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SC HAUL 
 
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 SULTAN, WARRIOR, AND PROPHET 
 
 OP 
 
 THE CAUCASUS* 
 
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 FROM THE GERMAN OF DR. F. WAGNER AND F. BODENSTEDT, 
 
 BY LASCELLES WRAXALL. 
 
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CONTENTS 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 nK 
 
 
 Chapter I.— The Prophets of the Caucasus 
 
 II.—The Caucasus, as known to the Ancients 
 III.—The Geography of the Caucasus . 
 
 I V.—The Tribes of the Caucasus 
 V.—The History of the War in the Caucasus 
 VI.—Schamyl, as Chieftain, Sultan, and Prophet 
 
 VII.—Prince Woronzoff. 
 
 VIII.—A Soldier’s Life in the Caucasus 
 IX.—Sketches of the Caucasus . 
 
 X.—Russian Aggression in the Caucasus 
 
 
 Appendix.— The Doctrines of Sufism 
 
 Page 
 
 . 1 
 9 
 
 . 17 
 
 28 
 . 38 
 57 
 . 89 
 95 
 . 104 
 120 
 
 . 137 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The history of few countries is so interesting, and yet so 
 little known, as that of the Caucasus. A mysterious veil, 
 very rarely, and then only partially, raised, has covered for 
 centuries this land and its inhabitants. The reports which, 
 from time to time, have reached Europe from these majes¬ 
 tic mountains, have sounded like the echo of the myths of 
 antiquity. We heard that the Russians had penetrated 
 to the banks of the Phasis, to carry off the golden fleece 
 of liberty from the evergreen forests of Colchis, and armed 
 bands, contending with and destroying each other, sprang 
 up from the human bones with which the Colchian plains 
 were bestrewed. 
 
 We are aware that the Russians have converted the 
 Caucasus into an immense camp—that war has been carried 
 on there for a length of time—that the mountains are 
 commanded by Russian forts in every direction; but why 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 the Emperor annually fills Daghistan with the corpses of 
 his warriors—why, and with what right, Russia commenced 
 this unholy war, whose end is still incalculable—we still 
 require information. To furnish this, if only in a slight 
 measure, is the purpose of my present work. 
 
 Any one who believes that the termination of this 
 struggle depends on the destruction of stone forts, and the 
 extirpation of a few forests, does not understand the nature 
 of the Caucasian war. 
 
 The Russians may cover all the countries of the Cau¬ 
 casus with their armies—they may raze all the forts and 
 burn the forests, and even melt the snow of the towering 
 peaks with the fire of their artillery—and yet the unhappy 
 war would not be terminated. They may search out the 
 most hidden ravines in Daghistan, build new cabins in the 
 desolate abodes of the ancient heroes, and extirpate the 
 entire population of the mountains—and still the flame of 
 war, ever fanned afresh, will continue to burn for ages. 
 For this struggle is not merely one between man and man 
 —it is a contest between the mountain and the steppe. 
 
 The population of the Caucasus may be changed; but 
 the breeze of liberty blowing from its mountains will ever 
 remain the same. Strengthened by this breeze, even 
 Russian mercenaries would grow into patriots, and a 
 new hero-race would spring up from their descendants, 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Vll 
 
 to turn their arms against the same serfdom, in the 
 extension of which their fathers were once the blind in¬ 
 struments. 
 
 As for my own share in this little book, I can only lay 
 claim to the merit of selection and arrangement: the ma¬ 
 terials I found ready to hand in several German works. 
 My original intention had been to render a simple version 
 of a pamphlet published in Germany, within the year, and 
 called Schamyl, als Feldlierr , Sultan , und Prophet des 
 Kaukasus . Finding, however, during the progress of my 
 task, that Dr. Wagner’s work did not furnish that gua- 
 rantie of solidity which could alone render it acceptable to 
 the English reader, I was compelled to add copious ex¬ 
 tracts from Friedrich Bodenstedt’s splendid book, Die 
 Volker des Kaukasus , which has, indeed, been a source of 
 inspiration to all recent writers on the Caucasus, not ex¬ 
 cepting Dr. Wagner himself. 
 
 LASCELLES WRAXALL. 
 
SCHAMYL. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PROPHETS OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 SCHAMYL AT H1MRI.—HIS THREE MYSTERIOUS ESCAPES FROM DEATH.—MANSUR 
 
 BEY, THE FIRST PROPHET OF THE CAUCASUS.-KASI MULLAH, SCHAMYL’S 
 
 INSTRUCTOR. — HIS HEROIC DEATH IN THE BREACH. 
 
 It was on the 18th October, 1832, that the Russians made 
 their last and victorious attack upon the Caucasian fortress of 
 Himri, into which the enemy, under the command of the chief¬ 
 tain Kasi Mullah, and of the Murid* Scliamyl, had thrown 
 themselves. The conflict had been raging for several days with 
 unexampled bravery on both sides; but, despite the numerical 
 superiority of the Russian forces, and the terrible ally they pos¬ 
 sessed in their artillery, every summons to surrender was rejected 
 by the dauntless mountaineers. In their wild fanaticism, chant¬ 
 ing verses of the Koran, they poured their death-dealing shower 
 of bullets on the foes. The triple wall of this eyry had been 
 already breached. The towers of the fortress had been destroyed 
 by the Russian cannon ; but Kasi Mullah and Scliamyl obsti¬ 
 nately rejected any thought of surrender. At sunrise, on the 
 18th October, the fortress was at length stormed, and after a 
 most sanguinary and murderous hand-to-hand contest, it fell into 
 the power of the Russians. Kasi Mullah, and a great number 
 of the Murids, were killed at Schainyls side : the latter was 
 himself wounded by a bullet, and received a bayonet thrust; but he 
 
 * The Murids are members of a sacred corps, who have consecrated them¬ 
 selves to death for their faith. 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 cut a path through the combatants, disappeared in an extraordi¬ 
 nary manner, and in two years the Caucasus once again resounded 
 with the glory of his name. 
 
 It has been frequently asserted, and in various quarters, that 
 Schamyl was taken prisoner at Himri by the Russians, carried 
 to St. Petersburg, and, after receiving a commission in the Rus¬ 
 sian army, sent to fight against his own countrymen. In con¬ 
 sequence of an insult he received from his superior officer, he 
 took advantage of the first opportunity to rejoin the enemies of 
 Russia. It is even asserted that, at a later date, a wounded 
 Russian officer, who had been taken prisoner, had been led be¬ 
 fore him, and that Schamyl, recognising in him his most inti¬ 
 mate friend during his residence in St. Petersburg, restored him 
 to liberty, after a lengthened conversation. This pretended con¬ 
 versation was naturally repeated with a variety of details, which 
 invested it with a highly interesting character. 
 
 The anecdote we have just mentioned is certainly true, though 
 with this distinction, that the hero of it was not Schamyl, but 
 Daniel Bey, who is now Schamyl’s friend and comrade in arms. 
 Daniel Bey had indeed been made a Russian general, but 
 deserted, and went from Tiflis to Sklissia, of which country he 
 was Sultan, and where he again raised the banner of revolt. 
 The Russian colonel, Belgard, marched against him with a large 
 body of troops, and took Sklissia by storm. Daniel, however, 
 escaped, and joined Schamyl, who appointed him one of his 
 staff-officers. 
 
 It may be easily conjectured that Schamyl’s miraculous 
 escape furnished the mountaineers with materials for the most 
 extraordinary rumours. Among these, one was current, that 
 Schamyl had really been killed at Himri, but Allah had recalled 
 him to life, in order to give a visible sign, by the resurrection of 
 the prophet, that he was the chosen leader of his co-religionists. 
 
 In the year 1834, Schamyl’s life was for the second time 
 preserved in a marvellous manner. The scene of this occurrence 
 was Chunsak, the residence of the Khan of the Avarians. 
 The Khanum, Pashubike, who was devoted to the Russian 
 interest, refused to join Kasi Mullah in 1830. At a later date, 
 
THE PROPHETS OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 3 
 
 Hamsad Bey, the successor of this prophet, took possession of 
 Chunsak, and after treacherously killing the two sons of the 
 Khanum, who had come to his tent for the purpose of 
 negotiation, ended the tragedy by executing their mother. 
 
 But there is never any lack of avengers in Daghistan, and the 
 new leader of the Murids was fated to fall by the hands of two of 
 his most faithful and distinguished comrades. 
 
 The two brothers, Osman and Hadji Murad, had been 
 brought up with Omar Khan, the eldest son of the Khanum of 
 Chunsak. At the instigation of their own father, they avenged 
 the death of their friend, by cutting down Hamsad Bey in the 
 mosque. Osman fell by the sabres of the Murids, but his 
 brother inflamed the nation to rise in insurrection. A great 
 number of Murids were assassinated in the mosque, and those 
 who escaped took refuge in the tower. Scliamyl, who had 
 followed Hamsad Bey to the mosque, was among the number. 
 They defended themselves with the courage of despair. Hadji 
 Murad gave orders to set the tower on fire, and only two 
 Murids escaped the flames. One was the betrayer of the plot, 
 who had sworn on the Koran to keep it secret, but had revealed 
 it to Hadji Murad. He was recaptured, however, and burnt 
 alive. The other was Schamyl himself, who again disappeared 
 without leaving a trace, and in a most marvellous fashion. 
 
 Schamyl’s third'escape from impending death was not a whit 
 less extraordinary. It took place in the year 1839, at the 
 storming of the fortress of Achulko, where the most dauntless 
 bravery and contempt of death were again displayed on either 
 side. The wives of the Tchetchenzes stood on the surrounding 
 rocks in their fluttering robes, hurling down immense masses 
 of stone on the assailants, and incited their husbands by their 
 wild cries. “ I cannot understand how,” a Russian officer who 
 was engaged in the struggle afterwards wrote—“ I cannot under¬ 
 stand how every thing then appeared to me so natural. But 
 the most cowardly among us were at that moment as wild as 
 panthers, and more terrible lightning flashed from our eyes 
 than from our muskets. We bathed in blood, we clambered 
 over corpses, and the groans of the dying were our music. I saw 
 
4 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 every thing, but did not regard it humanly, as would otherwise 
 have been the case: for the god within me was dead, and only 
 the devil alive.” 
 
 The fortress had been taken, but Schamyl himself, the object 
 of all this toil, was neither among the killed nor the prisoners. 
 Above the Russians a few Tchetchenzes were still visible in the 
 rocky cliffs, and after a while some deserters came down, who, 
 on cross examination, confessed that Schamyl was there, and 
 intended to let himself down by ropes during the night. Trust¬ 
 worthy soldiers were immediately selected to guard the place 
 which the deserters had indicated. At midnight a slight noise 
 was heard. A Lesghi was let down, who, after careful examination 
 of the terrain, gave a signal, and a second Caucasian came down 
 from the heights with the activity of a cat-. He was followed by 
 a third, wrapped up in a white cloak, such as Schamyl usually 
 wore : the Russians burst from their hiding-place, and hurriedly 
 conducted the three prisoners to their general’s tent. Here, 
 however, it was soon discovered that the fugitive they had taken 
 for Schamyl, was an entirely different person; while the real 
 Schamyl, at the moment when the Russians left the spot, 
 descended from his eyry, and reached the banks of the Koissu. 
 Showers of bullets were in vain sent after him : he gained the 
 opposite bank, and disappeared. 
 
 Schamyl himself never revealed in what manner he succeeded 
 in escaping from Achulko ; for it was of the utmost importance 
 for him to increase the sanctity that attached to his name, and 
 cause the people to believe that a miracle would always be per¬ 
 formed, whenever his life or liberty was imperilled. 
 
 However, before we proceed to give any account of Sch amyl’s 
 history, it will be advisable, in order to comprehend what we 
 shall have to say about him, to give a short account of two men, 
 who distinguished themselves before his advent as leaders of the 
 forces opposed to the Russians. 
 
 In the East, and indeed in every partially civilized country, 
 where no written history exists, or, at the most, is utterly un¬ 
 known, the oral traditions are interwoven with a multitude of 
 fables, and it is always difficult to separate the chaff from the 
 
THE PROPHETS OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 5 
 
 fares—the gold from its alloy. In addition to this, the more 
 marvellous a story is ; the more attractive is it to the many. In 
 no country is this propensity so evident as in the Caucasus, 
 where stories, as they pass from mouth to mouth, are more and 
 more adorned, so that it at last becomes a matter of extreme 
 difficulty to separate truth from fiction. 
 
 Ellja Mansur takes a prominent place among those chieftains 
 about whom the most extraordinary stories are in circulation. 
 His real name was Dervish Muhammad, and Daghistan the first 
 place where he actively appeared. At the head of an army of 
 Lesghis and Tchetchenzes, he made an attack on Kisliar, where, 
 however, he was driven back with a great loss : the same fate 
 he also experienced at Navur, where the wives of the Cossacks 
 fought by the side of their husbands. 
 
 Mansur Bey was the first who strenuously exerted himself to 
 unite the several tribes of the Caucasus, in order to cope with 
 the Russians with a greater chance of success. He preached the 
 Koran, and succeeded in converting the princes and nobles of the 
 Ubychs and of Daghistan, who, since that time, have remained 
 faithful to the Muhammadan religion.* 
 
 Mansur Bey was a man of talent, and addicted to the 
 severest temperance—qualities which doubtlessly heightened the 
 magic of his name, and it still lives in the remembrance of the 
 mountaineers. He had several imitators and successors in his holy 
 mission ; but neither Gus Bey nor Djimbulat attained the high 
 reputation which he acquired. It would therefore be a waste of 
 time to inquire into the deeds and lives of these two chieftains. 
 
 A much more important part, however, was played by the 
 already mentioned Kasi Mullah, a man of short stature, with 
 small eyes, a scanty beard, and a face disfigured by pock¬ 
 marks. He had been brought up by the Mullah of the aoul 
 (village) of Bereckei in Koissu-bula. This chieftain discovered 
 extraordinary abilities in the young mao, and consequently sent 
 him to Kadi Muhammad, in the territory of the Khan Aslan. 
 
 * Mansur was taken prisoner by the Russians in 1791, at the siege of 
 Anapa, and carried to the convent of Solovetzki, on the Black Sea, where 
 he soon died. 
 
c 
 
 SCIiAMYL. 
 
 In the year 1821, however, this Khan expelled both teacher and 
 pupil from his country, and Kasi then became a travelling scribe, 
 an occupation which furnished him opportunities of forming an 
 accurate acquaintance with all the peculiarities of the country, 
 which afterwards was filled with the glory of his name. 
 
 A short time afterwards, in the year 1830, he was seen at the 
 head of a band of Murids, whom he had himself instructed in 
 strategy. With this little corps he declared war against the 
 Russians. Naur us Bey, who was confined as a prisoner in 
 Derbend, effected his escape, and became a partisan of Kasi. 
 The Mullah did not, like other chieftains, bear arms himself, and 
 took no active part in the contest, save by inciting the faithful 
 by the fire of his eloquence. 
 
 At this time Paskievitch had just left to open the campaign 
 against the Poles, and his command had been entrusted to 
 General Pancratieff, upon which the prophet appeared before 
 Tarku with a band of Lesghis and Tchetchenzes. The citadel of 
 this town, called Burnaya—or the stormy—was commanded by 
 Major Fodosseyef, and was ctaly occupied by a weak garrison. 
 If Kasi Mullah had attacked it from the mountain side, he 
 would undoubtedly have taken it: but he preferred a blockade 
 of the town, which lies further to the east. In this he had two 
 important objects in view. The first was to gain possession of 
 the wells, which exclusively furnish the town with water, and 
 the second, to capture the powder magazine, which lay in the 
 immediate vicinity. 
 
 His undertaking was entirely successful: but at the moment 
 when the mountain warriors burst into the powder magazine, a 
 grenade was fired at it from the citadel. The magazine ex¬ 
 ploded, and hundreds of the Tcherkess lost their lives in conse¬ 
 quence. 
 
 In the meanwhile, the garrison made repeated and furious 
 sallies, but they suffered horribly from thirst, and appeared to 
 have no other choice except to give up the citadel or bury them¬ 
 selves under the ruins. In this necessity a Tartar offered to 
 inform General Kachanoff of the desperate position in which 
 Tarku was. He sprang down from the walls: the Russians fired at 
 
THE PROPHETS OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 7 
 
 him, and lie returned their fire. In consequence of this ruse he 
 was looked upon as a deserter, and was allowed to continue his 
 journey unimpeded. A few days later, General Kachanoff 
 received a note in a gun-barrel, informing of the danger which 
 impended over the menaced fortress. He hurried off immediately 
 to their assistance, and the delight of the garrison was very great 
 when they heard the thunder of the Russian cannon. The 
 battle was a terrible one, and raged for two days; on the 30th 
 May, however, Kasi Mullah raised the siege, and retired to 
 Tabasseran, to induce the inhabitants to join the insurgents. 
 Colonel Miklacheffski was sent to disperse his troops, in which 
 he succeeded after a brilliant campaign, which only lasted a 
 fortnight, and through which the commander of the expedition 
 received the title of the “ Black Colonel” from the mountaineers, 
 in consequence of the terror he caused them. At the same time 
 they altered Kasi Mullah’s name into Tasi Mullah, or dog, to 
 express the sufferings to which he exposed them. 
 
 In the face of this defeat, Kasi Mullah commenced on the 
 19th August the siege of Derbend — a town of considerable 
 importance, in which he had some confederates. Major Vasle- 
 croff, however, the commandant of the fort Narynkali, inflamed 
 the courage of the inhabitants with such success, that the Tartars 
 came to him and demanded arms, and indeed gave the Russians 
 powerful assistance in their sallies. A murderous contest took 
 place here, in which the Russians, although inferior in numbers, 
 were the victors. Every stratagem which Kasi Mullah now 
 employed, only served to lower him in the estimation of the 
 nation; and when he received information, on the 27th August, 
 of the approach of General Kachanoff, he raised the siege and 
 fled to the mountains. 
 
 The Russians, in return for these inroads, took the aouls of 
 Duvek, Madjalis, Erpeli, and Tcherkey, from which they carried 
 off an immense amount of booty ; for the Lesghis had concealed 
 their valuables there, under the impression that they would be 
 in perfect safety. At the capture of Hurment-juk, another popu¬ 
 lous aoul, Abd-ur-Achman, one of Kasi Mullah’s captains, 
 was burnt alive in a tower, together with about fifty Murids. 
 
8 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 All these defeats, however, did not prevent Kasi Mullah from 
 surprising the town of Kisliar in broad daylight, on the 1st 
 November. He acquired a considerable amount of booty, more 
 especially by raising a forced contribution from the Armenian 
 merchants. On the 2nd December, the Russians made an attack 
 on the aoul of Tjum Kesun. Colonel Mikeeffski was killed 
 upon this expedition; but, before drawing his last breath, he 
 said to his soldiers, “ Take it,” and they took the aoul by storm, 
 and murdered the whole of the inhabitants. 
 
 On the 17th October, 1832, General Rosen, after traversing 
 the defile of Himri, which the mountaineers had asserted to be 
 impassable except after rain, attacked the village and fortress of 
 the same name, and on the following day the storm took place, 
 which we referred to at the commencement of this chapter. The 
 volunteers from the regiment of sappers took the last tower at 
 the point of the bayonet, and Kasi Mullah perished in the breach, 
 in a manner worthy the hero and the prophet. Covered with 
 ■wounds, bathed in blood, and fully prepared for death, he sank 
 on his knees, and cheered on his followers by his invocations to 
 Allah. He received the deathblow undauntedly, holding his 
 beard by the left hand, and the other raised to heaven. 
 
 His comrade in arms, whose lot it was to escape from this 
 scene of horror, was Schamyl, whose life we purpose to 
 describe, after giving a short account and history of the theatre 
 of his deeds, upon which this wonderful man has for the last 
 thirty years been playing a part, which has filled both friend 
 and foe with astonishment and admiration. 
 
THE CAUCASUS AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 9 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE CAUCASUS AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 MOUNT ARARAT AND THE DELUGE_THE AMAZONS.-THE ARGONAUTS.-ALEX¬ 
 ANDER OF MACEDON.-MITHRIDATES, KING OF PONTUS.-THE DOMINION OF 
 
 THE ROMANS.-INFORMATION ABOUT THE CAUCASUS DERIVED FROM BYZANTINE 
 
 AND ARABIAN HISTORIOGRAPHERS.-THE MONGOLIANS.-—CHRISTIAN MISSION¬ 
 ARIES.-THE GENOESE. 
 
 There are few countries in wliicli nature developes so great 
 an amount of poetry as in the Caucasus. Its natural beauties 
 are on a more magnificent scale than those of the Alpine world, 
 and its inhabitants justly enjoy the reputation of being the 
 handsomest race of beings the earth can any where produce. 
 
 The country watered by the Tigris and Euphrates does not 
 form a portion of the Russian empire—the cradle of humanity 
 has not yet been conquered by the Muscovite; but the territory 
 which, according to tradition, was punished by the deluge, has 
 been for some time in the power of the Russians. 
 
 Erivan, the capital of Russian Armenia, signifies in that lan¬ 
 guage “ whole,” for Noah’s ark was seen here in its entirety. 
 Nahit-jevan signifies the “ half,” and Echmiadzin the 66 quarter.” 
 These different denominations indicate the passage of the ark 
 over various districts. Before the ark reached Ararat, it is 
 said to have rested on the Elb-rouss, and the inhabitants of this 
 province assert, that it split the summit of the mountain into 
 the two peaks which are now visible. 
 
 Grecian mythology made the Caucasus the scene of a very 
 important event in its annals. Prometheus was chained to a 
 rock in this range of mountains, as a punishment for stealing fire 
 from heaven. This myth still lives in the memory of the inha- 
 
10 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 bitants, who narrate it with a few very unimportant va¬ 
 riations. 
 
 Herodotus places the Amazons in the Caucasus. The Scy¬ 
 thians, according to his account, were not able to conquer the 
 Amazons; they, therefore, commenced negotiations with them, 
 and were at length united in matrimony. TheSarmatians were 
 the result of this alliance. Popular tradition fully accords with 
 the narration of the “ Father of History,” and states that the 
 Circassians or Tcherkess originally inhabited Tauris, and after 
 proceeding to the Caucasus, and finding their inability to conquer 
 the Amazons, they put an end to the contest by marrying them. 
 
 The manners and customs of the Circassian women of the pre¬ 
 sent day, are perfectly adapted to confirm this tradition ; for they 
 share all the fatigues and dangers of the war with their hus¬ 
 bands. The sunnite women are more especially distinguished 
 by their courage ; and at the capture of Achulko, the Pussians 
 regarded in astonishment 400 women, who, after performing 
 the bravest actions, preferred death to captivity. As soon as they 
 saw that all was irremediably lost, they hurled themselves down 
 from the precipices into the abyss that yawned beneath them. 
 
 Herodotus had a very accurate acquaintance with the Caspian 
 Sea. He gives its length and breadth with great exactitude, 
 and declares that it is an “ isolated lake while Ptolemseus after¬ 
 wards propagated the erroneous opinion, that it communicated 
 with other bodies of water. 
 
 Colchis was the present Mingrelia: here was the Golden Fleece, 
 to obtain which the Greeks made two expeditions, those of 
 Phryxus and of the Argonauts. The former settled in Kytais 
 or Kutais, the present capital of Mingrelia, and his children 
 welcomed Jason, the leader of the Argonauts, who landed with 
 his comrades at the mouth of the Phasis, and traversed the ter¬ 
 ritory of Circe. According to Herodotus, Jason carried off the 
 treasures of PEetes and his daughter Medea, whom the Greeks 
 declined to restore. To avenge this insult, Darius Plystaspes 
 took up arms against the Greeks. 
 
 Alexander of Macedon, on his march to India, completed the 
 subjugation of Georgia, (Iberia,) and Tzcheta was the only town 
 
THE CAUCASUS AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 11 
 
 wliicli offered him a long and heroic resistance. After the con¬ 
 quest of the town, he ordered the walls to be levelled with the 
 ground; all the children below the age of fifteen to be killed, 
 and the inhabitants carried off as prisoners. One of his captains, 
 Ason by name, he appointed governor of Iberia. Before any 
 great lapse of time, however, Pliarnaces, a descendant of the 
 almost extinct royal family, found a hidden treasure, with which 
 he raised a numerous band of partisans. He took up arms 
 against Ason, and, after killing him, restored the independence 
 of his country. 
 
 Mithridates, King of Pontus and the Bosphorus,- took pos¬ 
 session of Colchis and Abasia; and Atagus, King of Iberia, and 
 Oraces, King of Albania, became tributary to him. Tigranes, 
 King of Armenia, and his son-in-law, supported him in his war 
 against the Boinans. He was defeated by Pompey, 65 B.c., 
 when he fled to the mountains of the Caucasus ; while Athalus, 
 the governor of Colchis, graced the victor’s triumphal pro¬ 
 cession. 
 
 The Bomans subjugated Georgia and Colchis, but these coun¬ 
 tries were of very little service to them, and they contented 
 themselves with the nomination of the kings selected from the 
 people. This state of things lasted till the overthrow of the 
 Homan Empire. 
 
 The apostles, Simon of Cana, and Andrew, preached in 
 Abasia and Colchis, but apparently with slight success. As 
 Strabo had an uncle, Moaphernes, who was one of the prefects 
 of King Mithridates, this circumstance materially assisted him 
 in obtaining accurate accounts of the Caucasus. “ Iberia,” he 
 states, “ was inhabited by four different castes of men. To 
 the first belong the kings; to the second, the priests; to the third, 
 the husbandmen; and to the fourth, the servants or slaves.” 
 
 Strabo speaks of the Kerketse or Terutse, who are the 
 Tclierkess of the present day ; of the Soanes ; of the Legse, who 
 are now known by the name of the Lesghis; and of the Aorsi, 
 who are, with great probability, the Avarians on the Caspian 
 Sea (Aior in the Scythian language means man). 
 
 The Albanians were the neighbours of the two latter tribes. 
 
12 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 The Aorsi carried on commerce with India, and aided the 
 Homans in annihilating the Siraces. 
 
 The river Kuban was called by Strabo the Hypanis, and the 
 mountain chain he mentions as Koh-chaf, or Casp. The Pilse 
 Caspise of Pliny are found in the pass of Dariel, which Ptolemmus 
 calls “ the Sarmatian Gate.” A few remains of a wall have 
 indeed led to the inference that a gate formerly existed in this 
 defile, which could be closed and defended with such ease, that 
 a single man could check the passage of a whole army. 
 
 The ancients called the river Kur, the Cyrus : the Koissu, 
 the Cassius : and the river Jorak or Jorrochi, by the name of 
 the Apsarus. The present Rion was the Glauchus of Strabo, 
 the Surium of Pliny, and the Rheone of Procopius. The river 
 called by the ancients the Phasis, now bears the name of Kvirila. 
 The Romans believed that the Cyrus and the Rion were navi¬ 
 gable, and that the Indian trade could be carried by this route; 
 but it is now proved, that these rivers had only sufficient depth 
 of water for vessels at their mouths. 
 
 The information relative to the Caucasus, handed down to us 
 by the Byzantine historiographers, is remarkably scanty. Con¬ 
 stantine, however, was acquainted with the Abkasians or Ab- 
 chasians, and the Zichse. Procopius gave the Alans the name 
 of Goths, and Eustathius informs us that their name signified 
 “ inhabitants of the mountains.” Massudi, Eben-Haucal, and 
 Jakaut, are our chief Arabic sources of information ; bat they 
 are notorious for their love of exaggeration and credulity, and 
 mast, therefore, be read with caution. 
 
 To narrate in a few words what is derived from these sources, 
 we will mention that they call the Caucasus “ Kabokh,” a word 
 which has considerable affinity with the Chabkoth of the Arme¬ 
 nians, and which is also found again in the Kabardah, which 
 the Tcherkess distinguish by the name of Aghlo-Cabac. The 
 province of Schirvan derived its name from that of the Persian 
 prince, to whom King Nuschirevan intrusted the administration 
 of that country. Kosroe confirmed several Caucasian princes 
 in their governments, and invested them with the title of Schah. 
 Herarzan-Schah, Tilan-Schah, Tabarseran-Schah, Charijan- 
 
THE CAUCASUS AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 13 
 
 Schah, and Tran-Schah, were the princes of JSTodi and Zeren- 
 gerafu 
 
 In the country of the Lesghis, the Arabian authors make 
 mention of two towns, Tachar and Sinass, and add that the 
 inhabitants lived on Yult, a species of corn, which bears some 
 resemblance in appearance to barley, but tastes like wheat. 
 Iran, a province of the Caucasus, was situated between Derbend 
 and Schirvan. Arran was the name of the country extending 
 from the Araxes to Derbend; but at the present time the name 
 is restricted to the strip of land between the Araxes and the 
 Kur. The Caspian Sea was then known by the name of the 
 “ Sea of the Chazars,” but it was also called Schirvan Cuilan, and 
 after other provinces in its immediate vicinity. Derbend was 
 called the city of the Gates—El Bah-el-Evab—the city with 
 the iron gates. 
 
 Kesora Kuschirevan, in order to protect his dominions from 
 the inroads of the Chazars, Alans, and other barbarous nations, 
 is said to have built a wall through the whole of the Caucasus, 
 and defended it with iron gates and towers at those places 
 where roads intersected it. There were twelve of them., and 
 their defence was intrusted to the several tribes. 
 
 The Georgia of the present day was called in former times 
 Djorsan, which the Arabians took possession of in the year 650 
 b.c., and held Tidis in their power till 514. The Arabians 
 were also acquainted with the Abchasians, who were Christians, 
 and tributary to the Alans and the Chalifes. The present town 
 Tarku was formerly called Samander, and was under this name 
 the principal city of the Chazars. This tribe was settled along 
 the Kur, and carried on sanguinary wars with the Arabians 
 and Persians. In their constitution the principle was dominant, 
 that the king should reign but not govern (le Roi regne mais 
 ne gouverne pas). The government was in the hands of a 
 regent, who called himself the successor of the king. The court 
 was Israelite; but there were as many Muhammadans among the 
 Chazars as there were Pagans and Christians. Silan was a town 
 in Chazar; but the title of Silan-schah belonged to the King of 
 Serir. 
 
14 
 
 SCIIAMYL. 
 
 Conterminous with Serir was the country called Sirhguiran, 
 a word signifying in Persian “ the manufacturers of breastplates,” 
 and Reinegg, in his description of the Caucasus, finds their de¬ 
 scendants in the Curtjis, a race of famous armourers, who assert 
 that they are of Christian origin. To the north of Serir lay the 
 country of the Kumyks of the present day, who, till the 
 eighteenth century, were Jews. The chief city of the Alans was 
 Margar, and the king of that country maintained an army of 
 30,000 horsemen. The Kajakis are the inhabitants of the 
 Oasatjia,- or the actual Tclierkess. The Arabians admired their 
 beauty, and spoke in high terms of praise of the Tala, a species 
 of linen which the Kajakis made, and which was sold at a very 
 high price. 
 
 Oleg, a Russian prince, interdicted the Severian and Sclavonic 
 tribes from paying tribute to the Chazars. Sviatoslar carried 
 on a war in 965 against the Chosarvians, took their fortress 
 Belaia-Bess, which had been built by Greek engineers, and 
 ravaged the town of Samander. A short time afterwards the 
 Russians seized on Taman or Tamartagas, a city belonging to 
 the Chazars on the Bosphorus, and changed its name to 
 Tmutorokan. In the year 1022, Mistislar waged war against the 
 Kajakis, and rendered them tributary in the ensuing year. 
 They fought afterwards beneath his banners against duke 
 Jaroslav, his brother. 
 
 In the year 1222, the Mongolians made their first inroad 
 into the Caucasus: one of the chieftains of Jengis Khan’s army 
 received the submission of the Prince of Georgia, who resided 
 in Tauris, and the plain of Mughan was for many years the 
 object of the Mongolian expeditions. In addition to this, 
 Tjutji, another chieftain of the Khan’s, crossed the Caucasus by 
 means of the pass of Derbend, and subjugated the Alans. 
 
 In the following century another powerful warrior rose among 
 the Mongolians. Timur, whose name signifies “ iron,” received 
 in the year 1386 on the plains of Karabak the submission of 
 the Prince of Georgia, who was suffered to retain his throne, 
 under the condition that he abjured Christianity. The Prince of 
 Schirvan brought him nine times nine presents, for nine is a 
 
THE CAUCASUS AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 15 
 
 sacred number among the Mongolians. Thaherten, Prince of 
 Armenia, dared to oppose him, and after a siege of nineteen days, 
 the fortress of Yan fell into the hands of the Mongolians. The 
 brave defenders were hurled down an abyss, and the walls 
 pulled down—a very laborious task, for which no less than 
 ten thousand men were required. 
 
 In the year 1399, Timur marched on his retreat from Persia 
 against Melek Gurgin, Prince of Georgia, who refused to deliver 
 up to him the fugitive Prince of Bagdad. Melek intrenched 
 himself in the mountains, and in order to conquer him, Timur 
 employed the same method he had found so successful on his 
 passage across the Indian mountains. Popes three hundred 
 yards in length were manufactured, and baskets fastened to them, 
 in which soldiers were stationed and let down in the neighbour¬ 
 hood of the Circassian hiding-places. The Mongolians then 
 either drove the Tcherkess away with their darts, or set fire to 
 their places of refuge. After Timur had in this manner subdued 
 the mountaineers, he ordered all the fortresses to be demolished, 
 and the inhabitants destroyed. 
 
 According to Strabo, and the Arabians who wrote after him, 
 there are seventy-two different tribes in the Caucasus, or the 
 same number as Pussia contains. At the present moment the 
 number of the Circassian clans is still very great,—a fact 
 which can only be explained by the hypothesis, that the 
 mountains of the Caucasus served as an asylum for the 
 remnants of all the various migrations. It is also very probable 
 that no small number of the Crusaders sought shelter in the 
 Caucasus; and the immense quantity of arms, which from this 
 date began to be found among the Tcherkess, appears to con¬ 
 firm this view, unless we prefer the supposition, that the 
 mountaineers obtained them from the Ottomans. 
 
 The Christian missionaries, who at different times visited the 
 Mongolians, Chinese, and Hindus, also passed through various 
 portions of the Caucasus, and have imparted to us the knowledge 
 of the country they derived in this manner, which, however, 
 has been greatly augmented by the statements of other travellers, 
 as well as by consulting the Georgian and Armenian chronicles. 
 
16 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 After the Genoese had founded colonies in the Crimea, they 
 extended their commerce over Astrakhan to Persia, and had 
 mines worked in Mingrelia on their account. In the year 1475, 
 however, Kaffa fell into the power of the Turks, and the 
 communication by this route between the East and Europe was 
 destroyed. 
 
THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 17 
 
 CHAPTER III, 
 
 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 DERIVATION OF THE NAME CAUCASUS.-EXTENT.-MOUNTAINS.-THE PASSES.- 
 
 THE BLACK SEA. —THE CASPIAN SEA.-RIVERS.-NATURAL PRODUCTIONS_ 
 
 THE TOWNS OF THE CAUCASUS : TIFLIS, TZCHETA, GORI, KUTA1S, REDUT- 
 IvALEH, SUCHUM-KALEH, ISUKSA, ANAPA, ERIVAN, STAVROPOL, MOSDOK, KIS- 
 
 LIAR, PIATIGORSK, GEORGIEVSK, BAKU, DERBEND, KUBAN.-INDIAN FIRE- 
 
 WORSHIPPERS. 
 
 The word Caucasus is, according to Pliny, derivable from 
 the Scythian word Graukasus, signifying “ white with snow.” 
 Nothing, however, has been brought forward in support of this 
 derivation. We consider it more in accordance with analogy, 
 to derive the word from Koh Chaf, or Casp, meaning the Cas¬ 
 pian mountains. The Turks call it Kaf Daghi, the latter word 
 signifying a mountain. The natives themselves call it Elb-rouss, 
 a Persian word, which means mountains of ice. 
 
