the lower side of the cells. The faint outline of the scale and the slightly raised head portion of it will be evident in infected cells. When examining combs of dead colonies, look for any sign of scales. They may be the only disease symptom present in the hive. American foulbrood is spread by the exchange of infected honey and combs between colonies, either by the beekeeper or by robber bees. Infected colonies rarely recover and as they become weakened and die, they are often robbed by bees from nearby colonies. Reduce the size of the entrance of any weak colony, and close any dead colony and remove it from the apiary. You must be certain that weak or dead colonies do not have AFB before you exchange any combs or honey from them or unite them with other colonies. If you need help in inspecting your colonies or diagnosing disease, it is available without charge from the Apiary Division, Department of Agriculture, Springfield, Illinois 62705. The best time for inspection is the period from mid-March to about June 1st, before the nectar flow- begins. Samples of diseased comb for laboratory examination can be sent to the Bee Pathology Laboratory, Entomology Building A, Agricultural Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland 20705. They may also be sent to the Extension Apiculturist, Depart- ment of Horticulture, 107B Horticulture Field Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, LTrbana, Illinois 6180L Select a sample of brood comb about 5 inches square that contains large num- 104 Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees bers of affected cells. Mail it in a strong cardboard or wooden box without an airtight wrapping. Samples that are crushed or moldy because of improper packing make diagnosis impossible. Illinois state law requires the burning of colonies of bees infected with American foulbrood. The colony must be killed and all the con- tents of the hive burned, including bees, combs, frames, and honey. (See page 86 for directions for killing bees.) The fire should be built in a pit and the ashes covered afterwards. The cover, bottom board, and hive bodies should be scraped and then scorched. A blowtorch or weed burner is suitable for scorching small quantities of equipment. For large quantities, brush the inside surfaces with a mixture of one- half gasoline and one-half motor oil and stack the hive bodies four or five high. Light the stacks and allow them to burn long enough to lightly char the wood. Place a cover over the stack to put out the fire. Afterward, separate the hive bodies and be sure that all the fire is out or it may later burn up the equipment. Many methods of saving and treating diseased colonies have been tried and found to be ineffective. These methods sometimes require more expense and labor than the value of the diseased colonies. When not done properly, the treatments often spread disease. Inspection and prevention are the best methods of control. The two medicinal agents that are valuable for preventive feeding for American foulbrood are sodium sulfathiazole and oxytetracycline HCl (Terramycin). Neither material kills the disease organism but they prevent its growth when they are present in the food fed to larvae. Sulfathiazole is a stable material suitable for use in sugar syrup or honey. Use Vi teaspoon per gallon of feed. Higher dosages may be toxic to the bees and are no more effective in controlling the disease. Sulfathiazole powder mixed with an equal volume of powdered sugar can be used at the rate of I/2 teaspoon per colony and placed on one or two top bars in the brood nest. Terramycin is relatively unstable in honey or syrup solutions and is best used as a dust in mixture with powdered sugar. It is available in two forms — Terramycin Animal Formula Soluble Powder (TAF-25) containing 25 grams active material per pound, and Terramycin Feed Premix (TM-10), containing 10 grams active material per pound. The second formula is less expensive per gram of Terramycin. For each colony, dust 3 tablespoonfuls of the dust mixture over the top of the frames at the outer edges of the brood nest. Mix the dust as follows: 1 lb. TM-10 to 3 lb. powdered sugar; or 1/2 lb. TAF-25 to 4 lb. powdered sugar. The material is somewhat toxic to bees and should not Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees 105 roi nrc be used at higher dosage levels. Reduce the amount of Terramycin for weak colonies. Mixtures containing both Terramycin and sodium sulfathiazole are :[i being used effectively for disease prevention by commerical beekeepers. The follow^ing formula is one such mix: 8 parts by wt. trace-mineral salt, finely ground; 8 parts by wt. confectioners sugar; 4 parts by wt. TM-10; wci^ 1 part by wt. sodium sulfathiazole. The ingredients are thoroughly mixed and applied by putting 2 heaping teaspoonfuls in piles on the frame tops at the back of the brood chamber two or three times a year. Any medicinal agents or mixtures should be applied only after inspection in the spring at least 2 months before the main nectar flow. They may be used again after the honey is removed in late summer or during the fall. Use them with care at the proper dosages, and follow the directions and precautions on the labels. The products are available at beekeeping supply companies, livestock supply stores, and feed stores. European foulbrood. This brood disease, usually called EFB, appears to be much less common than American foulbrood in Illinois. It is caused by a bacterium, Streptococcus pluton, that does not always kill the infected larva but sometimes may kill large numbers of larvae very rapidly. The disease and its symptoms are highly variable, prob- ably because of the presence of several other organisms in the dead and dying larvae. EFB does not usually kill the colony, but a heavy infection will seriously reduce honey production. It is not necessary for beekeepers to kill colonies infected with EFB, but it is essential to be able to distinguish European from American foulbrood disease. Larvae infected with EFB usually die while still coiled in the bottom of the unsealed cell. This is distinctly different from what oc- curs with AFB. In some instances the disease may also affect sealed larvae and, rarely, pupae. When this happens, the larva usually dies in a partially curled or distorted position, only rarely lying straight on the lower side of the cell as it does when infected with American foulbrood. Affected larvae are not always the same color, as with AFB, but may be yellow, gray, or brown, or a mixture of these colors. The air tubes, or tracheae, often remain visible in the larva infected with EFB. Their presence helps to distinguish the disease from AFB, in which no tracheae can be seen in the decaying brood. The odor of European foulbrood may be described as being sour or similar to the odor of \h 1 aii' p. i ill ;itliei ayb i.eas suga andU iblei iFee 1.B It ottk 3E01 )4 i 106 Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees rotting fish. As with AFB, it is best not to use odor for diagnosis because of its variabiUty and the differences in the abiUty of people to distinguish odors. The typical consistency of EFB-infected larvae is dough-like. The remains may be somewhat ropy but less slimy and elastic than those of AFB-infected bees. When pulled out of the cell, the material reacts like dough or taft'y when the pieces separate. Dried scales in comb may appear similar to those of American if lying straight in the cells. However, most of them are turned or twisted in the cell and can be easily removed, whereas the scales of AFB are dif^cult to remove. Worker, drone, and queen larvae are all susceptible to EFB. European foulbrood may be controlled by use of Terramycin in the same way as American foulbrood. This dual control exerted by the antibiotic makes it a good choice for preventive feeding where both diseases are a threat. Honey bee strains vary in their resistance to European foulbrood. When only one or a few colonies are aft'ected, they should be requeened with a different strain of bees and the disease will usually disappear. The organisms associated with European foul- brood are usually present even in hives that do not show symptoms of disease. The susceplibilit}' of the ])articular strain of bees and, perhaps, nutritional factors bring about the appearance of the disease at damaging levels. Sacbrood. Sacbrood disease is caused by a virus and is common but rarely serious in Illinois. Like European foulbrood, it must be distinguished from American foulbrood. The presence of sacbrood-infected larvae produces a spotted ap pearance of the brood combs, a condition shared with all other brood diseases. The larvae die extended on the lower side of the sealed cells, and after they die part or all of the cappings may be removed by the adult bees. The skin of the dead larva does not rot as it does if the larva has died of foulbrood. Instead, it remains tough and encloses the watery contents like a sack, giving the disease its name. The head of the dead larva darkens more rapidly than the rest of the body and stays upright in the cell. It has been compared with the tip of a wooden Dutch shoe. The elevated head of the completely dried larva remains readily visible in the cell. Such a scale is easily removed from the cell. Sacbrood is most common in the spring, usually affecting only a few cells in a comb. Occasionally a very susceptible queen may have large numbers of affected larvae. The disease usually requires no treatment. In severe cases, the colony should be requeened with a young queen from a different strain of bees. II I ■aD. Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees 107 Other brood diseases. There are several cither cHseases of bees that attack the brood. Most of them are not known in IlHnois or are so rare that they need not be considered here. Inchided are para foul- brood, stonebrood, and chalkbrood. Plant poisoning of brood does not occur in Illinois. Chilled or starved brood may sometimes be confused with diseased brood. It is usually found outside the cluster area of small colonies and lacks most of the specific symptoms of the diseases because all brood stages may be affected. When the weather warms or the colony receives a new supply of food, the bees will (juickly clean out all of the dead brood. Adult Bee Diseases Adult bees suffer from several diseases that are usually found in most colonies but rarely cause serious damage. In some other parts of the world, a mite, Acarapis ivoodi, causes acarine disease when it infects the tracheae, or breathing tubes, of the bee's thorax. This mite has not been found in the United States or Canada, and both countries prohibit the importation of adult bees to prevent the introduction of acarine disease. Several other species of external mites are found on honey bees in the United States and elsewhere but they do not cause any noticeable damage to the colonies. Nosema disease. Nosema disease is an infection of the digestive organs of the adult bee by a single-celled organism, a protozoan called Nosema apis. Small numbers of infected bees may be found at almost any time of year in apiaries throughout the United States. The natural defenses of the individual and the colony against disease tend to keep it under control. However, when the bees are confined to the hives by poor spring weather, or subjected to stress from moving or special ma- nipulations, such as those for queen rearing and for shaking package bees, the disease may reach damaging levels. The lives of infected bees are shortened, and affected colonies are weakened and sometimes killed. Very rarely do nosema-infected colonies show any external symp- toms. For this reason, positive diagnosis can be made only by examina- tion of bees for the presence of spores of Nosoiia apis. To do this, ground-up abdomens or alimentary tracts must be examined under a microscope at 400 X magnification to detect the organism. The disease is cyclical in its severity in the colony, with a peak of infection in late spring and the low point in late summer or during the fall. It can be controlled, at least in part, by feeding the antibiotic fumagillin (Fumidil B). Complete control is difficult because of the 108 Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees chronic nature of this infection in the bee's alimentary canal. The antibiotic must be available to the bees for a considerable time to rid them of the organism. The spores of the nosema organism are spread within and outside the colony with food and water. Infected bees soil the combs and spread infection within the colony. However, nosema infection does not cause dysentery, but bees suffering from dysentery may or may not have nosema disease. Combs contaminated with spores may be heated to 120° for 24 hours or fumigated with glacial acetic acid to kill the spores. Treatment is not necessary except where a serious disease problem exists. Control with fumagillin is most effective in the fall when the normal level of the disease is lowest. Treatment in the spring is less effective. Affected colonies can also be helped by giving them frames of brood and bees from other colonies. Dysentery. Although it is not a disease, dysentery is consid- ered here because so many beekeepers think of it as a disease symptom, especially of nosema disease. Bees with dysentery are unable to hold their waste products in their bodies and they release them in the hive or close to it. The condition is recognized by the dark spots and streaks on combs, on the exterior of the hive, and on the snow near the hive in late winter (Fig. 69). Dysentery is caused by an excessive amount of water Dysentery of bees is indicated by the spotting of the hive and the snow around it in late winter. (Fig- 69) Diseases, Pests, and PEsiicinEs Affecting Honey Bees 109 in a bee's body. The consumption during the winter of coarsely granu- lated honey or honey with a high water content is one cause of the disease. Damp hive conditions may also contribute to the problem. Good food and proper wintering conditions are important to prevent the problem but there is no control for it once the bees are afifected. Combs from colonies with dysentery can be used safely in other colonies. Paralysis. Paralysis is a disease of the adult bee caused by a virus. Afifected bees shake and twitch and are unable to fly. They usually die within a day or two. Other bees often pull at them and their bodies may be partially hairless and shiny. Little can be done to control the disease except to requeen the colony if it is seriously af- fected. However, the disease is rarely a problem. Other diseases of adult bees. Adult bees also suffer from other diseases such as septicemia and amoeba disease. Both are extremely rare and of little importance in the United States. Pests of Honey Bees Wax moths. The