 The chain of the Caucasus extends from the Black Sea to 
 the Caspian, and is divided into two portions, northern and 
 southern. Its extreme length from Anapa to Baku is 150, but 
 its breadth only 15, geographical miles, if the lower Caucasus— 
 that is, Ararat—is omitted from the mensuration. The highest 
 mountains are the Elbrouss and the Kasbeck. The height of 
 the first, Lang states to be 16,330 feet; and that of the second, 
 according to Parrot and Engelhardt, is 14,400. 
 
 The Circassians give the Elbrouss the name of Djin-Padischah, 
 or ruler of the spirits, and also Noghai Hoja, meaning the 
 mountain of the Noghais (Tartars). The Tartars themselves call 
 it Kaf Dagh ; but in the Hungarian language, from which the 
 word Elbrouss may possibly be derived, Elboruloz means, “east 
 
18 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 thyself down before this sacred mountain.” The Kasbeck is 
 called by the natives Mkinvari, or IJrs Coch, which signifies 
 “ the white mountain.” The word Kasbeck has originated 
 several errors, which are sufficiently important to merit dis¬ 
 cussion. 
 
 Klaproth writes in his description of the Caucasus : u Gamba 
 is mistaken in his opinion that it was General Kasbeck who gave 
 his name to the village and the mountain ;” and the anonymous 
 author of the “ Letters from the Caucasus and Georgia,” states : 
 “ When we reached the place called Kasibeck, we were very 
 politely received by Colonel Kasibeck, who is so called from the 
 mountain of that name, at the foot of which he resides.” 
 
 It is certainly possible that a general should give his name to a 
 mountain; for in the map published in St. Petersburg by General 
 Schubert, the mountain Merkotschi is so called after the name 
 of General Wilyaminoff, who is so well known in the Caucasus. 
 But Kasbeck is no proper name, but is the Persian title of 
 Kasi Bey or Beg, hereditary in the family of Zobitjan Tjvili, 
 which is intrusted with the defence of the pass and the ad¬ 
 ministration of the plains in the district of Chebi, on the upper 
 Terek. The Bussians gave the steppe, the mountain, and the 
 village, the name of Stephan Zminda Kasbeck, and as the Zo¬ 
 bitjan family, which is of Ossetic origin, has entered the Bussian 
 service, it can be no matter of surprise if a traveller formed the 
 acquaintance of a colonel of the name of Kasbeck. 
 
 The Elbrouss is remarkable for its two peaks, while the Kas¬ 
 beck has only one, of a conical form. The former mountain was 
 scaled on the 23rd July, 1829, by a Kabardian, Khillar, who 
 formed part of the expedition General Emmanuel undertook for 
 the express purpose. According to a tradition, Koah’s ark 
 rested on the Elbrouss before reaching Ararat, and the cradle of 
 our Saviour is to be found on the Kasbeck, where it stands 
 above the tent of Abraham, which is suspended in the air. The 
 same tradition states that there is a large amount of treasure 
 concealed on this mountain; but all those who have tried to 
 discover it have been immediately punished by the loss of sight. 
 The natives look upon these mountains as deities, and pay them 
 
THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 19 
 
 divine honours. The Ossetians pay especial reverence to the 
 Sigara, or peaks of the Brut Salsdi. 
 
 The highest peaks are generally called the white or snowy 
 mountains, while, by the name of the “ black mountains,” are 
 meant those of secondary rank, and which are on either side of 
 the chain, near the Black and Caspian Seas. To the east of the 
 Elbrouss a group of five mountains rises, which is called very 
 correctly Beshdagh (yulg. Bejtau), for bash means five, and clagh 
 a mountain. In Russian the same group is called Piatigorie, from 
 fiat five, and gora mountain. The Majut is the highest of them: 
 then comes the Gelesnaya Gora or Iron Mountain, and the 
 Smeinaya Gora, or Mountain of Serpents. To the east of these 
 are situated Barbel, Schah Dagh, Bast Dagli, Barba Dagh, and, 
 finally, in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, Besh Barnaki Dagh, 
 or the Mountain of the Five Fingers, whose height is 3000 feet. 
 
 The Kasbeck is of volcanic formation, and its declivities are 
 covered with lava and scoria. Porphyry in the upper strata and 
 granite below it form the nucleus, which on the eastern side 
 merges into strata of lime or clay. 
 
 Six passes intersect the higher portion of the Caucasian chain, 
 of which, however, only two are in general use. One of them is 
 the pass of Dariel, which General Todieben first traversed with 
 a convoy of ammunition and military stores, and which was 
 known to the ancients by the name of “ Portae Caucasise.” The 
 other route runs along the Caspian Sea, and through the pass of 
 Derbend, from Kisliar to Baku. The most convenient com¬ 
 munication with the Caucasus, however, is effected by water. 
 We must here remark that the Black Sea did not derive its 
 ominous name from the colour of its water, but from the terrible 
 storms which rage there during the greater portion of the year. 
 The sailors of antiquity were notorious for their fear of the 
 Pontus Euxinus, and, in fact, countless accidents have taken place 
 on this sea. The most remarkable in modern times occurred in 
 the year 1838, when several Russian ships were driven on shore, 
 near Suchum Kaleh. The Caspian Sea is, probably, even more 
 dangerous for navigation, and we shall have an opportunity to 
 return to this subject presently. 
 
20 
 
 SC H AMYL. 
 
 As the Caucasus is bathed by these two seas, the Russians 
 find no difficulty in asserting their supremacy over the two 
 opposite coasts of the country, and in carrying on the war with¬ 
 out interruption. In fact, while the stores they require are 
 brought to them with great facility, they can cut off the enemy’s 
 communication by means of a strict blockade. The result, how¬ 
 ever, has nob responded to the anticipations which were formed, 
 and the expense for garrisons and ships far exceeded the amount 
 which was at first considered sufficient. 
 
 The Russians bring their provisions down the Volga, and 
 derive their ammunition from Siberia. Both articles, however, 
 are rarely of the best quality; for, as they pass through the hands 
 of various agents, their condition is considerably deteriorated 
 before they reach the place of consumption. Nor must we omit 
 mentioning, that the English and Turks found means, in spite of 
 the blockade, to provide the Tcherkess with ammunition through 
 the port of Suchum Kaleh. 
 
 There is no sea without rivers which pour their waters into 
 it. These rivers are so many arteries, which bear the enemy into 
 the heart of the country. The rivers of the Caucasus, however, 
 all have a narrow bed, and the majority of them a very rapid 
 current, which is unsuited for navigation. Rising but a short 
 distance from the sea, they hurry along their stony bed towards 
 it. Besides this, in the spring they overflow their banks, and 
 large tracts of land are under water. 
 
 Another peculiarity of the Caucasus is the want of lakes, of 
 which there is only a small one on Mount Khoi, through the 
 whole extent of the country. The reason for this may be found 
 in the fact, that the mountains are too precipitous and too close 
 together, to allow water to collect and remain stationary between 
 them. 
 
 The three largest rivers of the Caucasus are the Kuban, the 
 Terek, and the Kur. The first rises in the Elbrouss, and, after 
 flowing a distance of 500 versts, divides into three arms, two of 
 which fall into the sea of Azov, the other into the Euxine. The 
 little and great Selenjuck, the Laba, and the Urub, are confluents 
 of the Kuban. The Terek rises in the Kasbeck, and flows a 
 
THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 21 
 
 distance of 400 versts. It traverses the pass of Dari el, and 
 falls into the Caspian Sea at Kisliar. Its principal confluents 
 are the Malka and the Suntja. 
 
 The Kur flows for a distance of 800 versts. It is the deepest 
 of all, but generally very narrow. It rises in Turkey in the 
 mountains of Kars, and after receiving the Hippus, Tjeni-Tjali, 
 and the Kririla, falls into the Black Sea at Poti. The Koissu 
 traverses Daghistan under the names of -Andi, Avar, Kara, 
 Kasi Kumyk, Koissu, and Sulak. 
 
 In natural productions Caucasia is not so rich as it might 
 become with proper cultivation and a season of peace. It pos¬ 
 sesses a great abundance of mineral wealth, which, however, has 
 till now been turned to no advantage. The forests are extensive 
 and magnificent, and consist of oak, beech, chestnut, walnut, and 
 fig, trees, and in addition to these, wild mulberry-trees grow in 
 great profusion. Peach, apricot, apple, pear, and cherry trees, 
 are cultivated with great care. 
 
 The wheat of Derbend is well known for its large kind of 
 grain, and general fertility. In addition to this, rye, wheat, 
 millet, and tobacco, are planted, and every variety of vegetable 
 grows well. The inhabitants of the northern Caucasus sow 
 wheat, barley, millet, and Indian corn. 
 
 Of the productions of the animal kingdom, we must give the 
 chief place to the horses, which are remarkable not only for their 
 beauty, but for their long endurance of fatigue. The mountain 
 oxen are also harnessed like the donkeys or mules, and employed 
 as carriers. The sheep are principally of the Kalmuck breed, 
 with large heavy tails. Among the wild beasts of the Caucasus 
 are found bears, wolfs, jackals, panthers, boars, foxes, stags, 
 antelopes, buffaloes, wild-cats, moles of a very large size, &c. 
 Pheasants are shot and killed in large quantities, in the dry 
 osier beds, thickets, and forests. There are also eagles of the 
 usual size, various breeds of falcons, hawks, wild-pigeons, and 
 deer, &c. 
 
 We will conclude this chapter with a cursory glance at the 
 principal towns in Caucasia. 
 
 Tiflis, according to the Georgian chronology, was built in the 
 
22 
 
 S C H A M Y L. 
 
 year 453 of the Christian sera. The old city lay on the right 
 bank of the Kur, and was destroyed by the Persian Schah, Aga 
 Muhammad Khan. The new town, situated on the left bank, has 
 only been in existence since the Russians settled here. Its 
 name, Tiphlissi, is derived from the hot springs and mineral 
 waters which bubble out beneath a bridge near the entrance to 
 the town. Tiflis has about 30,000 inhabitants. In its general 
 aspect it bears some resemblance to Prague, and with reference 
 to the mode of living and the commerce which goes on there, is 
 similar to Cairo. The streets are not so handsome as the squares 
 or market-places. It contains forty-three churches, but the 
 domes of the Armenian and Georgian churches are conical, 
 and not round like those of the Russian churches. 
 
 The palace of the governor-general in the new town is a hand¬ 
 some building, which was erected from the ruins of the old palace 
 of the Georgian kings, and the gardens which surround it are 
 open on Sunday to the public. The theatre, which was com¬ 
 menced a short time back, is probably completed by this time. 
 There is also a botanic garden, but it will require many improve¬ 
 ments before it deserves the name. The bazaar, which is the 
 meeting-place of the numerous population formed of so many 
 different elements, offers an interesting and highly attractive 
 scene. Here are seen the Georgian and Armenian, the Imme- 
 ritian and the Circassian, the Russian soldier and the Tartar; 
 all easily distinguished by their different garb. Here Europe 
 and Asia are mingled together, and display the most striking 
 contrast between their physiognomies and language. Turks, 
 Tartars, Spanish-speaking Jews, and German-spluttering colo¬ 
 nists, carry on their business here. The artisans work in the 
 open streets, near the tradesmen who sell their productions. 
 
 The Georgian woman with her black eyes, her aquiline nose, 
 and painted cheeks, looks, either with or without her jadra, or 
 veil, much better at a distance than when near, and handsomer 
 on the terrace of a house than in the street. Ida Pfeiffer is 
 perfectly correct in saying, that the Persian harems are filled 
 with more beautiful women than the Turkish are, though there 
 are many Circassians in the latter. The Persian woman, in 
 
THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 23 
 
 truth, is the Frenchwoman of the east, through her amiability; 
 while the Circassian, with her regular features, may be regarded 
 as the Italian. 
 
 There is no lack of wood in Georgia, although this is the case 
 in Armenia-, and the neighbourhood of Baku. This will be the 
 best opportunity to tell our readers in what manner the inhabi¬ 
 tants of the Caucasus warm their abodes. Stoves are a great 
 rarity, and even chimneys are not to be met with every where. 
 A vessel filled with burning charcoal is placed under a table 
 covered with a cloth; the persons visiting the house sit round 
 this table, and their feet are warmed by the heat issuing from 
 the vessel. As the shoes worn by the natives are very light, 
 they are easily penetrated by the heat; but, at the same time, 
 this mode of heating is accompanied by some very considerable 
 evils. 
 
 On the road from Tiflis to Kuta’is the first post is Tzcheta, 
 the ancient capital of Iberia, and the next Gori, which was for¬ 
 merly a larger town than Tiflis. Gori is situated on the Liachva, 
 whose water is greatly celebrated; probably because that of all 
 the other streams is bad and unhealthy. 
 
 With reference to the women of Gori, the following tradition 
 is current. “ Allah,'” the legend says, “ wished to stock his 
 celestial harem with the fairest daughters of earth. He there¬ 
 fore commissioned an Imam, who was a great connoisseur in 
 female beauty, to cull for him forty of the loveliest women he 
 could find. The Imam journeyed to Frankistan, into the country 
 of the Ingliz, whence he carried off the king’s daughter. The 
 English monarch pursued him ; but Allah, who protected his 
 servant, threw dust in the eyes of the pursuer, and thus checked 
 him. From England the Imam proceeded to Germany, where 
 he selected many lovely maidens ; but when he reached Gori, 
 he fell in love with one of the beauties he had chosen for the celes¬ 
 tial harem, and remained there with the whole bevy. Allah 
 punished the treachery of the Imam by death, but the beautiful 
 maidens all remained in Gori, where they assisted in the pro¬ 
 creation of a splendid race of mortals.” 
 
 Kutais is the capital of Immeritia, and is situated on the K-ion. 
 
24 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 It is remarkable for the antiquities which are to be found in its 
 vicinity, although some of them are not what they are believed 
 to be. Thus, for instance, in the convent of Gelati, the traveller 
 is shown the cemetery of King David, and one wing of the iron 
 gate, which the inhabitants of the convent insist that he carried 
 off from Derbend, although the Coptic inscription on the gate 
 dates from the sera of the emir of Tabin, and states that it was 
 brought to this place from Ani, the ancient capital of Mingrelia. 
 This half gate is thirteen feet high, and six in breadth. 
 
 In Mingrelia there is not a single place that deserves the 
 name of a town. Even Sukdid§, the winter, and Isalchino, the 
 summer residence of the princes, are nothing but miserable 
 villages. Redut Kaleh is a poor seaport, which was opened in 
 1827. The Russian government pays for the privilege of .carry¬ 
 ing on trade here, an annual sum of 2300 silver rubles to the 
 Prince of Mingrelia. 
 
 Suchum Kaleh, situated in the Abehasian territory, is a 
 place of more importance. Taken by the Russians in the year 
 1810, it ought, by the treaty of 1811, to have been restored to 
 Turkey with the other districts. However, as the war assumed 
 a more favourable aspect in 1812, orders were sent not to 
 deliver up these harbours. The command, however, came too 
 late, except for the retention of Suchum Kaleh, which was not 
 restored, and has since remained in the hands of the Russians. 
 
 Isuksa, the capital of Abchasia, is a town of no consequence. 
 Anapa was built by the Turks in 1784. Six years later, 
 General Bibikof tried to take this fortress by storm, but was 
 repulsed. In 1791, however, General Gudovitch captured it 
 after a siege of six weeks; and on the 29th April, 1807, the 
 Russian squadron, itndei* the command of Traversey and 
 Pastoshkin, forced it to surrender in a single day. It was 
 again taken in 1809, and for the last time by Prince Mentschikoff, 
 in 1828. By the treaty of Adrianople, Anapa became definitively 
 an integral portion of the Russian dominions. Under the Turkish 
 government it was the chief emporium of the Circassian slave trade. 
 
 Erivan is the capital of Russian Armenia. The fortress was 
 built by the Turks in 1582, and taken by the Persians in 1604, 
 
THE GEOGKAPHY OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 25 
 
 who increased its strength so greatly, that the Turks in 1615, 
 and the Russians under Zizianoff in 1804, were compelled to 
 raise the siege. Paskievitch, however, was more fortunate in 
 1827, for he was supported by the Armenians, who desired to 
 become Russian subjects in consequence of their religious offinity. 
 At last, when a bullet struck the cathedral in which the inhabi¬ 
 tants had taken shelter, they were seized with a superstitious 
 fear, and surrendered the town. 
 
 • There were formerly two Armenian churches, very handsomely 
 built of coloured bricks. The Russians converted one of them 
 into an arsenal, and the other into a Greek church. The harem 
 of the Serdars of Erivan has been metamorphosed into barracks ; 
 and at the same place, where the Odalisques formerly reclined, 
 inhaling the fragrance of flowers and perfumes, the Russian 
 soldiers now diffuse their peculiar odour. The town itself is 
 dirty and badly built, but there is a splendid view from the 
 citadel over the surrounding country. There are some very 
 splendid apartments in the citadel, which are adorned with 
 mirrors and the portraits of the Persian Schahs. 
 
 Stavropol, the capital of Cis-caucasia, was founded in 1777, 
 but was not raised to the rank of a town till 1785. Its situa¬ 
 tion is high and healthy, and it protects the country between the 
 Kumak and the Kuban. Two fairs are held here annually, at 
 which considerable quantities of merchandise are disposed of. 
 In the vicinity of the town is a prison, in which all the criminals 
 of the entire province are confined. They work here in the open air, 
 and are generally loaded with heavy chains. Stavropol is situ¬ 
 ated on the Atjile, and is surrounded by Kalmuks, nomadic 
 Noghais, and Cossack stanitzas. The garden, forming a portion 
 of the governor’s hotel, owes its beauty to General Emmanuel. 
 This town is now of no great importance, but it may eventually 
 become so. 
 
 The government of Stavropol is formed of four districts: 
 Stavropol, Piatigorsk, Mosdok, and Kisliar. Mosdok, built on 
 the frontier of the Kabardah in 1764, contains 4500 inhabitants, 
 and is situated on the banks of the Terek. Kisliar was built 
 during the reign of the Empress Anne, and lies at a distance of 
 
26 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 seventy versts from the Caspian Sea. It derives its name from an 
 arm of the Terek, and signifies in the Tartar language 
 “ a drowned maiden.” It contains about 10,000 inhabitants, 
 and a considerable amount of trade is carried on. Piatigorsk 
 is celebrated for its mineral waters. 
 
 Georgievsk has lost its former importance since 1822, when 
 the seat of government was transferred to Stavropol, and since 
 Piatigorsk has become the chief town of the district. Mosdok 
 has also suffered considerably, since the high-road to Tifiis wts 
 carried through Stavropol. 
 
 Baku or Badku (the Mountain of the Winds) is continually 
 exposed to a violent northern wind, and the climate is generally 
 bad. The town contains 800 houses, 4000 inhabitants, and a 
 garrison of 400 soldiers. The port of Baku, built by Peter the 
 Great, is of considerable strength, and was formerly washed by 
 the sea, which has gradually retired. The harbour is good, and 
 the bazaar handsomer than the one at Derbend. The Maiden’s 
 Tower is a very remarkable building, erected to keep off the 
 inroads of the Truchraenes on the eastern shore. The two 
 coasts of the Caspian Sea were formerly connected by an isthmus, 
 which divided it into two seas, and of which the Island of 
 Nargin formed a portion: but at the present time the sea is 
 deeper round this island than elsewhere. A town of the name 
 of Schava also appears to have existed here in ancient times, 
 but every trace of it has disappeared. Baku carries on a con¬ 
 siderable trade with Persia, from which country silks, carpets, 
 and the wines of Shamachi, are obtained. These wines have 
 much similarity with the better sorts of the south of France, 
 and their preparation merits greater attention than is paid to 
 them. 
 
 Russian products are very dear in Baku, but on the other 
 hand fruit is extraordinarily cheap. Grapes are sold for about 
 one penny a pound, and a gallon of wine can be purchased for 
 about four shillings and sixpence. There is a great scarcity of 
 vegetables, and, as no great quantity of corn is grown, food for 
 cattle is very dear. In the neighbourhood large quantities of 
 naphtha are found, which is used to coat the roofs of the houses, 
 
THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 27 
 
 although it does not render them quite waterproof against the 
 incessant spring rains. Naphtha is also burnt instead of candles, 
 but the smell is very unpleasant. As there are no corn crops 
 here, the bread is not of a first-rate quality. 
 
 Twelve versts from Baku, on the peninsula of Apscheron, there 
 is a colony of Indian fire-worshippers. They keep up a whitish 
 yellow flame, which exudes from the ground. It is free from 
 the unpleasant qualities possessed by naphtha, and appears to 
 be alimented by hydrogen gas. On the walls of their temples 
 the flames are seen burning, and in the interior the whole of 
 the ground is covered with little jets. If a quantity of atmo¬ 
 spheric air is here compressed, and then brought into contact 
 with fire, a tremendous explosion takes place. These Indians 
 are in the habit of amusing their visitors with experiments of 
 this nature. 
 
 Derbend contains 1800 houses, and 26,000 inhabitants. Its 
 climate is mortal for the Russian garrison, which loses nearly one 
 half of its number annually by fevers and contagious diseases. The 
 majority of the inhabitants are Tartars. The town itself is in a 
 very picturesque situation. It extends along a narrow strait 
 of the sea towards the mountains, is surrounded by a wall, and 
 defended by a citadel. The palace of the Schah is in ruins, and 
 there are a number of Medjeds, whose minarets improve the ap¬ 
 pearance of the town. 
 
 Kuban, on the river of the same name, is the chief place in 
 the important district of Daghistan. This district contains 
 about three hundred villages. 
 
28 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE TRTBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 THE NUMBER OF THE POPULATION—BEAUTY OF THE CIRCASSIAN RACE—ORIGIN 
 
 AND MEANING OF THE NAME TCHERKESS-THE ADIGHE —LESGHIS-TCHET- 
 
 CltENZES-ABCHASIANS — UBYCHS-TCHIGETES — OSSETIANS-SUANES-TN- 
 
 GUSHIS — KABARDIANS-BALKARIANS-RISINGLI-GEORGIANS OR GRUSI- 
 
 NIANS-IMMERtTIANS-MINGREL1ANS-ARMENIANS-TARTARS OR NOGHAIS- 
 
 KUMYKS COSSACKS MAGYAR I GERMAN COLONISTS THE ^EGYPTIAN 
 
 MAMLtJKS. 
 
 The number of the entire population of the Caucasus can only 
 be given approximatively; for the Tcherkess laugh at the cus¬ 
 tom among other nations, of counting men like a herd of cattle. 
 The Russian lists only possess a certain value as regards sub¬ 
 jugated tribes, and the population of the whole isthmus varies, 
 according to different authors, from one and a half to three mil¬ 
 lions. The truth is probably, as in many other cases, in the 
 medium; and we believe, after a comparison of the different 
 statements that have been made on this subject, that We shall 
 be nearest the truth if we assume a population of rather over 
 two millions. 
 
 But if the number of fighting Tcherkess could be raised at 
 the commencement of the war to 700,000, this is no longer the 
 case, for the Kabardah has since declined to take part in the 
 war. This number would certainly allow a population of three 
 and a half millions to be inferred, if we could assume that al) 
 the men capable of bearing arms are actually Warriors. But 
 this is not the case; for, although women are sometimes seen 
 fighting in the ranks of the Tcherkess, the peasants are only 
 called to arms in exceptional cases, and consequently, after 
 taking into account the latest acquisitions Russia has formed 
 
THE TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 29 
 
 from Turkey and Persia, the population under the authority of 
 the governor-general of Tiflis cannot be estimated at more than 
 three millions. 
 
 The greater portion of this population, however, is either at 
 peace, or allied, with the Russians. The Armenians, Georgians, 
 Mingrelians, and Immeritians, are on the side of the Russians, who 
 have formed a body of militia among the Ossetians, Georgians, and 
 other tribes. We have, therefore, fair grounds to take a cipher 
 from the above 700,000, and to reduce it to 70,000. 
 
 If by the title of the Caucasian race, which is applied to the 
 whole population of Europe, it were meant that all the inhabi¬ 
 tants of Europe came from the Caucasus, this would be a great 
 error; for this chain of mountains could never have had a popula¬ 
 tion to render such an immense migration possible. In addition 
 to this, many tribes which are now inhabitants of the Caucasus, 
 are the children of another soil; and we consequently mean by 
 the Caucasian race only the regular type of the white race. 
 
 The beauty of the Tcherkess, which is really surprising, has, 
 however, been praised rather too highly, and the renown which 
 they have acquired on this account is, in reality, only shared 
 by the higher classes and the females; for the great body of the 
 population is not free from ugly and ill-shapen individuals, al¬ 
 though they are not met with in so large a ratio as in other coun¬ 
 tries. The Circassians have contrived to keep theinselves as free 
 as possible from any commingling with other races ; and it is 
 a very remarkable fact, that when such a fusion has taken place, 
 the Circassian blood has retained its predominance, and the 
 inferior class has gained by it. There is not a trace of the visit 
 paid by the Rabardians to the Crimea, or of the commingling 
 of the Chazar with the Tartar blood; while the Circassian women 
 have rendered great assistance in beautifying the Turks and 
 Russians. This fact is permanently confirmed in the stanitza 
 Tch ermenaya, whose original colonists.—Russian soldiers—carried 
 off Circassian wives; for a race of men has sprung from this 
 connection who are far superior to their neighbours in beauty. 
 
 We will now proceed to an examination of the several Cau¬ 
 casian tribes, and will commence with the explanation, that the 
 
30 
 
 SCIIAMYL. 
 
 Circassians do not call themselves Tcherkess, a word which in 
 the Turkish language signifies “ robbers, or cut-throats.” In 
 other languages this word is a corruption of “ Circetes,” the title 
 given in antiquity to one of the most numerous Circassian 
 tribes. Tcher means in Persian a warrior, and Kes , somebody. 
 The Russians call all the mountaineers by the collective name of 
 Tcherkess; they are divided into many tribes, among which the 
 AdigliS, or Adeche (the nobles), occupy the first rank, and are re¬ 
 garded as the purest Circassian race. Pagans are much more nume¬ 
 rous among them than Muhammadans, and only the nobles and 
 princes have embraced the confession of Tslam. The peasants 
 worship a god of thunder and of war, Thible : a god of fire, a 
 god of water, a god of the forest, and a god of travellers. They 
 regard the law of the blood-revenge, and exercise the rights of hos¬ 
 pitality and shelter, which is the case with all the Circassian tribes. 
 They consider celibacy and corpulence to be a disgrace. The 
 princes divide the land with the nobles. The warriors form a 
 distinct caste; and, although all the peasants bear arms, they only 
 march into the field on extraordinary occasions. These different 
 classes are distinguished by the colour of their slippers or shoes. 
 Those worn by the princes are red, by the nobles, yellow, and by 
 the peasants, black. 
 
 As regards marriage customs, virgins are sewn up in deer 
 skins, which the bridegroom cuts open on the marriage night 
 with his dagger. Their slaves are prisoners captured in war. 
 The AdechS are natives of Kuban, and Anapa is the most 
 important town in their territory. 
 
 The Lesghis inhabit Daghistan, and cause the Russians the 
 most trouble. They are subdivided into a great number of 
 tribes, and their whole number amounts to about four hundred 
 thousand. 
 
 The Tchetchenzes at the most amount to twenty-five thousand ; 
 but, in spite of that, are in a state of almost continual revolt 
 against the Russians, by whom they are no sooner defeated than 
 they commence their inroads again. The Russians have at¬ 
 tempted to write the Circassian language by employing the 
 Turkish alphabet; but the universal language among the Cau- 
 
THE TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 31 
 
 casian tribes, who each possess a different dialect, is the Tartar, 
 or the Turkish. 
 
 The Abchasians are distinguished from the above-mentioned 
 tribes, not only by their features, but by their customs. Less 
 warlike than the Circassians, they are more inclined to acknow¬ 
 ledge the Russian authority; but they are the oldest inhabi¬ 
 tants of the Caucasus, and are said to be descendants of the 
 Abyssinians. In religious matters they are quite indifferent; 
 and, although Christianity was introduced among them in the 
 reign of the Emperor Justinian, their religion is still nothing 
 but a mixture of Paganism and Islamism. They pay special 
 reverence to the oak. The monarchical principle has taken very 
 deep root amongst them; but the present dynasty is more at¬ 
 tached to the interests of the Russians than to those of the nation. 
 
 The ITbyehs and Jigetes form the confederation of the Shap- 
 sughs, and are two warlike tribes who live along the coast of 
 the Black Sea. As we will show presently, they have repulsed 
 many of the Russian generals, and have taken several of their 
 forts. 
 
 The Ossetians are the Jazygi of the Russians, and consequently 
 a Sclavonic race. Although they opposed the attempt, in the 
 reign of the Empress Elizabeth, to convert them to Christianity, 
 this is no longer the case, for the number of converts is greater 
 than that of the whole population. This has its origin in the 
 circumstance, that one and the same individual, seduced by the 
 rewards offered by the Russian government, which consist of a 
 silver ruble, a cross of the same material, and a few articles of 
 clothing, allowed himself to be converted at different times and 
 various places—a trick which was rendered considerably easier 
 of accomplishment, through the carelessness with which the 
 priests keep their register. But, although so frequently con¬ 
 verted to Christianity, the Ossetians have always remained good 
 Mussulmans. 
 
 At the foot of the Elbrouss, on the river Inkar, and extend¬ 
 ing nearly forty geographical miles, lies Suanethia, a country 
 where the winter lasts nearly nine months. The Suanians, or 
 inhabitants of this district, are tall and powerful, and can endure 
 
32 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 immense privations and fatigue. They are industrious and 
 peaceable as long as tlie country provides them with the neces¬ 
 saries of life; but when that is not the case, they plunder, and 
 sell their children as slaves. 
 
 Christian temples are found in their territory, as is the case 
 among the Abchasians; and it is asserted that they were built 
 by Thamar, Queen of Georgia. The Suanians are, however, very 
 slightly, perhaps not at all, imbued with religious sentiments. 
 The Suanians conceal their wives very carefully, wdiich is quite 
 contrary to the practice among the Lesghis. Polygamy, how¬ 
 ever, is not allowed among them, and every one is bound to 
 marry his brother’s widow. 
 
 The Ingushis are also Pagans, although traces of primitive 
 Christianity may be found in their manners and customs. They 
 observe Sunday, and several other holidays of the Greek church. 
 They believe in the immortality of the soul, and in a future life, 
 while the Suanians believe in transmigration. 
 
 Kabardah is divided by the Terek into two parts, called the 
 Greater and Lesser Kabardah. This country, which is very ac¬ 
 cessible to the Russians, is entirely subject to them; but in 
 spite of that, the inhabitants are in their hearts good Mussul¬ 
 mans. Their customs have great similarity with those of the 
 Adeche; and their princes are of Arabic descent. Even in the 
 time of Louis Quatorze, the Russian czars considered themselves 
 lords of the Kabardah, as is proved by a remark that monarch 
 let fall. 
 
 The Karatshai, Balkarians, and Risingli, assert that they 
 are descendants of the Magyars: but their language is very differ¬ 
 ent from the Hungarian; and, as regards their physical resem¬ 
 blance to the Magyars, the same is also found among the 
 Cossacks. 
 
 The Georgians, called by the Russians Grusinians, could never 
 be converted to Islamism, through their extraordinary par¬ 
 tiality for pork and wine; but the Georgians of the district of 
 Achal Ziche were converted by compulsion, while the Arme¬ 
 nians enjoy perfect religious liberty. 
 
 The Georgians are an agricultural nation; and their ploughs 
 
THE TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 33 
 
 are frequently drawn by ten or twelve oxen or buffaloes; but 
 their houses are miserable huts. They manufacture silk, and 
 rear large herds of cattle. Their bridges over the Kur are built 
 after the same simple fashion as was practised in the time of 
 Oambyses. Hides of the same species as those employed for 
 the manufacture of wine-skins, are sewn together, blown out, 
 and hermetically closed ; then they are fastened together, so as to 
 cover the river from one bank to the other, and boards are laid 
 upon them. 
 
 The Georgians soon attain puberty, and their daughters are 
 married at the age of eleven, and become mothers. 
 
 The Georgian costume bears an affinity to the Persian and 
 Circassian. The outer coat is called the kaba, and covers the 
 arkoluh and the jarvali, which has also become the fashion in 
 Russia. Shirts are made of silk or cotton. The Georgians dye 
 their hair, and display as much skill in the process as the Per¬ 
 sians do. 
 
 The ImmeritianSjlike the Georgians and Mingrelians, form part 
 of the Kartuel race, although their languages do not bear any 
 resemblance. The Immeritians wear the Persian costume, with 
 the exception of the cap, which is formed of a piece of cloth 
 fitting very closely to the head, and frequently richly adorned 
 with silver. It is fastened under the chin with a strap, for the 
 least puff of wind would blow it off. As it is no protection 
 against the cold, they allow their hair to grow very long and 
 thick, and dye it of a red colour, while the beard retains its 
 natural blackness. The Immeritians cultivate the vine, and even 
 surpass the Georgians in their partiality for wine ; their drinking 
 bouts are accompanied by the chanting of hymns. Their mode 
 of dancing, like that of the Circassians and Persians, does not con¬ 
 sist of rapid evolutions, but is confined to graceful attitudes and 
 simple movements of the feet. Although they are Christians, they 
 venerate all the old images of their gods, and sacrifice animals 
 principally on the graves of their dead. 
 
 Chevalier de Gamba, who lived for a long time in Kutais, 
 •asserts that he was the first to introduce the cultivation of com 
 among the inhabitants ; before this time only maize was grown. 
 
 Jj 
 
34 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 At the present time the Immeritians make bread, which is quite 
 as bad as that which may be procured in Dagliistan. 
 
 Mingrelia was the Colchis of the ancients. Ruins are still 
 visible; but the rivers no longer appear to produce gold. The 
 country is poor, and the only valuable production is a species of 
 wood called Jinai, which is very hard and well adapted for ship¬ 
 building; but considerably more profit might be derived from it 
 than is at present the case. The princes of this country, who 
 are called Dadiani, are entirely devoted to Russian interests, 
 scarcely bestow a thought on the welfare of their country, and 
 the people vegetate in utter ignorance of the most common 
 necessaries of life. Since Chardin’s time, however, who did not 
 even find the use of money to be prevalent among them, this 
 country has made some slight progress. 
 
 The two provinces of Erivan and Kachitjevan were incorpora¬ 
 ted with Russia by the treaty of Turkmantjai in 1828, and now 
 form part of the government of the Caucasus. The Araxes forms 
 the southern frontier of Russian Armenia, which contains a 
 population of 165,000 inhabitants. The Armenians have 
 acquired a great reputation by their skilfulness in commercial 
 matters; in fact, they are not only the exclusive traders through 
 a great portion of the Caucasus, but also possess large settle¬ 
 ments for the promotion of trade through the whole of Russia, 
 where their number may be estimated at about 400,000. There 
 is a Turkish proverb, that it requires no less than one Kopt, two 
 Greeks, and three Jews to cheat an Armenian; and when Peter 
 the Great was asked whether the Jews might be permitted to 
 settle in Russia, he answered, “ Let them come and see if they 
 can make any profit out of my people.” 
 