greater wax moth {GaUcria mellonella) is a seri- ous pest of honey comb in Illinois and most areas of the United States. The adult moths are gray-brown and about Y^ inch long. In the daytime they are usually seen resting with their wings folded tent-like over their bodies (Fig. 70). When disturbed, the moths usually run rapidly Adult greater wax moths in a typical resting position on comb foundation. (Fig. 70) 110 Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees before taking flight. They lay their eggs on unprotected honey combs and in the cracks between hive bodies of colonies of bees. The grayish- white larvae (Fig. 71) are kept under control by the bees in normal colonies and do no harm. They may completely ruin the combs in weak or dead colonies and in stored equipment. Unless they are con- trolled, they feed on the cocoons, cast skins, and pollen in the combs, and reduce them to a mass of webs and waste products (Fig. 72). Keeping strong colonies and fumigating stored equipment (see page 83) are the best ways to avoid damage from wax moth. Several other less common moth larvae are sometimes found in combs. They usually feed only on the pollen in individual cells and are not a pest in Illinois. Fumigation for greater wax moth controls all such moths. Mice. Mice are a pest of stored combs and unoccupied combs in bee hives, usually in the fall and winter. They chew the combs, eat pollen, and build nests among the combs. In the late fall, hive entrances should be reduced to }i inch in depth either by entrance cleats or by reversing the bottom board to the shallow side. Excluders or tight covers on stacks of stored combs will help to keep them mouse- free. Since mice may chew into the supers, storage areas should be protected with bait boxes containing an effective mouse poison. In apiaries where mice are a serious problem, poison bait may be placed beneath the hives or in bait boxes within an empty hive. Use all poisons with care, keep them out of reach of children, and follow the directions on the labels. Skunks. Skunks feed on bees at night by scratching at the front of the hive and eating the bees as they come out to investigate the Larvae of the greater wax moth, nearly full grown. (Fig. 71) ar i Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees 111 A stored comb ruined by feeding of wax moth larvae. Cocoons are visible among the webbing and on the frame top at the bottom of the illustration. (Fig. 72) disturbance. People no longer trap skunks for their pelts, and the animals are increasing in numbers in man}- areas of Illinois. It is not unusual to find several in one apiary. The skunks weaken the colonies by eating large numbers of bees and are most damaging in the fall and winter after brood rearing has ceased. They also make the colonies mean and difficult to handle. If a colony suddenly stings more often and more bees fly around your veil, look for scratching in the soil at the front corners of the hives. Where skunks are numerous, they may dig enough to leave a trench in front of the hive. Their presence can also be detected by fecal pellets that are composed largely of honey bee remains. Control skunks by trapping or poisoning them. Other pests of bees. Ants, toads, bears, birds, dragonflies, and other animals prey on bees. Ants can be controlled by treating their nests with insecticides such as chlordane or dieldrin. These materials are highly toxic to bees and should not be used close to the hives. Single colonies can be placed on stands or benches protected by oil or sticky barriers. The other pests are generally not a problem in Illinois. How- ever, purple martins eat bees as well as other insects and may weaken colonies in areas where there are large numbers of nesting sites. Woodpeckers and flickers sometimes make holes in hives. Human beings are often a serious pest of bees kept in outapiaries. They may tip the hives over with their cars or by hand, shoot holes in 112 Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees them, or steal honey and leave the hive covers off. Apiaries should be visited regularly to watch for such damage. The problem may be lessened by posting your name and address in the apiary in a conspic- uous place. Pesticides and Honey Bees Toxicity of pesticides. Many materials that are used to control insects, v^eeds, and plant diseases are toxic to honey bees. These pesticides are placed in three groups in relation to their effects on bees. Highly toxic materials are those that kill bees on contact during ap- plication and for one or more days after treatment. Bees should be moved from the area if highly toxic materials are used on plants the bees are visiting. Among the materials in this group are: aldrin arsenicals azinphosethyl (Ethyl Guthion) azinphosmethyl (Guthion) Azodrin BHC Bidrin Bomyl carbaryl (Sevin) diazinon dichlorvos (DDVP, Vapona) dieldrin dimethoate EPN famphur (Famophos) Gardona heptachlor Imidan lindane malathion, dilute" malathion, low volume Matacil Metacide methyl parathion Methyl Trithion mevinphos (Phosdrin)*" Mobam naled (Dibrom)" parathion phosphamidon tepp" Zectran Zinophos " Kills bee primarily on contact. *" Short residual activity. Can usually be applied safely when bees are not in flight. Do not apply over hives. Moderately toxic materials can be used with limited damage to bees if they are not applied over bees in the field or at the hives. Correct dosage, timing, and method of application are essential. This group includes: Abate carbophenothion (Trithion) chlordane DDT demeton (Systox) disulfoton (Di-Syston) endosulfan (Thiodan) endrin methyl demeton (Meta Systox) oxydemetonmethyl (Meta Systox R) Perthane phorate tartar emetic Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees 113 The greatest number of materials are included in the relatively nontoxic group. These pesticides can be used around bees with few precautions and a minimum of injury to bees. The following materials are included in this group: allethrin Aramite Bacillus thuringiensis binapacryl (Morocide) Bordeaux mixture captan chlorbenside chlorobenzilate chloropropylate copper compounds cryolite Dessin dicofol (Kelthane) Dimite (DMC) dinitrocyclohexylphenol (DNOCHP) dinocap (Karathane) dioxathion (Delnav) dodine (Cyprex) Dyrene ethion fenson ferbam (Fermate) folpet (Phaltan) Genite 923 glyodin maneb methoxychlor Morestan nabam nicotine Omite ovex Polyram pyrethrum rotenone sabadilla" Strobane sulfur TDE (Rhothane) tetradifon (Tedion) toxaphene trichlorfon (Dylox) zineb ziram " Twenty-percent dust may cause bee losses. Pesticides damage colonies in several ways. Most often they kill the field bees without other effects on the colony. In some instances the bees die in large numbers after returning to the hive. Many bees are also lost in the field and the colony is weakened but not usually killed. Sometimes materials are carried by the bees to the hive where they kill brood and young bees in the colony. The entire colony may die when this happens. Methods of application. Losses from pesticides can be mini- mized by cooperation among beekeepers, farmers, and spray operators. Several basic principles should be followed to prevent losses of bees and to avoid injury to people and farm animals. The first of these is to apply the proper dosages and follow the recommendations on the label. The method of application is also a factor to consider. Ground application is generally safer than air application. The material and its formulation play important roles in its toxicity to bees. In general. 