 Another numerous tribe in the Caucasus is the Tartars or 
 Noghais. Klaproth and Bodenstedt both assert that the Rus¬ 
 sians distinguish the Turkish tribes in the Caucasus incorrectly 
 by this name, and require that they should be called Turcomans 
 or Turks ; but what are the Turks themselves h The Turk is only 
 a Tartar, ennobled by the introduction of Circassian blood; and 
 the Turkish language is originally Tartaric, but much more 
 elegant, as it lias borrowed the beauties of the Persian and 
 
TUE TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 35 
 
 Arabic languages. Tartars and Turks understand each other; 
 but the Tartaric is not an epistolary language, while there is 
 a written Turkish language, which is spoken by many of the 
 Caucasian Tartars, and is regarded as a sign of superior educa¬ 
 tion. 
 
 The Tartars or Noghais dwelling in the Caucasus, are of 
 purely Tartaric descent. Their name is derived from Noghai, 
 a descendant of Jenghis Khan, who formed a powerful empire 
 on the northern and eastern coasts of the sea of Azof, about the 
 end of the thirteenth century. He afterwards waged war 
 against the Circassians, with the assistance of the Russians of 
 Tmutorukan, who recognized his authority. After the conquest 
 of Astrakan, a portion of the Noghais marched in 1557 into 
 the Caucasus, expelled the Circassians, and settled on the 
 Kuban under the name of the “ black Noghais.” When the 
 Crimea fell into the power of the Kussians in 1771, many of 
 their countrymen joined the Tartars, so that their number now 
 amounts to about 70,000. 
 
 The Kumyks dwell in Daghistan, and a populous, industrious 
 aoul, called Andir, is the chief place in this country. The 
 Prussians have built the fort of Yensnapnaya, in the vicinity of 
 this village. There are now about 70,000 Kumyks, and their 
 district extends as far as the shamhalad of Tarku ; the chiefs of 
 this territory are in the Russian service. 
 
 The Cossacks form a considerable portion of the population of 
 the Caucasus. The first five stanitzas or villages were founded 
 by Peter the Great on the Terek in 1711 ; a year later, Peter 
 built on the Sulak the fort of the Holy Cross, which was, how¬ 
 ever, afterwards destroyed, in consequence of the treaty of Bel¬ 
 grade, and the garrison removed to Kisliar. Afterwards Cossacks of 
 the Don, a family from each stanitza—and hence called family 
 Cossacks, (Semeini)—were settled on the banks of the Terek. In 
 1770, these were followed by Cossacks of the Yolga, and, after the 
 treaty of Kudjuk Kainardji, the forts Georgievsk, Ekatirinograd, 
 Stavropol, Moskov, and Donsk, were built and garrisoned with 
 Cossacks of the Yolga. 
 
 In the year 1794, the line of the Kuban was advanced from 
 
36 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 Georgievsk to Redut Uedreman, and strengthened by six new 
 stanitzas. In the year 1792, several new redoubts were built 
 on the line of the Malka; and in 1805 the Cossacks, called the 
 little Russians, founded four new stanitzas from Ustlabinsk 
 to Kaukask. In 1833, two of the four Cossack regiments of 
 the Ukraine, which the nobility of that country had raised at 
 their own expense for the Polish campaign, were transferred to 
 the line. In the year 1807,10,850 more were added. At the 
 present moment there are not less than 40,000 Cossacks in the 
 Caucasus, a sixth part of whom follow the operations of the 
 army. These Cossacks have assumed the Circassian dress and 
 manner of fighting, and consequently the mountaineers fear 
 them more than the regular Russian troops. 
 
 There was formerly an Hungarian colony by the name of Mag¬ 
 yar; but even the ruins of this town, which, according to Klap¬ 
 roth, was built by the Arabs, in whose language Magyar signi¬ 
 fies an emigrant, have entirely disappeared, as the Russians 
 employed them as materials for building Fort Ekatirinograd. 
 At a distance of twenty-five versts from old Magyar, we find 
 Kiss Magyari, or Burgundy Magyari, which was founded by 
 General Stariynski, formerly governor of Astrakan. He gave 
 it the name of Burgundy, from the wine that was produced here, 
 and which tasted very much like Chambertin; and Catherine II., 
 who probably also discovered this, ordered the general, on 
 making him a present of the estate, to give it that title. We 
 must not omit mentioning, however, that the vines which are 
 here cultivated, were originally introduced from Burgundy. 
 
 The German colonies in Transcaucasia were founded in 1818 
 by Suabian emigrants, whose number at present amounts to 
 about 4000. Helenendorf is the most populous colony, but not 
 the most flourishing. Katharinenfeld appears to be in better 
 circumstances, and the nearest to Tiflis is called Hew Tiflis. 
 These Germans .provide the market of Tiflis with butter and the 
 better sorts of vegetables. 
 
 It is an interesting fact to judge the Circassian character, and 
 one not generally known, that the ^Egyptian Mamluks were of 
 Circassian origin. Melek Schah, who was jealous of his vassals, 
 
THE TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 37 
 
 sent for a large number of Christian slaves from Circassia and 
 Mingrelia. He formed an army of them, and, as they remained 
 slaves, they received the name of Mamluks. The Mamluks could 
 do nothing against the French squares, and for the same reason 
 the Circassians rarely attack the Russian columns. Napoleon 
 is said to have remarked: A single Mamluk can do as much as 
 ten French cavalry soldiers; but a hundred infantry can put 
 a thousand Mamluks to flight. 
 
 There are a great number of smaller Circassian clans which 
 we have omitted mentioning, as they take no prominent part in 
 the history of the Caucasus. 
 
38 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE WAR IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 KING MITHRIDATES.-PRINCE SYIATOSLAR.-IYAN IY.-THE TZAR ALEXIS 
 
 MICHAELOVITCH.-PETER THE GREAT.-THE EMPRESSES ANNE, ELIZABETH, 
 
 AND CATHARINE II-PAUL I.-PRINCE ZIZTANOFF.-GENERAL YERMOLOFF.- 
 
 AMULAD BEY.-PASKIEY ITCH.-PANKRATIEFF.-WILLIAMINOFF.-SASS.- 
 
 ROSEN. —K AS I MULLAH.-HAMSAD BEY.-SCHAMYL.-CAPTURE OF FORT 
 
 ACHULKO.-THE VISIT OF THE EMPEROR NICHOLAS TO TIFLIS.—GENERAL 
 
 GRABBE.—THE SECOND CAPTURE OF ACHULKO.—GENERAL ANREP.—RAYEFSKI. 
 
 -PRINCE DOLGORUCKI.-GENERAL NEIDHARDT.-PRINCE WORONZOFF.- 
 
 DEFEAT OF THE RUSSIANS IN THE FOREST OF ITCHKERI.-CHANGE IN THE 
 
 SYSTEM OF THE WAR.-THE GRAND DUKE, HEIR APPARENT.-NEW PRO¬ 
 
 SPECTS FOR THE CIRCASSIANS, IN CONSEQUENCE OF THE RUPTURE BETWEEN 
 RUSSIA AND TURKEY. 
 
 The successors of Mithridates were expelled from the king¬ 
 dom of the Bosphorus by Russian princes, who remained in 
 possession of this portion of the Caucasus until the appearance 
 of the Huns. The Russian prince, Sviatoslar, founded Tmoto- 
 rukan, and the Russians maintained their ground in western 
 Caucasus, until they were expelled from it at the beginning of 
 the eleventh century by the Polovzians. In the sixteenth cen¬ 
 tury they reappeared, however, in the Caucasus; but on this 
 occasion they came from the side opposite to the mouth of the 
 Yolga. 
 
 The Circassians fought under the banner of Ivan IY., before 
 Astrakan and in Livonia. In 1 586, the Russians founded the 
 town of Tiumen on an arm of the Terek, which flows into the 
 Caspian Sea ; but they quitted it again two years later on the 
 request of Sultan Selim, who had been instigated by the Tartars, 
 and the Cossacks, who were called after the name of the town, 
 Terki, were allowed to take possession of it. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE WAR IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 39 
 
 Toward the end of the sixteenth century, the Russians built 
 the fort Koissa.' In 1604, they were driven by the Turks out 
 of Daghistan, and Butorlin, their leader, murdered. Still Terki 
 remained faithful to the Turks. This occurred during the 
 government of the voivode Golovin, who was striving to check 
 the influence of Demetrius the Pretender, in Astrakan. Through 
 the treaty of 1792, Persia gave up the eastern and southern 
 shores of the Caspian Sea to Russia. 
 
 The principal, or at least the easiest conquest made by the 
 Russians in the Caucasus, was that of Immeritia, under the Tzar 
 Alexis Michaelovitch. Alexander, the sovereign of the Imme- 
 ritians, who, like his predecessors, bore the title of “ King of 
 Kings,” determined on following the example of Alexander II., 
 king of the Cachetes, and surrendered himself and his territory 
 to Russia. In the year 1650, he therefore took the oath of 
 fidelity to the Tzar of Moskow, and all the people swore in a 
 loud voice that they would be his slaves. Mingrelia and 
 Immeritia, however, were not declared Russian provinces till the 
 government of the Tzar Alexander I. 
 
 As several families of Russian traders were murdered by the 
 Lesghis in 1711, Peter the Great marched ten years later 
 against them, at the head of 20,000 men, who were supported 
 by a fleet on the Caspian Sea. He defeated the Lesghis, founded 
 Port Sviatoikrest on the Sulak, took Derbend, and selected the 
 most favourable places for the erection of forts. 
 
 The Empress Anne lost all her possessions in the Caucasus, 
 and founded Kisliar on an arm of the Terek of the same name, 
 which became the frontier of the Russian territories in the Cau¬ 
 casus. The Empress Elizabeth sent missionaries to the Osse- 
 tines, who, however, made but very few proselytes. The Em¬ 
 press Catharine II. increased her dominions in the Caucasus 
 to a considerable extent. She occupied Kabardah, and founded 
 Mosdok. The Saporogues, who had joined the Turks, were at 
 length subjugated by the Russians, and settled along the banks 
 of the Kuban and the Terek. 
 
 In 1780, Potemkin made an inroad into Piatigorsk; in 1784, 
 Constantinogorsk and Vladikawkas were built. In 1785, Gen- 
 
40 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 eral Lazareff defeated Omar Iman, as well as Alexander, the 
 Georgian Tzarevitch, on the river Tora, and Georgia was now 
 definitively occupied. Anapa and Suchum Kaleh were at that 
 time in the power of the Turks, who kept up a garrison there. 
 These forts were taken by the Russians during the war with the 
 Turks, but after the peace restored to the Sultan. 
 
 Georgia, which was ravaged by the Persians and Lesghis, was 
 united in the reign of Paul I., by the treaty of 28th September, 
 to Russia, and was afterwards declared an imperial province; and 
 in 1813, Scassi, a Genoese, established manufactories in Gulend- 
 jik and Pjad. These factories, however, were destroyed by the 
 Circassians, and hostilities recommenced. 
 
 Prince Zizianoff, a Georgian by birth, and general in the 
 Russian service, proved that more can be effected by wise and 
 cautious policy than by force. He brought Abchasia under the 
 Russian dominion, and maintained his ground there by a sen¬ 
 sible administration. In addition, he took possession of Port 
 Gangia, to which he gave the name of Elizabethopol. On the 
 8th February, 1806, he was treacherously assassinated by the 
 Persians, at the moment when he advanced to receive the keys 
 of Fort Baku. He lies buried in the cathedral of Tiflis, beneath 
 a monument which the Marquis Paulucci, commander-in-chief 
 of Georgia, raised to lxis memory in 1812. 
 
 About this time General Yerrnoloff assumed the command of 
 the Caucasus, and has left behind him the reputation of an 
 excellent general. We must not, however, omit mentioning, 
 that the hostilities in his time had not reached that extent 
 which they have acquired since his day. As the several 
 Circassian tribes were then disunited by internal feuds, Yer- 
 moloff behaved in a magnanimous and liberal manner to the 
 allied tribes, but was terrible and inexorable toward those who 
 opposed him. 
 
 The Bchamyl of that day was Amulad Bey, who caused X)a- 
 ghistan to rise in revolt. He was taken prisoner, but his life 
 was spared. He took advantage of the first opportunity that 
 presented itself, to escape. Yerrnoloff put a price upon his head, 
 and suppressed the insurrection. Amulad Bey, however, had 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE WAR IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 41 
 
 disappeared without leaving a trace, and was never heard of 
 afterwards. 
 
 In the year 1818, YermolofT built in the Tchetchnia, or 
 Tchetchenia, Forts Grosnaya and Usmatjan Yurt; but the 
 Tchetchenzes seized the fort Amir Hadji Ynr by stratagem, 
 and cut down the garrison. The two Russian generals, Grekolf 
 and Lissanevitch, advanced to besiege the fortress. The Tche¬ 
 tchenzes defended themselves till their power was exhausted, when 
 they cut their way through the Russian troops, sabre in hand. 
 It was now considered advisable to enter into negotiations with 
 them. A single mullah was permitted to appear at the council 
 of war. The dauntless Tchetche accepted the proposition ; but 
 when the generals spoke of treason and perjury, the proud chief 
 returned the accusation, and gave vent to his hatred of the op¬ 
 pressors in the most violent language. “ Silence, traitor ! ” cried 
 General Grekoff, “or I will have you hanged l” “Do you 
 honour the Jaw of hospitality in that manner V 9 the furious 
 Tchetche replied, rushed on the general and stabbed him with 
 his kindjal. Sabres rattled, pistols were fired, soldiers rushed 
 into the room; but General Lessarevitch, a colonel, and two other 
 Russian officers, fell by the mullah’s dagger before the Russians 
 could cut him down. General Yermoloff, however, avenged the 
 death of his officers by destroying the aouls along the Argun 
 and the Sundja. 
 
 When General Yermoloff was recalled, he was followed by Pas- 
 kievitch, who soon commenced a war against the Persians, which 
 resulted in a portion of Caucasia, the provinces of Erivan and 
 Nachitjevan, being incorporated with Russia. In 1828, Paskie- 
 vitch carried on the campaign in Turkey in Asia with great 
 renown: but he was not at all successful in the Caucasus. The 
 expedition which he undertook in 1831 against the Abchasians, 
 wns followed by very trifling results. The war which, in the mean¬ 
 while, broke out in the other extremity of the Russian empire, 
 in consequence of the Polish revolution, recalled him from the 
 Caucasus. General Pankratieff assumed the temporary com¬ 
 mand, and distinguished himself in several expeditions. In the 
 
42 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 same year, however, General Pullah suffered a great defeat in 
 the Devil’s Pass, the Gibraltar of the Tchetchenzes. 
 
 General Wiliaminoff, who commanded the Transcaucasian 
 army, inherited a portion of Yermoloff’s popularity. He was a 
 talented and well-educated man, hut died in 1839, during his 
 residence in the Caucasus, of a natural death. It is time that he 
 undertook a fruitless expedition in 1834 against the Eastern 
 Circassians, but he established the fort of Hicolayevski. Pie 
 was enabled to obtain obedience from the Tchetchenzes, and used 
 to say in his journal: “The vagabond Tchetchenzes have re¬ 
 volted again.” Various passages in his proclamations, as for 
 instance—“ And if the sky were to fall in, the Pussian bayonets 
 would be able to support it,” may appear to us exaggerated and 
 even ridiculous; but find their justification in the fact, that the 
 nations to whom they were addressed, like all the Easterns, are 
 partial to the use of similar hyperboles. 
 
 General Sass rendered himself so terrible through several ex¬ 
 peditions, cleverly contrived and rapidly executed, that the 
 Circassians made use of his name to frighten their disobedient 
 children. This, however, had also been the case with Medem 
 and Zizianoff, and even Yermoloff was called by the Circassians 
 “ the Russian devil.” 
 
 General Paskievitch’s definitive successor as governor-general 
 of the Caucasus, was General Rosen. In the meanwhile, the 
 war had extended immensely, especially since the appearance of 
 Kasi Mullah, who, like the Prophet, marched at the head of his 
 forces with the flag of insurrection in one hand, and the Koran 
 in the other. He incited Daghistan to rebel, attacked the most 
 considerable Russian redoubts on the Caspian—for instance, 
 Tarku and Derbend—and plundered the country around Kisliar. 
 In addition to this, he threatened an inroad into Tchetclienia; 
 but General Rosen determined on dealing him a decisive blow, 
 and destroying his forces in Himri. the birthplace of the pro¬ 
 phet. For this purpose, he put himself at the head of the expe¬ 
 dition, in September, 1832; but the glory of the victory at 
 Himri belongs to General Wiliaminoff, under whose immediate 
 command the battle took place. On the 18th of October the 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE WAR IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 43 
 
 Lesghis were defeated, tlie Murids cut down, and Kasi Mullah 
 also killed; while Schamyl, whose later celebrity dates from this 
 day, escaped in the mysterious manner we have already men¬ 
 tioned in our introduction. 
 
 About twenty-five versts from Himri was situated, at that 
 time, the redoubt of Timur Khan Jura, so called from the 
 name of the village, which immortalizes the memory of the re¬ 
 nowned Timur. At that time, it was fancied that the war in 
 the Caucasus was ended; but Hamsad Bey assumed the place of 
 Kasi Mullah; and, in order to protect Avaria against him, 
 General Lanskoi marched, in 1834, once again against Himri, 
 the inhabitants of which place had joined the new mullah. When 
 they heard of the approach of a Russian division, they intrenched 
 themselves near the bridge leading across the Koissu, in order to 
 keep up an uninterrupted communication between both banks of 
 the river. About twenty volunteers stormed the intrenchment 
 at the head of the column—the enemy took to flight, and Himri 
 was utterly destroyed. And yet this place rose again, as if by 
 magic, from its ruins; and two years later there was not a trace 
 to be seen of the horrors of desolation. Justice commands us to 
 mention, that the victory was gained by the clever and cautious 
 tactics of Colonel Kluge von Klugenau, who was in consequence 
 promoted to the rank of general. 
 
 Schamyl’s followers and renown waxed greater every day, 
 and to prevent him from making an inroad into Avaria, General 
 Fesi marched against the aoul of Tititle, whither Schamyl Bey 
 had retired with his uncle, Kibet Makon. This campaign is 
 known by the name of the Avarian expedition. After the 
 Russians had converted Chunsak into a fortress, to the great 
 dissatisfaction of their allies, they marched to Andi, and ap¬ 
 peared on the 9th June, 1837, before Ashiltach, a village con¬ 
 taining 300 saklis,* in a naturally very strong position, where 
 
 * Saldi—a house roughly built of masses of stone, sometimes partly, 
 sometimes entirely, subterraneous. Places especially suited by their posi¬ 
 tion are generally selected. Stones are piled up at the entrance of grottoes, 
 caves, &c., and the sakli is formed. A traveller may, in the dark, ride 
 over a village composed of these saklis, without seeing houses or inhabi- 
 
44 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 5000 Circassians afforded the most obstinate resistance for a 
 whole day. Ashiltach was taken, but not without considerable 
 loss on the part of the victors. 
 
 The inhabitants of this village, as well as those of Tchirkada, 
 had hidden their treasures in the grottoes of Achulko, whither 
 Schamyl’s family had also fled for shelter. It was a natural 
 fortress—a rocky nest inaccessible on any side. After the Rus¬ 
 sians had destroyed the towers of old Achulko with their cannon, 
 a battalion of the Apscheron regiment took possession of the 
 fort, and carried off sixty Amanates (Avarian hostages) whom 
 Schamyl retained near him. Schamyl, however, suddenly received 
 large reinforcements, and the Russians had no alternative but 
 to commence their retreat on the 16th June. The Circassians 
 pursued them with shouts of victory as far as the pass of Achalta, 
 which is scarcely two miles distant from Achulko. The sixth 
 company of the regiment Kur, however, saved the division, by 
 defending the defile until the Russians were able to raise some 
 cannon on to the heights, and thence fire on the enemy. Simul¬ 
 taneously with this a battalion arrived from Himri, and repulsed 
 the mountaineers. On the 3rd July the Russians made an 
 attack upon Tititle; on the following day a general assault took 
 place, and the battle lasted the whole day. The 5th and 6th 
 were spent in negotiations with Schamyl, who gave his nephew 
 Hamsad as a hostage, and promised submission and fidelity, 
 though, of course, only with the intention of gaining time. 
 
 In the same year, 1837, the Emperor Nicholas paid a visit to 
 the Caucasus. The aspect of the “ Russian Sultan,” however, 
 had not that effect upon the sons of the mountains which had 
 been anticipated from it. He was suffering at the time from an 
 inflammation in his face, and when he told the Circassians that 
 
 tants. We need scarcely mention that the style of building is always in 
 accordance to the requirements of the inhabitants, and, in districts menaced 
 by war, they assume a very different character from that which they have 
 in more peaceable countries ; for instance, in Tiflis, where the saklis of 
 the Grusians are gradually growing above the earth, are losing their pri¬ 
 mitive rough form, and are with each successive year becoming more like 
 habitable dwellings,—Bodenstedt, “ Die Vol/cer des Caucasus .” 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE WAR IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 4 5 
 
 he had powder enough to blow up all their mountains, they con¬ 
 sidered that such a thing was not exactly possible. 
 
 The Emperor was greatly annoyed at the system of corruption 
 which seyeral of his officers practised, and confirmed his desire 
 of punishing these irregularities with his own hands; for at a 
 review he tore off the gold lace, which the staff-officers wear as 
 a mark of distinction, from the breast of Prince Dadianoff, the son- 
 in-law of the general commanding, but not wishing to punish 
 him too severely, he gave it to his son. However, this occurrence 
 was the cause of mutual dissatisfaction. Posen was recalled in 
 1838, and the Emperor entrusted the command of the army of 
 the Caucasus to General Golovine, who had previously filled 
 the office of minister of public, instruction afc Warsaw. The new 
 commander-in-chief, whose army was raised to 75,000 men, 
 was determined to deal a decisive blow, and gave General 
 Grabbe orders to take Achulko. 
 
 Achulko is a Tartarian word, signifying “a meeting-place in 
 time of disturbance.” The Russians call it a castle, as it is 
 enclosed on all sides, is formed of a compact mass of rocks, and 
 is divided into two parts—Old and Hew Achulko. On one side 
 this mass of rock rises perpendicularly over the Koissu to a 
 height of 600 feet, and on the other it is defended by impassable 
 ravines, intercepted by rapid streams. 
 
 Schamyl had learned a lesson from his former defeats, and 
 rendered this terrible position still stronger. In doing this, he 
 had recourse to modern strategics, and had high walls built and 
 subterraneous passages made at the most exposed points, under 
 the direction of foreign engineers. But, not entirely satisfied 
 with these preparations, he sent two divisions to check the 
 further progress of the Russian army. They first attacked the 
 enemy at Butumay, but was repulsed; and the second, consisting 
 of 10,000 men, fought on the 30th and 31st May at Arguani, 
 but was also driven back with a loss of 1500 men. 
 
 Grabbe besieged Achulko for two months with eight battalions, 
 which were reinforced by five more on the 15th July. When 
 three fine battalions of the regiment, Count of Erivan (Paskievilch) 
 marched in, the officers said, “ To-morrow two of them will no 
 
46 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 longer exist,” and, in fact, an unsuccessful assault was undertaken 
 the next day, and only one battalion of this regiment returned 
 from it. On the 15th August the external works of New 
 Achulko were taken, which was followed by a murderous 
 engagement that lasted five days; and on the 22nd of the same 
 month, the anniversary of the Emperor’s coronation, the Russians 
 marched into Achulko. General Grabbe sent a son of General 
 Golovine’s to carry these victorious news to the Tzar, who 
 immediately ordered medals to be struck in commemoration of 
 this brilliant deed, and distributed them among the soldiers who 
 had taken part in this battle. Golovine was promoted to the 
 rank of general en chef. In order to hold permanent possession 
 of the captured fortress, Grabbe ordered the erection of a line of 
 forts, of which, however, only one was completed, that of Girsel 
 Aoul. 
 
 As it was impossible to grant the Tchetchenzes the promised 
 amnesty after the threats made by Schamyl, it was necessary to 
 carry the war into their country. General GolosefefF undertook 
 this, and suffered a severe defeat at the river Valerik, for which 
 Kluge von Klugenau retaliated a few days later, by defeating a 
 division under the personal command of Schamyl. 
 
 The year 1840 was distinguished by a number of simulta¬ 
 neous and successive attacks which the Circassians made on the 
 various Russian forts forming the Kuban line. They took the 
 most important of these all by storm, Nieolayevski, which com¬ 
 mands the Gulendjik line; but the fort Michaeloff offered an 
 heroic resistance, and, when this was no longer possible, the 
 soldiers set fire to the powder magazine, and destroyed the vic¬ 
 tors as well as themselves. The Russian garrisons were greatly 
 weakened by the contagious diseases which prevailed during the 
 winter; but the Circassians, remembering the brave resistance 
 they had found, made no attempt for a lengthened time to take 
 these forts. General Anrep, who followed General Rayevski in 
 the command of the right wing, undertook to punish the Cir¬ 
 cassians for the loss of this fort. He led an expedition against 
 the Ubychs and Djigetes, and did them some injury by the 
 assistance of gunboats. Ali Oku was killed ; his grandfather, 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE WAR IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 47 
 
 Hadji Dochum Olm, the veteran leader of the IJbychs, however, 
 renewed the contest, and the Russians were forced to retreat. 
 In the spring of 1841, General Golovine himself, with a small de¬ 
 tachment, of which he left a portion on the banks of the Koissu, 
 under the command of General Vogelsang, joined Grabbe at 
 Tcherkey. This operation has been repeatedly criticized, and yet 
 it decided the fall of Tcherkey; for while the main army was 
 laboriously scaling the mountains under a shower of bullets, and 
 Schamyl contested every inch of ground, General Vogelsang 
 crossed the river and took Tcherkey, but paid for the victory 
 with his own life. 
 
 Tchetchenia was again desolated; but Schamyl took advantage 
 of the Russian army returning to its winter quarters, collected 
 an army of 15,000 Tchetchenzes, made an incursion into the 
 country of the Kumyks, who were in alliance with the Russians, 
 and menaced Kisliar. The colonel in command at this fort, 
 advanced against them with a thousand men and two guns, but 
 was utterly defeated. The commandants of Grosnaya and 
 Tchervlenna marched with their troops against Schamyl, who, 
 however, very skilfully prevented their junction, defeated them 
 in detail, and carried off an immense amount of booty, principally 
 consisting of cattle. 
 
 With the design of punishing Schamyl for this victory, Grabbe 
 in the following year transferred the seat of war to the country of 
 the Gorumlatians. The chief object of this expedition was to take 
 Dargo, one of Schamyl’s residences, who, however, went to Andalal 
 when he heard that the Russians were en route . The Naib, 
 Hadji Yagvia, was defeated by the Russian vanguard, and a 
 detached corps under the command of Prince Argutinski Dolgu- 
 rucki, after taking possession of Jirak and Kumyk, brought 
 the neighbouring population under Russian subjection. 
 
 Grabbe "was only ten versts from Dargo when he gave orders 
 for retreat; for his loss had been very considerable, his troops 
 were continually attacked by the enemy, and were perfectly 
 exhausted by privations and fatigue. In the forests of Itchkeri, 
 however, the Russian army was almost entirely annihilated; for 
 the Circassians, when they saw the Russians in retreat, were 
 
48 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 animated with, fresh courage, and rushed with terrible im¬ 
 petuosity on the foe. A captured Russian drummer was compelled 
 to heat the reveille , and many Russian soldiers, who were deceived 
 by it, fell into the ambuscade which had been prepared for them. 
 More than one half the officers were killed, and the bonds of 
 discipline were almost severed, when suddenly, on seeing the 
 Circassians capture several guns, the Russians were filled with 
 such fury that they recovered the guns, and the column returned 
 to'the forts whence it had started, with a loss of 8000 men. 
 
 The Russian minister at war, Prince Tchernicheff, was at this 
 moment on a journey of inspection through the Caucasus, and 
 saw the return of these troops. General Grabbe was recalled, 
 although the Emperor himself allowed that the defeat was 
 rather owing to the elements than to the general. At the 
 same time, however, the commander-in-chief, although he had 
 not approved of Grabbe’s expedition, also fell into disgrace. 
 He retired from the command, leaving as a reminiscence a 
 powerful fort in the vicinity of the Caspian sea, which was 
 called after him. His successor was General Heidhardt, who had 
 been governor-general of Moscow ad interim , while Golovine 
 was soon after appointed governor-general of Riga, and after¬ 
 wards a member of the Imperial Senate. 
 
 General Sass was also compelled to leave Prochnoyokop, from 
 which place he had carried on a most destructive guerilla war 
 against the mountaineers. However, the Circassians, by means 
 of their spies, had learned now to defend themselves against his 
 razzias. General Golovine, during the latter part of his ad¬ 
 ministration, had expressed himself in favour of a defensive 
 system, which Prince Woronzoff also afterwards carried into 
 effect, after a second unsuccessful expedition against Hargo. 
 The plan which was considered the best was, to surround the 
 enemy with a net-work of forts, await the result, and confine 
 the Russian operations to razzias . 
 
 Up to this time, all the defeats and unsuccessful expeditions 
 had been ascribed to the jealousy, which existed not merely 
 among the several generals in command of divisions, but be¬ 
 tween these and the commander-in-chief. The Emperor, there- 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE WAR IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 49 
 
 fore, came to the conclusion of preventing this dangerous state 
 of things, by investing WoronzofF, who was then only a count, 
 with absolute authority, and he even went so far as to make 
 him irresponsible to the minister at war. It was certainly said, 
 and perhaps not unjustly, that the governor-general of Tiflis 
 was much too distant from the seat of war to know what was 
 taking place there. Grabbe’s opinion was refuted by the terrible 
 defeat of Itchkeri. Sass ever acted too much in accordance wfith 
 his own views; and even at this time a certain liberty of action 
 is conceded to the commanders of the different provinces, for 
 Prince Bariatinsky has undertaken several expeditions on his 
 own responsibility. 
 
 General Neidhardt, whom the Russians called the “ German Pe¬ 
 dant,” is asserted to have shown himself to be only great in small 
 matters, while he did not effect much in a military point of view. 
 In 1844, Schamyl took the fort of Unsorilla, and Kluge von 
 Klugenau, who hastened to its relief with a small body of 
 troops, was utterly defeated. Schamyl desolated the whole of 
 Avaria. In the following year, Neidhardt took the field against 
 him, in order to carry out a cleverly contrived plan, which, how¬ 
 ever, was frustrated by the Fabian policy of the Russian gene¬ 
 ral. Schamyl was enclosed in a defile: Neidhardt, who attended 
 to precautionary measures too much, sent orders to attack a day 
 too late, and Schamyl had time to escape from the snare. Gene¬ 
 ral Neidhardt was recalled and went to Moscow, where he died 
 of grief. 
 
 Count (afterwards Prince) WoronzofF was appointed in his 
 place, and the army was augmented to 150,000 men. No one 
 had believed that the Emperor’s choice would fall on WoronzofF. 
 Some fancied that the aged Yermoloff, although weighed down 
 by his years, would be recalled to the scene of his former 
 victories; others conjectured that the minister at war, Tcher- 
 nitcheff, would himself superintend affairs in the Caucasus, if 
 only for a few years. No one thought of Count WoronzofF, the 
 governor-general of New Russia, who was said not to be in 
 especial favour at Court; and in the Crimea it was an universally 
 propagated rumour, that he was surrounded by spies in his suite* 
 
 E 
 
 / 
 
50 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 his staff, his palace, and even at table, who were enjoined to re¬ 
 port his every word to the Emperor; and that an opportunity 
 was only awaited in order to ruin a man who had made so many 
 irreconcilable enemies by the freedom of his sentiments. 
 
 All these rumours were proved to be false by WoronzofFs 
 appointment to the command in chief. Since the favourite of 
 Catharine II., the all-powerful Potemkin, no Russian subject 
 had been invested with such unlimited authority. The Emperor 
 gave him absolute power over the countries situated between 
 the Pruth and the Araxes; he can punish all the natives with 
 death; he can appoint and remove the officials to the sixth class 
 at his pleasure; he can give rewards and distinctions to the 
 army without first demanding the Emperor’s confirmation; and 
 finally, he can bring officers and officials of every class before a 
 court-martial. Such absolute authority is almost unparalleled in 
 Russian history, and even Paskievitch, as governor of Poland, 
 did not possess it. 
 
 Woronzoff received orders from the Emperor, at the com¬ 
 mencement of his command, to take Dargo at any price; and he 
 began this expedition, which he would probably have declined, 
 had it not been for the Emperor’s expressed wish. Schamvl, 
 who found himself unable to defend this fortress, allowed it to 
 be taken, more especially as it was of no great strategic value. 
 But when the Russian army had commenced its retreat, he 
 attacked it in the forest of Itchkeri with such impetuosity, that 
 Woronzoff and his forces were almost entirely annihilated. He 
 would have had great difficulty in escaping, bad not two Circas¬ 
 sian spies succeeded in carrying an order to General Ereitag, 
 bidding him hasten to the assistance of his chief with the utmost 
 speed. The Russians lost in this defeat 4000 men, and three 
 generals—Passeck, Eock, and Yoinoff—were among the fallen. 
 Eyewitnesses state, that the soldiers wept with joy when they 
 saw Freitag’s division come up to save them from utter destruc¬ 
 tion. 
 
 But, however great this defeat was, the Emperor saw that 
 Woronzoff had displayed the most undeniable signs of bravery 
 and ability, and raised him to Prince by rank. The loss of 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE WAR IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 51 
 
 Passeck was irrecoverable. The soldiers loved him, and he had, 
 during his short and brilliant career, furnished proofs of the 
 most distinguished abilities as a commander. The Circassians 
 cut off his head, and carried it about for several days on a lance, 
 as a symbol of victory. The negotiations commenced by Prince 
 "YVoronzofF, were followed by the Naib Hadji Murad joining the 
 Pussians, though only in pretence; for, as soon as he had dis¬ 
 covered all in the [Russian camp that he desired to know, he 
 fled with fourteen Murids to Schamyl. 
 
 After the dearly purchased victory at Dargo, Prince Woronzoff 
 had a conference with the Emperor at Sebastopol, in which he 
 explained, that in future he intended to give up the two systems 
 till now followed by the Pussians—of a defensive war and expe¬ 
 dition suddenly carried out—and the campaign would be adapted 
 to the nature of the circumstances. A merely defensive position 
 would certainly confine the Caucasians in their mountains, 
 but allowed them to unite, while the Pussian razzias offered a 
 very uncertain chance of success. Before all, the national unity 
 must be destroyed, which had been foolishly allowed to increase. 
 This bond must be ruptured, and Schamyl’s army broken up, 
 which could only be possible if the Pussian forces suddenly ap¬ 
 peared at different points, and compelled the Tchetchenzi horse¬ 
 men to disperse. Prince YVoronzoff declared it to be a useless 
 attempt to subjugate the Caucasus by a single decisive blow, 
 which the whole Pussian army could not effect; but, on the con¬ 
 trary, the enemy should be gradually exhausted, and for that, 
 patience and time were required. 
 
 The Emperor perfectly agreed with the Prince’s plan, and gave 
 orders that it should be carried into effect immediately and ener¬ 
 getically. The light columns began to traverse the Caucasus 
 in every direction, and the success they met with was consider¬ 
 able enough to summon up a desperate resistance on the part of 
 Schamyl. While the Pussian columns were preparing for fresh 
 expeditions in 1846, the prophet summoned not only his standing 
 army, but all the riders of the aouls under arms, quitted the scene 
 of the campaign, traversed two lines of forts, crossed two great rivers, 
 by which he considerably endangered his retreat, and fell upon 
 
 U, OF ILL LIB. 
 
52 
 
 SCHAMVL. 
 