114 Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees sprays are safer than dusts, and emulsifiable concentrates are less toxic than wettable powders. Materials applied as granules are the least hazardous. At present there are no safe, effective repellents that can be used to keep bees away from treated areas. Proper timing of applications of pesticides allows the use of mod- erately toxic materials on crops visited by bees. Bees visit different crops at different times and for different periods during the day. The timing of treatment of a crop should relate to these bee visits. Squashes, pumpkins, and melons are attractive to bees early in the day but close their blossoms in the afternoon. Afternoon and evening treatments, after the flowers close, are safest for bees. wSweet corn sheds pollen early and is visited by bees most heavily in the morning. Applications of carbaryl for earworm control are least dangerous when made as late as possible in the day, especially if the insecticide is kept off the tassels. For most crops, pesticide applications are safest for bees if they are made between 7 p.m. and 7 a.m. The beekeeper's obligation. Beekeepers have responsibilities in preventing losses to their bees and in learning to accept some damage, especially in providing pollination services. In some areas, honey bee losses must be anticipated and the risk weighed against the possible returns from honey or pollination fees. Beekeepers should be familiar with commonly used pesticides and their toxicity to bees. They should know as much as possible about the relations of their bees to the nectar and pollen plants in their territory. It is essential that the owners of bees can be located easily when a nearby crop or the surrounding area is being treated with toxic mate- rials. Therefore, a beekeeper should provide his name, address, and telephone number to owners of land on which his bees are located. This information should also be posted in the apiary in large, readable letters. Beekeepers' organizations should compile directories of apiary loca- tions and their owners in each county, and make them available, to- s gether with marked maps, at the office of the county extension adviser. Additional information is available in Circular 940, Pesticides and Honey Bees, available from your county extension adviser or from the Office of Publications, 123 Mumford Hall, Urbana, Illinois 61801. FOLLIKT^TIOlsr BY HIOITEIT BEES Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains, the male sex cells of a flower, from the anther where they are produced to the receptive sur- face, or stigma, of the female organ of a flower. Since the honey bee is the most important insect that transfers pollen between flowers and between plants, the word "pollination" is often used to describe the service of providing bees to pollinate crop plants. This service is now more important than ever in Illinois because the acreage of insect- pollinated crops is large as compared with the number of all kinds of bees (honey bees, bumble bees, and solitary bees) that are available to provide pollination. In the 20 years from 1947 to 1967 the estimated number of colonies (hives) of bees in Illinois dropped from 232,000 to 93,000. Growers can no longer assume that there are sufficient numbers of bees nearby to produce the best possible crop from insect-pollinated plants. Honey bees are good pollinators for many reasons. Their hairy bodies trap pollen and carry it between flowers. The bees require large quantities of nectar and pollen to rear their young, and they visit flowers regularly in large numbers to obtain these foods. In doing so, they concentrate on one species of plant at a time and serve as good pollinators for this reason. Their body size enables them to pollinate flowers of many different shapes and sizes. The pollination potential of the bees is increased because they can be managed to develop high populations. The number of colonies can also be increased as needed and the colonies can be moved to the most desirable location for polli- nation purposes. Honey bees are most active at temperatures between 60° and 105°. Winds above 15 miles per hour reduce their activity and stop it com- pletely at about 25 miles per hour. When conditions for flight are not ideal, honey bees work close to their colonies. Although they may fly as far as 5 miles in search of food, they usually go no farther than 1 to 11/2 miles in good weather. In unfavorable weather, bees may visit only those plants nearest the hive. They also tend to work closer to the hive in areas where there are large numbers of attractive plants in bloom. 115 116 Pollination by Honey Bees The following Illinois crops must be pollinated by bees to produce fruit or seed: Apple Apricot Blackberry Blueberry Cherry Clovers Sweetclovers, white and yellow True clovers Alsike Red White Dutch, Ladino Cucumber Muskmelon, cantaloupe Nectarine Peach Pear Persimmon, native Plum, prune Pumpkin Raspberry Squash Trefoil Watermelon The following Illinois crops set fruit or seed without insect visits but yields and quality may be improved by honey bees: Eggplant Grape Lespedeza Lima bean Okra Pepper Strawberry Honey bees visit several important Illinois crops but do not im- prove their yields of fruit or seed. These include: Field bean Pea Soybean String or snap bean Sweet corn The provision of bees for pollination of crop plants is a specialized practice, not just a sideline of honey production. Beekeepers who sup- ply bees for pollination must learn the skills of management that are necessary for success in this phase of beekeeping. Such skills include the development and selection of strong colonies that are able to pro- vide the large force of field bees needed to do the job of transferring pollen. This task of the beekeeper is hardest to accomplish for fruit pollination early in the year. Each beekeeper or organization of bee- keepers should set minimum standards for colony strength and size to use as a basis for establishing prices and for providing the best pos- sible service. The number of bees, and not the number of hives, is the true unit of measure, and growers need to be told and shown what standards are being used to measure the honey bee colonies for pollina- tion. For example, colonies for apple pollination should be housed in a two-story hive with a laying cjueen. There should be four or more frames with brood and sufficient bees to cover them. There should also Pollination by Honey Bees 117 be a reserve food supply of 10 pounds of honey or more. Colonies rented to pollinate crops that bloom later in the year should be propor- tionately stronger, with 600 to 800 square inches of brood (five or six frames with brood). In the field, the colonies must be supered and examined at intervals to keep them in suitable condition for pollination. The number of standard colonies per acre of crop plants varies in relation to the attractiveness of the crop, the competition from sur- rounding sources of nectar and pollen, and the percent of flowers that must produce fruit or seed to provide an economic return. Most Illinois crops are adequately pollinated by one strong hive of bees per acre. However, red clover grown for seed should have two or more colonies per acre moved to the field as soon as it begins to bloom (Fig. 72)). Hybrid cucumbers grown at plant populations of 40,000 to 70,000 or more plants per acre for machine harvest may require up to four hives per acre. The higher number of hives may be needed where other cultivated plants or weeds compete strongly for the attention of the bees. Bees for pollination should be placed within or beside the crop to be pollinated. For apples, place groups of five to 15 hives at intervals of 200 to 300 yards (Fig. 74). They should be moved in at 10 to 25 per- cent bloom. For cucumbers and other cucurbits, bees should be moved to the field when the first female flowers appear, not before. Place the bees in a single group for small fields. For fields larger than 30 acres, place the bees in two or more groups at the edges of the field but leave no more than %o ^^^^ between groups. Pollination of second crop red clover for seed. Honey bees are effective pol- linators of red clover in July and August when other clovers have ceased to bloom. Illinois produces about one-sixth of the red clover seed in the United States. (Fig. 73) Honey bee hives placed in groups in an apple orchard in southern Illinois. (Fig. 74) Bees need a nearby source of water such as a farm pond or a stock tank with cork floats on which they can land. Water is important in the early spring for brood rearing and later for cooling the hives. In fruit pollination the bees benefit from full sun and shelter from the wind. Later in the year, some afternoon shade is helpful. Contracts for honey bee pollination services should be a regular part of the business when more than a few hives are involved. Con- tracts prevent problems that may arise from misunderstanding, and they serve to emphasize the obligations and rights of both grower and beekeeper. Contracts should include provisions relating to pesticide usage, colony standards and the rights of the grower to examine the colonies, rights of access by the beekeeper, pollination fees and time of payment, and a statement about the timing of movements of bees to and from the crop. Colony rental fees vary in relation to the expenses involved and the length of time the colonies are needed. The potential or actual hone}- production of the rented colonies is also a factor in establishing prices for summer-blooming crops. Prices of $5 to $15 per colony are reason- able for properly managed bees. Additional moves and the movement of colonies by growers are usually valued at a minimum of $2 per colony. Gi-nL.oss-A.Ptiir Abdomen — the last major body region of the bee, one of three regions. Acarine disease — a disease of adult bees caused by mites (Acarapis zvoodi) infesting the tracheae. Not known to be present in North America. Acid board — a metal covered wooden frame used with carbolic acid to drive bees from honey combs. Adrenalin — a drug used for treatment of severe reactions to bee stings; also called epinephrine. Alimentary canal or tract — the passage in the bee's body that food goes through from mouth to anus. American foulbrood (AFB) — an infectious disease of immature honey bees caused by a bacterium. Bacillus larvae. Apiary — a place where bees are kept. Apiculture — beekeeping. Balling — the clustering of bees tightly around a queen bee, usually in an attempt to kill her. Bee blower — -a portable machine that produces large volumes of rapidly moving air to blow bees from combs. Bee brush — a soft bristled brush used for removing bees from combs. Bee escape — a metal tube through which bees can move in only one direction. Bee space — a Y^- to ^-inch space through which a bee can move freely; the space between the frames and exterior parts of a hive. Bees will not build comb in it or seal it with propolis, thereby allowing the frames to be removed easily. Bee veil — a wire screen or cloth enclosure worn over the head and neck to protect them from bee stings. Beeswax — a substance secreted from glands on the bee's abdomen that is used to construct comb. 119 120 Glossary Benzaldehyde — a liquid used to drive bees from honey combs; a component of oil of bitter almond. It has a smell that is pleasant to humans. Boardman feeder — see entrance feeder. Bottom board — the floor of a hive. Brood — the immature stages of the bee (egg, larva, and pupa) considered together. Brood chamber — the part of the hive in which young bees are reared. It usually includes one or two hive bodies with combs. Brood nest — the area within the combs in which young bees are reared. It may include only part of one comb or many combs. Burr comb — small pieces of comb built between combs and parts of the hive. Butyric anhydride — a liquid used to drive bees from honey combs. It has an odor unpleasant for humans similar to that found in rancid butter and perspiration. Carbolic acid — a liquid used to drive bees from honey combs; also called phenol. Carniolan bee — a dark honey bee race originating in southeastern Europe. Castes — the different kinds of adult bees in a colony; workers, drones, queens. Caucasian bee — a dark honey bee race originating in the Caucasus. Cell — a single compartment in a honey comb. Chunk honey — a piece or pieces of comb honey packed in a jar with liquid extracted honey. Cleansing flight- — bee flight, after a period of confinement, to dis- pose of feces or body wastes. Colony — an entire honey bee family or social unit living together in a hive or other shelter. Comb - — a beeswax structure composed of two layers of horizontal cells sharing their bases, usually within a wooden frame in a hive. The words "comb" and "frame" are often used interchangeably; for example, a frame of brood, a comb of brood. Comb foundation - — a sheet of beeswax embossed on each side with the cell pattern. Comb honey — honey in the sealed comb in which it was produced; also called section comb honey when produced in thin wooden frames called sections. Glossary 121 Creamed honey — finely granulated honey produced by adding fine honey crystals to liquid honey. Cucurbit — a plant in the family Cucurbitaceae, which includes squash, pumpkin, watermelon, muskmelon, and cucumber. Cut comb honey — a portion of comb honey cut from a larger comb. Division-board feeder — a waterproof wooden syrup container the size of a frame, used to feed bees within the hive. Division screen — a wooden frame with two layers of wire screen that serves to separate two colonies within the same hive, one above the other. Draw — to shape and build, as to draw comb. Drawn comb — a comb constructed on a sheet of foundation. Drifting — the return of field bees to colonies other than their own. Drone layer, drone-laying queen — a queen that is unable to lay fertilized eggs because of failure to mate or lack of sufficient spermatozoa; a queen whose eggs produce drones in worker cells. Dysentery — a malady of adult bees marked by an accumulation of excess feces or waste products, and by their release in and near the hive. Entrance feeder — a wooden runway that fits into the hive entrance so that bees may obtain syrup from an inverted jar. Enzyme — an organic substance produced in plant or animal cells that causes changes in other substances by catalytic action. Epinephrine — • see adrenalin. Ethylene dibromide — a liquid used to fumigate honey combs for control of wax moth. European foulbrood (EFB) — an infectious disease of immature honey bees caused by a bacterium. Streptococcus pluton. Excluder — a thin grid of wire, wood and wire, or sheet