 Kabardah. The Kabardians are the Tcherkess of the plains, 
 just as the Adeche or Adige are the mountain Tcherkess, and 
 inhabit part of Western Caucasus. We have already remarked 
 that they have been for a long time subject to the Russians, for 
 they are exposed on all sides, and cannot possibly prevent it. 
 Schamyl’s intention in thus attacking them, was evidently to 
 terrify the vacillating tribes, and compel them to join the na¬ 
 tional cause. This was a piece of unparalleled boldness; for 
 even if he had, as was said, 20,000 horsemen under his orders, 
 still he could be surrounded by the Russian army in the plains, 
 and be utterly annihilated at one blow. However, the daring 
 scheme was successful; Schamyl plundered the Kabardah, burnt 
 the crops, carried off hundreds of prisoners, and, with the speed 
 of light, recrossed the Russian lines with a daily increasing army. 
 
 In the following year, 1847, fortune was less favourable to 
 him. He made an attack upon Fort Golovine, in the country of 
 the Ubyclis: the sons of the monutain were so terribly repulsed, 
 however, and their loss was so considerable, that they punished 
 the Polish deserter, who had advised the expedition to be under¬ 
 taken, with death. 
 
 A few months later, Schamyl crossed the Sundja with 20,000 
 horsemen and several guns, to make a sudden attack on the 
 Russian centre. As soon as General Freitag received information 
 of this, he collected six battalions of infantry and a thousand 
 cavalry in Fort Grosnaya. Acting in unison with Generals 
 Nestoroff and Savadovsky, he exerted himself to enclose the 
 prophet within a narrow pass; so that Schamyl, to make his 
 escape, was forced to disperse his infantry, and hurry off through 
 the woods as quickly as possible. Nestoroff forced his way 
 through the pass of Sontjin, cut down the forests between the 
 Assa and the Fortanga, and destroyed eleven villages. In the 
 meanwhile, the Russians could not prevent Schamyl crossing the 
 Terek, and it is also conjectured that Muhammad OmosorofF, a 
 chieftain of the Kabardah, placed many impediments in the way 
 of the Prussians, on their retreat between the Assa and the Puta. 
 
 Schamyl crossed the Sundja a second time, and menaced the 
 Russian line on the Terek. Lieutenant-colonel Sleptzoff repulsed 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE WAR IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 53 
 
 him, and, by the employment of Congreve rockets, spread death 
 and terror through the ranks of the Circassians; General Schwartz 
 defeated Daniel Bey in the neighbourhood of Katael. Schamyl, 
 on the other hand, tried to cut off the retreat of the Russians, 
 who had just taken the aoul of Gergebil. Prince Argutenski 
 Dolgurucki attacked him in spite of the numerical disproportion, 
 and if the Russians, under the command of this brave and 
 talented leader, did not gain any decisive advantage, this was 
 owing to the outbreak of the cholera with fresh fury, the snow, 
 which rendered the roads impassable, and the diversion which 
 Schamyl effected by his attack on the Lesghi line. 
 
 The Grand Duke, heir-apparent, took part in the Circassian 
 war of 1850, and had an opportunity to distinguish himself in 
 an attack made by a band of Tcherkess upon his escort. His 
 bravery was of great effect in reanimating the courage of the 
 Russian army. Prince Bariatinsky, commander of Port Vos- 
 vichenski, carried out a brilliant expedition on the 16th August, 
 1852. 1500 men found their way through the pass of Argun, 
 
 called the “ Devil’s Pass,” and marched against the aoul of 
 Kankaleh, while one half the troops remained behind to guard 
 the pass. This precaution proved to be only useful, for the 
 whole of the detachment would else have been destroyed. As 
 soon as they had completed their razzia , cut down all in the 
 aoul who offered any resistance, and made a few prisoners, they 
 hurried back to the pass, where they found the rearguard 
 actively engaged with the enemy. Within twenty minutes they 
 lost twelve officers and seventy privates, but they succeeded in 
 effecting their retreat through the pass. 
 
 On his departure from the Kabardah, Schamyl announced 
 that he would speedily return; but such blows are not dealt 
 twice. For six years Prince Woronzoff has held the Tchetchenzes 
 encompassed by a belt of iron, and it is a question whether 
 Schamyl will ever again be able to collect a body of 20,000 men, 
 as he did in 1846. Still he is now the prophet, chieftain, and 
 sultan, whose word creates heroes; and, despite his years, the 
 enthusiasm of youth and manly determination still animate him, 
 but the field of his restless activity has been considerably re- 
 
5 4 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 stricted. Tlie Russians assert that it is daily growing more 
 limited; but any one who is personally acquainted with this 
 wildly romantic country, may entertain a reasonable doubt 
 whether the inexorable cordon which Woronzoff has drawn 
 round the Tchetchenzes, will finally extend beyond a certain 
 limit, and Schamyl is protected by natural fortresses, behind 
 which his warriors will defend themselves for years. He will 
 succeed more than once again in breaking through the Russian 
 lines, destroying their fortresses, punishing those tribes wfho 
 desert the cause, as he did in 1850, despite the exertions of 
 General Dolgorucki. The more restricted territory in which 
 the prophet is now confined, is thence more secure from sudden 
 attacks ; and Schamyl is ever at liberty to choose the most 
 favourable time and place to strike a blow. 
 
 The last attack made by the Circassians was in the west, on 
 the redoubts and forts on the Black Sea, from Redut Kaleh to 
 the fortress of Naroginskoi; and in the east, upon the detached 
 posts and military cordons which cover the banks of the Terek 
 and several positions in Daghistan. For a time, Prince "Woron¬ 
 zofF was completely surrounded by the Circassians, and could 
 not liberate himself until troops were sent to his assistance 
 from the Turkish frontier. 
 
 The present war between Turkey and Russia has also given 
 fresh impulse to the movements of the Circassians. Sheikh 
 Schamyl has announced to Omer Pacha, the commander-in-chief 
 of the Turkish army, that he is ready to act in conjunction with 
 him at the head of 20,000 men. Simultaneously with this, 
 Sifar Bey, a celebrated Circassian chief, who was kept for 
 twenty years a prisoner at Adrianople, has found his way to 
 the shores of the Black Sea, in order to organize an insurrection 
 among his countrymen. 
 
 Sultan A.bd-ul-Medjid, perceiving the error of his predecessors, 
 who, by giving up the littoral of the Black Sea to the Russians, 
 decided the fate of the Circassians, has now formed an offensive 
 and defensive alliance with Schamyl. Guyon has lately taken 
 Fort St. Nicholas, though not without a considerable loss, which 
 was, however, in some measure compensated by the immense 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE WAR IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 55 
 
 quantity of ammunition found in tlie fort. If the Turks carry on 
 the war in Georgia with energy, the Tchetchenzes will doubt¬ 
 lessly play an important part in it, and affairs in the Caucasus 
 may assume an aspect which will either realize or utterly destroy 
 the hopes of Schamyl’s friends. 
 
 The Russians accuse the mountaineers of treachery and 
 cowardice, because they have repeatedly broken their treaties, 
 and only risk their lives when absolutely necessary. “ The 
 Tcherkess,” they say, “ always attack us from an ambuscade, 
 kill our men singly by stratagems or unforeseen attacks, and only 
 dare to engage in a regular battle when no other mode of salva¬ 
 tion is left them. But, if there is any way of escape, they think 
 it no disgrace to fly.” 
 
 Certainly, if all the warlike tribes of Daghistan were to de¬ 
 scend from their mountains, and oppose the enemy in the open 
 field, the Russians would soon destroy them with their excel¬ 
 lent artillery, and gain the prize after a few battles, for which 
 they have struggled in vain during half a century. But, 
 if Schamyl’s care is to keep his band united, if he cautiously 
 avoids every useless skirmish, and only engages in regular bat¬ 
 tle when pressing necessity compels him, or if he can gain a cer¬ 
 tain advantage from it, we must not on that account call him a 
 coward ! When the Russians lose an army, another is always in 
 readiness to take its place; their soldiers grow up like mushrooms 
 in a single night, at the all-powerful autocrat’s bidding; they 
 need not count the thousands who have already found their 
 grave in the yawning ravines of Daghistan—and, in truth, they 
 do not count them. But Schamyl has only one army to lose; 
 if this army is destroyed, all is lost, and he has only a span of 
 earth which he can call his own, and, if this span be taken from 
 him, he has not where to lay his head. The whole country 
 where the warlike mountaineers live, is intersected by Russian 
 military roads, and covered with Russian forts. The great 
 towns of Daghistan, commanding the Caspian Sea, are in the 
 
56 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 hands of the Russians. It is plain, what an immense supe¬ 
 riority the latter must acquire from all the victories they gain. 
 We must add to this, that the mountaineers are almost continually 
 in want of the materials of war—the Russians conquer by their 
 cannon and muskets, while the Tcherkess can only gain their 
 victories sword in hand. 
 
 It would be superfluous to mention in detail all the advan¬ 
 tages the Russians, who are supported by a treasury filled from 
 three quarters of the world, have over their little band of ene¬ 
 mies. And is the man who has been enabled to protect this 
 band from the overspreading wings of the Russian eagle, during 
 the last ten years, to be called a coward ] Schamyl is much too 
 clever not to know, as well as ourselves, that the Russians fre¬ 
 quently prefer a great victory on paper , to a little one in reality. 
 He gladly leaves his enemies the renown, if he can only obtain the 
 advantage. He does not fight for promotion or orders, or to 
 trumpet his victories through Europe in the newspapers; he 
 fights for the sole purpose of defending the liberty and belief of 
 his nation, and of taking revenge on his enemies. 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 57 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SCHAMYL AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 RELIGIOUS FANATICISM IN THE CAUCASUS.—SCHAMTL’S BIRTHPLACE-HIS 
 
 TEACHER-HIS PERSONAL APPEARANCE-HIS ELOQUENCE..—SCHAMYL AS A 
 
 LEGISLATOR.—THE ORGANIZATION OF HIS ARMY-HIS BODY-GUARD.-TCHET- 
 
 CHENZI ORDERS AND HONORARY REWARDS.—SCHAMYL’S REVENUE.—HIS 
 
 CRIMINAL CODE.-THE NARRATIVE OF A TOWNSMAN OF MOSDOK ABOUT A 
 
 VISIT TO SCHAMYL’S RESIDENCE.'—SCHAMYL’S MODE OF LIFE.-HIS WIVES.- 
 
 HIS MOTHER FALLS A VICTIM TO HIS FANATICISM.-THE BLOOD-REVENGE. 
 
 The soul of the struggle, which forces the tribes ever to hold 
 the sword in readiness for battle if they would not perish, is, in 
 its fundamental principles, religious fanaticism. But this fanati¬ 
 cism is not of that rough nature which we might expect to find among 
 “barbarians;” for the Caucasians possess theological schools, 
 which, in boldness of ideas and inexorable logic, are seldom sur¬ 
 passed. A fusion of warm feelings of nationality and of religious 
 sentiments, must, in every mind addicted to solitude, produce a 
 certain mystical tendency; and mystics of this nature have been 
 found among the Lesghis and Tchetchenzes for the last thirty 
 years. The dogmas of the Muhammadan theologians and phi¬ 
 losophers were known to the religious teachers of the Caucasus; 
 and the doctrine of trances or transfiguration, called Sufism, 
 after its founder Sufi,* by which its apostles assert that they 
 can enter into immediate communication with the Deity, had 
 been introduced from Persia among these warlike countries, and 
 had fanned the embers of patriotism into a flame. Sunk in these 
 intoxicating visions, the ulema of Daghistan founded a new reli¬ 
 gion, as it were, or, to speak more correctly, they reformed Islam- 
 
 * A more detailed account of this religion will be found in the Appendix. 
 
58 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 ism, and gave it a form which rose above the law of Muham¬ 
 mad, in which the two old sects of Ali and Omar disappear, and 
 which at the present moment forms the foundation of the state 
 constructed by Schamyl. 
 
 We will, however, remark here, that this religious fanaticism, 
 although certainly the principal, is not the sole, support of his 
 power. The fear of his severity has probably effected as much 
 as religion in keeping the different aouls under his authority; 
 for he punishes traitors and rebels in the severest manner. We 
 shall be mistaken if we fancied that all the tribes that obey him 
 are satisfied with his rule. He raises regular and irregular con¬ 
 tributions in money, men, and provisions, which now and then 
 are felt to be very oppressive. Every tenth man is bound to 
 assemble beneath his banners, and the others to be in readiness to 
 attend his first summons; every family pays a capitation tax of 
 one silver ruble; and the tithes of the harvest are carried into 
 the chieftain’s magazines. 
 
 Schamyl was born in 1797, at the aoul of Himri, which was 
 also the birthplace of his great predecessor, Kasi Mullah. In 
 his earliest youth Schamyl was distinguished, so the aged men of 
 Himri say, by a solemn, reserved manner, by an unbending 
 temper, by curiosity, pride, and ambition, from all his playmates. 
 His naturally tender and weak body he tried to strengthen by 
 gymnastic exercises of every description. If, in the martial games 
 of Daghistan, another carried off the prize in shooting or in run¬ 
 ning, his features would be awfully contracted, and he would not 
 be seen for weeks in the public places, through shame and fury at 
 the thought that he had not been the victor. Of the numerous 
 stories which circulate in Daghistan about the youthful life of 
 our hero, we will find room for one. 
 
 He was, even when a child, an enthusiastic admirer of the 
 beauties of nature, and was accustomed each evening, in favour¬ 
 able weather, to climb the barren rocks of Himri, whose wild 
 beauty exercised a great influence upon him. Near the high¬ 
 est of these rocks, which, cut into the most extraordinary shapes, 
 boldly rise in the centre of a boundless forest, there is a desolate 
 and arid plateau, which is known and revered through Daghistan 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 5 9 
 
 in consequence of tlie terrible stories which attach to it. The 
 inhabitants of the aoul say, that bright flames frequently burst 
 forth from the ground at night, and rise high above the rocks of 
 Himri. There Simurg, the gigantic white bird of Solomon, who 
 has been enthroned for centuries in Kafdagh, soars on his 
 rustling wings to these rocks, and the air seems to weep and be¬ 
 wail through the sound of his terrible flight; and the Peris, the 
 blessed dwellers in Ejinnistan, the fairyland, dance merrily 
 around the glistening flame. At this sacred spot, which was 
 always shunned after sunset, Schamyl was wont to remain half 
 the night, sunk in his dreams and fancies. 
 
 On one occasion, some of his playmates, who had been insulted 
 by his arrogant, sarcastic remarks, determined to take their re¬ 
 venge upon him. They waited for him in a secret spot, which 
 he must pass on his return from his wonted walk, and fell upon 
 him as soon as he appeared: a furious contest ensued, in which 
 Schamyl naturally yielded to numbers, and received a severe 
 wound in the stomach, in addition to several contusions in his 
 head and arm. He arrived at home quite exhausted by the loss 
 of blood, bound up his wounds as well as he could, had some 
 curative herbs secretly brought him by an old woman, and re¬ 
 mained for several weeks ill in his bed, without telling any one 
 a syllable about the real state of the case. Only his revered 
 teacher, the wise mullah, Jilal Eddin, found out on inquiry the 
 cause of his illness. This learned mullah, to whom Schamyl 
 owes the foundation of his comprehensive knowledge of Arabic 
 literature, plays a great part in the life history of our hero. 
 He was the only person to whom Schamyl was obedient, the 
 only one who could boast of possessing the young man’s unlimit¬ 
 ed confidence. He employed his pupils zeal at an early age to 
 make him susceptible for the study of the Koran and of the 
 Arabic philosophers. Through his stories from the lives of the 
 old heroes of Islamism, he sought to enkindle a passion for 
 mighty deeds in his scholar. Himself a zealous follower of Su¬ 
 fism, it flattered his self-love to have a pupil who, as it were, was 
 born for Sufism, and he exerted himself to impart greater firmness 
 to Schamyl’s natural attachment to this widely diffused sect. 
 
60 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 But Schamyl is a worthy chieftain of the fiery sect which has 
 chosen him as its prophet. He is of middle height, has light 
 hair, grey eyes, covered by bushy, finely formed eyebrows, a 
 regular, handsomely shaped nose, and a small mouth. His face 
 is distinguished from that of his countrymen by the extraordi¬ 
 nary whiteness and softness of the skin. The elegant shape of 
 his hands and feet is equally remarkable. The apparent immo¬ 
 bility of his arms in walking, shews his reserved character. His 
 carriage is thoroughly noble and dignified. He is perfectly mas¬ 
 ter of himself, and exercises a certain sujmemacy over all who 
 come into his presence. Adamantine calmness rests on his 
 features, which does not desert him even in moments of the 
 greatest danger. He utters a decree of death with the same 
 imperturbability as that with which he gives his bravest Murid 
 a mark of distinction after a sanguinary engagement. Traitors 
 or criminals, whose death he has determined, he speaks to 
 without the least sign of anger or revenge. Pie is convinced 
 that his actions and words are the immediate inspirations of the 
 Deity; he eats little, drinks only water, sleeps a few hours, and 
 spends his hours of relaxation in reading the Koran and in prayer; 
 but when he speaks, he has, as the Daghistani poet, Bersek Bey, 
 sings, “ lightning in his eye and flowers on his lip.” 
 
 He is, in fact, perfect master of that Oriental eloquence which 
 is adapted to inflame the Mussulmans, and the exaggerations 
 which the Russian generals are guilty of in their proclamations, 
 are far inferior to his. When the Russians say that they are 
 as numerous as the sands of the sea, Schamyl replies that the 
 Circassians are the waves which wash away this sand. In his 
 proclamation to the warriors of the two Kabardahs, he says, 
 inter alia :— 
 
 “ Do not believe that God favours the greatest number! God is 
 on the side of good men, and these are always less numerous than 
 the godless. Look around you, and you will every where find a 
 confirmation of what I say. Are there not fewer roses than 
 weeds'? is there not more dirt than pearls, more vermin than useful 
 animals ? is not gold rarer than the ignobler metals? And are we 
 not much nobler than gold and roses, than pearls and horses, 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 61 
 
 and every useful animal pufc together ? for all the treasures of 
 the world are transitory, while eternal life is promised us. 
 
 “ But if there are more weeds than roses, shall we then, instead 
 of rooting out the former, wait till they have quite overgrown 
 and choked the noble flowers ? and, if our enemies are more 
 numerous than we, is it wise for us to suffer ourselves to be 
 caught in their nets ? 
 
 “Do not say our enemies have taken Tcherkey, besieged 
 Achulko, and conquered all Avaria! If the lightning strike 
 a tree, do all the other trees bow their heads before it ? do they 
 fall down through fear of being also struck ? O ye of little faith, 
 follow the example given you by the trees of the forest, which 
 would put you to shame if they had tongues and could speak. 
 And if a fruit is devoured by worms, do the other fruits also rot 
 through fear of being attacked in the same way % 
 
 “Do not alarm yourselves because the infidels increase so 
 quickly, and continually send fresh warriors to the battle-field, 
 in the place of those whom we have destroyed. Fori tell you, that 
 a thousand poisonous fungi spring out of the earth before a single 
 good tree reaches maturity. I am the root of the tree of liberty: 
 my Murids are the trunk, and you are the branches. But do 
 you believe that the rottenness of one branch must entail the 
 destruction of the entire tree? God will lop off the rotten 
 branches, and cast them into the eternal fire. Return, there¬ 
 fore, penitently, and enrol yourselves among the number of 
 those who fight for our faith, and you will gain my favour, and I 
 will be your protector. 
 
 “ But if you persist in giving more belief to the seductive 
 speeches of the Christian dogs than to my exhortations, then I 
 will carry out what Kasi Mullah formerly threatened you with. 
 My bands will burst upon your aouls like a thunder-cloud, and 
 obtain by force what you refuse to friendly persuasion. I will 
 wade in blood, desolation and terror shall follow me ; for what 
 the power of eloquence cannot obtain, must be acquired by the 
 edge of the sword.” 
 
 The Kabardians, however, who feared the Russians more than 
 Schamyl, remained motionless in spite of this proclamation; and 
 
62 
 
 SCHAMYL 
 
 when the chieftain, Ashverdu Mahoma, was sent into this coun¬ 
 try, he was killed by a tribe friendly to the Russians. Schamyl, 
 however, kept his word, quitted the Russian forts for a time, 
 and fell upon the Kabardah, laying it under ashes. More than 
 eighty aouls were a prey to the flames, and he carried off an im- 
 ■j mense amount of booty, and a considerable number of prisoners. 
 
 During the first year of his career, Schamyl lived in the little 
 fortress of Achulko, when, strange to say, he had a two-storied 
 house built for him by Russian deserters, entirely after the Euro¬ 
 pean fashion. Here he was at first in such poverty, that his 
 soldiers were obliged to procure him the necessary provisions, 
 and still the force of religious enthusiasm made him as powerful 
 as if he had an Eldorado at his command. He needs only to give 
 the signals, and his Murids are ready to rush to death. Hone 
 of the Daghistani chieftains, his predecessors, ever achieved such 
 a reputation. Even Sheikh Mansur, who carried the banner of 
 insurrection through the whole of the Caucasus, was only a 
 celebrated and much-feared warrior: but Schamyl is not only 
 the general and sultan of the Tchetchenzes, but their prophet as 
 well, as, since 1834, Daghistan’s war-cry has been :—“ Muham¬ 
 mad is Allah’s first prophet, and Schamyl his second ! 99 
 
 At the very moment when General Grabbe thought he had 
 destroyed Schamyl’s prestige and himself, by the capture of 
 Achulko, the power of the daring chieftain rose to its highest 
 point. Let us imagine the apparition of the prophet among the 
 tribes who had just received the news of the entire destruc¬ 
 tion of Achulko. It was already believed that he was buried 
 beneath the ruins, and suddenly he stood there among them, 
 like one raised from the dead! His divine mission could not 
 possibly be any longer doubted, and a victory could hardly have 
 done him more good than his heroic defeat. 
 
 After the loss of Achulko, Schamyl formed the determination 
 of preaching the sacred war to the Tcherkess, and summoning 
 them to join him. He had not been successful in 1831, in an 
 attempt of the same nature which he made upon the Avarians, 
 a tribe of Daghistan who had been for years subjected to the 
 Russians. He had hoped to effect a junction of the Caucasians 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. G3 
 
 of the Black Sea with those of the Caspian; for the latter, with 
 the sole exception of the Avarians, had collected beneath his stan¬ 
 dard, and now formed one nation. 
 
 Assuredly, if he had succeeded in inducing the Tcherkess to 
 commence the war simultaneously with the Tchetchenzes, a 
 terrible blow might have been dealt to the Russian forces. 
 Schamyl proceeded in person to the Ubychs and Adighi, and was 
 honourably received by them, though he obtained no decided re¬ 
 sult. The hatred of the Russians is undeniably a mighty bond 
 between the tribes on either side of the Caucasus ; but long, 
 lasting jealousy between the several tribes has loosened this 
 bond, and will do so still more. Besides this, there was a con¬ 
 siderable impediment to the common action which the daunt¬ 
 less chieftain desired to summon into life, in the difference of 
 languages; and Schamyl was only comprehended by the chiefs 
 and mullahs, as he was obliged to preach the crusade in Turkish, 
 and could not impart that effect to his eloquence which he is 
 usually wont to give it. 
 
 At last, especially after the great defeat of the Russians at 
 Dargo, the Tcherkess of the Black Sea, inflamed by the news 
 of Schamyl’s victories, made several attacks on the Russians, and 
 broke more than once through the line of defence, guarded by 
 the Cossacks. They even took four forts, but satisfied themselves 
 with plundering them, and did not leave a garrison in them. 
 However, three or four victories on the part of the Russians, fol¬ 
 lowed up with energy and strength, compelled the Tcherkess 
 very speedily to confine themselves to passive resistance. 
 
 When Prince Woronzoff assumed the chief command in the 
 Caucasus, Schamyl was no longer the insignificant chief he had 
 been while still obeying Hamsad Bey. His powder was immense. 
 The Avarians, the Kists, the Kumyks, and several other tribes, 
 had been overpowered by the prophet’s eloquence, and forgot 
 their old animosities to unite with the Lesghis and Tchetchenzes. 
 At first, lord of a proportionately small number of tribes, he had 
 now become the sovereign of an entire nation. It is evident 
 that to produce such a result, the most unceasing exertions of 
 a politic and active genius must be presupposed. 
 
64 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 But Schamyl is not merely a brave warrior, but a wise legis¬ 
 lator; and this was necessary to create and organize a nation, 
 for the task he had before him was to subjugate the princes, 
 found a theocratic monarchy amid the barbarism of partial 
 slavery, reconcile hostile nations, give them all one belief, ac¬ 
 custom wild horsemen to regular tactics, and establish perma- 
 ment institutions. All this he really effected. The new doc¬ 
 trine of faith which he preached, reconciled the sects of Omar 
 and Ali; his victories blinded the sons of the mountain, and 
 humiliated the pride of their princes. The tribes which had 
 coalesced for one and the same religious war, were now united 
 by him beneath one and the same civil law, and all the old 
 territorial distinctions disappeared. 
 
 At the present time, the country occupied by Schamyl is 
 divided into twenty provinces, each of which is governed by a 
 Raib. These Naibs are not all invested with equal authority; 
 but only four, the prophet’s most confidential and trustworthy 
 followers, are regarded as absolute rulers of their subjects, while 
 the rest must lay their decree before the Imam for confirma¬ 
 tion. 
 
 A masterpiece of cleverly designed precision, is the organiza¬ 
 tion of the army; for it is entirely calculated and adapted to 
 render discipline possible, without in any way quenching the 
 martial flame. Every Haib must maintain 300 mounted war¬ 
 riors, who are selected under the following regulations :—one 
 soldier is furnished by every ten houses of an aoul: the family 
 to whom he belongs is free from all taxation as long as he lives ; 
 the equipment and maintenance of the soldier falls to the share 
 of the other nine families. The warriors must never take off 
 their arms, even when sleeping, so that they may be prepared 
 for battle at a moment’s notice. The whole of Schamyl’s regu¬ 
 lar mounted troops in 1843, were estimated at 5000 men. 
 Ham sad Bey was the first who formed a separate corps of Rus¬ 
 sian and Polish deserters, among whom were several officers. 
 Schamyl has greatly increased and improved this body, which 
 now consists of 4000 men. He has also formed a small park of 
 artillery out of the guns taken from the Russians. 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 65 
 
 But beside the regular troops, the remaining male inhabit¬ 
 ants of every aoul, from the 15th to the 50th year, must be 
 skilled in horsemanship and the use of their arms, in order 
 to defend their own houses on any sudden attack, or, in 
 times of pressing danger, strengthen Schamyl’s army. In such 
 cases, each warrior among the regular troops commands the 
 contingent furnished by the ten houses from which he was 
 chosen. From Schamyl down to the lowest officer, the strictest 
 obedience and immediate attention to orders are expected; the 
 slightest insubordination is punishable by death. 
 
 Schamyl himself is always surrounded by a chosen body 
 guard, the members of which are called Murtosigators. In the 
 choice of these troops, the greatest precautions are observed: 
 only persons of undoubted bravery and fidelity, who are con¬ 
 victed of the sanctity of their leader’s doctrines, are admitted 
 into the band. But though Schamyl is so distrustful and strict 
 in the choice of these soldiers, equally unbounded is his confi¬ 
 dence in them, when they once belong to the number of his 
 chosen. But the Murtosigators must purchase the exalted 
 rank in which they stand above the other troops, by heavy 
 sacrifices. They solemnly resign all that binds them to life, as 
 long as they form a member of the chain which surrounds the 
 holy person of the Murschid; the unmarried must remain single, 
 the married, during their years of service, must not have the 
 slightest communication with their families. They must, in 
 imitation of Schamyl, exceed all the other soldiers, in conscien¬ 
 tious fulfilment of the Jaryat, in moderation and abstinence. 
 Their whole exertions must tend to the propagation of the new 
 doctrine; they are helpless instruments in Schamyl’s hands, and 
 he punishes the slightest insubordination with death. 
 
 The number of the Murtosigators amounts to about 1000 
 men. Their arrangements are entirely after the decimal system : 
 every ten of them have a leader, ten of these leaders again have 
 a chief, and so on. The same is the case with the Nalbs’ 
 mounted troops. These leaders have great privileges, wear 
 orders to indicate their dignity, and are highly respected by them 
 subordinates. Only persons who distinguish themselves by 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 bravery and talent, are selected to fill these posts. Every 
 Murtosigator receives from Schamyl a salary of about £5 monthly, 
 and has in addition a certain portion of the booty. Every aoul 
 to which a Murtosigator is sent, is obliged to support him gratis; 
 the respect which is paid to the Imam’s body guard goes so far, 
 that every village regards it as an honour to have one of these 
 chosen warriors within its walls. 
 
 A traitor was never yet known among the Murtosigators. 
 They are devoted to the Imam with perfect fidelity and attach¬ 
 ment, and are animated by such a martial spirit, that death in 
 battle is regarded by them as the most glorious termination of 
 terrestrial life. They are the terror of the Russian armies, and 
 the support of Schamyl and his troops. 
 
 They fight with a courage and sang-froid which the Russian 
 officers speak about with admiration. No instance was ever 
 yet known of a Murtosigator falling alive into the hands of his 
 enemies. They are the pillars of Schamyl’s authority in peace 
 and war, and the more deserving our attention, as they are not 
 merely distinguished by animal courage and contempt of death, 
 as we find is also the case among the Arabs of the desert, but 
 are kept together by a higher mental bond. In war the leaders 
 in battle, in peace they are the enthusiastic apostles of Schamyl’s 
 doctrines, and the executioners of his laws. Although them¬ 
 selves without fortune, they have always large sums of money at 
 their command, which they can employ according to their own 
 judgment in the pursuit of their designs. 
 
 They form at the same time Schamyl’s secret police. They 
 have a watchful eye every where; any one accused by them is 
 executed without further inquiry. Even the judges and 
 priests are not safe from their prying eyes; and they are the 
 mortar which binds together the stones, out of which Schamyl 
 has raised the fortifications of his power. 
 
 Schamyl’s revenue, like that of his predecessors Hamsad Bey 
 and Kasi Mullah, formerly consisted only of the booty carried 
 off in war, of which, after similar custom, the leader received a 
 fifth share, the rest was divided according to regular arrangements 
 among the soldiers and lower officers. Other branches of the 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 67 
 
 revenue were the fines for every neglect of the laws of the 
 Jaryat. In later times, when the authority of the Murschid 
 had extended and was confirmed, Schamyl managed to increase 
 his revenue by regular levies and other arrangements. 
 
 The Imam has been frequently accused of avarice and im¬ 
 moderate greed for money, as it is notorious that he has hidden 
 in various secure places at Andi, and in the forests of Itchkeri, 
 treasures of gold, jewels, and other valuables. This charge 
 appears as unfounded as it is unjust. In his position the most 
 conscientious economy is as useful as it is clever. Schamyl 
 required great auxiliary resources, not to perish in the struggle 
 with the continually renewed force of the Tzar, and to carry out 
 his object, the foundation of a new empire in Daghistan. As in 
 temperance and simplicity of life he can serve as a pattern to the 
 lowest of his soldiers, so he is, in every thing referring to himself, 
 extraordinarily saving. But where a brave deed is to be 
 rewarded, a powerful tribe attached to his cause, and in similar 
 important affairs, he is liberal almost to extravagance. While 
 the Russian officers must pay a heavy additional sum for the 
 orders gained by their blood, Schamyl has founded an order 
 for bravery and those severely wounded, which assures the 
 possessor a monthly pension of three silver rubles. From all 
 this it is evident that Schamyl’s economy is not of a common 
 stamp. 
 
 With the youth of Schamyl’s power and influences, as by the 
 introduction of a regular administration, the relations in which 
 he stood to the Naibs and his subordinates also increased. He 
 was therefore obliged—although his will is implicitly obejmd— 
 to make a quantity of new regulations for the furtherance of 
 business. At the end of 1842, Schamyl arranged a flying post, 
 after the pattern of the Russians, by means of which all news 
 and commands are expedited with incredible rapidity. In each 
 aoul a number of the best horses must always be kept in readi¬ 
 ness for the messengers who may pass through. These couriers 
 are provided for the purpose of legitimization with free passes, 
 countersigned by Schamyl or the Haib. Whenever a courier 
 produces such a pass, a fresh horse is immediately furnished him, 
 
68 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 together with an experienced guide. If the courier is rendered 
 incapable, by illness or any accident, of carrying out his 
 commission, he is nursed by the parish, and the chief of the 
 aoul immediately chooses a substitute for him. 
 
 We have not been able to discover how, in the time of Kasi 
 Muhammad and Hamsad Bey, the internal arrangements of the 
 tribes obedient to the Murschid were regulated, and in what 
 the pay of the subaltern officers and other officials consisted. 
 Before Schamyl had called his new administrative system 
 into life, he was wont to reward services done him by presents, 
 consisting of horses, arms, sheep, articles of clothing, and fre¬ 
 quently money. It was regarded as a great distinction to have 
 received thirty silver rubles from the Imam. In 1840, after 
 the thorough organization of the Murtosigators, several orders 
 were introduced, about whose value and import we have col¬ 
 lected the following information :— 
 
 The first decoration consists of a round silver medal, which 
 can only be given to a Yus-Baschi (leader of a hundred,) as is 
 
 seen from the inscription, which runs, “ To the Yus-Baschi-, 
 
 for bravery.” 
 
 The second decoration consists of a triangular medal, which 
 is only given to the Utah-Yus-Baschi (leader of three hundred.) 
 The distinction which this order imparts, is as great as its dis¬ 
 tribution is rare. The inscription upon it is, “ To-, for distin¬ 
 
 guished bravery.” 
 
 The third highest distinction is, silver epaulettes, and sword 
 • tassels of the same metal. This decoration invests the owner with 
 princely dignity, and has also great pecuniary advantages accom¬ 
 panying it. Only Besh-Yus-Bashis (leaders of five hundred) 
 can obtain it. These epaulettes are distinguished from the Rus¬ 
 sian, by not being made of silver wire, but of solid metal. 
 
 At the close of 1842, Schamyl commenced to introduce in 
 his army certain grades of rank, after the European fashion. 
 The three principal Uaibs, Ashverdu Mohama, Schwaib Mul¬ 
 lah, and Ulubey Mullah, received the honorary title of general; 
 the other Nai’bs, as well as several chieftains of the Murtosiga¬ 
 tors, obtained the title of captain. 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 69 
 
 Those raised to the dignity of general, wore as a mark of 
 distinction two plates of silver, in the shape of a half star, on 
 either side of the chest. The Russian prince, Orbelyanoff, who 
 was long a prisoner among the mountaineers, asserts that he saw 
 on Schwaib Mullah’s breast two pentagonal stars. All the 
 other Na'ibs, as well as those who bear the title of captain, wear, 
 as a symbol of their dignity, a little silver plate of an oval form. 
 The deputies of the Na'ibs, as well as the judges or elders of the 
 village, wear, as a mark of distinction, a small silver plate, 
 something resembling our keyholes in shape. 
 
 We must not forget a mark of distinction, of which only one 
 specimen at present exists, which Aschverdu Mahoma, the 
 Murschid’s favourite, wears. It is a large silver medal, with the 
 inscription in Arabic:—“ There is no second hero like Aschverdu 
 Mahoma; and no second Shashka like his Shashka.” 
 
 Besides these decorations, Schamyl employs various other me¬ 
 thods to give public recognition to those distinguished for their 
 bravery. When several tribes displayed extraordinary courage 
 in the memorable campaign of 1842, handsomety embroidered 
 flags of honour were sent to their Naibs. At the conquest of the 
 Kurine and Kasikumyk territory, two Russian flags were taken 
 by the Circassians, which the Tzar had given to these tribes for 
 their former devotion to Russia. One of them was given to 
 Schwaib Mullah, the other to Ulubey Mullah, as a reward for 
 their deeds in the forests of Itchkeri, where the two Naibs de¬ 
 feated the army under the command of Grabbe, and so futilized 
 his scheme of taking Dargo. 
 
 The punishments Schamyl has introduced, are as manifold as 
 the rewards. A money fine is paid for the slightest contraven¬ 
 tion of the Jaryat, or of the prophet’s commands—(if the pri¬ 
 soner has no money, a quantity of grain must be paid, equal in 
 value to the fine.) These fines are doubled or increased in pro¬ 
 portion to the magnitude of the offence. Any one convicted of 
 a theft, must pay the double value of the stolen property. The 
 one half is given to the lawful owner, and the other is paid 
 into the military chest. 
 
 Any one guilty of cowardice in battle, has, as a sign of dis- 
 
70 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 grace, a piece of Voilok (coarse felt) bound on bis right arm. 
 Any one who has turned his back on an enemy during the en¬ 
 gagement, has a similar piece of felt sewn on his back : these 
 dishonouring signs of cowardice can only be removed by re¬ 
 peated marks of bravery. The felt-wearing soldier is strictly 
 interdicted from any intercourse with his family ; and these form 
 the “ enfans perdus” in battle.* 
 
 Persons who are guilty of greater crimes, are punished with 
 imprisonment as well as fines. The Russians have told many 
 stories about the horrors of this imprisonment, where the 
 prisoners only receive just enough food to protect them against 
 starvation. But any one who has seen the horrible brutality in 
 the Muscovite prisons, will agree with us, that the Russians in 
 this respect are equalled by few, and surpassed by none. In 
 addition, immoderate severity in the punishment of criminals 
 is more pardonable in Schamyl, who rules over a band of un¬ 
 bridled barbarians, than in the powerful Russian Tzar, whose 
 banner floats in three quarters of the globe, and whose nation is 
 counted among civilized Europeans. 
 
 The punishment of death, which is appointed for murder, 
 treachery, and breach of faith, consists in execution with the 
 sword, and is divided into two classes, called the honourable 
 and the dishonourable. 
 
 The person condemned to the first seats himself with crossed 
 legs on the ground, bares neck and chest with his own hand, 
 bows his head forward after uttering his last prayer, and thus 
 receives the deadly blow. Those persons condemned to the 
 dishonourable death, have the upper part of their body uncovered 
 
 * The curious punishment of felt-wearing reminds us of an old Persian 
 fashion, in pursuance of which those soldiers accused of cowardice, what¬ 
 ever rank they might hold, were dressed in female clothes. It is even 
 stated, that in the time of King Abbas, Ali Kuli Khan, viceroy of Choras- 
 san, was obliged to walk about the camp for a whole day, under the jeers 
 of the soldiers, because he had fled in an engagement with Theimuras, 
 King of Georgia. In the Ghulistan of Saadi (Chapter 4,) there is a pas¬ 
 sage bearing reference to the above custom, in which it is said:— u Ye 
 brave men, follow me, and fight boldly, lest ye be deemed worthy of female 
 clothing.” 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 71 
 
 by the executioner’s hand, and the head is slunk off upon a 
 block. A third mode of execution, and the most terrible of all, 
 is stabbing or pistolling. This punishment, however, is ex¬ 
 tremely rare, and is only exceptionally inflicted on those Murids 
 who are convicted of treason. 
 
 Schamyl rules over the subjected tribes of the Daghistan and 
 Tchetchnia as absolute monarch, and has exerted himself 
 strenuously to form one nation out of them. The execution of 
 this great plan, however, is attended by almost incalculable 
 impediments. A number of tribes, among whom we may 
 especially mention Karach, Andi, Salatan, and Andalal, obey 
 the Imam rather through fear than attachment; for the Eussians, 
 well aware of the value of these districts, employ all their 
 influence, and spare neither presents nor promises to bring the 
 inhabitants on their side. If, however, Schamyl remains several 
 years longer in the unimpeded possession of these countries, it 
 may be assumed that he will succeed, through his continual 
 right selection of means, in fusing them permanently with his 
 other possessions. 
 
 The difficulties with which the Imam has to contend, appear 
 greater the more closely we examine into the condition of 
 Daghistan before his time. He does not form his army of the 
 chivalrous men of the Adiche, ITbychs, and Shapsuch; tribes, 
 some of which have been degraded by years of slavery, others, 
 educated in robbery and plunder, in whose hearts ambitious and 
 ignorant priests had destroyed every feeling of reverence for 
 religion, who knew no other laws than traditional customs and 
 their own will—these were the principal members, out of which 
 Schamyl formed the terrible body, whose soul he is. The most 
 fight from a pure love of liberty; many, however, as can only be 
 expected, for more ignoble ends. Some are seduced by the 
 hope of booty, others by the fire of the eloquence or fear of the 
 certain revenge of the Imam; but the object of all is the expul¬ 
 sion of the Eussians from Daghistan. 
 
 In former times, the Tchetchenzes were the leading nation in 
 the east of the Caucasus; they were always joined by the Lesghis 
 and Avarians when an expedition was undertaken against the 
 
72 
 
 SCHAM YL. 
 
 Russians ; but since Kasi Mullah and Sell amyl rose among the 
 Lesghis, things have assumed another aspect : the Lesghis ob¬ 
 tained the upper hand, and the Tchetchenzes have, since that 
 time, been in a state of unwilling dependence on them. Schamyl 
 certainly resides in the highlands of the Tchetchenia, but is always 
 surrounded by Lesghis; the same is the case with Ashverdu 
 Mahoma. When, in 1841, the ISTasrani were punished by an 
 inroad, Schamyl summoned Hadji Murad with 500 Lesghis and 
 Avarian warriors to join him, less for the purpose of strengthen¬ 
 ing the army, than to frighten the Tchetchenzes, who had given 
 repeated signs of dissatisfaction. This discontent among the 
 haughty inhabitants of the Tchetchenia, has its origin not only 
 in the different origin of this nation, but may also be ex¬ 
 plained by the slight faith they place in Schamyl’s divine mis¬ 
 sion. However, his influence among the Tchetchenzes is rather 
 increasing than diminishing, and indeed none of the tribes that 
 obey the Imam really know which stands highest in his favour : 
 he terrifies and punishes one by means of the other, and so keeps 
 them all in fear and submission. In order to gain a higher 
 degree of dignity, Schamyl has impregnated his Murids with the 
 idea, that he carries on a regular correspondence with the Sultan 
 of Turkey, and the Egyptian Pacha. The Russians assert that 
 he frequently writes forged letters for this purpose, in which 
 these princes give him assurances of friendship and speedy 
 assistance : that he then sends these false letters to the Kadis 
 and Priests, with orders that they should be read in the mosques 
 and national assemblies. 
 
 His pretended communications with Allah and the Prophet, 
 he wisely allows to occur only once, at the most twice, in the 
 year, and usually at a time when he is about to execute some 
 great design. 
 
 In order to prepare for the solemnity, he goes either into a 
 hidden cave, or shuts himself up in his apartments, where he 
 spends three weeks in fasting, praying, and reading the Koran. 
 During this time, the house is most strictly guarded, and no one 
 is allowed to enter. On the evening of the last day of his re¬ 
 tirement, he assembles the highest leaders and clergy, and an- 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 73 
 
 nounces to them in a solemn voice, that Muhammad the prophet 
 has appeared to him in the form of a dove, has given him com¬ 
 mands, revealed great mysteries, or warned him to continue in 
 the holy war. After this he shows himself to the immense 
 crowd that surrounds the house, sings a few verses from the 
 Koran, and then holds a long speech, full of religious zeal and 
 hatred to the Russians. In this speech, the most important 
 portions of the new revelation are announced to the people, and 
 after this a solemn hymn is sung by the entire assembly; all 
 the arms-bearing men draw their daggers, renew their oath of 
 fidelity, and hatred to the Russians, and then disperse with the 
 exclamation, “ God is great; Muhammad is his first prophet, and 
 Schamyl his second.” 
 
 The Kadis and Mullahs return to their aouls, announce to 
 the people all the miracles they have witnessed and heard, and 
 through the whole country a week of universal rejoicing and 
 festivity follows the long fast of their adored Imam. 
 
 Through his strict love of justice, to which even some of his 
 many relations have fallen victims, it was only natural that 
 Schamyl should have a number of powerful enemies, not only 
 among the Tchetchenzes but among the Lesghis ; and he would 
 long ago have fallen through the exercise of the blood-revenge, 
 were he not so personally cautious in the choice of his guard. He 
 never appears alone. Access to his person is a matter of extreme 
 difficulty to all who do not possess his confidence. He also is 
 very particular about the strict performance of the appointed cere¬ 
 monies : any one who approaches him must, without distinction 
 of rank or person, stoop down to the ground and kiss the hem 
 of his garment. 
 
 His house is surrounded day and night by numerous guards: 
 if he leaves his residence he is always accompanied by an escort 
 of his most noble Murtosigators. On longer expeditions into 
 those provinces of whose attachment he is assured, his retinue 
 amounts to 500 or 1000 horsemen; but in the Tchetchenia, and 
 other countries where the bribes of the Russians have not been 
 utterly ineffectual, he is always surrounded by 2000 to 5000 
 men. It is wrong, however, to ascribe this to Schainyl’s fear 
 
74 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 alone: we know that the suite of Eastern princes always appears 
 to European eyes immoderately large. Schamyl’s deputies arc 
 also always surrounded by a suite whose number is regulated by 
 their rank. 
 
 We cannot refrain from giving in this place the report of a 
 townsman of Mosdok, touching his visit to Dargy Yedenno, 
 Schamyl’s residence, which appeared in the Abeille du Nord of the 
 18th and 19th December last, as it furnishes a faithful picture 
 of the mode of life in this inaccessible spot. It is as follows:— 
 
 “ At the beginning of May, 1848, I arrived with a military 
 convoy at the fort of Yosvichenkaya, introduced myself to 
 Colonel, now Major-general Mdller Sakomelski, and told him of 
 my determination to visit the Tchetchenia, in order to see my cousin 
 in Uluhanova, who had been carried off in 1840 from Mosdok, 
 in a foray of the Tchetchenzes, and had afterwards been selected 
 as one of Schamyl’s wives. The colonel permitted me to enter 
 into communication with the spies, and through them I commenced 
 a correspondence at first with the Naibs, Duba, Saadullah, and 
 Dalchik, and through the ISTaib Duba with Schamyl himself. 
 The Naibs answered me that, without the permission of their 
 Imam, they could not approach the fortress. But when I 
 applied directly to Schamyl, three days after my letter had been 
 sent off, the Naib Duba despatched a messenger to me, with a 
 declaration in Schamyl’s name, that several trustworthy men, 
 the ISTaib Duba himself, the favourite and privy councillor of 
 Schamyl, Ejie Hadji, the eldest of the villagers of Datchen Barsa 
 and Ulaskart, should be sent to meet me, and serve as my escort 
 to the residence of the Imam. 
 
 “ When I was informed that Schamyl’s deputation had arrived 
 within four versts of the fort, I took leave of the colonel, who 
 warned me against the peril I was exposing myself to; dressed 
 myself in Tchetchni clothing, and left the fortress in the company 
 of two well-mounted men from the subjected Tchetchni village 
 of TJlaga. One of my companions was my konak (guest and 
 friend), the Tchetchenze, Sisa. Along the ravine of the Argun 
 I approached Schamyl’s envoys, and when I had arrived within 
 gunshot of them, we discussed the question as to which of us 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 75 
 
 should advance. The Tchetchenzes would not go further, and 
 they replied to my request that they should deliver me from 
 their hands into those of their co-religionists, and introduce me 
 to them; that they were deadly enemies of Schamyl’s people, 
 and, consequently, would not have any thing to do with 
 them. Upon this I spoke to them again, and reminded them 
 that, according to their Muhammadan law, a konak would sooner 
 die than leave his friend in danger. Sisa was convinced by my 
 arguments, and determined to follow me; but my other compa¬ 
 nion remained behind. When I approached Schamyl’s envoys 
 with all proper caution, and arrived about fifty paces from them, 
 I asked my comrade if he recognised any of them. Sisa replied 
 that he only knew one, the Naib Duba, who was distinguished 
 from the others by his yellow turban. 
 
 “ ‘ You are welcome, Naib Duba!’ I called aloud in Tchetchni, 
 saluting him from afar. 6 You are welcome, guest of the Lord!’ 
 the Naib replied to me, and we gradually approached one 
 another, though both exercising extreme caution, for we 
 apprehended an ambush. When I had drawn considerably 
 nearer to the Naib, I galloped up and extended my hand to him. 
 We exchanged salutations in the Tchetchni fashion, and then 
 similar salutations passed between myself and Ejie Hadji, who 
 wore a white turban. 
 
 “ After various salutations and congratulations, Ejie Hadji 
 asked whether I intended to go straight to Schamyl, or only 
 send him a message through them. I replied that I had no 
 message to send their chief, but only wished to see his wife, my 
 cousin; and I consequently requested the honoured Naibs to 
 conduct me to their Imam. They said they would gladly fulfil 
 my request. I then turned to my companions, who had already 
 gone some distance, but could hear me say ‘ Farewell; go back, 
 and pay my respects to Colonel Moller.’ 
 
 “ When I had gone about half a verst with my new com¬ 
 panions, I saw behind a tall monumental mound (Kurgan) 
 fourteen Tchetchenzes: they were the Naib’s guard, and soon 
 found us. I had to give each of them my hand, and exchange 
 salutations with them all, saying— 4 You young people, will you 
 
76 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 really conduct me in safety to the presence of your chieftain V 
 ‘ We will attempt it/ the horsemen replied, then fell back a 
 short distance, and sang, in aloud deafening voice, a hymn, which 
 is called ‘ La ilia ill’ Allah! 
 
 “ We then continued our journey merrily into the hills, and 
 soon crossed an arm of the Argun, which here divides into three 
 branches. On the road we frequently passed the farms of 
 hostile Tchetchenzes, which are here called Kutan. Our road 
 was bad, at times very fatiguing; so that we were forced to 
 travel principally on foot, as the road led continually up and 
 down hill through a dense forest. In the woods we saw wild- 
 hogs, which collect in vast herds, and feed on the bark of the 
 plane-tree (Tchinar). The latter grow in immense numbers, and 
 attain an extraordinary height. The most fatiguing part of the 
 journey was the passage of the Shbut mountain; we were ail 
 obliged to scale it on foot, and one of the escort led my horse. 
 I conjectured—and my opinion was subsequently confirmed— 
 that I was purposely led by this fatiguing route; for they 
 suspected that I wanted to take notes of the country and roads. 
 It was not till the seventh day that they reached the village of 
 Datchen Barsa, where the Haib Duba resides, in whose house I 
 passed the night. In the court-yard I noticed a cannon, which 
 was guarded by a sentinel. 
 
 “ Soon after our arrival, all the inhabitants of the village 
 came to the abode of the Naib, among them Ejie Hadji, and 
 Tchuka, Luba’s father. They seated them on an upper floor 
 of the house, and drank Bussian tea beneath a gallery which 
 they call Tchardag. We were witnesses of the merry behaviour 
 of the Naib’s servants toward the crowd of curious natives who 
 filled the house; they eventually armed themselves with sticks, 
 attacked the mob, and drove them away with the words, ‘ Who are 
 you ? what do you want ? did you never see a Bussian before V 
 
 “We passed the evening in pleasant conversation. I had 
 an excellent supper prepared for me, and a separate sleeping 
 apartment. The next morning we started again, crossed some 
 terrible mountains and another branch of the Argun, in the 
 .vicinity of Ulaskart. We made no stay here, but again passed 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PEOPHET. 
 
 77 
 
 a hill, and arrived at the village of Myclitayurt. On the other 
 side of the latter we again reached fertile hills, forests, rocks, and 
 precipices; and all these impediments had to he surmounted 
 before we finally reached an immense valley, in the centre of 
 which is situated the village of Yedenno. To the east, about 
 four versts from this village, we perceived a small opening in 
 the mountains, bounded to the right by wooded hills, on the 
 left by a terrible ravine, through which the Chlilo flows. In 
 the centre of this opening a plateau was visible, on which stood 
 a castle surrounded by various buildings. This inaccessible 
 spot is called Dargy Yedenno, and is Schamyl’s residence. 
 
 “ In the castle there is only one gate, and opposite this gate, 
 within the fortress, is a tower with a single gun to defend the 
 entrance. Schamyl’s castle is surrounded by two rows of heavy 
 upright posts driven firmly into the soil, between which clay is 
 stamped in. Somewhat to the right of the fortress is a separate 
 village for the Murids, and at a short distance from that a 
 powder magazine, defended by a guard. Before the fortress lies 
 a small aoul, where artisans principally reside, and among them 
 is even a watchmaker. A stream has been led from the hills into 
 the centre of the fortress, and collected in a huge tank, which is 
 called the bathing-place, for the men and horses usually bathe in 
 it. The water flows from the tank into a precipitous ravine, 
 and thence to the Chlilo stream. At a short distance from this 
 spot is the provision store, filled with a stock of maize, corn, and 
 millet, all preserved in large casks. 
 
 “I reached Dargy Yedenno on the evening of the eighth day, and 
 was lodged in the house of Ejie Hadji. On the first day Schamyl 
 did not receive me, because no information had been yet col¬ 
 lected as to the cause of my arrival; and Schamyl suspected that 
 I might have come with some special commission from the sub¬ 
 jected aouls. This information was being collected during 
 three days, and for the whole of that time I hovered between 
 life and death; because, in the event of unfavourable reports 
 about me, my death would have been inevitable. However, I 
 was well treated as regarded eating and drinking; and, although 
 I trembled with apprehension, I retained my external calmness. 
 
78 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 On the third day Schamyl invited me to supper in his ‘ strangers’ 
 house/ where those usually dine who are on intimate terms with 
 the Imam. This house is in the centre of the fortress. Here I 
 was received after the Mussulman fashion, in a very hospitable 
 manner. Toward the end of the repast, pillau was served, and 
 I noticed, to my astonishment, that all the guests—and there 
 were a score of them—after eating the pillau, grew very excited, 
 wrinkled their foreheads angrily, and began to regard me in a 
 most hostile fashion. In astonishment and terror I thought to 
 myself, ‘ Have they only treated you so well hitherto, in order to 
 cut your head off afterwards V Still, in spite of these thoughts, 
 I retained my external calm bearing, was silent, regarded my 
 companions, and finally consoled myself with the reflection— 
 ‘ It is probably the fashion among them to look angry after eating 
 pillau, and whisper in each other’s ear.’ I attempted to address 
 some questions to my next hand neighbour, but he deigned me 
 no reply. 
 
 “ After the pillau, small cakes were handed round, made of 
 maize flour, and very nicely prepared. These formed the dessert; 
 and, while my comrades were seated with very gloomy looks, these 
 cakes were handed me a second time. I declined them, with the 
 remark that I had eaten enough; to which the host replied, ‘ Eat, 
 your cousin prepared them for you.’ ‘ Ah!’ I said, ‘if that is 
 the case, I shall eat them with pleasure.’ I took a considerable 
 quantity, and begged that my cousin should be thanked in my 
 name for her trouble. During all this time my comrades sat as 
 gloomy as before; they continued to regard me menacingly, until 
 at last a young Murid entered the room, and made some remark 
 in the mountain dialect. Upon this they entirely altered their 
 behaviour to me, addressed their conversation to me, and soon 
 their highest Achund, who sat next me, acted in the most friendly 
 manner. 
 
 “ Afterwards I discovered all that had appeared so enigmatical 
 to me. It seemed that, during the repast, my cousin waited 
 in an adjoining room, regarded me through a window, and had 
 been asked if she recognised me. At first she did not know me, 
 and replied to the questioner, ‘Are you out of your senses? that 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 79 
 
 is not my brother.’ Then she begged, however, that they should 
 get me to speak; and when I, suspecting nothing, spoke with 
 the person who offered me the cakes, she recognised me by my 
 voice, and then declared that I was not her brother,* but her 
 cousin; and at last mentioned my name. My face, which had 
 greatly altered during the last eight years of our separation, and 
 my dress resembling that of the mountaineers, naturally misled 
 my cousin; and, had she not hit on the idea of hearing me speak, 
 I should have been taken for an audacious impostor, perhaps for 
 a spy, and nothing could have saved me from death. 
 
 “ After this, we remained a long time at table, and the chief 
 Mullah or Achund, Adchioff Kadi, spoke kindly with me, and 
 was evidently cross-questioning me. After supper, I went to 
 my lodgings, at Ejie Hadji’s house, where I remained till the 
 next day. I now felt more confidence, and asked Ejie to ac¬ 
 company me in a stroll through the village. During this walk 
 we went to the aoul, visited all the artisans, and, as I wished to 
 try the skill of the watchmaker, I asked him to put a new glass 
 in my watch, which he did in a first-rate manner. From the 
 aoul we went to the powder magazine and other buildings, and 
 soon after our return I received an invitation to dine with 
 Schamyl. I fancied that I should see the Imam on this occa¬ 
 sion ; but he did not make his appearance, and the guests con¬ 
 sisted of some twenty Ha'ibs who had lately arrived. After the 
 meal, I turned to the chief Achund with the words:—‘ If I 
 am not worthy to approach the sublime person of your Imam, 
 allow me at least the honour of praying for your intercession 
 that I may see my cousin.’ ‘ God will allow you to see her,’ 
 the Achund replied, and then we returned to our quarters. But 
 I hardly reached Ejie Hadji’s house, when Schamyl’s secretary 
 brought a message to my host, to lead me directly to the place 
 where I should see my cousin. Ejie Hadji bade me take a 
 poniard, himself carried a musket, and we went to the middle 
 fortress, where the wives and treasure of the Imam are kept. 
 At the gate of the middle fortress, which must not be confounded 
 
 * In Russia, sister’s children are called brother and sister; but to this is added, 
 “ of the second generation,” Dvojurodny . 
 
80 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 with the external fortifications, we found two Murids on guard, 
 one without, the other within the gateway. Schamyl never 
 neglects any precautionary measures : he never goes to pray in 
 the mosque except in the company of his Murids, who are drawn 
 up in two ranks, and armed with sabres. In the court of the 
 keep I saw four light field guns, and several similar pieces of 
 artillery on the walls. 
 
 “ My cousin’s apartment was decorated with carpets, and 
 contained chairs and ottomans, resembling the Georgian tachta. 
 My cousin came to meet us from the other room, accompanied 
 by six females. I bowed to them, and Ejie Hadji remained on 
 the threshold. My cousin inquired after my health, then we 
 seated ourselves on the tachta and the chairs. In a few minutes 
 my cousin’s companions rose one after the other to salute me, 
 but their faces were veiled. After the termination of the usual 
 salutations, they bowed and quitted the room, in which only my 
 cousin, my companion, and myself, remained. I then begged her, 
 in Armenian, to unveil; but she replied in the Kumyk language, 
 that, although she understood me, she might make some mis¬ 
 takes, and therefore begged me to converse with her in Kumyk. 
 I perceived her anxiety, lest I might be suspected of imparting 
 some secret to her, and I therefore immediately explained to Ejie 
 Hadji, that I had begged my cousin, in Armenian, to uncover 
 her face; at the same time, I requested him to join his persuasion 
 to mine. Ejie walked up to her and said, in the mountain 
 dialect : ‘ Mother! as, according to our customs, a woman 
 may never unveil except before her brothers, so regard me as 
 your younger brother, and unveil your countenance as a recom¬ 
 pense to our guest, for the fatigue he has undergone in scaling 
 our hills for the purpose of seeing you.’ I repeated the same 
 request after Ejie 5 and my cousin decided on removing her veil. 
 Our conversation now became more animated; she asked after 
 all her relations, when suddenly a door opened, my cousin hur¬ 
 riedly resumed her veil, and Schamyl entered the room. 
 
 “ I sprang up from the chair, and Ejie Hadji reverentially kissed 
 the Imam’s hand; but when I tried to follow his example, 
 Schamyl would not permit it, but seated himself on a tachta, 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 81 
 
 bade me do the same, and then began inquiring about the health 
 of our friends. Schamyl is a stately man, of reverend aspect, 
 with bright red hair and large eyes; on his face I noticed some 
 freckles, and his beard is dyed red. His dress consisted of a 
 dark silk jacket (beshmet,) and a red cloth cloak, resembling 
 those which the Muhammadan clergy wear. On his head he 
 had a red fez, with a large tassel hanging down on one side. 
 On a previous occasion, when I saw him going to the mosque, I 
 had noticed a large turban on his head. 
 
 “ As soon as I had seated myself on the tachta, Schamyl asked 
 , me if I had arrived without accident; whether the road over 
 the mountains had pleased me, and for what purpose I had 
 come. I replied, that the mountains had certainly been pic¬ 
 turesque, but the roads so bad, that, if I had known it before, 
 I should not have undertaken the journey. The sole purpose of 
 my journey was to visit my cousin, and see how she fared. 
 Schamyl again inquired from whom I had received permission 
 to travel in the Tchetchenia. 
 
 “ ‘ I was so fortunate, ’ I said, ‘ as to receive your own per¬ 
 mission to visit you.’ 
 
 “ To this Schamyl remarked, ‘ I would give many persons 
 such a permission, but I do not know who would dare to under¬ 
 take the journey.’ 
 
 “‘May God be with you !’ I replied; ‘my journey to you 
 depended on myself, but my return will depend on your good¬ 
 will and pleasure.’ 
 
 “ When Schamyl heard this he smiled, and said, ‘Well, so be 
 it; but I fancy that no one else will have the courage to under¬ 
 take such an enterprise for some time hence.’ 
 
 “ Upon this the Imam made inquiries about France, Hungary, 
 and our army. I answered him, to the best of my ability, 
 concisely and clearly ; then I took courage to ask him if he 
 would receive a present from me, according to our custom- 
 ‘Why notr he replied. I thereupon drew from my pocket 
 a lady’s gold watch, which I presented to my cousin; and then 
 handed a gold chronometer and chain to Schamyl. He would 
 not take the present from my hands, and my cousin told me to 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 lay the chronometer upon the tachta , which I did. Schamyl 
 asked, c Is it then really the custom among you, to give and 
 receive presents V I answered in the affirmative. After con¬ 
 versing with him for half an hour in the Kumyk language, 
 Schamyl rose and left the room. My cousin upon this unveiled 
 again. Towards evening a repast was served of tea, apples, 
 pears, and grapes. 
 
 “ After remaining till nightfall we took leave of my cousin, 
 and I went away accompanied by Ejie, who strictly warned me 
 not to tell any one that I had spoken with the Imam ; adding, 
 ‘ If any one asks, merely say you have seen your cousin, but 
 when you have quitted us, you can say what you like.’ ‘ Why 
 so 1 ’ I asked; ‘ do you fancy your companions would laugh at 
 me V 
 
 “ ‘ Hot only would they not laugh, but they would kill you if 
 you let them know you have met Schamyl.’ 
 
 “ I begged Ejie Hadji to explain to me the meaning of this 
 warning, and he said, ‘ You have eaten twice with the Naibs; but 
 why did you not see Schamyl on either occasion at the table 'l 
 Because, according to the laws of our religion, the Imam does 
 not eat at the same board with the Giaour ; now you understand, 
 but if you want to return home in safety, keep a bridle upon 
 your tongue for a season.’ 
 
 “ The next day I requested permission to depart, and asked to 
 take leave of my cousin ; instead of any answer to my prayer, 
 I received a horse as a present from Schamyl, and his secretary 
 told me that I should have thirty men as my escort, and the 
 Naib Duba had received orders to convey me to the neighbour¬ 
 hood of the fort. On the following morning we set out; and 
 as my companion, on this occasion, chose another and much 
 nearer route, I reached my home in comfort on the evening of 
 the same day.” 
 
 Schamyl lives very modestly and soberly ; he eats little, and 
 only sleeps a few hours, and on many occasions, when in a trance, 
 not at all; he has only three wives, and the favourite is said to 
 be an Armenian, probably the cousin of our friend from Mosdok. 
 
 How far Schamyl’s fanaticism goes in its frightful conse- 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 83 
 
 quences, is proved by the following occurrence, which was told a 
 Russian officer by one of Schamyl’s most confidential Murids :*•—- 
 
 In 1843, the inhabitants of the Great and Little Tchetchnia, 
 who were encompassed on all sides by the Russians, and left with¬ 
 out any assistance by the Lesghi tribes, determined on sending 
 a deputation to Schamyl, with the prayer, that he would 
 either send them a sufficient number of warriors to enable them 
 to expel the Russians from the country of the Tchetchenzes, 
 where they had already built Fort Yosdvijensk, and shewed every 
 intention to stop : or, if this were not possible, to grant them 
 permission to subject themselves to the Russian government, 
 as they were entirely without means for further resistance. 
 
 For a long while no amateurs were found to undertake such 
 a ticklish commission; for it was at the risk of life to appear in 
 Schamyl’s presence with proposals of such a nature. The 
 Tchetchenzes were consequently compelled to select their 
 deputies by lot, and the choice fell upon four inhabitants of the 
 village of Gunoi. The pride of the savage does not allow a 
 Tchetchenze to display any feeling of fear, even when the most 
 imminent peril is before him ; the chosen men, therefore, under¬ 
 took the office without hesitation, and promised the people that 
 they would either get from the Imam large reinforcements, 
 or else a permission for them to give up their country to the 
 Russians. With a determined spirit, therefore, the men of Gunoi 
 commenced their journey; but the nearer they drew to the 
 village of Dargo, the stronger grew the instinct of self-preser¬ 
 vation, and the stronger became the light in which they saw 
 the peril to which they would expose themselves. They held 
 council several times, as to how they should best set about the 
 matter, without hitting on any plan which offered them any 
 bope of success. At last the eldest of the deputies, the old and 
 learned Tchetchenze, Tepi, turned to his companions :— 
 
 “ You know, ” he said, “ that not only the whole nation, but 
 even the Murids nearest to the powerful Imam, dare not utter, 
 without punishment, the word, ‘ Submission to the Giaours.’ 
 
 * We must not be supposed to vouch for the truth of the following 
 anecdote.— Translator's note. 
 
84 
 
 SCHAMYL, 
 
 What would be our fate, then, if we were so bold as to appear 
 before Schamyl’s face with such a message ? He would straight¬ 
 way give orders to cut out our tongues, put out our eyes, or cut otf 
 our heads, and all this would not do our people the slightest benefit, 
 but only leave our families fatherless. In order to escape cer¬ 
 tain destruction, and to gain the end desired, if only partially, 
 I have thought on a more certain plan.” 
 
 Tepi’s comrades earnestly begged him to tell them what this 
 desirable way of escape was. 
 
 “ As I have heard,” Tepi continued, “ there is only one per¬ 
 son who exercises a decided influence over the Imam, and dares 
 to utter words before him which would entail death upon any 
 other—this is his mother : my konak, Hassim Mullah in Dargo, 
 will gladly assent to introduce us to her, especially if we make him 
 a present of a portion of the money we have brought with us.” 
 
 The other deputies were perfectly satisfied with this proposal, 
 and authorized their comrade to act entirely after his own 
 judgment. On their arrival at Dargo, the deputation was hos¬ 
 pitably received by Tepi’s konak ; and Tepi took advantage of the 
 first opportunity to tell Hassim Mullah the cause of their griev¬ 
 ance, and to ask for his application in the quarter indicated. 
 
 “ What?” cried Hassim, in horror; “ do you think I would 
 so forget my honour, as to lend my hand to any such a dis¬ 
 graceful design as subjugation to the Giaours?” 
 
 Tepi put his hand in his pocket, and produced a handful of 
 pieces of gold. Hassim’s features immediately assumed a totally 
 different expression; and he begged his friend to tell him the 
 affair once more, as he had probably not quite understood it. 
 At the same time he asked him for what purpose he had 
 brought with him so much money. 
 
 “ Three hundred pieces,” Tepi replied, “ have been collected 
 by our whole clan, in order to support our petition. Here are 
 seventy: the other two hundred and thirty we intend to pre¬ 
 sent to the Khanum, if her intercession with her son obtain us 
 permission to surrender to the Russians.” 
 
 u Good,” said Hassim; “ I will speak with the Khanum, and 
 hope to procure you what you desire, if you consent to give the 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 85 
 
 Khanum only two hundred out of the two hundred and thirty 
 pieces you have left, and give me the remainder.’ 1 
 
 The deputies agreed. Hassim went to the Khan vim, an aged 
 woman, universally respected for her generosity, who, however, 
 liked money, and declared her readiness to speak with her son 
 on the subject, the danger of which she did not at all conceal. 
 
 On the same evening she entered her son’s apartment, who 
 was on the point of sending the Murids collected around him 
 with inflammatory messages to the various tribes. 
 
 In spite of this pressing business, which he did not wish to 
 have interrupted, he gave his mother the audience for which 
 she so earnestly begged, and retired with her into a room, where 
 their conversation lasted till midnight. What actually passed be¬ 
 tween them no one ever learned; and when Hassim Mullah ap¬ 
 peared the next morning before the Khanum, he found her pale 
 and with tears in her eyes. 
 
 “ My son,” she said in a trembling voice, u does not dare to de¬ 
 cide how the question of the submission of the Tchetchenzes to 
 the Giaours should be answered. He has therefore gone to the 
 mosque, in order to wait in prayer and fasting the moment 
 when the Great Prophet will announce his will to him with his 
 own lips.” 
 
 Schamyl had, indeed, shut himself up in the mosque, 
 after giving the command beforehand, that all the inhabitants 
 of Hargo should collect round the building, and there wait in 
 prayer until he should come out again. 
 
 At this summons, the whole population flocked up, and sur¬ 
 rounded the mosque with prayer and lamentation. But thrice 
 four-and-twenty hoars passed, many of the prayers sank exhaust¬ 
 ed from hunger and sleeplessness, until at last the gates were 
 opened, and Schamyl walked out, pale and with swollen features. 
 After whispering a few words to the nearest Murid, he mounted 
 on to the flat roof of the mosque, whither several Murids ac¬ 
 companied him. 
 
 Suddenly the Murid sent off by Schamyl returned, accom¬ 
 panied by the Khanum, and also led her upon the ruof of the 
 
86 
 
 SCII AMYL, 
 
 mosque. The Imam bade her stand opposite to him, and then 
 began, after raising his swollen eyes to heaven:— 
 
 “ Mighty Prophet, thrice holy are thy commands; thy will 
 be done !” 
 
 He then turned to the people, and said in a loud, distinct voice: 
 —“ Inhabitants of Dargo ! what I have to announce to you is 
 terrible. The Tchetchenzes have entertained the shameful idea 
 of submitting themselves to the authority of the Giaour, and in 
 their audacity even sent a deputation to ask my consent. These 
 messengers were well aware how daring their commission was ; 
 they therefore did not venture to appear before me, but applied 
 to my unhappy mother, who, weak woman as she was, yielded 
 to their entreaty, and announced to me the prayer of the crimi¬ 
 nals. My tender attachment to a beloved mother, and her 
 earnest persuasion, rendered me so bold that I undertook to 
 ask the will of Muhammad himself, the favourite of Allah. Here, 
 then, supported by your prayers, I have demanded the judg¬ 
 ment of the prophet for three days and nights. He has deigned 
 to give me an answer; but what a thunderstroke was it for me ! 
 According to Allah’s will, the first person who imparted to me 
 the villainous wishes of the Tchetchenzes was to be punished 
 with a hundred lashes, and this first person was—oh, that I 
 must say it—my mother !” 
 