zinc, with spaces wide enough for workers to pass through but not queens or drones. It is used between hive bodies to confine queens to one part of a hive. Extracted honey — liquid honey removed from the comb by means of an extractor. Extractor (honey extractor) — a hand- or power-driven device that removes honey from the comb by centrifugal force. Field bee (forager) ■ — worker bee that collects nectar, pollen, water, and propolis at locations outside the hive. 122 Glossary Foulbrood — a general name for infectious diseases of immature bees that cause them to die and their remains to smell bad. The term most often refers to American foulbrood. Foundation - — see comb foundation. Frame — a wooden rectangle that surrounds the comb and hangs within the hive. It may be referred to as Hofifman, Langstroth, or self-spacing because of differences in size and widened end bars that provide a bee space between the combs. The words "frame" and "comb" are often used interchangeably; for example, a comb of brood, a frame of brood. Fume board — a general name for any shallow wooden cover used to hold repellents for driving bees from honey combs. Fumigant — a material that acts as a disinfectant or pesticide in a gaseous form when exposed to air. Genetic or hereditary makeup — the characteristics of an individual inherited from its parents. Granulated honey — honey in which crystals of a sugar (dextrose) have formed. Granulation — the formation of sugar (dextrose) crystals in honey. Hive — a wooden box or other container in which a honey bee col- ony lives. Hive body — a single wooden rim or shell that holds a set of frames. When used for the brood nest, it is called a brood chamber; when used above the brood nest for honey storage, it is called a super. It may be of various widths and heights and adapted for comb honev sections. Hive cover — the roof or lid of a hive. ' Hive loader — a mechanically operated boom and cradle for manip- ulating hives and placing them on a truck. ,i Hive tool — a metal bar used to loosen frames and to separate the parts of a hive. Honey — a sweet, viscid fluid produced by honey bees from nectar collected from flowers. I Honeydew — a sweet liquid, primarily plant sap, excreted by plant- feeding insects and often collected by honey bees. Honey flow — see nectar flow. House bee — a young worker bee, 1 day to 2 weeks old, that works only in the hive. | Glossary 123 Hybrid bees — the offspring resulting from crosses of two or more selected inbred lines (strains) of bees; the offspring of crosses be- tween races of bees. Inbreeding — breeding by continual mating of related individuals. Inner cover — a thin wooden hive lid used beneath a telescoping cover. Italian bee — a yellow honey bee race originating in Italy. Langstroth hive — a hive with movable frames made possible by the bee space around them. It was invented by L. L. Langstroth. Larva, larvae — the grub- or worm-like immature form of an in- sect; the second stage in metamorphosis. Laying worker — a worker bee that produces eggs that normally develop into drones. Legume — the common name for plants of the pea family, Legumi- nosae, including clover, sweetclover, vetch, alfalfa, and many other nectar and pollen plants. Metamorphosis — the series of changes through which an insect passes from the egg to larva, pupa, and adult. Nectar — a sweet liquid secreted by plant glands (nectaries) usually located in flowers, but also found on other parts of plants. Nectar flow — the period when abundant nectar is available for bees to produce honey for storage in the combs of the hive. Nosema disease — an infectious disease of adult bees caused by a protozoan, Nosema apis. Nuc — abbreviation for nucleus. Nuc box- — a small hive used for housing a small colony or nucleus. Nucleus, nuclei — a small colony of bees usually with enough work- ers to cover two to five frames or combs. Nurse bee — a young bee, usually 2 to 10 days old, that feeds and cares for immature bees. Outapiary — an apiary located some distance from the beekeeper's home. Ovary — the egg-producing part of the female reproductive system. Package bees — two to 4 pounds of worker bees, usually with a queen, in a screen-sided wooden cage with a can of sugar syrup for food. Pallet — a cleated wooden stand on which supers are stacked for bulk handling; also used to hold two to seven hives for moving, especially for pollination service. 124 Glossary Paradichlorobenzene (PDB) — a white crystalline substance used to fumigate combs and to repel wax moths. Paralysis — a disease of adult bees caused by a virus. Pentachlorophenol (penta) — a liquid wood preservative used for hive parts. Pesticide • — a general name for materials used to kill undesirable insects, plants, rodents, and other pests. Pfund color grader — an instrument used to classify the color of samples of liquid honey. pH — a symbol for a measure of relative acidity or alkalinity of solutions; values below 7 are acid, values above 7 are alkaline. Phenol — see carbolic acid. Pistil — the female part of a flower that includes the ovary, style, and stigma. Play flight — short flight in front of the hive taken by young bees when they first leave the hive; an orientation flight. Pollen — male sex cells, usually very small and powdery, produced in the anthers of a flower. Pollen basket • — an area on a bee's hind leg where pollen is packed and carried with help from a central spine and surrounding hairs. Pollen insert — a device placed in the hive entrance to apply live pollen to outgoing bees. Pollen substitute — a mixture of materials such as soy flour, casein, brewers' yeast, and dried milk fed to bees to stimulate brood rearing. Pollen supplement — a mixture of pollen substitute and pollen fed to bees to stimulate brood rearing. Pollen trap — a device that removes pollen pellets from bees' legs as they enter the hive. Pollination — the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma, the receptive surface of the female organ of a flower; in beekeep- ing terms, pollination often refers to the service of providing bees for pollination of crop plants. Pollinator — an agent, such as an insect, that transfers pollen. Pollinizer — a plant that furnishes pollen to another plant. Propionic anhydride ^ — a liquid used to drive bees from honey combs. Propolis — plant resins collected from plants by bees to use in seal- ing cracks and crevices in hives; bee glue. Glossary 125 Pupa, pupae — the inactive third stage in the complete metamor- phosis of an insect. The adult body form is evident at this stage. Queen-cage candy — a firm mixture of powdered sugar and liquid invert sugar used in queen cages as food for the queen and her attendant bees. Queen excluder — see excluder. Queenless colony — a honey bee colony without a queen. Queenright colony — a honey bee colony with a queen. Rabbet — a piece of wood or metal on which the frame ends hang in the hive. Refractometer — an instrument for measuring the percent of sol- uble solids in a solution designed to read directly in percent mois- ture ; used for measuring the percent moisture in honey and nectar. Reproductive system — the organs of the body, either male or fe- male, concerned with producing ofifspring. Requeening — removal of a queen from a colony and introduction of a new one. Robber bee — a field bee from one colony that takes, or tries to take, honey from another colony. Robbing — the stealing of honey from