 When the poor old woman heard her name mentioned she 
 uttered a terrible cry, but Schamyl remained inexorable. The 
 Murids tore off the Khanum’s long veil, bound her to a pillar, 
 and Schamyl himself seized the whip, to inflict the horrible 
 punishment. At the fifth blow the Khanum fell down dead, 
 and Schamyl hurled himself at her feet with loud lamenta¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Suddenly, however, he sprang up, and his eyes sparkled with 
 pleasure. He raised himself to his full height, and said in a 
 solemn tone :— 
 
 “ God is God, and Muhammad is his Prophet 1 He has heard 
 my earnest supplications, and permits me to take on myself the 
 remainder of the punishment to which my poor mother was con- 
 
AS CHIEFTAIN, SULTAN, AND PROPHET. 
 
 87 
 
 demned. I do it with joy, and recognize therein, 0 holy prophet! 
 an inestimable sign of thy favour.” 
 
 And quickly and smilingly he threw off his upper garments, 
 and ordered two of his Murids to inflict upon him the remainder 
 of the lashes. They did so, and covered their master’s body with 
 ninety-five bleeding wheals, without his moving a feature. 
 After the last stroke he reassumed his clothing, walked quickly 
 down from the roof of the mosque, advanced among the people, 
 who were trembling from speechless horror and astonishment, 
 and asked in a calm, collected voice:— 
 
 “ Where are the criminals, for whose sake my mother suffered 
 this terrible punishment? where are the deputies from the 
 Tchetchnia?” 
 
 “ Here, here!” a hundred voices shouted; and at the next mo¬ 
 ment the unhappy victims were dragged to the feet of their 
 fanatic lord. No one doubted but that a terrible death awaited 
 the four Tchetchenzes, and some of the Murids had already drawn 
 their heavy sabres, in order to be in readiness to execute the 
 sentence at the first command from the Imam. The Tchet¬ 
 chenzes lay with their faces in the dust; they whispered, in the 
 certain expectation of death, their last prayers, and did not even 
 venture to lift their heads and beg for a pardon which they con¬ 
 sidered impossible. Schamyl, however, raised them with his 
 own hand, ordered them to take courage, and said:— 
 
 “Return to your tribe, and tell them, in reply to their crimi¬ 
 nal, inconsiderate demand, all that you have seen and heard 
 here.” 
 
 It needs scarcely be said, that no deputation ever again appeared 
 in Dargo on a similar mission; for it was now known what 
 might be expected from a man who did not hesitate to sacrifice 
 the life of a beloved mother, or even his own, to his policy. 
 
 In spite of their iron firmness, which does not even recoil from 
 bloodshed, Schamyl has done all in his power to exterminate 
 the Vendetta , which prevails among several tribes of the Cauca¬ 
 sus, and to make it appear a horrible sin in. the eye of his de¬ 
 votees. It is most likely though, that he has been induced to 
 
SCHAMYL. 
 
 88 
 
 do this, "because many a brave has already fallen in consequence 
 of this sanguinary custom, who otherwise would have increased 
 the number of Schamyl’s warriors. 
 
 In Daghistanthe blood-revenge is pursued with greater savage¬ 
 ness than in any other part of the Caucasus. Even the Corsican 
 vendetta is far behind the Circassians; and certain families in 
 Daghistan have, from time immemorial, carried on an uninter¬ 
 rupted war of extermination. Schamyl has succeeded in intro¬ 
 ducing in some parts a custom of taking money, or a number of 
 horses or sheep, as a compensation. At the same time, in order 
 to restore peace between two families, and to render the number 
 of victims equal on either side, children are given up to be 
 murdered in cold blood. 
 
PRINCE WORONZOFF. 
 
 89 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PRINCE WORONZOFF. 
 
 THE EXTENT OF WORONZOFF’S YICEROYALTY—HIS ORIGIN—HIS PART IN THE 
 
 CAMPAIGNS AGAINST THE FRENCH AND TURKS-HE IS APPOINTED GOVERNOR- 
 
 GENERAL OF NEW RUSSIA AND BESSARABIA-HIS CONDUCT IN THE CRIMEA- 
 
 HIS APPOINTMENT AS VICEROY-GENERAL OF THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES-HIS 
 
 SEVERE AND YET HUMANE ADMINISTRATION-THE TRADE IN CIRCASSIAN GIRLS 
 
 PARTIALLY RESTORED BY HIM-PRINCE WORONZOFF’S PERSONAL APPEAR¬ 
 
 ANCE. 
 
 We have already mentioned in the general war history of the 
 Caucasus, that after the Generals Yermoloff, Posen, Golovine, 
 Grabbe, Sass, WiliaminoiF, and Neidhardt, had carried on with 
 more or less success the tedious war against the Circassians, 
 Prince WoronzofF was eventually selected by the Emperor for 
 that post. For nearly ten years he has been opposed to 
 Schamvl, who must recognize in him a worthy foe; for both fight 
 with enthusiasm for the cause which they have made their 
 own. We, think, therefore, we shall be justified in giving a short 
 account of the Russian commander’s life and character. 
 
 We have already mentioned that since Potemkin, under 
 Catharine II., no Russian subject has been invested with such 
 power as Prince WoronzofF now holds. The viceroyalty, which 
 the autocrat of all the Russias has intrusted to him, is bounded 
 on the west by the Bukovina, extends over a great sea, joined 
 with the Mediterranean by a narrow strait, and contains the 
 whole of the isthmus stretching southwards between the Black 
 and Caspian Seas. No European empire is equal in extent to 
 this viceroyalty. 
 
 Michael WoronzofF was born at St. Petersburg!! in 1782, and 
 
90 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 is the son of a distinguished statesman, Count Simon Woronzoff, 
 who died in London, to which court he had been sent as envoy. 
 As he had fallen into disgrace after Catharine’s death, his son 
 remained for a time in England, and received his education there. 
 But Alexander had scarcely mounted the throne, ere he recalled 
 the young count from banishment, and appointed him one of his 
 pages. Court life, however, was not the sphere which suited the 
 young man, and he soon after joined the corps of the Caucasus 
 as a lieutenant, which was at that time commanded by the 
 brave Georgian prince, Zizianoff. 
 
 After remaining till 1805 in the Caucasus, the outbreak of 
 the Prusso-Freneh war recalled him to Germany, He took part 
 in it till the treaty of Tilsit; in 1807, the Turkish war broke 
 out, and Woronzoff went as a colonel to Turkey. In the years 
 1810 and 1811, he distinguished himself in such a manner that 
 he was made a major-general. Napoleon commenced the cam¬ 
 paign against Russia in 1812 ; this caused a hurried treaty with 
 Turkey, and all the troops were concentrated as speedily as 
 possible, to oppose the invader. Woronzoff also took part in 
 the war; and, after Napoleon’s expulsion from Russia, he went 
 to Germany and France during the further progress of the cam¬ 
 paign. After the termination of the war, his longing drove him 
 again to England, where he was ever glad to reside, until he was 
 recalled in 1823, and assumed the governor-generalship of New 
 Russia and Bessarabia. 
 
 With this really commenced his illustrious career, in wdiich he 
 has uninterruptedly laboured for thirty years to promote the 
 welfare of his fatherland. He was the man who carried out the 
 plans of the two founders of Odessa, and under whom trade and 
 commerce flourished in an extraordinary manner. Under Wo- 
 ronzoff’s administration the splendid buildings were erected, of 
 which Odessa can now boast; but his activity was by no means 
 confined to his residence, for he governed with creative and 
 talented energy the whole district intrusted to him by the Em¬ 
 peror. The desolate steppes on the north of the Black Sea, 
 which had formerly been partially inhabited by the restless 
 Noghais and their numerous herds, but had been deserted by 
 
PRINCE WORONZOFF. 
 
 91 
 
 them after the occupation of the country by Bussia, were again 
 filled with human beings, if only sparingly and gradually. 
 Country and towns grew populous; and, more especially, the Ger¬ 
 man colonies in the neighbourhood of Odessa, attained an un¬ 
 paralleled pitch of prosperity. Prince Woronzoff also did great 
 service in the Crimea. In union with a small number of Bussian 
 noblemen, he exerted himself to gain the southern slope of the 
 rocky mountain range to cultivation ; the alterations made there 
 have cost millions of silver rubles, especially the vineyards ; and 
 palaces in a Gotho-Moorish style, Turkish chateaus and fountains, 
 and Italian villas, are mingled with the simple Tartar tents. 
 But for all this the so loudly praised southern coast of the Cri¬ 
 mea will never thoroughly yield to advantageous cultivation. 
 
 In the year 1845, commenced the third epoch of Woronzoff’s 
 life; for he was led to a new sphere of action by the ukase ap¬ 
 pointing him viceroy-general of the Caucasian provinces, and 
 commander-in-chief of the corps of the Caucasus. We have al¬ 
 ready mentioned the surprise felt at the immense power there¬ 
 by intrusted in the hands of one man, especially as it was 
 believed that he was not any great favourite of the Emperor. 
 
 In this new and dangerous career, Woronzoff first secured 
 himself against all foreign interference, by which Neidhardt had 
 been very frequently restricted in the execution of his plans, and 
 demanded liberty of action for all his undertakings. The “ Com¬ 
 mission of the Caucasus” in Petersburg was consequently abolish¬ 
 ed, and Woronzoff stood in immediate communication with the 
 Emperor. 
 
 It was not long ere he appeared in Tiflis, but though so gen¬ 
 tle and kind in his manners, he attacked all disorders with the 
 greatest severity; and within a few weeks, a dozen robbers were 
 hanging on hastily erected gallows, as a terror to the rest. 
 
 Of what sort the fortune of war has been, which till now has 
 accompanied him, we have already seen. But in another respect, 
 Woronzoff has given his attention to the country intrusted to 
 him. Through his affability, he gained the hearts of the Geor¬ 
 gians or Grusians, who were by no means such faithful subjects 
 to Bussia as the Armenians were; and only a few years back 
 
92 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 sympathized with Russia’s foes. Schamyl was once more active 
 in Circassia, and would probably have met with greater success, 
 had not the talented viceroy sought to destroy his influence, and 
 had recourse to a measure, to which considerable objections may 
 be raised on the score of humanity. Prince Woronzoff, namely, 
 removed the interdict by which Circassian girls could no longer 
 be taken to.Constantinople, and believed himself justified by 
 only suffering the trade, when the daughter gave her consent to 
 being sold. In fact, Circassian girls gladly go as slaves to 
 Turkey, more especially to Constantinople, where they usually 
 distinguish themselves through their mental superiority, and in 
 later years frequently return home laden with the blessings of 
 fortune. 
 
 It cannot be denied, that this trade with Circassian and 
 Georgian girls has at times great drawbacks for themselves* 
 The unhappy creatures, who are generally put on board the 
 steamer that sails from Trebizonde, reach Constantinople in a 
 most deplorable condition. Any one not thoroughly acquainted 
 with the state of the case, may perhaps almost envy the cap¬ 
 tain who has under his charge such a poetical cargo : but, un¬ 
 fortunately, these girls are as carefully guarded as if they were 
 so many casks of leeches for the Marseilles market. They are 
 naturally separated as much as possible from the remaining pas¬ 
 sengers, and huddled together, wrapped in their dusty clothes, 
 like so many negro slaves. They are usually attacked with 
 eruptions of the skin ; for they are most commonly sold by their 
 parents through avarice or poverty, and are delivered to the 
 purchaser almost in a state of nudity. If they were to be pro¬ 
 vided in the first instance with clean, respectable clothing, the 
 whole of the profits would be lost. A ragged shirt, and a 
 piece of linen to confine it round the shoulders, is the costume in 
 which they huddle together, and whisper about the splendour 
 promised them, or dream and think of their home, from which 
 they have been driven, among strangers in this condition. The 
 slave-dealers, with that narrow-mindedness which characterises 
 every dealer in human flesh, feed these future favourites during 
 the voyage on water and millet broth. It may be easily ima- 
 
PRINCE WORONZOFF. 
 
 93 
 
 gined that they reach the end of their journey in a condition 
 which is of such a nature, that only a few connoisseurs of hidden 
 charms would venture to express an opinion about them. At 
 times, if the merchant wishes to get rid of his wares as quickly 
 as possible, he drives his flock in the miserable condition in 
 which they .have landed to the market, or, at the most, throws a 
 feridji over the poor creatures’ shoulders—chance generally 
 directs the sale. The buyer keeps at a distance from his mer¬ 
 chandise, like a physician from a patient sick with the plague, 
 and drives them before him to one of the numerous institutions 
 where beings of this sort are polished up for the harem. A num¬ 
 ber of old women earn their living by polishing this raw ma¬ 
 terial. Through the application of remedies, which are guarded 
 with great mystery, the girls are speedily cured of their disease, 
 cleaned and dressed in clean clothes, so that it is difficult to re¬ 
 cognise them, if a person had seen them previously in their 
 miserable condition on board ship,* 
 
 Prince Woronzoff, by the abolition of the above-mentioned 
 interdict, gained his object; for Schamyl’s emissaries retired 
 without any success. He took advantage of this favourable 
 temper of the Circassians still more, by gaining over some of the 
 princes by means of presents. All the Daghistani provinces, 
 even those, like the mountainous Tabasseran, which did not in 
 any way recognise Russia’s authority, but whose inhabitants did 
 not make common cause with Schamyl, were united by Woron- 
 zoff into one government, and the brave Armenian prince 
 Argutinski appointed their chief. 
 
 Prince Woronzoff, who at present is seventy-two years of age, 
 is of the middle height, and has a very modest and simple appear¬ 
 ance, which gains by longer conversation and acquaintance. His 
 countenance does not express the genial temper he possesses; for 
 his forehead is low, and his features have nothing marked about 
 them. But, however much he loves simplicity for his own part, 
 in certain instances he developes an immense amount of pomp, 
 
 * While these sheets were being printed, I have discovered that this 
 passage is extracted from Bayle St. John’s “ The Turks in Europe.”—L. W. 
 
94 
 
 SCHAMY L. 
 
 which is quite in contradiction to his usual modest manner. 
 Since he has held his court in Tiflis, this has been the case even 
 more than it was at Odessa. 
 
 Persons who have lived some time near Prince WoronzofPs 
 person, assert that he is not only a good father within his own 
 domestic circle, but also in reality a parent to his subjects. All 
 his actions have something chivalrous and noble about them; and, 
 besides repaying the confidence of his master in the most consci¬ 
 entious manner, he also employs a great portion of his revenues, 
 and his own large fortune, in the improvement of the countries 
 intrusted to him, and the condition of the nation beneath his 
 authority. 
 
A SOLDIEK’s LIFE IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 95 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 A SOLDIER’S LIFE IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 THE WAR UNIFORM OF A RUSSIAN SOLDIER-THE MARCH-THE BAND—CON¬ 
 VERSATION OF THE SOLDIERS—THE HALT-THE EMPEROR’S PISTOL-THE 
 
 CHASTISEMENT OF REBELLIOUS AOULS—THE ARMS OF THE CIRCASSIANS— 
 THEIR MODE OF FIGHTING—TREATMENT OF PRISONERS AMONG THE CIRCAS¬ 
 SIANS-THE DEGRADED OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY-THE GUNNER KUSNETSOFF- 
 
 THE COSSACK ATATSCHIKOFF — THE CAPTIVITY OF BARON VON TURNAU AMONG 
 
 THE UBYCHS-THE CORPSES OF THOSE WHO HAVE FALLEN IN BATTLE—THE 
 
 RETREAT OF THE RUSSIANS—THE RUSSIAN FORTS—COMPARISON BETWEEN 
 THE RUSSIANS IN THE CAUCASUS AND THE FRENCH IN ALGIERS. 
 
 The war costume of the Russian soldier is not the same as 
 he wears for parade. Tchako and helmet are exchanged for the 
 forage cap, which, it is seen, affords but slight protection against 
 the terrible Circassian shashka. Circassian nobles sometimes 
 wear a breastplate which is bullet-proof; on the other hand, the 
 small balls which the Circassians use, barely pierce through the 
 Russian uniform, and even the bayonet is unable to traverse the 
 Circassian breastplate. In such a case the Russian soldier falls 
 beneath the blows of his enemy, if he does not cleverly rush 
 upon him, seize him round the waist, throw him down and kill 
 him. 
 
 The light war uniform of the Russian soldier is a matter of 
 necessity; for he could not endure heavy accoutrements on his 
 terribly fatiguing marches. In order to render it as light as 
 possible, a linen bag, fastened with a leathern strap, is substi¬ 
 tuted for the infantry knapsack, in which he carries his tobacco- 
 pipe, brushes, and the little pot used to boil soup; for the Rus¬ 
 sian soldier likes warm food, and, if he can procure nothing 
 better, boils water and shreds his bread into it. In the bag are 
 
96 
 
 SCIIAMYL. 
 
 his provisions for six days, his necessary linen, and a small 
 mirror. To these objects a prayer-book is sometimes added; 
 and any one in possession of such an article usually receives the 
 honorary office of reader during the halt. As soon as the 
 march recommences, he retires into his nothingness, and his 
 place is occupied by the merry story-teller, who makes them 
 forget the fatigues of the march by the narration of all sorts 
 of funny tales and anecdotes. 
 
 On the march the soldier is allowed to carry his musket as 
 he pleases, on his shoulder or his back, in order, by this change, 
 to make the weight less perceptible. The muskets of the Rus¬ 
 sian army are very heavy, and not always of the best quality. 
 It is natural that much elegance cannot be expected among 
 soldiers, more especially if they are serving in the Caucasus. 
 His boots, whose soles are strengthened with hobnails, are pulled 
 on over the trousers, and he carries his cloak in a bundle over his 
 shoulder. He is always ready and in good-humour; for when 
 in the field he receives a daily ration of wine. The officer hopes 
 for promotion and orders. The baggage is laid on arabas—carts 
 with two immense wheels—the music strikes up, and the column 
 sets itself in motion. 
 
 This music is generally a subject of great surprise to the 
 mountaineers. When it echoes through the quiet aouls, the in¬ 
 habitants hurry out, and listen to the strange and novel tones. 
 Many creep up quite close to the instruments, and hold their 
 ear to the sounding-holes; we were even once witness, that one 
 of these children of nature laid his ear in a listening position 
 upon the stick of the drum-major. 
 
 The column marches further : it is long, and appears to have 
 no end; for the ground is sometimes of such a nature, that the 
 troops are compelled to march in Indian file. The column is 
 visible at a considerable distance; for the glistening bayonets 
 reflect the beams of the sun. The Cossacks of the Don form the 
 rearguard, and the Cossacks of the line perform the duty of re¬ 
 connoitring the country. 
 
 When it is intended to take the enemy by surprise, soldiers 
 march so noiselessly, that a bird would be heard to fly. As 
 
A soldier’s LIFE IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 07 
 
 the enemies’ spies creep about in every direction, the leaders 
 of the expedition keep its object a profound secret. 
 
 We will join the column after it has ascended the mountain, 
 and appears to be lost in the clouds, and listen to the conversa¬ 
 tion of the soldiers, which will give us an insight into their ideas 
 and thoughts. 
 
 “ See ! ” said one, “ folks always declared that the clorfds were 
 ice, but they’re nothing more than fog.”—“ Do you see,” another 
 adds, “ the rainbow on the rock 1 folks tell it draws up water; 
 but there’s not a drop to be seen on the rock where it has 
 rested. It is only the reflection of the sun.”—“Ah!” says 
 another, “ if we keep on climbing so high, we shall reach heaven. 
 How great is the power of God !” 
 
 It is impossible to look down from the summit of these 
 mountains without feeling giddy. The deep ravines which in¬ 
 tersect the ground, frighten even the boldest; and yawning 
 abysses appear always ready to swallow any unfortunate man 
 whose foot slips. But for all this, one soldier says to the 
 other:— 
 
 “ Look there, those stones are quite round belo w us: some are 
 large, some small: the large ones containing little ones. Do 
 they come from heaven, or do they grow there ? It can be no 
 good spirit that plays with such balls.”—“ When we,” says 
 another, “ get to Arabia (Avaria) or to India (the aoul of 
 Audi), we shall find such a quantity of Burkas that we can make 
 tents out of them.” 
 
 Another picture. The column halts; the arms are piled 
 pyramidically; and, if there is sufficient room, tents raised. If 
 the space is not sufficient for this purpose, the officer satisfies 
 himself with his cloak, upon half of which he lays himself. 
 Fires are lighted, and each warms himself in turn. Those who 
 are sleepy go to sleep when they like, and sometimes their 
 cloaks are attacked by the flames. In such cases they wake 
 him and say, “ Thou hast caught a fox.” 
 
 The samovar (tea-kettle) always accompanies the officers of 
 the same tent. How good is tea upon these marches! It 
 
 H 
 
93 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 warms and cheers the drinker; and though, when drunk everyday, 
 it is only regarded as a usual beverage—under these circum¬ 
 stances is a welcome treat. 
 
 Rich officers take all sorts of provisions, wine, poultry, and 
 porter, on their baggage-carts with them. But the poor ones 
 have nothing but millet hour and tallow, and mutton either 
 roast or*smoked. "When it rains continuously, the water makes 
 its way through the tents, and soaks clothes and all. Their 
 condition is then so unpleasant, that it is only surpassed by the 
 frightful summer heat, which torments the soldiers with un¬ 
 quenchable thirst. 
 
 When the column reaches a friendly aoul, the inhabitants 
 come up and bring fruit, milk, eggs, and butter, for sale. They 
 receive Russian money for them, but pilfer silver to copper, and 
 will only take the latter at half its value. 
 
 With the first beams of the sun the column again starts; 
 but the march in the mountains is often so fatiguing, that only 
 fifteen versts, a little more than ten miles, are traversed in a day. 
 It often happens that the guns can only be carried over the 
 mountains on the shoulders of the troops. A cannon is the 
 terror of the Circassians. They call it, exaggerating its effect, 
 “ a thousand men,” or jokingly, “ the Emperor’s pistol.” 
 
 When the Russians punish an aoul which has rebelled, it is 
 rarely attacked unawares. The inhabitants then desert their 
 dwellings before the Russians come up, carry off all they possess, 
 and only leave the naked walls behind. They fiy to the moun¬ 
 tains, and take the requisite steps to cut off the retreat of the 
 Russian forces, or to meet them with a shower of bullets in 
 suitable places. In such cases their crops are destroyed, and 
 their saklis burnt down. 
 
 Sometimes, however, the inhabitants remain in the village, 
 and intrench themselves in their subterraneous cabins, which 
 must in such a case be taken by storm, and which can only be 
 done with a great sacrifice of lives. The Russians are obliged to 
 break down the walls in order to go from one sakli to another, 
 while a storm of bullets is poured upon them from above. The 
 
A soldier’s LIFE IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 99 
 
 "battle then rages in the lanes and upon the rocks. It is a 
 desperate contest of man to man, in which bayonet and sword 
 contend against the Circassian dagger and sabre. 
 
 The Circassians regard their arms as their most valuable pro¬ 
 perty. They preserve and hand them down to their posterity 
 as the most holy relics; and hence we find in their possession 
 the rarest sabres, the most valuable poniards, lances from the 
 time of the Crusades, or Italian pistols with Latin inscriptions, 
 which give an account of the maker and first possessor of these 
 weapons. 
 
 As a proof of the excellence of the Circassian arms, the fact 
 may be mentioned, that the barrels of the Russian muskets have 
 frequently been cut through in battle by one stroke of the 
 shashka. The Russian officers would do well to use sabres of 
 the same sort. The Circassians have learned how to defend 
 themselves against the bayonet; while the Russian soldiers are 
 ignorant how to guard off the furious blow of the Circassian 
 shashka. The Russians usually fire without taking aim. This 
 is very proper opposite a regular line, but not against the scat¬ 
 tered Circassians. Finnish tirailleurs have in consequence 
 been lately sent to the Caucasus, and the Russian method of 
 firing has been improved, though the Russians are still far 
 inferior to the French, English, or Prussians, in this respect. 
 
 When an aoul is attacked, the defenders are cut down, and 
 the women and children carried off as prisoners. During the 
 fight no pardon is granted. It would be difficult to say, which 
 of the belligerent parties is least cruel to its prisoners. ThS 
 captives of the Caucasians become slaves, and are forced to work 
 in the fields, or they are shut up in prisons, where they are 
 frequently beaten, until their ransom arrives. Naturally much 
 depends on the humour of the master, into whose hands they 
 fall, and some chain up their prisoners during the night. As 
 regards the barbarous custom of running short horse-hairs 
 through the heels of the prisoners, to prevent them from escap¬ 
 ing, this is very rarely done, and only to those who have made 
 repeated attempts at flight. 
 
 The Circassians make a distinction between a deserter and a 
 
100 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 prisoner. Every one who comes voluntarily to them, is hospi¬ 
 tably received, and there are several Russian deserters, who live 
 quietly in Lesghi or Circassian villages. They have, in fact, 
 become Circassians, and have wives and children. The Circas¬ 
 sians, however, distrust renegades, although less so than the 
 Algerians, who always forced deserters to fight in the first rank. 
 As the Russian soldiers on duty in the Caucasus are usually well 
 treated, and the mode of life among the mountaineers possesses 
 no great attraction for them, they are seldom tempted to desert, 
 and expose themselves to the risk of being recaptured and hav¬ 
 ing to run the gauntlet. Even among the Poles, the deserters 
 are not so numerous as might be expected. 
 
 Among the troops of the Caucasus—which is a species of 
 military and political Botany Bay for Russia—-there is a nu¬ 
 merous class of men who are in a most peculiar and exceptional 
 position—we mean the degraded. It might be presumed 
 that this class would furnish a great number of deserters, but 
 such is not the case. The degraded, who are not punished for 
 any dishonest action, are treated so indulgently that they never 
 think of joining the enemy. The officers, when not on duty, 
 continue to associate with their former comrades; while the 
 privates treat them with the same respect as before. Of course, 
 a general or commander-in-chief is more particular; for instance, 
 he cannot invite a degraded to his table, &c. 
 
 Among the most notorious Russian deserters we may men¬ 
 tion Kussnetsoff, a gunner of the Russian artillery, who, be¬ 
 cause his general gave him a severe punishment for an oversight, 
 deserted to Schamyl, and bore with him an irreconcilable hatred 
 against Russian nobles and officers. He continually begged 
 Schamyl to place the life of every Russian officer who was cap¬ 
 tured at his disposal: but the Circassian sultan always refused to 
 accede to this wish. One day, however, when Schamyl had 
 again taken two-and-twenty Russian officers, Kussnetsoff swore 
 that he would have their lives. He stopped the provisions sent 
 them from the Russian camp, opened a cask of honey, and found 
 in it a letter addressed to a lieutenant-colonel among these 
 officers, in which the mode of escaping, together with the other 
 
A soldier’s LIFE in THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 101 
 
 officers, was explained to him. Kussnetsoff showed this letter to 
 Schamyl, and received permission from him to dispose of the 
 prisoners in what way he thought proper. He had them all 
 hanged. 
 
 Atatschikoff, a Cossack officer, who deserted to the Circassians 
 in consequence of an insult received from his superior officer, 
 was not so cruel to GlebofF, the adjutant of General Neidhardt, 
 who was sent with despatches to St. Petersburgh. Atatschikoff, 
 who heard of it, induced the Circassians to lie in ambush for 
 him on the road to Stavropol, and received orders to carry out this 
 project himself with six Lesghis. GlebofF was a man of extra¬ 
 ordinary courage; but was forced to yield after receiving a very 
 dangerous wound. He regained his liberty eventually for the 
 sum of two thousand silver rubles. 
 
 There are even cases of Circassians deserting to the Russians, 
 although this will hardly be credited. 
 
 Baron Turnau, the adjutant of General Gurko, went in dis¬ 
 guise among the Ubychs, in order to gain some knowledge of 
 their country. He was recognised, thrown into a dungeon, 
 where he suffered terribly, as his ransom was a long time in 
 arriving. A slave of the chieftain who kept him prisoner, mur¬ 
 dered his master, whose conduct had excited his vengeance, 
 liberated the baron, and carried him back to the Russians on 
 his own horse. 
 
 The Circassians never suffer the bodies of their brothers to 
 lie on the field of battle, or remain in the hands of the enemy. 
 They would sooner resign the victory than desert their dead; 
 and after every engagement they send a deputation to ask them 
 from the Russians. One day General Rayeffski, who commanded 
 the right wing, said to them as he gave up their fallen country¬ 
 men, “ I do not wage war upon the dead;” the Circassians replied, 
 “ VVe will pray God that he will not suffer thy body to remain 
 unburied, if thou shouldst ever fall in battle.” 
 
 The Russians also carry off their dead when they can, and, 
 more especially, the Cossacks are very particular about paying 
 the last honours to their fallen brethren. 
 
 The greatest misfortunes occur to the Russians on their re- 
 
102 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 treat. The enemy wait for them in the forests and defiles; and 
 if the Russians have not observed the precaution to occupy the 
 latter beforehand, which is not always possible in distant expedi¬ 
 tions, they lose more men through it than during the whole of 
 the march, without mentioning the booty, which is often taken from 
 them again, with a portion of their own baggage. The retreat, upon 
 which prisoners and wounded have generally to be conveyed, is 
 always difficult, and surrounded by dangers of every description. 
 The march of the army is more fatiguing, and demands more 
 victims than even the battle itself. Besides this, fever and pestilence 
 cause great destruction in the Russian army; and it may be as¬ 
 sumed, from the inquiries that have already been made, that 
 20,000 men are annually carried off by disease. 
 
 The question will very naturally be asked, When will this 
 war terminate] The subjected aouls revolt again as soon as 
 the Russians retire, or the Murids arrive there; and the 
 Russian officers assert, that there will never be peace in the 
 Caucasus until all the inhabitants are destroyed—a measure 
 which is almost impossible, however great Russia’s desire to 
 carry it out may be. It is true that colonies might be established, 
 but the population of Russia is not so numerous that she can spare 
 any for this purpose; and, in addition, the inhabitants of the 
 plains do not desire to leave their fertile fields for the sake of 
 cultivating patches of rock. 
 
 The Russian forts are too far apart to render material assist¬ 
 ance to any one of them that is menaced; while the Circassians 
 can concentrate their forces, and would probably be able to de¬ 
 stroy these forts in detail, if they possessed any knowledge of 
 the strategic art, or had artillery at their command. In the 
 meanwhile they make furious inroads upon the Russian colonists, 
 carry off their flocks, and at times the wives of the Cossacks. 
 Besides this, the Russian forts, although very numerous, are far 
 from sufficient to carry out the object designed. 
 
 The system of forts which, the French formerly employed in 
 Algiers was given up by Marshal Bugeaud, and instead of them 
 light, columns were introduced with considerable advantage. 
 However, the movements of troops are much more difficult in 
 
A SOLDIEH’S LIFE IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 103 
 
 the Caucasus than in Algiers, and the Russians still have much 
 to learn from the French in the art of war. The highest point 
 of the Atlas mountains is 7000 feet, but that of the Caucasus, 
 17,000. In addition to this, the forests of the Caucasus present 
 far greater obstacles to the passage of troops than is the case in 
 Algeria. In both countries there are swamps. But in Algiers 
 saklis are unknown. The French soldier, too, is far more adapted 
 for a highland war than the Russian, who, in an irregular skirmish, 
 where he does not feel a neighbour at his side, generally loses his 
 presence of mind. Russian soldiers must be concentrated in large 
 bodies, and be constantly under command—and, so long as there is 
 not a change in this system, the Russian soldier will never become 
 a good tirailleur. The Russians did not learn the plan of punish¬ 
 ing the enemy by razzias from the French, for the Cossacks 
 never carried on warfare in any other fashion, and Yermoloff 
 Nvas the first Russian general who practised the system. 
 
 It would certainly be a change very advantageous for both 
 parties, could the Emperor of Hussia lend the Emperor of France 
 ten to twenty thousand of his light Cossacks, to pursue the 
 Beduins and Kahyles in the Algerian plains: while, on the 
 other hand, the light and active Zouaves, Tirailleurs, and Chas¬ 
 seurs d’Afrique, are peculiarly adapted to carry on a war of exter¬ 
 mination against the Tcherkess and the Tclietchenzes, from bush 
 to bush, and from rock to rock. 
 
104 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SKETCHES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 DAGANOFF’s CAFTIVITY.-A DESERTER CONVERTED TO ISLAMISM.—MAJOR KAS- 
 
 KOMBO AND HIS FAITHFUL SERVANT, IVAN SMIRNOFF.-A COSSACK AMONG 
 
 THE CIRCASSIANS.-CAUCASIAN ROBBER LIFE.-THE GERMAN PHYSICIAN AND 
 
 THE GRATEFUL CIRCASSIAN.-ANECDOTES OF THE WAR. 
 
 Count Potocki, in his “ Voyage dans les Steppes d’Astrakhan 
 et du Caucase,” mentions a Russian officer of the name of Daga- 
 noff, who was taken prisoner by the Tchetchenzes while going 
 to pay a visit to his father. As he belonged to the family of 
 the Dimers of Noghai Krasnai, he was better treated than the 
 rest, and his knowledge of the Tartar languages was of great 
 service in alleviating his sufferings; the women more especially 
 took an interest in him, and he was frequently allowed to asso¬ 
 ciate with them, and his chains taken off. After a captivity 
 of six months, he was at last exchanged for a Circassian prisoner, 
 and thus regained his liberty. 
 
 A soldier of the Kur regiment was for a length of time kept 
 a prisoner by the Lesghis, and was eventually liberated by his 
 own regiment, which formed part of the expedition of 1837. 
 He related that, in the same aoul in which he was kept prisoner, 
 a deserter lived who had been converted to Islamism; but when¬ 
 ever he saw him he begged for the cross, which the Russians 
 wear oil their bosom, which he would kiss, thus evincing his 
 penitence for giving up his original belief. 
 
 Major Kaskombo, a Greek by birth, who was appointed com¬ 
 mander of the port of Lars, was escorted to that place by about 
 fifty Cossacks. The Tchetchenzes received information of this, 
 laid wait for the major, and attacked him with a very superior 
 force. Half of the Cossacks were cut down, and the others de- 
 
SKETCHES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 105 
 
 termined to sell tlieir lives as dearly as possible, and barricaded 
 themselves behind their dead horses. A Tchetchenze who was 
 acquainted with the Russian language, or else was a deserter, 
 cried, “ It is not our intention to do you any harm: give us up 
 your major, and then go in peace.” 
 
 When the major heard this, he voluntarily advanced, and 
 gave himself up, to prevent any further bloodshed. He had 
 scarcely done so when a Russian corps appeared, which had 
 hurried up to his assistance, but the Circassians contrived to 
 get off in safety with their prisoner. 
 
 A soldier, by name Ivan Smernoff, the major’s servant, would 
 not leave his master, and consequently sought him out among 
 the Circassians, with the intention of liberating him if possible, 
 and in this he eventually succeeded. 
 
 The two prisoners were sent to a distant aoul, and then en¬ 
 trusted to the charge of an old Tchetche, called Ibrahim, who 
 had lost two sons in the engagement with the Russians, and 
 was delighted at having found an opportunity to avenge 
 his misfortune by ill-treating the prisoners. The Tchetchenzes 
 demanded ten thousand rubles for the major, who wrote several 
 letters on the subject: but, as it seems, the Russian government 
 at that day pursued the plan of not ransoming prisoners, in 
 order to give the Circassians no inducement to make them. 
 
 Ivan exerted himself to lighten the heavy weight of his chains, 
 by instructing his guardian in the preparation of Russian 
 food and beverages. The major spent his time in singing to 
 the guitar, and the Tchetchenzes, who are great admirers of 
 music, very frequently commanded him to display his skill. Ivan 
 danced in the Cossack fashion, and succeeded by this and other 
 schemes in gaining the favour of his masters; and, finally, when 
 the Imam of the aoul said to him, that his chains should be re¬ 
 moved if he would change his religion, this faithful servant made 
 the sacrifice, in order to have his hands free for the liberation of 
 his master. 
 