a colony by bees from another colony. Royal jelly — a mixture of glandular secretions of worker bees fed to developing queens. Sacbrood — a virus disease of immature honey bees. Scout bee — a field bee that locates new sources of food, water, or propolis, or a new home for a swarm. Sealed brood — immature bees in their late larval and pupal stages within capped cells of the comb. Section comb honey — honey in sealed comb produced in thin wooden frames called sections. Sex alleles — hereditary characteristics of bees that, in part, deter- mine the sex of the individual bee. Slumgum — the refuse from melted combs after all or part of the wax is removed. Smoker — a steel container with an attached bellows in which burn- ing materials furnish smoke to repel and subdue honey bees. Social bees — bees that live in groups or colonies, such as bumble bees, stingless bees, and honey bees. 126 Glossary Solar wax extractor (solar melter) — a glass-covered box used for melting combs and cappings by heat from the sun. Solitary bees — bees that live alone and survive the winter, usually in an immature stage in a cell in the ground or a variety of other sites. Spiracles — the openings to an insect's internal breathing tubes, the tracheae. Stigma — the receptive surface of the female organ of a flower that receives the pollen. Super — a hive body used for honey storage above the brood cham- bers of a hive. Supering — placing supers of comb or foundation on a hive, either to give more room for brood rearing or for honey storage. Supersedure — replacement by the bees of an established queen with a new one without swarming. Swarm — a group of worker bees and a queen (usually the old one) that leave the hive to establish a new colony; a word formerly used to describe a hive or colony of bees. Thorax — the middle body region of an insect to which the wings and legs are attached. Trachea, tracheae — the breathing tube of an insect. Transferring • — • moving bees and comb from a natural nest in a cavity or container to a movable frame hive. Uncapping — cutting a thin layer from a comb surface to remove the wax covering from sealed cells of honey. Uncapping knife — a knife, usually heated, for cutting cappings from honey comb. Uniting — combining one honey bee colony with another. Unsealed brood — eggs and larvae in open cells. Virgin queen — an unmated queen. Wax moth — an insect whose larvae feed on and destroy honey bee combs. Wired foundation — comb foundation manufactured with vertical wires embedded in it for added strength. Wiring — installing tinned wire in frames as support for combs. SELEOTED SOUPtOES OF iisrEort:M:^^TiO]sr OlSr BEEICEEI^IKTO- ^2srD EQXJiP^n^EisrT Books, Handbooks, and Manuals Baile}-, Leslie. 1963. Infectious diseases of the honey-bee. Land Books, Ltd., Lon- don. 176p. Butler, Colin G. 1962. The world of the honeybee. Collins, London. 226p. Dadant, C. P., M. G. Dadant, and J. C. Dadant. 1962. First lessons in beekeeping. American Bee Journal, Hamilton, Illinois. 127p. Dade, H. A. 1962. Anatomy and dissection of the honeybee. Bee Research Asso- ciation, London. 158p. + 20 foldout plates. Eckert, John E., and Frank R. Shaw. 1960. Beekeepint?. The Mac]\Iillan Co., New- York. 536p. Faegri, K., and L. van der Pijl. 1966. The principles of pollination ecology. Pergamon Press, London. 248p. Frisch, Karl von. 1950. Bees. Their vision, chemical senses, and language. Cornell LIniversity Press, Ithaca, New York. 119p. 1966. The dancing bees. 2nd. ed. Methuen, London. 198p. 1967. The dance language and orientation of bees. Belknap Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 566p. Grout, Roy A., ed. 1963. The hive and the honey bee. 3rd. ed. Dadant & Sons, Hamilton, Illinois. 556p. Kelley, Walter T. 1966. How to keep bees and sell honey. Walter T. Kelley Co., Clarkson, Kentucky. 112p. Killion, Carl E. 1951. Honey in the comb. Killion and Sons, Paris, Illinois. 114p. Out of print. Laidlaw, Harry H., Jr., and J. E. Eckert. 1962. Queen rearing. University of California Press, Berkeley. 165p. Lindauer, Martin. 1961. Communication among social bees. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 143p. McGregor, S. E., ed. 1967. Beekeepmg in the United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 335. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 147p. Meeuse, B. J. D. 1961. The story of pollination. Ronald Press, New York. 243p. Pellett, Frank C. 1947. American honey plants. 4th ed. Orange Judd Publishing Co., New York. 467p. Out of print. Ribbands, C. R. 1953. The behaviour and social life of honeybees. Bee Research Association, London. 352p. Reprinted in 1965 by Dover Publ., Inc., New York. 127 128 Selected Sources of Information Root, A. I., and E. R. Root. 1966. The ABC and XYZ of bee culture. 33rd ed. A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio. 712p. Root, Huber H. 1951. Beeswax. Its properties, testing, production and applica- tions. Chemical Publishing Co., Inc., Brooklyn, New York. 154p. Out of print. Root, John A. 1967. Starting right with bees. 14th ed. A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio. lOOp. Snodgrass, R. E. 1956. Anatomy of the honey bee. Comstock Publishing Associ- ates, Ithaca, New York. 334p. White, Jonathan W., Jr., Mary L. Riethof, Mary H. Subers, and Irene Kushnir. 1962. Composition of American honeys. U.S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 1261. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 124p. Magazines and Journals American Bee Journal. Hamilton, Illinois 62341. Bee World. Hill House, Chalfont St. Peter, Gerrards Cross, Bucks., England. Gleanings in Bee Culture. Medina, Ohio 44256. Journal of Apicultural Research. Hill House, Chalfont St. Peter, Gerrards Cross, Bucks., England. Beekeeping Organizations Write to the Extension Apiculturist, 107B Horticulture Field Laboratory, Univer- sity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IlHnois 61801, for the current addresses and names of officers of the following organizations : American Beekeeping Federation American Honey Institute Illinois State Beekeepers' Association Local Illinois beekeeping associations Beekeeping Supplies and Equipment Dadant & Sons, Inc. Hamilton, Illinois 62341. Chr. Graze K. G. 7057 Endersbach bei Stuttgart, Germany. Hubbard Apiaries. Onsted, Michigan 49265. Walter T. Kelley Co. Clarkson, Kentucky 42726. Leahy Manufacturing Co. Higginsville, Missouri 64037. August Lotz Co. Boyd, Wisconsin 54726. A. I. Root Co. Medina, Ohio 44256. A. G. Woodman Co. Box 1692, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49501. Package bees and queens: consult current issues of beekeeping magazines for sources. State of Illinois Apiary inspection and state laws relating to bee diseases and movement of colonies : Apiary Division, Illinois Department of Agriculture, Springfield, Illinois 62705. Beekeeping and pollination information : Extension Apiculturist, 107B Horticulture Field Laboratory, University of Illinois at L'rbana-Champaign, L^rbana, Illi- nois 61801. Selected Sources of Information 129 State regulations on production and marketing of honey : Division of Foods and Dairies, Department of Public Health, 130 North Franklin Street, Suite 800, Chicago, Illinois 60606. U.S. Department of Agriculture Beekeeping publications and information : Apiculture Research Branch, Entomol- ogy Research Division, Plant Industry Station, U.S. Department of Agricul- ture, Beltsville, Maryland 20705. Disease diagnosis : Bee Pathology Laboratory, Entomology Building A, Agricul- tural Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland 20705. Monthly honey market news, and grades for extracted and comb honeys : Fruit and Vegetable Division, Consumer and Marketing Service, Washington, D.C. 20250. IISTDEX: p Acarine disease, 107 Acid board, see Fume board Adrenalin, ?