 In order to dispel any doubts about his sincerity, he accom¬ 
 panied the Tchetchenzes on one of their expeditions across the 
 Terek. The Circassians were repulsed, and Ivan, who wore the 
 
106 
 
 SCIIAMYL. 
 
 Russian cap and uniform, became tiie mark for the bullets of the 
 Cossacks, but, fortunately, was not hit. While crossing the 
 river, he saved the life of a Tchetchenze, who swore eternal friend¬ 
 ship with him, and whose sisters afterwards informed Ivan that a 
 plot had been formed to kill him, as he was feared and distrusted. 
 
 The Circassians set out on a new expedition, and Ivan deter¬ 
 mined to die or to escape on this night. As he was not allowed 
 to speak with the major, they conversed by means of singing. 
 On this night there was a great deal of music, for they had so 
 much to discuss. 
 
 At last, Ivan, taking advantage of the opportunity, gave his 
 keeper Ibrahim, who was sitting near the fire, such a well- 
 directed and tremendous blow, that he fell back into the flames, 
 and was unable to extricate himself. Ivan then strangled the 
 old man’s wife, who hastened in on noticing the smell caused by 
 Ibrahim’s burning beard, as well as the child, which might have 
 betrayed them by its cries. 
 
 The key of the major’s chains could not be found in Ibrahim’s 
 pockets, and they were consequently compelled to attempt their 
 escape in the best manner they could. Ivan guided his master, 
 and at last carried him, until they reached a cabin, when the 
 major succeeded in freeing himself from his chains. They had 
 chosen a road in the opposite direction to the one in which the 
 Circassians would probably pursue them. They had gained the 
 summit of the mountain, and looked down on the plains on 
 which the Russian army was encamped: but Kaskombo, ex¬ 
 hausted by his exertions, could not proceed further. Ivan then 
 went alone to an aoul which was subjected to the Russians, 
 where, after looking for an isolated cabin, he promised the oc¬ 
 cupier one hundred silver rubles if he would assist the major. 
 The Circassian agreed, and helped to carry the major to the Rus¬ 
 sian camp. In this manner a captivity of eighteen months 
 terminated, during which the private had entirely changed charac¬ 
 ter with his superior officer. 
 
 A French traveller spoke in Anapa to a Cossack who had 
 been taken prisoner in a colony of Russians, during an inroad of 
 the Circassians into Ivuban. He remained a long while with a 
 
SKETCHES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 307 
 
 Circassian prince, who made him work in the fields, and wished 
 him to marry a Circassian. As the Cossack, however, strangely 
 declined this proposition, he was shut up with his fair bride, 
 and so compelled to marry her. In order to revenge himself 
 for the ill-treatment to which his master had subjected him, he 
 shut him up in his own house, set fire to it, and then fled with 
 his wife to an adjoining hill, whence he watched with delight 
 the progress of the flames. He now proceeded to another prince^ 
 whom he knew to be an enemy of his former master, and who 
 treated him very well, probably out of gratitude for having freed 
 him from his foeman. Sold and resold an innumerable number 
 of times, the Cossack at length reached Constantinople, and re¬ 
 turned thence to Anapa in a Turkish vessel. 
 
 Next to slavery, the predatory life of the Circassians is most 
 adapted to attract public attention; for while it has almost 
 entirely disappeared among us, and even from our romances, it is 
 in the fullest developement in the Caucasus, where even princes 
 do not hesitate to carry on their robberies openly. 
 
 Abdullah Bey, son cf the Cadi of Tabasseran, opposed with 
 the greatest obstinacy all the designs of the Bussians to attach 
 him to their interests, probably because he was so well satisfied 
 with the result of the robberies he carried out on a great scale, 
 that the Bussian offers possessed no attraction for him. At the 
 same time, however, there was another Daghistani prince, 
 Muhammad Khan, who evinced the greatest desire to be on 
 amicable terms with the Bussians, and to recover the princi¬ 
 pality of IJlumey, which his father liad lost by his breach of 
 faith to the Bussian general, Badaboff. He obtained gun¬ 
 powder from the Bussians, undermined the house of the robber 
 prince, and blew him up with his family and all his guests. 
 For this he was rewarded by receiving the incomes of several 
 aouls. 
 
 In Yekaterinodar, Moritz Wagner formed the acquaintance of 
 a German physician attached to the military hospital, who had 
 been twice degraded in consequence of duels. The Circassians 
 frequently asked his assistance, but they prefer payment in pro¬ 
 visions rather than in money. After a sanguinary contest, the 
 
108 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 physician found among the dead an aged Circassian, who still 
 evinced some signs of life. He had him carried to his house, and 
 he owed his recovery to the kind nursing of the physician and 
 his wife. He was a mullah, and fled again to his home as soon 
 as he was capable of enduring the fatigue. Soon after a young 
 Circassian came to the physician, and begged him to go 
 with him and visit a patient. The Circassian led him rather a 
 long distance into the house of the mullah whose life he had 
 saved, and who by feigning a disease, as was afterwards proved, 
 earnestly implored him to stay several days with him. During 
 this time the Tcherkess made a marauding expedition to the 
 stanitza where the doctor lived. This predatory attack was 
 perfectly successful, and all the inhabitants of the Cossack village 
 who did not find their death, were carried off as prisoners—a 
 fate which would indubitably have fallen to the lot of the 
 doctor, had not the mullah enticed him away by this stratagem. 
 
 We will end this chapter with an account of the campaign 
 of 1841, as extracted from the diary of a Russian officer engaged 
 in the expedition; for it gives a most interesting and detailed 
 account of the Circassian mode of warfare. 
 
 Through Schamyl’s restless exertions, in the year 1840 a great 
 number of the peaceful tribes in the vicinity of the northern 
 line had resumed hostilities, both in the west and the east. 
 Still, things had become far more unfavourable to Russia’s 
 authority on the Sundja, the Terek, and along the Koissu, where 
 Schamyl’s power was universally recognised, than in the steppes 
 of the Kuban and the Laba. General Grabbe’s personal appear¬ 
 ance on the left wing of the Army of the Korth was, therefore, 
 absolutely necessary. From all quarters news arrived at 
 Grotschnoi of the desertion of peaceful aouls and clans. The 
 exertions of many long years now appeared entirely useless. 
 Grotschnoi was cut off from the line of the Terek by the deser¬ 
 tion of the Tchetchni tribes between the Sundja and the Terek; 
 the war-cry resounded from the peaceful aouls of smaller and larger 
 Tchetchnia; even beyond the Koissu several tribes revolted, and 
 menacing movements were perceptible among the Kumyks. 
 
 General Grabbe started, in the spring of 1841, with a portion 
 
SKETCHES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 109 
 
 of his staff and a military escort from Stavropol, on his journey 
 to Tjervlenna, on the Terek. He had given orders to penetrate 
 directly into the country of the independent Tchetchenzes, with¬ 
 out paying attention to the revolted clans around, and, before all, 
 conquer and destroy Tcherkey on the Ko'issu. This town, as the 
 chief commercial emporium of northern Dagliistan, was of im¬ 
 mense importance to the mountaineers, and so far its occupation 
 would be of considerable value to the Eussians. 
 
 In Tchervlenna the troops were to assemble from various 
 points on the line, and preparations for the impending cam¬ 
 paign were made here. This stanitza has existed since the 
 reign of Catharine II. At that time it was built by a muti¬ 
 nous cavalry regiment, which was sent here as a punishment. 
 "When the soldiers had established their abode, they carried out 
 a second rape of the Sabines, by making inroads into the coun¬ 
 try of the Tchetchenzes, and carrying off their women. The 
 descendants of these wild soldiers are now celebrated as the 
 finest race of men in the whole of the Eusso-Caucasian terri¬ 
 tory. Their women have retained their primitive manners and 
 costume—they have only abolished the veil; and the men of 
 Tchervlenna observed many habits of the Tchetchenzes. If we 
 also take into consideration that all the Cossacks of the line, 
 and very many officers of the other divisions of the army, have 
 assumed the comfortable Circassian dress in lieu of the uniform, 
 which is almost unbearable in this hot climate, you might almost 
 have fancied at Tchervlenna, that you were in an aoul of the 
 mountaineers. The Tchervlenna Cossacks bear a great phy¬ 
 siognomical affinity the Asiatics, whose virtues and vices they 
 also share to a considerable extent. At least the lengthened 
 stay of Eussian officers on leave in this stanitza, seems to indi¬ 
 cate something else than the mere use of the hot baths in the 
 vicinity. 
 
 Schamyl, on the other hand, does not appear, for his person, 
 to have given up reprisals for this rape of the Tchetchenzi 
 women; for his harem is principally composed of Eussian 
 Christians, and a few years back he carried off, in a razzia of 
 this description, the wife of a tradesman of Mosdok. Unfor- 
 
110 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 tunately, the few days of our stay in Tcliervlenna were too much 
 occupied with other business, to allow me to inquire more 
 closely into all these matters. 
 
 The march was along the left bank of the Terek to Tchede- 
 rinskaia. Here more troops belonging to the expedition 
 joined us, the Terek and Akai were crossed, and we then pro¬ 
 ceeded in a south-eastern direction to Andreyeff. 
 
 Here we were surprised by the news that General Golovine 
 had advanced from Tiflis, on the great eastern military road, as 
 far as Tarki, then proceeded in a westerly direction through 
 Northern Daghistan, as far as the Koissu, and attacked Tcherkey 
 from the water side, without sending General Grabbe any infor¬ 
 mation. This seemed the more extraordinary, as the command 
 of this expedition belonged to the general of the Army of the 
 North, through the position of Tcherkey. But events of this 
 nature frequently occur, even in the Caucasus. Hence it is 
 natural, in consequence of the great independence of the various 
 leaders, that misunderstandings take place among them, which 
 lead to rivalry, though no one generally suffers through it ex¬ 
 cept the poor soldiers, whose lives are thrown away; and yet 
 Russia is forced to such immense sacrifices in the Caucasus, 
 that every man here uselessly lost is of double value. 
 
 On this occasion Golovine’s attack was unsuccessful, for, on 
 the water side, Tcherkey was perfectly defended by masses of 
 rock, in which the Tchetchenzes had formed embrasures and 
 breastworks; the river itself, although narrow, forcing its way 
 through rocks with frightful rapidity, could neither be crossed 
 in boats, nor was it possible to build a bridge. After General 
 Golovine had uselessly bombarded the rocks of Tcherkey for 
 several days, and many Russians had been killed by the Tchet¬ 
 chenzes, who were protected from our fire, he perceived the im¬ 
 practicability of his attempt. Simultaneously, he was informed of 
 our approach; and he therefore left a small corps under General 
 Vegesack before the town, while he himself crossed the Koissu 
 at the northern extremity of Daghistan, near Kozdek, and tried 
 to join Grabbe’s army. We had, in the meanwhile, marched in 
 a southerly direction from Andreyefl^ engaged in constant skir- 
 
SKETCHES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 mislies with the enemy, who awaited us in the forests and behind 
 rocks, and met Golovine’s troops on the Indjkeh (a confluent of 
 the Koissu), near the defile of Ivubar. 
 
 A battle scene, which will give a clear idea of the character of 
 the Adighe as warriors and allies, I had an opportunity of 
 witnessing during our march from Andreyeff. Six mounted 
 Tchetchenzes had been surrounded by our men in a wood. They 
 had retired fighting, and had at length reached a solitary majestic 
 tree, which served to protect their rear. In the meanwhile, the 
 Russians poured in from every side; and they perceived that 
 victory was impossible; still they would not accept the pardon 
 offered them. They suddenly drew closer together, and tried to 
 cut a path through the surrounding enemy. Only one broke 
 through the circle, and prepared for flight. The other five had 
 thrown themselves from their horses, and stabbed them in their 
 usual fashion; for they intended to destroy as many of their 
 enemies as they could. At this moment they perceived the 
 flight of their friend, and recalled him. He immediately wheeled 
 his horse round, cut his way to his friends, thrust his poniard 
 into the chest of his horse, and fought with them. They all 
 perished. Such are the men who form the living ramparts of 
 the Caucasus! 
 
 The defile of Kubar is the only way of access to that portion 
 of the hostile country in which Tcherkey is situated, on this 
 side the Koissu. But that this road, especially at such a sea¬ 
 son of the year, should be chosen by the Russian army, seemed 
 so improbable even to the Tchetchenzes, that they had left it 
 unguarded. Like a deep narrow chasm, this passage intersects 
 the northern portion of the eastern Black Mountains, and dense 
 forests stretch down from the summits of the mountains on both 
 sides of the road. On the summit, however, on the higher and 
 less sheltered tops of the mountains, deep winter still brooded : 
 snow and ice seemed to render it impossible to pass. Just before 
 entering the ravine, the news arrived that Schamyl was hurrying 
 up with 8000 men, by forced marches from Tcherkey, in order 
 to occupy the pass. To anticipate him was impossible, so great 
 was the exhaustion among the troops. Night but slightly cooled 
 
112 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 the oppressive lieat of the past day. A cloudless sky promised the 
 next day of equal warmth, and the confused noises which, reached 
 our ears from the forest-clad mountains, announced a few hours 
 later the arrival of the Tchetchenzes beyond the first and most 
 dangerous part of the defile. The Murids, as usual, had accom¬ 
 panied the terrible Schamyl. These Murids form a species of 
 guard to him. Descended from the noblest families, they have 
 collected round their chieftain, and consecrated themselves to 
 death in defence of their fatherland and the Koran. They take 
 and receive no pardon. Their caps are made of white cloth as 
 a mark of distinction, while the other warriors are accustomed 
 to select various colours. 
 
 In the night Generals Grabbe and Golovine drew up the plan 
 for the following day. In pursuance of this, the whole army of 
 operation was divided into three columns. The two flank 
 columns, the left commanded by General Klugenau, the right by 
 Colonel Labinzoff, were to march up the mountains which 
 bounded the road, drive the enemy from the forest, and thus 
 secure a safe passage for the artillery and baggage behind them. 
 
 It was still quite dark in the valley when the signals for 
 starting were given; but day was dawning along the summits 
 of the mountains, and the first beams of the sun glistened on the 
 snow-clad peaks. While the army was drawn up in deep silence, 
 the monotonous chant of the Tchetchenzes echoed across to us 
 from the adjoining forest. It -was their morning prayer, and 
 their hymn of death, whose sounds accompanied their prepara¬ 
 tions for resistance. As they threw up their little breastworks, 
 ■we could see their clothes at times gleaming through the trees, 
 and their forms gliding among the rocks. The march began. 
 Not a shot had yet been fired. But as the hills began to grow 
 steeper, the first shots were heard. With every step the ground 
 on either side became more fatiguing. 
 
 I was soon forced to send back my horse, and to clamber on 
 foot from one column to the other. The soldiers were soon com¬ 
 pelled to use their muskets for support. They could only return 
 the bullets showered on them from above by leaning against trees. 
 And the higher they climbed with intense labour, the more vio- 
 
SKETCHES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 113 
 
 lent the fire of the Tchetchenzes became. But the sight of their 
 falling comrades rendered our soldiers desperate. They rushed 
 up the mountain with all the courage of despair, and with utter 
 contempt of death. At every step almost inevitable destruction 
 awaited them. At one moment pressing on at full speed, then 
 driven back—at one moment protected by trees, and then entirely 
 exposed to the enemy’s fire, each fought not so much to gain the 
 pass, but for his own life. 
 
 And while death thus reaped a glorious harvest in the forest, 
 to the right and to the left, above and below, while the fire of 
 the small arms grew momentarily fiercer, the thunder of our 
 guns reached us from the plain, and echoed fearfully through 
 the mountains. Thus it was for the whole morning and after¬ 
 noon ; at the same time, a tropical sun was blazing in the cloud¬ 
 less sky. Prodigies of valour were performed on both sides. 
 The most dangerous portions of our route were surmounted by 
 nightfall. At last—the sun had long departed—our troops 
 reached a clear plateau. The forest entirely ceased, and the fly¬ 
 ing horsemen disappeared in the ravines and passes of the moun¬ 
 tains before us, which we had still to scale. A short time 
 afterwards, we saw Schamyl and his Murids galloping along the 
 road, on his way to his aoul in the heart of the mountains. 
 
 During the whole day we had only traversed a verst and a 
 half; and even our rest at night was broken by the unendur¬ 
 able heat. The next day, frequently exposed to the fire of the 
 Tchetchni guerillas, we continued our march to the Snowy 
 Mountains. The ground soon became so difficult, that the 
 camels and the baggage remained a long way behind the infantry. 
 In addition to this, a sharp wind was felt in the vicinity of the 
 Snowy Mountains, and at last a most tremendous snow-stoian fell 
 upon us. In the morning we had almost been killed by the 
 heat, and now we walked on snow, and sank soon afterwards up 
 to our knees. Our cloaks, and other means of warming our¬ 
 selves, were partly with the baggage; but some were left behind 
 in Tchervlenna. But the train and the artillery could not come 
 up with us before nightfall; they, therefore, camped several 
 versts in our rear, while the soldiers wet through, frozen, hun- 
 
 I 
 
114 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 gry, thirsty, and fatigued to death, were forced to pass the night 
 upon the highest peaks. • It was a dreadful time. But fatigue 
 prevented them from feeling their sufferings so acutely; and at 
 last a bright, clear morning dawned. The view which presented 
 itself to us was so magnificent, that it even drew exclamations 
 of admiration from our exhausted soldiers. Several northern 
 spurs of the Eastern Caucasus lay almost beneath our feet, with 
 their magnificent forest verdure and red-brown summits, upon 
 which the mountain lakes gleamed like diamonds in the morning 
 sun—and at other points thin masses of mist rose and collected 
 into a cloud, exposing to our view Daghistan, beyond these 
 mountains. Forests and meadows, intersected by the glistening 
 streams, extended to an immense distance; a few aouls and 
 stanitzas peeped out with their white stucco walls, and on the 
 horizon a brilliant silver belt sparkled—it was the Caspian Sea. 
 To our left lay the more level country of the Kumyks, traversed 
 by numerous streams, and covered with luxuriant vegetation. 
 To the right, however, the eye lost itself in the thousand snow- 
 covered pinnacles of the mountains, which rose regularly behind 
 each other, and disappeared in the horizon in the light morning 
 mist. 
 
 When we afterwards descended into the plain, the news 
 reached us near Kabar, that Tcherkey had surrendered to the 
 small corps left to besiege it. This occurred in the following 
 way. General Yegesack, on learning that Schamyl had left the 
 town with the greater portion of his troops in order to meet us, 
 had employed this moment of confusion among the garrison, to 
 carry his troops across the Koissu lower down, and then he had 
 commenced the bombardment from the land side. .After some 
 resistance, the weak garrison was compelled to capitulate on 
 condition of a free passage. General Yegesack unfortunately fell 
 in the contest. 
 
 Our expedition was thus terminated; for the capture of 
 Tcherkey had been intended as the finale of the first expedition 
 of the year. After the soldiers had been allowed a few days’ 
 rest, we marched on the old road back to Tchervlenna, but slightly 
 harassed by the enemy. Here General Grabbe remained several 
 
SKETCHES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 115 
 
 weeks, and then went to Grotschnoi, to commence the building 
 of the forts upon the new line of the Sundja. On arriving there, 
 the general immediately ordered the building of Sakan-yurt to 
 be commenced. This place is about twenty versts to the west 
 of Grosnaya, on the Sundja. When we arrived there, we found 
 the opposite bank of the narrow stream covered with dense forests; 
 and this circumstance the Tchetchenzes turned to the best account, 
 in spite of sentries and patrols. While our soldiers were working 
 on this side of the river, they kept up an incessant fire from the 
 other, where they were entirely sheltered by the dense foliage; 
 and, like all Asiatics, they were such excellent marksmen, that 
 we were soon forced to devise serious measures to check this. 
 Before we set about building houses there, patrols crossed over 
 to the opposite bank. While one part of the troops occupied 
 the enemy, and drove them back from the Sundja, another por¬ 
 tion cut down the trees which stood nearest the river. In this 
 manner the wood was cleared, the hiding-place of the Tchetchen¬ 
 zes destroyed, and ourselves allowed some peace, at least during 
 the day. 
 
 But, in lieu of this, a much more harassing night attack took 
 place; for while the Tchetchenzes had left us before unassailed 
 after nightfall, they now crept up to our pickets, advanced 
 posts, and sentries, and shot them. Several attacks of the same 
 nature were also made from the land side, and soon every light 
 in the encampment became a target for the enemies. A rein¬ 
 forcement of the pickets, as well as numerous patrols, could 
 scarcely diminish these incessant attacks, and a return of the 
 fire was of equally slight service. 
 
 At last orders were given not to answer the shots. They 
 fired for a little while on the first evening after this plan 
 was pursued, but they soon ceased, and a question echoed 
 through the silence of the night: Why we did not return their 
 fire; did w r e despise them?—We want to sleep; go to bed your¬ 
 selves, was the reply. The Tchetchenzes laughed and made a 
 great noise, but not a shot was fired.* 
 
 * Would any more highly cultivated enemy have acted with such nobility of 
 mind as these “ savage Asiatics ?” 
 
116 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 It would, however, have been ridiculous to expect that this 
 mode of defence, based upon the moral character of the Tchet- 
 chenzes, would last for any length of time, especially as we, 
 regardless of the magnanimity of the foe, continued building our 
 castle. After the completion of the task, an expedition was 
 undertaken into the Little Tchetchenia, to clear the countrv 
 nearest the river. The result was veiy trifling. A couple of aouls 
 were destroyed, a few herds carried off, and several Tchetchenzes 
 taken prisoners. But there was no decisive engagement. 
 
 On our return from this expedition, the building of the second 
 fortress on the Sundja, Nagan-yurt, about twenty versts to the west 
 of Sakan-yurt, was commenced and finished by the end of Sep¬ 
 tember, without any particular impediments on the part of the 
 eneny. 
 
 In the meanwhile, orders had arrived for a more important 
 expedition to be undertaken into the Little Tchetchenia, which 
 commenced at the close of September. Expeditions of this kind 
 have been so repeatedly described, and the mode of fighting is 
 so entirely similar at the various points of the Caucasus, that it 
 would be superfluous to give any more detailed account of ours. 
 Nor did we have any decisive engagement on this occasion, 
 although the war-cry was heard from ail the forests around us. 
 At a few aouls, which our troops destroyed, a more lively en¬ 
 gagement took place. Just as a huge vessel, in traversing the sea, 
 leaves a long visible furrow behind it, while the waves break, 
 yield, and still rejoin on either side—so our army marched 
 through the Tchetchenia. Immediately in its path there were 
 no enemies; but they tormented us incessantly on either flank, 
 and met together in our rear. The expedition left no perceptible 
 traces among them. Here and there a Russian signal flag—a 
 burning aoul—glistened in the depths of the sea of foliage. A 
 few prisoners and several herds of cattle formed our trophies. 
 This expedition might possibly appear at St. Petersburgh more 
 successful than it really was. 
 
 Our course was as follows. From Grosnaya we marched 
 S.E. to the commencement of the mountains, passed several 
 streams, scaled mountains, traversed forests, till at last, after 
 
SKETCHES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 117 
 
 following the left bank of the Kasha to the N.E., we again 
 reached Russian ground, between AndreyefF and Mamatiurt, 
 about the end of October. Of all the hostile aouls, the most 
 remarkable was one containing nearly all stone houses. It is 
 true we found it utterly deserted; but in nearly all the houses 
 surgical instruments and large stores of medicinal herbs had 
 been left—a clear sign that the village was principally inhabited 
 by Asiatic physicians. Had our surgeons learned the use of 
 these herbs, that would have been the most valuable result of 
 the expedition. For the physicians of the mountaineers possess 
 such a superiority over the Russians, in treating the most 
 dangerous wounds by bandages, which are moistened by 
 decoctions, &c., made from their indigenous plants, that the latter 
 do not attempt to deny their inferiority. 
 
 In the management of their instruments, especially in probing, 
 and the immediate perception of the nature of a wound, they are 
 extremely clever. Unfortunately it is very difficult to induce 
 them to come to the Russian camp to see patients, and they 
 keep their pharmaceutical as well as chirurgic knowledge most 
 anxiously hidden from Europeans. Only this much is certain* 
 that nearly every one who has fought in the Caucasus can 
 mention instances in which our surgeons despaired of a cure* 
 while the Circassian physicians could effect it in a short time, 
 and generally without any considerable operation. Similar ex¬ 
 periences the Russians also made formerly in the Persian war. 
 
 At a few versts’ distance from AndreyefF, the expedition 
 found many thousand trusses of hay, which the Tchetchenzes 
 had collected here, in order—as we afterwards discovered—to 
 have food for their horses in their vicinity, during a meditated 
 inroad upon the Kumyks. This hay was burnt. If; was a mag¬ 
 nificent sight, when these almost countless pillars o f fire shot up 
 into the silent sky, and the whole neighbourhood gleamed with 
 a purple tinge. The continual destruction of conquered aouls, 
 this ruining of crops, the carrying off of herds, as is practised by 
 the Russians, must give the whole Caucasian Avar a stamp of 
 barbarity. But we must always bear in mind ■'chat to accom¬ 
 plish the proposed end, the weakening and final subjugation of 
 
118 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 the Tcherkess, any other mode of fighting would not be so satis¬ 
 factory. The experience of nearly 100 years has, on the con¬ 
 trary, proved that the enemy, if merely expelled from their 
 villages, will not rest from the contest for an instant, but attack, 
 harass, and surprise the Russians with increased fury. But by 
 destroying the villages and crops, a part of the warriors are com¬ 
 pelled to stay at home, to build new villages deeper in the moun¬ 
 tains. In the meanwhile, the Russian army gains time to settle 
 itself firmly in some newly conquered place. Still it cannot be 
 denied that the conduct—not of Russia*—but of a few officers 
 during this war, has frequently outstepped the bounds of neces¬ 
 sary severity. 
 
 After the expedition through the Tchetchenia was ended, the 
 troops dispersed again to return to the different forts along the 
 line, and General Grabbe hurried back to Stavropol. The mili¬ 
 tary year of 1841 appeared to be terminated ; but Schamyl had, 
 in the meanwhile, collected an army once more in the country of 
 the Gumbetes. By the threat of a fine of one silver ruble, or 
 fifty blows for every one who did not come in, he had assembled 
 all the fighting force of both the Tchetchenias, and in this 
 manner now stood at the head of 15,000 men. With the speed 
 of lightning they then poured over the country of the Kumyks, 
 surprised the inhabitants, who were friendly to the Russians, 
 burned down their villages, made them prisoners, drove off their 
 flocks, and even menaced Kisliar. The officer commanding at 
 that fort inconsiderately marched into the open country against 
 Schamyl, with only one hundred men and two guns. In a mo¬ 
 ment they were overpowered, the majority cut down, and the 
 cannon carried off. 
 
 The commandants of the fortresses Grosnava (General AIs- 
 cheffsky), and Tchervlenna (Colonel Yoinaroffky), had, in the 
 meanwhile, received information of this misfortune, and hurried 
 out of their forts, in order to unite in the enemy’s rear, and so 
 cut off his retreat. The detachments were only about two versts 
 apart, when Schamyl suddenly came up, divided his troops into 
 three columns, attacked the Russians on the right and left, but, 
 
 * We must bear in mind that it is a Russian officer who is speaking. 
 
SKETCHES OF THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 119 
 
 in the meanwhile, carried off 40,000 head of cattle, and the guns 
 on the open road between them. 
 
 This campaign was of the highest importance in altering the 
 circumstances of the Caucasian war of the present day. JSTot 
 only were these two guns the first which were lost to the Rus¬ 
 sians (the Emperor’s pistols, as they termed them, carried off 
 a few years previously from the sea forts by the Avarians, could 
 not be employed in the field), but this inroad of Schamyl into 
 the country of the Ubyclis, was the chief inducement for the 
 unhappy expedition of the Russians during the following year 
 into the country of the Gumbetes, in which General Grabbe lost 
 more than 1000 men, and above 100 officers. It is notorious 
 that this misfortune was followed by his recal, and equally noto¬ 
 rious that this recal caused the removal of Golovine from his 
 post, as well as General Sass obtaining leave for an indefinite 
 time. These great changes in the supreme direction of the war, 
 produced the unhappy defensive system of the year 1843, whose 
 finale is formed by the immense losses of the Russians in Novem¬ 
 ber and December of the same year. 
 
120 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 RUSSIAN AGGRESSION IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 There are two events which, during later years, have attracted 
 the attention of Europe in a high degree,—the struggles of the 
 French in the piratical States of Africa, and those of the Rus¬ 
 sians with the nations of the Caucasus. Through their obstinacy 
 and perseverance, as well as through the streams of blood which 
 flowed, and the important consequences which may emanate 
 from them, these struggles have in fact acquired a value which 
 renders them worthy of closer examination. 
 
 While Persia and the powerful Osmanli empire were gradually 
 sinking into political paralysis, and the power of the world- 
 threatening crescent seemed utterly destroyed, we saw in aston¬ 
 ishment two vigorous nations, which till then had scarce been 
 mentioned in history, rise from the bosom of Islamism, and with 
 armed hand defy two of the most powerful states in Europe. 
 Through their boldness these nations at that day claimed our 
 surprise; through their strength and perseverance, they now 
 acquire our admiration. 
 
 The war of the French with the Arabs, and that of the Rus¬ 
 sians with the Tcherkess, have often been regarded from the 
 same point of view ; but the analogy between these two contests 
 is to be found in their present condition, and not in their origin. 
 
 At the conquest of Algiers, every one knew pretty accurately 
 the designs which France pursued in her operations, and the 
 reasons which justified these designs. The documents were open 
 for the inspection of the whole world, and every event may be 
 followed with certainty from the commencement of the war to 
 the present day. 
 
RUSSIAN AGGRESSION IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 121 
 
 It is quite different with the Russo-Circassian war. About 
 the real origin, Europe hardly knows any thing; and about its 
 developement and present condition, only so much is known as 
 travellers choose to tell us, principally on hearsay evidence. 
 
 When France speaks of projects of civilisation, we understand 
 this, for we have all visited the French school; and, if we have 
 not learned more from them, it is assuredly not the fault of our 
 schoolmasters. 
 
 But when Russia proposed to take a nation under the protection 
 of her knout, we shudderingly draw back from such a frightful 
 picture, and the words involuntarily escape our lips: “Woe 
 to those who are condemned to become the scholars of such 
 teachers.” 
 
 What induced the Russians to march their armies into the 
 Caucasus'? what ends have they in view*? and by what are these 
 ends justified'? 
 
 Russia herself has lately felt the necessity of giving an 
 answer to the above question, as some justification of her autho¬ 
 rity : our examination will show how far this reply is satisfactory. 
 
 The principal feature of this defence, as contained in the work 
 of M. Fonton,* may be condensed into the following sentence: 
 “ The Caucasus has ever been, as far as we are acquainted with 
 its history, the scene of sanguinary contests between Europe and 
 Asia; in the progress of destruction, the actors have only 
 changed from time to time; but the course of events and the 
 parts have always remained the same. For centuries, Russia 
 has been preparing for the part assigned her by destiny; and 
 when she was eventually driven, by the force of events, to pene¬ 
 trate into the Caucasus, she only fulfilled the course of immutable 
 destiny.” 
 
 This argument is of the most menacing importance to the 
 whole of Europe; for where could we possibly mention any 
 country which has not been, as far as history extends, the scene 
 
 * La Russie dans l’Asie Mineure, &c., &c.; par F^lix Fonton, Chevalier des 
 Ordres de Sainte Anne, de Saint Vlad, &c. Paris, 1846. 
 
122 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 of repeated sanguinary struggles; and wlio can foresee whither 
 Russia may fancy herself summoned by Providence, and where 
 her armies may be driven by the force of events? 
 
 Among the nations belonging to history, the Greeks and 
 Persians were the first who contended for the possession of this 
 country; their desolating expeditions were followed by the 
 murderous battles of the Romans and Parthse; the third act of 
 the sanguinary drama is occupied by those barbarous hordes, 
 who, pouring from Central Asia, bore terror and destruction 
 into the very heart of Europe. 
 
 Christianity, which was introduced into Georgia and Arme¬ 
 nia about the commencement of the fourth century, instead of 
 extinguishing the sparks of disunion by the gentle breath of 
 love, fanned them into the bright flame of destruction. Instead of 
 love, it brought hatred; and revenge, instead of conciliation. Its 
 devotees, or rather the devotees of the sects which sprung from 
 its bosom, continued the horrors which the barbarians had com¬ 
 menced. The spirit of unity finally descended on the contend¬ 
 ing parties, not through the charity of Christianity, but through 
 the pressing necessity of entering into a powerful alliance against 
 a new and dangerous foe. 
 
 With the reign of Ardjir-Babe-Khan, the founder of the dy¬ 
 nasty of the Sassanides, commences a long period of misfortune 
 and persecutions for the Christian tribes of the Caucasus, who 
 found war-desiring, irreconcilable enemies in the believers 
 in the doctrines of Zoroaster, which were then in a period of 
 new developement in Persia. And when the empire of the Sas¬ 
 sanides, convulsed by internal quarrels, was hastening to its end, 
 and the tree of Christianity, which had been planted in the blood¬ 
 stained lands of Colchis and Armenia, had taken firm root, a new 
 storm burst over these countries, which were thirsting for peace, 
 with the victorious banner of the Prophet of Mecca. 
 
 The glorious reign of David II., and of his great successor, the 
 celebrated Thamar, only seemed to grant the exhausted nations 
 the blessings of peace, in order to render the next period of 
 terror and destruction more painful and perceptible. The hordes 
 of the Mongol Tartars, forming the rearguard of the great mi- 
 
RUSSIAN AGGRESSION IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 123 
 
 gration, poured themselves over the countries from the Cyrus to 
 the Borysthenes, and held them in their iron bondage for nearly 
 two centuries and a half. 
 
 We will pass over in silence the description of the obstinate 
 battles and horrors which later emanated from the schism of 
 the sects of Omar and Ali,to an examination of the weighty events 
 which forced Russia to enter the Caucasus. M. Fonton says:— 
 
 “ After the grand duchy of Moscow had shaken off the yoke 
 of the Tartars, and had thus become the representative of the 
 Russo-Sclavonic power, it subjected Kazan (1553), took Astra- 
 chan four years later, and utterly annihilated the horde bearing 
 the name of that city. The renown of these deeds had spread 
 even across the Caucasus, and commercial connections were 
 formed on the Caspian Sea. Mistress of the whole territory of 
 the Volga, Russia also took possession of the lower mouths of 
 the Terek and Koissu, and subjugated the rulers of Tumen 
 (Tarku); at the same time, she possessed the best opportunity 
 to fight with success against the Khans of the Crimea, and open 
 a road to the Black Sea.” 
 
 This passage speaks for itself, and scarcely requires comment. 
 If Russia, because she is mistress of the Volga, believes herself 
 justified in also becoming mistress of the mouths of the Terek 
 and Koissu because they flow into the Caspian Sea—if, further, 
 she subjugates the rulers of Tumen, to extend her commercial 
 relations in Daghistan—and if, after this has been effected, she 
 evinces a desire for the conquest of the Crimea—we simply per¬ 
 ceive in this the ever-living principle of Russia to extend in 
 every direction; but in vain do we seek for that pressure of 
 circumstances which drove her to this extension, nor do we find 
 her guided in her conduct by any other law than that of the 
 stronger. 
 
 We will not weary our readers by repeating all the endless 
 tirades which M. Fonton produces, to prove that Russia, far 
 removed from all selfish views, -was finally induced solely by 
 Christian love to incorporate Georgia with her possessions. 
 
 Only at times does M. Fonton, when writing of facts which 
 are no longer a secret to any one, let the claw of greed peep out 
 
124 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 from beneath the cloak of Russian charity; but then he exerts 
 all his eloquence to prove that Russia, if she benefited one 
 country, was perfectly justified in repaying herself for it in 
 another. 
 
 Thus he confesses that Peter the Great, after an unsuccessful 
 attempt to seize the eastern coast of the Black Sea, turned his 
 entire attention to the occupation of India—an idea which a 
 premature death unfortunately prevented him from carrying out, 
 but which he left as a sacred charge to his successors. This 
 alone, in our opinion, shows the true policy of Russia, which 
 the nonsense about symjDatliy and Christian duties only serves 
 to conceal. 
 
 The reasons which induced Russia to interfere in the affairs 
 of the nations of the Caucasus, are the same which formerly 
 induced Philip of Macedon to interfere in Greece. But the 
 settlement of the question, and whether the result will be the 
 same, remains for futurity to answer. 
 
 Russia afforded one country protection and assistance, in order 
 to have the right of conquering another; it was natural that she 
 should choose her proteges among the Christian tribes of the 
 Caucasus, rather than from the converts to Islamism. 
 
 Through a series of intrigues and machinations of the most 
 disgusting character, through bribery and oppression, the Musco¬ 
 vite policy at length succeeded, at the end of the last century, in 
 inducing George XIII., Prince of Georgia, to give up his throne 
 and dignity, for himself and successors, in favour of Russia. In 
 the chapter headed Etablissement de la Russie au dela du Caucase, 
 M. Fonton says :— 
 
 “ When the Emperor Alexander, by his manifesto of the 
 12th September, 1801, declared his readiness to take possession 
 of the Georgian throne, he listened to the magnanimous prompt¬ 
 ings of his heart. 
 
 “ e Not to increase our forces (he said, in his proclamation to 
 the Georgian nation), not through selfish views, not to enlarge 
 an empire whose boundaries already extend so far, do we take 
 on ourselves the burden of the throne of Georgia : the feeling of 
 our dignity, honour, and humanity, have alone imposed on us 
 
RUSSIAN AGGRESSION IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 125 
 
 the sacred duty of listening to your cries for help, of averting 
 from your heads the misfortunes which oppress you—and of 
 introducing a powerful government in Georgia, which is capable 
 of exercising justice and impartiality, of protecting the life and 
 property of each, and of covering all with the segis of the law.” 
 
 If Russia had only fulfilled one of these promises, we would 
 pardon all the prior acts of oppression which led to the occupa¬ 
 tion of Georgia; for power leads to imperiousness, and all im¬ 
 periousness is oppressive. If there were a single example in 
 history, that a country given up to Russian dominion had become 
 more flourishing, and its inhabitants more prosperous—the ques¬ 
 tion as to the justice or injustice of the Russian occupation of 
 Georgia might be shelved; for a powerful nation never yet com¬ 
 pleted its mission on earth, without having done some act of 
 cruelty or oppression to its weaker neighbours, and, wherever the 
 right of the stronger is exerted for b the welfare of the weaker, 
 it is allowed and approved by the judicial sentence of history. 
 
 But when—as is the case with Russia—power only exerts its 
 strength to suppress instead of supporting, to destroy instead of 
 building up, to bring destruction instead of a blessing, the 
 hatred of all honest men is concentrated upon it; and it is the 
 duty of each, whom accident or a spirit of inquiry leads to the 
 scene of destruction, to contribute his mite, that the extension 
 of the evil may be checked, for which a clear acquaintance with 
 it is the first and most important step. 
 
 We may, and not improperly, compare Russian policy, which 
 hides its robber fangs under the cloak of religion, with that 
 lady so well known in Moscow, who so fervently kissed the 
 miraculous statue of the Virgin in the vicinity of the Kremlin, 
 to the edification of the bystanders, that the most splendid 
 diamond upon the brilliantly bedecked statue remained in her 
 mouth. 
 
 After the occupation of Georgia, the Russians followed 
 Potemkin’s example, when by his disgraceful intrigues he utterly 
 subjected the Khans of Crimea to the Russian sceptre without 
 a blow. A species of committee was formed, whose duty it was 
 to collect all the geographical and historical information, tend- 
 
126 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 ing to support Russia’s claim on the adjoining countries. In 
 this the Russians had perfect liberty of action as long as no 
 European power interfered in their affairs; for they could prove 
 to tile ignorant mountaineers any thing they pleased, without 
 being convicted of falsehood. How just these claims were, and 
 how manifold the proofs, we will attempt to show by a few ex¬ 
 tracts. 
 
 1. The Russians assert a claim to the possession of the 
 Kabardah. This is founded on the following reasons:— 
 
 {a.) Tzar Ivan Wassilyevitch, the Terrible, married a daugh¬ 
 ter of Temruk, a Kabardian prince, which goes to show that 
 the Kabardians at that time were in amicable correspondence 
 with the Russians. 
 
 ( b .) An expedition, undertaken by the Russians in 1717, 
 against the Khan of Khiva, was commanded by Bekovitch 
 Tcherkaski, a Kabardian prince—a proof that, at that time, 
 Kabardians fought under the Russian banner. Consequently, 
 Russia has a right to rule over the Kabardah! '* 
 
 2. Russia asserts that she has a claim upon the provinces on 
 the Caspian, because—Russian settlements were established there 
 in the time of Peter the Great, t 
 
 The coast nations, who, in their simplicity, could not quite 
 comprehend the Muscovite syllogisms, sought the first favourable 
 opportunity to regain by arms what had been tom from them 
 by the same means. They expelled the Russian colonists from 
 Shemacha, cut down all who offered any opposition, and thus 
 frustrated for a while the far-sighted commercial views of their 
 enemies. Peter the Great, furious at the terrible losses he sus¬ 
 tained, determined on taking sanguinary revenge on the moun¬ 
 taineers, and subjecting them to his sceptre for ever, “ not through 
 a desire (as Ponton says) to enlarge his empire by eccentric 
 conquests, but to consolidate his influence, to regulate the con- 
 
 * The Germans had better prepare themselves for having a claim raised 
 by the Russians on their fatherland for similar reasons; for what a quan¬ 
 tity of German princesses have been married to Russian princes! How 
 many German commanders have fought under the Russian standard! 
 
 f With what justice Peter founded these settlements by force of arms, 
 we have already seen. “ Because Russia was mistress of the mouths of 
 the Danube, she also desired to hold the mouths of the Terek and Koissu.” 
 
RUSSIAN AGGRESSION IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 127 
 
 fused condition of tlie different states, and to give a firm basis to 
 the development of Russian trade.” 
 
 What a pity that the freedom-loving mountaineers of the 
 Caucasus did not understand the philanthropic and disinterested 
 views which were to be the result of the Russian desolating 
 campaign! What a pity that they lost, through their heroic 
 resistance, all the enviable blessings which would certainly have 
 fallen to their lot under the gentle Muscovite sceptre! 
 
 Russia’s claims to the possession of the Pontic littoral are 
 based on the celebrated treaty of Adrianople (1829), in which the 
 Sultan gave up to the Russians all the country situated between 
 the Kuban and the Black Sea. 
 
 But it is a fact which can be most clearly proved, that the 
 Tclierkess never—even nominally—were under Turkish autho¬ 
 rity; and that the Sultan had not the least right to dispose of 
 these countries at his pleasure. The Tcherkess—of whom the 
 majority of them are Mussulmans—as well as the adjoining 
 littoral tribes—Schapsughs, Ubychs, Dshigheti, &c.—have never 
 stood in any other relation to the Sultan than that in which 
 Catholics stand to the Pope; they regarded and revered him as 
 the head of their church, but were as little subject to him in tem¬ 
 poral affairs, as the Catholic nations of Europe are to the Pope. 
 
 The question, Whether the Sultan ever exercised a supremacy 
 in Circassia, and consequently was justified in making a cession 
 of that territory, was the subject of violent debates in Parliament 
 in consequence of the seizure of the Vixen; and Bell, the owner 
 of the vessel, has proved most incontestably, that the Tcherkess 
 were never under Turkish authority either de jure or de facto, 
 and that, consequently, the claims of Russia to that country are 
 null and void. 
 
 Every one knows in the present day that treaties are usually 
 not worth the paper on which they are written, as the stronger 
 never scruple to break their most sacred treaties with the weaker, 
 if they can do so unpunished. The fate of Kracau furnishes the 
 latest, if not the last, proof of this assertion. 
 
128 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 We must now attempt to shew that Russia, in spite of the 
 cession of Circassia, extorted from the Sultan (of coarse, only 
 on paper), never had the slightest claim to this country, as the 
 inhabitants never acknowledged the supremacy of the Sultan. 
 
 We are forced, in order to do this, to go back to earlier 
 treaties between Russia and the Sublime Porte, which formed 
 the basis of the treaty of Adrianople. Still, we will make our 
 quotations as short as possible, as every reader who wishes for 
 a nearer acquaintance with the documents, can consult them in 
 the well-known “ Recueil de Traites , de Martens .” 
 
 In the year 1744, after the close of an obstinate war, a 
 treaty was made between Russia and Turkey, which is known 
 by the name of the treaty of Kudjuk Kainardji, and of which 
 the third article is as follows:— 
 
 “ All the Tartar tribes, those of the Crimea, of Buginc, of 
 Cuban, of Yetissan, of Giambinluc, of Sedicul, without any 
 exception, are recognised by the two Empires as free nations, 
 entirely independent of every foreign power ( comme nations 
 libres , entierement independantes de toute puissance etrangere). 
 That they shall be under the immediate government of their 
 own khan, of the tribe of Jinghis Khan, who shall be elected 
 and confirmed by the universal assent of the Tartar nations, and 
 is bound to govern them after their original manners and 
 customs, without ever being responsible to any foreign power 
 (sans jamais rendre compte d aucune puissance etrangere ), in 
 pursuance of which the Ottoman Porte will in no way interfere 
 either in the election or confirmation of the above-mentioned 
 khan, or in his domestic, political, civil, and home affairs; it 
 will, on the contrary, regard and recognise the said Tartar 
 nation, in its civil and political relations, as equal to all other 
 powers which govern themselves, and are only dependent on 
 God (qui se gouvernent elles-memes , et ne dependent que de Dieu). 
 The ecclesiastic ceremonies, as they are identical with those of 
 the Moslem, and his highness the Sultan is the sublime caliph 
 of Muhammadanism, shall be regulated according to the decrees 
 of their religion, without in any way restricting their political 
 and religious liberty.” 
 
RUSSIAN AGGRESSION IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 129 
 
 All that follows upon this, only serves to strengthen and 
 confirm the foregoing, and the article terminates with the 
 words:— 
 
 “ The Sublime Porte binds itself, and solemnly promises, after 
 the example of Eussia, in future not to introduce or support any 
 garrison or armed forces in the said towns, fortresses, countries, 
 and dwellings—further, for the future, to appoint no govern oi' 
 or officer to these states, under whatever appellation it might be, 
 but to leave the Tartars in perfect liberty and independence, 
 as is done by Eussia.” From the passages we have quoted, it is 
 most evident that both Eussia and Turkey regarded the 
 countries in question as free and independent for all ages, and 
 only dependent on God. But if the reader have any doubt on 
 this head, it will be amply sufficient to remove it, if we quote 
 the most important points of another document attached to the 
 treaty of Kudjuk Kainardji. In the year 1775, a “convention 
 explicative” was drawn up between Eussia and Turkey, whose 
 origin is sufficiently shewn by the contents of the document 
 itself, to render any explanation unnecessary. In the intro¬ 
 duction to this Convention we read 
 
 “Since the close of the treaty of Kudjuk Kainardji, dated 
 10th July, 1774 (1188 of the Hejra), various doubts and 
 misunderstandings have arisen about several articles in this 
 treaty relative to the Tartars of the Crimea, and others, equally 
 with them, free and independent nations; which doubts have 
 spread so far, that the inhabitants of the said lands are deprived 
 of the fruits of peace, order, and security. 
 
 “ In order to prevent for the future, and stop, once for all, 
 all such misapprehensions, which may lead to disputes and hos¬ 
 tilities between the two powers, the plenipotentiaries of the 
 two empires have amicably agreed to commence a new nego¬ 
 tiation at Constantinople, for the purpose of explaining and dis¬ 
 cussing the prevailing doubts, without, however, altering or re¬ 
 stricting the above-mentioned treaty of Kudjuk Kainardji in 
 the slightest degree.” 
 
 The first article of this Convention is :— 
 
 “ The treaty of constant peace, signed at Kudjuk Kainardji, is 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 confirmed in all its force by the present Convention, and in 
 all points, without any exception, every point according to 
 its actual meaning, in such way as if the said treaty were, 
 word for word, and in its whole extent, contained herein, with 
 the exception of those articles which are carefully and specially 
 brought forward and explained in the articles of the present 
 treaty.” 
 
 Article II. of the Convention contains a clearer statement 
 of Article III. of the treaty of Kainardji, whose verbal repe¬ 
 tition would carry us too far; and we shall content ourselves 
 with quoting the conclusion, which contains the punctum 
 saliens. 
 
 “ The Sublime Porte, which has already, by the treaty of Kain¬ 
 ardji, given up all temporal rights over the Tartar hordes, tribes, 
 and races, binds itself anew by this Convention, never to lay 
 claim to these rights again under any pretext whatsoever; but 
 rather to consider and recognise the said peoples as a free and in¬ 
 dependent nation, in accordance with Article III. of the afore¬ 
 said treaty.” 
 
 In our opinion, it would be superfluous to give any comment 
 upon these documents, which, in their most material points, are 
 so clearly and sensibly drawn up, that it appears almost impos¬ 
 sible to twist or turn them in any way. We shall soon see that 
 the Russians, in spite of this, made the attempt, and cut the 
 knot in Gordian fashion, which they could not unfasten with 
 their practised diplomatic fingers. 
 
 The Turks kept their treaties with such faith and constancy, 
 as honour them in comparison with the treacherous Muscovites, 
 for which, however, they suffered most terribly afterwards, instead 
 of being rewarded—just as history furnishes innumerable exam¬ 
 ples of a similar nature, when the integrity of weak nations, as 
 opposed to stronger, is regarded as folly. 
 
 Four years had scarce elapsed, when the Empress Catharine, 
 with a disgusting breach of the treaty of Kainardji, and insti¬ 
 gated by her unprincipled and ambitious favourite, Potemkin, 
 sent an army to the Crimea, to take possession of this fertile 
 country by stratagem or force. 
 
RUSSIAN AGGRESSION IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 131 
 
 Through the dethronement of Sahin Gerai, Khan of the Crimea, 
 and through the occupation of his territory, whose liberty and 
 independence the empress had not only solemnly recognised, but 
 jiromised to maintain for ever, she literally broke all her treaties 
 with Turkey, whose various points were so definite and precise, 
 that she could not twist them to her own purposes. 
 
 The reader, who is aware that even the most patent acts of 
 oppression on the part of the powerful, are always based on the 
 appearance of justice, will be curious to learn how Catharine 
 proceeded to bring her actions into unison with her words. 
 
 She published a manifesto, dated 8th April, 1781, in which it 
 was stated, that the chief object of the treaty of Kainardji, and 
 of the Convention Explicative emanating from it, was the main¬ 
 tenance of a permanent peace between Russia and the Sublime 
 Porte; and that, by the recognition of the liberty and indepen¬ 
 dence of the Crimea, it was believed that the cause of repeated mis¬ 
 understandings between the two powers would be removed ; that 
 the empress, however, found herself deceived in her expectations : 
 therefore, “ animated with the most upright desire to confirm 
 and maintain the last treaty made with the Porte, through our 
 wish to remove any cause for dispute, both our duty to ourselves 
 and our care for the preservation of the safety of our empire, 
 demand that we should decide on putting an end to the dis¬ 
 turbances in the Crimea once for all: for this purpose, we 
 in corporate with our empire the peninsula of the Crimea, the island 
 of Taman, and all the country situate between the Kuban and 
 the Black Sea, as a just indemnity for the losses and expenses 
 which we have suffered, in maintaining the peace and prosperity 
 of the said countries.” 
 
 The Tartars of the Crimea deserved their fate for yielding so 
 weakly to it; but the Circassians, in spite of all the manifestos 
 and armies of Russia, have proved, with weapons in their hands, 
 that they deserve the liberty which has been their inheritance since 
 time immemorial, and, please God, will remain so for ever. As 
 a confirmation of this, we may be permitted to quote a passage 
 from a work by Ivan Golovine, a Russian, and near relation of 
 
132 
 
 SCII AM YL. 
 
 General Golovine (who commanded in the Caucasus for several 
 years), which possesses great claim to our confidence. 
 
 “ The war in the Caucasus (he states in La Russie sous Nicolas 
 I.) is, under the present circumstances, an utterly fruitless war, 
 and the obstinacy with which the Russians persist in carrying 
 it on, will only be followed by useless bloodshed and increased 
 hate, and render any permanent reconciliation impossible. 
 Russia should, in the first instance, declare war against her own 
 employes , who are her greatest enemies; and who, after them¬ 
 selves enkindling the quarrel, render it so destructive in its 
 consequences, by plundering and robbing unmercifully. They 
 sacrifice the advantage of their country to their own, and even 
 sell the enemy powder and arms. They conceal the number of 
 killed ; and so wretched is the treatment of the Russian corpb 
 d'armee , that not a single surgical apparatus deserving the name 
 is to be found in the hospitals. The generals, for their part, pro¬ 
 long the war, in order to secure themselves a source of profit and 
 promotion : so long, finally, as the soldiers are not taught to fire, 
 the loss will always be on the side of the Russians, as their artillery 
 is of little or no use to them in this utterly irregular warfare.” 
 
 We trust that what we have stated will suffice to prove the 
 truth of our assertion at the commencement of this chapter; 
 that the Russians, in their conquests and desolating forays in 
 the Caucasus, and on the littoral of the Black Sea, were 
 guided by no other principle than the law of might. The 
 only object we had in our inquiry was an unadorned state¬ 
 ment of facts; for we know that the most elaborate argu¬ 
 ments and proofs cannot undo the past. We will go still further 
 and confess, that our sympathies for several of the nations who 
 became the prey of the robber claws of the Russian Eagle, are 
 extinguished—for we repeat it, that every nation which patiently 
 endures a disgraceful yoke, is unworthy of a better fate. Our 
 sympathy is given to those nations who, despite all the exertions 
 of the Russians, have preserved their liberty to the present day, 
 and to those who, though forced to bow to superior strength, bear 
 
RUSSIAN AGGRESSION IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 133 
 
 their chains with repugnance, and only await the favourable 
 moment to hurl them from them—just as the steel only bends under 
 the pressure of the hand, in order to spring back into its former 
 position with greater power. These nations deserve liberty, 
 because they so earnestly strive to possess it. To the Circas¬ 
 sians of the Black Sea, liberty is a fondly loved mother, who gave 
 them birth, and nourished them at her breast; to the Circassians of 
 Daghistan, she is a beloved bride, for whom they fight and struggle. 
 
 In truth, we could not imagine any more wretched lot than 
 to see these powerful, blooming peoples, pining away beneath the 
 poisonous breath of Russian civilisation. It would be difficult 
 to find two nations in the history of the present, who are so utterly 
 opposed to each other in their characteristic features as the ser¬ 
 vile Muscovites and the chivalrous mountaineers of the Caucasus. 
 The Russians have been, since Peter the Great’s iron hand gave 
 them the first blow to shake them out of the darkness of bar¬ 
 barism, in a state of transition, and form a chaos whose elements 
 must first be clarified and settled before it will be possible to 
 form any judgment. Still, all travellers agree that four vices— 
 branches of one and the same tree—cheating, lying, thieving, 
 and drunkenness—are found more frequently, and in a higher 
 degree among them, than in all the other nations of Europe. 
 
 In opposition to these vices, according to the testimony of all 
 travellers in the Caucasus, the distinguishing qualities of the 
 Circassians are—honesty, love of truth, fidelity, and moderation. 
 Would not such virtues, with that highest blessing, liberty, be 
 too high a price to pay for the happiness of being under that 
 disgrace to humanity—the Muscovite government? 
 
 In truth, were it not horrible, it would be considered ridiculous 
 that a nation like the Russian, which has never known law or 
 justice since its origin, should feel itself sent to prescribe laws 
 for other nations. 
 
 “ Oppression and robbery,” Golovine says, “ are the principal 
 features of the Russian government. It has never been able to 
 comprehend that it is possible to govern without oppression— 
 that mildness more firmly establishes the happiness of the people, 
 and the security of the power than all the barbarity, which is 
 
134 
 
 SCHAMYL. 
 
 in Russia called proper severity, just as tyranny and power are 
 there mistaken for each other.” 
 
 The Russian government is very well aware, that all the op¬ 
 pression it delights to exercise can only pass unpunished under 
 the protection of the most brutal ignorance and moral corrup¬ 
 tion : hence it is that the chief mystery of their policy is based 
 on the propagation of these. 
 
 And this nation, whose rulers, like the owls, only feel com¬ 
 fortable in the dark, whose policy is a drag on all progress—this 
 nation, which forms the dark side of Europe, could be chosen by 
 Providence to bear the torch of enlightenment into other coun¬ 
 tries ! Woe to the nations that are condemned to become the 
 scholars of such instructors ! Woe to every land where the Rus¬ 
 sian eagle has already built its nest! Woe to those over which 
 its destructive wings may hereafter be outspread ! 
 
 We know, unhappily too well, that mere words, even if we 
 jpoke with tongues of fire, cannot in the slightest degree check 
 the destruction that is impending over the nations of the Cau¬ 
 casus : but we will at any rate strip off the veil from the truth, 
 which we cannot prevent, and expose it in all its horrible 
 nudity. 
 
 The Tcherkess fortunately know the whole extent of the 
 danger which menaces them; for many of the tribes which now 
 fight under Schamyl’s banner, have already once experienced the 
 blessings of the Muscovite rule, and it is a most pregnant sign 
 that these identical tribes are the most bitter, the most irrecon¬ 
 cilable, enemies of the Russians. 
 
 Schamyl, for his part, through the unbounded influence which 
 he exercises over his countrymen, as well as through the firm¬ 
 ness and caution with which he conducts the operations of war, 
 gives just cause for the hopes, that the exertions of the Rus¬ 
 sian armies may never have any other result than to fill the 
 ravines of the Caucasus with the bodies of their slaughtered 
 countrymen. 
 
 We cannot do better than end this chapter with the following 
 vivid quotation from Bodenstedt: — 
 
 “ The Russians have three inexorable enemies to contend with 
 
RUSSIAN AGGRESSION IN THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 135 
 
 in the Caucasus, the first and most terrible of which is the cli¬ 
 mate—the mountains are the second—and the mountaineers the 
 third. How often is the traveller rendered melancholy by the 
 sight of a band of unhappy, wasted mercenaries, who, torn from 
 their gloomy cabins, are removed into a more healthy neigh¬ 
 bourhood, in order that a couple of years may be added to their 
 joyless existence! They totter along like shadows, and we know 
 not which appears more melancholy, the pale countenance, or 
 the coarse grey cloaks in which their wasted limbs are con¬ 
 cealed. If we meet at times a band of healthy, active youths, 
 we may feel convinced that they only arrived a few weeks be¬ 
 fore from Russia, and have not yet spent a summer in the 
 Caucasus: a few months of patience, and their cheeks will be as 
 wan, and their eyes as lustreless, as those of their brothers! 
 
 “ I was often oppressed by a melancholy feeling when I saw 
 these newly-arrived victims of war and pestilence drawn up in 
 rank and file. They know not why they have been torn from 
 their homes, and driven thousands of versts away into this 
 strange land: they know not why they fight, nor against whom 
 they fight—all that they know is. that they will never again 
 see their home! This sorrowful certainty of an eternal separa¬ 
 tion from all that is dear to them, this timid foreboding of a 
 miserable death, is expressed not only in their features, but also 
 in their songs, which are nearly all impregnated with a deep 
 and touching feeling of melancholy. The soldier sings, as it 
 were, during his lifetime, his own funeral chant, well aware 
 that no one will mourn over his bier, and it is difficult to say 
 which sounds more mournfully—The wind which whistles at 
 night through the mountains, or these melancholy strains. 
 Truly, such flowers of melody have their growth in blood and 
 tears! ” 
 
t 
 
 - , 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
Jamais ou clief, ou citoven 
 
 Ne con^ut un projct aussi grand que le mien. 
 
 Ma secte eleve l’ame et la rend intrepide, 
 
 Ma foi fait des heros. 
 
 Yoltaire, Mahomet. 
 
SUFISM AND THE MURIDS: 
 
 OR, THE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE DOCTRINES OF SUFI, AND 
 THE SECT NOW FORMED IN DAGHISTAN. 
 
 We have repeatedly mentioned in the course of our work, 
 what an important part the religious element played in the 
 history of the Daghistani wars of liberation. This religious ele¬ 
 ment has grown, under the form which it has received from the 
 consecrated hands of Kasi Mullah and Schamyl, to such im¬ 
 portance that it already deserves a niche in history. It has 
 become the fire, by whose heat the most heterogeneous elements 
 were fused into one harmonious mass: the cement which per¬ 
 manently connected the tribes of Daghistan, previously dis¬ 
 membered by manners, belief, and hereditary enmity; and 
 finally, as the most powerful promoter of the mutual expression of 
 strength among these nations. 
 
 Strange to say, this fresh branch of faith, so recently inocu¬ 
 lated on the withering tree of Islamism, has till now remained 
 unnoticed. A great deal has been told us about the deeds of 
 the mountaineers, without thinking of the generative principle 
 which summoned these deeds into life: just as the hurried 
 wanderer often passes the foaming mountain torrent, without 
 thinking of the lofty source whence it flows. 
 
 All that we know from various writers with reference to 
 the very important religious movement in Daghistan, may be 
 reduced to a few words : Schamyl has formed a new sect, 
 whose devotees are called Murids ; these, as a distinction, wear 
 white caps, while the fur caps of the other defenders of liberty 
 
140 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 are brown, blue, or yellow. What, however, is concealed under 
 this white cap, every body has forgotten to mention. 
 
 We will attempt to fill up this gap, at least partially, by 
 making the religious element, which forms the centre of all 
 the movements in Daghistan, the prominent feature in our 
 sketch. 
 
 Before the appearance of Kasi Mullah, the greater portion of 
 Daghistan, which is now in revolt, was subjugated by the Rus¬ 
 sians. Yermoloff, the best of all the generals after Zizianoff, who 
 ever opposed the mountaineers, had cleverly employed the 
 confusion that prevailed in Daghistan—partly in consequence of 
 the difference of belief, partly through the blood-revenge, and partly 
 by the long lasting enmity existing between different tribes—for 
 the promotion of Russian interests, and gained a reputation 
 among the mountaineers, which none of his predecessors or of 
 his successors ever possessed. 
 
 In beauty of person, in bravery, perseverance, and chival¬ 
 rous sentiments, comparable to the noblest Circassian princes, 
 Yermoloff was superior to them all through his European education 
 and Russian finesse . He treated the subjected tribes with con¬ 
 ciliatory mildness, but the hostile ones with severity bordering 
 on barbarity. Russian, body and soul, full of enthusiasm for the 
 youthful renown of his fatherland, he regarded all means as 
 sacred which were intended for the advantage of Russia. He hurled 
 the torch of dissension among the hostile tribes, and helped the 
 weaker against the stronger, in order to acquire the gratitude of 
 the former, and to subject the latter. Never has a victor ruled 
 more terribly in the territory of the conquered, and yet never 
 has a conqueror’s name remained in such terrific, and at the same 
 time so honourable, remembrance, as that of Yermoloff among 
 the nations of the Caucasus. 
 
 Opposed to such a man, Kasi Mullah laid the foundation of 
 his power; the footsteps of the great Russian leader became 
 the furrow in which the Murschids of Daghistan sowed the 
 seed of the new Faith. 
 
 This doctrine, evidently only Sufism, modified to the exigen¬ 
 cies of the moment, was intended to remove all disunion and 
 
THE DOCTRINES OF SUFISM. 
 
 141 
 
 schism, to struggle against that terrible monster the blood-revenge, 
 and to unite all the nations of the Caucasus for one common end. 
 
 To prove our idea as to the close connection of Sufism with 
 the Daghistani doctrine, we will here quote a passage, referring 
 to the latter, from a Russian report, which was designed to 
 draw the attention of the government to the importance of the 
 religious movement in Daghistan. The passage, when translated, 
 reads as follows :— 
 
 “ The Daghistani philosophers assume that there are in man 
 three elements, which must be carefully distinguished—the phy¬ 
 sical, mental, and moral. 
 
 “ Of these three elements, which together, with equally effec¬ 
 tive powers, are capable of equal developement, the physical takes 
 the lowest place, but can gain the upper hand over the mental 
 and moral if the latter are neglected. As, however, in conse¬ 
 quence of our natural imperfection, the physical element only 
 too often becomes the ruling one in us; men have agreed, in 
 order to escape the evil consequences arising from this, to sub¬ 
 ject it to certain laws, emanating from the better and wiser 
 among them; thus keeping its strength within the necessary 
 limits, and guarding earnestly against any infringement of 
 them. This collection of laws is called by the Moslem the 
 Sharyat. 
 
 “ The physical element is followed by the mental, which 
 arouses and fosters in man reason, intellect, and the capabilities 
 implied thereby. Still, the mental element also requires a bridle 
 and moderation, if it is not to degenerate into the tyrant of 
 man; the Moslem consequently possess a second book, which 
 lays down the limits for this element, and is called in the sacred 
 language the Maarifat. 
 
 “ The moral element finally, the third and highest, teaches 
 us to conquer and subdue the passions, and leads man, by soften¬ 
 ing and ennobling him, towards the lofty object of his existence. 
 All that is written for the purpose of ennobling our feelings, to 
 sanctify our thoughts, and extend our perceptions of the all 
 supreme—in short, all that leads us to perfection—is contained 
 in the book, called by the Moslem the Tarykat. 
 
142 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 “ In consequence of the various explanations of the doctrines 
 of the Prophet by the Islamite philosophers, sects or schools, 
 at variance with each other, were formed—as is the case in 
 every developement of a new religion—which led to the result, that 
 the faith of Muhammad was perverted by ambitious priests 
 to political purposes. This political influence was principally 
 perceptible in the explanation of the Tarykat, which, although 
 assuming the dogmas of the Koran as the basis, received an 
 entire metamorphosis, and, in this new form, first and chiefly 
 gained power and influence among the Persians; under the name 
 of Tarykat, we therefore understand, in general, the doctrines of 
 morality mixed with political tendencies among the Moslem 
 who have been converted to this sect. 
 
 “The chiefs of the new school were called Murschids, and 
 their followers Murids. How great the influence was which 
 the spiritual power attained through this doctrine, is seen in the 
 example of the Murschid Muhammad, who, in the year of the 
 Prophet 906 (according to our chronology 1528), mounted the 
 throne of the Schali of Persia. Originally living only for his re¬ 
 ligion, with increasing secular power, he evermore pursued simi¬ 
 lar objects ; and in the same way the Murschid, Mullah Muham¬ 
 mad, devoted himself entirely to religious objects, which, however, 
 at a later date, especially under his successors, Kasi Mullah 
 and Hamsad-Bey, were perverted to political purposes.” 
 
 Thus far our Russian author. He represents the state of the case, 
 without, as it seems, being acquainted with its name. The descrip¬ 
 tion, though generally correct, yet very defective in various parts, 
 leads to the idea that the author had but a very superficial 
 knowledge of his subject. How much of the above is applicable 
 to the Murids of Daghistan, we are the less able to say with 
 certainty, as till now there is nothing definite and complete, but 
 all is in a state of developement. "Wecan, however, refer to Sufism 
 as the source whence Kasi Mullah and Schamyl drew the funda¬ 
 mental ideas of their new doctrines, and in this sense we may be 
 allowed to devote a little space to its consideration. 
 
 There are as many different explanations of the origin of the 
 Sufis, and the nature of their doctrines, as there are writers on 
 
THE DOCTRINES OF SUFISM, J 
 
 the subject. According to De Sacy and Schmblders, this 
 
 not emanate, as Tholuck asserts, from the bosom of Islainl^^ 
 
 but owes its germ to the Sages of the banks of the Ganges. 
 
 “Sufism,” Schmblders says in his splendid work about the 
 philosophical schools existing among the Arabs, “ can be as little 
 called a philosophical system as a religious sect: nor did a Mussul¬ 
 man ever regard it as either one or the other. Sufism, which we 
 may most fittingly compare with a monastic order, is funda¬ 
 mentally nothing but a species of contemplative life. 
 
 “ The Sufi assumes that divirfe truth is immediately revealed 
 to the man striving for it, if he retires from the world, and, freeing 
 himself from all terrestrial passions, devotes his life exclusively 
 to contemplation. But as this species of contemplation is 
 merely individual, and solely refers to things, which from their 
 nature are without the sphere of our vision and our language, it is 
 patent that a philosophical system can never grow out of it. 
 The Arabs certainly speak of a science of Sufism, and have left 
 a quantity of books in which the same is explained: but these 
 works only contain the regulations which must be followed in 
 order to attain a contemplative life, and definitions of those 
 philosophical ideas which are indispensable for the consideration 
 of higher things, and lastly, the explanation of the numerous 
 technical expressions which are so frequently met with in the 
 books of the Sufis. 
 
 “ If we assert that Sufism has been developed without any 
 scientific substructure, and can draw from itself, without any 
 foreign assistance, the requisite strength for its existence, still 
 we by no means wish to say, that it has remained entirely es¬ 
 tranged from a scientific influence. Still the philosophic and 
 theologic elements, which in the course of time have been inter¬ 
 woven with it, only form the ever-varying shell of Sufism, while the 
 germ must ever remain immutable, according to its original spirit.” 
 
 We still want a detailed history of Sufism, although the works 
 of Graham, Hammier, Malcolm, De Sacy, Schmblders, Tholuck, 
 and others, contain excellent accounts. Those who feel anxious 
 to form a closer acquaintance with this interesting subject, we 
 must refer to these works. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 ^^^Ke are four steps in the mental life which the Sufis, ac- 
 ^rnng to their doctrine, have to ascend, in order to attain to 
 the perfect idea of the Deity. If we refer the state of these 
 men, striving for truth in the four phases which they have to go 
 through, to Schamyl and his subjects, we shall obtain the 
 following result. 
 
 On the first or lowest step stands the great mass of the nation. 
 Here no bridle nor higher direction is requisite. The Sharya.t or 
 external law must be most strictly observed by them, as through 
 its defective perception the inner voice does not always command 
 what is right. 
 
 The second step is occupied by the Murids, who emanate 
 from the better class of the nation. They no longer require the 
 bridle: the external law is superfluous with them; for every 
 true Murid—every one really striving for truth—is good, for he 
 knows that virtue alone leads to truth. He bears his reward 
 and his punishment with him. He gives alms, not because the 
 Sharyat prescribes it, but because it pains him to see the poor suf¬ 
 fering. He attends to his ablutions, not because the Koran 
 commands them, but because cleanliness is a necessity with him; 
 for he knows that a pure mind can only dwell in a pure body, &c. 
 
 The third step is held by the Haibs, the viceroys of Schamyl. 
 All that we have said relative to the Murids is true about them, 
 though in a higher degree. 
 
 Lastly, on the fourth or highest step stands Schamyl alone. 
 He is in immediate, actual, communication with the Deity. His 
 words are God’s words, and his commands are the commands of 
 the Lord. He is the sun whence the Naibs, his moons, derive 
 their light, and, surrounded by the Murids, their satellites, 
 penetrate the night of the nation. 
 
 The only reason why Allah has not long ago destroyed the 
 enemies of Schamyl, of light, and of faith, from the earth is, be¬ 
 cause he is “ patient and long-suffering.” 
 
 THE END. 
 
 M‘CORQUODALE AND CO., PRINTERS, LONDON-WORKS, NEWTOK.