>7 American Bee Journal, 3, 128 American foulbrood (AFB), 84, 101-105 Amoeba disease, 109 Ants, 111 Apiary: arrangement, 35; identification, 85, 112, 114; location of, 35-36; inspection, 103; inspection laws, 104 Bee: blower, 57; books, 127-128; brush, 28, 55; escape, 55; gloves, 28; glue, 8, 50; mag- azines, 128; space, 17; stings, 36-37; sup- plies and equipment, 128; see also Drone bee. Queen bee, Worker bee Beekeeping: how to start, 31-37; organiza- tions, 128; when to start, 31 Bees: confining to hive, 75; how to kill, 86- 87; number in Illinois, 3, 115; as polli- nators, 115 Beeswax : processing, 69-70; secretion by workers, 8; sources, 68; yields, 68-70 Benzaldehyde, 57 Brewers' yeast, 81-82 Brood: chilled, 107; starved, 107 Brood nest: characteristics, 14-15, 44; han- dling, 44; number of combs, 15; pattern, 41; temperature, 14 Butyric anhydride, 57 Cages, queen introduction, 94 Cappings, 68-70 Carbolic acid, 56-57, 96 Carniolan race, characteristics, 13 Caucasian race: characteristics, 13; drone relations, 11 Chalkbrood, 107 Clothing, beekeeper's, 29 Colonies, uniting, 97-100 Colony: confining to hive, 75; dividing, 75, 77; fall management, 71-72; feeding, 78-83; food reserves, 41; inspecting, 37-40; mov- ing, 87-91; preparing for winter, 71-73; space in spring, 44; spring management, 44-45; standards for pollination, 116-117; summer management, 50-57 130 Comb foundation, see Foundation Combs, care of stored, 83-84 Communication: alarm, 15; dances ( guage), 15-16; presence of queen, 15 Cyanide dust, 86 Dadant & Sons, Inc., 3 Dadant, C. P., 3 Dadant, Charles, 3, 17 Dadant-depth super, 20 Disease: acarine, 107; American foulbi* (AFB), 84, 101-105; diagnosis sen 103-104; European foulbrood (EFB), 106; nosema, 107-108; paralysis, 109; vention with drugs and antibiotics, 104-107 Diseases: adult, 107-109; brood, 101-107 Division screen, 71-72, 77 Drone bee: appearance, 5; development i diploid, 9-10; expulsion from hive, W in worker-sized cells, 9; mating areas numbers, 8 Drone-laving queen, 13 Dysentery, 108-109 Epinephrine, 37 Escape board, 55-56 Ethylene dibromide (EDB), 83 European foulbrood (EFB), 105-106 Excluder, 29, 53 Extractors, honey, 61-62 Fall management, see Colony, fall mar ment Feeders, 79-81 Feeding: emergency methods, 80-81; e< ment, 79-81; honey and sugar, 78-81; ] age bees, 32; pollen and pollen mixt 45-46, 81-83 Foundation : embedding wires in, 26-27 stalling in frames, 26-27; proper us€ 40, 47; types, 21 Frames: assembling, 23; handling, 3' t\'pes, 21; wiring, 23, 25 Fumagillin (Fumidil B), 107-108 Fume board, 56-57 Fumigation of combs, 83-84 f P- k- :s ti- ll Gauntlets, 28-29 Gloves, 28 Hive: assembling, 23; tuning used, 31; equipment needed for one, 19; fastening together, 88-89; identification, 85; loader, 89, 91; nimiber of combs, 40; parts, 18, 21-22; tool, 28; types, 17 Honey: in the brood nest, 15; color, 66-67; comb, 63; composition, 63-64; cut comb, 20, 63; extracting. 60-62; extractors, 61-62; fumigation of comb, 59; grading, 66; gran- ulated, 64; heating, 62; hydrometer, 67; labelling, 65-66; marketing, 64-68; moisture in, 55, 67; price support, 68; processing, 62; processing equipment, 64; refractom- eter, 67; removing from hive, 55-57; sampling, 67; storage, 63; straining, 62; sump, 62 Honey house, 59-60 Honey plants, see Nectar and pollen plants Honeydew, 50 Illinois, early beekeeping, 3 Illinois Department of Agriculture : apiary inspection, 91, 103; information, 128; mov- ing permits, 91 Insecticides: to kill colonies, 87; toxicity, see Pesticides Inspection: before buying hives, 31; before moving, 91; in Illinois, 103; importance, 41 Italian race: characteristics, 13; drone rela- tions, 11 Killing bees, in hives and buildings, 86-87 Labels for honey, 65-66 Langstroth hive, 17 Langstroth, L. L., 17 Laws: honey marketing, 129; inspection, 91, 104, 128; labelling, 65-66; moving permits, 91 Laying worker, 9 Mice, 72, 110 Milum, Vern G., 3, 72 Mites on bees, 107 ^Moving bees, 87-91 Nectar and pollen plants, 47-50 Nosema disease, 107-108 Nucleus colonies (nuclei), beginning bee- keeping with, 34-35 Organizations of beekeepers, 128 Oxytetracycline HCl, 104 Package bees: feeding, 22; installing, 33-34; starting with, 32 Index 131 Pallets, 59, 91 Paradichlorobenzene (PDB), 83-84 I'arafoulbrood, 107 Paralysis, 109 Pesticides and bees, 112-114 Pests of bees, 109-112 Pfund color grader, 67 Play flights, 8 Pollen: in brood nest, 14-15; feeding, 45-46, 81-83; traps and trapping, 97; use by colony, 8, 14-15, 41 Pollination: apple, 91, 116-117; contracts, 118; cucumber, 117; hives per acre, 117; Illinois crops, 116; placement of hives, 117; red clover, 117; rental fees, 118; as a spe- cialty, 116; value and use of bees, 115-118 Propionic anhydride, 57 Propolis, 8, 50 Queen bee: appearance, 5; cages, 94; clip- ping, 91-92; development, 11, 13; egg pro- duction, 12; finding, 40, 75-76; gland se- cretions, 15; 51; handling, 91; introducing, 93-96; judging, 40-41; length of life, 13; marking, 92; mating flight, 12; replace- ment by man, 93; replacement by workers, 12-13; supersedure, 13 Queen cell cups, 11, 52 Queen cells, 11, 53, 93 Queen excluded, see Excluder Races of bees, 11, 13-14 Records : bee management, 85-86; financial, 85-86 Rcfractometer, honey, 67 Removing honey, sec Honey, removing from hive Repellents, chemical, for removing honey, 56-57 Repelling bees, 96 Requeening, 93 Robbing, 43-44, 78-79, 96 Royal jelly, 11 Sacbrood, 106 Screens for hives, 75, 89 Septicemia, 109 Sex alleles. 9, 41 Skimks, 110-111 Slumgum, 70 Smoke: effect on bees, 37, 43; use, finding queen, 40; use, moving bees, 87, 89, 91; use, opening hives. 37-38; use, removing honey, 55, 57 Smoker: sizes. 27; use, 37-38, 84 Solar wax extractor, 70 Soy flour, 81-82 132 Index Spring management, see Colony, spring man- agement Stings: avoiding, 36; emergency treatment, 2)7; reaction to, 2>7\ removing, i7 Stonebrood, 107 Sulfathiazole, 78, 84, 104-105 Summer management, see Colony, summer management Supering, 44, 53-55 Supersedure, 13 Swarming: causes, 50-51; detection, 51-52; prevention, 52-53 Swarms: beginning beekeeping with, 35; disease carried bv, 84; hiving, 84; makeup, 50 Temperature: brood nest, 14; clustering, 44; effect on flight, 115; effect on repellents, 57; for granulation of honey, 64; honey processing, 62; honey storage, 63; pollen- drying, 97; for spring inspection, 44-45 Terramycin, 104-106 Transferring bees from buildings, trees, 35 96-97 Uncapping, 60-61 Uniting colonies, 97-100 Veils, 29 Water for bees, 2,7, 118 Wax, see Beeswax Wax moth, 59,83, 109-110 Wind: effect on flight, 115; protection from, 7i Winter : losses of bees, 45, 73-74; prepara- tion for, 71-73 Wiring frames, 23, 25 Worker bee : appearance, 5 ; development, 13; duties, 7-8; glands, 8; larvae, 5-6; length of life, 8; metamorphosis, 6; num- ber in a colony, 5 In order that the information in this publication may be more intelligible, it is sometimes desirable to use trade names of products or equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned. ■ (